6Els.qxd


In this article, the development of a theoretical holistic model

that explained wellness was initially described. The contents of

this wellness model provided a conceptual understanding of all

the relevant factors that explain holistic wellness. The holistic

wellness model contributed to theory building in the fields of

organisational and positive psychology (psychofortology). 

The Indivisible Self: An Evidence-Based Model of Wellness that

consists of 17 wellness and 4 contextual factors is an existing

inventory that was successfully used abroad as a clinical wellness

model in an organisational context (Myers and Sweeney, 2005).

This wellness model served as base for the empirical assessment

of the tenability of the 5 Factor Wellness Inventory. A principal-

axes factor analysis of a data set obtained by means of the new

wellness inventory, for the first time ever in a South African

study, confirmed the factor structure of previous wellness

research done abroad. Statistics of the wellness model, produced

by structural equation modelling, confirmed a 19-factor model

with reasonably goodness-of-fit indices. The empirical research

data confirmed the appropriateness of The Indivisible Self: An

Evidence-Based Model of Wellness for the insurance

organisation. This wellness model could therefore be used as an

independent model to explain wellness in terms of existing

theory as well as from the results of the current empirical study.

Research applications in the field of positive organisational

behaviour as part of the paradigm of fortology are rapidly

increasing. Both psychofortology and positive psychology

support the development of strengths inherent in human

behaviour. Research into health and wellness in working

contexts contribute to the building of theory in the field of

industrial psychology.

Current research into the phenomenon of wellness is

fragmented. Relevant studies, furthermore, usually focus on

analyses of patterns of relationship between the constituent

components of well-being. Studies of this nature inevitably

require co-relational research designs. In addition, generation of

theory regarding the phenomenon of wellness, as a scientific

objective, especially in organisations, is limited and generally

lacks a holistic and systemic perspective. 

Several Wellness models were developed in the field of clinical

psychology. These models seldom were appropriate for working

environments. The Wheel of Wellness (Sweeney & Witmer, 1991;

Witmer & Sweeney, 1992), The Indivisible Self: An Evidence-

Based Model of Wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2005) and the

Perceived Wellness Model (Adams, Bezner and Steinhardt, 1997)

are some of the more recent wellness models. The Wheel of

Wellness model, as was the case with the other models referred

to, has evolved from existing theories that described and

analysed components of wellness (Myers & Sweeney, 2005).

Counselling psychology has also produced a number of

Wellness models. Wellness models and the many theories that

support them, that were generated by the two aforementioned

disciplines, however, need to be adapted and incorporated into

systemic employee-wellness models if they are to make

meaningful contributions to the field of industrial psychology.

Scientific objective of the study

The scientific objective of the current study was to construct and

psychometrically assess the validity of a holistic wellness model

that might serve as frame of reference for a major life insurance

organisation in South Africa that wanted to implement a series

of health and wellness care interventions on behalf of its

employees. Innovative research that focuses on a holistic,

integrated and systemic understanding of employee wellness is

certainly needed if human scientists are to assist organisations

to manage health and wellness care of employees effectively.

A holistic employee-wellness model that could contribute to a

clearer understanding of the concept work wellness would

require integration of a wide range of components of the

construct wellness. A systemic model of work wellness that

would be widely accepted in the scientific community and

working environment, has to be based on an understanding of

preceding, independent, moderating and antecedent variables

that relate and contribute to the phenomenon of work wellness.

Wellness as a dependent variable is conceptualised within the

life domains of the: (i) family and social interaction; (ii) work;

(iii) spirituality; (iv) emotionality; (v) intellectuality; and (vi)

physicality. 

Several shortcomings in existing scientific knowledge of

wellness in general and work wellness in particular, were briefly

mentioned in the introductory remarks in this paper. Besides

addressing and eliminating many of these shortcomings, the

envisaged work-wellness model also would clarif y the

applicabilit y of the illness-health-wellness continuum to

working environments. The intended wellness model ought to

lead to a more accurate assessment of work-wellness levels

among employees in organisations. Although the illness side of

the continuum was not completely ignored, the existing study

mainly focused on the positive elements of the illness-health-

wellness continuum.

DA ELS
dels@momentum.co.za

RP DE LA REY
rdelarey@icon.co.za

Dept of Human Resource Management

University of Johannesburg

ABSTRACT
The objective of the present study was the development of a holistic theoretical wellness model that served as frame

of reference for the construction of a valid and reliable inventory that was considered suitable for the assessment of

wellness of employees of a South African life insurance organisation. The 5 Factor Wellness Inventory was developed

from existing proven wellness inventories. A non-random sample of 673 employees of the organisation concerned

participated in a cross-sectional survey by completing the Inventory and a biographical questionnaire. Goodness of

fit between the holistic wellness model and a data set derived from the application of the 5 Factor Wellness

Inventory was determined empirically. The structural equation modelling statistics produced acceptable goodness-

of-fit indices albeit with some scope for improvement. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation indices

supported acceptance of the holistic work-wellness model. The validity of the Inventory was also estimated.  

Key words

Holistic, theoretical, wellness model, assessment of wellness

DEVELOPING A HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL

46

SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2006, 4 (2), 46-56

SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 2006, 4 (2), 46-56



|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|

Illness Health Wellness  

Figure 1: Illness-health-wellness continuum

Problem statement

The fact that Wellness is not researched in a positive, holistic,

systemic and integrated manner is a cause for concern (Wissing

& Van Eeden, 1997, Wissing, 2000). Researchers in the health

and social sciences traditionally used a pathogenic paradigm as

point of departure for their investigations and interventions,

which implied an orientation towards abnormality, sickness,

disease and dysfunction as the direct opposite of wellness

(Strümpfer, 1995, 2002). Knowledge thus generated was used to

develop ways for treating and preventing each of these undesired

states of health. Businesses, institutions and professions,

ranging from everyday medical practice to pharmaceutical

companies, from the insurance industry to mass media, all

turned handsome profits by assisting clients to cope with

physical, emotional and behavioural threats as well as by

providing the required treatments (Saleebey, 1997). This one-

sided approach verifies the fact that attention should also be

given to wellness research – an approach implied by the opposite

side of the illness-health-wellness continuum (Antonovsky, 1987;

Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Strümpfer, 1995; Wissing,

2000). This second approach would thus focus on developing

the positive aspects and strengths of human behaviour. 

Recently there has been a growing trend among organisations to

realise the importance of the so-called human factor (Snyder &

Lopez, 2002). Various disciplines highlight the importance of a

“good life” and attend to the total well-being or wellness of

people. Multidisciplinary research merges different theoretical

perspectives into a more realistic wellness paradigm.

Interdisciplinary teams are further better equipped to achieve

holistic integration and a better understanding of wellness

issues. Members of study disciplines other than psychology, all

focus on wellness from their own school of thought and could

contribute meaningfully to joint theory building. Dietary,

nutritional, health and fitness management are examples hereof

but they all tend to avoid a holistic interdisciplinary approach

(Adams et al., 1997). Research into and promotion of holistic

health and wellness requires an integrated and multidisciplinary

approach, even in the case of existing inputs by research

psychologists.  

Psychology as a profession acknowledges the importance of a

holistic understanding of the strengths, coping patterns,

adaptive abilities and growth potential of individuals

(Antonovsky, 1987; Strümpfer, 1995; Seligman &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It is crucial for psychologists to assist

people to achieve higher levels of psychological well-being and

wellness (Dunn, 1961, 1977; Wissing & Van Eeden, 1997). This

requires acceptance of the origins of health and psychological

strengths as a point of departure. Behavioural activities and

personality characteristics that promote wellness and prevent

sickness require sound scientific research. 

Research should focus on the nature, dimensions and dynamics

of wellness at individual, group, organisational and general

population levels. It is important to understand how these

manifest themselves in various phases of the human life cycle

(childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old-age) in different

contexts (cultural, interpersonal, work or technological

surroundings) and by taking into account internal as well as

external risks and protective factors, demographics and other

moderating or mediating variables (Dunn, 1961). Socially

responsible and ethically respectable programmes based on

scientifically validated knowledge (theories and models) must be

developed, and the effectiveness and efficacy thereof analysed

and evaluated. 

Complex philosophical, theoretical and empirical analyses are

essential to research of wellness. Both extensive quantitative

studies using sophisticated research designs and statistical

procedures, as well as rich qualitative investigations exploring

new fields of psychological strengths, are needed (Strümpfer,

2002). Many constructs related to the hypothesised main

constituent components and clusters of wellness also need

clarification (Wissing, 2000) in order to determine to what

degree they share common empirical denotation even though

their basic conceptualisations might differ. Some of these

constructs are well operationalised but others still need more

empirical clarification and verification. 

Wellness is understood as a total person’s approach towards

improving the quality of his or her life, health and psychological

strengths in proactive and positive ways - both as member of a

community and as an employee (Witmer & Sweeney, 1992). It is

acknowledged that wellness is characterised by optimal physical

health as well as psychological and social well-being and not by

the mere absence of illness. Researching wellness requires an

understanding that wellness forms part of a holistic integrated

system and that it is not only a subpart of a system (Strümpfer,

2002). A better understanding of wellness, its theoretical and

conceptual base and its application in organisations is therefore

required. The study under consideration attempted to contribute

to this understanding of wellness in working environments,

especially from a systemic and holistic perspective. 

Widespread attempts had been made to stimulate research into

the origins of strengths in all areas of human well-being

(Antonovsky, 1987, Strümpfer, 1995 and Seligman &

Csikszentimihalyi, 2000). Maslow (1970) provided direction

with his research on growth, self-actualisation and the pursuit of

psychological health that should be acknowledged as the

beginning of a universal human trend. In the fifties wellness was

frequently referred to as wholeness (Adler, 1954) while some

theorists mentioned the human psyche’s need for integration

towards wholeness and health (Jung, 1958, 1960). 

Organisations, like individuals, have to take into account a

continuum that depicts a state of healthy or normal

performance in the middle, with illness and wellness forming

the opposing ends of the same continuum (Cameron, Dutton

& Quinn, 2003). Conditions of negative or deviating

performance that occur on the left of the continuum and states

of positively deviating performance that appear on the right

(representing wellness), illustrate different options to consider

in approaching organisational development (Cameron, 2003).

Negative (illness-health) and positive (health-wellness)

deviance refer to aberrations of harmfulness or healthy

functioning, at one end of the continuum and virtuous

(flourishing) organisations and individuals at the other end

(Keyes & Haidt, 2003).

South African organisations mainly apply a negative (illness-

health) approach to human resource management by focusing

only on the promotion of health, creation of wealth and peak

performance as the key indicators of business success

(Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003). They operate in a

“negative” domain and rely on a medical-remedial paradigm.

These organisations are t y pified by greed, selfishness,

manipulation, secrecy and single-minded focus on winning

(Cameron, 2003). It is further reported that the behaviour of

individuals working in these organisations are characterised

by distrust, anxiet y, self-absorption, fear, burnout and 

feelings of abuse (illness). Industrial conf lict, lawsuits,

contract breaking and retribution arise while disrespect 

for others is observable in many interpersonal interactions 

and relationships within these organisations (Harter, Schmidt

& Keyes, 2003). 

Appreciation, collaboration, virt uousness, vitalit y and

meaningfulness typif y behaviour at the other extreme of the

HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL 47



continuum, namely the health-wellness approach. Creating

wealth and promoting human wellness are key indicators of

success in those organisations that flourish as a result of their

employee’s wellness (Keyes & Haidt, 2003). Employee

behaviour in these organisations are characterised by

trustworthiness, resilience, wisdom, humaneness and high

levels of positive energy application. Self-efficacy, optimism,

hope, happiness and joy, generosity, perseverance, courage,

coping and flow are all indicators of positive organisational

behaviour (Seligman, 1998). Interpersonal relationships are

based on compassion, loyalt y, honest y, respect and

forgiveness. Significant attention is thereby given to what

makes life, and working life per se, meaningful, optimal and

worth living for and these are all emphasised (Cameron,

Dutton & Quinn, 2003).

Clarification of wellness terminology and careful defining of

work wellness will explain some of the ambiguity that is often

observable among psychologists and developmentalists. In this

article, the researcher set out to clarif y the phenomenon of

wellness with the development of a holistic wellness model

specifically of worth to employees. 

Impact of the problem

The illness-health-wellness problems that organisations face

influence all life domains of employees (Hettler, 1984). Problems

that workers perceive and experience as arising from their

physical, emotional, intellectual, social and familial as well as

spiritual life domains are currently becoming dilemmas that

organisations have to face. All of these quandaries emphasise the

fact that wellness is being neglected and that organisations are

preoccupied with only illness management.

The economic impact of illness-health-wellness mismanagement

can be disastrous. The condition of health of employees and

their family members significantly affect absenteeism,

productivity in the workplace and employment costs (Gemson &

Eng, 2004). Gemson and Eng reported a loss of $4.9 million per

year as a result of the prevalence of allergic rhinitis and hay

fever. A total cost of $1 141 per employee per annum in lost

productivity occurred in America. Two conditions of illness

were accountable for the largest part of this significant loss,

namely absenteeism ($496 per employee per annum) and

presenteeism ($645 per employee). 

Total paid expenses in terms of medical aid, sick leave pay,

severance pay, pension contributions, legal benefits, employee

insurance and life cover benefits should all be included in 

any calculation to understand the total economic impact 

(Wyatt, 2004).  

The Business and Health Care Archive (2004) had concerned

itself with the impact of unscheduled absence. The Archive

reported that employers spent about 4.4% of their annual

payroll on incidental absence-related benefits such as leave

taken for sick days. This survey indicated that employee

withdrawal from the workplace led to a large percentage of

staff members not being committed to the goals of their

employers. Van der Westhuizen (2004) reported that one

hundred and fifty million rand per annum was lost by

municipal workers in the Cape Metropolis, due to 29% of the

permanent staff taking leave without permission on Fridays

and Mondays.

Awareness of the negative impact of illness-health-wellness

mismanagement clarifies the importance of and economic

benefit derived from the prevention of illness and the

promotion of wellness. Too many organisations use a

pathogenic approach and accordingly resort to illness

recovery models of health: millions are lost because

organisations simply do not promote wellness. It is therefore

crucial that industrial psychologists take the lead by making

available practical and empirically tested wellness models and

programmes that promote optimal productivity and that at

the same time equip employees with interpersonal flourish

and personal thriving. If management is prepared to invest

some of its resources in work wellness, the implementation of

strategies and organisational development interventions 

that focus on managed health and wellness care will

contribute a great deal to the bottom line of achieving

excellence in organisations.

The current research project attempted to address the above

and other related issues because of the fact that at this stage

management in South Africa generally appeared and still seems

to be uninformed about the impact that employee wellness

programmes could have on the development of their

organisations. This obvious lack of knowledge among

managers leads to mismanagement of the health and wellness

of employees. This in turn limits growth opportunities for

employees, a development that event ually results in

undercommitment of staff within organisations. Optimum

health and wellness management can lead to optimal

productivit y and flourishing organisations. The required

interventions should be based on recognition of and support

for the rights of individuals to determine and manage their

own quality of life and the promotion of it in the working

environment (Huiskamp, 2004). This early in the new

millennium particular organisations should accept

responsibility by supporting employed individuals to develop

their own wellness, and by doing so, also enabling their

respective organisations to also benefit financially and

otherwise from this. A proactive approach to develop

employees’ wellness is generally lacking in South Africa and

elsewhere; research studies need to be undertaken to promote

its potential benefits actively among organisations.

Development of the intended holistic wellness model in the

current research project would therefore provide support to

studies that focus on the evaluation of managed health and

wellness care interventions. 

The stated need of the current research to develop a 

holistic wellness model is attributable to the fact that 

wellness is an integrated construct that cannot be researched

in bits and pieces at any particular time. The development of

an integrated wellness model would help managers to

understand wellness as a holistic system and would also

enable Human Resources consultants to design and

implement specific programmes that address illness, health

and wellness needs in particular organisations. A quasi-model

of holistic wellness would make assessment of interactions

that occur between constructs of wellness possible while a

true holistic wellness model would integrate the effects of 

all of these dynamic wellness factors into an integrated

experience of wellness. The envisaged model to some 

extent would involve the research discipline of positive

organisational scholarship. Its particular contributions

towards managed health and wellness care as well as building

of theory are seen as essential.

Health and wellness

The World Health Organisation had defined optimal health as

a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Wissing (2000)

added further perspective by stating that the

salutogenic/fortigenic paradigm at metatheoretical level

implies that it is important to focus on the health, strengths

and capabilities of human beings. Many researchers (Adams et

al., 1998; Dunn, 1961) have contributed various useful

definitions of the term wellness but for the purposes of this

research project, the comprehensive definition provided by

Myers and Sweeney (2005) was preferred. They defined

wellness as a way of life aimed at optimal health and well-being

in which an individual integrates body, mind and spirit so as to

live more fully within the human and natural context. Ideally,

it is an optimal state of health and well-being that each

ELS, DE LA REY48



individual is capable of achieving in all domains of his or her

life (Myers, Sweeney and Witmer, 2001). An important

prerequisite for the intended development of a wellness model

is the acquisition of optimal physical, emotional and mental

states while working. 

Acquiring wellness at work could be described as a total systems

approach that incorporates development of an optimal self and

pursuit of quality of life by applying all constructs that are

observable in and relevant to a working environment. A focus on

strengths as well as contextual variables that influence human

behaviour at work is required. This would ensure that all human

and other subsystems are integrated into a holistic and systemic

perspective on both the theory of work wellness and on wellness

models. Knowledge derived from such holistic wellness theories

would enable business leaders to understand a systemic

approach to manage wellness of employees better and to equip

them to judge the merits of its application. 

Managers often attend meticulously to an analysis of

organisational culture and climate as indices and measures of

staff morale. Organisational  leadership that diagnose their

companies in this way invariably get valuable snapshots of

important indicators that enable them to intervene and

transform their organisation’s culture towards an ideal state

(Keyes & Haidt, 2003). Such measures are of limited use in any

assessment since they do not necessarily help management to

understand the health and wellness needs of the human capital

employed in their company. The result is that the potential of

employees is not utilised to its fullest extent. Any reactive

approach would lead to a depletion of individual and

organisational resources, and in time to come would result in

burnout of both management and staff (Redelinghuys &

Rothmann, 2004). Effective meeting of strategic needs also

requires a focus on what is not so clearly visible below the

“waterline” of the human capital “iceberg”. 

The full development of the underlying competence and

internal psyche of employees is of great importance in

organisational health and wellness care. It also suggests that

organisations should rely on a proactive approach to

development instead of turning to a reactive pathogenic

paradigm that aims to develop human capital according to a

model of treatment of illness. The present research project

addressed the particular dilemmas that management is facing in

order to assist it to understand holistically how both individuals

and organisations could move towards wellness (Crose, Nicolas,

Gobble & Frank, 1992).

The paradigm of positive psychology provided a valuable

framework for studying wellness in organisations as an

emerging field. Controlled venture into to this field of study

could lead to the formulation of new theories and to an

expansion of existing ones, thus enabling researchers of

wellness to broaden their understanding of the functioning of

human wellness. Research that could analyse and describe how

people develop wellness could lead to a richer and deeper

understanding of their experiencing of wholeness and their

awareness of their own inner strengths (Adler, 1954, 1973;

Antonovsky, 1987, 1993). Whenever research outcomes improve

scientist’s understanding of wellness in organisational contexts,

such contributions at the same time add value to the field of

organisational psychology as well. 

Overall, existing conceptual foundations, models and theories

of wellness, for several reasons, so far have had limited impact

on wellness research. Underutilisation of these research tools

in research projects, unfortunately, led to a scarcity of research

outcomes on wellness for use in further research: their

appropriateness and possible applications thus lacked adequate

empirical evaluation. Wellness concepts, models and theories

seldom in any meaningful way led to the phrasing of vital

research questions or to the directing of programme contents,

design and development. Despite these shortcomings, 

several theories and models of wellness, nonetheless, guided

the present researcher who was interested in the origins,

dynamics and the possibilities of wellness enhancement, 

by making him sensitive to the complex struct ures, 

sit uations and circumstances that characterise this

psychological phenomenon. The researcher used existing

theories to test specific hypotheses on wellness while available

models were adapted to produce a work-related model of 

the phenomenon. A st udy of causal interdependencies 

between psychological constructs and organisational factors 

as well as their practical applications, produced a new 

work-wellness model. This new holistic model of work

wellness also required proper validation. 

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research approach 

In general research of excellence requires a careful validation

of any new conceptual model (or theory) to ensure that all

relevant constructs, components, concepts and principles are

fully integrated into it before an attempt is made to put into

practice. The aforementioned brief guidelines were followed in

the current project. In practice, research ideals are sometimes

not met while limitations become apparent as the research

process evolves. These and other confounding factors and

events in the current project were acknowledged, accepted and

duly reported on.  

The research project under consideration was broadly conducted

in four phases. At first, it was investigative by nature and

consisted of an extensive survey of available literature on work

wellness. In the second stage, the  outcome of this overview of

literature was used to assess the complexity, nature and

interrelatedness of components of wellness and also to identif y

measurable variates (a variate is a variable and a set of individual

test scores linked to it) that were likely to be considered for

inclusion in a preliminary model of employee wellness. Thirdly,

this prior model of employee wellness was converted into a brief

wellness questionnaire that was researched and validated by

means of a cross-sectional survey design (Bethlehem, 1999).

Finally, a new holistic wellness model was formulated from the

results of an extensive empirical investigation involving

advanced statistical methods. The current research project thus

contributed towards an expansion of both theoretical and

applied behavioural science by initially identif ying and mapping

variables linked to a holistic wellness model and by finally

integrating these into an empirically verified model that could

be used in working environments. 

The cross-sectional survey design lent itself to the examination

of stable, long-term states or conditions and allowed the

researcher to make inferences from the sample that could be

generalised to different populations. The empirical study

identified connections between variates and wellness constructs

that were not ascribable to any planned intervention as these

were measured and assessed by means of a validated and

unbiased work-wellness inventory. 

Practical research problems that were addressed in the 

design included errors of measurement. Respondents for

instance did not understand specific questions in the

measuring instrument, processing errors occurred, coding

mistakes were made during data capturing and the third-

variable problem (where a high correlation between two

variables could have been attributed to a third variable that

correlated significantly with them) had to be managed. One of

the profound practical problems of the chosen design was the

fact that it was almost impossible to establish causation

between co-related variates.  A pilot study was conducted to

identif y important sources of error of measurement. The

Statistical Consultation Services of the Universit y of

HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL 49



Johannesburg suggested several controlling techniques to limit

processing errors. Techniques such as multiple regression and

struct ural equation modelling are normally used to

compensate and account for third-variable problems.

Participants

The st udy population of the current research project 

consisted of employees of a major life insurance company in

South Africa. The staff complement of this organisation

consisted of 2 523 employees. A non-random sampling

strategy based on availability, determined the composition of

the sample. All participants, drawn from the different

business units within the organisation under consideration,

volunteered to partake in the present study. None of them had

previously participated in wellness studies. Altogether 673

employees (26.70% of the total staff count) were included in

the actual sample. The sample of participants was judged as

being representative of the staff complement of the

organisation. Detailed assignment of subjects from the

population to the sample approximated the distribution of

biographic attributes of the former in terms of race, marital

status, gender, qualifications and years of service. 

The sample drawn in the st udy mainly consisted of 

employees from the company’s business area Client Services.

Married employees (n=377) formed about 50% of the sample.

Females made up 63% of the sample. The actual sample

predominantly consisted of Whites while lesser numbers of

Coloured, African and Indian employees were included. The

allotment of Afrikaans, English and African speaking

employees was similar to that of the organisation. The sample

was also representative in terms of age distribution: most

participants were in the twenty-six to thirty (n=191) age

group. The age category thirty-six to forty (n=171) formed the

second biggest age group. The characteristics of the sample

were detailed in Table 1.

TABLE 1

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE

Completed years of service Less than 1 year 70

One to two years 51

Two to three years 133

Three to five years 139

Five to ten years 156

Ten years and more 121

Missing 3

Highest academic qualification Less than matriculation 22

Matric 402

Bachelors degree 161

Honours degree 58

Masters degree 10

Missing 20

Home language African 183

English 202

Afrikaans 276

Other 9

Missing 3

Race African 125

White 402

Coloured 76

Indian or Asian 63

Missing 7

Marital status Single 219

Married  377

Separated 6

Divorced 57

Widowed 10

Missing 4

Gender Male 245

Female 424

Missing 4

The contents of Table 1 in some instances reflected missing

values. Some participants had left out biographical information

or did not respond to all questions in the measuring instrument.

In these cases, incomplete data was termed missing data. 

Measuring instrument

A single questionnaire, the 5 Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel

Inventory) was used to measure and assess the different wellness

factors. The validity of this measuring device was empirically

assessed in terms of its rationale, development, contents,

psychometric properties, administration, scoring and reliability.

The wellness-measuring device took approximately thirty

minutes to complete. Variables such as the age of participants

and others could have had an effect on the results of the study.

A biographical questionnaire was therefore included to control

for possible bias effects from variables such as age, gender,

length of service and educational background. 

The original 5 Factor Wellness Inventory was specifically designed

to assess the characteristics of wellness and to help individuals in

making choices toward healthier living (Myers & Sweeney,

2005). An early version of the instrument, the Wellness

Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL), was published in 1998 (Myers &

Sweeney, 2003, 2005). The WEL was constructed from the results

of a number of cross-disciplinary research studies to assess 17

wellness areas identified as correlates of health, quality of life,

and longevity that were depicted in a theoretical wheel model.

The Wellness Inventory is based on confirmation of a single

higher-order wellness factor, five second-order factors as well as

17 third-order factors representing the original hypothesised

areas of wellness. The seventeen areas are grouped as follows

within the five second-order factors:  

� Creative Self - thinking, emotions, control, work, positive

humour.

� Coping Self - leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic

beliefs.

� Social Self - friendship, love.

� Essential Self - spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity,

self-care.

� Physical Self - nutrition, exercise. 

The original wellness model and inventory by construction

and nature are ecological as both include local, institutional,

global, and chronometrical items as context ual variables. 

The 5F-Wel Inventory contained 73 items that were scored 

on scales representative of the higher-order total wellness, 

the five factors of the self, and the 17 third-order factors.

Contextual variables in turn were assessed by 18 items that 

at present are considered experimental since norms for these

are not yet available. American norms for both genders and

ethnic minority groups are available and are based on data

provided by more than 2 093 individuals of varying ages

across the full lifespan. 

Previous reliability estimates provided alpha coefficients that

were uniformly high for the first- and second-order factors:

Total Wellness, 0.90; Creative Self, 0.92; Coping Self and

Social Self, 0.85; and Essential Self and Physical Self, 0.88.

Third-order factor alpha coefficients ranged from 0.70 to 0.87

for all but two of the scales: Self-Care, 0.66 and Realistic

Beliefs, 0.68. Use of the scales in numerous dissertation and

other studies provided evidence of both convergent and

divergent validity when compared with constructs such as

ethnic identity, acculturation, body image, self-esteem, and

gender role conflict.

Researched literature confirmed that the 5F-Wel was the

instrument that best supported the assessment of holistic

wellness. This inventory had produced satisfactory reliability

and validity coefficients in previous studies. The original 5F-Wel

measuring instrument was slightly adjusted to improve its fit to

and application in South African circumstances. Items that were

obviously developed for race groups in the United States of

ELS, DE LA REY50



America were changed to refer to race groups in the South

African context. Use of the 5F-Wel inventory in the current study

was its first use ever with a South African population. 

Research procedures

The scientific objective of the current research project required

a dedicated research design that was based on ten

methodological considerations that also included several

practical steps namely:

� Step 1: The researcher did a survey of literature to extract

knowledge that would lead to a clear holistic

conceptualisation of wellness and further the identification

of constituent components and elements of wellness that

influenced the behaviour and functioning of employees. 

� Step 2: Retrieved information about the components and

elements of wellness guided the choice of items from existing

psychometric tests of general wellness. Items that were

provisionally judged as suitable for inclusion in a wellness

test appropriate for use in a working environment, were

identified. Selected items were mostly taken from the original

5 Factor Wellness Inventory and included in a shortened

psychometric test called the 5F-Wel Inventory. Availability

and administration of the 5F-Wel Inventory guided several

aspects of the empirical study, such as the research design as

well as the construction, assessment and validation of the

final version of the holistic model. 

� Step 3: A formal sample was drawn; the research group was

introduced to the researcher, informed of the purpose,

method, and procedures of the study while participant’s

consent to data access were obtained.

� Step 4: The 5F-Wel Inventory was taken down individually.

Participants responded to all variables included in this

measuring device by answering all questions in the inventory

in a single test session.  

� Step 5: Test-generated raw data, namely the original

individual responses of sampled participants to the test items

in the 5F-Wel Inventory, was captured in a data set. This data

set of 5F-Wel Inventory variates was observable and

unfactored, since it had not yet been subjected to structural

change through statistical manipulation. 

� Step 6: The unfactored set of variates was statistically

analysed to generate provisional feedback for participants.

Participants’ personal results were confidential and handled

as such.

� Step 7: The unfactored set of variates next was transformed by

means of principal-axis factor analysis into a factored data set

that included the factor scores of participants. This method

extracts latent factor structures that underlie an original set of

variates. Latent scores are not directly observable in an

unfactored data set. The extracted latent factor structures and

weights or loadings, produced factor scores for each

participant. 

� Step 8: The factor structures produced by the principal-axis

factor analysis were also used to construct and describe the

new wellness model that was the principal scientific objective

of the current study. The validity of the constructs linked to

the new wellness model was also verified by means of visual

and verbal inspection of the wellness structures. Reliability

estimates, such as the consistency of factor scores produced

by the 5F-Wel Inventory, provisionally were made by using

Cronbach’s formula for the calculation coefficient alpha. 

� Step 9: The validit y of the wellness model was also

determined by means of statistical structured equation

modelling. This approach to  modelling determined the

goodness of fit between the observable or unfactored sets of

variates and the latent or factored data set. From a statistical

perspective, good fit between the two data sets would

confirm the validity of the holistic wellness model.

� Step 10: All available research information on wellness was

integrated into a single body of scientific knowledge that was

handed over to the South African insurance organisation that

became involved in the research project. A number of

conclusions and recommendations were made while

guidelines for future research regarding the implementation

of wellness interventions were provided.

Statistical analysis

Parts of the statistical analysis were done with the SAS

programme (SAS Institute, 2000). Three types of statistics were

calculated with the SAS programme, namely descriptive

statistics, correlation coefficients and Cronbach estimates of

reliability. All factor analytic calculations that were needed to

examine factor structures were done by means of the SPSS

Windows programme (Ferguson & Takane, 1989). The extraction

method used to determine the factor structure was that of

principal-axes factoring. The Oblimin approach with Kaiser’s

normalisation was used for the purpose of rotation. The AMOS

programme (Arbuckle, 1999) was used for the structural

equation model. The statistical methods were explained in more

detail elsewhere. 

The scientific study of wellness is a difficult assignment. The

construct is multifaceted; studying it involves a multitude of

variables and variates as well as requiring use of advanced

multivariate statistics. High-level research focuses on

examining and understanding of patterns of co-relatedness or

interdependence between sets of variates. Several indices of co-

relation are available to describe and analyse patterns of

interrelatedness. Inspection of any large matrix of indices of co-

relation immediately shows that no simple int uitive

interpretation of the pattern of co-relations among a set of

variables is possible (Ferguson & Takane, 1989). Two issues

complicate analysis. Firstly, two kinds of co-relationships or

covariance occur. Variates might co-relate with several other

variates in a data set. Variates of this type appear to measure

part of a common construct since they share communality.

Their mere presence in a data set suggests duplication of

observed variates. A particular variate might not co-relate at all

with any other remaining variates. It thus might measure a

unique component of a construct that is limited to one variate

in the set. Secondly, aggregates of variates tend to form clusters

or patterns of co-relationship: some of these patterns are

observable while others underlie or are latent in a set of variates

and thus are difficult to observe. Factor analysis is a statistical

method that assumes that any set of m variates contains both

communality and uniqueness. The method employs these two

properties to convert the original scores linked to the variates

(raw or unfactored data) into factor scores (factored data) and

uses these to reduce the variables to create a simplified

structure. Reduction implies that the patterns of the original

variates and transformed factor scores differ noticeably: the

converted set carries the latent structure (Harris, 1975).

Factor analysis requires an unfactored or raw data set consisting

of an aggregate of individual test scores linked to a set of m

variates. The statistical method converts the original raw data

into either an m × m intercorrelation matrix or variance-

covariance matrix. Statistical data that forms the elements of a

matrix is obtained by pairing off each variable with every other

in the set to calculate their communality or uniqueness. The

elements of a matrix thus reflect the patterns of co-relation

between all of the available m variates. The m x m matrix next

is transformed into a factor matrix. An index, such as R2 that

estimates communality of variates, is selected from the contents

of a matrix. One variate at a time is compared with all

remaining variates in the set. Their indices of co-relatedness in

the matrix are then converted into factor scores by multiplying

the element values by the estimated index of communality to

produce a set of weights or loadings that describes the latent or

underlying structure of the original variates in the derived

factor. Summation of the factor loadings produce sets of Eigen

values or � values. The calculation procedures are iterative.
Once a set of factor loadings for a particular variate is extracted,

the procedure reduces the intercorrelation or variance-

covariance matrix before a next set of factors for a second

HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL 51



variate is calculated. The matrix with its factor loadings, form an

unrotated matrix. The contents of the unrotated factor matrix

are plotted on a graph where after some method of axis rotation

transforms it into a new set of factor loadings. The new loadings

form a rotated factor matrix that simplifies and improves the

interpretation of factor structures. These steps produce a first-

order factor analysis. A next factor analysis of a matrix of factor

loadings obtained from a previous factor analysis produces a

second-order factor analysis.

In theory, the number of factors extracted by means of factor

analysis usually equals the original number of variates in the

data set. Reduction or simplified structure is achieved by means

of the size of the Eigen values. A researcher can reduce the

number of factors in a data set by comparing their � values with
some or other criterion, such as that of Kaiser. Kaiser suggests use

of � > 1.00 as cut-off point to isolate the more important factors
that explain significant amounts of individual differences from

those that are considered trivial because they contribute very

little (Ferguson & Takane, 1989). 

Some final comments on the use of factor analysis in the current

study were necessary.  In this article, only the results of the first-

order factor analysis were reported. All Eigen values related to

the factors were omitted purposefully. Any attempt to reduce

and simplif y underlying factor structures was considered as

inconsistent with a holistic approach to the proposed wellness �
model. The omission of � values, however, could be problematic.
Factors that play a trivial role by design are included in the

results. These factors usually are the latter ones that contribute

towards a model or a factor structure. Their interpretation could

confound the quality of the holistic model of wellness. Different

types of factor analyses achieve different outcomes. For the

purposes of the current study principal-axes, factor analysis was

used to convert the initial matrix. This type of factor analysis

was a prerequisite for the intended study as it analyses the

relationship between a set of test variates and its derived factors

(Overall & Klett, 1972). 

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (also called coefficients �) as well

as interitem correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the

internal consistency of the measuring instrument (Clark &

Watson, 1995). A psychometric test measures consistently when

all items in an instrument measure a common characteristic; it

describes the extent to which a set of test items are consistent

with the construct that it is supposed to measure (Huysamen,

1994). Multiple measures with the same test are judged as

reliable if they reproduce consistent values. Reliability differs

from validity in that it relates not to what is being measured but

instead how dependable it is measured. Cronbach’s coefficient

alpha is a measure of reliability and ranges from 0,00 to 1,00,

with values of 0,60 to 0,65 suggested as lower limit of

acceptance. Interitem correlation coefficients were used to

determine whether the internal consistencies of the constructs

were not so high as to affect the validity of the 5 Factor Wellness

Scale. Clark and Watson (1995) regarded interitem correlations

between 0,15 and 0,50 as acceptable.

Descriptive statistics that included the arithmetic mean (M),

standard deviation (SD), skewness and kurtosis were calculated

for both the questionnaire and its underlying factor structures.

Means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis are

techniques used to describe characteristics of the variables in a

data set and to compare results. The arithmetic mean is the best-

known measure of central tendency. This specific value is most

representative of the original set of scores from which it was

calculated. A standard deviation denotes the distribution of

individual scores above and below the arithmetic mean; a high

standard deviation infers that this distribution of scores are

widely scattered around the mean (Steyn, Smit, Du Toit &

Strasheim, 1995). Two components of normality were calculated,

namely skewness and kurtosis. An index of skewness points to

symmetry or asymmetry in the spread of individual scores

around the arithmetic mean of a data set. The kurtosis index

describes the peak of the distribution of a tabulated set of

individual scores that might be mesokurtic (normal bell-shape),

platykurtic (flatter that normal) or leptokurtic (higher-peaked

than normal). 

A psychological theory of a phenomenon (construct) consists of

a number of propositions or statements, called indicators of the

construct that links a set of construct-related test variates in a

pattern of causal relationship. Structural equation modelling

(SEM) is a statistical method that examines the plausibility of

complex behavioural theories or models about noteworthy

constructs that researchers have formulated for testing and

verification. The method uses linear structural equation to test

and assess interrelationships between a reproducible set of

observable or measurable individual scores on a number or

variates and an underlying or latent operational definition of an

important construct to which the set of variates presumably

relates. Structural equation modelling eventually demonstrates

the consistency and tenability of propositions about causal

relationship that a model or theory implies. The statistical

method calculates structural equations by means of linear

analysis that yield constants, regression weights, path

coefficients, intercorrelations, errors of measurement and

estimates of latent variables to determine the plausibility of a

particular model. The complex interrelations between the test

variates and the construct scores of the latent variables of a

testable model or theory might be stated verbally, presented

graphically and visually as a path diagram or be converted into

a linear equation formula. SEM analysis requires sound and

logical reasoning to formulate statements that clearly express

assumed relationships between the set of observed scores of a set

of variates and the operationalised latent construct as well as the

setting of important parameters.

The AMOS method also calculates several goodness-of-fit

statistics that assess the plausibility and acceptability of

models. Hypothesised relationships were tested empirically for

goodness of fit with the wellness data. According to Jöreskog

and Sörbom (1993) the chi-square statistic and several other

goodness-of-fit indices, best summarised the degree of

correspondence between implied and observed covariance

matrices. Byrne (2001) suggested goodness-of-fit indices that

require a more pragmatic approach to the evaluation process.

The chi-square (�2), the �2/ degrees of freedom ratio
(CMIN/DF), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI),

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and the Root Mean Square Error of

Approximation (RMSEA) were used in the process. Goodness-

of-fit statistics use different statistical and mathematical points

of departure and therefore vary in terms of the outcomes they

produce. Conclusions based on structural equation modelling

often are contradictory and confusing.  

The AMOS programme checked for the presence of

confounding variables in interrelationships and assessed 

the contribution of each variable to the work-wellness 

model by means of a maximum likelihood method. SEM, in

general, is a statistical method that requires a confirmatory

approach that involves  hypothesis testing in the analysis of a

structural theory that has a bearing on some phenomenon

(Byrne, 2001). All tests of structural equation modelling

require sets off parameters that asses a logical order that

increases restrictions in every step and by doing so, improves

eventual goodness of fit.

RESULTS

The 5 Factor - Wellness Survey was used to measure the degree

to which the test responses of employees in this study complied

with the theoretical definition of wellness, as it is defined by

The Indivisible Self: An Evidence-Based Model (Myers &

Sweeney, 2005). The reported 5F-Wel descriptive statistics and

ELS, DE LA REY52



results of the factor analysis were produced by the first 

empirical application ever of this measuring instrument in

South Africa. A search for Cronbach alpha coefficients and

interitem correlation coefficients from earlier South African

studies produced nothing. 

The initial factor analysis was explorative by nature (Clark &

Watson, 1995). This exploratory analysis produced sixteen

wellness factors and three contextual factors. The rotated factor

structure matrix together with the loadings on each factor was

presented in Table 1.

All outcomes that were derived from the first-order factor

analysis were reported as the underlying factor structure.

According to the results the 91 items of the 5F-Wel loaded on 19

factors (16 wellness factors and 3 contextual factors). Ten factors

were valid and reliable with á values in excess of 0.65. The factor

structure produced by the principal-axes factor analysis was

interpreted as follows:  

� Factor I – Self-worth was formed out of items that suggested

acceptance and satisfaction with one-self. This factor was

based on items 44, 38, 36 and 60. 

� Factor II – Exercise consisted of items 53, 9, 62, 72 and 33 that

had to do with regular and frequent physical exercise and

activities. 

� Factor III – Spirituality had to do with spiritual beliefs,

religious activity and spiritual growth. Items that loaded on

this factor were numbers 51, 35, 69, 37 and 65.

� Factor IV – Stress Management measured coping with stress

and resilience by means of items 2, 18 and 50.

� Factors V – Love was derived from items 52, 26, 73, 49 and 47.

This factor measured stimulation of growth as well as

intimate, secure and lasting relationships. 

� Factor VI – Gender Identity measured positive attributions

related to gender identification as a source of strength and

support. Test items 6, 10 and 22 loaded on this factor.

� Factor VII – Realistic Beliefs were construed from items 12,

28, 46, 56 and 39. Being in touch with reality, setting realistic

expectations and drawing fair conclusions were measured by

these items.

� Factor VIII – Leisure was clustered in the factor analysis

around items 41, 1, 61, 34 and 23. Leisure referred to the

amount of relaxation, absorption in activity and the quality

of leisure that one experienced. 

� Factor IX – Humour was reflected in items 4, 54, 42 and 21.

This factor measured positive humour and the ability to

laugh at oneself.

� Factor X – Intelligence referred to comprehension, problem

solving, taking of control, goal attainment, creativity and

utilisation of skills. Items that measured the aspects of

intelligence were items number 27, 48, 32, 43, 20, 30, 7, 57

and 59. 

� Factor XI – Nutrition was inferred from items 3, 14, 5, 68 and

63. This factor measured the perception of the value of

quality food, vitamins, minerals and fibre in a diet.  

� Factor XII – Emotion clustered around items referring 

to regular and appropriate expression of emotion. This

factor consisted of items 13, 40 and 71. Item 71: “I am 

proud of my cultural heritage” could be used as an item

suggesting an emotional reaction since pride was

mentioned in it. In earlier studies elsewhere, this item

loaded on cultural identity. 

� Factor XIII – Friendship as a factor clustered around items 11,

25, 70, 8, 55 and 66. This factor measured experiencing

support from others, sharing of emotion with others (item

66), enjoyment of leisure without guilt (item 55) and

consumption of moderate amounts of alcohol (item 8).

� Factor XIV – Self-care referred to the degree to which physical

health was protected by preventative actions and was

measured by items 64, 15 and 19. 

� Factor XV – Work referred to satisfaction with work, use of

abilities and skills as well as autonomy attached to work. It

consisted of items 24, 29, 58 and 17. 

� Factor XVI – Social Identity loaded on items 45, 31 and 16.

This factor referred to gender and cultural identification as a

source of strength. Item 57 (gender identity): “I feel a

positive identity with others of my gender” did not load

significantly on any of the factors.

� Factor XVII – Local Safety was a contextual variable that

measured feelings of security in the home, neighbourhood,

work and in one’s daily life. Items 78, 76, 79, 77, 74 and 75

were designated as contributing to this factor. Item 74 as a

general life satisfaction item also loaded on this factor. 

� Factor XVIII – Institutional Concern was measured by items

88, 82, 85, 81, 83 and 91. This factor pointed to attributions

towards the government, education, future perspective, other

cultures and change as contextual wellness factors. Item 86

(global): “I watch TV less than two hours each day” did not

load significantly on any of the factors.

� Factor XIX – Personal Attributions measured by items 90, 80,

89, 87 and 84 referred to items related to personal

contributions towards happiness and wellness.

TABLE 2

FIRST-ORDER DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR THE VARIOUS ITEMS OF

THE 5 FACTOR WELLNESS SURVEY (5F-WEL)

Factor Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis ��

I 13,65 1,77 -0,25 -0,80 0,70

II 10,45 3,11 0,02 -0,65 0,81

III 8,01 2,86 1,22 1,96 0,86

IV 9,36 1,52 -0,38 1,24 0,79

V 7,06 2,10 0,99 0,56 0,77

VI 6,62 1,04 1,00 2,85 0,64

VII 12,10 2,32 -0,13 0,30 0,60

VIII 9,36 2,51 0,38 0,24 0,73

IX 1,88 0,61 0,31 0,66 0,58

X 27,97 2,61 0,12 -0,12 0,64

XI 10,41 3,08 0,21 -0,28 0,82

XII 7,31 1,10 -0,03 0,47 0,47

XIII 10,72 2,57 0,28 -0,22 0,57

XIV 8,81 1,46 -0,37 0,06 0,18

XV 11,77 2,03 -0,39 0,68 0,68

XVI 5,51 1,54 0,40 0,32 0,56

XVII 11,82 2,81 0,99 0,56 0,75

XVIII 12,55 2,54 0,12 -0,12 0,66

XIX 9,94 2,01 -0,03 0,47 0,40

From the contents of Table 2, it was concluded that most of 

the factors statistically were reliable and valid in assessing 

the wellness of employees in a life insurance organisation in

South Africa. 

The goodness-of-fit indices of the wellness model were reported

in Table 3. 

TABLE 3

GOODNESS-OF-FIT STATISTICS FOR THE WELNESS MODEL

Model �2 �2/df NFI TLI CFI RMSEA

Model 1:19 factors 16 828,18 4,32 0,27 0,32 0,33 0, 07

It could be seen from Table 3 that the RMSEA confirmed that the

variates in the data set showed good fit to the model. Browne and

Cudeck (1993) regard this value as an acceptable and reasonable

error of approximation. The �2-based goodness-of-fit statistic
was sensitive to the dimensions of the moment matrix derived

from a data set of large proportions: this anomaly produced an

unreliable index of model fit. Most �2 tests and �2-based indices
are N-sensitive, that is sensitive to sample size. The calculated

HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL 53



�2/df value deviated significantly from the expected value for the
theory that was being assessed. The numerical value was

therefore rejected as being statistically untenable. In some

instances, non-significant chi-square values are desired in order

to prove the null hypothesis. The NFI value (0,27) indicated that

the model fit could be improved substantially. A NFI of 1.00

would have indicated a perfect fit. The Tucker-Lewis Index (LTI)

and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) both pointed to poor fit with

values lower than 0,90 (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). The most

important test, namely RMSEA, indicated a good fit with a value

of 0,07.  Browne and Cudeck (1993) stated that a value of 0,08 or

less for the RMSEA indicated a reasonable error of

approximation.

Using the 5F–Wel model as theoretical point of reference, the

final wellness model was presented in Figure 2. 

The proposed model was an explorative model that was

constructed to serve as basis for the development of a holistic

work-wellness model. A single value that was produced by an

important goodness-of-fit index from the available range of

indices, confirmed the validity of the preliminary model. The

proposed multivariate wellness model was arrived at from the

factor analytic structure produced by a principal-axes factor

analysis of the original data set. The goodness of fit between this

factor analytic description of a wellness construct and the

theoretical approach to it that was represented in the original

data set had been tested with the AMOS Basic programme. The

results had confirmed and validated good fit for the purposes of

future application.  The structural model in Figure 2 showed

that the insurance organisation might consider all sixteen

wellness factors as well as the three contextual factors as

components of an independent wellness model for future

interventions.  

A final word of warning, however, was necessary. As was stated

earlier in explaining the statistical analysis, the usual provision

of Eigen or � values with the results of the principal-axes factor
analysis and use of these to eliminate trivial factors from the

model, were done away with for the purposes of the current

study to ensure a holistic model of wellness. The negative

impact of the two decisions mostly would have affected the

latter factors in the wellness construct. From a statistical point of

view, this approach would cast some doubt on the tenability of

the contextual variates, possibly the social identity variate and

perhaps one or two others as well. 

CONCLUSIONS

Conclusions in terms of the results on this section of the study

were based on the statistics from the factor analysis and the

goodness-of-fit statistics. The factor analysis, with some

reservations, pointed to love, leisure, local safety, institutional

concern, nutrition, social identit y, stress management,

spirituality, exercise and self-worth as reliable factors as

measured by the 5F–Wel instrument. Goodness-of-fit statistics

confirmed good fit (RMSEA) for a wellness model for use in an

insurance organisation. However, some indices suggested that

modification might be considered to improve the chi-square

value, NFI, the Tucker-Lewis Index and the Comparative Fit

Index (CFI). 

Recommendations

Based on the literature and empirical findings in this research

some recommendations for the organisation and future research

were made.

The current study did not consider wellness within the context

of selection of staff. Further research was thus required to

validate the appropriateness of wellness in this particular

organisational context. Measurement of wellness might be used

in conjunction with other measures of staff selection to ensure

that healthy and well employees are appointed to the

organisation. 

With regard to the existing staff members of the organisation

that had participated in this study, the results indicated that

ELS, DE LA REY54

Figure 2: Wellness model



enhancement of the wellness characteristics of current

employees would likely to result in an increase in their

productivity, effectiveness, quality of work life and work-

home life balance. The researcher, therefore, recommended

that employees be made aware of their own wellness

dispositions. This might help them to develop their own

coping resources that they could use to cope with the demands

of corporate working conditions. The organisation in future

would also benefit if it designed and implemented

interventions that addressed the enhancement and

development of employee wellness. 

The organisation could further contribute to the development of

employee wellness by presenting developmental interventions

in a consistent, structured and focused way. By providing

employees with the necessary knowledge, skills, material,

instruments, support and other resources, the staff members

might experience that their job demands are under their

personal control. It could well be that employees who were

allowed a degree of independence and freedom of choice to self-

manage their own health status, were more likely to act

autonomously while at work.

Future research needed to focus on the application of The

Indivisible Self: An Evidence-Based Model of Wellness as well as

the 5 Factor Wellness Survey and needed to be validated for

different age, race and culture groups to provide statistical

norms for South African populations and conditions. The

moderating influence of organisational factors and other

individual dispositions on wellness need investigation to expand

on the holistic wellness model presented in this study

In conclusion, greater focus had to be directed at achieving overall

wellness and improving the wellness dispositions of employees.

Implementation of a strategic health and wellness programme that

incorporated all wellness factors that contributed to holistic

wellness might reduce sick leave in organisations whilst increasing

their profitability at the same time. 

Limitations

The researcher experienced difficulty in finding available

research material applicable to the study that focused on holistic

organisational wellness. Many fragmented measuring

instruments and research studies were found that focused only

on some aspects of wellness. Because of this scientific obstacle,

the researcher experienced the limitation of applying wellness as

opposed to well-being instruments in the study. The wellness

instrument that was used, furthermore, was not validated for

extensive use in South Africa, as it was the first-ever application

of it in this country. The future challenge, therefore, is to

experiment with it in conjunction with the American-based 5

Factor Wellness. Holistic wellness research in general was also

lacking in South Africa. This resulted in a limitation of having

to base local research needs on previous studies of holistic work-

wellness done abroad.

Reliance on the sole use of self-report data was seen as another

limitation, since it was only quantitative by nature. This might

have affected or artificially inflated relationships among

wellness constructs, individual states and organisational factors.

A distinct possibility existed that more objective and explorative

indicators of quality of work wellness might yield a different set

of outcomes; a combination of self-report measures and

qualitative indicators of wellness might have provided richer

results.

REFERENCES

Adams, T.B., Bezner, J.R. & Steinhardt, M. (1997). The

conceptualisation and measurement of perceived wellness:

integrating balance across and within dimensions. American

Journal of Health Promotion, 12 (3), 380-388.

Adams, T. B., Bezner, J.R. & Whistler, L.S. (1998). The

relationship between physical activity and indicators of

perceived wellness. American Journal of Health Studies, 15 (3),

130-138. 

Adams, T. B., Bezner, J.R., Garner, L. & Woodruff, S. (1998).

Construct validation of the perceived wellness survey.

American Journal of Health Studies, 14 (4). 212-219.

Adler, A. (1973). The problem of homosexuality. Frankfurt am

Main: Fischer. (Original work published 1917).

Adler, A. (1973). Social interest: a challenge to mankind. 3rd ed.

London: Faber & Faber Ltd. (Original work published 1933).

Adler, A. (1954). Understanding human nature. 5th ed. (W.B. Wolf,

Trans.). New York: Fawcett Premier. (Original work published

1927).

Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unravelling the mystery of health: how people

manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass.

Antonovsky, A. (1993). The structure and properties of the sense of

coherence scale. Social Science and Medicine, 36 (6), 725-733. 

Arbuckle, J.L. (1999). Amos 4.0. Chicago, IL:Smallwaters.

Bethlehem, J. (1999). Cross-sectional research. In H.J. Adér & G.J.

Mellenbergh. (Eds.), Research Methodology in the Social,

Behavioural and Life Sciences, 110-142. London: Sage. 

Browne, M.W. and Cudeck, R. (1993). Single sample cross-

validation indices for covariance structures. Multivariate

Behaviour Research, 24, 445-455.

Byrne, B.M. (2001). Structural equation modelling with AMOS:

Basic concepts, applications and programming. Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum.

Cameron, K.S., Dutton, J.E. & Quinn, R.E. (2003). Positive

organisational scholarship: foundations of a new discipline. San

Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. 

Clark, L.A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: basic

issues in objective scale development. Psychological

Assessment, 7 (3), 309-319.

Crose, R., Nicholas, D.R., Gobble, D.C. & Frank, B. (1992).

Gender and wellness: a multidimensional systems model for

counselling. Journal of Counselling and De velopment.

November/December, 71. 

Dunn, H.L. (1961). High level wellness. Washington, DC: Mt

Vernon. 

Dunn, H.L. (1977). What high level wellness means. Health

Values: Achieving High Level Wellness, 1, 9-16.

Ferguson, G.A. & Takane, Y. (1989). Statistical analysis in

psychology and education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gemson, D.H., & Eng, B. (2004). The impact of allergic rhinitis

on employee health and productivity. The Business and

Health Institute. August. 

Harris, R.J. (1975). A primer of multivariate statistics. Academic

Press. New York.

Harter, J.K., Schmidt, F.L. & Keyes, C.L.M. (2003). Well-being in

the workplace and its relationship to business outcomes: a

review of the Gallup studies. Flourishing positive psychology

and the life well-lived. Washington. American Psychological

Association, 36, 29-33.

Hettler, B. (1984). Presenting the wellness concept to the

uninitiated. In J.P. Opatz. Wellness promotion strategies. 28-38.

Huysamen, G.K. (1994). Methodology for the social and

behavioural sciences. Halfway House: Southern Book

Publishers.

Huiskamp, A.A. (2004). A framework for an empowerment

approach to workplace health promotion of wellness. Paper

presented at 2nd South African Work Wellness Conference.

Potchefstroom. South Africa, 26 May 2004.

Jöreskog, K.G. & Sorbom, D. (1993). Testing structural equation

models. In K.A. Bolllen & J.S. Long (Eds) Testing structural

equation models. 294-316. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Jung, C.G. (1960). The structure and dynamics of the psyche.

Collected works: Vol. 8. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 

Jung, C.G. (1958). The undiscovered self. New York: Mentor Books.

Keyes, C.L.M. & Haidt, J. (2003). Flourishing positive psychology

and the live well lived. Washington: American Psychological

Association.

HOLISTIC WELLNESS MODEL 55



Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality. (2nd ed.). New

York: Harper & Row.

Myers, J.E. & Sweeney, T.J. (2005). Counselling for wellness: theory,

research and practice. American Counselling Association.

Myers, J.E. & Sweeney, T.J. (2003). The indivisible self: an

evidence-based model of wellness. Manuscript submitted for

publication.

Myers, J.E., Sweeney, T.J. & Witmer, J.M. (2001). Optimisation 

of human behavior: promotion of wellness. The Handbook of

Counselling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 641-652.

Mullins, J.L. (1999). Management and organisational behaviour.

5th ed. Financial Times. Pitman Publishing. 

Overall, J.E. & Klett, C.J. (1972). Applied multivariate analysis.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Redelinghuys, F.J. & Rothmann, S. (2004). Koherensiesin, coping,

uitbranding en begeestering in die bediening. Paper presented at

the 2nd South African Work Wellness Conference,

Potchefstroom, South Africa, 25 March 2004.

Saleebey, D. (1997). The strengths perspective in social work

practice. 2nd ed. New York: Longman. 

SAS Institute. (2000). SAS users guide: Basics (Release 8.01).

Cary, NC.: SAS Institute Inc. 

Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive

Psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist. January,

55 (1), 5-14. 

Snyder, C.R., Irving, l.M. & Anderson, J.R. (1991). Hope and

health. In C.R. Snyder & D.R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of

social and clinical psychology: The health perspective. p. 285-

305. New York: Pergamon. 

Snyder, C.R. & Lopez, S.J. (2002). Handbook of positive psychology.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Steyn, A.G.W., Smit, C.F., Du Toit, S.H.C. & Strasheim, C. (1995).

Moderne statistiek vir die praktyk. 5de uitgawe. Pretoria: JL van

Schaik.

Strümpfer, D.J.W. (2002). Psychofortology: review of a new

paradigm marching on. Retrieved from http:/www.general.

rau.ac/psych.

Strümpfer, D.J.W. (1995). The origins of health and strength:

from salutogenesis to fortigenesis. South African Journal of

Psychology, 25 (2), 81-89.

Sweeney, T.J. & Witmer, J.M. (1991). Beyond social interest:

striving toward optimum health and wellness. Individual

Psychology, 47, 527-540.

The Business and Health Care Archive. (2004). “I won’t be in

today – the dilemma of incidental absence”. Business and

Health Institute. August. 

Van der Westhuizen, T. (2004). Monday blues costing R 150m.

Cape Aurgus. November. (3).

Wissing, M.P.W., & Van Eeden, C. (1997). Psychological wellbeing:

a fortigenic conceptualisation and empirical clarification. 

Paper presented at the 3rd Annual Congress of the

Psychological Society of South Africa. Durban, South Africa,

10-12th Sept.

Wissing, M.P.W. (2000). Wellness: Construct clarification and a

framework for future research and practice. Paper presented at

the First South African National Wellness Conference. Port

Elizabeth, South Africa, 2-5 May.

Witmer, J.M. & Sweeney, T.J. (1992). A holistic model for

wellness and prevention over the life span. Journal of

Counselling & Development, November/December, 71, 22-35.

Wyatt, W. (2004). Cutting health care cost by creating a culture of

wellness. 

ELS, DE LA REY56