5Lombard.qxd The establishment and maintenance of organisational effectiveness has, in contemporary management science, become more complex and dynamic (Zeffane, 1996; Hudson, 1999; French & Delahaye, 1996; Weber & Weber; 2001, Kinnear & Roodt, 1998; Appelbaum, St-Pierre & Glavas, 1998). The complexity emerges from greater interdependence among world economies, while the dynamism is a direct result of the information age as well as the global arena organisations operate in. The complex, dynamic and competitive nature of business requires that organisations cannot remain stable for long as constant change external to organisations require constant change within. In fact, it is argued, that organisations are only as successful as their efforts to respond to changes in the environment and adapt accordingly. This requires effective change management at all levels in the organisation, but nowhere is this more important than at the interface with customers and clients. For change efforts to be regarded as truly successful, one cannot only measure how effective the change strategy is or how well it is led, but rather the extent to which the change efforts have led to improved service delivery and increased client satisfaction (Appelbaum et al, 1998; Moran & Brightman, 2001). A critical factor in the provision of excellent service delivery is the first-line manager, as their influence and responsibility extends to operative employees – those people responsible for ensuring high quality service and products. The effectiveness of change interventions in organisations will thus largely be determined by the competence of first-line managers to facilitate the desired change through and with operative employees (Moran & Brightman, 2001). This view is supported by Katzenbach (in Appelbaum et al; 1998) who stresses that the most difficult aspect of change efforts lies in changing people and their skills, knowledge and behaviour. This is particularly challenging given the natural tendency of people to resist change. Most people are suspicious about the unfamiliar; and are naturally concerned about how to get from the old to the new, especially if it involves learning something new and risking failure (De Jager, 2001). The danger however lies in the fact that resistance to change, particularly at operative levels manifests in the delivery of sub-standard outputs, which can drive customers to the competition. It is thus crucial that first- line managers should be able to deal with resistance to change in an effective manner. Given the importance of first-line managers and their capacity to manage resistance to change, the focus of this paper is on the identification of competencies required by first-line managers to effectively manage resistance to change. To derive these competencies, it will be necessary to discuss the concept of resistance to change in greater detail as well as consider the requirements for successful change, as these pertain to first-line managers. RESISTANCE TO CHANGE Resistance refers to any opposition to a shift in the status quo. In physical terms, resistance means “to slow a process down” or to “put obstacles in the way of goal achievement” (Mariotti, 1998, p.140). Resistance to change thus refers to an expression of reservation that arises as a response or reaction to change (Mabin, Forgeson & Green, 2001). This response is viewed as natural as change involves unlearning habitual patterns and learning new ways of thinking and feeling which result in new behaviours (Claxton, 1999; Gratton, 2001). This process is obviously anxiety provoking and hence the resistance (Kets de Vries, 2002). Two terms closely associated with describing resistance to change, are “fear of loss” and “fear of the new” (Coker, 2000, p. 24). The aspect of loss is particularly pertinent and the following factors may contribute to a fear of loss (Coker, 2000; Mabin et al, 2001; Kets de Vries, 2002; Seely, 2000; Pheng, 1999): � Individual factors (personality factors such as a high need for control, locus of control, need for achievement, etc.; attitudes based on previous experiences of change) � Economic loss (loss of job, reduction in earnings or less opportunity for economic growth) � Inconvenience (more work for the same pay, more effort for the same output, greater responsibility and no additional rewards) � Threats (increased insecurity, anxiety or worry) � Power (loss of control and having inferior knowledge or levels of competence) CN LOMBARD A CRAFFORD Leadership in Performance and Change Programme Department of Human Resource Management Rand Afrikaans University ABSTRACT Continuous changes in the needs of markets require effective change management at all levels in organisations. First-line managers are directly responsible for meeting the demands of clients and resistance to change at this level could result in sub-standard outputs. The effectiveness of change interventions will be largely determined by the competence of first-line managers to facilitate the desired change taking into account resistance to change. The purpose of this article is to identif y competencies required by first-line managers to deal with resistance to change. The findings are based on a literature study and functional analysis. OPSOMMING Kontinue verandering in die behoeftes van markte vereis effektiewe bestuur van verandering in alle vlakke van organisasies. Eerstelyn bestuurders is direk verantwoordelik daarvoor om aan verwagtinge van kliënte te voldoen, want weerstand teen verandering op hierdie vlak kan tot sub-standaard uitsette aanleiding gee. Die effektiwiteit van veranderingsintervensies in organisasies sal grootliks afhang van die bevoegdheid van eerstelyn bestuurders om die verwagte verandering te weeg te bring met in agneming van weerstand teen verandering. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om bevoegdhede te identifiseer wat eerstelyn bestuurders sal benodig om weerstand te kan hanteer. Die bevindinge is gebaseer op ‘n literatuur studie en funksionele analise. COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRST-LINE MANAGERS TO DEAL WITH RESISTANCE TO CHANGE Requests for copies should be addressed to: CN Lombard, Department of Human Resource Management, RAU University, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006 42 SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2003, 1 (1), 42-52 SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 2003, 1 (1), 42-52 � Social disruption (group cohesiveness; reduced contact with trusted friends or family) � Losing face (the fear of appearing foolish in the face of new demands) Resistance to change can furthermore be distinguished at three different levels (Mariotti; 1998, Maurer, 2000). Level 1 resistance is based on a lack of information or on honest disagreement over the facts. Level 2 entails personal and emotional resistance and manifests because people are afraid that change may cost them their jobs, reduce their control, or cause them to lose face. Finally, level 3 is associated with employee’s managers or what these managers represent. In these situations, people will resist almost any changes that are suggested to them, as they link “change” and “management” with one another. Managing resistance to change There are two crucial aspects that underlie the successful management of resistance to change. Both an understanding of individuals and the differences that exist between employees together with knowledge of the behaviour underlying the resistance to change are required. George and Jones (2001) stressed that change efforts should be focussed on an individual level as change is initiated and implemented by individuals, despite organisations being collective entities. Managers interested in successfully managing change must learn how to encourage individuality, and need to legitimate, respect, and value diverse individual experiences (Steiner, 2001). This includes being aware of the abilities and strengths of each individual and the capacity to capitalise on these in the context of work team. First-line managers should be able to support employees on an individual basis to deal with the envisaged change (Kets de Vries, 2002). Dealing with the concerns of employees will help identif y the reasons for resistance and enable managers to deal with these proactively (Bechtel & Squires, 2001; Coker, 2000). Ignoring people issues can lead to failure in achieving successful change (Bechtel & Squires, 2001; Folger & Skarlicki, 1999). In managing resistance to change, first-line managers may also be required to deal with resistant behaviour in the team context, for example group decision-making sessions (George & Jones, 2001; Mabin et al, 2001). The first-line manager should also have a basic understanding of what underlies and influences employee behaviour in the context of change. It is recognised that human behaviour is complex and the factors influencing it, extensive. Nevertheless, it is necessary that the first-line manager be aware of the factors influencing behaviour and learning, as a basis for managing the change process. As stated, change involves learning new ways of thinking and feeling, which result in new behaviours. The relationship between these factors in behaviour and learning is complex and an in-depth analysis is beyond the scope of this article. For this reason, the assumption is made that emotions and cognition interact and mutually influence each other and result in behaviour. (Kets de Vries, 2002; Kotter & Cohen, 2002). A brief discussion of each of these factors and their role in the change process follows. Cognition is shaped by perceptions as individuals filter and selectively process information from their environments. In this way, people choose from available information that which they would like to believe and may ignore information that challenges the world as they wish to perceive it. An important aspect with regard to change is the degree to which employees perceive the organisation to be ready for change. Defined as “the cognitive precursor to the behaviours of either resistance to, or support for, a change effort”, these perceptions can facilitate or undermine the effectiveness of a change intervention (Eby, Adams, Russel & Gaby, 2000, p. 419). Employees respond to what is happening in their environment and based on their perceptions, make assumptions about the change process. These may be accurate or inaccurate but will influence whether change is resisted or not. For this reason, understanding employees’ perceptions regarding the readiness for change is necessary in dealing with resistance to change. Emotions are relatively intense affective states that interrupt ongoing thought processes and behaviours. They arise when discrepancies are encountered that are relevant to one’s personal well-being or goals and objectives. Emotions are thus functional and adaptive in that they provide signals of sit uations that are personally relevant and in need of attention. Emotions are triggered by thought processes, which in turn motivate cognitive activity and behaviour to deal with the emotion-triggering situation (Goleman, 1996; George & Jones, 2001). Behaviour that manifests itself as resistance to change is thus not only based on what people think, but the feelings they experience during the change process (Kotter & Cohen, 2002). The afore-mentioned discussion suggests that first-line managers should guide the individual through a cognitive process to ensure an understanding of what the change entails and the impact thereof on the individual. This impact should be defined in terms what the person will need to let go of, what competencies will be required to be effective in the new environment, and what support will be needed to achieve personal success. In addition, the individual must be supported on an emotional level as they confront natural feelings of fear and loss. SUCCESSFUL CHANGE In addition to understanding resistance to change, it is also necessary to identif y characteristics of successful change efforts as these provide further guidelines in the successful management of resistance to change. Successful change can be described as the flexibility that organisations show to be able to proactively respond to changes in the market or external environment (Appelbaum et al, 1998). The following characteristics are regarded as crucial in successful change efforts. Overcoming managerial resistance to change The misconception exists that managers do not resist change and that resistance only comes from operative employees. Van Buren and Werner (in Appelbaum et al, 1998) stated that the resistance of middle and first-line managers is often identified as a major implementation barrier. These managers are afraid of losing their jobs and are threatened because of pressure applied by senior management to redefine their roles from primarily directing to coaching and counselling. It is however crucial that managers are willing, able, allowed and supported in dealing with change first before they attempt to facilitate change in the lower levels of the organisation. First-line managers should have a comprehensive understanding of the envisaged change and not allow their own fears to inf luence the way they communicate change to their areas of responsibility. In doing so, they take personal responsibility for change in their areas of responsibility and influence. Business case for change Once the triggers for change have been identified, successful change is characterised by a strong business case for the proposed change. In this instance it is important for managers to be able to see the bigger organisational picture to be able determine which success criteria will be most important for their area of responsibility and influence. Supporting the business case for change should be the strategic direction of the organisation in the form of a vision and mission (Clarke & Meldrum, 1999; Mabin et al, 2001; Bechtel & Squires, 2001; Corporate Executive Board, 2001c). Although senior COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS 43 management develops the organisational business case, first-line managers should be able to cascade change strategies to their areas of responsibility and derive a business case for their area of influence. This should encourage first-line managers to take ownership of the envisaged change. In addition, the first-line managers should also be able to encourage change from the bottom up, as successful change efforts need not always be top-down (Zeffane, 1998). Organisations would benefit from first-line managers that are able to identify potential areas of change through and with their teams that can improve the product or service delivery of the organisation. Focus on the customer Organisations that facilitate effective change manage to focus on customers and their needs. They invest in ways to improve sales, provide superior service to clients, and they do not forget that their customers and their needs underlie the organisation’s existence (Appelbaum et al, 1998). First-line managers should continuously strive to address the following seven questions in their operational areas of responsibility (Rampersad, 2001): � Who are my customers? � What do they need? � What is my product or service? � What are my customers’ expectations and measures? � Does my product or service meet their expectations? � What is the process for providing my product or service? � What action is required to improve my process? By addressing these questions the first-line manager can identif y opportunities for change and increasing the economic value of products and services. It can also serve as impetus for first-line managers to formulate a business case for change at their level. Effective communication A strong business case for change without an effective communication strategy will result in haphazard change efforts (Buckingham & Coffman, 2001; Mabin et al, 2001; Bechtel & Squires, 2001; Corporate Executive Board, 2001b; Seely, 2000; Zeffane, 1996). The communication strategy should include information on what will happen, when it will happen, and how it will happen. By describing step-by-step what will take place, management will be more apt to gain support from others and reduce resistance. Because change is most effectively facilitated one person at a time (Corporate Executive Board, 2001b; Buckingham & Coffman, 2001; Zeffane, 1996) communication should be cascaded through the organisation to various levels and areas of responsibility. The goal is to ensure that all people receive the communication and to facilitate a process of change, one person at a time (Appelbaum et al, 1998; Seely, 2000). Furthermore, managers need to listen to the views, protests and problems of subordinates who are likely to understand the implications of the changes in their areas of influence. To ensure effective communication, managers should communicate what they know, and assure employees that they will never be intentionally deceived. Managers can offer to answer questions and explain why some questions cannot be answered, as the information may not be available (Lewis, 1998; Kotter, 1996; Kotter & Cohen, 2002). This implies that first-line managers should be empowered to answer questions on a needs basis and only do so once they fully understand the process. Leadership In a study conducted by the Corporate Executive Board (2001a) it was evident that the leadership competencies of relevant people should be at higher than acceptable levels before any attempt to change is made. Though the leadership does not always initiate successful change, it should be owned and driven by them (Walker, 1999; Kotter & Cohen, 2002). Leadership during times of change requires courage as the leader may be required to do the following (Burdett, 1999): � Stand alone � Take tough decisions � Say “no” � Stand up against unnecessary bureaucracy � Admit to making mistakes � Admit that he of she is part of or the source of the problem � Overcome fears of making mistakes � Lead from the presumption of truth The first-line manager should demonstrate an ability to lead their teams towards goal achievement. In doing so, they will have to live their personal visions of the change and lead their teams through effective communication, motivation and influence. People development The next requirement, individual and team development, is often neglected by organisations in attempting to implement successful change (Bechtel & Squires, 2001; Corporate Executive Board, 2001a; Kotter & Cohen, 2002; Seely, 2000). Change efforts require from individuals new skills and competencies, which can only be developed if the necessary ability, motivation and self- esteem are present. Where the challenges posed by the proposed change appear to outweigh the capacity of individuals to develop, resistance to change is likely to occur. For this reason, the first-line manager must be able to identif y and facilitate the development of the requisite skills in the individuals in their team. This should be done on an individual basis, in conjunction with each team member, and should result in a development plan of action that will clearly indicate the commitment of the organisation and the individual to ensure competence. Structured implementation of change Another requirement for successful change is the application of structured approaches to change implementation. The most effective methods typically integrate attention to human issues (commitment, resistance, follow-through, etc.) with attention to the technical issues usually incorporated into project management methods (Hoopes & Hale, 1999; Seely, 2000). This will require managers to have both excellent human relations and project management skills. They will require a clear understanding of the change supported by project management competencies to implement the change. They will also need to make time allocations for attending to the human issues involved and ensure that all the people dimensions are addressed. Effective monitoring and control Hoopes and Hale (1999) identified the necessity for monitoring and evaluation as a key principle in successful change, to ensure a results-based focus. The aim is to determine the payoffs achieved from the initiative and to learn valuable lessons about implementation that can be used to strengthen future changes. The goal of effective monitoring and control is to develop desirable behaviour and overcome those behaviours that may jeopardise change efforts. The first-line manager is responsible for coaching employees in this regard. Crucial in monitoring and control is the perception of fairness as in creating a fair workplace, resistance can be limited (Lewis, 1998). Structure to support strategy achievement Successful change in organisations requires structures that meet the needs of the organisational strategic direction. Appelbaum et al (2000), and the Corporate Executive Board (2001a) found that the involvement of employees in determining appropriate structures to facilitate change leads to effective structures that work. This will require first-line managers to design a team that will effectively facilitate change and allocate resources within their area of influence. First-line managers may also advise decision-makers regarding more appropriate organisational structures from their experience of successful change. LOMBARD, CRAFFORD44 Mutually agreed performance goals Managers in successful companies improve performance by achieving agreement or consensus with employees in setting mutually agreeable performance goals. Employee suggestions are actively sought and a positive work-group spirit, serves as a basis for enhanced motivation (Appelbaum, et al, 1998; Seely, 2000). Such an approach can also secure ownership for performance goals as it comes from within and is not simply forced from the top. This will require of first-line managers to facilitate group decision-making and problem solving sessions to ensure optimal input and buy-in from team members. DEDUCTION OF COMPETENCIES Competence is defined as the skills, knowledge, attitudes, attributes and values required in performing a task and the ability to apply them in the work environment (Lindsay & Stuart, 1997; Garavan, Barnicle & O’Suilleabhain, 1999). For the purpose of the study, competence was viewed based on the framework outlined in Figure 1. The deduction of competencies was based on the work of Fletcher (1997) and the National Examination Board for Supervisors and Management (1998). Fletcher (1997) is of the opinion that a functional approach reflects a broader concept of competence. This implies a focus on tasks as well as the way these are organised in the work role and management contingencies. Competence-based standards for effective performance are derived through a process of functional analysis. This is a top-down analytical approach of what the target group of employees should be able to do in the work environment and begins with the key purpose of the designated position in an organisation. In the context of this study, the key purpose of first-line managers is to deal with resistance to change. Analysis of the key purpose should result in the identification of key work roles, which are derived from the key purpose. Key roles are determined by asking the question: ‘what has to happen for the key purpose to be fulfilled?” (National Examining Board for Supervisors and Management (NEBS & M), 1998, p. 8). This approach will support a clear focus on the roles that should be performed rather than only the “the job” (Fletcher, 1997). To formulate the competencies listed in Tables 1 to 14, it was necessary to consider the theory of resistance to change and the management thereof as well as the requirements for successful change. The functional analysis of the information from the literature study resulted in the identification of key roles that first-line managers will perform to manage resistance to change effectively. Fletcher (1997) suggests that the analytical process continues until “units of competence” are identified. These are described as activities that can be undertaken by one individual that have real meaning in the workplace (Fletcher, 1997; NEBS & M, 1998). Each key role was analysed to determine the units of competence that comprise of specific work activities that are grouped together with other related work activities. To define units of competence, the question “What has to happen for this key role to be achieved?” was asked. The next step in the functional analysis process is the identification of “elements of competence”. Elements of competence can be described as detailed steps or descriptions of performance expected to ensure the delivery of a unit of competence (NEBS & M, 1998). These are broad steps that can be followed to ensure the achievement of the related unit of competence. Stated differently, elements of competence are the things that responsible people should be able to do in the workplace in order to complete functions. In the functional analysis the question is asked: “What has to happen for the unit of competence to be achieved?” To derive the competencies from the elements of competence, a functional analysis was conducted within the framework of a business process to determine the specific inputs required to be successful in the work environment. These inputs are the skills, knowledge, and behaviour (attitudes, attributes and values) that will have to be applied in the work environment to effectively deal with resistance to change. These inputs are, however, not sufficient, as there are organisation specific control guidelines (policies, procedures, rules, legislation, etc) that govern the performance of employees in organisations. There are also tools and equipment that the person should be able to use in the workplace that may be specific to the organisation. Of importance is that all applications of the required competencies take place within organisation-specific conditions and circumstances and that no two organisations are the same in this regard. It is evident that the term first-line manager can be used to describe a broad spectrum of people. For the purpose of this paper the term is used to denote those people assigned with a COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS 45 Figure1 Competency framework (©Chris Lombard, 2002) managerial title and responsibility. The competencies listed will apply to people in this group, but may vary depending on the complexity and diversity of their specific tasks. Outcome of the Functional Analysis During the functional analysis process the following four key roles were identified: � Align the change strategy of the area of responsibility with that of the organisation. � Ensure personal readiness for change. � Minimise resistance to change. � Act as a continual catalyst for change. Although the four key roles are not in a particular sequence, the second key role (Ensure personal readiness for change) should precede the third key role (Minimise resistance to change) as one can only manage change in others when one is prepared oneself. It should also be noted that the manifestation of the last key role in organisations would be ideal for any organisation, as this implies that first-line managers and their teams take ownership for continuous improvement of systems and processes to the benefit of customers and clients. In the discussion that follows each key role is highlighted and the units of competence are given. A breakdown of each unit of competence is provided in the tables following each paragraph. The first key role first-line managers should perform is to align the change strategy of their areas of responsibility with that of the organisation. The units of competence that comprise the first key are listed below. The first-line manager should: � Obtain a comprehensive understanding of the target state of the envisaged change. � Obtain an understanding of customer needs/potential target market. � Conduct a strategic plan for personal area of responsibility � Facilitate planning to determine best-practice solutions These are reflected in Tables 1 – 4. TABLE 1 COMPETENCIES TO OBTAIN A COMPREHENSIVE UNDERSTANDING OF CHANGE Key role: Align change strategy of area of responsibility with that of the organisation Unit of competence: Obtain a comprehensive understanding of the target state of change Elements of competence Competencies· � Schedule meetings Skills with relevant stakeholders that � Networking· understand the � Identif ying sponsors in organisation envisaged target � Scheduling· state· � Questioning· � Formulate suitable � Analytical· questions to obtain � Determining trends and tendencies answers to concerns· � Obtaining commitment from seniors � Facilitate an information session Knowledge with relevant stakeholders· � Organisational structure � Analyse information � Stakeholders and their role in the organisation provided· � The core business processes of the organisation � Identif y additional gaps in information· Behaviour � Ensure all questions regarding the � Assertive· envisaged change � Honest· are answered· � Persuasive· � Ensure open lines of � Resilient· communication for � Proactive further enquiries Control guidelines · � Organisational communication policy Conditions and circumstances · � Deal with senior decision-makers· � Deal with diverse people· � Deal with stakeholders that may not interested in sharing information TABLE 2 COMPETENCIES TO OBTAIN AN UNDERSTANDING OF CUSTOMER NEEDS/POTENTIAL TARGETS Key role: Align change strategy of area of responsibility with that of the organisation Unit of competence: Obtain an understanding of customer needs/potential target market Elements of competence Competencies· � Formulate own Skills understanding of changes in customer � Analytical· target market needs· � Questioning· � Formulate questions � Networking· regarding your � Scheduling· understanding of the � Business writing change in customer � Information processing needs· � Communication � Identif y stakeholders that can provide Knowledge solutions to concerns· � Schedule meetings � Customer needs and requirements with informed � Core business processes stakeholders· � Clarif y personal Behaviour understanding of the envisaged changes· � Assertive· � Obtain requirements � Professional· and suggestions from � Persuasive· stakeholders· � Attention to detail � Document findings � Resilient Control guidelines· � Prescribed company policies and procedures stipulating behaviour when dealing with stakeholders Conditions and circumstances · � Dealing with people external to the organisation· � Dealing with senior decision-makers· � Dealing with diverse people· � Dealing with demanding people TABLE 3 COMPETENCIES TO CONDUCT A STRATEGIC PLAN FOR PERSONAL AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY Key role: Align change strategy of area of responsibility with that of the organisation Unit of competence: Conduct a strategic plan for personal area of responsibility Elements of competence Competencies � Ensure a Skills comprehensive understanding of � Analytical· intended � Conducting a strategic analysis organisational � Goal/objective formulation change � Resource allocation � Ensure a· � Networking· comprehensive � Determining trends and tendencies understanding of impact of change LOMBARD, CRAFFORD46 Knowledge in own area of responsibility � Outcome of the envisaged change � Conduct a strategic· � Outputs and standards in own area of analysis to responsibility determine the � Definition of own area of influence gap � Aspects that you can change and those you � Formulate strategic· cannot change in own area of influence during objectives for short, the change process medium and long � Strategic analysis techniques term � Requirements for effective objective formulation � Allocate resources � Requirements for resource allocation per strategic objective Behaviour � Attention to detail· � Resilient· � Creative· � Objective· � Realistic Equipment · � Personal computer Control guidelines · � Organisational change parameters Conditions and circumstances · � Work in potentially uncertain conditions· � Need to process large quantities of information· � May have to take decisions that will limit or terminate other people’s jobs TABLE 4 COMPETENCIES TO FACILITATE PLANNING SESSIONS TO DETERMINE BEST-PRACTICE SOLUTIONS Key role: Align change strategy of area of responsibility with that of the organisation Unit of competence: Facilitate planning to determine best-practice solutions Elements of competence Skills � Formulate the � Formulation of a problem statement scope of the change � Project scoping (problem statement)· � Analytical � Confirm accuracy � Organising of problem � Facilitation statement with � Problem solving internal/external � Decision-making client· � Conflict resolution � Analyse the � Planning problem statement· � Contingency planning � Determine all the � Drafting project plans elements that � Scheduling should be addressed � Business communication to solve the problem· � Formulation of performance standards � Compile a suitable � Formulation of responsibilities task team to take � Information processing part in the problem � Resource allocation solving process· � Obtaining commitment from team members � Facilitate best � Obtaining commitment from seniors practice solutions � Listening for each element of the problem Knowledge statement· � Draft a contingency � Client requirements plan for each � Group problem solving techniques element of the � Conflict resolution techniques problem· � Capabilities of team members � Draft a project plan to phase in best Behaviour practice solutions· � Schedule activities· � Assertive � Formulate � Resilient performance � Transparent standards for each � Objective deliverable· � Fair � Allocate � Responsible responsibilities· � Communicate Equipment standards and deadlines to the � Presentation media people responsible· � Allocate resources Conditions and circumstances � Need to take responsibility for decisions· � Deal with diverse people· � Deal with conflict Note: The group activities are aimed at achieving a high quality and high ownership solution The second key role is to ensure a personal readiness for change. The unit of competence required is to prepare themselves for change, as outlined in Table 5. TABLE 5 COMPETENCIES TO PREPARE FOR CHANGE Key Role: Ensure a personal readiness for change Unit of Competence: Prepare for change Elements of competence Competencies � Ensure a Skills comprehensive understanding of the � Analytical envisaged change· � Introspection � Determine how � Personal competence analysis change will impact � Personal goal setting on self· � Networking � Determine what � Identif ying sponsors in organisation will be required � Scheduling to be successful � Questioning in the transition � Information processing period· � Determine how Knowledge change will impact on personal life· � Target state of change � Formulate sacrifices � Own capabilities and limitations that need to be made· � Personal goals � Determine potential � Career goals ‘losses”· � Competencies required to be effective in � Determine the change process competencies that � Where to lobby support will be required to be effective in Behaviour the changed environment· � Attention to detail � Obtain � Objective organisational � Rational· support to facilitate � Resilient· competence· � Self motivated � Draft a plan of � Emotionally mature action to ensure � Honest with self personal readiness � Proactive for change· � Commit to change Equipment · � Personal plan of action Conditions and circumstances · � Might have to make personal sacrifices to be successful in future· � Need to take important career decisions· � Might need to develop a whole new range of competencies to be successful· � Need to be able to show emotional maturity The third key role is to minimise resistance to change. The units of competence required are listed as follows: � Conduct an audit of individual strengths and weaknesses of team members by involving them in the process. � Compile individual communication strategies. � Compile team communication strategies. � Conduct individual information sessions. � Compile individual development plans. � Facilitate development of team members. � Agree on a code of conduct governing behaviour during change. COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS 47 These are reflected in Tables 6 – 12. TABLE 6 COMPETENCIES TO CONDUCT AN AUDIT OF INDIVIDUAL STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF TEAM MEMBERS BY INVOLVING THEM IN THE PROCESS Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Conduct an audit of individual strengths and weaknesses of team members by involving them in the process Elements of competence Competencies � Analyse each Skills team member � Managing diversity individually· � Assessment of individual strengths and � Determine development areas individual strengths � Forecasting and development � Talent identification areas· � Interview preparation � Determine potential � Determining trends and tendencies individual responses � Reflection to ensure trained subjectivity to change· � Determine talents Knowledge that can be utilised in the facilitation � Strengths and development areas of each of change· team member � Determine the � Performance results of individual team ability of each members individual to � Emotional intelligence understand the � Feedback techniques envisaged change· � How to deal with different types of � Determine responses from people potential emotions that individuals Behaviour might experience when change is � Trained subjectivity communicated to � Honest· them· � Fair � Determine possible strategies for each Equipment individual when communicating � Team member analysis sheets change Control guidelines · � Relevant legislation protecting the individual Conditions and circumstances · � Need to be objective with regards to all team members· � Prepare to deal with emotional responses from team members TABLE 7 COMPETENCIES TO COMPILE INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Compile individual communication strategies Elements of competence Competencies � Consider the Skills profiles of each individual· � Analytical· � Determine the � Impact analysis impact that the � Developing interview approach strategies change could � Questioning have on each � Determining trends and tendencies individual· � Consider strengths and development Knowledge areas· � Consider the � Strengths and development areas of each potential team member emotions that � Personal circumstances of individual individuals team members might experience· � Personality traits of team members � Determine a � Approach strategies for effective feedback individualised � The outcomes of the change process strategy for each � Emotional intelligence person to ensure an understanding Behaviour of the envisaged change· � Objective· � Formulate a � Fair· structure of � Attention to detail questions per � Open and honest individual to ensure that each Equipment individual discovers the � Logbook outcomes of the envisaged change· Control guidelines � Compile a logbook to document � Relevant legislation protecting the rights suggestions and of individuals recommendations to ensure Conditions and circumstances successful change � Need to be willing to listen and deal with people’s personal circumstances· � Need to take firm decisions that can influence a person’s career TABLE 8 COMPETENCIES TO COMPLETE TEAM COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Compile team communication strategies Elements of competence · Competencies � Determine the Skills message that should be conveyed to � Analytical the team � Questioning· � Predict potential � Forecasting· responses to the � Determining trends and tendencies information � Communicating with teams � Prepare answers � Facilitation of team dynamics for potential concerns or questions Knowledge � Determine a best · strategy to � Strengths and development areas of communicate the each team member message to ensure � Strong personalities in the team optimum impact � Potential responses from dominating members· � Personality traits of team members· � Approach strategies for effective feedback· � Emotional intelligence· � Group problem solving and decision- making strategies Behaviour · � Objective· � Fair· � Attention to detail· � Open and honest Equipment · � Presentation media Control guidelines · � Relevant legislation protecting the rights of individuals Conditions and circumstances · � Need to be able to deal with group conflict· � Need to facilitate group sessions with diverse people Note: The need might arise in teams to obtain information relating to the change in the organisation. This will require of the first-line manager to be able to also be competent in communicating to groups or teams. LOMBARD, CRAFFORD48 TABLE 9 COMPETENCIES TO CONDUCT INDIVIDUAL INFORMATION SESSIONS Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Conduct individual information sessions Elements of competence · Competencies � Prepare the identified Skills strategy per person· � Schedule the � Scheduling· information session· � Interviewing· � Determine existing � Questioning· levels of � Empathetic listening understanding of � Communication in English the envisaged � Communicating with an interpreter change· (if required) � Ask questions to test � Analytical· their understanding � Determining trends and tendencies of the change· � Conflict handling � Provide information � Problem solving as required per � Dealing with emotions individual· � Obtaining commitment from people � Encourage � Coaching· individuals to � Individual leadership explore the impact of the change on Knowledge themselves· � Determine if they � Individual strengths and development have solutions or areas· suggestions to � Personal circumstances of individuals address their � The envisaged change process concerns· � Questioning techniques � Facilitate problem � Emotional intelligence solving sessions � Typical behaviour of people when per individual to confronted with change agree on solutions to concerns· Behaviour � Allow individuals to express their � Assertive· concerns and � Objective emotions· � Firm· � Demonstrate � Fair· empathy and � Honest· understanding · � Patient· � Agree to plans � Empathy of action Equipment · � Prepared personal files per individual Control guidelines · � Legislation protecting the rights of individuals Conditions and circumstances · � Deal with people who are experiencing their emotions· � Give negative feedback to people· � Give positive feedback to people· � Deal with conflict on a one-on-one basis· � Deal with stubborn people· � Deal with diverse people TABLE 10 COMPETENCIES TO COMPILE INDIVIDUAL PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Compile individual personal development plans Elements of competence · Competencies � Compare requirements Skills of existing roles with that of new roles after � Interviewing· the change process Assess individual competence � Determine potential � Identification of competencies to be able competencies that to perform required tasks should be addressed � Formulation of learning and development to ensure individual contracts is ready to deal with � Questioning· envisaged change· � Analytical· � Facilitate individual � Determining trends and tendencies in discussions with development needs of team members team members· � Obtaining commitment from people � Agree on best practice solutions to address Knowledge competencies· � Formulate learning � The structure of tasks in the changed and development environment· contracts· � Competencies required to be effective � Agree to a plan of � Individual levels of competence· action � Options for development � Obtain commitment Behaviour· � Development oriented· � Assertive· � Fair· � Objective Equipment � Learning and development contracts Control guidelines· � Relevant company policies and procedures· � Relevant legislation Conditions and circumstances· � Deal with stubborn people· � Deal with diverse people TABLE 11 COMPETENCIES TO FACILITATE DEVELOPMENT OF TEAM MEMBERS Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Facilitate development of team members Elements of competence · Competencies � Communicate the Skills training and development needs � Networking· of team members to � Identif ying sponsors in organisation relevant stakeholders � Scheduling· in the organisation· � Questioning· � Obtain commitment � Analytical· for the development � Determining trends and tendencies in the process· development needs of team members � Agree on an � Obtaining commitment from people in implementation functional departments strategy· � Persuasion· � Provide opportunities � Resource allocation and support to � Team leadership team members Knowledge · � Organisational structure· � People responsible for training and development Behaviour · � Development oriented· � Assertive · � Committed to team members· � Proactive Equipment · � Internal communication channels Control guidelines · � Relevant company policies and procedures· � Relevant legislation Conditions and circumstances · � Liase across functional departments· � Deal with areas outside own area of expertise· � Need to obtain commitment from people across departments COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS 49 TABLE 12 COMPETENCIES TO AGREE ON A CODE OF CONDUCT THAT WOULD GOVERN BEHAVIOUR DURING CHANGE Key Role: Minimise resistance to change Unit of Competence: Agree on a code of conduct governing behaviour during change Elements of competence · Competencies � Facilitate a Skills discussion session with team· � Facilitation· � Identif y the potential � Forecasting· concerns from the � Conflict resolution· team· � Questioning· � Agree on acceptable � Listening· behaviour to address � Analytical· concerns· � Obtaining commitment from people � Agree on a process � Motivation· to address concerns· � Team leadership � Agree on a strategy to address acceptable Knowledge and unacceptable behaviour· � Acceptable behavioural standards � Obtain commitment � Format of a code of conduct· to the code � Ethics Behaviour · � Assertive· � Firm· � Objective Equipment · � Presentation media Control guidelines · � Company performance standards· � Company code of conduct Conditions and circumstances · � Deal with diverse team members Note: A code of conduct that would govern behaviour during change will require input from the team members to ensure high ownership. This will require a competency that requires team-related activities. The final key role is to continuously act as a catalyst for change. In order to achieve this, first-line managers should be able to: � Understand the rationale for change. � Develop a business case for change. These are outlined in Tables 13 – 14. TABLE 13 COMPETENCIES TO UNDERSTAND THE RATIONALE FOR CHANGE Key Role: Act as a continual catalyst for change Unit of Competence: Understand the rationale for change Elements of competence Competencies � Obtain information Skills regarding the envisaged change · � Networking· � Compare existing � Identif ying sponsors in organization state with target state· � Questioning· � Determine the � Analytical· change in behaviour, � Determining trends and tendencies process, systems � Business communication and/or technology in the organisation· Knowledge � Determine the change in behaviour, � Business processes process, systems and/ � Core business or technology in own � Client requirements area of influence � Company systems and technology � Ensure a � Own area of responsibility comprehensive � Own area of influence understanding of the reasons for Behaviour change � Communicate � Assertive· concerns and/or � Attention to detail suggestions to � Objective· immediate supervisor � Proactive and/or expert � Ensure that Control guidelines rationale for change is understood � Organisational change strategy document Conditions and circumstances · � Analyse large quantities of information· � Need to communicate with senior stakeholders TABLE 14 COMPETENCIES TO DEVELOP A BUSINESS CASE FOR BOTOOM-UP CHANGE Key Role: Act as a continual catalyst for change Unit of Competence: Develop a business case for bottom-up change Elements of Competence Competencies � Facilitate regular Skills meetings with team members and � Facilitation· customers· � Networking· � Identif y areas for � Problem identification potential � Problem solving with groups improvement· � Decision-making with groups � Facilitate problem � Conflict resolution in groups solving sessions � Business communication with team members � Prepare a business case· � Obtain commitment � Business presentation from team members· � Identif ying sponsors in organisation � Document suggestions � Analyse information to motivate new changes· � Determine advantages � Obtaining commitment from seniors to the organisation· � Build a business case Knowledge for change· � Present to relevant � Organisational processes, systems and decision-makers in technology and behaviour the organisation � Client requirements· � Market demands· � Market trends· � Group problem solving and decision- making techniques · � Group dynamics Behaviour · � Attention to detail · � Accurate· � Creative· � Assertive· � Proactive Equipment · � Presentation media Control guidelines · � Core business of organisation· � Existing company strategies Conditions and circumstances · � Suggest solutions to key stakeholders· � Need to be able to think on levels more complex than existing level in the organisation Note: Bottom-up change implies that input comes from the team. This requires team- related competencies. In summary, the skills, knowledge and behaviour listed below would be used most frequently in managing resistance to change and should thus be priorities in developing first-line managers. LOMBARD, CRAFFORD50 TABLE 15 SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOUR THAT APPEAR MOST FREQUENTLY IN THE FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS Skills Knowledge Behaviour � Analytical � Approach strategies � Assertiveness � Decision-making for providing � Attention to � Determining trends feedback detail and tendencies � Client needs and � Fair � Effective requirements � Firm communication � Emotional � Open and honest � Effective listening intelligence � Patient � Facilitation � Group decision- � Proactive � Interviewing making techniques � Resilient � Networking � Group problem � Trained subjectivity � Motivation solving techniques � Questioning � Personal � Obtaining circumstances of commitment from team members people � Questioning � Persuasion techniques � Problem solving � Strengths and � Scheduling limitations of � Team leadership individual team members � Where to lobby for support in the organisation CONCLUSION In the challenge to ensure the effective management of resistance to change, first-line managers will have to make use of a combination of team as well as individually focused interventions in their areas of responsibilit y. In the process they will have to focus on both the cognitive as well as emotional levels of employees to obtain commitment on an individual and team level. Technical competence is therefore not sufficient to facilitate effective change and first- line managers need to develop their understanding of emot ional intelligence and react ions of people when confronted with change. Furthermore, first-line managers and their teams can play an important role in identif ying opportunities for change in order to improve product and service delivery. Teams will own change initiatives with potentially greater commitment and minimal resistance. First-line managers can therefore contribute to organisational effectiveness and customer satisfaction by persuading decision-makers to implement suggestions from operative employee level. The competencies identified in this study can used to develop outcomes-based interventions to enable first-line managers across various industries to deal with resistance to change within their unique conditions and circumstances. In addition to the developmental value however, an important contribution of the study is to highlight the invaluable role of the first-line manager in implementing effective change interventions. REFERENCES Appelbaum, S.H., St-Pierre, N., & Glavas, W. (1998). Strategic organisational change: The role of leadership, learning, motivation and productivity. Management Decision, 36 (5), pp. 289 – 301. Bechtel, R.L., & Squires, J.K. (2001). Tools and techniques to facilitate change. Industrial and Commercial Training, 33 (7), pp. 249 – 254. Buckingham, M. & Coffman, C. First, break all the rules. What the world’s greatest managers do differently. London: Simon & Schuster Business Books. Burdett, J.O. (1999). Leadership in change and the wisdom of a gentleman. Participation & Empowerment: An international journal, 7 (1), pp. 5 – 14. Clarke, M., & Meldrum, M. (1999). Creating change from below: Early lessons for agents of change. The Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 20 (2), pp. 70 – 80. Claxton, G. (1999). Wise up: The challenge of life-long learning. London: Bloomsbury. Coker, C. (2000). Resistance to change and obstacles that can be overcome. Business Journal: Ser ving Jacksonville & Northeast Florida, 15 (17), p.24. Corporate Executive Board, (2001a). Change management models and business applications. Corporate Leadership Council Fact Brief, pp. 1 – 20. Corporate Executive Board, (2001b). Communicating corporate change. Corporate Leadership Council Fact Brief, pp. 1 – 3. Corporate Executive Board, (2001c). Preparing for corporate change. Corporate Leadership Council Fact Brief, pp. 1 – 3. De Jager, P. (2001). Resistance to change: A new view of an old problem. Futurist, 35 (3), pp. 24 –27. Eby, L.T., Adams, D.M., Russel, J.E.A., & Gaby, S.H. (2000). Perceptions of organisational readiness for change: Factors related to employees’ reactions to the implementation of team-based selling. Human Relations, 53 (3), pp. 419 – 439. Fletcher, S. (1997). Designing Competence-Based Training. London: Kogan Page. French, E., & Delahaye, B. (1996). Individual change transition: Moving in circles can be good for you. Leadership & Organisational Development Journal, 17 (7), pp. 22 – 28. Folger, R., & Skarlicki, D.P. (1999). Unfairness and resistance to change: Hardship as mistreatment. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12 (1), pp. 35 –50. Garavan, T.N., Barnicle, B., & O’Suilleabhain, F. (1999). Management development: Contemporary trends, issues and strategies. Journal of European Industrial Training, 23 (4/5), pp. 191 – 207. George, J.M., & Jones, G.R. (2001). Towards a process model of individual change in organisations. Human Relations, 54 (4), pp. 419 – 439. Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury. Gratton, L. (2000). Living strategy: Putting people at the heart of corporate success. London: Prentice Hall. Hoopes, L.L., & Hale, S.L. (1999). Facing the challenge of change. CPCU Journal, 55 (2), pp. 90 – 103. Hudson, M.P. (1999). Conflict and stress in times of change. Library Management, 20 (1), pp. 35 – 38. Kets de Vries, M.F.R. (2002). Can CEO’s change? Yes but only if they want to. Paper presented to the INSEAD Alumni at a breakfast meeting at the Grace Hotel on 4 July 2002. Kinnear, C., & Roodt, G. (1998). The development of an instrument for measuring organisational inertia. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 24 (2), pp. 44 – 54. Kotter, J.P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston: HBS Press. Kotter, J.P., & Cohen, D.S. (2002). The Heart of Change. Boston: HBS Press. Lewis, B. (1998). Managing change is not enough: You must create a culture that embraces it. InfoWorld, 20 (45), p. 105. Lindsay, P.R., & Stuart, R. (1997). Reconstruing competence. Journal of European Industrial Training, 21 (9), pp. 326 – 332. Mabin, V.J., Forgeson, S., & Green, L. (2001). Harnessing resistance: Using the theory of constraints to assist change management. Journal of European Industrial Training, 25 (2/3/4), pp. 168 –191. Mariotti, J. (1998). The challenge of change. Industry Week, 247 (7), p. 140. Maurer, R. (2000). What blocks support? Journal for Quality and Participation, 23 (3), p. 47. Moran, J.W., & Brightman, B.K. (2001). Leading organisational change. Career Development International, 6 (2), pp. 111 – 118. National Examining Board for Supervisors and Management (NEBS & M). 1998. NVQ/SVQ in Management Level 3. London: Crown. COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS 51 Pheng, L.S. (1999). Towards managerial efficacy: Back to 2,000- year-old guiding principles. The Learning Organisation, 6 (3), pp. 121 – 131. Rampersad, H. (2001). 75 Painful questions about your customer satisfaction. The TQM Magazine, 13 (5), pp. 341 – 347. Seely, C. (2000). Change Management: A base for knowledge- sharing. Knowledge Management, 3 (4), pp. 24 – 29. Steiner, C. (2001). A role for individuality and mystery in “managing” change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 14 (2), pp. 150 – 167. Walker, C. (1999). Making change work for you. Women in business, 51 (4), pp. 51 – 53. Weber, P.S., & Weber, J.E. (2001). Changes in employee perceptions during organisational change. Leadership & Organisational Development Journal, 22 (6), pp. 291 – 300. Zeffane, R. (1996). Dynamics of strategic change: Critical issues in fostering positive organizational change. Leadership & Organisational Development Journal, 17 (7), pp. 36 – 43. LOMBARD, CRAFFORD52