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Great leaders throughout the history of man have won battles,

called the command of nations and won the respect and

admiration of their followers based on their character. People

today are seeking to follow leaders that not only demonstrate the

necessary leadership competencies, but also leaders that exhibit

character, integrity, courage and consideration (Covey, 1997).

Character communicates consistency, potential and respect to

followers (Maxwell, 1998). Followers then emulate their leaders,

which inevitably contributes to the building of character at all

organisational levels, and ultimately strengthens the

organisation and its bottom-line (Turknett, Turknett &

McCusker, 2006). This provides the impetus for this study’s

exploration of what influences the development of character in

leaders.

The researchers’ interest in studying the development of

character in leaders was also roused by a statement made by

Joseph Badarocco (1997, p. 2), a leading authority on business

ethics. He stated that leaders are suffering from a “dirty hands

problem”. Badarocco derived this from Jean Paul Sartre, a

French philosopher, who made use of this metaphor in his play

of the same name, in which he demonstrated how leaders

involve themselves in activities that are morally destructive.

Major corporations such as Enron, WorldCom, Global

Crossing, Anderson Consulting and Tyco (Klann, 2003; Miller,

2004; Storey, 2003) have seen their leaders suffer from this

“dirt y hands problem.” These organisations, along with

others, fell prey to the greed of their leaders in various forms,

ranging from "massaging” numbers (“managed earnings”) to

outright fraud (Beatt y, Ewing & Tharp, 2003). These 

examples of leadership crisis partially stems from the crisis of

character in individual leaders (Sankar, 2003). This has

resulted in employees losing their jobs, companies filing 

for bankruptcy (Storey, 2003), the loss of employee life

savings plans (Gray & Clark, 2002), increased levels of

cynicism and suspicion (Farmer, 2005), and public

disenchantment (Storr, 2004). 

This leadership crisis could be attributed to leaders choosing

to operate out of what Cashman (1998) calls persona (leading

on the outside), which limits possibilities and potentialities

and which is guided by control, fear, self-interest and winning

at all costs. Instead, Cashman states that people should be

leading out of character (leading from the inside-out), which

opens up possibilities and potentialities and allows a leader to

be guided by authenticity, purpose, openness, trust and

compassion. This problem is further exacerbated by the spirit

of this age which revolves around material gain and a

consumer mentality (Maxwell, 2002). This consumer drive has

caused leaders to pursue performance goals, whereby they

forget that enduring positive influence depends on the “type

of people they are and not merely on power, titles and

positions” (Klann, 2003, p. 4).

Of the many leadership theories that exist today, there are a few

that place significant emphasis on the type of people that

leaders are and the importance of character or elements thereof.

One such theory is the Personal and Professional Leadership

Perspective (PiPL). Smith (2004), the founder of PiPL, states that

personal leadership begins with knowing where one stands now

as a leader. To become a personal leader, requires a person to

become principle-centered, character–based and to lead from

the inside-out (Covey, 1994). According to Verrier (2004)

personal leadership in the PiPL context forms the foundation

for interaction with people (interpersonal leadership) and also

for professional leadership that is based on teamwork,

relationship building and empathic listening. Authentic

leadership is also an important perspective taken into

consideration in this study. According to Luthans and Avolio

(2003), cited in Ilies, Morgeson and Nahrgang (2005, p. 376),

authentic leadership is defined as a process that combines

positive leader capacities and a highly developed organisational

context. Luthans and Avolio (2003) further hold that the

authentic leader displays confidence, hopefulness, optimism,

moralit y, and fut ure-orientedness and gives priorit y to

developing associates to be leaders. Servant leadership is

another form of leadership that considers character to be

important. To be a servant leader requires “serving with

compassion and heart” and enriching and empowering

participants (Jaworski & Senge, 1996, p. 60). Servant leaders also

demonstrate empathy, self-awareness and commitment to the

growth of people, according to Larry Spears (2006), the chief

executive officer of the Greenleaf Center for Ser vant Leadership.

The abovementioned attributes associated with the description

of personal leaders, authentic leaders and servant leaders are all

considered important elements of character.

Integrity, a character element, is also regarded as an important

attribute for leadership (Maxwell, 2002). According to Covey

(2004), integrity is one of the three facets of personal character,

together with maturity and an abundance mentality. He states

that these provide the foundation for great achievement and

ROSLYN DE BR AINE
roslynd@uj.ac.za

Department of Human Resource Management

University of Johannesburg

DEREK VERRIER
Derek@nurcha.org.za

NURCHA

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore (1) what organisational leaders consider to be character elements of leaders

within the workplace, (2) what influences leaders’ character development, and (3) how an organisation can continue

the process of character development. The literature review and findings revealed that leadership, integrity,

industriousness, empathy, loyalty, optimism, fairness and compassion are the most sought after character elements

within leaders in the workplace. Leadership and integrity were found to be the most supported character elements.

The findings also indicate that work environmental factors, a person’s own efforts, and the daily experiences of work

life contribute towards character development. 

Key words

Character, leadership, development, integrity, virtues, strengths

LEADERSHIP, CHARACTER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT: 

A QUALITATIVE EXPLORATION

1

SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2007, 5 (1), 1-10

SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 2007, 5 (1), 1-10



trust. Integrity is also considered a challenge that organisations

face in managing ethical behaviour (Rossouw & van Vuuren,

2003). Ethically led organisations display stronger

organisational culture, lower levels of staff turnover and

increased employee effort (Storr, 2004). This in turn supports

the organisation to fulfill what Bellingham (2003) calls an

external moral responsibility towards customers and the greater

community in which trading occurs. 

Certain character elements, such as perseverance, for instance, is

known to increase one’s chances of attaining difficult goals,

improving skills and resourcefulness, enhancing self-efficacy

and is considered to be a key personal characteristic required for

successful entrepreneurship (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Other

examples include curiosity and the love of learning; both having

a positive relationship with leadership development (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004). Self-knowledge and a strong belief in oneself, for

example, are known to enable one to achieve career maturity

(Coetzee, 2006).

The above discussion suggests that greed, the spirit of this 

age, and leaders leading out of persona, not character, has

caused the downfall of many organisations. One of the

remedies to this problem is to create work environments 

that optimize the development of character in people.

Although character forms from experiences and influences in

childhood and adolescence, character development is a

continuous life-long process, some of it occurring within 

the workplace (Klann, 2003). 

The threefold aim of this article is to explore what organisational

leaders consider to be the key character elements of leaders, what

influences leaders’ character development, and how

organisations can continue the process of character

development in their leaders. In order to address the above

questions, a literature review was conducted, in which character

was defined and its constituent elements explored. Thereafter

empirical interviews with leaders were carried out to further

address the above research aims.  

What is character?

In the early 5th century BC the Greeks held that character was

a distinguishing mark of an individual’s ideals and conduct as

judged in terms of values and strength of will (Halsey &

Friedman, 1981, p. 700). The great Greek philosopher Aristotle

held that there are two kinds of human excellences: excellences

of thought, and excellences of character. Excellences of

character – ethikai aretai – is usually translated as “moral

virtue(s)” or “moral excellences.” The Greek word ethikos

(ethical) is the adjective cognate with ethos, which is character

(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2003). Aristotle also

viewed good character as the life of right conduct – right

conduct in relation to other persons and in relation to oneself

(Lickona, 1994). This view is supported by Nucci (1997) and

Wynne and Walberg (cited in Huitt, 2004). Aristotle held that

character consists of moral virtues, these being self-oriented

virtues (such as self-control and moderation) as well as 

other-oriented virtues (such as generosity and compassion)

(Lickona, 1994). 

Thomas Lickona (1994), a moral educationist, also supports the

Aristotelian notion of character. He argues that character

consists of operative values, being values in action and that

people progress in their character as a value becomes a virtue (a

reliable inner disposition to respond to situations in a morally

good way). This notion of operative values is supported by

leadership writers Manning and Curtis (2003, p. 93); they state

that “character is based on a value system that is known,

cherished, stated and lived habitually.”

Some theorists, specifically in the field of psychology, view

character as the accumulation of traits or habits required to live

a successful life. Corsini’s definition (1999, p. 155) considers

character to be the total qualities or traits, particularly

characteristic of the moral, social and religious attitudes of a

person. Positive psychologists define character in terms of

positive traits that have emerged across cultures and throughout

history as important for a good life (Park, 2004, p. 46). Character

is also perceived as consisting of habits (Baumrind, 1998, p. 4,

cited in Park, 2004). Baumrind holds that “character refers to

such positive and cultivated habits such as social responsibility,

moral commitment, self-discipline and resoluteness by which

constellation the whole person is judged to be deficient,

adequate, or exemplary.” Smith (2005, p. 4) considers character

to be an expression of one’s moral orientation, willpower,

conscience and principles. 

Crystallizing the above definitions of character, into a single,

composite definition, the researchers define character as follows: 

Character refers to positive and cultivated traits that become

habits by which the whole person is judged to be exemplary.

So far in the discussion of the various definitions or views of

character from various scientific disciplines, character is seen in

various ways as the accumulation of “moral virtues” or

“operative values” or “positive traits” or “cultivated habits.” For

the purposes of this article these various ways of viewing

character will be termed “elements of character.” What follows

then, is a brief explanation and listing of what a few theorists,

particularly in the field of psychology, education and leadership

believe to be the constituent elements of character. These

theorists have done extensive research on character and its

development and are therefore regarded to be authoritative on

the topic. 

The constituent elements of character

Positive Psychology’s hierarchical classification scheme of

character, as expounded by Peterson and Seligman (2004), as

based on the literature review, is one of the most comprehensive

and easy to understand categorizations of character traits. Their

classification scheme of character is modelled on the Linnaean

classification of species and distinguishes three conceptual

levels of character as follows: 

� Conceptual level 1: Virtues. 

These are the core characteristics valued by moral

philosophers and religious thinkers:

– Wisdom and knowledge: cognitive strengths that entail the

acquisition and use of knowledge.

– Courage: emotional strengths that involve the exercise of

will to accomplish goals in the face of opposition, external

or internal

– Humanity: interpersonal strengths that involve tending

and befriending others

– Justice: civic strengths that underlie healthy community

life

– Temperance: strengths that protect against excess

– Transcendence: strengths that forge connections to the

larger universe and provide meaning.

(Table 1 overleaf provides a brief description of the associated

character strengths of each of the above virtues.)

� Conceptual level 2: Character Strengths. 

These are the psychological ingredients – processes or

mechanisms that define the virtues. They are distinguishable

routes to displaying one or another of the virtues. (listed in

Table 1)

� Conceptual level 3: Situational Themes. 

These are the specific habits that lead people to manifest given

character strengths in given situations.

DE BR AINE, VERRIER2



TABLE 1

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUES AND CHARACTER STRENGTHS

VIRTUE ASSOCIATED CHARACTER STRENGTHS

Wisdom & Creativity (originality, ingenuity): Thinking of novel and

knowledge productive ways to conceptualize and do things; includes

artistic achievement but is not limited to it.

Curiosity (interest, novelty-seeking, and openness to

experience): Taking an interest in ongoing experience for its

own sake; finding subjects and topics fascinating; exploring and

discovering.

Open-mindedness (judgement, critical thinking): Thinking

things through and examining them from all sides; not

jumping to conclusions; being able to change one’s mind in

light of evidence; weighing all evidence fairly.

Love of learning: Mastering new skills, topics, and bodies of

knowledge, whether on one’s own or formally; obviously

related to the strength of curiosity but goes beyond it to de-

scribe the tendency to add systematically to what one knows.

Perspective (wisdom): Being able to provide wise counsel to 

others; having ways of looking at the world that make sense to

oneself and to other people.

Courage Bravery (valour): Not shrinking from threat, challenge,

difficulty, or pain; speaking up for what is right even if there is

opposition; acting on convictions even if unpopular; includes

physical bravery but is not limited to it.

Persistence (perseverance, industriousness): Finishing what one

starts; persisting in a course of action in spite of obstacles;

“getting it out the door”; taking pleasure in completing tasks.

Integrity (authenticity, honesty): Speaking the truth but more

broadly presenting oneself in a genuine way and acting in a

sincere way; being without pretense; taking responsibility for

one’s feelings and actions.

Vitality (zest, enthusiasm, vigour, energy): Approaching life

with excitement and energy; not doing things halfway or half-

heartedly; living life as an adventure; feeling alive and activated.

Humanity Love: Valuing close relations with others, in particular those in

which sharing and caring are reciprocated; being close to people.

Kindness (generosity, nurturance, care, compassion, altruistic

love, “niceness”): Doing favours and good deeds for others;

helping them; taking care of them.

Social intelligence (emotional intelligence, personal

intelligence): Being aware of the motives and feelings of other

people and oneself; knowing what to do to fit into different

social situations; knowing what makes other people tick.

Justice Citizenship (social responsibility, loyalty, teamwork):

Working well as a member of a group or team; being loyal to

the group; doing one’s share.

Fairness: Treating people the same according to notions of

fairness and justice; not letting personal feelings bias decisions

about others; giving everyone a fair chance.

Leadership: Encouraging a group of which one is a member to

get things done and at the same time maintain good relations

within the group; organising group activities and seeing that

they happen.

Temperance Forgiveness and mercy: Forgiving those who have done wrong;

accepting the shortcomings of others; giving people a second

chance; not being vengeful.

Humility/modesty: Letting one’s accomplishments speak for

themselves; not seeking the spotlight; not regarding oneself as

more special than one is.

Prudence: Being careful about one’s choices; not taking undue

risks; not saying or doing things that might later be regretted.

Self-regulation (self-control): Regulating what one feels and

does; being disciplined; controlling one’s appetites and emotions.

Transcen- Appreciation of beauty and excellence (awe, wonder, 

dence elevation): Noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence,

and/or skilled performance in various domains of life, from

nature to art to mathematics to science to everyday experience.

Gratitude: Being aware of and thankful for the good things

that happen; taking time to express thanks.

Hope (optimism, future-mindedness, and future-

orientation): Expecting the best in the future and working to

achieve it; believing that a good future is something that can

be brought about.

Humour (playfulness): Liking to laugh and tease; bringing

smiles to other people; seeing the light side; making (not

necessarily telling) jokes.

Spirituality (religiousness, faith, purpose): Having coherent

beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the universe;

knowing where one fits within the larger scheme; having beliefs

about the meaning of life that shape conduct and provide comfort.

Source: Peterson and Seligman (2004, pp. 29-30)

According to Barnard (2003, p. 22) humans have the potential

for morality, the ability to choose between “good” or “bad”.

Lickona (1994) characterised the components of good character

in three interrelated parts: moral knowing (knowing the good),

moral feeling (desiring the good) and moral behaviour (doing the

good), as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

COMPONENTS OF GOOD CHARACTER

MORAL KNOWING

Moral Component Description

1. Moral awareness People often don’t see a situation that involves a 

moral issue and that requires moral judgement. 

People use their intelligence to see when a 

situation requires moral judgement.

2. Knowing moral values Gets passed from one generation to another;

ethical literacy and its application requires 

knowing these values.

3. Perspective taking This is the ability to take the viewpoint of other

people, see a situation as they see it, and imagine 

how they might think, react and feel. It is a 

prerequisite for moral judgement. 

4. Moral reasoning Involves understanding what it means to be 

moral and why we should be moral. Growth is 

gradual and children learn what counts as good 

moral reason and what does not count. Respect 

the intrinsic worth of every individual.

5. Decision-making Thinking one’s way through a moral problem. 

Asking the questions: What are my choices and 

what are the consequences?

MORAL FEELING

1. Conscience A mature conscience includes : a sense of moral 

obligation and the capacity for constructive guilt. 

2. Self-esteem A healthy measure of self-esteem helps us to 

value ourselves and be less dependent on the 

approval of others. Self positive regard has a 

positive correlation with treating others 

positively.

3. Empathy This is identification with, or vicarious 

experience of, the state of another person/ 

emotional side of perspective taking. 

4. Loving the good The highest form of character includes being 

genuinely attracted to the good. When people 

love the good, they take pleasure in doing good. 

They have a morality of desire, not just a 

morality of duty. Part of the moral potential of 

ordinary people, even children.

5. Self-control Emotion can overwhelm reason, that’s one reason 

why self-control is a necessary moral virtue. Self-

control helps us to be ethical even when we don’t 

want to. It is also necessary to curb self-

indulgence. 

MORAL ACTION

1. Competence Moral competence is having the ability to turn 

moral judgement and feeling into effective 

moral action. 

2. Will The right choice in a moral situation is usually 

the hard one. Will is the mobilizing of moral 

energy to do what we think we should. It takes 

will to keep emotion under the control of reason. 

It takes will to see and think through all the 

moral dimensions of a situation. It takes will to 

put duty before pleasure. Will is the core of 

moral courage. 

3. Habit Moral conduct benefits from habit. 

Source: Lickona (1991, pp. 53-62)

McElmeel (2002), a moral educationist, lists the following

character traits: caring, confidence, courage, curiosity, flexibility,

friendship, goal setting, humility, humour, initiative, integrity,

patience, perseverance, positive attitude, problem-solving, self-

discipline and teamwork.

LEADERSHIP CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 3



Another prominent writer on character is Covey (1994).

According to Covey exhibiting the character ethic truly allows

one to experience true success and enduring happiness. The

principles of the character ethic include integrity, humility,

fidelity, temperance, courage, justice, patience and industry. 

Certain character traits have been identified as important for the

workplace and specifically for leaders. Sankar (2003), for

instance, maintains that a leader’s character should be grounded

on core values such as integrity, trust, truth and human dignity

which influence the leader’s vision, ethics and behaviour. This

stance is supported by the Josephson Institute (2006). They hold

that there are six core ethical values associated with character,

namely: trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness,

caring and citizenship. John Adair (2003) mentions that there

are certain qualities that are the hallmarks of good leaders:

integrity, enthusiasm, warmth, calmness, being tough but fair and

courage.

From the above exposition of the constituent elements of

character, as proposed by various expert authors, the researchers

propose that character be classified, using the following

dimensions:

� Cognitive dimensions (evident in the virtues wisdom and

knowledge and their associated character strengths and also

encompassing moral knowing)

� Emotional dimension (evident in the virtues courage and

humanity and their associated character strengths)

� Spiritual dimension (evident in the virtue transcendence and

its associated character strengths)

� Social dimension (evident in the virtues courage, humanity,

justice and temperance and their associated character

strengths)

The researchers further suggest that the above dimensions are

interdependent. This assertion is based on Smith’s (2004) life

dimension’s model. 

As the various character elements become cultivated habits in

the life of person, a person’s behaviour becomes exemplary. The

question then arises, what influences the cultivation or

development of character in individuals? Empirical studies are

available that have looked at the development of certain

character strengths. However, there are no investigations of the

development of character as a family of positive traits – a

multidimensional construct (Park, 2004). What follows then is a

brief explanation of the different perspectives on character

development. It is by no means exhaustive but for the purposes

of this article, a brief description of each approach to character

development is given. 

Character development

Character development is a process in which the character of an

individual develops from the possibilities which nature supplies

and within the framework of environmental or cultural factors.

Character, however, is also a unique achievement contributed to

by an individual’s creativeness, effort and striving (Halsey &

Friedman, 1981, p. 700). Psychological approaches to character

development take into consideration environmental and

cultural factors.

Psychological approaches:

According to Park (2004), there are a variety of influences that

contribute to the development of good character. One such

influence is parenting styles, particularly the authoritative

parenting style, which has been consistently associated with

childrens’ prosocial behaviours like sharing with peers, self-

control and self-confidence. Secondly, positive role modelling,

coupled with appropriate reinforcement, is known to facilitate

prosocial behaviours such as sharing, helping and being a good

team-mate. Social observational learning occurs due to the

operant and cognitive principles at work indicated by the

observation of others, reinforcement, and the use of rewards

(Jordaan & Jordaan, 1998). Close relationships with family

members and friends also perform a role in the development of

good character (Park, 2004). Sibling relationships, for example,

provide opportunities for children to develop character

strengths like social intelligence and social problem-solving

skills. Park also holds that moral education in schools enhances

moral thinking, specifically among high school students. 

A cultural-social approach or framework to moral development

can also be taken (Haste, Markoulis & Helkamal, 1999).

According to Anderson (1997), nearly all societies have

instruction and “rites of passage” which are intended to mould

the character of a child into a loyal and productive citizen. Park

(2004) maintains that moral culture and values of societies and

communities influence character development. The character of

humans then becomes “social in its institution” (Hunter, 2000,

p. 15). Moral development occurs as the individual’s skill in

managing the moral expectations of his or her culture grows

which is finally expressed through linguistic and symbolic

practices (Haste et al., 1999). 

Kohlberg’s theory on moral development is also of relevance

here (Barger, 2000). Kohlberg held that most moral development

occurs through social interaction and that the progression of

moral reasoning occurs through six identifiable stages. His

theory focused on the development of cognitive processes,

especially reasoning about obligation, rights and justice (Haste

et al., 1999). Kohlberg also stated that the majority of adults

never reach stage six in moral development (Barger, 2000). This

stage is characterised by respect for universal principles and the

demands of social conscience. Moral development can be

advanced educationally, using social interaction, cognitive

conflict, a positive moral atmosphere and democratic

participation (Kohlberg, 1969, cited in McDaniel, 1998). Life-

span developmental psychology’s stance on development

supports Kohlberg’s idea that development occurs through

continual change and transformation through successively

complex systems or stages (Haste et al., 1999). Adults are

expected to show more integrated and elaborate morality, but

not all adults show equal levels of ‘moral maturity’ (Haste et al.,

1999, p. 318). Philosophical approaches to character

development also consider the influence that social interaction

and political institutions has on moral development.

Philosophical approaches:

Aristotle and Plato held that education of our emotional

responses is crucial for the development of virtuous character

(Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2003). Aristotle states

that virtue is the state that makes a human being good and

makes him perform his function well. He believes that the

virtuous person is characterised by a nonstereotypical self-love.

Self-love is developed and preserved through friendships in

which individuals come to desire the good of others’ own sakes

and political institutions that promote the conditions under

which self-love and friendship flourish (Stanford Encyclopaedia

of Philosophy, 2003).

Philosophy also views character development as being the

responsibility of the individual. This is stipulated in the

definition of character development according to Halsey and

Friedman (1981, p. 700). Virtues are seen as “an activity of the

soul” (Lickona, 1991, p. 51) and are acquired through trial and

error (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p. 46). Immanuel Kant’s

Doctrine of Virtue, also provides some light into the development

of character through a person’s own efforts. Kant states that we

are always fighting against the impulses and dispositions that

oppose the moral law, therefore we need strength of will and self-

mastery to fulfill our imperfect duties (Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy, 2003). Many people follow the moral law that is

taught to them from their religious beliefs. Consequently,

character is also understood as being related to the religious

attitudes of a person (Corsini, 1999). A brief description of the

major religions’ stances on moral virtues follows:

DE BR AINE, VERRIER4



Religious approaches:

Judeo-Christian

Judeo-Christian virtues are promulgated and taught within the

Old and New Testament of the Bible, the religious text of

followers of both Judaism and Christianity. The Old Testament

has two sections that are particularly illustrative of virtues

esteemed by Jewish culture and Christians: the Ten

Commandments and the two books of Proverbs that specifically

instruct on the consequences of virtues and vices (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004). Virtues such as integrity, righteousness,

humility and trustworthiness are advocated in Proverbs. In the

Christian faith character development is believed to be brought

about through trials and perseverance (Romans 5:3-4 in NIV). 

Islam

Muslims obtain their moral teachings from the Qu’ran, the

Muslim bible. Some of the values espoused by the Qu’ran

include humility, modesty, control of passions and integrity

(www.iad.org/Islam).

Confucianism:

There are four or five central virtues espoused in the tenets of

Confucianism: jen (translated as humanit y or human-

heartedness or benevolence), yi (duty or justice or equity), li

(etiquette or observance of the rites of ceremonious behaviour),

zhi (wisdom or perspicacity), and possibly, xin (truthfulness or

sincerity or good faith) (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). 

Buddhism

In Buddhism it is taught that the strategy of the Eightfold Path

to nir vana (the ultimate destiny of existence) and the philosophy

behind it is known to invoke the core virtues of humanity,

justice, temperance, transcendence and wisdom (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004).

Hinduism

The emphasis in Hinduism is on personal virtues, such as self-

denial and renunciation; these promote self-improvement in the

current life and potential for salvation or the attainment of a

higher caste in the next life (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).

Biological approaches:

Lennick and Kiel (2005) highlight the Nature versus Nurture

debate. They use the analogy that we need moral software, the

programming that our moral hardware relies on to make moral

choices. Like any other human capacit y, moralit y is a

combination of our biology (our nature) and our experiences

(nurture). They further hold that we grow morally through the

interplay between our biological disposition to be empathetic

and through our loving relationship with our parents. This is

shown in the behaviour of six or seven year olds who are able to

tell right from wrong and experience guilt when participating in

activities that are wrong (Lennick & Kiel, 2005).

Temperament and personality also have a role to play in

character development. Investigations of temperament have

shown how biologically-based individual differences in

sociability, emotionality, and activity level channel subsequent

personality development (Park, 2004). Twin studies of both

adults and children have found that empathic behaviours and

prosocial patterns of behaviours are heritable (Park, 2004). 

One final thought to consider regarding the various perspectives

discussed, which was put so succinctly by Canella and Monroe

(1997, p. 2), is that “theorizing is imperfect.” Therefore multiple

perspectives are necessary to explain the complexit y

surrounding character development in people. In summary of

the above discussion, what is commonly found running through

each approach is the influence that social interaction (with

family, role models, friends, educators and political institutions)

has on character development. The statement “character is social

in its institution” (Hunter, 2000, p. 15) can be reiterated here

and is greatly applicable to the workplace which is also regarded

as a social institution (Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, 2006).

What follows next is a discussion of the possible ways that

character develops in the workplace.

Character development in the workplace

Most organisations do not have “developing character” in mind

when they plan leadership training and development programmes

in their organisations. According to Adair (2005), growing leaders

transcends organisations, as leaders are developed in families,

schools and universities; however, it is the responsibility of

organisations to grow leaders. Adair (2005) suggests that

organisations should select candidates who have personal qualities

of character, such as integrity, reliability and stability, leadership

and teamwork abilities, decision-making abilities, communication

abilities and self-management abilities. Adair further states that

these candidates should be trained and educated to work together

in harmony to fulfill the generic role of a leader. 

As mentioned earlier, there is a lack of literature on the

development of character as a multidimensional construct,

however there have been studies done on the development of

various elements of character, particularly in the workplace. As

in the case of the study of the development of wisdom, Hartman

(2000), cited in Peterson and Seligman (2004), found that the

accumulation of a wide range of adult experiences precedes the

development of wisdom. These could include mentoring in the

workplace and successful resolution of crises and hardship.

Another example is that of perseverance which develops through

social support, receiving positive feedback and reward, and self-

control (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Individual integrity, for

instance, is known to develop through social support provided

by multiculturalism and diversity awareness (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004). This is greatly applicable to the South African

work context.

There are, however, t wo leader character development

approaches worth mentioning. Klann (2003) proposes the Five

E’s approach: Example (leaders lead by example), Education

(formal and informal training), Environment (organization’s

culture), Experience (experiential training) and Evaluation

(feedback on developmental experience). Khurana and Snook

(2004) prescribe another novel intervention to develop character

in military cadets: inspire them to react emotionally to

situations, getting cadets out of their comfort zones, and a

structured reflection and meaning-making process to influence

each cadet’s identity. 

A study conducted on perceived leader integrity and the ethical

intentions of subordinates, revealed that subordinates who do

not adhere to a belief in universal moral values, intentions to

commit unethical acts decreased as the perceived integrity of

their leaders increased (Peterson, 2004). This presents a notion

that the character of a leader has a direct influence on whether

or not subordinates will commit unethical acts, thus indirectly

developing character in the workplace. A leader of character can

further influence his/her followers by communicating belief in

employees, encouraging reciprocal disclosure of beliefs and

goals, and contracting for mutual feedback and mutual

accountability in their performance development initiatives

(Lennick & Kiel, 2005).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research approach

With a definition of character in mind, having unpacked its

constituent elements, and with an understanding of how

character is developed, field work was undertaken to understand

perceptions of character in the workplace, and how it is

developed. To this end, a qualitative research design was

selected. The design was primarily non-empirical, but was

supported by a limited number of empirical interviews. 

LEADERSHIP CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 5



Research Methodology

Participants

Six individuals, each from different work settings, were 

chosen for the study (refer to Table 3). Each of these individuals

were considered by the researchers to be leaders of sound

character. 

TABLE 3

PARTICIPANT’S PROFILE

Position Sector/Industry

Participant 1 Chief Executive Officer Information Technology

Participant 2 Director Legal

Participant 3 Senior Pastor Religious Institution

Participant 4 Group Manager Recruitment Agency

Participant 5 Salesperson Information Technology

Participant 6 Chief Operating Officer Recruitment Agency

Methods of data gathering

In-depth interviews using semi-structured questions were

conducted at each of the participants’ workplaces. Purposeful

sampling was used as it allows one to “discover, understand,

gain insight” through the selection of “a sample from which

one can learn the most” (Merriam, 1988, p. 48). Generic

considerations such as obtaining informed consent and

protecting the participants, anonymity, and situation-specific

issues were taken into account during the execution of the

research (Schurink, 2005). 

The following research questions were asked: 

� What are the prime elements/categories of character?

� How does character develop?

� How is your character revealed through your role as a leader?

� Describe the importance of character in leadership?

� How does your organisation develop leaders? 

� What is the employers’ responsibility in developing character

in future leaders?

Procedure 

A digital tape recorder and field notes were used to record the in-

depth interviews. Thereafter, each tape recording was

transcribed, analyzed, stored and safeguarded. 

Data analysis 

Themes that emerged were evaluated against the theories of the

phenomenon of character development in leaders as reviewed

above. The data was evaluated using the criteria postulated by

Lincoln and Guba (1985, cited in Roberts & Llardi, 2003), which

is credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.

The data was analysed manually. 

RESULTS

As with any qualitative study a large amount of rich data 

was generated. The data presented in Table 4 refers to 

core character elements that the participants regarded as

important for potential leaders and existing leaders to 

exhibit in their working lives. They are listed from the most

frequently mentioned element to the least often mentioned

element. All of the participants supported leadership as a

character element; 80% supported integrit y; 50%

industriousness, empathy and loyalty; 30% optimism, fairness

and compassion and the remainder of the character 

elements were 10% supported.

TABLE 4

KEY CHARACTER ELEMENTS FOR LEADERSHIP

Character Element Supporting extract

Leadership ‘I think another characteristic of a leader is enabling

other people to do the job’; ‘Lead by example’; ‘I find

that if you’re a good leader, people will do almost

anything for you and its not, it becomes not about

the money, it becomes about the fulfillment of the

individual, so if you self-satisf y people and give them

fulfillment as a leader and inspire them they will do

anything, I think you develop the work ethic’

Integrity/Faithfulness ‘People who are true to their word and who can be

trusted under any conditions’; ‘Consistency and

passion in executing tasks is not congruent with

consistency and passion in words’; ‘A lot to do with

what they committed to and what they deliver after

their commitment’ ‘Faithful in the little things, such as

obeying company rules eg. coming on time to work’

Industriousness ‘The ethical side of character and also your ability to

work hard and also produce high quality work, those

three things go hand in hand’

Empathy/Emotional ‘How you get the best out of people and the leader is

engagement only as good as his/her people’; ‘Empathy I believe

underpins all aspects of leadership, you have to

fundamentally put yourself in someone else’s shoes

to understand what their needs are in their positions,

in order to really communicate effectively’;

‘Understand what people under you are doing in

their jobs, for example, wash dishes for a day, this

enables getting a balanced perspective and builds

respect from your subordinates’

Loyalty/Commitment ‘Loyal to yourself, to others and to the company –

protects the company image’; ‘An unselfish

commitment to helping other people, fundamental

around the concept of love’

Optimism/Positive ‘Demonstrated in the passion that people display for 

attitude the company that they work for’; ‘Leaders need to

look at whether people will do more than they are

asked’; ‘If things don’t go their way, character says, it

doesn’t matter if things go your way or not your way,

what is important to the company becomes

important to you’

Fairness ‘Applying rules consistently’; ‘Giving people equal

opportunity’

Compassion ‘The humane side that they need to deal with in

terms of offering counseling’

Love ‘Service in the concept of love, unselfishly caring

about, moving from those words service to the term

customer service, this is universal and the principles

that underpin these extends further into the concept

development of people, maximizing people

development and bringing the best out in people and

watch them grow.’

Humour ‘There's a lot of people that joke in the business , it

is not unhealthy, as long as boundaries are managed

and there is professionalism’

Self-discipline ‘Being accountable for every activity in the

organisation, for example salesman that go out

cannot always account for their time, requires self

discipline’; ‘To adhere to the company’s policies and

procedures’; ‘Not doing what you want to do’

Perseverance ‘Perseverance is an inbred desire or passion for you

to want to achieve something’

Self-confidence ‘Any decision that a leader makes you have to make it

confidently, whether it is good or bad’

Humility ‘Should come out in the way we engage as leaders

with people’; ‘Never thinking that you are bigger or

better than others, attitude of always place to learn’

Self-knowledge ‘Most people do not know their character strengths

and weaknesses’; ‘They are dishonest with themselves’ 

Initiative ‘Aspiring to be’; ‘They don’t necessarily wait for

others to develop them’

Conscience ‘Whether you acting right or wrong’

Creativity ‘Reinventing yourself’; ‘People coming up with new

and innovative ideas’

Spirituality ‘Through pain you learn to discover where you draw

strength from , inevitably it goes beyond yourself,

your family, to your spiritual dimension’

DE BR AINE, VERRIER6



The findings indicate that the leaders take their leadership roles

seriously, as leadership was considered the most important

character element by all the participants. The finding that

integrity is the second most important character element asserts

the belief that without it in leadership, there is no trust of

followers (Manning & Curtis, 2003).

The data presented in Table 5 represents the participants’

understanding of the way character develops in life. Table 5’s

identified themes and supporting extracts reflects the

participants’ recognition that environmental factors, such as a

person’s upbringing and role models, influence character

development. These findings support the literature reviewed.

TABLE 5

THEMES IDENTIFIED FROM PARTICIPANTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF THE

WAY CHARACTER DEVELOPS IN LIFE

Identified theme Supporting extract

Person’s upbringing ‘Bad or good childhood, each experience can be

worthwhile’; ‘Parents discipline you’ ‘Starts with the

role models that you engage with when you are at

your earliest years of consciousness, that is your

immediate family’; ‘Your value system teaches you

how to deal with different kinds of people’; ‘Helps you

to identify the difference between right and wrong’ 

Role models ‘Unselfishly caring about other people and that you

have to build through experience of observing how

other people, who you look up to’

Value system ‘Your value system teaches you how to deal with

different kinds of people’; ‘Helps you to identif y the

difference between right and wrong’; ‘Having positive

role models’ ‘This provides a foundation of value that

will help you through the challenges of life.’

Self-discipline ‘Example: training yourself to play soccer’; ‘You don’t

realize it when you are young that your character is

being built’

Relationship with ‘Your wife can discipline you’; ‘Integrity and fidelity

spouse go hand in hand’

Church environment ‘You can be disciplined’ 

Personal crisis and ‘The pain associated with anxiety causes you to think

trauma long and hard about the issues and to work through

they, inevitably become mature’; ‘You discover what

is right from wrong’; ‘The crisis has to be

constructively challenged’; ‘Your character cannot

develop if you don’t go through sometimes very

negative circumstances’ 

Religion ‘If you heed what the Bible is telling you, you will

not come off tracks’

Table 6’s identified themes and supporting extracts reveal that

work environmental factors such as difficult clients, good and

bad superiors, and the nature of obeying company rules and

procedures, each have a role to play in developing character. 

TABLE 6

THEMES IDENTIFIED FROM PARTICIPANTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE

Identified Themes Supporting extract

Stress ‘I guess it also builds character is how people deal

with stress and stress related responses because

obviously people deal with stress differently and some

can handle it well and some can’t, also how

emotionally engaged we are’ 

Nature of clients/ ‘Call Centre clients have many challenges surrounding

customers attrition, productivity, performance results,

environments are very stressful, a blaming culture

exists’; ‘Some team members would make an effort to

get to the bottom of get to what is driving the

challenges and take that as a learning and character

building experience’; ‘An attorney who does criminal

law, with all respect to them, their minds are warped,

because they are dealing with ...criminals, it actually

gets difficult for those people to make an informed

and correct decision, I’ve seen this happen, I refuse

point blank to do criminal law’ 

Difficulties with ‘Difficult challenges, for example flexi staff passing 

staff members away, deaths; One needs to be quite strong to handle

that, the administration obligation and humane

obligation(counseling)’; ‘The other thing in character

development in the workplace, is a the way people rub

off good habits and bad habits’; ‘You have to develop

a hard nose approach to those that have developed

bad habits’; ‘Dealing with people that steal and come

late – handle such situations in an ethical manner

(there’s no grey area) – HR guiding policy and

disciplinary code’. 

Good and bad ‘Good and bad managers and its built my character as

superiors a leader because you know it brings you back to the

way you felt when you were treated in a certain way,

as long as you never forget it and you apply it to the

relevant work situation.’

Company’s policies ‘The company’s policies and processes discipline an

and procedures individual to behave in a certain way’.

Being disciplined ‘One can either rebel against it or accept it’; ‘Accepting

in the workplace discipline in a positive way builds character’ 

Nature of job ‘A company builds your character in the nature of

your job; they develop you solely for the purposes of

the company; this is not sustainable as they are not

working on the real character.’ 

Work Experience ‘I think people who can lead other people have been

through areas and experienced, have been there and

know what it feels like are therefore able to uplift and

inspire people cause they know how it feels’; ‘One

becomes wise and one gains more skills with

experience’ 

Community invest- ‘We have five modules of classroom training around

ment programmes the very subjects of leadership, once our team leaders

have been to the classroom and learnt the principles

of leadership, we then ask that they engage with

groups of underprivileged children and that they

teach those principles’; ‘It builds self confidence,

where you really feel good about yourself and make a

difference to a young child, and not only that you

build a culture of service when you engage with that

group of children’; ‘So we’ve discovered that

experiential learning and teaching underprivileged

children is an incredibly powerful way teaching

people empathy’

Leadership develop- ‘It was a eight module process dealing 

ment programmes – with leadership, emotional maturity, 

includes mentoring, project management etc’

coaching, technical 

and soft-skill training.

The participants also gave their viewpoints on the benefits of

having a leader of character. In summary, they stated that

companies that have leaders that exhibit character are more

likely to “attract the right talent, customers and suppliers”,

which in essence will lead or “translate” into “passion and

commitment” from employees, business performance and

ultimately the achievement of organisational goals. This in turn,

will eventually lead to sustainability and stability through

difficult, challenging and fast-moving work environments.

The participants also believed that an organisation should

maximize character development within the organisation, but

that exclusive responsibility should not be taken for it. One

participant held that it made “good commercial sense” and that

“in order to deliver excellent customer service, to achieve

profitable results for our shareholders we have to grow and

develop the staff.” The participants held that it is the

individual’s responsibility to take ownership of his/her character

development, and that a company will develop your character

only in terms of the nature of your job. One participant held

that it is a leader’s responsibility to build a follower’s character

for the purpose of taking a person to a higher level in life. This

can be achieved through motivation and support. One

participant held that his organisation focuses their development

initiatives on the slogan ‘training for reigning.’

The participants were posed with the question, what roles do

leaders play in developing employees’ character? They

mentioned the following leadership responsibilities: Employers

LEADERSHIP CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 7



should play a role in terms of guiding employees or adding to

that building process of character development. One participant

argued that “guiding means to help employees get on the right

track, providing thoughts and tools for possibly enhancing

character, but employees must ultimately take ownership.” They

further stated that this can be achieved by creating a work

environment that is optimal for character development, being a

leader of character, building trust, teaching t wo-way

communication, allowing employees to make mistakes and

allowing employees to experiment.

DISCUSSION

Leadership, integrit y, industriousness, empathy, loyalt y,

optimism, fairness and compassion were regarded as the most

important elements of character that are sought after in leaders

in the workplace. In essence, Table 4’s findings support the idea

that to be a great leader means to lead out of character.

Leading out of character is complex as it requires the

interrelationship between the various elements of character. If

one considers Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) categorization of

character strengths, and Lickona’s (1991) components of good

character, the following stands out: character depends on the

interplay and harmonious working of the cognitive, emotional,

spiritual, social and work dimensions of a person’s life. These

dimensions, and the perspectives discussed in the literature

review, provide a rich understanding of the complexit y

surrounding character.

The supporting extracts in Table 5 and 6, regarding the way

character is believed to develop in life and in the workplace

specifically, can possibly be viewed as situational themes

(specific habits that lead people to manifest given character

strengths in given situations, as postulated by Peterson and

Seligman (2004)). This confirms Baumrind’s (1998) standpoint

that character consists of cultivated habits. It is through the

cultivation and display of “good habits” that one can see tangibly

what character is. One can begin to understand Manning and

Curtis’s (2003, p. 94) statement that “character is who you are”

and that “you lead by virtue of who you are.” The following

statement, made by one of the participants, “the way you honour

people, the way you build people, all those type of things that you are

they must see”, strengthens the above assertion. This assertion is

further supported by Scarnati (2002), who stated that everything

a leader says, does, and every feeling that a leader expresses, is

observed by others, and has an effect on the organisation.

Table 5 and 6 also serve to confirm that character development

is a continuous life-long process, starting in early childhood and

continuing through adulthood. It encompasses the influence of

that which is inherent (moral software, temperament, cognitive

ability), that which is an environmental influence (childhood,

adolescence and adult life experiences), and a person’s own

efforts, for example through the activation of “self-discipline”.

What still stands, however, from the findings is that character

development in an organisation rests upon the shoulders of the

individual leader. Leaders have to lead “by example”, inspire and

develop employees. This is a crucial responsibility of the leader

if one considers Kohlberg’s standpoint that the majority of

adults never reach stage six in moral development, a stage

characterized by respect for universal principles and social

conscience (Barger, 2000). This concern is further heightened by

a study that revealed that leaders that exhibit high perceived

integrity and strong beliefs in universal moral rules are

associated with lower intentions of employees to commit

unethical acts (Peterson, 2004).

Another point of importance that is reflected in the findings is

that character development occurs through the daily work

experience of leaders and employees interacting with one

another, interacting with clients, performing one’s daily work

tasks and dealing with complex challenges. However, it does

require willingness and the openness on the part of the

individual to develop him/herself. It is worth noting that,

according to Adair (2003, p. 10), all “leadership qualities can be

developed – some more than others – by practice and

experience”. Jaworski and Senge (1996, p. 7) view leadership

development as a participation in an unfolding future that has

more to do with our “being – our total orientation of character

and consciousness – than with what we do.” 

The findings also indicate that organisations are willing to assist

employees and future leaders in developing their character but

they believe that the onus of character development rests with

the individual. Leaders and their organisations therefore play a

supportive role by creating a work environment that is

conducive for character development, as this creates a culture of

service, and in the end, sustainability. The findings further

highlight that leaders are seeking to develop employees with

leadership potential who have the leadership attributes that

Adair (2005) mentions: Leadership and teamwork, including

qualities of personalit y and character, such as energ y,

enthusiasm and initiative; Decision-making; thinking skills in the

applied forms of problem-solving, decision-making, and creative

and innovative thinking; and Communication skills (speaking,

listening, writing, and reading). 

Conclusion

This study explored what organisational leaders consider to be

the key character elements of leaders within the workplace and it

was found that leadership, integrity, industriousness, empathy,

loyalty, optimism, fairness and compassion were regarded as the

most important elements of character that are sought after in

leaders in the workplace.

The study also found that the influence of environmental work

factors (for example clients and good and bad superiors), a

person’s own efforts, and the daily work experiences of leaders

led to the development of their character. Organisations are

and can continue the process of character development in 

their leaders by providing a supportive role through the

creation of work environments that are conducive to character

development and through various developmental initiatives

such as mentoring and soft-skill training. What was also

demonstrated in the findings is that organisations are willing

to assist in continuing the development of character in their

employees, but the onus of character development lies with the

individual employee.

The essence of a great leader lies in the development of character

elements through habitual action. Different elements of

character and the degree to which they are reflected varies in

different leadership work contexts, for example a higher level of

conceptual skills is needed for vice presidents than department

heads (Newstrom & Davis, 2002, p. 166). Character provides the

platform upon which leaders can be authentic and serve their

followers. However, there is still much ignorance regarding what

character is and its overall benefits for an organisation.

Sometimes character is confused with personality.

A leader is considered, only as good as his/her followers are. This

statement is supported by Adair (2003, p. 84) who believes that

“any good leader has a product – a high-performance team.” This

can be measured by the level of trust and commitment that one’s

followers have towards one. In the final conclusion, Maxwell

(1998) maintains that to build trust a leader must demonstrate

competence, connection and character, and the greatest of these is

character. Trust, according to Rossouw and van Vuuren (2004),

facilitates co-operation, unlocks knowledge and promotes

loyalty. These functions of trust provide the bedrock upon

which an organisation will achieve success. In the end it is all

about relationship which hangs on the demonstration of two

great moral values: “respect” and “responsibility” towards oneself,

others and the environment (Lickona, 1992, p. 43–44).

DE BR AINE, VERRIER8



RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the literature and the findings, it is suggested by the

researcher that organisations use Klann’s Five E's approach

(2003) to continue the development of character in their

employees and future leaders. This approach, mentioned briefly

before, is expanded upon in Table 7.

TABLE 7

KLANN’S FIVE ES APPROACH TO CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

FIVE Es Approach

Example � Leaders should lead by example, by displaying the

character ethic in their organisations.

� Create an environment of trust with their followers.

� Provide guidelines and be the first to follow them.  

Education � Formal and informal training, through the use of 

leadership development programmes.

� Personal leadership development programmes, that 

develop character-based, principle-centered, inside-

out leaders.

� Emotional intelligence facilitation (Amos, Ristow and 

Ristow, 2004, pp. 227-229) 

Environment � Build an ethical culture.

� Develop an ethical code of conduct.

� Disciplinary codes and the enforcement thereof.

� Build a learning culture through the use of teams.

� Promote spirituality in the workplace (Nel, Gerber, van 

Dyk, Haasbroek, Schultz, Sono & Werner, 2001, p. 307) 

Experience � Experiential training, through job-related experiences 

with managers, colleagues, community investment 

projects and customers 

� Coaching and mentoring processes that provide career 

and psychosocial support (Noe, 2005, pp. 289 -291)

Evaluation � Personality assessment (Bergh and Theron, 2005, 

pp. 446-447)

� Feedback on developmental experiences that focuses on 

most important character elements for one’s leadership 

role.

� Reinforcement through the use of positive and negative 

rewards.

Source: Klann (2003, pp. 5-6)

It is further suggested that leaders assess their own 

character, using the three criteria mentioned by Manning and

Curtis (2003). These three criteria are based on the way

employees assess character, which are: (a) what leaders say is

important; (b) what leaders do is more important (is there

congruency between a leader’s words and actions?); and (c)

what leaders sacrifice is most important (caring to the point 

of personal sacrifice is regarded as the highest form of living 

by one’s values). 

Suggestions for further research

It is recommended that investigations into the development of

character as a family of positive traits – a multidimensional

construct – should be done in the workplace. The researcher

further suggest that the development of character in reference

to the social, spiritual, cognitive, and emotional dimensions

of a person’s life and the interdependency that exists among

them as dimensions should be further investigated to

understand the complexity of character as a multidimensional

construct. 

“The only thing that walks back from the tomb with the

mourners and refuses to be buried is the character of a man. This

is true. What a man is, sur vives him. It can never be buried.” –

J. R. Miller

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