Microsoft Word - Per A. Rudling_Denmark as the Big Satan Projections of Scandinavia in the Arab World and the Future of Multicu


Review of European and Russian Affairs vol. 2 issue 3/2006 © RERA 2006 all rights reserved 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
                  ………………………………………………  

        
             Denmark as the Big Satan: Projections of  
 

Scandinavia in the Arab World and the Future of  
 
Multiculturalism 
 

       
  

   Per Anders Rudling 
 

 
 
  

Abstract  
 
During the winter and spring of 2006, Denmark and Scandinavia faced its most serious 
crisis since World War II. The conflict started as a Danish newspaper published a number 
of cartoons, some of which portrayed the prophet Muhammad. After the Danish 
government rejected their requests to censor the media, Danish Islamists distributed these 
pictures to some senior political and religious figures in the Middle East and requested 
their support against Denmark. To these pictures, they added a number of more offensive 
images, never published in any Danish newspaper in order to infuriate Muslims around 
the world. Muslim clerics, assisted by the governments of Saudi Arabia, Syria and Iran 
caused the region to explode in protest and violent riots, in which 44 people were killed. 
Danish products were boycotted across the Muslim world; Scandinavian embassies were 
attacked and set ablaze in Syria, Iran, Lebanon and Indonesia. Islamists promised 
substantial rewards for anyone who would murder Danish and Norwegian peacekeepers, 
and Scandinavian UN forces were attacked in Palestine and Afghanistan. The 
Scandinavian countries and the EU are struggling to find a way to address the issue of 
radical Islam within their societies, and how to defend liberal democratic values from 
attacks from its enemies. This process may lead to a redefinition of values, a shift from 
multiculturalism to an embrace of the democratic western values upon which the 
European states are based.  
 



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 In the summer of 2005, Världskulturmuseet, the Museum of World Culture in 

Gothenburg, Sweden, decided to censure an art exhibit and remove a painting, which was 

said to offend Muslims. The painting removed by the museum had a sexual motif and a 

quotation from the Koran. A discourse of multiculturalism and fear of offending the 

sizable Muslim community dictated what predominantly non-Muslim museum visitors in 

a secular country were allowed to see. A few months later, the Tate Gallery in London 

cancelled an exhibit by avant-garde artist John Lathham depicting the Koran, Bible and 

Talmud torn to pieces.1 In September the same year, Kåre Bluitgen, a Danish writer of 

books for children had trouble finding an illustrator for a book about the life of 

Muhammad. Out of fear for terror and physical repercussions, three artists turned down 

the offer. When an artist, prepared to illustrate the children’s book was finally found, 

she/he agreed only on conditions of strict anonymity.  

 Shortly thereafter Liberal Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen was 

approached by a delegation of imams, demanding that the Prime Minister to interfere 

with the Danish press in order to produce a more positive coverage of Islam. Concerned 

about increasing self-censorship across the European Union, and perceiving that 

intellectual freedoms were under siege, Flemming Rose, citing these specific events, the 

cultural editor of the provincial Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten decided to announce a 

competition about the best cartoons of Muhammad. Rose has a background as 

correspondent in the Soviet Union, and professes to have a particular sensitivity to 

censorship on the ground of insult. 

                                                 
1 “Inget öppet samhälle untan hädelse, ” Dagens Nyheter, January 11, 2006. Fleming Rose, “Why I 
published Those Cartoons,” Jyllands-Posten, February 19, 2006.  



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 This is a popular trick of totalitarian movements: Label any critique or 
call for debate as an insult and punish the offenders. That is what 
happened to human rights activists and writers such as Andrei Sakharov, 
Vladimir Bukovsky, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Nathan Sharansky, Boris 
Pasternak. The regime accused them of anti-Soviet propaganda, just as 
some Muslims are labeling 12 cartoons in a Danish newspaper anti-
Islamic. The lesson from the Cold War is: If you give in to totalitarian 
impulses once, new demands follow. The West prevailed in the Cold War 
because we stood by our fundamental values and did not appease 
totalitarian tyrants.2 
 

On September 30, 2006, the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten published 12 cartoons, 

some of them said to portrait Muhammad, others making fun of suicide bombers, Danish 

politicians, and Talibans. Few people in Denmark would have guessed the commotion 

that was to follow. The conflict very soon escalated into something much more than just a 

conflict between a newspaper and its readership. To be sure, this was not the first, nor 

will it be the last time representatives of religious establishments have felt their 

ideological or esthetic sensibilities offended. As the Finnish contribution to the 

Eurovision song content in Athens, Greece later on in 2006 was a heavy metal band by 

the name “Lordi,” consisting of a number of axe and chain-saw wielding monsters 

singing a song titled “Hard Rock Hallelujah,” representatives of the Orthodox Churches 

of Finland, Greece and Cyprus protested, complaining about the name “Lordi” as 

sacrilege, and attempted to prevent them from participating in the Eurovision contest, 

which they subsequently won.3 These vain attempts at preventing a rock band from 

participating in the Eurovision on grounds of offending orthodox clergy made it to the 

mainstream mass media only by its curiosity value. By and large, Christian charges of 

blasphemy are not taken very seriously in Europe in the 21st century. 

                                                 
2 Fleming Rose, “Why I published Those Cartoons,” Jyllands-Posten, February 19, 2006. Paul Reynolds, 
“Cartoons: Divisions and inconsistencies”, BBC News, February 13, 2006.   
3 “Finns shocked by Eurovision band,” BBC New Online, April 20, 2006.   



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Therefore it came as a shock that an editorial decision of a provincial Danish 

newspaper would create an international crisis that would lead to dozens of people killed 

around the world and European embassies burned by fanatical mobs.4 Protest, formally 

aimed against the publications of cartoons turned into violent attack on Danish and other 

European embassies around the world, and an outright onslaught on their open societies. 

As of March 22, 2006 the conflict surrounding the cartoons has left 139 dead (not 

including the 146 killed in related riots in Nigeria), over 800 injured. In addition, more 

than 10,000 are unemployed as a result of political embargoes; dozens of buildings, not 

only European embassies and consulates, but also Christian churches, and fast foods 

restaurants have been torched and vandalized.5 For Denmark, one of the most secular 

countries in the world, this was the first time since the Thirty Years War that a conflict 

with religious connotation had had such an impact.  

The publication of these cartoons violates a convention in the Salafi and Wahhabi 

strains of Sunni Islam that the Prophet should not be depicted. This influence of this 

strain of Sunni Islam has grown during the past decades. This is partly due to Saudi 

financing and increasing influence of Muslim communities world wide. There is no 

prohibition against depicting Muhammad in the Koran. The prohibition of reproducing 

images of Muhammad postdates his death. Palaces and Mosques from the earliest period 

of Islam contain pictures of men and animals.6 Images of Muhammad can be seen in 

mosques and museums across the Muslim world: in Istanbul, Bukhara, Samarkand and 

Haroun-Walat (a suburb of Isfahan, Iran). Several contemporary Iranian and Arab 

                                                 
4 By March 6, 2006, 44 people had been killed in protests against the cartoons, most of them in Nigeria, 
Afghanistan and Pakistan. Svenska Dagbladet, March 6, 2006.  
5 See http://www.cartoonbodycount.com/ (Accessed March 22, 2006) 
6 Leif Stenberg and Torsten Janson, ”Bildförbudet utan stöd i Koranen”, Svenska Dagbladet, March 8, 
2006.   



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sculptors have made busts of the prophet. One can even be seen at the building of the 

U.S. Supreme Court.7 In the Shiite tradition, there is a production, sale and public use of 

pictures of Muhammad and other persons Muslims consider holy. Other Muslim 

countries are stricter. When Newsweek re-published a Persian miniature of Muhammad, 

the issue was censored in Malaysia, Indonesia and Bangladesh.8 

The decision to publish these cartoons outraged some high-profile Islamists 

within Denmark. 3,500 Muslims protested on the streets of Copenhagen against the 

cartoons. A 17-year old Muslim boy was arrested for attempting to kill one of the 

cartoonists. On October 12, eleven ambassadors from Muslim countries demanded a 

meeting with Prime Minister Fogh Rasmussen to discuss what they considered to be an 

anti-Islamic campaign in the Danish press.9 The Danish government, citing adherence to 

freedom of expression and speech, refused to see them, arguing that that would be a 

violation of his constitutional duties to discuss articles published by an independent 

newspaper with representatives from foreign states, most of which lack an independent 

press and democracy themselves.10 The Prime Minister’s office explained that in 

Denmark the government is not responsible for what independent provincial newspapers 

publish, and communicated that protests needs to be addressed to Jyllands-Posten, not to 

the Prime Minister. On October 17, shortly after their publication in Denmark, six of the 

                                                 
7 Amir Taheri, “Bonfire of the Pieties: Islam prohibits neither images of Muhammad nor jokes about 
religion,” Wall Street Journal, February 8, 2006. 
http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110007934  (Accessed February 9, 2006) and  
Paul Marshall, “Misrepresentations of Islam: Not all Muslims shun depictions of Muhammad,” Center for 
religious Freedom: A Division of Freedom House. February 21, 2006. 
http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/news/bn2005/bn-2005--2006-02-21a.htm (Accessed May 10, 2006)  
8 “Inget billedforbud i Koranen”, Verdens Gang, February 11, 2006.  
9 “Ambassader i Danmark protesterer mot karikatur av Muhammad”, NTB October 10, 2005.  
10 Ole Rothenborg, “Fogh Rasmussen Muhammedkrisens stora förlorare,” Dagens Nyheter, March 11, 
2006.    



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cartoons were re-published in the Egyptian oppositional paper al-Fagr. There were no 

protests on the streets of Egypt.11  

It seems as if the foreign minister of Egypt, Ahmed Aboul-Gheit has been the 

coordinating figure, pushing this issue from the beginning of October. This appears to 

have served a dual purpose: it helped to ease pressure from the EU, which has been 

demanding the Egyptian government implement a number of legal and political reforms. 

It also enabled him to show the people that the Egyptian government were just as good at 

defending Islamic principles as the Islamist opposition.12 On October the 25 the Egyptian 

Foreign Ministry urged the Danish government to distance itself from the cartoons.  

After both foreign pressure and street protest had failed to convince the Prime 

Minister of the need for censorship in Denmark, some leading Danish clerics decided to 

seek support among “some esteemed figures in the Muslim world.”13  

In the end of December of 2005, a 31-year old Danish imam by the name of 

Ahmed Akkari traveled down to the Middle East with a 43-page folder of cartoons, letters 

and drawings. He represented an organization called Islamisk Trossamfund i Danmark, or 

the Islamic Faith Society of Denmark, claiming to represent 29 Muslim organizations in 

Denmark, with 170 000-200 000 members. Akkari was sent on this mission by a man by 

the name of Abu Laban, the leading imam in Copenhagen. Akkari contacted religious and 

political leaders in some of the most repressive states in the world, such as Saudi Arabia, 

Syria and Iran to put pressure on the Danish government. 

                                                 
11 Paul Reynolds, “Cartoons: Divisions and inconsistencies”, BBC News, February 13, 2006.    
12 Bitte Hammargren, “Egyptisk minister drev karikatyrbråk”, Svenska Dagbladet, March 6, 2006.  
13 Doug Sanders, “’It is not what I want to happen’”, The Globe and Mail, February 8, 2006.  



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Akkari’s folder introduces the Danes as decadents and infidels. The document is written 

for an ignorant reader: the targeted audience is assumed to be largely uninformed of 

Danish and European geography and culture: 

“This country has its own language. It has a constitutional and monarchic 
system of government. The country consists of a number of islands, its 
capital is Copenhagen, it has a population of five million and most of them 
are Protestants. Although they claim allegiance to Christianity, 
secularisation has gained the upper hand, so even if you were to refer to 
them as infidels you would not be wrong. (…) One of the issues is an 
atmosphere that fuels a growing racism, which has gained strength of 
expression since the events of 9/11. And it (the racism) has many different 
guises, the common denominator being the disparaging reference to Islam. 
(Sometimes the veil is the issue, at other times circumcision, or the 
diseases that prayer causes … and so on)”.14 
 
 

 The document presents a gloomy picture of Denmark. The document is a prime example 

of orientalization of “the other.” Its author assumes the moral superiority of Muslim 

culture over the Danish “infidels.” The reader gets the impression it is Denmark, not 

Syria or Egypt which lacks freedom of religion. For being a document produced in a 

European capital in the 21st century, the document is remarkable in that it makes claims 

of sorcery. Akkari’s binder is a revealing document. It reflects the orientalist attitudes of 

radical Islam vis-à-vis the decadent west and its liberal democracy. The document is a 

mixture of ignorance, superstition, moralizing and an outright misrepresentation of 

Danish society. The document presents Denmark as an oppressive society, seeking a 

conflict with the Muslim world. 

- We, all the Muslims in Denmark, are under attack from them, the Danes. 
- In Denmark, they talk about the diseases caused by Muslim prayers.  
- Relations between the West and Islam are entering a dark tunnel. 
-  And in printing 12 drawings of the Prophet Muhammad in September 
2005 it was really Jyllands-Posten’s intention to curb Muslim opinion and 

                                                 
14 Allan Larsen and Kåre Quist, “Imamens vantro Danmark”, Ekstra Bladet, January 15, 2006.  



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protests. 15 
 

 Akkari compiled twelve cartoons published in Jyllands-Posten on September 30, 2005. It 

appears Akkari must have had some doubts about the offensive nature of these cartoons, 

as they had already been published in the press in the Middle East without much notice. 

In order to make the claim of anti-Muslim sentiments in Denmark more effective, Akkari 

now added a number of other images, which had never been published by Jyllands-

Posten or any other Danish newspaper. These were quite different than the cartoons 

published in the cultural section in Jyllands-Posten: one depicted a man, allegedly a 

Muslim, being humped by a dog while praying. Another picture depicts a “pedophile 

Muhammad”, presumably referring to Aisha bint Abu Bakr, whom Muhammad, 

according to the Haddith, married when she was six while the marriage was 

consummated when Aisha was nine and Muhammad fifty-two.16 A third picture of the 

Frenchman Jaques Marrot dressed up as a pig, with a plastic snout and a pink baby hat 

with plastic ears during the “annual pig-squealing competition” in the tiny French village 

of Trie-sur-Baines in Southern France.17 In Akkari’s binder, this picture carried the added 

text: “This is the true picture of Muhammad” in Danish and Arabic and was represented 

as being a depiction of Muhammad in Danish press.18   

Akkari presented this binder to the Grand Mufti of Egypt, the chief cleric and the 

predominant scholar of Islamic law within Egypt. He also presented it to the Secretary-

                                                 
15 Ibid.  
16 See Hadith vol. 7, no. 65, no. 88 and vol. 5, no. 234 in Bukhārī, Muhammad ibn Ismāīl, Hadith al-
Bukhari: The translation of the meanings of Hadith al-Bukhārī, Arabic-English/ Muhammad Mushi Khan, 
(Medina: Dar al-Fikr, 1981).  The same claims are to be found in the Hadith of Sahih Muslim volume 2., 
no. 3309, the Hadith of the Sunan of Abu Dawud, vol. 2, no. 2116.  
17 Rima Iraki, Hege Lyngved Odinsen, “Fransk grisehylter vist frem som Momammed-hån,” Verdens Gang, 
February 8, 2006.   
18 Akkari’s folder, containing the cartoons from Jyllands-Posten as well as the pictures gathered to 
misrepresent Denmark is available online on http://www.ekstrabladet.dk/VisArtikel.iasp?PageID=332707 



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General of the Arab League and others. According to Akkari, “[t]hey stared in 

amazement at the images in the book, (...) and vowed to take action to help him. “They 

said to me, ’Do they really say this is the Prophet Muhammad? They must really have no 

respect for religion up there in Denmark,’ and they said they would make it known.”19 

Meanwhile, Abu Laban also tried to reach the influential Qatar-based cleric Yusuf al-

Qaradawi, whose fatwas many Muslims consider binding. Even though the meeting was 

ultimately called off, al-Quaradawi called “for a global day of anger.”20 Political and 

religious leaders in the Arab world were quick to exploit the situation, and soon distorted 

reports about Danish media soon circulated the Muslim world, causing millions of 

Muslims to believe that the Nordic countries were nests of blasphemy.21 After 

distributing these pictures across the Middle East, Akkari insisted that “he had never 

meant this to be more than an internal Danish conflict,”22 and denies that his 

representation of Danish media contributed to the violent protests in the Middle East. He 

insists that what made the protests turn violent were two or three of the cartoons in 

Jyllands-Posten. Akkari claimed to be unable to comprehend “why it is at all interesting 

that other and more offensive pictures were presented when the Jyllands-Posten case is 

discussed in Arabic and Muslim countries.”23 Yet, when the protests broke out, many, 

including western media networks such as the BBC were under the impression that the 

picture of Marrot at his Pyrenean pig-squealing competition and others had been 

                                                 
19 Doug Sanders, “’It is not what I want to happen’”, The Globe and Mail, February 8, 2006. 
20 David Rennie and Anton La Guardia,”Growth of Outrage: Danish imams credit grassroots for protests,” 
National Post, February 7, 2006. 
21 Ibid.  
22 Doug Sanders, “’It is not what I want to happen’”, The Globe and Mail, February 8, 2006. 
23 Bjørnar Hjellen, Hege Lyngved Odinsen, “Dansk imam-delegasjon viste fram pedofil Muhammad, 
Verdens Gang, February 8, 2006, Ritzau, “Imam: Ok at vise profet med grisetryne,” January 31, 2006.  



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presented as a picture of Muhammad, published by the Danish media.24 Before the 

content of the folder had been translated into Danish and made available to the 

Scandinavian media, there was much confusion. As the public and governments of the 

Scandinavian governments were trying to understand what had been presented to the 

Muslim world, there were speculations in Scandinavian papers that the imams had 

presented images produced by Christian fanatics in the United States.25  

The misrepresentation of the Danish media was not the only lie to originate from 

Abu Laban. In addition to linking Jyllands-Posten’s cartoons with material never 

published in Danish media, it soon turned out that many of the supposed 29 organizations 

on whose behalf Abu Laban supposedly acted did not exist while others were not asked, 

before Abu Laban spoke on their behalf. Abu Laban’s claim to represent 200,000 

Muslims was a fabrication. In reality Laban represented no more than 5,000 – 15,000 

Danish Muslims.26  

Abu Laban moved to Denmark from Palestine in the 1980s, as the Muslim 

congregation needed an English-speaking imam. From his mosque in Copenhagen, Abu 

Laban is well-connected to an international network of Islamic radicals: he has had 

contact with almost all known al-Qaeda sympathizers residing in Denmark as well as 

leading figures within al-Gama’a Islamiya, who carried out the assassination of Anwar 

Sadat in 1981.27 Through his extensive network Abu Laban was able to utilize his 

contacts with hard-line Salafist television stations in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab 

                                                 
24 Paul Reynolds, “A clash of rights and responsibilities,” BBC News, February 6, 2006. Kåre Quist, 
“Labans mange løgne”, Ekstra Bladet, Febraury 6, 2006. 
25 Bjørnar Hjellen, Helge Lyngved Odinsen, ”Tror Muhammed-tegninger er laget av kristne ekstremister,” 
Verldens Gang, Febryary 1, 2006.  
26 Kåre Quist, “Labans mange løgne”, Ekstra Bladet, Febraury 6, 2006. 
27 “Vennerne er ikke Allahs beste børn”, Ekstra Bladet, February 5, 2006.   



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Emirates such as al-Majd and Iqra, which were able to stir up emotions across the 

Muslim world.28  

 Another leading figure behind the idea of seeking Muslim support against the 

Danish government was the radical imam of Århus, Raed Hlayhel. Hlayhel made 

headlines in Danish media when during a Friday prayer in 2004 he stated that Danish 

women who are scantily clad have themselves to blame if they are being raped. In March 

of 2005 he was sued by forty immigrant women after having claimed that women are the 

instrument of Satan against men and that women who visit hairdressers and use perfume 

on the street will end up in hell.29 After the cartoon row had turned violent across the 

Muslim world, Hlayhel used al-Jazeera to reach large audiences with his radical 

message."This type of democracy is worthless for Muslims. Muslims will never accept 

this kind of humiliation."30 Akkari demanded guarantees that no Danish newspaper would 

publish cartoons of Muhammad in the future. “We want the newspaper to promise that 

this will never happen again, or this will never stop."31  

Not only radicals such as Abu Laban Raed Hlayhel, but entire Muslim umbrella 

organizations in the Scandinavian countries and the EU sided with the dictatorships 

against Denmark. Sveriges Muslimska Råd, the Muslim Council of Sweden condemed 

what it labelled ”a provocation against Muslims in the whole world,” denied that the 

publication of the cartoons had nothing to do with freedom of expression and supported 

                                                 
28 David Rennie and Anton La Guardia,”Growth of Outrage: Danish imams credit grassroots for protests,” 
National Post, February 7, 2006.  
29 Piet Baunø, “Århusiansk imam fuld af løgn”, Ekstra Bladet, January 31, 2006. “Invandrerkvinder 
politianmelder imam” Ekstra Bladet, March 8, 2005.  
30 Paul Reynolds, “Cartoons: Divisions and inconsistencies”, BBC News, February 13, 2006.   
31 Thomas Buch-Andersen, “Danish Muslims split over cartoons,” BBC News, February 8, 2006. 



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the boycott of Danish goods.32 Hassan Moussa, the president of the Swedish Council of 

Imams, urging the Swedish government to protest against Denmark.33  

On January 10, the small fundamentalist Christian newspaper Magazinet in 

Norway published the cartoons. The Arab League now decided about collective action 

against Denmark. On January 29, OIC, the Islamic Conference and the Arab League 

declared that they would aim at introducing international laws against blasphemy and the 

desecration of religious symbols. 56 Muslim countries turned to the UN in order to 

protest against Denmark.34 Perhaps not surprisingly, the harshest stances were taken by 

some of the most repressive states: in addition to Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Syria and 

Iran all played leading roles.35  

On January 26, Saudi Arabia recalled its ambassador from Denmark. It was 

followed by Libya on the 29th.36  Syria went even further, demanding that Denmark 

would punish what Syria described as the “criminals” at Jyllands-Posten. Furthermore, 

Syria wanted Denmark to prevent the editors from publishing insulting material in the 

future.37 The Organization of Islamic Conference, representing 57 Muslim states 

demanded a UN resolution against Denmark, backed up by economic sanctions. They 

also wanted a UN resolution, banning attacks on religious faith.38 Given its laws and 

constitution, Denmark could do little to appease governments that demanded the 

reintroduction of a crime that had not been taken seriously since before the 

enlightenment.  
                                                 
32 Sveriges Muslimska Råd (SMR) följer utvecklingen i Danmark med stor oro, ”Press release, February 1, 
2006. http://sverigesmuslimskarad.se/firstpage.html (Accessed February 8, 2006). 
33 “Inget öppet samhälle untan hädelse, ” Dagens Nyheter, January 11, 2006  
34  “Inget öppet samhälle untan hädelse, ” Dagens Nyheter, January 11, 2006. 
35 Insert footnote here about Arab league, 57 ? states, threats of UN sanctions, et.c.   
36 “Libyen lukker sin ambasade i Danmark”, Ritzau/DPA, January 29, 2006.  
37 “Syrien: JP-forbryderne må straffes”, Ritzau/DPA, January 29, 2006.  
38 “Kræver FN-resolution mod Danmark”, Ritzau/AFP, Jan 29, 2006.  



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One day later, on January 30, armed al-Fatah supporters storm the EU office in 

Gaza, demanding a Danish apology. A boycott, initiated by the Saudi Arabian 

government spreads across the Arab world. In the Muslim world, government-organized 

or – incited protests turned violent. Most eager to exploit this situation were Syria and 

Iran, both rogue states with beleaguered governments, desperately in need to shore up 

support for their fledging autocracies. Neither one hesitated to play the Islamic card. 

What started as a peaceful demonstration in Damascus on February 4 turned violent, 

apparently after protesters received text messages on their cell phones that the Koran was 

being burnt in Denmark. Embassy personnel tried to contact the police to keep the 

protesters at bay, but to no avail. The Danish and Norwegian embassies were stormed and 

burnt. The Swedish and Chilean embassies, located in the same building, were damaged. 

The crowd was guided by men with walkie-talkies, strongly suggesting involvement and 

support from the Syrian government. So lax was the police presence that journalists were 

able to accompany the rioters into the buildings and to cable the pictures to the rest of the 

Muslim world. Likewise in Beirut, Syrian agents guided the attack on the Danish 

Consulate General the next day. People were bussed in from the Lebanese countryside 

and Syria. According to the Lebanese authorities, as many as one third of the attackers 

were Syrians.39 In Teheran, crowds attacked the Danish and Austrian embassies with 

stones and gasoline bombs on February 6.40 Attacking embassies is a violation of the 

Hague Convention, and, by international law, tantamount to an act of war.  

                                                 
39 “Manipulation av folklig frustration”, Svenska Dagbladet, February 6, 2006. “Syria anklages for 
Muhammed-opptøyer i Beirut”, NTB February 5, 2006, “Mutual incomprehension, mutual outrage,” The 
Economist, Febraury 11, 2006.  
40 Marlowe Hood, “Protests Grow, Turn Deadly,” National Post, February 7, 2006.  



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The Syrian and Iranian governments, both being Holocaust deniers, were not slow 

to exploit the situation for an anti-Semitic attack on Jews. An Iranian newspaper 

announced they would announce a competition about the “funniest Holocaust cartoons,” 

while the largest private university in Ukraine, an anti-Semitic organization partly funded 

by Syrian, Palestinian and Saudi money, made a statement blaming a Jewish world-wide 

conspiracy for the publication of the cartoons.41 A Belgian Muslim group began 

publishing cartoons of Anne Frank in bed with Hitler.42 

Across Europe, in what seems to have been a centrally organized action, Muslims 

took to the streets. In Oslo, about 1,500 protesters gathered outside the Norwegian 

parliament on February the 10th, protesting the cartoons and demanded that Norway 

should re-activate an old paragraph, banning blasphemy.43 In Germany, 1,200 Muslims 

protested outside the Danish embassy in Berlin, demanding censorship under banners 

such as ”Freedom of Press – Yes, Press Impertinence No” and ”We Demand Censorship 

of Caricatures of Muhammad”.44 In London, protesters gathered outside the Danish 

embassy, some dressed up as suicide bombers, others holding posters with texts such as 

“behead those who insult Islam,” “Europe, prepared for the real Holocaust” and placards, 

threatening a repeat of the September 11, 2001 and July 7, 2005 attacks.45 In the EU 

                                                 
41 Heorhii Shchokin, “Address of the International Personnel Academy Concerning Caricatures in European 
Publications”, February 7, 2006.  
42  Michael Valpy, “Why the global rage hasn’t engulfed Canada”, Globe and Mail, February 8, 2006.  
43 Norway has an archaic constitution, from 1814, the second oldest in the world. Paragraph 142 in the 
Norwegian penal code, known as the blasphemy paragraph remains on the books but have not been used 
since 1933, when there was a legal case against Arnuld Øverland, who had delivered a lecture titled 
“Kristendommen – Den tiende landeplage” or “Christianity – the Tenth National Pandemic”. Andreas 
Fosse, “Respekter våre verdier”, Verdens Gang, Febraury 11, 2006. “Ny norsk lov forbyr blasfemi”, 
Verdens Gang, February 15, 2006. 
44 Thomas Hall, “Krav på bildcensur i Tyskland”, Dagens Nyheter, February 11, 2006.  
45 George Jones, ”Scotland Yard will investigate protesters,” National Post, February 7, 2006.  



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candidate member state Turkey; radical Muslims, shouting “Allah is Great”, murdered an 

Italian Roman Catholic priest.  

Denmark suddenly found itself in its most serious crisis since World War II. As 

Danish products were boycotted across the Muslim world, the farmers were paying the 

price for an editorial decision by a provincial paper. In Palestine, creative businessmen 

made money by switching their production from the customary US and Israeli to Danish 

and Norwegian flags in an attempt to meet the demands of the local flag burning market. 

Danish flags were sold for eleven dollars apiece. One of the more bizarre episodes of this 

conflict was an official Iranian decision to rename Danish pastries to “the Prophet 

Muhammad’s Roses.”46 Apparently pastries bearing the name of the Muslim prophet are 

not to be regarded as blasphemic or graven images. In Afghanistan, Taliban insurgents 

promised five kilos of gold to anybody who would kill a Norwegian, Danish or German 

peacekeeper. On February 6th, 200-300 protesters armed with fire-arms and hand 

grenades attacked a joint Nordic-Baltic peacekeeping force in Maymaneh. The 

Norwegian peace keepers were forced to use tear gas and rubber bullets. When that did 

not deter the crowd, they open fire. Four protesters were killed and 23 wounded. Of the 

peace keepers, six Norwegian soldiers were wounded.47 Mohammed Yaqoob Qureshi, 

minister in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, offered the equivalent of 13 million US 

dollars and his weight in gold for anyone who would kill any of the cartoonists. In 

Pakistan, a Muslim leader promised a million dollars and a car for every murdered 

Danish cartoonist.48 On February 8, the part-Scandinavian unarmed TIPH force 

                                                 
46 “Danska bakverk döps om i protest”, Dagens Nyheter, February 16, 2006.  
47 Robin Steiersen, Anne Vinding, “Betaler for drap på nordmenn”, Verdens Gang, February 8, 2006. 
Robert Holender, “Svenskar angreps i Afghanistan,” Dagens Nyheter, February 7, 2006. 
48 “Miljoner utlovas för döda tecknare”, Lucknow/TT, February 18, 2006.  



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(Temporary International Presence in Hebron), established in 1994 after a Jewish settler 

murdered 29 Palestinians in a mosque, was attacked by hundreds of Palestinian 

protesters. The Danish TIPH members had been evacuated one week earlier, following 

violent protests. As a result of the renewed violence, TIPH temporarily ended their 

activities in Hebron.49    

In Copenhagen there was a feeling of anger, defiance and disbelief. The Danish 

political establishment, from the right to the left, raged against the imams and the Muslim 

organizations that had supported Abu Laban and Akhmed Akkari’s campaign. The leader 

of the nationalist Danish People’s Party, Pia Kjærsgaard, accused the Danish Islamic 

League of treason, accusing the imams of “conducting a smear campaign against 

Denmark.”50 Citing solidarity with the Danish press, papers across the EU and the world 

re-printed the cartoons from Jyllands-Posten. By early March, the cartoons had been 

published in 143 papers in 56 countries, nine of them Muslim. Several newspapers were 

closed and editors fired.51  

A clear majority of Danes believed that Fogh Rasmussen had acted correctly in 

taking a principled stance by not receiving the Muslim ambassadors and standing by the 

Danish constitution and democratic principles by refusing to apologize for what an 

independent newspaper has written. At the same time, many Europeans felt let down by 

the American and British governments, which failed to take a principled stance on free 

speech. After all, they have increasingly relied of the pretence of spreading democracy as 

a justification for their war in Iraq, after failing to find weapons of mass destruction or 

                                                 
49 Lotta Schüllerqvist, ”Svenskar attackerades i Hebron,” Dagens Nyheter, February 8, 2006.  
50 Bjørnar Hjellen, Hege Lyngved Odinsen, “Dansk imam-delegasjon viste fram pedofil Muhammad, 
Verdens Gang, February 8, 2006.  
51 “Muhammedbilder i 56 länder”, TT, March 2, 2006.  



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establish links between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda. The response from George W.  

Bush was limited to calls to stop the violence and be “respectful” towards religion.52  

The crisis brought political consequences to Denmark and Norway. A widely 

perceived lack of international support benefited Pia Kjærsgaard, who declared that 

Denmark would settle the scores with their Islamists “on their own.”  Polls in both 

showed that the Danish People’s Party, as well as the Progressive Party in Norway, have 

grown significantly. In Norway, the populist Progressive Party received the support of 

31.8 per cent, making it the largest party in the country. The nationalist Danish People’s 

Party increased its support to 17.8 per cent, making it the country’s third-largest party.53 

The Danish government reacted by ending the participation of imams in an integration 

think-tank run by the Danish government. Integration minister Rikke Hvilshøj stated "It 

is very clear that we cannot trust the imams any longer if we want integration to succeed 

in Denmark.”54 The firm attitude of the Danish government had solid support among the 

Danes, who felt that Prime Minister Fogh Rasmussen had handled this crisis, the most 

serious since World War II, well. In an opinion poll, 58 per cent of the Danes blamed the 

Danish imams for the conflict, 22 per cent blamed Jyllands-Posten, and 11 per cent 

blamed the authorities in the Middle East for the conflict.55 79 per cent of Danes stood 

behind their Prime Minister’s refusal to apologize. When asked whether Jyllands-Posten 

ought to apologize, 62 per cent of Danes said no, according to a January poll.56 

                                                 
52 “Mutual incomprehension, mutual outrage”, The Economist, February 11, 2006.  
53 Ole Rothenborg, “Fogh Rasmussen Muhammedkrisens stora förlorare,” Dagens Nyheter, March 11, 
2006. Björn Lindahl, “Högerpopulister tar täten i Norge”, Svenska Dagbladet, March 8, 2006. “Norsk och 
dansk högerpopulaism ökar,” Svenska Dagbladet, February 20, 2006. “Reaping the whirlwind”, The 
Economist, February 18, 2006. 
54 Thomas Buch-Andersen, “Danish Muslims split over cartoons,” BBC News, February 8, 2006. 
55 Camilla Ryste, “Danskene legger skylden på imamene”, Verdens Gang,  February 10, 2006.  
56 “Ingen undskyldning til muslimske lande”, Ritzau, January 28, 2006.  



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The Danish government instead attempted to fight the disinformation spread by 

media across the Muslim world by having Fogh Rasmussen interviewed by Al-Jazeera. 

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark initiated an information campaign, 

responding to some of the lies about Denmark that circulated in the Muslim world. Their 

web site attempted to respond to the rumors and lies circulating in the Muslim world.  

• What is the status of the Danish newspaper that published 
the 12 drawings of the Prophet Muhammad?  

The newspaper Jyllands-Posten is a private and independent 
newspaper in Denmark. It has no relations, whatsoever, with the 
government of Denmark. The Danish government cannot in any 
way influence what is or what is not printed in the Danish media. 
• Is Denmark rewriting the Koran? 
The Danish government respects Islam as one of the world’s major 
religions and no Danish authorities would ever initiate such a 
disrespectful project.  
• Has there been published a drawing in Jyllands-Posten or 

any other Danish news with the Prophet depicted as a pig? 
No. 
• Has [sic] posters been put up in Denmark with pictures of 

the Prophet Muhammad? 
No. 
• Will the Danish government make a movie about the 

Prophet Muhammad? 
The Danish government has no such plans. 
• Does religious freedom exist in Denmark? 
Yes. The Danish constitution explicitly states that there is religious 
freedom in Denmark. Denmark houses a considerable number of 
religious congregations, among them Islam, and they all enjoy full 
freedom to religious worship. 
• Is it correct that the Koran will be burned in Denmark? 
With reference to the rumours of burning the Koran circulated (sic) 
on SMS, the Danish Police has warned that participation in 
demonstrations, where such acts take place, can be criminal and led 
(sic) to a prison sentence.57 

 

                                                 
57 Press release, “Drawing in a Danish Newspaper: Questions and Answers”, Utenrigsministeriet/Ministry 
of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, February 8, 2006.   



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 91

By the end of March, the Muslim boycott of Swedish-Danish dairy giant Arla 

Foods had cost them 500 million Swedish crowns (CAD $ 80 million). In response, Arla 

launched a charm offensive by putting adds in 25 Arabic newspapers, ironically and 

confusingly explaining that they “understood and respected” the boycott of their 

products.  

Our presence in the region has given us an insight into your culture 
and values about Islam. This understanding has, over many years, enabled 
us to supply high quality products which meet your preferences. Through 
your confidence in our products, we have succeeded in building up brands 
such as Lurpak, Puck, The Three Cows and Dano. Therefore, we 
understand and respect your reactions that have led to a boycott of our 
products following the Danish newspaper’s irresponsible and unfortunate 
action.58 

 
 

In Denmark, Arla’s campaign was immediately condemned by the leader of the 

governing liberal Ventre party as “a spineless submission to angry Muslims,” while Pia 

Kjærsgaard stated: “Arla says it understands the boycott. We ought neither to understand, 

nor accept it.”59 In Sweden, which was not actively involved in the conflict, a scandal 

forced the foreign minister to resign. In January, a Swedish right-wing nationalist party 

attempted to capitalize on the situation by announcing their own Muhammad cartoon 

competition in their online journal. After the Swedish secret police got specific threats 

from “credible sources” that such a publication would endanger Swedish interests, the 

Foreign Minister authorized the closing of the internet site without consulting the Prime 

Minister. In the scandal that followed – this was the first case of implicit government 

                                                 
58 “Arla Foods has distanced itself from cartoons: Statement from Arla Foods,” Press release from Arla 
Foods, March 20, 2006. 
http://www.arlafoods.com/APPL/HJ/HJ202COM/HJ202D01.NSF/2c8e5576cd3bf4c4c1256d030047be36/d
db7c44e9ffbbf01c1257137004d4529/$FILE/statement%20in%20advertisement.pdf  (accessed March 21, 
2006) 
59 “Arla startar charmoffensiv i arabvärlden,” Dagens Nyheter, March 21, 2006.  



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censure of media for a generation - Swedish Foreign Minister Laila Freivalds was forced 

to resign.60 

As the conflict began cooling down, a debate started in Scandinavian countries, 

following patterns similar to those in the Netherlands after the murder of film maker 

Theo van Gogh by a Moroccan Islamist, or in France following the massive 2005 riots. 

The immediate benefactors in this conflict were various nationalist parties. However, the 

long-term results of this crisis appears to further accelerate the departure from the policies 

of multiculturalism which until recently whereas promoted by European elites and to a re-

affirmation of the western tradition of liberal democracy and civil liberties. To many 

Danes, this crisis has validated much of the popular dissatisfaction with multiculturalism 

and a reinforced the perception that the two are not necessarily compatible.61 Proponents 

of multiculturalism, such as Bhiku Parekh, have emphasized that a multicultural society 

cannot be based upon shared cultural or ethnic characteristics, but must seek other forms 

of identity. Neither could a multicultural society set up too ambitious goals for the 

integration of society, since the demographic basis of society may prove too diverse for 

far-reaching communal goals. The commitment to society ought to be political, and “does 

not involve sharing common substantive goals, for its members might deeply disagree 

about these, nor a common view of its history which they may read differently, nor a 

                                                 
60 “JK utreder stängningen av SD-kurirens sajt”, Dagens Nyheter, March 20, 2006, Laila Freivalds chockad 
over frågan om UD:s censurering”, Dagens Nyheter, March 20, 2006. “Ytterligare ett skäl för Persson att 
peka ut sin efterträdare”, Dagens Nyheter, March 21, 2006. 
61 By multiculturalism I mean a system of political strategies to maintain a culturally and ethnically diverse 
society; a doctrine which, broadly speaking, strives to maintain diversity by encouraging the identification 
of its members with the culture of their ancestors rather than actively encouraging integration and 
assimilation. This multiculturalism, broadly speaking, has been identified by Hall as pluralist 
multiculturalism, as system which “formally enfranchises the differences between groups along cultural 
lines and accords different groups rights to different communities with a more … communitarian political 
order.” S. Hall, ”Conclusion: The Multi-cultural Question” in B. Hesse, Un/settled Multiculturalisms, 
(London: Zed Books, 2000) 210.  



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 93

particular economic system … commitment to the political community involves 

commitment to its continuing existence and well-being… and implies that one cares 

enough not to harm its interests and undermine its integrity.”62  

The behavior of the Danish imams confronted multi-ethnic Denmark with a 

scenario which the architects behind Danish multiculturalism had not planned for. 

Sometimes, liberal democratic values such as freedom of speech, expression and 

conscience are incorrectly referred to as “universal,” or “culture-blind.”63 Therefore, in 

the eyes of many multiculturalists there is no conflict between multiculturalism and 

liberal democratic values. Such were the arguments presented in favor of Sharia 

arbitration courts when they were introduced in Ontario in 1991. The 1991 Ontario 

Arbitration Act granted religious leaders the right to mediate in legal disputes, such as 

divorce and child custody. In 2004, a group calling itself the Islamic Institute for Civil 

Justice (I.I.C.J.) proposed creating a formalized tribunal to implement Sharia law. The 

intention was that it would enhance Canada’s official doctrine of multiculturalism, and 

enrich the society through encouraging ethnic groups to preserve and share their values. 

The intention was to use Islamic Sharia law to avoid costly litigation, and to be used 

mainly in arbitrating family disputes, particularly divorces. The I.I.C.J. spokesperson 

Syed Mumtaz Ali, who had previously argued that Canadian Muslims ought to be treated 

similarly to Aboriginal nations in regards to their own legal systems, declared this to be 

“the beginning of a Sharia Court in Canada,” arguing that henceforth I.I.C.J. would offer 

a parallel legal system in Ontario, based upon Sharia law.64 This act drew criticism both 

                                                 
62 Bhiku C. Parekh, Rethinking Multiculturalism. (London: Macmillan, 2000), 341-342.  
63 Hall, 211. Göran Rosenberg, ”Mångkultur är inget val” Dagens Nyheter, September 22, 2005.  
64 Marion Boyd, “Religiously-Based Alternate Dispute Resolution: A Challenge to Multiculturalism” 
Canadian Diversity/Diversité Canadienne, Vol. 4:3 (Fall 2005), 71-74.  



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within and outside Canada, particularly by Canadian Muslim women’s groups and even 

caused hostile protests outside Canadian embassies abroad. The proposal was overhauled 

in September 2005, after a government review of the law.65 The Sharia law debate may 

represent the high water mark of Canadian multiculturalism. Implementation of Sharia 

law would be a logical consequence of institutionalized multiculturalism. Paul Scheffer, 

urban sociologist at the University of Amsterdam, argues “Multiculturalism should lead, 

when you take it seriously, to legal pluralism,” adding that Canada is about ten years 

behind the Netherlands in challenging multiculturalism’s practical flaws. “People have 

never been told that their rights go together with obligations. We have simply been 

looking the other way in the name of tolerance.”66 The struggle against Sharia law has 

therefore been led by the weak members of the Canadian Muslim community itself. Alia 

Hogben, president of the Canadian Council of Muslim Women, described Sharia family 

arbitration “an abuse of multiculturalism.” Homa Arjomand, an Iranian immigrant 

leading an international campaign against the Ontario Arbitration Act said it laid bare the 

greatest flaw of multiculturalism, which she described as “ghettoism.”67 Recent opinion 

polls show a fall in public support for multiculturalism also in Canada.68 Yet, as Will 

Kymlicka has pointed out, the immigrant situation in Canada differs sharply from that in 

Europe. Muslims constitute a small minority, 2% of the Canadian population, and 90% of 

recent immigrants to Canada are non-Muslim. In France, Spain, Italy and Germany on the 

contrary, 80 to 90% of immigrants are Muslim. At the same time, due to its geographic 

                                                 
65 Susan Bourette, “Can tolerant Canada tolerate sharia?” Christian Science Monitor, August 10, 2004. C. 
Mallan, “Report called ‘betrayal’ of women,” Toronto Star, 21 December, 2004. Boyd, 71-74.  
66 Bruce Cheadale, “Terror in Europe, Sharia in Canada spark multiculturalism row,” Canoe Network, 
Cnews, July 23, 2005. http://www.cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2005/07/23 (accessed May 31, 2006)  
67 Cheadale (2005).  
68 David Ley, “Post-Multiculturalism?,” Vancouver Centre f Excellence: Research on Immigration and 
Integration in the Metropolis Working Paper Series No. 05-18, (September 2005), 14, n. 2. 



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location Canada probably has the lowest number of illegal immigrants among all western 

democracies.69 Kymlicka emphasizes the connection between the number of illegal 

immigrants and acceptance for multiculturalism. While close to 80 per cent of Canadians 

express a support for the official multiculturalism, in many European countries, such as 

the Netherlands, the very term “is relegated to the dunghill of history.”70 After 1996, 

Australian Prime Minister John Howard closed the Office of Multicultural Affairs, and 

the term multiculturalism itself so discredited that it is commonly referred to as the “M-

word.”71 In both Canada and the European Union, the origins of immigrants seems to be 

the key to public acceptance of multiculturalism. Official Canadian multiculturalism was 

established in response to demands from groups of European immigrants, such as 

Ukrainians and Poles, whose allegiance to liberal democracy was not in question. 

European, Latin American, Caribbean and East Asian immigrants to Canada are not seen 

as bringing “barbaric” practices with them, such as arranged marriages of underage girls, 

female circumcision and honor killings. The European general public is not willing to 

accept the risk of multicultural policies be used as a vehicle to perpetrate or accommodate 

such practices. Kymlicka, a high-profile promoter of multiculturalism, argues that the 

experience of multiculturalism across the Western democracies “suggests that many 

                                                 
69 Will Kymlicka, ”The Uncertain Futures of Multiculturalism,” Canadian Diversity/Diversité Canadienne, 
Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 82-85.  
70 Jeroen Doomerik, ”The State of Multiculturalism in the Netherlands,” Canadian Diversity/Diversité 
Canadienne, Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 35. 
71 Ley, 7, citing I. Ang and J. Stratton. “Multicultiralism in crisis: The new politics of race and national 
identity in Australia” in I. Ang (ed.), On Not Speaking Chinese: Living Between Asia and the West 
(London: Routledge, 2001) 95-111. Furthermore, of Canada’s 580,000 Muslims, 61 per cent live in 
Toronto. Yet the Muslim population of Toronto is less than seven per cent of the city’s population, 
compared to over 25 per cent in many European cities, such as Amsterdam. Cheadale (2005).  



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citizens are willing to accept multiculturalism policies when they are perceived as low-

risk, but oppose them when they are perceived as high-risk.”72   

Clearly, many people in democracies across the world see multiculturalism as a 

high-risk policy. The United States never embraced multicultural policies. In Australia, 

Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark and Norway and most other liberal democracies, 

multiculturalism is in drastic retreat in accordance with the desires of their populations.73 

Denmark and the Netherlands used to be among the European countries most open to 

multicultural policy claims.74 The one exception is Canada, the only country that has 

elevated multiculturalism to official policy. But Canada too has seen a reaction against 

multicultural policies such the Sharia arbitration in Ontario, which was recently rejected.  

In addition, while Canada has a point system in place, largely recruiting 

immigrants on the basis of their potential economic contributions to society, this is not 

the case in Scandinavia, where the vast majority are refugee claimants or given residence 

permits on “humanitarian grounds” such as family reunions. A result of this is that 

immigrants to Canada are, on average, much better educated that the average Canadian. 

Over 40 per cent of the immigrants to Canada during the 1990s had at least one university 

degree, compared to the Canadian average of 22 per cent.75 In Denmark, 59 per cent of 

men and 43 per cent of women immigrants from outside the EU are active in the work 

force, compared to 83 and 75 percent for Danish men and women. Among some groups 

                                                 
72 Kymlicka, 83, 85.  
73 Veit Bader, “Dutch Nightmare? The End of Multiculturalism?,” Canadian Diversity/Diversité 
Canadienne, Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 9-10. 
74 Leonie Sandercock, “Rethinking Multiculturalism for the 21st Century”Vancouver Centre for Excellence: 
Research on Immigration and Integration in the Metropolis Working Paper Series No. 03-14, (October 
2003), 20.  
75 The Annual Report of the Operation of The Canadian Multiculturalism Act 2004-2005 (Gatineau, 
Quebec: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2006), 31, citing Education in 
Canada: Raising the Standard, 2001 Census: Analysis Series, Statistics Canada, March 2003). 



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of recently arrived immigrants the participation in the Danish work force is less than 20 

per cent.76 Furthermore, until Denmark restricted their immigration laws in 2001, an 

estimated 80-90 per cent of young Turks and Pakistanis in Denmark married someone 

from outside the country and sought to bring their foreign spouse to Denmark.77 

Arguments similar to those made by Canadian multiculturalists have been frequently 

raised by the intellectual elite in Sweden. Writes public intellectual Göran Rosenberg in 

Sweden’s largest morning newspaper, liberal Dagens Nyheter, repeating Nathan Glazer’s 

argument from the 1990s that “we are all multiculturalists now:”  

More and more often it is claimed that the pre-condition for 
integration is a common set of values. I am not so sure. In any case I am 
not so sure of what is meant by common values. If by values you mean 
praxis, which find expressions within the legal norms and rules of a 
democratic society, then the values are already established. It is then only 
about implementing the most basic principles of the civil society: 
everybody’s equality before the law. Citizens whose values allow them to 
break the law is a matter for the police and courts – not a cultural problem. 
But what is meant by common values here is something different, 
something going beyond the law and legal precedent, something that 
ultimately says define the very community, but nevertheless is not shared 
by everybody in the multi-cultural society. What the society subsequently 
then is said to require is that we set up “demands” on citizens who insist 
on having values opposed to those of the common set of values but are not 
necessarily against the law. But what demands can we have on citizens 
with “wrong” values beyond those that the law demands from us all? And 
what happens to the principle of everybody’s equality before the law if we, 
like in Denmark and the Netherlands, nevertheless start to make such 
demands? And who are “we,” by the way? ... [W]e are all multi-
culturalists now and we do not have any better alternatives.78    
 

                                                 
76 Karen Bird, ”Multiculturalism in Denmark,” Canadian Diversity/Diversité Canadienne, Vol. 4:1 (Winter 
2005), 39, citing SOPEMI report for Denmark, 2001, as reported in Roseveare and Jorgensen (2004), p. 
16..  
77 Bird, 41-42 citing Garbi Schmidt, “The right to choose: Patterns of partner choice among ethnic 
minorities in Denmark.” Paper presented at the 13th Nordic Migration Conference, Aalborg, Denmark 
(November 2004).  
78 Göran Rosenberg, ”Mångkultur är inget val,” Dagens Nyheter, September 22, 2005. 



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However, the recent controversy over blasphemy reminds us that liberal 

democracy is not compatible with Islamism. To significant sections of the religious 

establishments in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and other autocracies, democracy 

constitutes a threat. They do understand that democracy would spell and end to their 

systems. As much as we sometimes would like to think of them as universal, the values 

of Locke, Montesquieu and Mills, upon which much of the European democracy is based, 

are western values and products of European cultural tradition. In a legal order based 

upon liberal democratic principles, the rejection of Islamism needs to be accompanied by 

a rejection of other religious dogmas as well, in order to give the separation of the 

(Christian) church and state any meaning. This seems to be the direction in which the 

European Union is heading. Motions from the Vatican - Europe’s last theocracy - about 

writing Christianity or Christian values into the European constitution have been soundly 

defeated. Other than the Polish government, few supported such a paragraph. Likewise, 

opposition from the Catholic Church to same-sex marriages was largely ignored in Spain. 

Dutch scholar and multicultural activist Veit Bader laments that “Dutch politics is now 

under the spell of republican or liberal assimilationism and aggressive secularism.”79   

In Denmark, the government has ended its praxis of consulting imams before 

setting policies. Instead, the Danish government has increased its efforts to explain what 

democracy is and how it works, both to Muslims within Denmark and to the Muslim 

world. Imam Ahmed Akkari has been deposed as a spokesperson for Islamisk 

Trossamfund i Danmark after threatening to send bombers to blow up Nader Khader, a 

secular Muslim member of Folketinget, the Danish parliament, after Khader spoke out 

                                                 
79 Veit Bader, “Dutch Nightmare? The End of Multiculturalism?,” Canadian Diversity/Diversité 
Canadienne, Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 11. 



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against Akkari’s organization.80 As for Imam Ahmed Abu Laban, he is under 

investigation by the police after threatening suicide bombings in Denmark.81 On May 11, 

he declared that he would leave Denmark, adding that “I think the Islamic cause has 

become a challenge for western democracies. It has been proven that western 

democracies do not allow human rights.”82 Early in May, there were reports that twelve 

young men from Afghanistan and Pakistan were on their way to Denmark to murder the 

artists who painted the Muhammad cartoons. Soon thereafter, a video, supposedly from 

al-Qaeda, appeared on the internet, urging “Muslims, revenge our prophet. We deeply 

and solemnly wish that the little country of Denmark, Norway and France should be 

mercilessly attacked and devastated … Devastate their buildings, make their soil shake 

and turn it into lakes of blood,” a Libyan man by the name of Sheikh Abu Yahia al-Libi, 

stated, following three weeks after the al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden urged a boycott 

of American and European products from countries that supported Denmark during the 

crisis.83  In France, the government has reaffirmed the republican and liberal democratic 

principles of separation of church and state by banning religious uniforms or visual 

religious symbols in public schools in order to provide a non-sectarian environment for 

                                                 
80 “Danske imamen Ahmed Akkari slutar som talesman,” Dagens Nyheter, March 25, 2006. Naser Khader 
was born in Damascus, Syria, and represents the liberal party Radikale Venstre in Folketinget since 2001. 
He was previously called a “rat” by Abu Laban after setting up the network “Democratic Muslims” and 
refusing to accept radicals like Abu Laban and Akkari claiming to speak on his behalf. He has received 
several death threats from Islamists, and is constantly accompanied by two body guards. In a recent opinion 
poll, 66,7 per cent of the Danes stated that he was the Danish politician with the strongest leadership skills 
– a number even higher than those of Prime Minister Fogh Rasmussen. Ole Rothenborg, “’Fanatisk 
demokrat’ väcker respekt i Danmark,” Dagens Nyheter, March 25, 2006.   
81 “Dansk polis skall förhöra imam,” Dagens Nyheter, March 25, 2006.  
82 Cammilla Ryste, Omstridt imam flytter fra Danmark,” Verdens Gang, May 11, 2005.  
83 Anne Vinding, ”12 menn på vei til Danmark for å drepe,” Verdens Gang, May 4, 2006 and Roar Dalmo 
Moltubak, ”Al-Qaida oppfordrer til angrep på Norge – Ønsker inderlig at Norge skal bli ødelagt,” Verdens 
Gang, May 15, 2006.  



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the students.84 French Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy of the Gaullist UMP party has 

proposed a “contract of welcome and integration” with new immigrants, in which they 

would have to receive education in democracy and take a test for immigrants to France, 

in which they will be asked to confirm their allegiance to democracy and human rights. 

                                                 
84 The Scandinavian countries, which have a different tradition than France, have attempted a “softer” 
approach. It is also a contradictory policy. In 2003 when students at the Burgården High School in 
Gothenburg, Sweden started coming to school in complete burqa of the same design as those imposed on 
Afghan women by the Talibans, covering the entire body while their eyes were covered behind a veil, the 
Swedish School Authority agreed that banning burqas is in accordance with Swedish law and the 
pedagogical mandate of the school.  The Swedish School Authority established that  

“Attitudes in regards to whether the wearing of burqa or other all-covering clothing has a religious 
connotation or whether it is merely an expression of culture differ. The predominant opinions among 
historians of religion and the discrimination ombudsman (DO) seem to support the notion that the wearing 
of all-covering gears would be of religious importance are not supported by religious documents. However, 
it has not been established whether the wearing of burqa is a manifestation of religion or not. There are 
those who claim that our definition of religion requires that it is up to the individual to determine what his 
or her religion means.  

Freedom of religion has a positive and a negative side. Positive freedom of religion means the 
right to have and manifest certain religious views. The negative side is the right not to have and not having 
to be subjected to religious manifestations. Despite the fact that clothing normally is something that is 
decided by the individual, clothing that has religious connotations is something that does not fall within the 
private sphere, given other peoples’ desire not to be subjected to this religious manifestation. If it was the 
case that the girls were wearing burqa for religious reasons we would be confronted with the question on 
where to draw the line between the positive right to demonstrate one’s religion and the negative aspect of 
religious freedom of having the right of not being subjected to religious manifestations. The precedence 
from the European Court has shown that the negative aspect of freedom of religion has been given much 
weight. However, precedent is limited. (Tidskrift for Rettsvitenskap 3-5/2002, professor Reinhold Fahlbeck, 
University of Lund) (…)  

It can not be considered a right to use the school as a vehicle for religious manifestations or for 
very specific expressions of culture. In terms of expression of religion, school ought to be a neutral space. 
If burqa is a religious manifestation, the discussion of whether burqa should be allowed or not ought to be 
subordinated the consideration of the pedagogical mandate of the school. Thus, a school leadership do have 
both the right and the duty to step in and prevent expressions of religion or specific manifestations of 
culture, which may disturb the order. They also have the right to do so if these expressions impact the 
security of the school or if the school would be prevented from fulfilling its pedagogical mandate. If these 
expressions are otherwise perceived to stand in opposition to fundamental democratic values, the school’s 
freedom of action and duty to act is limited to the realm of what can be described as education of, and 
dialogue about values, equality, and democracy. We would not recommend a prohibition, not accompanied 
by such educational activities. Why do the girls want to wear burqa and how does their surrounding see 
this? It is important that nobody is denied education or left out of society.” “Skolverket, Skrivelse: Flickor 
med burqa/niqab i skolan,” Per Thullberg, General Director and Ingegärd Hillbom, Senior Legal 
Consultant, October 23, 2003. http://www.skolverket.se/content/1/c4/05/01/svar_om_burka.pdf (accessed 
June 6, 2006). See also the press release ”Skolor har rätt att förbjuda burqa,” October 24, 2003. 
http://www.skolverket.se/sb/d/246/a/501;jsessionid=98AA932844450D4C58E16142A64532C7 (accessed 
June 6, 2005). 

However, two years later when a school in Umeå, Sweden, banned veils and head scarves they 
were criticized by the discrimination ombudsman (DO) for violating the Swedish freedom of religion. Press 
release “Skolan skall vara open för alla elever,” May 22, 2006. http://www.skolverket.se/sb/d/1271/a/6361 
(accessed June 6, 2006).  



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Immigrants who fail to do so would face expulsion. Sarkozy also declared that France 

will be selective in who will be let in to the country:  

We no longer want immigration that is inflicted [on us]… We want 
selected immigration. The system of integration to the French way no 
longer works. … In case of a woman kept hostage in her home without 
learning French, the whole family will be obliged to leave.85 

 
As the Muhammad conflict took place, Germany was involved in a debate 

regarding a similar test, administered to immigrants to the Bundesland of Baden-

Württemberg who are seeking German citizenship. In the test, the immigrants are 

required to show their allegiance to the liberal democratic principles of their new country 

of citizenship. They are given questions such as: “Some people accuse the Jews of being 

responsible for all that’s bad in the world. ... What do you think of such accusations?” 

and “In Germany, sport and swim classes are part of the normal school curriculum. 

Would you allow your daughter to participate?”86 The introduction of the test was caused 

by heightened attention to Muslims in Germany following the discovery of numerous 

terror cells in Germany following the September 11 attacks. There have been increased 

efforts to integrate Germany’s 2.5 million Turks following the 2005 violent riots in 

France. The controversy surrounding the test has largely been centered on the state’s 

praxis of applying this test to immigrants from patriarchal and undemocratic Muslim 

societies while exempting Europeans and Americans and other immigrants from 

democratic states. The Netherlands implemented a similar policy, requiring all 

immigrants to the Netherlands to pass an integration test. As a part of the preparation for 

this test, immigrants have to watch a movie on the Netherlands, containing footage of two 

                                                 
85 Henry Samuel, “French plan would force immigrants to integrate,” National Post, February 7, 2006.  
86 Charles Hawley, “A German State Quizzes Muslim Immigrants on Jews, Gays and Swim Lessons”, 
Spiegel Online, January 31, 2006.  



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gay men kissing each other, clips of topless women and information that handguns are 

illegal in the Netherlands, that female circumcision is not allowed and that Dutch law 

gives women equal rights under the law. The idea is to create understanding for Dutch 

values, and make prospective immigrants aware of what sort of society to which they are 

considering moving to. Much like in Germany, the critique has been that this test 

obviously is targeting Muslims, while EU citizens, Americans and citizens of other 

democracies are exempt from taking this test.87    

Proponents of multiculturalism and adherents of a neo-colonial model of 

explanation for the divide in European societies still have strong positions, particularly in 

Sweden. Following the burning of Scandinavian embassies, voices were heard in the 

Swedish debate, arguing a moral equivalency between the Islamists and Denmark, and 

even that the violence actually stems from the west. Under the headline “The New 

Crusade,” Masoud Kamali, professor at the Department for Multi-Ethnic Studies at 

Uppsala University wrote in Sweden’s largest morning paper: 

Colonialism and neo-colonialism have changed their guise and 
been internalized. The internal colonialism is multi-facetted segregation, 
which defines as good every western society today. ... Jyllands-Posten's 
cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad are thus no coincidence. The symbolic 
violence against Muslims has been intensified in a number of European 
countries. During the past few years Denmark has conducted a racist 
policy and deepened the wedge between “us” and “them.”... The roots of 
the conflict are to be found in a long history of oppression, racism, western 
violence, broken promises and exploitation.88 

 
Given a widely perceived cultural division between immigrants and native 

Europeans, the question is whether a super-national, non-ethnic secular identity, which is 

nevertheless European, will be able to compete effectively with the national or ethnic 

                                                 
87 Marianne Björklund, ”Holländsk synd skall avskräcka invandrare,” Dagens Nyheter, Macrh 29, 2006.  
88 Masoud Kamali, “Det nya korståget”, Dagens Nyheter, February 15, 2006.  



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identities of the individual countries. Denmark and Sweden have consistently been 

among the most EU-skeptic countries in the Union. Politicians such as Pia Kjærsgaard 

have made a career by articulating the widespread and deeply felt concerns about 

immigration and European integration that many Danes feel. At the same time, the 

largest Danish political parties, including the Liberal Ventre party of Prime Minister 

Fogh Rasmussen, are enthusiastic EU supporters, while taking a firm stance against 

Islamic demands of censorship. It seems like this conflict has crystallized two political 

alternatives in the debate; multi-culturalists and proponents of western, liberal democratic 

values. Certainly, ethnic nationalists remain important actors. In the wake of this conflict 

they have strengthened their positions further. However, with the possible exceptions of 

Austria and Italy, they have not come to power in any EU country, nor have parties, such 

as Haider’s FPÖ seriously attempted to challenge the foundations of western liberal 

democracy. 

The debate which publication of the cartoons opened can no longer be overlooked 

or ignored. It is long over due, and ought to be welcomed. The suicide bombings carried 

out by three British-born Muslims and a Jamaican-born immigrant and convert to Islam 

in London on July 7, 2005 which killed 52 people highlight the urgent need for this 

discussion. Multiculturalism opens up the creation of fractured societies with parallel 

value systems and legal pluralism, which effectively has turned in to a direct affront to 

the liberal values of the European Union. This, in turn, has fuelled homegrown terrorism 

among Europe’s Muslim communities. The findings of the Intelligence Assessments 

Branch of CSIS show that many of the radical Islamists in western societies are raised by 



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their fathers to become extreme believers.89 “European Jihad” is increasingly often used 

to describe the new wave of young men, born in western democracies and considering 

these societies legitimate terrorist targets. After the arrest of seventeen young Muslim 

men in Toronto on June 3, 2006, planning a massive terrorist attack in Ontario, a 

“Canadian Jihad” appears to be underway.90  

At the core of this issue is the conflict between secularism and militant religiosity. 

Militant Islam demands that the state should submit itself to religious demands, and use 

violence or threat of force to impose its ideals upon others. Naturally, this is a conflict 

with many components: social inequalities, segregation and alienation feed radicalism 

and play into the hands of the Islamists. But at its core this remains a conflict about 

values and about what sort of society Europe should be. Liberal democratic values and 

civil liberties are vulnerable, and needs to be defended. Lee Harris fears that Denmark 

was too accommodating in the face of threats.  

Does the so-called “cartoon war” represent the clash of 
civilizations? I wish I could answer “yes”, but I can’t. In order for there to 
be a clash of civilizations, it is necessary for there to be two civilizations, 
both of which are prepared to defend their deepest cultural values. ... The 
behavior of the Danish government does not suggest that we are in the 
midst of a clash of civilizations, but, rather, that we are watching a 
civilization that has lost its sense of purpose capitulating before a 
civilization that continues to believe, and believe fanatically, in its own 
mission. A civilization that no longer believes in itself, and in its values 
and traditions, is no longer in a position to defend itself from the onslaught 
of a civilization that does. It is only in a position to appease.91  

 
Yet this conflict seems to suggest that respect for individual expression has 

become a part of European identity. No EU governments has been prepared to yield to 

                                                 
89 Stewart Bell, “Nevermind foreign terrorists, why is Canada growing its own extremists?” National Post, 
June 3, 2006. 
90 Bell (2006). 
91 Lee Harris, “There’s No Clash Here: Only one civilization cares to put up a fight”, National Review, 
February 7, 2006.  



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Muslim demands or threats in regards to central liberal democratic values such as 

freedom of expression. Rather, they have rejected Muslim claims that non-Muslims 

ought to adhere to the internal provisions of a particular stand of Islam. Demands for a 

global ban on blasphemy are therefore unlikely to pass in the United Nations. Few 

Europeans agree with the proposition that Danish society should adjust to the Islamists. 

The emerging consensus is that Muslims need to adjust to, or at least accept liberal 

democratic principles if they chose to live in western democracies. As Amir Taheri 

argued, “[Islamists] are not the sole representatives of Islam, just as the Nazi Party was 

not the sole representative of German culture.”92  

The Muslim communities in the western world have a lot of soul-seeking to do, 

and needs to take a clear stance on issues such as freedom of religion and freedom from 

religion, both of which are central values in the liberal democratic tradition. In Denmark, 

the former editor of the daily Politiken, the liberal humanist Herbert Pundik, started a 

fundraiser for a Danish mosque in order to prevent Saudi financing, which he feared 

would further strengthen the reactionary forces within the Islamic community in 

Denmark.93 According to Flemming Rose, if there is one winner in this conflict, and it is 

the moderate Muslims of Europe.  

Since the Sept. 30 publication of the cartoons, we have had a 
constructive debate in Denmark and Europe about freedom of expression, 
freedom of religion and respect for immigrants and people’s beliefs. Never 
before have so many Danish Muslims participated in a public dialogue. ... 
The radical imams who misinformed their counterparts in the Middle East 
about the situation for Muslims in Denmark have been marginalized. They 
no longer speak for the Muslim community in Denmark because moderate 
Muslims have the courage to speak out against them. ... The Muslim face 

                                                 
92 Amir Taheri, “Bonfire of the Pieties: Islam prohibits neither images of Muhammad nor jokes about 
religion,” Wall Street Journal, February 8, 2006. 
http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110007934   
93 “Manifest főr en ny upplysning,” Dagens Nyheter, March 2, 2005.   



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of Denmark has changed, and it is becoming clear that this is not a debate 
between “them” and “us”, but between those committed to democracy in 
Denmark and those who are not.94 

 
It is not the historian’s role to make projections for the future. However, there are 

reasons to believe that the development in Europe is one away from multiculturalism and 

reaffirmation of liberal democratic values and the principles of separation of religion and 

politics. The challenge to liberal democracy by forces fundamentally opposed to it has 

forced the governments of Europe to re-affirm their adherence to democratic principles, 

retreating from multiculturalism.95 As the editor of the largest Swedish morning paper 

Dagens Nyheter expressed it: No open society without blasphemy.96 London-based The 

Economist made a similar point: “It is not a good idea for newspapers to insult people’s 

religious or other beliefs just for the sake of it. But that is and should be their own 

decision, not a decision for governments, clerics or other self-appointed arbiters of taste 

and responsibility.”97 Many papers in continental Europe that re-printed these cartoons 

did so because they do feel that freedom of press has been under threat. Danish 

journalists have received death threats, Dutch filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered 

for questioning Islam. The diversion of values has become a European problem. Across 

Europe, there is increased skepticism towards the concept of multiculturalism. Here, I use 

Australian political scientist Ross Poole’s definition of multiculturalism as a system 

where immigrants who want to become permanent members of a society get government 

assistance in resisting assimilation into the political cultures of their new home countries. 

                                                 
94 Fleming Rose, “Why I published Those Cartoons,” Jyllands-Posten, February 19, 2006. 
95 See Christian Joppke, ”The Retreat from Multiculturalism in Liberal Nation-States” (Russel Sage 
Foundation, 2003) GET COMPLETE CITATION. And Rogers Brubaker, “The Return of Assimilation?,” 
Ethnic and Racial Studies. Vol. 24 no. 4, (2001): 531-548.   
96 “Inget öppet samhälle utan hädelse”, Dagens Nyheter, January 11, 2006.  
97 “Cartoon wars”, The Economist, February 11, 2006.  



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Multiculturalism, Poole argues, was intended as a greater involvement in minority 

problems, but instead came to mean an end to the assumption that immigrants would 

assimilate into the existent culture. Multiculturalists assume diversity of values to be a 

value on its own, and that immigrants would contribute by not assimilating. In this quest, 

they would be assisted by the state, which would work to sustain diversity.98 Poole 

argues against multiculturalism on the basis that identities are formed within cultures, as 

we are all members of a society. If that principle is abandoned, you see alienation and 

dislocation. Since culture, education and government require and give priority to one 

dominant language, the “neutral political culture” of the multiculturalists is an impossible 

fantasy,99 since it ignores the cultural dimension of government. The loss of culture and 

language is an inevitable consequence of migration, and those who make the choice to 

migrate must be aware of these consequences, Poole argues.100 Liberal democratic 

societies can make exceptions in case of refugees, knowing that their identity and 

commitment will lie with their native countries, given that they are temporary visitors 

and that they will not become full members of their host countries. The normal standard 

for immigrants, however, needs to be that they are treated as potential citizens, and 

should be included in the political systems and expected to participate in the civic life of 

their adopted countries.101  

In the end of February, eleven intellectuals published an open manifesto against 

what they described as “a new totalitarianism,” which was reprinted across the European 

Union: 

                                                 
98 Ross Poole, Nation and Identity, (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), 115-117.  
99 Bader, “Dutch Nighmare? The End of Multiculturalism?,”Canadian Diversity/Diversité Canadienne, 
Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 10.  
100 Poole, 118-124.  
101 Poole, 125.  



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After having overcome fascism, Nazism, and Stalinism, the world 
now faces a new global threat: Islamism. ... Islamism is a reactionary 
ideology, which kills equality, freedom and secularism wherever it is 
present. Its success can only lead to a world of domination: man’s 
domination of woman, the Islamists’ domination over all the others. ... We 
reject “cultural relativism”, which consists in accepting that men and 
women of Muslim countries should be deprived of their rights to equality, 
freedom and secular values in the name of respect for culture and 
traditions. We refuse to renounce our critical spirit out if fear of being 
accused of “Islamophobia”, an unfortunate concept which confuses 
criticism of Islam as a religion with stigmatization of its believers.102 
 

Among the signatories were Salman Rushdie, Taslima Nasreen and Ayaan Hirsi 

Ali, all living under constant death threats, as well as Bernard-Henri Levy and Irshad 

Manji. They made their point very clear: the problem is not too much freedom of 

expression of Denmark, the problem is fanaticism and intolerance from a global anti-

democratic movement, which feeds off the lack of democratic rights in the countries 

were the worst excesses of anti-Danish manifestations have taken place.103 It is the 

absence of an open discussion of religion in these dictatorships that is the root cause of 

these problems, not the discussion of these problems in the west. 

To the peoples of Scandinavia, it was a shock to suddenly be singled out as an 

object of scorn and hatred. For the longest time, there has been the feeling that their 

crossed flags symbolized democracy, dialogue and faith in the international community. 
                                                 
102 “Manifesto: Together facing the new totalitarianism”, Jyllands-Posten, February 28, 2006.  
103 In many Islamic countries, the authorities extend their blasphemy bans on artistic expressions that could 
possibly be interpreted as challenging religions, other than Islam. Curiously, Pakistan, where much of the 
violence following the cartoon controversy took place, took the step on June 3, 2006 to ban the movie The 
Da Vinci Code “out of respect for the country’s minority Christians” since Pakistani officials claimed that it 
contained “blasphemous material about Jesus.” “Da Vinci Code banned in Pakistan,” Edmonton Journal, 
June 4, 2006. At the same time, Pakistan has a poor record regarding religious freedom for their Christian 
minority. While there is no death penalty on apostasy, social pressure is so strong that conversion often has 
to take place underground, and several Christians and members of other religious have been persecuted and 
punished for “blasphemy” in the past few years. “U.S. Department of State: Pakistan: International 
Religious Freedom Report 2004, Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.” 
Released on September 15, 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35519.htm (accessed June 4, 
2006) 

 



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Much of this has been shattered as Scandinavians in disbelief were broadcasted pictures 

of their flags being burned by people who most likely would not be able to find the 

Scandinavian countries on a map. A Danish flag or a Danish passport is longer a 

protection in the Muslim world. Even more disturbing was the discovery that Muslim 

organizations within their countries actively and openly sought assistance from brutal 

dictatorships in their conspiracies against their adopted countries  

This shock may very well bring the Scandinavian countries closer to the European 

Union. It was no coincident that the manifest by the twelve intellectuals was given much 

attention in the Nordic countries; many Scandinavians can identify with Rushdi and 

Nasreen. The vast majority of Scandinavians, much like Rushdie and the editor of 

Jyllands-Posten, who has received 104 threats, refuse to live in fear.104  

There are few reasons to believe that appeasement of radical Islam will be a 

successful strategy. If cartoonists and writers in democratic countries rein in their satire 

and if our intellectuals and elected representatives impose a self-censorship of their 

language, Islamists will regard this as a victory. This would mean a betrayal not only of 

core European values, but also of the part of democratic Muslims who left Islamic 

societies due to the absence of civil societies and rule of law.  

One way out of the crisis in which the EU has found itself following the French 

and Dutch voters rejection of the constitution may be a EU which could shift its focus 

from the creation of a pan-European identity and symbolism and instead provide a “civic 

citizenship” and a strong framework of liberal democratic values within which the 

individual nation states and regions states can operate. Such a solution would arguably 

have good chances to be successful, since liberal democratic values are agreeable to the 
                                                 
104 Fleming Rose, “Why I published Those Cartoons,” Jyllands-Posten, February 19, 2006. 



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vast majority of EU citizens, regardless of nationality. Across the European Union, it is 

commonly perceived that these values have come under threat lately, both from radical 

Islam and the heavy-handed response to it. It is enough to look across the Atlantic to see 

how the reaction to an anti-democratic challenge has resulted in the Patriot Act, 

eavesdropping, indefinite and extralegal arrests and extralegal renditions, some done with 

the silent approval of some European governments. Islamism constitutes a serious 

challenge to liberal democratic values. The remedy spells more stressing of the 

importance of liberal democracy, not less.  

Howard Duncan argues that liberal democracy itself is “a prerequisite to the 

application and very formulation of multiculturalism theory. My view is that these two 

concepts work at different logical levels, one being the precondition for the other. Simply 

put, if you don’t have liberalism you are not going to have multiculturalism.”105  

My interpretation is that multiculturalism, rather than integrate immigrants into 

their new countries of residence can weaken and undermine the foundations of liberal 

democracy. Liberal democracy cannot exist in a vacuum, and is not independent of the 

conditions under which society works. No society is so void of values that it can provide 

that “neutral” cultural framework which multiculturalists so desire. The process of 

constructing this “neutral” society – itself an oxymoron - necessarily includes the retreat 

from liberal democratic values.  These require equality in the eyes of the law; it requires 

that the principles of democratic ground rules are universally accepted by the members of 

society. For reasons of culture, religion and socio-economic conditions, in Denmark, the 

Netherlands, France and other European countries, a non-neglectable part of their 

                                                 
105 Howard Duncan, “Multiculturalism: Still a Viable Concept for Integration?,” Canadian 
Diversity/Diversité Canadienne, Vol. 4:1 (Winter 2005), 13. 



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immigrant populations, often Muslim men, have not shown this commitment. In many 

cases, multiculturalism has fostered segregation and fractured societies. In countries such 

as Sweden, media and the political elite long kept silent on arranged marriages and honor 

killings among certain immigrant communities in fear of being coming across as 

xenophobic and or even racist.106 In doing so, they not only failed to support women of 

patriarchal communities, but they failed the very principles of liberal democracy, upon 

which their societies are built. Policies regarding immigration and multiculturalism have 

been set behind closed doors, and often out of tune with the attitudes of the desires and 

preferences of the populations in the individual countries. This has opened up a market 

for various nationalist and anti-immigration parties across Europe, capitalizing off this 

divide between people and politicians. In some cases, these parties have benefited from 

the conflict regarding the Muhammad cartoons. 

Poorly constructed immigration and integration policies has in many cases led to 

alienated and fractured societies, where many people increasingly perceive a lack of 

values. An increasing number of policymakers and EU citizens hold multicultural 

policies responsible for this development, leading to an across-the-board retreat from 

unpopular and counterproductive multicultural policies. The cartoon controversy did not 

create European dissatisfaction with multiculturalism, but forced a debate long overdue. 
                                                 
106 One high profile case which got much media attention in Sweden and abroad was the “honor killing” of  
26-year-old Fatime Sahidal in Uppsala, Sweden, by her father after she dated an ethnic Swede. Sahindal 
had been repeatedly abused by her brother and father and had lived under death threat for a number of years 
before her father murdered her. Already in 1998 did she approach leading Swedish feminists and 
politicians, publicly criticized them for their reluctance to speak out against patriarchal oppression against 
immigrant women in Sweden. She became widely known in Scandinavia when she appeared in the 
Riksdag, the Swedish parliament and spoke about her and many other Muslim immigrant women’s plight. 
After Sahindal’s murder Mona Sahlin, Swedish Minister of Integration expressed her regrets. ”I was simply 
afraid to sound like [anti-immigrant party] Sverigedemokraterna: ‘Look, that’s how the immigrants are. 
Just thrown them out.’ I was too timid, and I closed my eyes.” “’Jag har gråtit hela förmiddagen:’ Mona 
Sahlin hade hela tiden kontakt med den mördade” Aftonbladet, Jan 22, 2002. 
http://www.aftonbladet.se/vss/nyheter/story/0,2789,125012,00.html (Accessed May 10, 2006) 

  



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This is a debate of the greatest importance for the EU, and can no longer be avoided. In 

fact, it is intimately connected with the European project, and a satisfactorily solution is 

necessary in order for the stalled constitution project to be resumed, as these are issues, 

the solution of which will determine the very nature of the future European societies. 

Liberal democracy needs to be the basis for the European Union and its member states. A 

gradual straying away from these principles has strengthened the enemies of liberal 

democracy, both among the nationalist right and the anti-democratic Islamists. This has 

played a role in the rejection of the constitution and to doubts about the very cornerstones 

of European identity and unification. The cartoon controversy is one of many warning 

signals during the past few years, adding to the van Gogh murder and the London and 

Madrid bombings. The response spells liberal democratic or republican assimilation 

policies, and a strong affirmation of democracy. The risks of liberal democracy and 

assimilationism far outweighs the risks involved in ignoring popular desires and the 

continuation of the multicultural policies of the 1980s and 1990s.