18 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 Research on World Agricultural Economy https://journals.nasspublishing.com/index.php/rwae DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i2.848 Received: 22 April 2023; Received in revised form: 23 May 2023; Accepted: 29 May 2023; Published: 1 June 2023 Citation: Trujillo, H.A., Bacha, C.J.C., 2023. Agricultural Research in Colombia: Counterpoint with the Brazilian System. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 4(2), 848. http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i2.848 1. Introduction In most Latin American countries, the agricultural sec- tor is an important source of income and employment. Also, export earnings contribute to overall economic growth, poverty reduction, and the sustainable use of natural resources [1]. Another of the functions attributed to agriculture in the economic development process is the production of food and raw materials to meet the demands of both domestic and foreign markets [2]. This function can be achieved, among other mechanisms, through agri- Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by NanYang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). *Corresponding Author: Heiber Andres Trujillo, Department of Crop Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), University of São Paulo (USP), Av. Pádua Dias 11, Piracicaba, SP, 13418-900, Brazil; Email: hatrujillos@usp.br REVIEW ARTICLE Agricultural Research in Colombia: Counterpoint with the Brazilian System Heiber Andres Trujillo1* Carlos José Caetano Bacha2 1. Department of Crop Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), University of São Paulo (USP), Av. Pádua Dias 11, Piracicaba, SP, 13418-900, Brazil 2. Department of Economics, Administration and Sociology, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), University of São Paulo (USP), Av. Pádua Dias 11, Piracicaba, SP, 13418-900, Brazil Abstract: This paper analyzes the evolution and structure of Colombia’s agricultural research network, paying special attention to the role of government expenditures in modeling this system. The authors also compare the Colombian agricultural network with the path followed by the Brazilian agricultural sector, which has been considered a pattern in South America. For this purpose, a bibliographic review and historical and institutional data are presented. Although agricultural research in Colombia began in the early 20th century, it has evolved more recently with the creation of different public and private institutions linked to the National Science and Technology System. However, agriculture and its research sector have faced major challenges related to government endowments that are needed to fund infrastructure and demand for researchers, as well as lower competitiveness compared to their Brazilian counterparts determined by social profit. Keywords: Competitiveness; Technological development; Institutions; Social profit http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i2.848 http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v4i2.848 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6604-9438 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2956-9017 19 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 cultural research, which allows the country to expand its range of processed products as well as increase productiv- ity per area. Agricultural research shows up for itself as a proposal for a sectoral approach, fundamentally aimed at benefiting the sector with a view to making it competitive and expanding its capacity to generate profits [3]. However, examining the impacts of research on food systems and, therefore, on farmers and consumers is a complex task. Agricultural research is considered one of the condi- tioning factors of agricultural transformation [4], and it has been one of the key factors to explain the increase of agricultural productivity in South America during the last decades, especially in countries such as Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay [5,6]. Producer associations, research foundations, private sector companies, and universities have played an increasing role in the technological development in the region [1]. In turn, increased productivity in agriculture is one of the main sources of growth in the sector [7] and it is associated with greater investment in research in these countries. Investment in agricultural research is characterized by returns much higher than those obtained in other activi- ties. In the case of Brazil, according to Bonelli and Pes- soa [5], rates of return were in the order of 20% to 30% in the first half of the 1990s. More current data, such as the Social Balance of Brazilian Agricultural Research Com- pany (EMBRAPA), estimate an average rate of return on investments in agricultural research of 45.1% [8]. Such in- vestments afforded by the Government expenditures have been beneficial to Brazilian society. At present and by various indicators associated with it, it is evident that Bra- zilian agriculture has become one of the leading and most competitive in the world. Both the structure and funding of public research in agriculture have been essential to achieving this competitiveness. Agricultural modernization in Brazil, after the 1960s, was stimulated by government policies at different levels (particularly through rural credit policies, minimum pric- es, research, and agricultural extension). Innovations in technology (resulting from investments in research) led to an increase in agricultural productivity [5]. In this process, the creation of the National Agricultural Research System (SNPA), the role of EMBRAPA, the role of state-funded research and technical assistance institutions, and the role of universities and private, for-profit and non-profit or- ganizations stand out [9]. In Colombia, agriculture was a determining sector in the country’s development during most of the last century, highlighted by the growth of coffee cultivation in dif- ferent regions [10]. However, since the 2000s, agriculture has decreased its share in the Colombian economy [11,12]. According to data from the World Bank, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE), and the National Planning Department (DNP), the contribution of agriculture to the Colombian GDP went from 25% in 1965 to 22.30% in 1990 and reached only 6.30% in 2017. The loss in the contribution of agriculture and livestock to the Colombian trade balance is the result, on the one hand, of the higher relative growth of other sectors and, on the other hand, of the low productivity of the sector itself. The low productivity of the agricultural sector also generates less development, especially in areas where agriculture has been considered the main economic vocation. Dur- ing the last three decades, Colombia’s economic growth has been driven by the advancement of sectors such as fi- nance, mining, public services, electricity, and information and communication technologies. According to Ludena [13], between 2001 and 2007, the growth rate of Total Factor Productivity (TFPa) in Colombia’s agricultural sector declined significantly. This, in part, reflects the lack of a fully structured agricultural research segment that is even capable of being competitive with these other sectors at the national level, as could be the case in Brazil. Agricultural research in Colombia has progressively advanced and been strengthened with the creation of dif- ferent institutions and diverse approaches. Agricultural research began systematically in 1914 with the start of academic activities at the School of Tropical Agriculture and Veterinarian of Medellín. At that time, the prevailing view was that agriculture was restricted to the produc- tion of food for the domestic market, and there was an enormous need for technical personnel trained in the areas of agriculture, livestock, forestry, fisheries, and natural resources, as well as in post-harvest activities. Although, since the creation of the National Coffee Research Center (CENICAFÉ) in 1938, Colombia had centers specialized in different crops, it was only in 2017 that the National Agricultural Innovation System (SNIA) was established. The main objective of this system is to contribute to the improvement of productivity and competitiveness through the articulation of national and regional policies to en- courage the development of science, technology, and in- novation in the agricultural sector. Currently, agricultural research in Colombia includes a significant number of governmental entities, higher education institutions, non- profit, private, and international entities working on it [14]. However, in order to measure, monitor, and compare the resources (human and financial), results, and performance a Total factor productivity (TFP) can be defined as a ratio of total out- put to total inputs. Thus, TFP is a unique measure designed to describe the efficiency of the use of inputs to achieve a total volume of final out- puts. 20 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 of agricultural research and development systems in Co- lombia over time, it is essential to have indicators that make it possible to evaluate the contribution of agricul- tural research to the country’s development. In this context, the general objective of this article is to analyze the evolution of agricultural research in Co- lombia, paying attention to the institutional framework of the public sector, financial and human resources, and the results of the research system, trying to make a com- parison with the existing agricultural research system in Brazil. This article is based on a bibliographic survey, the collection of secondary data, and the analysis of technical reports on agricultural research in Colombia and Brazil, comparing them to identify facts that would allow the Co- lombian system to position itself better in relation to the Brazilian system. In Gil’s [15] classification, this is explora- tory research using the comparative research methodb. In addition to this introduction, the article comprises five more sections. The second section presents the litera- ture review, placing the previous objective in the context of current knowledge about the subject under analyzing. Section 3 presents the historical milestones of agricultural research in Colombia and Brazil. In sequence, Section 4 presents a comparison between the entities conducting agricultural research in both Colombia and their counter- parts in Brazil. Section 5 analyzes the human and financial resources granted to agricultural research in these two countries (Colombia and Brazil), followed by Section 6, which brings the final considerations of the article. 2. Literature Review The literature closest to this paper’s objective refers to works that address the origin and evolution of the ag- ricultural research system and its current stage in Brazil and Colombia. In the case of Brazil, for example, Stumpf- Junior and Balsadi [3] present the historical evolution of Brazilian agricultural research from 1500 until the crea- tion of EMBRAPA in 1973, the different approaches to agricultural research, and an agenda for its development. Considering a more recent period, Castro [16] complements the history and evolution of institutions conducting pub- lic agricultural research in Brazil. This author advocates continuing the allocation of public resources to agricul- tural research because of the results it has achieved. Ad- dressing the situation existing at a given time, there is, for example, the work of Dossa and Segatto [17], who describe b According to Gil [15], exploratory research is developed with the ob- jective of providing an approximate vision of a given fact. On the other hand, the comparative method involves the investigation of individuals, classes, phenomena, or facts in order to highlight the differences and similarities between them. the institutions and interrelationships between public and private sector activities in agricultural research in Brazil as they existed in the mid-1990s. They also emphasize the need for the Brazilian government to continue investing in research and in the implementation of new forms of public-private partnerships in order to maximize the social benefits of scientific activity. More recently, Moreira and Teixeira [9] studied the creation of the National Agricul- tural Research System (SNPA) and development institu- tions, highlighting the return on investment in agricultural research in Brazil and its impacts on society. Among the few studies about the agricultural research institutions in Colombia, Roldan [18] provides a historical but not complete panorama. The author starts by high- lighting the Botanical Expedition of José Celestino Mu- tis, emphasizing the various systems of education with a focus on agriculture and livestock. Torres [19], presents a reflection relating to higher education with an agricultural focus in Colombia and the process of creating the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences in the State of Nariño. Recently, Junguito et al. [11] recounted the main problems related to the productivity and competitiveness of Colombian agri- culture and have proposed mechanisms for strengthening research institutions, paying particular attention to the Colombian Agricultural Research Corporation (AGROSA- VIA), which has come up as the axis of the national sys- tem of agricultural science, technology, and innovation. However, there is a lack of complete studies concern- ing the evolution of the Colombian agricultural research system, especially about what happened in the first two decades of the 21st century. In this regard, Stads et al. [14] present an analysis of agricultural research institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean (including Colombia and Brazil), detailing the structure and financing of their research systems. However, this work does not highlight how the better performance of some countries (for exam- ple, Brazil) can be used as a comparative parameter for other countries, such as Colombia. Given the above ex- plained, the contribution of this article is the registration and analysis of the main historical facts and institutions that allowed the constitution of the agricultural research system in Colombia up to the present time. This compara- tive analysis with the Brazilian system will make it pos- sible to formulate policy suggestions in Colombia that can meet the demands of its agricultural sector and guarantee its future development. 3. A Historical Survey of Agricultural Re- search in Colombia and Brazil The Spanish priest José Celestino Mutis, also a natural- ist and mathematician, dedicated himself, after his arrival 21 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 in Colombia in 1760, to the recognition and study of the Andean flora through several scientific excursions that led to important botanical discoveries. Mutis carried out stud- ies on zoology and minerals, observed astronomical phe- nomena, and described the geography of the country [20]. During his lifetime in Colombia, Mutis exchanged corre- spondence with European scholars, especially Mr. Carlos Linnaeus, seeking better cooperation and exchange of knowledge between both scholars about the collection and nomenclature of unknown plants, as well as a scientific development. In 1805, Francisco José de Caldas assembled a consid- erable herbarium of species from the southern and south- western regions of Colombia, recording his observations on the geography and distribution of plants in addition to his contributions to astronomy and physics. This her- barium was an essential component in the knowledge of Colombian plant species not only because of its volume but also because of the descriptions of common uses, es- pecially in agriculture, industry, and the conservation of natural resources in the regions where it was collected. A century later, in 1914, landmarks were set up for the creation of the School of Tropical Agriculture and Vet- erinary Medicine in Medellín, and in 1916 its academic activities began. Due to the country lacked of technicians, qualified teachers from the United States of America, Puerto Rico, Cuba, France, and Germany were hired. Four years later, by ordinance, a complete course in ag- riculture and veterinary medicine was introduced. With the emergence of faculties of agronomy and zootechnics in different Colombian states, there was a great diffusion of new production techniques for different species, which promoted the quality of Colombian agricultural products at the time. Table 1 displays the main historical milestones in the process of creating agricultural science research and education institutions in Colombia. From the 1940s to the 1960s, several faculties were created to provide un- dergraduate courses in agricultural sciences. The 1970s and 1980s were characterized by the creation of several research centers focused on specific agricultural activities. Since its creation in 1970, the Faculty of Agricultural Sci- ences at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmira has pointed out among the most relevant public institu- tions that provide higher education in the country, with an emphasis on agricultural sciences. This institution has contributed to the generation and development of research in agronomy, biotechnology, agricultural innovation, en- vironment, biodiversity, and zootechnics, not only for the Valle del Cauca region, which is an important Colombian agricultural region, but also for the development of other Andean and Pacific Colombian regions. Later, with the creation of the Colombian Agricultural Research Corporation (AGROSAVIA) in 1993, national public research began to be centered in this institution, which became responsible for generating scientific knowl- edge and technological solutions through research, inno- vation, technology transfer, and the training of research- ers for the benefit of the Colombian agricultural sector. Together with the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmira and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), both placed in the same region, they form the hub of agricul- tural research in Colombia. In addition, the institutional framework stimulates the strengthening of the former National Science and Technology System and its defini- tion. Law 607, issued in 2000, has modified the creation, functioning, and operation of the Municipal Agricultural Technical Assistance Units (UMATA) and regulated direct rural technical assistance. Those have turned viable, the participation of the territories in technological activities. In this path, the implementation of the Strategic Plans for Science, Technology, and Innovation (PECTIA) formu- lated for most of the country’s states has been noble. Brazil, from 1808, when the Rio de Janeiro’s Botani- cal Garden was inaugurated, to 1973, when EMBRAPA was founded, has faced several swings between federal and state institutions in conducting activities linked to the generation of science (knowledge) and technology (pro- cesses and products) oriented to the development of Bra- zilian agriculture. Public agricultural research was greatly strengthened with the creation of the Agronomic Institute of Campinas (IAC), an agency of the State of São Paulo since the beginning of the 20th century, but which was originally established in 1887 by the Central Government (at that time it was an Imperial Government) as the Impe- rial Agronomic Station of Campinas. In Brazil, the State of São Paulo headed the Brazil- ian agricultural research from the beginning of the 20th century until the end of the 1970s. Agronomic Institute of Campinas (IAC), the Biological Institute (IB), and the Zootechnical Institute (IZ), which concentrated on Bra- zilian agricultural research during the first three decades of the 20th century were later, joined by four other state institutions (Institute of Agricultural Economics (IEA), Institute of Food Technology (ITAL), and Institute of Fisheries and Forestry (IF)) [21]. The emergence of formal postgraduate degrees stricto sensu courses, in mid-1960s, allowed public universities (federal and state) to conduct an important share of agricultural research in Brazil [3]. Brazilian public model of agricultural research fells strongly on Government funding, which includes the con- 22 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 struction of buildings, the installation of laboratories, and, above all, the training of competent researchers’ teams as well as professors at worldwide highest ranked universi- ties [16]. Embrapa, linked to the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply (MAPA), has been, since its crea- tion, responsible for generating, by itself or jointly with other agencies, new agricultural knowledge and technolo- gies for the country. Along with the creation of Embrapa Table 1. Landmarks the evolution of agricultural research institutions in Colombia. Year Landmark 1914 Creation of the School of Tropical Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine in Medellin, later named the National Agricultural Institute 1930 Start of the sugarcane program at the Experimental Station of the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) in Palmira 1934 Creation of the Agricultural Institute of Valle del Cauca (later as Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropical del Valle del Cauca (ESAT)), the Experimental Agricultural Farm of Palmira, and the Agricultural Extension Service of the State 1938 The National Agricultural Institute merged with the National University of Colombia, was renamed the National Faculty of Agronomy, later named the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, and is currently the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences in Medellin Creation of the National Coffee Research Center (CENICAFÉ) 1940 Sugar mills-initiated research and experimentation activities and later, starting in 1955, established cooperation agreements with the ICA sugarcane program 1943 The Faculty of Agronomy is created, linked to the Universidad Popular de Manizales, currently the Universidad de Caldas 1944 ESAT became Faculty of Agronomy of Valle del Cauca 1945 The Faculty of Agronomy of Valle del Cauca was incorporated into the Universidad Industrial del Valle del Cauca and became the Faculty of Agronomy of the Universidad Industrial del Valle del Cauca 1946 The Faculty of Agronomy of the Universidad Industrial del Valle del Cauca joined the Universidad Nacional de Colombia: Facultad Nacional de Agronomía - Palmira Creation of the Faculty of Agronomy of the Universidad de Nariño 1955 Creation of the University of Tolima as a Faculty of Agronomy 1963 Creation of the Faculty of Agronomy of the National University of Colombia in Bogotá 1963 Inauguration of the tropical research center that later became the Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR) 1967 Establishment of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Palmira 1970 The National Faculty of Agronomy in Palmira becomes the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Palmira Campus, of the National University of Colombia 1974 Creation of the National Corporation for Forestry Research and Development (CNRF) 1977 Creation of the National Sugarcane Research Center (CENICAÑA) 1985 Creation of the Banana Research Center (CENIBANANO) 1986 CIMPA: Research Agreement for the Improvement of Panela, signed between the Governments of Colombia and the Netherlands (Dutch Cooperation) 1990 Establishment of the National Oil Palm Research Center (CENIPALMA) 1993 Creation of the Colombian Agricultural Research Corporation (CORPOICA), transformed in May 2018 into AGROSAVIA 1993 Creation of the Colombian Center for Aquaculture Research (CENIACUA) 2003 Creation of CENIRED, composed of research and development centers: CENIACUA, CENIBANANO, CENICAFÉ, CENICAÑA, CENICEL, CENIFLORES, CENIPALMA and CONIF 2004 Creation of the Colombian Center for Innovation in Floriculture (CENIFLORES) 2012 Creation of the Cereal and Vegetable Research Center—CENICEL 2015 Creation of Science, Technology, and Agricultural Innovation Parks, Law 1753 of 2015 Source: Prepared by the authors based on the historical references of each institution. 23 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 came the stimulus for the creation of other institutions at the state level in different regions. All together assemble the National Agricultural Research System (SNPA), cur- rently in force. The current structure of Brazilian agricul- tural research is made up of public and private institutions and a higher education system with an outstanding degree of experience and performance, which has created a con- solidated system in Latin America and has provided im- portant contributions to Brazilian agriculture growth. 4. Main Entities that Carry out Agricultural Research in Colombia and Brazil Works such as those by Dossa and Segatto [17] draw attention to the four groups of organizations that carry agricultural research in Brazil: Embrapa (linked to the Federal Government), state public agencies (in the form of autarchies and/or state-owned companies), universi- ties (especially the state-funded universities), and private companies. This item aims to evaluate the paths by which these organizations play in Colombia and contrast them with those that exist in Brazil. According to Stads et al. [14], until 2013, 40% of the agricultural research carried out in Colombia was done by state-funded agencies, 20% led by the universities, and 40% by private sector entities and/or mixed-law organi- zations (private and public). For comparative purposes, in Brazil, in the same period, this distribution was 73%, 25%, and 2%, respectively. These data already illustrate, at least, that the aforementioned entities play different roles in the conduct of agricultural research in the two countries analyzed (Colombia and Brazil). 4.1 Public Institutions Conducting Agricultural Research: Agrosavia in Colombia versus Embra- pa in Brazil Among the entities with government participation dedi- cated to agricultural research in Colombia, Agrosavia is the largest. It is a public, decentralized, non-profit institu- tion (in a similar mold to Embrapa). Its main function is the generation of scientific knowledge and the develop- ment of agricultural technologies through research, ad- aptation, transfer of technology, and technical assistance. Agrosavia has 21 research units, of which 13 are centers and 8 are headquarters located in different agricultural regions of the country (Table 2). These units carry out research related to permanent crops (cacao and citrus, for example), transition and agroindustry crops, fruit trees, livestock, other crops, vegetables, and aromatic plants. Table 2. Comparison between AGROSAVIA in Colombia and EMBRAPA in Brazil by number and type of researchers, research centers, laboratories, portfolio, and social benefit for 2019. AGROSAVIA EMBRAPA Year of foundation 1993 1973 Indicators Total number of researchers 378 2,252 Researchers with Master Degrees 211 236 Researchers with PhD Degrees 143 1,704 Other researchersA 24 312 Research centersB 21 50 Total number of laboratories 49 600 Portfolio 7 34 Social balance sheet Technologies analyzed 26 160 Developed crops n.d. 220 Corporate shares 4 n.d. Social profit (USD $, currency in 2020) Social profit ($USD) $120,449,575.77 $6,695,523,028.94 Source: Prepared by the authors based on Agrosavia 2019 social report [22] and Embrapa 2019 social report [23]. Notes: A In the case of Agrosavia, professionals linked to research are included; in the case of Embrapa postdoctoral researchers are included. B In the case of Agrosavia there are 13 research centers and 8 headquarters; in the case of Embrapa, there are 43 decentralized units and 7 central units. 24 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 Agrosavia also generates knowledge on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity [20]. According to Table 2, researchers with Ph.D. and Mas- ter’s degrees linked to Agrosavia in 2019 represented 38% and 56%, respectively, of the total. In 2013, according to Stads et al. [24], the participation of PhDs and Masters in the same institution was 15% and 17%, respectively. De- spite the relative improvement in the linkage of high-level personnel during the last decade, previous years were characterized by lower paid salaries in the public sector combined with inefficient job promotion inside the public research system, which led many scientists to seek other better-paid positions, even abroad. While the increase in the number of researchers with doctoral and master’s degrees has been significant in Colombia over the last decade, attracting highly qualified researchers in some priority areas remains a challenge for agricultural research in Colombia. In 2019, the social return of the investments in agri- cultural science and technology in Colombia, considering the case of Agrosavia, was 2.15 for each monetary unit invested (1:2.15). That is, for every Colombian peso (COP) invested, COP$ 2.15 was generated in benefits for the sector. The total social benefit of Agrosavia in 2019 was USD$ 120,449,575.77, which comes from the 26 tech- nologies analyzed, 4 corporate actions, and also includes plant and animal genetic material, crop management rec- ommendations, different types of protocols for production, agricultural designs, agroindustry, and extension [22]. These technologies enabled the improvement of production sys- tems in different regions of the country. As mentioned, public agricultural research in Brazil is carried out at the federal and state levels. The Embrapa is the main federal entity in Brazil, with at least 50 research centers spread over all regions and a team comprised of 2252 researchers, 76% of whom have PhDs degrees (Table 2). In Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela, the government sector hired more than 70% of agricultural researchers in each country [14]. Em- brapa agricultural research spectrum is also quite broad, covering at least 34c knowledge fields. In addition to Em- brapa’s involvement, most Brazilian states have their own c They include: irrigated agriculture, food, Amazon biosystem, aquacul- ture, automation, precision and digital agriculture, advanced biotechnol- ogy applied to agribusiness, cocoa, coffee, meat, drought in the semi-arid region, energy, chemistry and biomass, fibers and biomass for industrial use, forestry, temperate fruit growing, tropical fruit growing, grains, vegetables, organizational innovation, social innovation in agriculture, biological inputs, livestock and forestry integration, intelligence systems, land management and monitoring, milk, rational pesticide management, climate change, nanotechnology, agricultural nutrition, pastures, genetic resources, animal health, plant health, environmental services, ecologi- cally based production systems and Brazilian soils. agricultural research entities focused on their state reali- ties. In Brazil, Embrapa (together with state public institu- tions and public universities) generated knowledge and technologies for national agriculture, which enabled the reduction in production costs and helped the country in- crease the food supply in a sustainable manner, in addition to reducing the value of the basic food basket by more than 41.49% [23]. The social return for each Brazilian mon- etary unit (Reais) invested in Embrapa in 2019 was R$ 12.29 (1:12.29), which came back to the Brazilian society in the form of technologies, knowledge, and employment. Embrapa generated in the country, in 2019, a social return of USD$ 6,695,523,028.94, calculated from the economic impacts of a sample of 160 technologies and about 220 cultivars developed by the research company and its part- ners [23], showing its high efficiency and consolidation in the exercise of agricultural research. 4.2 Regional Research and International Cooperation Colombia has some regional organizations that conduct agricultural research, and several of them hold coopera- tion with other organizations inside Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Among them is the Inter-American In- stitute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), which plays a useful role in coordinating, promoting, and facilitating sustainable agricultural development in the region. IICA works with all the LAC countries as well as with several centers of the Consultative Group on International Ag- ricultural Research (CGIAR) and other regional organi- zations. The CGIAR Consortium conducts most of the international research in the LAC region. It participates in agricultural research and development in the region through three centers, including the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. At the same time, the Agricultural Research Coopera- tive Programs (PROCIs) comprise a series of sub-regional mechanisms made up of a group of national agricultural research institutes. The PROCIs focus on the development and strengthening of institutions, the coordination of re- search projects in several countries, and the promotion and transfer of technology. Currently, there are four programs running: PROCISUR (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay); PROCITROPICOS (Brazil, Bo- livia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Suriname, and Venezue- la); PROCIANDINO (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela); and PROCICARIBE (Caribbean) [25]. On the other hand, the Tropical Agricultural Teaching and Research Center (CATIE) is an autonomous non-profit institution focused on agricultural and rural development and natural resource management. Member states include Colombia, where research on rural communities and so- 25 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 cial welfare is carried out. 4.3 The Role of Universities in Agricultural Research in Colombia Compared to Brazil In the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, several faculties of agronomy were created in Colombia, spreading higher education about agricultural sciences over different re- gions (Table 1). The 1960s also saw the creation of sev- eral agricultural research centers, formalizing the creation of the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), formerly the Department of Agricultural Research (DIA) [19]. The Agricultural Institutes (ITA) played a role in moderniza- tion and technology transfer, but this modernization was not the result of an analysis of the cultural, economic, and social conditions of the existing agricultural sector at that time but was driven by the need to reach international standards [26]. In the 1970s, under the influence of the new global trends, intermediate-level agricultural train- ing programs were created. This step constitutes the main measure of the modernization of agricultural education in Colombia, which promoted training at the technical level, the updating of higher education, and training in institu- tions. In line with the promotion of agricultural education, academic programs were created in Colombia that are still running today (Tables 1 and 3), including the public pro- grams of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Palmi- ra, Medellin, and Bogota, the Universidad de Caldas, the Universidad del Tolima, and the Universidad de Nariño. These public institutions stand out in the generation of scientific knowledge and technologies, contributing to the development of agriculture. According to data from the SNIES [28], in 2019, there were at least 73 higher education institutions, public or private, with programs related to agricultural sciences in Colombia. In general, for this period, the number of pub- lic institutions is greater than that of private institutions; however, the latter has a greater number of courses dedi- cated to the teaching of agricultural sciences at the under- graduate level (Table 3), which evidences that the Colom- bian educational system, as far as agricultural sciences are concerned, is determined by the growing participation of the private sector. Although the Colombian educational system has both public and private representation, public institutions of higher education, as in other LAC coun- tries, should play a major role in agricultural research in Colombia. However, according to Triana [26], Colombian public education faces greater challenges related to central government management, which has demonstrated an ina- bility to adequately provide the right to education in terms of coverage, quality, and financing, which directly affects investments in research and the development of this sec- tor. In terms of the number of students enrolled and gradu- ates in agricultural sciences courses, in 2019, Colombia reached only 2% of the total number of students enrolled in the country, while the percentage of graduates in this area was 1.6%. In Brazil, these percentages were 3.2% and 2.5%, respectively (Table 3). The punctual and con- Table 3. Comparison of education systems in agricultural sciences between Colombia and Brazil, considering the year 2019. Year 2019 Colombia Brazil Private sector Public sector Private sector Public sector Institutions with programs in agricultural sciences A 33 40 377 144 Undergraduate courses in agricultural sciences 51 44 610 630 Students enrolled in the country by sector B 1,178,120 1,218,130 6,523,678 2,080,146 Students enrolled by sector/percentage of total (%) 49 51 76 24 Total students enrolled in the country 2,396,250 8,603,824 Students enrolled/agricultural programs 49,292 141,438 130,591 Total number of graduates in the country 507,338 1,250,076 Graduates of agricultural science programs 8,275 16,664 15,246 Source: Prepared by the authors based on the National Information System for Higher Education in Colombia (SNIES) [27,28]. and the National Institute of Educational Studies and Research Anísio Teixeira (INEP) [29]. Notes: A In the case of Colombia, this includes institutions with agronomy, veterinary, and related programs. In the case of Brazil, this includes institutions with programs in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and veterinary science. B In the case of Colombia, this includes undergraduate (university), professional technical, technological, master’s, and specialization courses. In the case of Brazil, it includes stricto sensu and lato sensu undergraduate courses by administrative category in different areas. 26 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 centrated geographic location of educational institutions has been highlighted as a central factor that does not make it possible to alleviate the technological and economic lags in a significant part of the Colombian agricultural sec- tor [30]. In addition, for more than 30 years, Colombia has not created a new public university or college, much less one dedicated to agricultural sciences. Therefore, there is a need for greater territorial coverage of the teaching of- fered in agricultural sciences, especially in regions with high productive potential where agriculture and livestock represent the main engines of economic development. The public share of higher education in agricultural sciences in Brazil also plays a recognized and important role, with more than 144 units linked to public universities (federal and state) and federal institutes of education, sci- ence, and technology, offering courses in several different modalities of the agricultural sciences and training a lot of professionals to work in the different fields of agriculture and development. According to INEP [29], in 2019, Brazil had 521 undergraduate and graduate courses in agricul- tural sciences evaluated and recognized by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC). Despite there being higher education courses linked to agricultural sciences through- out the country, there is a concentration of them mainly in the Southeast, South, and Northeast regions. 4.4 Agricultural Research Conducted by the Private Sector According to Bonelli and Pessoa [5], a large share of agricultural technology is considered a public patrimony; therefore, it is mainly generated by government-owned research institutions, which benefits society, although it does not generate a direct financial return for the entity generating these new technologies. However, when it is carried out by profit-oriented institutions, there is a ten- dency to privatize and reduce the resources allocated to this activity. This justifies, in the case of Brazil, the rela- tively small participation of the private sector in running agricultural research (Tables 3 and 4). But this is not the case in Colombia, where the private entities that carry out agricultural research do not necessarily have as a principle to maximize their profits but rather the profit of specific sectors. This makes private, profit-oriented agricultural re- search relatively important in Colombia compared to other South American countries [14]. In many cases, agricultural technologies reach degrees of specialization and have pri- vate input supply, processing, harvesting, and post-harvest systems. Some countries offer tax exemptions for private research, and many require their participation in publicly funded projects as a mechanism to promote the com- mercial viability of the results generated by the research. Many private companies also make their research results available to universities or government agencies, or import technologies from abroad [31]. Since the creation of CE- NICAFÉ—which was created in the late 1930s—several agricultural production corporations in Colombia have, over time, become aware of the need to invest in research to improve productivity and ensure the competitiveness of their activities. Therefore, they have created their own research centers, called National Research Centers (CENI), such as CENIACUA, CENIBANANO, CENICAÑA, CENICEL, CENIFLORES, CENIPALMA, and CONIF. These centers are mainly financed by the private sector. The CENIs have been an important tool in the economic development of the agricultural sectors they represent in the country [32]. These entities have sought to promote the development and modernization of the agricultural sector, especially those sectors with the greatest potential (in the case of large crops). Since 2003, the CENIs have congre- gated under an umbrella corporation called CENIRED, which facilitates the exchange of scientific and techno- logical advances and resources among the main sectors: Agroforestry, bananas, coffee, shrimp, sugarcane, flowers, cereals, legumes, and oil palm [32]. Although this corpora- tion groups the most important research centers in the country, each center has its own mission. However, they all have focused their efforts on the competitiveness and strengthening of their sector in order to contribute to its economy and development. 5. Financial and Human Resources Allocated to Agricultural Research in Colombia and Brazil According to data from Stads et al. [14], financial amounts in agricultural research and development in Co- lombia and Brazil (excluding the private non-profit sector) were subject to considerable volatility during the 1980s and early 1990s. This was followed by a period of steady decline until the early 2000s. For Brazil, after a period of strong growth, the total capacity to link researchers to agricultural technology de- velopment varied sharply, mainly during the years 1990- 2004. The growth of this capacity in recent years resulted from greater participation in agricultural research by the higher education sector and the opening of new Embrapa centers in different Brazilian states, which increased the number of researchers hired. As a result, investment levels also increased from 2005 onward. From 2009 to 2013, the country invested US$ 2,704 million in research linked to the agricultural sector, which represents at least half of the total expenditure in the LAC region in this category [14,33]. Therefore, Brazil figures as the most important country in 27 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 LAC in terms of spending on agricultural research. Ac- cording to this same study, Colombia topped the list of the top five countries in investment in agricultural research from 2009 to 2013, with an investment of close to US$ 253 million. Table 4 shows the distribution of spending on agricul- tural research in Colombia and Brazil from 2009 to 2013, highlighting items such as net spending, growth in spend- ing, researchers assigned, and the participation of different sectors in research in 2019. The data in Table 4 show that agricultural research spending in Colombia was at least 10 times lower than in Brazil. Moreover, Colombia’s agricultural GDP (in 2019) was 5 times lower than Brazil’s (according to World Bank data), proportionally. In 2013, public investment in agri- cultural research in Colombia corresponded to 0.79% of its agricultural GDP, while in Brazil this percentage was 1.82%. The most developed countries invest about 4% of their agricultural GDP in agricultural research, while the least developed countries invest around 1%. Therefore, Colombia’s total investment in agricultural research is relatively lower than that of Brazil. Colombia is less competitive than Brazil in terms of both the number of researchers involved and the percent- age of PhDs among researchers conducting research in the agricultural sector. Only 23% of researchers related to agriculture and livestock had a Ph.D. degree in Colombia, compared to 73% in the Brazilian case, considering the Table 4. Financial and human resources linked to agricultural research activities in Colombia and Brazil from 2009 to 2013, participation of sectors in research, and operating income in 2019. ITEM Colombia Brazil Expense Research expenses in millions of dollars (USD $) A 253 2,704 Growth of the sector B 33.3% 7.8% Percentage of agricultural GDP C 0.79% 1.82% Researchers Number of full-time equivalent researchers D 1,102 5,869 Growth of the sector E 2.95 11.5% Percentage of researchers with a doctorate degree F 23% 73% Financing sources Public participation (Agrosavia and Embrapa) 90% 97% Donations and Development Banks 1% 1% Sales of goods and services 9% 2% Public participation in agricultural research Public participation (Agrosavia and Embrapa) 29% 42% Non-profit and for-profit organizations 12% 1% Operating Income 2019 (USD $) Net operating income (Agrosavia and Embrapa) $55,859,765.38 $545,006,368.92 Source: Prepared by the authors based on STADS et al. [14] and ASTI [25]. Notes: A Total agricultural research spending includes salaries, operating and program costs, and capital investments for all higher education agencies, nonprofit institutions, and government entities conducting agricultural research activities (excluding the private sector) in the country in the period 2009 through 2013. B Expenditure growth includes increases in salary costs, program costs, and operating and capital investments in all public, non-profit, and higher education entities (excluding the private sector) that carry out agricultural research activities in the country. C Percentage of investment in agricultural research (total research expenditure excluding the private for-profit sector as a percentage of agricultural GDP). D The total number of agricultural researchers in the public sector includes all researchers working in government, non-profit organizations, and higher education (excluding the private sector). The data are expressed in full-time equivalents (FTE). E The increase in the total number of agricultural researchers in the public sector includes all researchers working in government, organizations, nonprofit organizations, and higher education (excluding the private sector). The data are expressed as a percentage of full-time employees (FTE). F This indicator reflects the number of agricultural researchers with a Ph.D. as a percentage of the total number of agricultural researchers in the public sector (with Ph.D., MSc., and undergraduate degrees). 28 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 years from 2009 to 2013. In general, the number of scien- tists with a Ph.D. degree is considered fundamental for the conception and implementation of high-quality research programs, to establish efficient communication with poli- cymakers, donors, and other actors, both locally and in regional and international forums, as well as to increase the opportunities for institutions to obtain more resources for their activities [25]. Financial resources for agricultural research in Colom- bia and Brazil come from various sources, including the national government, international donors, development banks, producer organizations, and other private sector agents. In addition to income generated by the research institutions themselves through the sale of goods and/or services. Regarding the budget, until 2013, Agrosavia was fi- nanced by the Ministry of Agriculture through technical cooperation and contracts, but since the enactment of Law 1731 of 2014, there is a national budget line within the budget approved by Congress, and resources are chan- neled to Agrosavia through the Ministry of Agriculture. For 2019, this budget was USD$ 55,859,765.38 (Table 4). Despite the budget had increased in recent years, total amount disbursed with agricultural research in Colombia is relatively lower when it is compared to other countries located in the same region [24]. In most Agrosavia cent- ers, more funding could contribute to salary increases and related operating expenses. Therefore, capital investment is vital to meet the demands for infrastructure, technology acquisition, and transfer. The federal government’s financial support for agri- cultural research in Brazil, despite oscillating since the 1980s [34], has enabled Embrapa’s important performance in South America, its partnerships, and international coop- eration. For 2019, Embrapa’s operating budget was USD$ 545,006,368.92 (Table 4). The participation of the public sector in the financing of agricultural research institu- tions in Brazil is much more significant than in Colombia. However, according to Stads et al. [24], with the economic slowdown and crisis, there is uncertainty about possible cuts in future budgets that could restrict the activities of agricultural research agencies in Brazil. In Colombia, Agrosavia’s main source of funding is the central government. Although this participation is high (percentage), there is a tendency to increase the sale of products and services to access new resources, which may lead this institution to become less dependent on the gov- ernment in the future. This same trend can be observed in the participation of other Colombian institutions related to agricultural research activities. However, it is neces- sary to observe the trend in this aspect over time up to the present day. Since agricultural research is a typical public good with benefits for the whole society, the state should provide a very high share of the funds for this activity. Leaving the function of financing research to private agents and secto- ral funds will represent a future threat to the system since the volume and type of research would be below what is socially necessary, even when financed with parafiscal contributions, as has been the case in Colombia [11]. One strategy to promote agricultural development in specific regions by providing them with scientific and techno- logical capacity to meet their own demands is to create regional agricultural research and innovation systems, such as those existing in Brazil. In Colombia, the model is configured to meet the demands of particular sectors, as in the case of the CENIs, and not regional demands. Due to the importance that has been attributed to spe- cific sectors of primary production, there is a trend in the distribution and execution of research in each country. In Colombia, 59% of agricultural research is devoted to ma- jor crops (including coffee, sugar cane, and fruit produc- tion, for example), 9% to livestock (including meat and milk production), 17% to the management and preserva- tion of natural resources, 0.5% to forestry, 1% to fisheries, and 13.5% to other agricultural activities. For Brazil, ma- jor crops account for at least 72% of agricultural research (highlighting coffee, citrus, soybean, corn, sugarcane, cotton, non-citrus fruits, and other oilseed species); live- stock 9% (milk and meat); natural resource management and preservation 3%; forestry 1%; fisheries 2%; and other agricultural activities 13% [14,24]. This distribution in the focus of agricultural research is linked to the sectors in which each country has achieved greater competitiveness, not only in the domestic market but also in its exports and, consequently, in the generation of foreign exchange. Another challenge has to do with the level of public funding needed to ensure effective strategic research programs that generate greater agricultural productiv- ity. The trend towards the restriction of public spending on agricultural research has led research entities to have limited options for obtaining resources, and the allocation of these resources is increasingly scarce [30,31], especially in countries such as Colombia, where state policies have not considered this component a priority for national de- velopment. According to Stads et al. [14], it is essential that governments provide the necessary political environment to foster cooperation among agricultural research entities in their countries in order to maximize synergies between universities and government entities and efficiencies in the use of available resources. In the Colombian case, it is important to consider exogenous factors that from the 29 Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 04 | Issue 02 | June 2023 national context have limited investment in research, such as the allocation of the national budget to other portfolios with the idea of responding to the internal armed conflict by the governments in power, the variation of the ex- change rate that discouraged exports, the discouragement of the sector in the face of the economic opening since the end of the 1990s, and the high cost of the fight against drugs due to the increase in crops destined for illicit uses. 6. Final Remarks Agriculture is a dynamic activity in which several fac- tors and components converge to make its development possible. Apart from the inputs of credit, labor, and market to be done, it is also necessary to generate new knowledge and technology to allow it to be developed. Both knowl- edge and technology are generated thanks to the research programs carried out by institutions, and they have a huge impact on the country’s overall agricultural competitive- ness. As shown throughout the paper, the research system for the generation of agricultural science and technology in Brazil is predominantly public, and the federal entity (Embrapa), which includes regional features, forms a net- work together with institutions of higher education (federal and state universities) and state research institutions. This model of a public-funded agricultural research network in Brazil (despite its irregular allocation of resources) has generated important results, especially because the agri- cultural technology that they generate is difficult to pri- vately register and is freely spread, which has had a great impact on Brazilian agricultural productivity. Colombian agriculture has faced a decrease in produc- tivity that has led to a loss of competitiveness in this sec- tor. Federal-funded Agrosavia’s research has generated a lower return to Colombia than similar Embrapa’s research has turned back to Brazil. However, greater investments in financial resources and human capital are considered necessary for the development of more efficient agricul- tural research programs in Colombia. This stands out as the greatest challenge to be overcome, especially in recent years. Complementing this, there is a need to structure a research system that can meet regional demands more ef- ficiently in all agricultural sectors in Colombia. This will require an even stronger link with agricultural research on the part of higher education institutions, especially public institutions that, in turn, demand greater investment, cov- erage, and capacity to train highly competent profession- als in different fields that compound the agriculture sector. Author Contributions Heiber Andres Trujillo: Study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation, elaboration of the text (different versions), critical revision of the article with important contributions to its intellectual content, approval of the final version to be submitted. Carlos José Caetano Bacha: Study conception and design, critical revision of the article with important contributions to its intellectual content, approval of the final version to be submitted. Acknowledgement Acknowledgement to the ‘Doctorado Exterior—885’ program of the ‘Ministerio de Ciencia Tecnología e In- novación (MINCIENCIAS) Colombia’ for funding since 2021. To the ‘PROEX’ program of ‘Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Brazil’ for the scholarship. Data Availability The data are available upon request from the corre- sponding author. Conflict of Interest All authors disclosed no any conflict of interest. References [1] Echeverría, R.G., 1998. Agricultural research policy issues in Latin America: An overview. World Devel- opment. 26(6), 1103-1111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00036-9 [2] Johnston, B.F., Mellor, J.W., 1962. The role of ag- riculture in economic development. El Trimestre Económico. 29(2), 279-307. [3] Stumpf-Junior, W., Balsadi, O.V., 2015. Políticas pú- blicas de desenvolvimento rural no Brasil (Spanish) [Public policies and research for rural development in Brazil] [Internet]. Porto Alegre. 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