Requests for copies should beaddressed to: A. M. G. Schreuder, Department of Industrial Psychology, UNISA, PO Box 392, UNISA,0003 53 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAREER PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY TYPES M COETZEE AMG SCHREUDER Department of Industrial Psychology University of South Africa ABSTRACT Contemporary career research emphasises the need for career counselling practices that will assist individuals in shifting from linear career preferences to non-linear career patterns. A Career counselling framework that facili- tates self-insight in personal motives and personality preferences seems to enable individuals to develop the inner sense of direction and identity required to view new career patterns as challenges for personal growth.The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between career patterns and personality types in an attempt to contri- bute to the development of such a career counselling framework.The trends in the literature survey o¡ered sup- port, whilst the results of the empiral study were less supportive. Recommendations are made on the basis of these ¢ndings. OPSOMMING Hedendaagse loopbaannavorsing beklemtoon die behoefte aan loopbaanberadingspraktyke wat individue kan help om die verskuiwing van linie“ re loopbaanvoorkeure na nie-linie“ re loopbaanpatrone te maak.‘n Loopbaanbe- radingsraamwerk wat sel¢nsig in persoonlike motiewe en persoonlikheidsvoorkeure fasiliteer blyk individue te help om die innerlike gevoel van rigting en identiteit te ontwikkel om nuwe loopbaanpatrone as uitdagings vir persoonlike groei te beskou. Die oogmerk met hierdie studie was om die verband tussen loopbaanpatrone en persoonlikheidstipes te ondersoek in ‘n poging om ‘n bydrae te lewer tot die ontwikkeling van sodanige loop- baanberadingsraamwerk. Die strekking van die literatuurondersoek bied ondersteuning, terwyl die resultate van die empiriese studie minder ondersteunend is. Aanbevelings word op grond van die bevindinge gemaak. Careers research has recently been much absorbed with the ra- dical changes to employment brought about by the informa- tion revolution and the globalizing of the economy. Various authors observed that organisational structures are becoming £atter and leaner, and in turn traditional career paths are be- coming less stable.There is a shiftingemphasis towards limited linear and more alternative routes of career progression; inter- organisational instead of intra- organisational movements and a more employer independent career indentity. Job security is also de¢ned in terms of being employable and not by being employed. (Galbraith, 1993; Hiltrop, 1995; Mirvis & Hall, 1994; Moss Kanter, 1994; Peiperl, Arthur, Go¡ee & Morris, 2000;Weick,1996). Contemporary ideas about the organising of work, whether they emphasise dynamic inter-company network arrange- ments or decentralised, individualised corporations, rely on the individual’s ability to learn and adapt rather than perform as required (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1997; Handy, 1989; Miles & Snow, 1994; Peiperl et al, 2000). In a complex world of often- shifting work arrangements, people are encouraged to take ownership of their careers and to act on the ambiguity they experience (DeFillippi & Arthur, 1994). Career choice and development practices within the organisation need to shift from facilitating career decision-making to assisting indivi- duals in career and work adjustment, or adaptation. Various authors have suggested in this regard a need for an overarching conceptual career counselling framework which will provide the industrial psychologist with either a theoretical or practical base to devise better means for matching clients to career in- terventions needed in the new world of work (Brooks, 1991; Driver,1985; Montross & Shinkman,1992; Peiperl et al, 2000; Savickas,1994). It appears that both the Career Concepts Model of Driver (1979) and Jung’s (1990) theory of personality types can make an additional contribution to enhance individual self-insight in career experiences and preferences. The Career Concepts Model of Driver (1979) addresses the three-way ¢t between individual career patterns, organisational forces and societal trends. It provides a conceptual framework of career alterna- tives (linear versus non-linear career tracks) linked to indivi- dual di¡erences in key motives and values. It allows for self- assessment activities to enhance self-insight and informed choice to facilitate career adjustment, or adaptation. Jung’s (1990) theory of personality types provides a framework for understanding personality di¡erences in cognitive and per- ceptual styles, motives and values in career decision-making. It also allows for self-assessment activities to enhance self-in- sight and informed choice in facilitating career adjustment, or adaptation. Research by Driver (1982), Olson (1979), and Prince (1979) indicate a relationship between Schein’s (1975) career anchors and the career patterns described in Driver’s (1979) Career Concepts Model. Research byVanVuuren (1989) found a relationship between Schein’s (1975) career anchors and per- sonality and concluded that speci¢c career anchors ought to have speci¢c personality pro¢les. Hendrickz (1987) indicates a linkage between Schein’s (1975) career anchors and Holland’s (1985) occupational types. Kummerow (1991) found speci¢c relationships between Holland’s (1985) occupational types and the personality types described in Jung’s (1990) theory of per- sonality types. Given the relationship between career anchors and personality, as well as the relationship between career anchors and career patterns, this study aimed to examine the relationship between the career patterns described in the Career Concepts Model (Driver, 1979) and the personality types described by Jung (1990). A relationship between personality types and career patterns may help to give perspective to the theoretical and practical value of the Career Concepts Model within a changing world of work. If such a relationship does exist, it may be postulated that personality types can act as predictors for speci¢c career patterns. Furthermore, such an endeavour would provide in- truiging insights in developing an overarching framework for career choice and development practices within the context of the current and future organisational realities, especially a framework that can be linked to individual di¡erences in cog- nitive and perceptual styles, motives, values and career pat- terns. SAJournal of Industrial Psychology, 2002, 28(1), 53-59 SATydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 2002, 28(1), 53-59 The Career Concepts Model It appears that the individual’s de¢nition of career success by way of a preferred career pattern- a concept developed by Dri- ver (1979) - can make an additional contribution to matching internal career needs of individuals and external career oppor- tunities. Driver (1979,1985) de¢nes a career pattern as an endu- ring cognitive or conceptual structure underlying the individual’s thinking concerning his or her career.This under- lying cognitive structure de¢nes the meaning of a career for the individual.The career pattern may be conscious or subcon- scious. In either case, it is seen to function like an inner gyro- scope governing the individual’s career moves. Furthermore, career decisions are guided by speci¢c career decision factors or personal motives which form an integral part of the career pattern (Driver,1979; Driver & Sundby,1983). The combination of three de¢nitional components (frequen- cy of change in career areas, direction of movement, job con- tent changes) intovarious patterns produces various pictures of career behaviour ranging from stayers to movers of various frequencies, and from vertical to lateral movement. In a theo- retical framework these four patterns may be thought of as the operational de¢nitions of four constructs de¢ned as linear, ex- pert, spiral, and transitory (Coombs,1989). Each of these four ca- reer patterns describes a fundamentally di¡erent career pattern, eachwith a unique conceptualisation of career success. Table 1 presents the key features of each of these four basic ca- reer patterns (Brousseau, 1990; Brousseau & Driver, 1994; Driver & Sundby,1983; Driver,1985). TABLE 1 OVERVIEW OF THE FOUR CAREER PATTERNS AS ALTERNATIVE VIEWS OF THE IDEAL CAREER Career Pattern Frequency of ¢eld change Direction of movement Linear *Infrequent *Upward *Mobility mostly *Person moves upward rapidly limited to to positions of higher authority Expert *No change *Minimal upward movement *Person remains within *Person stays in one position or makes two or three moves upward within a specialty of function Spiral *Every ¢ve to ten years *Lateral *Person makes a major *Person moves into new type of or occupation work that builds on current skills and develops new ones. Transitory *Every two to four *Mainly lateral years *‘‘Consistently inconsistent’’ *Person makes frequent pattern. More lateral than upward. According to Brousseau (1990), di¡erent types of careers o¡er di¡erent types of rewards and opportunities to satisfydi¡erent work-related needs. Studies by Coombs (1989); Driver and Sundby (1983); and Prince (1979) have found individuals’ work values to correlate with their ideal career patterns. These studies indicate that each of the career patterns is asso- ciated with several values that seem to represent the motivation for that particular career pattern.These ¢ndings are supported by research (Driver, 1979, 1982, 1985; Driver & Coombs, 1983; Olson,1979) which have identi¢ed linkages between the four career patterns and various motivating factors for various populations or groups. Just as there are di¡erences in the stabil- ity and duration of time in a chosen ¢eld, it has been found (in the research) that there are distinct di¡erences in particular motives of individuals who follow each of the career patterns. These motives may be seen to form an integral part of the career pattern. Table 2 gives an overview of the key motives most commonly linked to the career patterns. Discrepancies between ideal career patterns and career pattern motives indicate the extent to which socialization processes (at workorelsewhere) have in£uenced individuals toview the ap- propriateness of various career paths in ways that di¡er from what would be the case if their perceptions were in£uenced only by their own personal motives. Ideal career patterns refer to the social desirability of a speci¢c career pattern, whereas the career pattern motives refer to individuals’true career pat- tern preferences (Brousseau,1990). TABLE 2 CAREER PATTERN MOTIVES Linear Spiral Expert Transitory Power Personal growth Expertise Variety Competence Creativity Security Independence Achievement Developing others Competence Creativity Management Prestige Stability People Recognition Recognition Autonomy Involvement Self-development Achievement Achievement (Adapted from: Brousseau,1990; Brousseau & Driver,1994) Mismatches between individual’s ideal career patterns and per- sonal career motives (or true career patterns), allow for facili- tating the shift from linear career preferences to the non-linear career patterns. Career awareness training and counselling on mismatching ideal career patterns and career pattern motives, actually validate the non-linear career patterns (Brousseau, 1990). PersonalityTypeTheory According to Jung (1990), each personality may be divided in- to one of various personality types in terms of two constructs, namely attitudes and functions. The two basic attitudes in Jung’s typology are extraversion and introversion. Extraversion is being described as an outgoing, candid and accommodating nature that adapts easily to a given situation, quickly forms attachments, and, setting aside any possible misgivings, often ventures forth into an unknown situation. Introversion implies a hesitant, re£ective, retiring nature that keeps itself to itself, shrinks from objects, is always slightly on the defensive, and prefers to hide mistrustful scru- tiny (Jung,1990). The two attitudes do not represent a dichotomy. Every perso- nality has both introvert and extrovert characteristics. How- ever, in every personality one attitude, for example extraversion, is dominant and conscious, while the other atti- tude is subordinate and unconscious.The subordinate attitude compensates for the dominant attitude and vice versa. Jung’s (1990) theory of personality types is concerned with the conscious use of the functions, of perception and decision making (or judgment) and the areas of life is which these func- tions are used. Jung (1990) assumes that apart from a dominant attitude, each person also has a speci¢c way in which he/she observes his/her world and assigns meaning to each experien- ce. He distinguishes four such conscious mental functions, or processes, namely: two perception processes (sensing and in- tuition) and two judgment processes (thinking and feeling). Bycombining an individual’s dominant attitude and function, the basic personality type may be determined.The personality types are thus patterns in the way people prefer to perceive and make judgments. Myers (1980) extended Jung’s (1990) theory on personality types by including the presence of an auxiliary process to sup- ply a degree of balance between the functions of perception and judgment, and the attitudes of extraversion and introver- sion. Jung (1990) based his theory on clinical observations and con- sequently portrays each mental process in sharpest focus and with maximum contrast between its extraverted and introver- ted forms. Jung (1990) thus describes the rare, theoretically ‘‘pure’’ types (Myers, 1980). Myers (1980) developed an instru- COETZEE, SCHREUDER54 ment, called the Myers-BriggsType Indicator, to make it pos- sible to empirically test and use Jung’s theory with nonclinical populations. Myers (1980) theory on personality types distinguishes be- tween sixteen personality types. Tables 3 and 4 highlight the strengths of each personality type, and the similarities and dif- ferences of the sixteen personality types (Lawrence,1993). The MBTI questionnaire items are concerned with four bipo- lar preferences to determine the relative preference of one over the other.The four scales correspond to the four dimensions of PersonalityType theory, as shown inTable 3.The MBTI uses a shorthand designation for the eight characteristics as in the ¢gure. For the purpose of this research project, the SN andTF indices were of interest. The SN and TF indices represent the indivi- dual’s orientation to consciousness and are referred to as orien- tating functions (Myers & McCaulley, 1992). Combinations of perception (S and N) with judgment (T and F) give four groupings of personality types, namely Sensing-Thinking (ST); Sensing-Feeling (SF); Intuition-feeling (NF) and Intui- tion-Thinking (NT) types. Each personality type has speci¢c characteristics which are assumed to stem from the preferred use of the mental functions. Myers and McCaulley (1992) considered these four personali- ty type groupings as the most important of the groupings of the types, particularly when career choices are concerned. The various personality types di¡er in their interests, values and needs. They learn in di¡erent ways and cherish di¡erent occupations (Myers,1980). TABLE 3 FOUR PREFERENCES ARE SCORED TO ARRIVE ATA PERSON’S PERSONALITY TYPE Does the Person’s Interest £ow MainlyTo The OuterWorld The InnerWorld E of Actions, Objects of Concepts I and Persons? and Ideas? EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION Does the Person PreferTo Perceive The Immediate, Real The Possibilities, Practical Facts of Relationships and S Experience and Life? Meanings of Experiences? N SENSING INTUITION Does the Person Prefer to make Judgements or Decisions Objectively, Impersonally, Subjectively and T Considering Causes of Personally,Weighing F Events & Where Decisions Values of Choices & How May Lead? They Matter to others? THINKING FEELING Does the Person Prefer Mostly to Live In a Decisive, Planned and Orderly In a Spontaneous, Flexible J Way, Aiming to Regulate and Way, Aiming to P Control Events? Understand Life and Adapt to it? JUDGEMENT PERCEPTION (Adapted from : Lawrence,1993) TABLE 4 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY TYPES ENTJ ISFP Intuitive, innovative Organizer, Observant, loyal Helper, re£ective, analytical, systematic, con¢dent; realistic empathic, patient with details pushes to get action on new ideas gentle and retiring, shuns and challenges. disagreements; enjoys the moment. ESTJ INFP Fact-minded, practical Organizer, Imaginative, independent Helper, assertive analytical, systematic, re£ective, inquisitive, empathic, loyal pushes to get things done and to ideals, more interested in working smoothly and e⁄ciently. possibilities than practicalities. INTP ESFJ InquisitiveAnalyzer, re£ective, Practical Harmonizer and worker- independent, curious: more with-people; sociable, orderly, interested in organizing ideas opinioned; conscientious; realistic and than situations or people. well tuned to the here and now. ISTP ENFJ Practical Analyzer, values exactness: Imaginative Harmonizer and more interested in organizing data worker-with people; sociable, than situations or people; re£ective, expressive, orderly, opinioned, a cool and curious observer of life. conscientious, curious about new ideas and possibilities. ESTP INFJ Realistic Adapter in the world of People-oriented Innovator of ideas; material things; good natured, serious, quietly forceful and tolerant, easy going; oriented to persevering; concerned with the practical, ¢rst hand experience; common good, with helping others highly observant of details of things. develop. ESFP INTJ Realistic Adapter in human Logical, critical, decisive Innovator of relationships; friendly and easy with serious, intent, highly independent, people, highly observant of their concerned with organization; feeling and needs: orientated to determined and often stubborn. practical, ¢rst hand experience. ISTJ ENFP Analytical Manager of Facts and Warmly enthusiastic Planner of Details; dependable, decisive, Change; imaginative, individualistic; painstaking and systematic: pursues inspiration with impulsive concerned with systems and energy; seeks to understand and organization; stable and conservative. inspire others. ISFJ ENTP Sympathetic Manager of Facts and Inventive, analytical Plannerof Change; Details, concerned with people’s enthusiastic and independent; pursues welfare, dependable, painstaking and inspiration with impulsive energy, systematic; stable and conservative. seeks to understand and inspire others. (Adapted from : Lawrence,1993) According to PersonalityType theory, one of the most impor- tant motivations for career choice is a desire for work that is intrinsically interesting and satisfying and that will permit use of preferred functions and attitudes (Myers & McCaulley, 1992). Knowledge and understanding of Personality Type theory give individuals a sense of worth and dignity concern- ing their own qualities. Individuals can be aided in expanding their choices by helping them to realise their strengths and to develop their less preferred functions. New tasks, jobs or careers can be made more palatable if they are construed as challenges for personal growth. Cultivating new and di¡erent career patterns can actually become a good arena for persona- lity type development (Myers & McCaulley,1992). Against the aforementioned background, this research project attempted to determine whether linkages exist between the linear, spiral, transitory and expert career patterns as explained in the Career Concepts Model of Driver (1979), and the ST, SF, NF and NTpersonality types as de¢ned by Myers (1980). Based on the approaches of Driver (1982); Olson (1979); Prince (1979); Van Vuuren (1989); Hendrickz (1987) and Kummerow (1991), the following linkages between the linear, transitory, ex- pert and spiral career patterns and ST, SF, NF, NT personality types are postulated: CAREER PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY TYPES 55 The expert career pattern may associate with the ST and SF personality types (ISTP, ESTP, ISTJ, ESTJ, ISFJ, ESFJ, ISFP, ESFP) as they apparently share the same underlying work values of expertise, security, stability.The linear career pattern may associate with the ST and NT types (ISTP, ESTP, ISTJ, ESTJ, INTJ, ENTJ, INTP, ENTP), as they seemingly share the underlying work values of performance, power, and achievement. Finally the spiral and transitory career patterns may associate with the NT and NF personality types (INTJ, ENTJ, INTP, ENTP, INFJ, ENFJ, INFP, ENFP) as they seemingly share the underlying work values of personal growth, developing others, variety, autonomy and creativity. METHOD Hypotheses The speci¢c research hypotheses are as follows Hol ^ There is no relationship between career patterns and personality types. H1 ^ There is a relationship between career patterns and per- sonality types. The participants The population was limited to a single organisation. Based on Brousseau’s (1990) and Brousseau and Driver’s (1994) assertion that non-linear career awareness should be stimulated among managerial and professional levels of sta¡, the decision was made to sample the chosen organisation’s managerial levels of sta¡ (which include middle managers and supervisors) and the professional levels of sta¡.The professional levels of sta¡ func- tion on the same level as the managerial group of people in terms of organisational decision-making. Table 5 gives an overview of the initial and ¢nal sample sizes per group. TABLE 5 INITIAL AND FINAL SAMPLE SIZES PER OCCUPATIONAL GROUP Questionnaires Questionnaires % Occupational Group sent out (n) returned & used (n) Accountant 1 1 100 Chemical Analyst 2 2 100 Engineers 26 16 62 Human Resources Practitioner 6 4 67 Instructor (Technical) 8 8 100 Manager (Technical) 28 16 57 Manager (Non-technical) 4 1 25 Planner 10 10 100 Supervisor (Technical) 65 44 68 Supervisor (Non- Technical) 3 3 100 Technician 47 20 43 TOTAL 200 125 62,5 According to this table the number of technically orientated (92,8%) occupations outnumbered the non-technical occupa- tions (7,2%) signi¢cantly, as expected in such a technically oriented organisation. In summary, the participants can be described as follows:The mean age of the respondents was 35,36 years, and with males being the majority group (96,8%). A ¢rst signi¢cant characte- ristic was the work stability of the sample group: 56,8% had 5 to10 years of service with the organisation, and 22,4%,10 to15 years of service. A second signi¢cant characteristic was the high technically oriented (92,8%) occupations. Both Man- agers and Supervisors (48%) were predominantly from a tech- nical background. These characteristics of the sample group were taken into account in the interpretation and generaliza- tion of the results. Measuring instruments The following measuring instruments were used in this study. Biographical Questionnaire The questionnaire was designed to ascertain the personal in- formation needed for the statistical analysis of the data. The Career Concepts Questionnaire (CCQ) The Career Concepts Questionnaire (CCQ) of Driver, Brous- seau,Von Glinow and Prince (1980) was used. The question- naire measures the preferences individuals have for speci¢c career patterns (linear, spiral, expert and transitory) as well as the importance of a set of career decision factors or pattern motives in making career decisions. The questionnaire pro- vides two sets of information. Firstly, the career pattern score which indicates the respondent’s preference toward one of the four general career patterns and secondly, a career pattern mo- tive score which illustrates the importance of the personal mo- tives in Table 2 for the individual, and which is also an indication of the career pattern that the individual actually would have preferred. The reliability and validity of the CCQ were examined by Coombs (1989). Positive correlations were found with the test-retest procedure. Research o¡ered support for the ¢t or construct validity between basic descriptions of career patterns and key elements of those patterns. Overall, the results con- ¢rmed the integrity of the instrument to assess and identify individual career pattern identi¢cations and the correlation of expected career decision factors (motives). The Myers-BriggsType Indicator (MBTI) Form G, the standard form of the MBTI (Briggs & Myers, 1997; Myers & McCaulley, 1992), was used for this research project.The form G is a self-reporting instrument, consisting of items which measure individuals’ preferences in regard to the basic functions of perception and judgment that enter into almost every behaviour. The items describe various types of easily recognised behaviours or reactions in various life set- tings. Responses indicate individuals’ preferences in regard to the four scales or indices, Extraversion/Introversion (EI); Sen- sing/Intuition (SN);Thinking/Feeling (TF); and Judging/Per- ceiving (JP). The reported personality type indicates whether the individual has a preferred orientation towards the ST, SF, NF or NT personality type grouping. Extensive data presen- ted by Myers and McCaulley (1992) con¢rm the validity and reliability of the MBTI, Form G. RESULTS Statistical analysis The Chi-square was the chosen method of analysis to test for association between the categories of variables.The aim of the Chi-square technique is to test the statistical signi¢cance of the association between the mentioned categories, or put di¡er- ently, to test whether membership of a given category on one dimension (e.g. the four career patterns) tend to be associated with membership of a given category on the other dimension (i.e. the four personality types).The data observations are dis- played in 4x4 contingency tables as each of the two sets of variables had four levels to be tested for independence. The analysis is part of the crosstabs routine in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The null hypothesis proposes no di¡erences in distribution between each of the groups of variables, or that the di¡erences obtained would be no di¡erent than what might be obtained by chance. If the computed x2 from the computer analysis exceeds the critical value from the x2 table, the null hypothesis will be rejected. If that occurs it will be concluded that the di¡erences between COETZEE, SCHREUDER56 each of the groups were not due to chance, that is, that the variables are not independent of each other. Table 6 displays ideal career patterns and the related career pat- tern motives frequencies for the total sample. The horizontal row totals show the numbers and percentages of subjects who rated each of the four ideal career patterns most highly. 36% of the sample rated the expert career pattern as the most desirable, followed by a preference for the linear career pattern (28,8%) and the spiral career pattern (26,4%). The vertical row totals show the numbers and percentages of subjects who rated each of the four related sets of career pattern motives most highly. The majority of the sample (44%) rated the expert pattern motives of security, expertise and compe- tence as most important to them personally, followed by a preference for the spiral pattern motives of personal growth, creativityand developingothers (28%).The row totals are qui- te di¡erent fromthe column totals.The expert career pattern is rated as most ideal by the majority of the sample group, follo- wed closely by the linear and spiral career patterns. Together, these three groups comprise 91,2% of the sample. However, this distribution clusters predominantly in ¢rstly, the expert career pattern motives and secondly, in the spiral career pattern motives category.Together, these two groups comprise 72% of the total sample. The frequency distribution of the four personality types (ST, SF, NF, NT) for the total sample group is displayed in Table 7. The personality types are expressed as a percentage of the sample group in the table format. The data is only used to categorise the sample according to the four persona- lity types, and therefore only frequencies and percentages are shown. The majority of the sample clusters in the ST (Sensing-Thin- king) personality type category (71,2%), followed by a less strongly clustering in the NT (Intuition-Thinking) personal- ity type category (22,4%). The SF (Sensing-Feeling) and NF (Intuition-Feeling) personality types don’t feature strongly (4% and 2,4% respectively). The data reported inTable 7 indicates a predominant preference forcareerareas or ¢elds thatdemand impersonal analysis ofcon- crete facts with its step-by step logical process of reasoning from cause to e¡ect, from premise to conclusion. Using technical skills and abilities with facts and objects are preferred (ST-ty- pes), followed by an interest to use abilities in theoretical and technical developments (NT-types). The STJ preference indi- cates predominant underlying workvalues suchas technicalori- entation, security, stability, expertise. This is in line with the aforementioned career patterns observations. Both the ST per- sonality types and expert career pattern share the underlying work values of expertise, security, and stability and a preference to using technical skills and abilities. TABLE 6 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAREER PATTERNS AND THE RELATED CAREER PATTERN MOTIVES Career Pattern Motives Row Total Linear Transitory Expert Spiral % Ideal Career Pattern: Linear 6 3 14 13 36 (28,8%) Transitory 2 3 4 2 11 (8,8%) Expert 1 8 23 13 45 (36,0%) Spiral 6 6 14 7 33 (26,4%) Column Total 15 20 55 35 125 (%) (12,0%) (16,0%) (44,0%) (28,0%) (100,0%) TABLE 7 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONALITY TYPES Sensing Types Intuitives Thinking Feeling Feeling Thinking ST SF NF NT ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ n: 44 n: 3 n: 0 n: 5 %35,2 %2,4 %0 %4 ISTP ISFP INFP INTP n: 3 n: 1 n: 1 n: 4 %2,4 %0,8 %0,8 %3,2 ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP n: 8 n: 0 n: 2 n: 6 %6,4 %0 %1,6 %4,8 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ n: 34 n: 1 n: 0 n:13 %27,2 %0,8 %0 %10,4 TOTAL: 89 5 3 28 % 71,2 4 2,4 22,4 Total sample: n = 125 TABLE 8 CHI-SQUARE (TEST OF ASSOCIATION) FOR CAREER PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY TYPES (TOTAL SAMPLE) Personality Types ST SF NF NT Total Career n % n % n % n % n % Patterns: Linear 12 9,6 0 0 0 0 3 2,4 15 12,0 Transitory 11 8,8 0 0 2 1,6 7 5,6 20 16,0 Expert 45 36,0 2 1,6 0 0 8 6,4 55 44,0 Spiral 21 16,8 3 2,4 1 0,8 10 8,0 35 28,0 TOTAL 89 71,2 5 4,0 3 2,4 28 22,4 125 100,0 The measure of association between the career patterns and personality types for the total sample (n = 125) is represented in table 8. x2 = 15,7 df = 9 p = 0,07 n = 125 10 out of 16 (62,5%) of the valid cells have expected frequency less than 5,0. Minimum expected cell frequency = 0,360. At 9 degrees of freedom and p = 0,05 the critical value fromthe x2 table is 16,92. The computed x2 value from the computer analysis does not exceed the critical value and therefore the null hypothesis is not rejected. x2 is however signi¢cant on p = 0,10 (p < 10). TABLE 9 CHI-SQUARE (TEST OF ASSOCIATION) FOR CAREER PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY TYPES (GROUP WITH MATCHING IDEAL CAREER PATTERNS AND RELATED CAREER PATTERN MOTIVES) Personality Types ST SF NF NT Total Career n % n % n % n % n % Patterns: Linear 4 10,3 0 0 0 0 2 5,1 6 15,4 Transitory 0 0 0 0 1 2,6 2 5,1 3 7,7 Expert 21 53,8 0 0 0 0 2 5,2 23 59,0 Spiral 4 10,3 1 2,6 0 0 2 5,1 7 17,9 TOTAL 29 71,4 1 2,6 1 2,6 8 20,5 39 100,0 The measure of association between the career patterns and personality types for the groupwith matching ideal careerpat- terns and true career patterns (or career pattern motives), (n = 39) is represented in table 9. CAREER PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY TYPES 57 x2 = 25,4 df = 9 p = 0,003 n = 39 14 out of 16 (87,5%) of the valid cells have expected frequency less than 5,0. Minimum expected cell frequency = 0,077. At 9 degrees of freedom and p = 0,05 the critical value from the x2 table is16,92.The computed x2 value exceeds the critical va- lue and therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION As displayed in Table 6 the discrepancies between the ideal career pattern frequencies and the related career pattern mo- tives or true career patterns frequencies are noteworthy. Ideal- ly, the two sets of frequencies should correspond closely. Subjects who rated the linear career pattern of career move- ment as most desirable, gave low ratings to the linear career pattern motives of power and achievement, and high ratings to the expert pattern motives of personal growth, creativity and developing others. According to Brousseau and Driver (1994), the linear mis- match is a fairly common mismatch, known as the ‘‘false li- near’’. The observations in Table 6 are in line with ¢ndings of a survey by Driver and Ho¡man (1979), which indicated that many people whose primary identi¢cations with the linear pattern, are actually ‘‘closet spirals’’.They seem to fall into two categories; namely: (1) those who truly prefer a linear career, but who identify secondarily with the spiral pattern; and (2) those who would prefer a spiral to a linear career, but who may not be aware of this because they have super¢cially accep- ted social norms favouring the linear career. The data reported inTable 6 are also noteworthy in terms of the number of ‘‘false linears’’.The number of ‘‘false linears’’ in this sample group is 30 (or put di¡erently, 83,3% of the sub- jects who identify primarily with the linear career pattern, secondarily identify themselves with non-linear values). The frequencies indicate that 75% of the subjects whose primary career pattern identi¢cation is linear, secondarily identify with either the expert (38,9%) or the spiral (36,1%) careers.This is an interesting observation, given the fact that according to Brousseau (1990), linear and expert patterns dif- fer more fundamentally in values than do linear and spiral patterns. The strong technical occupational orientation of both the management and professional groups could account for the strong identi¢cation with the expert career pattern. Similar mismatch patterns are observed for the spiral, expert and transitory career patterns. Although mismatch patterns are also observed for the expert career pattern, the expert career pattern motives indicate the highest frequencycorrespondence to the expert career pattern. However, the match is far from perfect.The frequencies indi- cate that 25,6% of the total sample group can be termed as ‘‘closet experts’’ and 22,4% as ‘‘closet spirals’’. Overall, the sample group comprises of 24% ‘‘false linears’’; 20,8% ‘‘false spirals’’;17,6% ‘‘false experts’’and 6,4% ‘‘false transitories’’. Both ‘‘false linears’’ and ‘‘false spirals’’ tend to be predominantly ‘‘closet experts’’. Again, the strong technical occupational orientation of the sample group could account for the strong identi¢cation with expert career pattern. Across the four ideal career patterns, only about one-third (31,2%) of the respondents in the sample shows a congruent match between ideal career patterns and related career pattern motives. Schreuder (1998) found a similar result amongst a group of 188 South African managers. The data reported inTable 8 show that the direction of the as- sociation is such that the ST-personality types are more likely to prefer the expert career pattern (36,0%), followed by a preference for the spiral career pattern (16,8%). Put di¡erently, the proportion of ST-personality types that chooses the expert career pattern, is signi¢cantly higher than the NT, NF, SF, per- sonality types that choose the expert career pattern. This ob- servation is also in line with the theoretical postulation that a linkage does exist between the ST-personality types and the expert career pattern. The NT-personality type seems to associate strongly with the spiral career pattern, as well as with the transitory career pat- tern. No association is observed for the SF- and NF- personal- ity types. The observed association between the NT- personality type and the spiral transitory career patterns is in line with the theoretical postulation that a linkage exists be- tween these variables. The observed association between the career patterns and per- sonality types is signi¢cant on the 0,10 level (p < 0,10), but not on the 0,05 level (p > 0,05).This indicates a probable relation- ship between the career patterns and personality types. The data may not be reliable because of the small number of valid cells. The null hypothesis is thus not rejected on the p � 0,10 level. It can therefore be concluded that on the p � 0,10 level, the variables (career patterns and personality types) are not in- dependent of each other. The measured association between the career patterns and per- sonality types (Table 9) re£ects the following: The direction of the association is again that the ST-personali- ty types are more likely to prefer the expert career pattern.This observation is in line with the postulation that a relationship does exist between the ST-personality types and the expert career pattern. However, non-signi¢cant conclusions can be made with regard to the relationship between the other career patterns and personality types because of small cells. Given the stated results, the research hypothesis (H1) is not re- jected with regard to the test of association for the total sample (p = 0,10). Based on the literature survey, it is recommended that both the Career Concepts Model and Personality Type theory be utilised as career counselling frameworks to ensure a process of self-enlightenment and informed career decision-making, especially with regard to career or work adjustment, or adap- tation. Individuals can be facilitated to become more self- reliant in de¢ning their career opportunities, through the stimulation of self-awareness of personal preferences, motives, values and needs versus what is socially desirable. Additional research is needed to continue to examine the relationship between the career patterns and personality types. Stronger results may be obtained if a broader, more heterogenous pool of participants are explored. Research could be conducted in a variety of work settings and occupa- tions to explore the presence of each career pattern, the related pattern motives and personality types in these di¡erent set- tings, especially within the South African context. In conclusion then, the research has provided a glimpse into the ideal and true career patterns, and groupings of personality types of a small sample of managers and professional level people in a South African organisation.The set of datawas un- fortunately too small to draw signi¢cant conclusions in sup- port of the research hypothesis. Nevertheless, the constructs and relationships that were revealed may provide additional bricks on the path to informed choices and insightful career planning for a future generation and should be seen as only the beginning of a stream of research which could prove to be fruitful. COETZEE, SCHREUDER58 59 REFERENCES Briggs, K.C. & Myers, I.B. (1997). Myers-BriggsType Indicator, Form G Booklet. 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