2Rothmann.qxd


The objective of this research was to ascertain some of the

present challenges and critical issues in Industrial and

Organisational Psychology (I/O Psychology) in South Africa, in

order to determine the immediate and long term foci for

researchers. Firstly, the work context in which employees and

employers – as the clients of I/O Psychology – are currently

functioning, is analysed. Secondly, the identit y of I/O

Psycholog y is discussed. Thirdly, the tasks of the I/O

psychologist are discussed, with specific reference to

implications for research. Lastly, some recommendations for

possible future research are formulated.

THE CHANGED CONTEXT OF WORK

Over the last few decades the occupational arena has undergone

remarkable changes. Among these changes are the increased

utilisation of information and communication technology, the

rapid expansion of the service sector, the globalisation of the

economy, the changing structure of the workforce, the

increasing flexibility in the world of work, the creation of the

24-hour economy, and the utilisation of new production

concepts (e.g. team-based work, tele-work, downsizing,

outsourcing and subcontracting) (Barling & Zacharatos, 2002).

Increased flexibility and fragmentation of the workforce also

present new challenges for management as they seek to

coordinate and control activities (Guest, 2004). 

Another factor impacting on the world of work is the

pervasiveness and urgency of change. Advances in technology

lead to the speeding up of the world of work. Speed and

f lexibilit y of response form an important basis for a

competitive advantage (Guest, 2004). Compared to 20 years

ago, modern employees increasingly work in offices (and less

in agriculture or industry) with information or clients (and less

with tangible objects), in teams (and less in isolation), and

with less job security. The nature of work has also changed

from manual to having significantly more mental and

emotional demands (Barling, 1999; Turner, Barling &

Zacharatos, 2002). 

Many organisations have implemented practices that attempt to

reduce costs and increase productivity, which often leads to a

mentality that favours profitability over the welfare of people

(Turner et al., 2002). The numbers employed in many

workplaces are getting smaller. This makes the trade union job 

of organising the workforce more difficult. It is easier for

managers to establish a more personal relationship with

employees (Guest, 2004). 

Diversity in the workforce is increasing with a less dominant

role for the male breadwinner and a growing interest in work-

life balance. This is important, especially considering the

efforts of organisations to attract and attain high quality

employees. 

IDENTITY OF INDUSTRIAL/ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

The above ever changing world of work and its demands imply

increased anxiety in all work systems (Miller, 1993). It is

therefore hypothesised that organisations need new ways of

thinking and operating to effectively deal with these demands.

The same is true for I/O psychology focussing on the application

of psychology in the workplace (Cascio, 2001).

In 2001, the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology

contributed a special edition to review I/O psychology as

profession and discipline, its challenges and responses. The

general impression created in this edition was that the

profession has developed quite substantially in the realm of

bringing about (and facilitating) the needed change in

organisations, specifically in medium (group/team) and large

(organisational) systems (Moalusi, 2001; Pienaar & Roodt, 2001;

Renecle, 2001; Schreuder, 2001; Veldsman, 2001). Less

information (or progress) was reported on the development of

(1) the profession's role boundaries, and (2) the discipline's

(theoretical and professional) development of a clear subject

identity, and the understanding of (especially) organisational

behavioural dynamics. 

Referring to its roots, I/O psychology is defined as an applied

division of psychology concerned with the study of human

behaviour related to work, organisations and productivity

(Cascio, 2001). According to Watkins (2001), the denial of this

connection with general Psychology, as is occurring in practice

as well as in academia, has lead to an identity crisis, which in

practice manifests in role confusion, for example between

being a psychologist versus a human resources practitioner.

S ROTHMANN
Ian.Rothmann@nwu.ac.za

WorkWell: Research Unit for People, Policy and Performance

North-West University, Potchefstroom

FVN CILLIERS
cilliFvn@unisa.ac.za

Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology

UNISA, Pretoria

ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to determine a set of problems and critical issues that researchers in Industrial and

Organisational Psychology deem to be important areas for immediate and future enquiry. The changing identity of

this field of application is investigated, more relevant paradigms in the study of organisational health and wellness

is explored and methods, techniques and interventions suitable to the South African context are suggested.

Conclusions are formulated to increase the ability of organisations to work towards economic development, while

promoting the wellness and quality of life of employees.

Key words

Industrial/Organisational Psychology, identif y, tasks, challenges

PRESENT CHALLENGES AND SOME CRITICAL 

ISSUES FOR RESEARCH IN INDUSTRIAL/ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA

8

SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 2007, 33 (1), 8-17

SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 2007, 33 (1), 8-17



This phenomenon can be interpreted as (on the one hand) a

seduction by the organisation and its authority structures, and

(on the other hand) a disempowerment to apply real and deep

psychological knowledge (Stapley, 1996). It is suggested that

this confusion be addressed at subject conferences (such as

SIOPSA) and university departments of I/O psychology in

order to empower practitioners and students alike in order to

perform optimally.

I/O psychology may never be able to be called an independent

science with its own well thought through perspective on

humanity and reality, independent hypothesis and theory

formulation, objectivit y and sophistication in empirical

methodology and data collection (Cilliers, 1991). Matarazzo

(1987) stated that in spite of over 100 years of evolution in

psychology, there is one core psychology, distinguishing itself

from other related discipline such as physics, economy and

history. This implies that the subject has informal de facto

recognition for specialist parts of Psychology, although it 

does not enjoy de jure recognition anywhere in the world. 

The conclusion can thus be made that there is only 

one Psychology with different fields of application. It is

suggested that I/O psychology should keep studying its 

own identity within the boundaries of general psychology 

and as such move towards role clarit y in various

organisational applications.

This suggestion implies working within the boundaries of

psychology as a subject. Kruger (1980) describes psychology as a

pre-paradigm science, caught up in establishing itself as a science

in the postmodern world (see Gergen, 2001). Further, because of

its natural sciences methodology and its uncritical usage of

constructs of reality from natural sciences, the Cartesian duality

is seen as the cancer in psychology (Kruger, 1980). In short, the

subject philosophical issues within psychology need to be

studied by researchers and practitioners in all fields of

psychology in order to render a true professional service to

organisations.

I/O psychology mainly operates in the analytical, positivistic

paradigm, with an almost exclusively analytical-empirical

epistemology (Pietersen, 1989). Its locus of knowledge is

involved in the epistemological differentiation between the

knower or researcher and the known or employee and

organisation, with a value free perspective of the working

person (Cilliers, 1991). The range of its research makes the

assumption that there is a unique and best description of any

chosen aspect of working behaviour. Methodologically there is

a preference for quantitative and structured technologies such

as questionnaires, tests and structured interviews as opposed

to qualitative, unstructured, descriptive case studies, depth

interviews and group techniques (Brewerton & Millward,

2004). Where the latter are used, it is often seen as pilot

studies. In terms of the process of knowledge development

there is a preference for prediction and control with deductive

and differentiated research. Knowledge is measured

empirically in predetermined concept ual categories,

behavioural models and research hypotheses. Thus, theory is

illustrated and validated, rather than defining it. The time

perspective is trans-historical with the assumption that

findings are the same for all in all circumstances. 

It is suggested necessary for researchers and practitioners to

study organisational phenomena using quantitative as well as

qualitative research designs and to explore the deeper

meaning of already established constructs such as leadership

and followership, authorit y, trust, active listening and

empathy. This will allow a deeper exploration into

organisational dynamics and its effect on employee

functioning and wellness. It is interesting that for example

Rogers (in Schneider, Bugental & Pierson, 2001) cautioned

that his work should not be trivialized in organizational

applications. For example, Kramer (1995) illustrated how

active listening is easily forced into a tool to enhance

productivity (rather than a skill to build relationships) and

Cilliers (1996) illustrated how the concepts of empathy and

facilitation are used superficially in training, management and

organisational development.

The above identity crises manifests professionally when the

industrial psychologist often gets caught up in conflicts between

different organisational roles (Campbell, 1995), such as between

human resources practitioner and I/O psychologist. On the

other hand the I/O psychologist often gets confused about who

the client in the organisation is - management or employee,

management or board member, individual employee or team.

Maybe university departments of I/O psychology can self-

authorise more to help resolve this split.

Identity can be defined as a sense of self, a distinctness of

differentiation and of the system's own individualit y

(Huffington, Armstrong, Halton, Hoyle & Pooley, 2004).

Identity is formed in the comparison of the self to ‘the 

other’. Thus, any system seeks and/or constructs an 

opponent against which it can define itself (such as a 

sibling or 'the other' department, team or organisation) 

and then learns what makes the self different or unique. 

The 'other' functions as a repository object into which 

the system displaces its internal anxieties, fears and 

hostilities (Cytrenbaum & Noumair, 2004). The system tends

to rate the self as more favourable and 'the other' as less

favourable, especially in conflict situations which could be

filled with survival anxiety, needs and behaviour. This may 

be where one part of the system finds itself in a position of

env y, defined as the desire to spoil something good 

simply because it is good and does not belong to the self. This

dynamic may explain the sometimes ‘difficult’ relationship

between I/O psychology and for example clinical psychology

and human resources management.

The next step in identity forming refers to projections onto

and into 'the other', using the other to serve as the receptacle

for uncomfortable anxiet y, splits, aggression and other

unwanted feelings. It can be hypothesised that this internal

split is indicative of external splits which makes identity

forming difficult, filled with issues around suspicion, power

and de-authorisation. When the system can be mature enough

to realise and own the projections, it will be able to develop

its identity.

In the organisational setting, the role taken up by leadership is

important. A mature identity is formed when leadership is

experienced by the system as 'good-enough', meaning a

nurturing object, providing containment and emotional need

satisfaction. This implies that the group will feel safe, cared for,

listened to (which are all aspects of transformational

leadership).

For I/O psycholog y, its empowering will need to focus 

more on the philosophy underlying the psycholog y of 

work and in organisations, including the meaning of work. It

is suggested that the systems psychodynamic theory and

stance, which originated in depth psycholog y be used (Bion,

1961; Colman & Bexton,1975; Colman & Geller, 1985; De

Board, 1978; French & Vince, 1999; Hirschhorn, 1993; Miller,

1993; Neumann, Kellner & Dawson-Shepherd, 1997; Obholzer

& Roberts, 1994; Stapley, 1996). Furthermore, the scope of I/O

psycholog y is ever increasing, as is evident in the

development of new and challenging interpersonal role roles,

such as the facilitation of learning, mentorship, coaching and

executive coaching (Huffington et al., 2004; Peltier, 2001;

Sperry, 2004). This implies continuous training for the I/O

psychologist to stay abreast of all relevant applications in

theory and in practice.

RESEARCH IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY 9



THE TASKS OF THE

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST

The primary task of I/O psychology is the application of

psychological principles and research to workplace phenomena.

I/O psychologists use the scientific approach, characterised by

qualitative observation as well as quantitative measurement and

statistics (see Brewerton & Millward, 2004) to conduct research

and intervene in the workplace. Furthermore, they are concerned

about the effectiveness of the organisation and the wellness of

individuals. Lastly, I/O psychologists operate with an implicit

multilevel model, i.e. they recognise that in addition to

individual influences on individual behaviour and attitudes,

higher-order units such as teams and the organisational context

have influence (Ryan, 2003). Therefore, four broad tasks of the

I/O psychologist are distinguished for the purposes of this

paper: 1) explaining individual, group and organisational

behaviour and optimising functioning, 2) measuring behaviour

and predicting potential, 3) contributing to organisation

development, and 4) translating I/O research findings and

empowering potential users thereof. Examples of specific areas

that should be researched by I/O psychologists are given in this

section. However, this list is not exhaustive and merely suggest

some important research needs. 

Explaining individual, group and organisational behaviour

and optimising functioning

I/O psychologists should conduct research about theories and

models that could be used to explain individual, group and

organisational functioning and the optimisation thereof.

Traditionally the health and social sciences have been

characterised by a pathogenic paradigm, i.e. an orientation

towards the abnormal (Strümpfer, 1990). Knowledge gained by

answering this question is then used to find ways of treating

and preventing diseases. Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith (1999)

showed that 17 times more scientific articles were published on

negative feelings and experiences than on the positive. Myers

(2000) found a more favourable ratio of 14:1. Burnout, stress,

violations of psychological contracts, job insecurit y and

downsizing remain popular topics for study in I/O psychology

(Turner et al., 2002).

Schaufeli and Bakker (2001) concluded that work is often

associated with illness. Research in the Netherlands showed that

between 4% and 10% of the working population reported

serious burnout complaints (Bakker, Schaufeli & Van

Dierendonck, 2000). A recent study among European workers

showed that the most common work-related health problems are

backache, stress and fatigue. Pienaar (2002) found that 8,64% of

police officers showed serious levels of suicide ideation, while

15% reported stress-related problems. Levert, Lucas and Ortlepp

(2000) reported that 54,9% of psychiatric nurses in their study

in government hospitals experienced a high level of emotional

exhaustion. Compared with international norms (Cartwright &

Cooper, 2002), studies in South Africa showed high levels of

physical and psychological ill-health for academic and support

staff of higher education institutions (Barkhuizen & Rothmann,

2004; Coetzee & Rothmann, 2005), employees in the insurance

industry (Coetzer & Rothmann, 2006) and teachers (Jackson &

Rothmann, 2006).

Dysfunctional behaviour frequently occurs in the workplace.

For example, American military police recently conducted

atrocities with Iraq prisoners (McGeary, 2004). It might be true

that they lapsed into sadistic behaviour because they had

control over prisoners and they might have felt that their

behaviour was sanctioned by an authority figure (Milgram,

1963; 1965; 1974). However, the question arise why such sadistic

acts were committed by individuals who are part of a society

where the field of Psychology, and specifically I/O Psychology

is more advanced than in any other society. In South Africa, a

teacher in a secondary school was recently been charged

because he showed pornographic pictures to school children

(Beeld, 22 May 2004). Furthermore, incidences of sexual

harassment, bullying, poor quality work, theft, unsafe actions

and unethical behaviour are regularly reported in

organisations. However, dysfunctional behaviour is not limited

to South African organisations.

In contrast with the above-mentioned argument it seems that

work, and more specifically goal-directed, structured activity,

translate directly into other mental health outcomes (Kelloway &

Barling, 1991; Turner et al., 2002) and indirectly affect

employees' life satisfaction (Hart, 1999; Judge & Watanabe,

1993). In addition, research (e.g. Kirchler, 1985) regarding the

effects of unemployment, showed that a lack of work has

detrimental effects, including depression, alcoholism,

psychological complaints and even suicide. Therefore, it can be

concluded that work could either contribute towards illness or it

could have a therapeutic effect.

One possible reason for the overemphasis on negative aspects of

work and life is the failure of I/O psychology research to be

responsive to the needs of all potential research stakeholders.

The prevailing values perspective in I/O Psychology research,

emphasising a utilitarian, cost-benefit approach has strongly

inf luenced the framing and interpretation of research

questions (Wright & Wright, 2002). The utilitarian approach

regards the achievement of the goals as set forth by one

stakeholder group, namely the management of an organisation,

as the primary objective of applied research. As a consequence,

the employees (as another stakeholder grouping), are

considered to be important only to the extent which they are

instrumental in fulfilling the organisation's goals. According to

utilitarianism, actions and policies should be evaluated on the

basis of costs and benefits they impose on the organisation.

Therefore, this approach focuses on organisational rather than

individual effectiveness.

A consequence of the utilitarian perspective has been that

applied research tends to focus unduly on the identification of

financial costs to the organisation of distressed, dissatisfied and

unhappy employees. The cause of this employee dissatisfaction

and unhappiness is typically seen as being deeply imbedded in

the emotional maladjustment of the employee, as opposed to

aspects of the job itself (Wright, 2003). As a result, the cure for

this maladjustment usually involves some type of prevention-

based employee therapy (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000).

According to Wright (2003), a short-run focus on the negative

may be less than an optimal strategy. While the utilitarian

perspective has provided a significant value-addition for those

interested in the so called bottom line for business success, it has

been much less articulate in proposing an agenda to pro-actively

assist employees in their pursuit of healthier and more

meaningful lives. Therefore, research must not only focus on

how to get employees to be more productive, but also on

employee health and wellness. 

During 2000, a whole edition of the American Psychologist

focussed on positive psycholog y (Seligman &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). According to Seligman (2002), the

central objective of positive psychology is to understand and

facilitate happiness and subjective well-being. The field of

positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued

subjective experiences; well-being, contentment, and

satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future)

and f low and happiness (in the present) (Seligman &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 5). 

The field of positive psychology is rapidly gaining momentum

in I/O psychology (Snyder & Lopez, 2002; Wright, 2003). Erez

and Isen (2002) have shown that inducing positive emotional

states in people facilitates flexible, effective problem solving,

decision making and evaluation of events. Fredrickson's

(1998) 'broaden-and-build' theory of positive emotions states

ROTHMANN, CILLIERS10



that positive emotions, including, joy, interest, contentment

and happiness all share the abilit y to 'broaden' an

individual's momentary thought-action repertoires. In

addition, these positive emotions assists in building the

individual's enduring personal resources. The tendency to

experience the positive is proposed to be central to one's

ability to flourish, mentally prosper and psychologically grow.

Therefore, positive emotions have a potentially adaptive and

interactive nat ure and might moderate the relationship

between job satisfaction and job performance. Considering

the changes employees have to deal with, as well as the

deprived background of many South Africans, research about

causes, moderators, mediators and effects of positive

emotions is of great importance.

Adopting a utilitarian, cost-benefit perspective emphasizing

the goal of enhanced workplace performance, Luthans (2002a;

2002b) noted the need for a more relevant, proactive 

approach to organisational research. He termed this 

positive organisational behaviour, defined as the study and

application of positively oriented human resource strengths

and psychological capabilities that can be measured,

developed and effectively managed for performance

improvement in today's workplace. Therefore, the

relationship between happiness and wellness on the one

hand, and individual, group and organisational effectiveness

on the other hand should be conducted. However, Wright

(2003) argues that in addition to a utilitarian perspective,

which focuses on the bottom line for business success, the

mission of I/O Psychology also includes the pursuit of

employee happiness and wellness. 

In research with 198 000 employees in 36 companies by the

Gallup Organization, responses to the following question were

analysed: "At work, do you have the opportunity to do what

you do best every day?" When employees answered 'strongly

agree' to this question, they were 50% more likely to work in

businesses with a low turnover, 38% more likely to work in

productive business units, and 44% more likely to work in

business units with high customer satisfaction scores

(Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). Furthermore, it was found that

globally, only 20 percent of employees working in large

organisations experienced that their strengths are utilised

every day. Also, the longer an employee stays with an

organisation and the higher he/she climbs the traditional

career ladder, the less likely he/she is to strongly agree that

he/she is performing to his strengths. The researchers

attributed this finding to the following flawed assumptions

about people: 1) each person can learn to be competent in

almost anything, and 2) each person's greatest room for

growth is in his/her areas of greatest weakness. 

Organisations should not only accommodate the fact that

employees are different, they must build their enterprises

around the strengths of each person. According to Buckingham

and Clifton (2001), organisations should change the way they

select, measure, develop and channel the careers of individuals.

However, this needs change to the following assumptions: 1)

each person's talents are enduring and unique, and 2) each

person's greatest room for growth is in his/her greatest

strength. Research is needed regarding different talents,

knowledge and skills that will contribute to individual

happiness and organisational performance as well as systems

to identif y these (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). Research

linking the six virtues (and 24 strengths) identified by

Seligman (2002) to individual wellness and organisational

effectiveness should be conducted. These virt ues (and

strengths) include the following: 1) wisdom and knowledge

(curiosity, love of learning, judgement, ingenuity, emotional

intelligence and perspective), 2) courage (valour/bravery,

perseverance and integrity), 3) humanity and love (kindness,

loving and allowing oneself to be loved), 4) justice

(citizenship, fairness, equity and leadership), 5) temperance

(self-control, prudence and humility), and 6) transcendence

(appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, spirituality,

forgiveness, humour and passion).

Employees bear some responsibility for making healthy work

systems succeed (Turner et al., 2002). Constructs related to

proactive role orientations and role-breadth self-efficacy could

contribute to wellness and individual effectiveness and

efficiency (Strümpfer, 1995). These constructs include amongst

others a sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987), self-efficacy

(Bandura, 1977), optimism (Carver & Scheier, 2002; Seligman,

2002), subjective well-being and life satisfaction (Diener,

Lucas & Oishi, 2002), resilience (Masten & Reed, 2002),

positive affectivit y (Watson, 2002), coping strategies 

(Stanton, Parsa & Austenfeld, 2002) and emotional

intelligence (Salovey, Mayer & Caruso, 2002). However,

research is needed to evaluate the effects of these constructs in

the work situation, the effects of the work situation on these

constructs, as well as the effects of interventions directed at

building these orientations.

While a positive psychology perspective is necessary, harsh

realities exist that contribute to occupational stress, burnout

and ill health (Cherniss, 1995). A need exists for behavioural

theories and models to integrate positive and negative aspects

of human behaviour. For example, Schaufeli and Bakker

(2004) developed the Comprehensive Burnout and

Engagement (COBE) Model to explain positive and negative

behaviour at work. The COBE-model assumes t wo

psychological processes, namely an energetic and a

motivational process. The energetic process links job demands

with health problems via burnout. The motivational process

links job resources via engagement with organisational

outcomes. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) confirmed that job

demands were associated with exhaustion, whereas job

resources were associated with work engagement. Burnout was

related to health problems as well as to turnover intentions,

and mediated the relationship between job demands and

health problems, while engagement mediated the relationship

between job resources and turnover intentions. However,

many questions remain about the effectiveness of the model,

because their research relied only on self-report measures and

cross-sectional data. Furthermore, integrating burnout and

work engagement could lead to a new taxonomy which

categorise work behaviour according to energ y at work

(varying from exhaustion to vigour) and identification with

work (varying from cynicism to dedication).

Organisational change (including employment equity, layoffs,

downsizing, acquisitions, mergers, job relocations and

technological innovations at work) have adverse effects on

employee well-being. Research should be conducted to

determine the effects of such changes on employees in South

Africa and assess the effectiveness of interventions to help

employees to cope with them (Kalimo, Taris & Schaufeli, 2003).

As the world is becoming a global village, people are

increasingly confronted with diversity, especially in South

Africa with its multicultural society. Diversity refers to any

difference and includes attributes such as gender, social class,

ethnicity, culture, age, sexual orientation and lifestyle. On the

individual level the person could have certain limitations

making it difficult to deal with diversity (Triandis, 2003). For

example, 1) when they process little information, they will

have the tendency to use categorisation, and 2) cultures are

ethnocentric in nature, that is they use their own culture as

standard for judging other cultures. According to Lopez,

Prosser, Edwards, Magyar-Moe, Neufeld and Rasmussen (2002,

p. 711), research is needed about the following aspects: 1) the

magnitude and equivalence of constructs across cultures, 2) the

value of religious practices, spirit ualit y and diverse

constructions of life meaning, 3) searching for clues to the

good life that cultural experiences might provide, and 4)

RESEARCH IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY 11



clarif ying what works in the life of people. Although South

African research by Cilliers and May (2002) investigated

specific diversit y manifestations from a systems

psychodynamic stance, more such research is needed to

understand how diversity issues change over time and how this

influences human relationships and organisational climate.

Few attempts have been made to evaluate the cross-cultural

equivalence of constructs such as hope, optimism, self-esteem,

happiness, subjective well-being and resilience (Lopez et al.,

2002). Most of the studies examining positive psychological

constructs have focused on Western samples. Relatively little is

known about the concurrent and predictive validity of measures

of positive constructs. In a review of national differences, Diener

et al., (1999) reported that people living in individualistic

cultures have higher levels of satisfaction than those in

collectivist cultures. While collectivist cultures give priority to

the in-group and define the self in relational terms, individualist

cultures encourage independence, attention to personal

opinions and feelings and autonomy. Subjective well-being, for

example, may therefore be more salient to individualists, and

attributes traditionally associated with well-being may not be as

relevant for members of collectivist cultures. It is important to

recognise that what constitutes a good life may be different in

different cultural settings.

While a true cross-cultural perspective on work wellness is

lacking, various cross-national studies have been carried out

(Golembiewski, Scherb & Boudreau, 1993; Savicki, 2002).

Instead of post-hoc explanations of differences in wellness in

multicultural or cross-cultural situations, the testing of a priori

formulated cross-cultural hypotheses are needed. For instance,

Schaufeli (2003) argued that in individualistic cultures, social

exchange relationships between individuals (interpersonal

reciprocity) might play a crucial role in causing burnout,

whereas in collectivistic cultures social exchange relationships

with the group (individual-group reciprocity) might be pivotal.

In addition, the effects of stereot ypes, prejudice and

discrimination on individual wellness and organisational

effectiveness should be studied. Furthermore, the role of inter-

cultural communication, cultural differences, minorit y

positions and migration in individual wellness and

organisational effectiveness should be investigated. 

World-wide there seems to be a tendency for organisations to

drift from domestic to global, no matter how small the

organisation (Furnham, 1997). One of the consequences of

South Africa's becoming part of the global business community

is that there has been a vast increase in the number of South

Africans taking up assignments outside the country (Hawley,

1999). Research has shown that some expatriate managers who

are given foreign assignments end them early because of their

poor performance or their inability to adjust to the foreign

environment. Many of those who do not return early, function

at a low level of effectiveness (Fish & Wood, 1997). Congruent to

the strategic importance of assignments, failure of an expatriate

may be costly and even detrimental to the future of a

multinational company in a host country (Gregersen & Black,

1990). Thus, research is needed regarding factors related to

success of expatriate assignments. 

Leadership is another area that should be researched in South

Africa. Although few academics or business practitioners

would argue with the notion that effective leadership

contributes to the positive health of an organisation, little

research has focussed on the effects of leadership on individual

wellness (Turner et al., 2002). This has resulted in a limited

appreciation of the value of positive leadership within the

context of organisations. Transformational leadership has the

potential for enhancing wellness. This occurs when leaders

increase followers' awareness of the mission/vision towards

which they are working, choose what is right rather than what

is simple or expedient, display inspirational motivation and

intellect ual stimulation, and manifest individualised

consideration. Studies (e.g. Barling, Kelloway & Weber, 1996)

showed that transformational leadership leads to higher

performance and employee morale, although its relationship

with performance is mediated by affective organisational

commitment. However, superior performance would require

transformational leadership to be present above and beyond

constructive interactions between employees and management

that constitute good management (Turner et al., 2002). The

relatively new concepts (Huffington et al., 2004) of

containment leadership (stimulating exploration and

curiosit y) and pro-tainment (including organisational

reframing and creativit y) need to be researched for its

potential in facilitating employee wellness.

Work/life balance is also an important research topic in South

Africa. Keyser and Dickinson (2002) introduced the concept of

organisational schizophrenia as a condition that exists in

organisations due to the opposing pulls of employees' need to

have a personal life and the organisation's need to have

employees accessible and working on an almost constant basis.

More demands (including an increase in the average work

hours) are placed on employees in their workplaces. Geurts,

Kompier, Roxburgh and Houtman (2003) found that work-home

interference mediated the relationship of workload with

depressive mood and health complaints and moderated the

relationship with work-related negative affect. It seems that

workload exerts its negative effects on wellness through a

process of spillover of negative load-effects that impede

recovery during non-working hours. Research into emotional

work demands and work-home balance is necessary (Kompier,

2002). On the other hand, employees may not just suffer from

excessive work demands, but may as well benefit from a work

situation that contains support or resources that are relevant to

meeting demands. 

Sonnentag (2003) studied the work-related outcomes of recovery

during leisure time. She found that day-level recovery was

positively related to day-level work engagement and day-level

proactive behaviour. The results of her study showed that

experiences outside work are crucial for feelings and behaviour

at work. However, it is not clear what the preconditions of

recovery on a specific day are. It is also not clear which factors

mediate or moderate the relationship between recovery on and

work engagement or proactive behaviour. The long-term effects

of recovery should also be researched.

Every year more young people are entering the labour market,

seeking jobs. At the same time South Africa is struggling with

an enormous unemployment rate. For a variety of reasons,

many of the job seekers in South Africa have attained very low

educational levels. Research is needed on the best way to

implement career counselling services and life skills training for

job seekers. The dilemma facing organisations is that they need

to employ job seekers that possess the necessary technical,

business and scientific skills to face the challenges posed by the

business environment. The fact that many job seekers do not

possess the necessary skills implies that research is needed on

how to improve the employability of applicants. Because of the

use of technology and of the skills required to use the

technolog y, many workers are nowadays less subject to

management control systems. This means that non-supervisory

personnel need to acquire 'management' skills, which include

self-management skills, interpersonal skills and problem

solving skills.

Paid work contributes to mental health and affects employees'

life satisfaction. As a consequence, unemployment has been

shown to have detrimental effects for well-being. Individual

coping behaviour associated with unemployment depends on

certain objective characteristics such as age, level of education,

and length of unemployment (Warr, 1984). De Witte (1994)

distinguished a typology of coping behaviours, which integrates

ROTHMANN, CILLIERS12



meaningful patterns of unemployment experiences and adaptive

responses, including the attitudes, expectations and experiences

of the unemployed (e.g. work motivation, well-being and search

behaviour). Research regarding unemployment could be used to

plan and implement policies in organisations.

It is not only sufficient to investigate which themes in I/O

psychology should be researched. It is also necessary to consider

how research should be done. For instance, Kompier (2002)

analysed various I/O psychology studies and recommends the

following: 1) more general research is not needed, 2) further

expansion of the number of studies based on cross-sectional

study designs and on employees' self-reports has little added

value, and 3) researchers should not try to compensate for weak

study designs by increasing the number of sophisticated

statistical analyses. There is a need for better designs, such as

longitudinal and experimental designs and better quality data

(Breverton & Millward, 2004).

More qualitative designs and work across boundaries of

paradigm and theory should also be considered. For example the

inclusion of the systems psychodynamic stance (Miller, 1993;

Obholzer & Roberts, 1994) would explain the relevant qualitative

and deeper, unconscious behaviour. The application of this

model often helps in understanding organisational stuckness,

non-movement and anti-task behaviour in for example change,

transformation and diversity issues.

Measuring behaviour and predicting potential

Over the years psychological tests have become essential tools

for implementing change. The term test refers to group and

individually administered standardised measures of aptitudes,

achievement, intelligence, personalit y, social, language,

perception and motor skills (Oakland, 2004). Strong evidence

exists to support the merit of tests for monitoring children in

the educational system, providing policy-makers with

information for decision making, aiding psychologists in the

individual screening and diagnostic process, credentialing 

and licensing candidates in professions and specialties, 

and providing organisations with data for employee 

selection, promotion and evaluation of training (Hambleton &

Oakland, 2004).

The cultural appropriateness of psychological tests and their

usage were placed in the spotlight with the promulgation of the

new Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998, Section 8 (Government

Gazette, 1998), which stipulates that: "Psychological testing and

other similar assessments are prohibited unless the test or

assessment being used - (a) has been scientifically shown to be

valid and reliable, (b) can be applied fairly to all employees; and

(c) is not biased against any employee or group." Despite the

multicultural nat ure of our societ y, psychological test

development in South Africa has historically been characterised

by the development of tests for separate cultural and/or

language groups (Claassen, 1997; Foxcroft, 1997). While past

apartheid policies and legislation shaped the way in which test

development was approached until the 1990s, it is somewhat

disturbing to note that subsequent to apartheid's demise, very

few new culturally relevant tests have been developed that can

be applied to a diverse range of cultural and language groups in

South Africa. 

Personality variables and issues related to their use, especially

in work settings have generated a vast amount of interest,

research and publications. The importance of personality to

I/O Psycholog y is now apparent with meaningful

relationships between personality variables and criteria, such

as job satisfaction, supervisory ratings, the development of

job-specific criteria, counterproductive behaviour, and

organisational citizenship. Criterion-related validities for

predicting work-related constructs reveal the importance of

personality variables in understanding and predicting work

performance. Various methodological questions should be

raised when applying personality assessment, namely 1) is

paper-and-pencil testing familiar to people in a specific

culture? 2) are respondents proficient in reading English? 3) is

the translation done accurately? 4) is the translated test

equivalent to the original test? 5) are there cross-cultural

differences in the means and distributions of test scores? 6)

how can cross-cult ural differences in test scores be

interpreted? (Cheung, 2004).

Currently, none of the available personality tests used in

South Africa have been found to provide a reliable and valid

picture of personality for all cultural (and language) groups

in this country. Meiring, Van de Vijver, Rothmann and Barrick

(2005) clearly demonstrated that psychological instruments

imported from abroad could have a limited suitability for

South Africa. It was only after a series of item adaptations that

acceptable psychometric properties were found. In recent

years more attention has been paid to the issue of equivalence

of tests for the multicultural South-African context (e.g. 1991;

Meiring et al., 2005). The results of the examinations were not

unequivocally positive. Meiring et al. reported very low

internal consistencies for the 15FQ (see Tyler, 2002) in all

South-African language groups. In what is known as an etic

approach, the currently used tests have been imported from

elsewhere (often from Anglo-Saxon countries), while emic

personality constructs important in Africa have been omitted.

The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) is cited

as an example of indigenous measures that have identified

cult urally salient dimensions. The unique Interpersonal

Relatedness factor of the CPAI measures an aspect of

personality which has been absent in the personality tests that

are used all over the world (Cheung, 2004). The development

of a personality test in South Africa might contribute to the

development of an indigenous personality theory.

In the social, behavioural, and medical sciences self-report

questionnaires are often used as an efficient and inexpensive

method for data collection. However, asking respondents to

report on their own personality, attitudes, or behaviour entails

a number of problems. Respondents often show tendencies to

answer according to certain patterns (response styles) lowering

the validity of instruments. The most salient response style is

social desirability, that is the tendency of participants to respond

to questionnaire items in line with societal norms about what is

appropriate (Van Hemert, 2003).

Research regarding the reliabilit y, factorial validit y, and

predictive validity of assessment tools is needed. Furthermore,

more research is needed on the equivalence and bias of

assessment tools used in South Africa. Van de Vijver and

Leung (1997) make a hierarchical distinction of three types 

of equivalence, namely 1) construct equivalence, which

indicates the extent to which the same construct is 

measured across all cultural groups studied, 2) measurement

unit equivalence which can be obtained when two metric

measures have the same measurement unit but have 

different origins, and 3) scalar equivalence which can be

obtained when t wo metric measures have the same

measurement unit and the same origin. Equivalence cannot 

be assumed but should be established and reported in each

study (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). Item bias should also 

be computed. An item is an unbiased measure of a theoretical

construct if persons from different cultural groups have 

the same average score on the item (Van de Vijver & Leung,

1997). Item bias can be produced by sources such as 

incidental differences in appropriateness of the item content

and inadequate item formulation. 

Contributing to organisational development

To contribute to organisational development, researchers and

practitioners need to conceptualise organisational effectiveness

and develop measures thereof. These measures could then be

used as criteria in concurrent and predictive validity studies.

RESEARCH IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY 13



Also, with the current focus on effectiveness in organisations

(including state departments), organisation diagnostic

measuring instruments (focussing on organisational culture and

climate) should be researched.

The effects of individual, group and organisational interventions

directed at organisational effectiveness and efficiency should be

researched (Rothmann, 2003). Traditionally there was too much

focus on changing the individual, without considering the

situation in which individuals find themselves (Kompier &

Cooper, 1999). One of the most important ways of improving the

experience of work is to design jobs such as to encourage

workers to engage actively with their tasks and work

environment (Turner et al., 2002). By providing workers with

autonomy in performing their jobs, challenging work, and the

opportunity for social interaction, employee effectiveness and

feelings of competence are maximised. The following work

design models should be evaluated in the South African context

(Kompier, 2003): 1) the job characteristics model, 2) the

Michigan organisation stress model, 3) the job demands-control

model, 4) the socio-technical approach, 5) the action theoretical

approach, 6) the effort-reward imbalance model, and 7) the

vitamin model.

The effectiveness and potential cost benefits of interventions

(e.g. redesigning jobs and implementing teamwork) have not

been rigorously evaluated (Kompier & Cooper, 1999). The few

rigorous studies that were conducted showed significant

improvements in employee satisfaction and motivation levels,

but productivity outputs improved minimally. 

Organisational development interventions in general and

interventions to influence culture and values should be

implemented to contribute to healthier work places.

Furthermore, psycho-educational programmes should be

developed and presented to combat burnout and to promote

work engagement (Kompier & Cooper, 1999).

New technology (including information technology and new

production methods) are continuously introduced by

organisations. I/O psychologists should be involved in

interdisciplinary teams who plan the implementation of new

technology. From a systems perspective it is necessary that

changes in the task subsystem (e.g. technology) must be

accompanied by changes in the psycho-social subsystem

(knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) (Robbins, Odendaal &

Roodt, 2003).

Four dimensions of organisational results should be evaluated

when measuring the effects of work wellness interventions,

namely financial results, time and personnel resources,

customer satisfaction and health and safety (Kompier & Cooper,

1999). Financial results are taken from an organisation's profit

and loss account and balance sheet. Time and personnel

resources include hours worked, personnel statistics and

personnel reports, which show the levels of staffing and

competency that have been used to achieve the financial result.

Measurement of customer satisfaction show how effective an

organisation has been in satisf ying customer's requirements.

Health and safety include the physical and psychological

working environment, stress, burnout, health, work engagement

and job satisfaction. Study of the effectiveness of interventions

will require an interdisciplinary approach.

Translating research findings and empowering potential

users thereof

Although a large body of research findings exist, potential users

often do not react on them. This might be attributed to a lack of

knowledge of research findings, a lack of implementation skills,

a lack of motivation and/or limitations created by the prevailing

organisational culture. According to Watkins (2001), many

industrial leaders uphold dysfunctional paradigms which may

profoundly diminish the effectiveness of I/O Psychology

teaching and research. Reacting to the opinions of industrial

leaders, without at least considering organisational success

factors to support their reasoning, may potentially be

devastating to the subject.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Next, recommendations are made regarding some important

research topics for I/O psychologists. 

I/O psycholog y should study its changing identit y and

dynamics constantly in order to stay relevant in the world of

work. This includes responding in a sensitive manner towards

organisational efforts to seduce practitioners to become

involved in administration and mechanistic inputs. Research

designs should include more qualitative designs across

boundaries of paradigm and theory to fit post-modern thinking

(Camic, Rhodes & Yardley, 2003). For example, the inclusion of

the systems psychodynamic stance (Miller, 1993, Cytrynbaum &

Noumair, 2003) would explain the relevant qualitative, deep and

unconscious behaviour manifesting in organisational change,

transformation, mergers, acquisitions, diversity management

and the symptoms of stuck-ness, pain and anti-task behaviour

associated therewith. 

The philosophy underlying the Psychology of work and in

organisations, including the meaning of work, should be

studied. Also, new theories to conceptualise individual, group

and organisational behaviour in the work context, based on a

continuum of human behaviour (from negative to positive) as

expressed in multicultural and cross-cultural environments

should be developed and tested. Causal models of behaviour in

multicultural and cross-cultural work contexts should be

developed and tested. The effects of organisational factors (job

demands and job resources) on well-being, work/life balance, as

well as the moderating or mediating effects of personality

characteristics and strengths should be studied in longitudinal

and/or experimental designs. Strategies to improve the

work/non-work interface should be researched. Furthermore, the

effects of individual wellness on organisational outcomes such

as performance, labour turnover, safet y behaviour and

absenteeism should be studied.

Diversity represents another important area of research for

industrial psychologists. The effects of stereotypes, prejudice

and discrimination on individual wellness and organisational

effectiveness should be studied. Furthermore, research is

needed regarding the role of inter-cultural communication,

cultural differences, minority positions and migration in

individual wellness and organisational effectiveness. Research

is needed regarding the reliability, validity, equivalence and

bias of psychological tests in the multicultural context of

South Africa. These tests could provide policy-makers with

information for decision making, aid psychologists in the

individual screening and diagnostic process and provide

organisations with data for employee selection, promotion and

evaluation of training. While the cultural appropriateness of

internationally developed psychological tests should be

evaluated, new tests should be developed based on South

African circumstances. The use psychological tests to predict

individual well-being and organisational effectiveness should

also be researched.

Strengths and psychological capabilities that can be measured,

developed and effectively managed for performance

improvement in the workplace should be studied. Such strengths

and capabilities include sense of coherence, self-efficacy,

optimism, subjective well-being and life satisfaction, resilience,

positive affectivity, coping strategies and emotional intelligence.

Research regarding the ways organisations could select, measure,

develop, and channel the careers of individuals based on their

strengths should be conducted. The magnitude and equivalence

ROTHMANN, CILLIERS14



of constructs across cultures, the value of religious practices,

spirituality and diverse constructions of life meaning, and clues

to the good life that cultural experiences might provide should

also be studied.

It is clear that the employment relationship has changed.

Therefore, changes in psychological contracts and the effects

thereof on individual wellness and organisational effectiveness

should be studied. The effects of changes in the psychological

contract on job security levels, factors which contribute to job

insecurity, moderators and/or mediators, as well as outcomes

thereof should be investigated. Research is needed on the best

way to implement career counselling services and life skills

training for job seekers. Furthermore, experiences of

unemployment in South Africa should be investigated to

determine its impact on the well-being, attitudes and coping

behaviours of unemployed individuals in a multicultural

context. Psychological profiles of unemployed individuals of

different demographic groups could be used as basis for

planning and implementing policies (regarding counselling

services, life skills programmes, training programmes and job

creation programmes) to solve problems related to the

unemployed.

The effectiveness of primary, secondary and tertiary level

interventions to promote individual, group and organisational

effectiveness should be investigated. Research is needed

conceptualise organisational effectiveness and to develop

reliable and valid indicators thereof.

Careful consideration should be given to the selection of

research designs. Cross-sectional designs might be useful 

in developing and standardising psychological tests. However,

more studies based on cross-sectional study designs and 

on employees' self-reports has little added value. Relevant 

and applicable statistics should be used. Better research 

designs (such as longitudinal and experimental research

designs) are needed. It is also important that industrial

psychological researchers collaborate with occupational

physicians, psychiatrists, psychologists, engineers as well as

fellow scholars from such fields as epidemiology, physiology,

economics and business administration. However, as a

prerequisite for collaborating with researchers and/or

practitioners from other disciplines, it is necessary that I/O

Psychology solves its identity issues.

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