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Original Research
A
rticle #838
(page number not for citation purposes)
THE PSYCHOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSLATED VERSIONS OF THE
MASLACH BURNOUT INVENTORY – GENERAL SURVEY
Authors:
Carin Marais1
Karina Mostert1
Sebastiaan Rothmann1
Affi liations:
1WorkWell: Research
Unit for Economic and
Management Sciences,
North-West University,
South Africa
Correspondence to:
Carin Marais
e-mail:
cmarais@uj.ac.za
Postal address:
North-West University,
Potchefstroom, Private Bag
X6001 (Internal Box 114)
Potchefstroom,
South Africa
Keywords:
burnout; construct
validity; construct
equivalence; reliability;
police offi cers
Dates:
Received: 10 July 2009
Accepted: 07 Sept. 2009
Published: 21 Oct. 2009
How to cite this article:
Marais, C., Mostert, K., &
Rothmann, S. (2009). The
psychometrical properties
of translated versions of
the Maslach Burnout
Inventory – General
Survey. SA Journal of
Industrial Psychology/SA
Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde,
35(1), Art. #838, 8 pages.
DOI: 10.4102/sajip.v35i1.838
This article is available
at:
http://www.sajip.co.za
© 2009. The Authors.
Licensee: OpenJournals
Publishing. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Attribution License.
1751 of 8
ABSTRACT
Orientation: The investigation of the psychometric properties of translated versions of a burnout
measure.
Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of
translated versions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS) and the Cognitive
Weariness Scale.
Motivation for the study: To adhere to Section 8 of the Employment Equity Act, Act No. 55 of 1998
(p. 7), which stipulates that ‘Psychological testing and other similar assessments are prohibited
unless the test or assessment being used (a) has been scientifi cally shown to be valid and reliable, (b)
can be applied fairly to all employees, and (c) is not biased against any employee or group.’
Research design, approach and method: The current study follows the quantitative research
tradition. This study was conducted with a convenience sample of members of the South African
Police Service (SAPS; N = 685). The questionnaires were translated into Afrikaans and Setswana
and were administered together with the original English version.
Main fi ndings: The results indicated that a four-factor model, consisting of Exhaustion, Cynicism,
Professional Effi cacy, and Cognitive Weariness or Burnout, fi tted the data best. The scales did not
show measurement invariance for Afrikaans, Setswana and English samples. The reliabilities of the
Exhaustion and Professional Effi cacy subscales were acceptable in the three samples.
Practical/managerial implications: The implication of the results of the study under review is
that the adapted MBI-GS scores obtained by the English, Afrikaans and Setswana home language
speaking participants were not comparable in terms of the different translations of the instrument.
Therefore, separate norms have to be developed to assess the extent of burnout experienced by the
English, Afrikaans and Setswana home language speaking members of the SAPS who participated
in the study. As the translated versions of the adapted MBI-GS are clearly not equivalent, more
studies are needed to minimise the semantic differences existing between the different translations
of the instrument.
Contribution/Value-add: To date, no research regarding burnout has been conducted in South
Africa within the different language groups by means of translated measuring instruments.
INTRODUCTION
Over the last decade, various cultures have demanded recognition in their own right and the multicultural
nature of populations has become more apparent in many countries, including especially South Africa
(Van de Vijver & Rothmann, 2004). Since 1994, South Africa has undergone many changes aimed at
promoting the uniqueness of distinctive cultures. Such changes continue to infl uence the different aspects
of South African society, particularly those that can be subjected to psychological testing. Section 8 of
the Employment Equity Act, Act No. 55 of 1998 (p. 7) stipulates that ‘Psychological testing and other
similar assessments are prohibited unless the test or assessment being used (a) has been scientifi cally
shown to be valid and reliable, (b) can be applied fairly to all employees, and (c) is not biased against any
employee or group.’ The requirements of the Act make the South African research community responsible
for investigating, validating and standardising those measuring instruments that will ultimately be used
to test and assess the members of all cultures and language groups scientifi cally and fairly.
Multicultural assessment
Multicultural assessment is an important branch of the tree of psychological assessment. Van de Vijver
and Rothmann (2004) report that the advent of multicultural assessment is mainly inspired by a growing
societal need. It is a response to the perceived need to deal with a multitude of cultures in assessment
without the a priori designation of a single culture as the target or model for other cultures. Cross-cultural
studies, therefore, aim at establishing how similar to, and/or different from one another cultural groups
are. Such studies rely on relatively structured means of data collection, such as standardised inventories
(Van de Vijver & Leung, 2001). In the absence of cross-cultural comparisons, psychological theory would
be confi ned within its own cultural boundaries. A blind ‘exportation’ of Western instruments to other
cultures, without concern for the appropriateness of the measures, is also unlikely to lead to major
theoretical advancements (Van de Vijver & Leung, 2001).
One such western psychological theory pertains to burnout, which is a psychological syndrome that
involves experiencing a prolonged response to stressors in the workplace. The nature of burnout is
currently being studied worldwide by various professions in different cultural settings (see Burke &
Greenglass, 2001; Roelofs, Verbraak, Keijsers, De Bruin & Schmidt, 2005; Schaufeli, Martínez, Pinto,
Salanova & Bakker, 2002). In South Africa, studies regarding burnout have been conducted across various
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samples, including among members of the South African Police
Service (SAPS) (Storm & Rothmann, 2003), academic staff
(Coetzee & Rothmann, 2004), educators (Jackson & Rothmann,
2005) and emergency workers (Naudé & Rothmann, 2006).
Several of the researchers involved have confirmed the construct
validity and equivalence of the Maslach Burnout Inventory
(MBI). Even though the MBI appears to be a psychometrically
valid, equivalent and reliable instrument for application in
the South African context, an apparent limitation still exists –
employees from different language groups have had to complete
the original English version of this instrument.
South Africa is a multicultural society with 11 different national
languages, of which English is one. Only 8.3% of South African
citizens speak English at home (Statistics South Africa, 2001).
Studies that have been conducted in the country in the past have
generally reported that issues of race, education and language,
including the comprehension of English, are the main factors that
impact on the construct and item comparability of psychometric
tests (Meiring, Van de Vijver, Rothmann & Barrick, 2005).
Such findings have confirmed the need to translate measuring
instruments, including the MBI, into the home language of those
who undergo testing. If such translation does not take place,
language-related issues might be a potent source of bias in cases
where those tested differ in their proficiency in the language
in which the test is conducted. Such bias is not uncommon in
multicultural studies, in which a test is administered in the
second or third language of the participants (Van de Vijver
& Rothmann, 2004). If no attention is paid to such language
differences, invalid conclusions regarding the constructs being
studied could be drawn, with serious consequences for culturally
diverse settings, such as those to be found in South Africa.
To date, no research regarding burnout has been conducted in
South Africa within the different language groups by means
of translated measuring instruments. In the case of the current
study, the decision was made to translate the measuring
instruments to be used into Setswana and Afrikaans, with the
North West province being selected as the most appropriate
region for data gathering. According to Burger (2005), Afrikaans
and Setswana are the two main languages used in the region.
Setswana home language speakers comprise 8.2% of the South
African population, with 65.2% of such speakers residing
in the North West province (Statistics South Africa, 2001).
Furthermore, 7.4% of the North West province population are
Afrikaans home language speakers, whereas only 1.2% can be
identified as English home language speakers (Statistics South
Africa, 2001). The diverse cultural composition of the SAPS, as
well as its members’ experience of burnout (Storm & Rothmann,
2003), make its members who live in the North West province an
appropriate population for the current study.
Recently, clinical observations indicate that chronic burnout
is associated with impaired cognitive functioning (Sandström,
Rhodin, Lundberg, Olsson & Nyberg, 2005). However, few
studies have included cognitive weariness as a burnout construct
(Coetzee & Rothmann, 2004; Van Horn, Taris, Schaufeli &
Schreurs, 2004). The present study, therefore, also included
cognitive weariness as an additional dimension of burnout.
Based on the above arguments, the objective of the current study
was to determine the construct validity, measurement invariance
and internal consistency of the translated MBI-GS. The results
were intended to reveal the above-mentioned limitations in the
existing research into the experience of burnout in South Africa.
Furthermore, it was anticipated that the results could possibly
convey a more accurate view of burnout among Afrikaans and
Setswana home language speaking SAPS members.
The Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey
(MBI-GS)
The MBI was originally designed for use with human services
and health care employees, such as teachers, nurses, and social
workers. However, given the recent increase of interest in
burnout within occupations that are other than traditionally
people orientated, the MBI-GS was developed for use with
employees in all occupational fields.
Maslach (2003) defines job burnout as a psychological syndrome
that involves a prolonged response to stressors in the workplace.
Specifically, such burnout results from chronic strain caused by
an incongruence, or misfit, between the worker and the job.
Burnout, as measured in occupations outside the human services,
consists of three key dimensions: an overwhelming feeling of
exhaustion, feelings of cynicism and detachment from the job,
and a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment.
The three-factor structure of the MBI-GS has been confirmed
both internationally (Roelofs et al., 2005; Schaufeli et al., 2002)
and in studies conducted in South Africa (Jackson & Rothmann,
2005; Storm & Rothmann, 2003). However, a new development
has recently occurred in research into burnout. According
to Schaufeli (2003), the MBI-GS, despite being an effective
instrument from a clinical point of view is rather limited in
scope and requires supplementation by a scale that is capable of
assessing cognitive weariness. As a result, recent research into
the phenomenon of burnout has employed a newly developed
scale that enables greater focus to be lain on the concept. The
alternative exhaustion scale, which was developed by Van Horn
et al. (2004), is intended to assess levels of cognitive weariness,
meaning the lack of capacity to absorb new information, as well
as to concentrate.
Van Horn et al. (2004), in a study into the psychological well-
being of teachers, tested and confirmed four different models:
a one-factor model, in terms of which all facets of occupational
well-being load on the one underlying factor; a five-factor
orthogonal model, representing the five uncorrelated factors,
as described in Van Horn et al.’s (2004) model of occupational
well-being; a five-factor oblique model, representing the five
correlated factors, as described in their model of occupational
well-being; and a five-factor orthogonal model, with a second-
order overall factor, on which the five first-order factors loaded.
The final model confirmed a new five-factor structure of
burnout, with the factors concerned being exhaustion, cognitive
weariness, cynicism, professional efficacy, and psychosomatic
complaints.
Coetzee and Rothmann (2004) attempted to verify the comparable
model of Van Horn et al. (2004) by testing the following
three default models: A one-factor model, in terms of which
exhaustion, cognitive weariness, cynicism and professional
efficacy load on one single factor; a three-factor model, in
terms of which exhaustion and cognitive weariness form one
factor, and cynicism and professional efficacy form the other
two factors; and a four-factor model, in terms of which each
of the four different scales represents a separate factor. Their
results confirmed the proposed four-factor model of burnout
for employees at a higher education institution in South Africa.
Based on their results, it was hypothesised that a four-factor
structure, in which the factors consist of exhaustion, cognitive
weariness, cynicism and professional efficacy, would fit the data
best (Hypothesis 1).
Various studies regarding the MBI-GS confirmed the soundness
of the psychometric properties of the instrument (including
variance of factor loadings), as well as its reliability and validity
(Leiter & Schaufeli, 1996; Roelofs et al., 2005; Taris, Schreurs &
Schaufeli, 1999). Schaufeli et al. (2002) found that the Dutch,
Portuguese and Spanish translations of the three-factor MBI-GS
were not equivalent across all the samples. Instead, different
patterns of equivalence were found between the languages
concerned, with efficacy items showing the most consistent
pattern of equivalence of factor loadings. However, Storm and
Rothmann (2003) confirmed the construct equivalence for the
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original three-factor MBI-GS for SAPS members. Jackson and
Rothmann (2005) also found that the construct equivalence of
the original three-factor MBI-GS was acceptable for Afrikaans
and African home language speakers present in a sample of
educators. The current study hypothesises that the English,
Afrikaans and Setswana translations of the MBI-GS will be
invariant across all three language groups (Hypothesis 2).
Internationally, internal consistencies of the MBI-GS have been
found to be satisfactory, ranging from 0.73 (Cynicism) to 0.91
(Exhaustion). Acceptable Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were
also reported in the relevant South African studies. Coetzee and
Rothmann (2004) found the four burnout scales to be reliable
(Exhaustion: α = 0.85; Cynicism: α = 0.70; Professional Efficacy:
α = 0.66; Cognitive Weariness: α = 0.76). Therefore, the present
study expects that the four factors will all show acceptable
internal consistencies (Hypothesis 3).
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research approach
The current study follows the quantitative research tradition.
A cross-sectional survey design was used in the study.
Questionnaires were used to gather primary data by means of a
non-random field survey.
Research method
Research participants and procedure
A convenience sample (N = 685) was drawn from SAPS members
working in police stations situated in the North West province.
After a presentation of the proposed research was given to the
Provincial Head of Psychological Services, permission was
granted to incorporate the research into the unit’s ongoing
research programme. The management, including the Station
Commissioner and the Human Resource Management Head,
of each of the identified stations in the province was contacted
to explain the rationale behind, and the procedures involved
in, the proposed study. English, Afrikaans and Setswana home
language speaking police officers from randomly selected
stations received paper-and-pencil questionnaires, which were
distributed by members of the Psychological Services Unit. A
letter explaining the rationale of the study, as well as giving
assurances of the anonymity and confidentiality with which
responses would be treated, accompanied each questionnaire.
The relevant members were given two to four weeks in which
to complete the questionnaire, on completion of which period
the members of the Psychological Services Unit personally
collected the completed questionnaires from each station. The
response rate was approximately 35%. Table 1 presents some of
the characteristics of those who completed their questionnaires.
Measuring instruments
The MBI-GS (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996) was used to
measure the degree of burnout experienced by the participants
in the study. The MBI-GS consists of 16 items and has three
subscales, which are Exhaustion (five items, e.g. ‘I feel used up
at the end of the workday’); Cynicism (four items, e.g. ‘I have
become less enthusiastic about my work’); and Professional
Efficacy (seven items, e.g. ‘In my opinion, I am good at my job’).
All items are scored on a seven-point frequency rating scale,
ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). The three components
of the Burnout construct are conceptualised in broader terms
relating to the job, rather than just to the personal relationships
that might form part of the job (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter,
2001). Together, the subscales of the MBI-GS provide a three-
dimensional perspective on burnout.
In addition to the MBI-GS, the Cognitive Weariness Scale (CWS)
(five items) was administered. The CWS was developed by Van
Horn et al. (2004) to measure the level of cognitive well-being.
Though the scale initially consisted of seven different items,
the developers recommended that, due to the high internal
consistency of items 3 and 7, such items be dropped from the
general seven-item version of the scale. The scale, as it is now,
tests the capacity to absorb new information and to concentrate
at work, with items such as ‘I have trouble concentrating’. It is
scored on a seven-point frequency scale, ranging from 0 (never)
to 6 (every day). Van Horn et al. (2004) reported a Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient of 0.92.
A Biographical Questionnaire was used to ascertain the
biographical characteristics of the SAPS members concerned.
The questionnaire investigated such dimensions as background
information (age, race, gender, and educational information),
job situation (rank and years in service), and the number of
hours worked.
The measuring instruments were translated from English into
Afrikaans and Setswana. The latter two languages are the home
language of most of the inhabitants of the North West province,
with 65.4% of the resident population being Setswana home
language speakers and 7.5% being Afrikaans home language
speakers (Burger, 2005). The Afrikaans and Setswana versions
of the measuring instrument were then translated back into
English. The original English language measuring instrument
was then compared with the retranslated measuring instrument.
The same procedure was followed when questionable items
were found in the retranslated measuring batteries, in order to
find a better fit for the items. All translating was undertaken
by four independent translators, who were registered with the
South African Translator’s Institute. The questionnaires were
then finalised and distributed to the participants concerned,
with each receiving a questionnaire in their home language.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was performed with the aid of the SPSS
(SPSS, 2008) and AMOS programs (Arbuckle, 2006). Firstly, the
construct validity and equivalence of the adapted and translated
MBI-GS was examined. Structural equation modelling (SEM)
methods were used to test the factorial models for the translated
TABLE 1
Characteristics of the participants
ITEM CATEGORY FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)
HOME LANGUAGE English 260 38.0
Afrikaans 239 34.9
Setswana 186 27.2
GENdER Male 375 54.7
Female 308 45.0
AGE IN YEARs 17–26 52 7.6
27–36 292 42.6
37–46 246 35.9
47–56 68 9.9
57–66 11 1.6
EdUCATION School 417 60.9
Higher 211 30.8
RANk Constable 60 8.8
Sergeant 224 32.7
Inspector 34 5.0
Captain 85 12.4
Superintendent 32 4.7
Senior Superint endent 7 1.0
Other 220 32.1
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MBI-GS. Comparing three models in terms of the relationships
among the 21 items tested the construct validity (measurement
invariance) of the translated MBI-GS. Multi-group confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the construct equivalence
of the factor structure and the equivalence of parameter estimates
(in terms of factor loadings, factor covariances and item error
variances) for the different language versions.
To test for the measurement invariance of the adapted MBI-GS,
the χ2 statistic was used to determine the difference in statistical
fit between the unconstrained and constrained models. The null
hypothesis (H
0
) postulates that the specification of the factor
loadings, factor variances/covariances, and error variances for
the model under study are valid, with the χ2 test simultaneously
testing the extent to which such a specification is true. The
probability value associated with χ2 represents the likelihood of
obtaining a χ2 value that exceeds the χ2 value when H
0
is true.
Thus, the higher the probability associated with χ2, the closer
is the fit between the hypothesised model (under H
0
) and the
perfect fit (cf. Byrne, 2001). Due to the sensitivity of the likelihood
ratio test (LRT) to sample size and it being based on the central
χ2 distribution, several other goodness-of-fit indices are used to
summarise the degree of correspondence between the implied
and observed covariance matrices (see Byrne, 2001). Such
matrices include: a) χ2/df ratio; b) the Goodness-of-Fit Index
(GFI); c) the Incremental Fit Index (IFI); d) the Tucker–Lewis
Index (TLI); e) the Comparative Fit Index (CFI); and f) the Root
Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Values of 0.90
and higher signify acceptable fit for GFI, TLI and CFI, whereas
values of 0.08 and lower indicate acceptable fit for RMSEA
(Byrne, 2001).
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data that were
collected in the study. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used
to assess the reliability of the scales, with the product-moment
correlations being used to determine the relationship between
the dimensions.
RESULTS
Construct validity
Firstly, the construct validity of the adapted MBI-GS was tested.
It was decided not to include item 13 of the MBI-GS in the
analysis, since previous studies in this regard had shown that
the item lacks validity (for reviews, see Jackson & Rothmann,
2005; Schutte, Toppinen, Kalimo & Schaufeli, 2000; Storm &
Rothmann, 2003). In the hypothesised models, each of the 20
observed variables loads onto only one factor. The indicator
variables in the model were treated as continuous variables.
Errors of measurement associated with each of the observed
variables were uncorrelated.
The following hypothesised models of the adapted MBI-GS
were tested:
Model 1: A one-factor model, consisting of one first-order •
latent factor (namely Burnout).
Model 2: A three-factor model, consisting of one third-order •
latent factor, namely Burnout; three second-order latent
factors, namely Fatigue, Cynicism, and Professional Efficacy;
and two third-order latent factors, namely Exhaustion and
Cognitive Weariness, which made up Fatigue.
Model 3: A four-factor model, consisting of one second-order •
latent factor, namely Burnout, and four first-order latent
factors, namely Exhaustion, Cognitive Weariness, Cynicism,
and Professional Efficacy.
The fit indices for models 1 and 3 are provided in Table 2. Model
2 resulted in negative variances, indicating that the model fit was
poor. No further analyses were undertaken regarding Model 2.
The results reported in Table 2 indicate that Model 1 did not
fit the data, since the results did not fall within the acceptable
boundaries of goodness-of-fit indices, as indicated in the
literature (χ2 = 1360.96; GFI, IFI, TLI and CFI < 0.90 and RMSEA
> 0.08). Model 3, which distinguished between the four proposed
dimensions of Burnout, explained the associations among the
items significantly better than did the other competing models
(Model 3 vs. Model 1: ∆χ2 = 908.24; ∆df = 4; p < 0.001).
The third model hypothesised that the adapted MBI-GS
consists of four latent first-order factors, namely Exhaustion (5
items), Cognitive Weariness (5 items), Cynicism (4 items), and
Professional Efficacy (6 items), and one latent second-order
factor, namely Burnout. It was assumed that the errors of items
were uncorrelated. The model was over-identified, yielding 210
distinct sample moments, 40 distinct parameters to be estimated,
and 170 degrees of freedom.
The statistically significant χ2 value of 452.72 (df = 166; p < 0.01)
revealed a poor overall fit of Model 3. However, the sensitivity
of the likelihood ratio test (LRT) to sample size and its basis on
the central χ2 distribution, which assumes that the model fits
perfectly in the population, have been reported as leading to
problems of fit. Jöreskog and Sorbom (1993) point out that the use
of χ2 is based on the assumption that the model holds exactly in
the population, which is a stringent assumption. A consequence
of the assumption is that the models that hold approximately in
the population will be rejected in a large sample. Regarding the
acceptability of Model 3 from a practical perspective, acceptable
fit is evident from the achievement of GFI, TLI and CFI values
higher than 0.90, as well as from the RMSEA value, which
is lower than 0.08. Since the model fit was acceptable and the
results agreed with the theoretical assumptions underlying the
structure of the adapted MBI-GS, no further modifications of the
model were deemed necessary.
Cynicism had the highest loading on Burnout (β = 0.95, p < 0.01),
followed by Cognitive Weariness (β = 0.83, p < 0.01), Exhaustion
(β = 0.83, p < 0.01), and Professional Efficacy (β = −0.51, p <
0.01). The squared multiple correlation (R2) for Cynicism was
0.90, indicating that the predictors of Cynicism explain 80% of
its variance, while its error variance was 10%. Furthermore, the
R2 values for Cognitive Weariness, Exhaustion and Professional
Efficacy were 0.69, 0.59, and 0.26 respectively, indicating error
variances of 31%, 41%, and 45% for the three respective factors.
Hypothesis 1, which postulates that burnout can be characterised
as a four-dimensional construct that distinguishes between
Exhaustion, Cognitive Weariness, Cynicism, and Professional
Efficacy, is thus accepted.
Measurement invariance of the MBI-GS
Next, the hypotheses relating to the measurement invariance
of factor loadings, factor variances and covariances of the four-
factor structure of the adapted MBI-GS (Hypothesis 2) were tested
at the statistical level. The measurement invariance of the adapted
MBI-GS was tested, using the LRT (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).
The LRT assesses the difference in chi-square (i.e. ∆χ2) per degree
of freedom between the initially developed model and a more
restricted model, including equality constraints. Using the LRT,
a non-significant ∆χ2 indicates that the parameters constraining
TABLE 2
Goodness-of-fit statistics for the comparison of the adapted MBI-GS models
MOdEL χ2 df p χ2/df GFI IFI TLI CFI RMsEA
Model 1 1360.96 170 0.00 8.01 0.78 0.71 0.68 0.71 0.10
Model 3 452.72 166 0.00 2.73 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.05
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equality are not significantly different across groups. All the
tests of invariance across the samples began with a global test
of the equality of their covariance structures (Jöreskog, 1971). In
testing for such equivalencies, the sets of parameters are tested
in a logical order and by increasing the restrictions in every
step. The sets of parameters that are of most interest regarding
group variances are: (a) the factor-loading paths; (b) the factor
variances/covariances; and (c) the structural regression paths.
The results of the multi-group analyses to assess the measurement
invariance of the adapted MBI-GS for the Afrikaans, English and
Setswana home language speaking groups are reported in Table 3.
Table 3 indicates that a χ2 value of 889.25 (df = 492) was obtained
for the baseline (unconstrained) model in the three samples. In the
first step of the multi-group analysis, the measurement weights
of the adapted MBI-GS were equally constrained. The change in
χ2 was statistically significant (∆χ2 = 96.77, ∆df = 32, p < 0.01). In
subsequent steps, the measurement weights, structural weights,
and structural covariances were equally constrained between
the three samples. Statistically significant changes in χ2 values
were found. This finding confirms the lack of measurement
invariance of the adapted MBI-GS for the three samples.
Given that the factor structure of the adapted MBI-GS was not
invariant for the three samples, it was decided to investigate
the standardised regression coefficients of the 20 items of the
adapted MBI-GS in the unconstrained model (see Table 4).
The most notable differences between the standardised
regression coefficients in the three groups were evident for CW3
(β = 0.16, Setswana home language speakers sample), CW1 (β
= 0.39, Afrikaans home language speakers sample), and MBI-
GS5 (β = 0.22, Setswana home language speaking sample). It
was then decided to re-specify the measurement model after the
three items had been deleted. Table 3 shows the results of the
multi-group analyses for the Afrikaans, English and Setswana
home language speaking groups.
Table 3 indicates that a χ2 value of 707.62 (df = 345) was obtained
for the baseline (unconstrained) model in the three samples,
TABLE 3
Testing for measurement invariance of the adapted and translated MBI-GS
MOdEL χ2 df p ∆χ2 ∆df p (∆) χ2/df IFI CFI RMsEA
20-ITEM MBI-Gs
Unconstrained 889.25 492 0.00 – – – 1.81 0.91 0.91 0.03
Measurement weights 986.02 524 0.00 96.77 32 0.001 1.88 0.90 0.90 0.04
Structural weights 989.01 530 0.00 99.75 38 0.001 1.87 0.90 0.90 0.04
Structural covariances 1010.80 110 0.00 102.62 40 0.0001 1.86 0.90 0.90 0.04
17-ITEM MBI-Gs
Unconstrained 707.62 345 0.00 – – – 2.05 0.91 0.91 0.04
Measurement weights 785.72 371 0.00 78.11 26 0.001 2.12 0.90 0.90 0.04
Structural weights 790.42 377 0.00 82.80 32 0.001 2.10 0.90 0.90 0.04
Structural covariances 792.60 379 0.00 84.98 34 0.0001 2.09 0.90 0.90 0.04
TABLE 4
Standardised regression coefficients of the adapted and translated MBI-GS (unconstrained model)
ITEM dIMENsION sETsWANA AFRIkAANs ENGLIsH
20-item 17-item 20-item 17-item 20-item 17-item
Exhaustion Burnout 0.70 0.68 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.78
Cynicism Burnout 0.91 0.96 0.91 0.89 0.96 0.95
Cognitive Weariness Burnout 0.94 0.94 0.87 0.86 0.80 0.78
Professional Efficacy Burnout -0.40 -0.41 -0.51 -0.54 -0.52 -0.52
MBI-GS6 Exhaustion 0.70 0.69 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80
MBI-GS4 Exhaustion 0.60 0.59 0.66 0.66 0.69 0. 69
MBI-GS3 Exhaustion 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.79 0.84 0.84
MBI-GS2 Exhaustion 0.56 0.56 0.62 0.62 0.71 0.71
MBI-GS1 Exhaustion 0.63 0.63 0.76 0.76 0.79 0.79
MBI-GS15 Cynicism 0.33 0.41 0.63 0.70 0.62 0.63
MBI-GS14 Cynicism 0.47 0.52 0.48 0.57 0.31 0.32
MBI-GS9 Cynicism 0.86 0.81 0.75 0.71 0.75 0.74
MBI-GS8 Cynicism 0.74 0.72 0.54 0.52 0.74 0.74
CW5 Cognitive Weariness 0.44 0.44 0.46 0.47 0.59 0.57
CW4 Cognitive Weariness 0.46 0.41 0.58 0.57 0.72 0.72
CW3 Cognitive Weariness 0.16 - 0.69 - 0.61 -
CW2 Cognitive Weariness 0.67 0.71 0.84 0.85 0.84 0.87
CW1 Cognitive Weariness 0.56 - 0.39 - 0.47 -
MBI-GS12 Professional Efficacy 0.61 0.60 0.58 0.59 0.56 0.57
MBI-GS11 Professional Efficacy 0.68 0.69 0.67 0.71 0.55 0.56
MBI-GS10 Professional Efficacy 0.79 0.80 0.63 0.59 0.54 0.53
MBI-GS7 Professional Efficacy 0.63 0.62 0.65 0.66 0.61 0.59
MBI-GS5 Professional Efficacy 0.22 - 0.37 - 0.43 -
MBI-GS16 Professional Efficacy 0.57 0.57 0.61 0.57 0.57 0.58
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with the three items deleted. In the first step of the multi-group
analysis, the measurement weights of the adapted MBI-GS
were equally constrained. The change in χ2 was statistically
significant (∆χ2 = 78.11, ∆df = 26, p < 0.01). In subsequent steps,
the measurement weights, structural weights, and structural
covariances were equally constrained between the three samples.
Statistically significant changes in χ2 values were found. This
finding confirms that the measurement invariance of the adapted
MBI-GS for the three samples is still not acceptable, even after
the three items that were notably invariant were removed.
Such results do not support the measurement invariance of the
adapted MBI-GS across the three language groups concerned.
The construct equivalence of the adapted MBI-GS for the
English, Afrikaans and Setswana home language speaking SAPS
members is not confirmed. Hypothesis 2 is therefore rejected.
Descriptive statistics, reliability and the
relationship between the burnout constructs
Given the lack of measurement invariance of the adapted and
translated MBI-GS, it was necessary to compute descriptive
statistics, reliability, and correlations for the English, Afrikaans
and Setswana home language speaking samples.
The descriptive statistics and alpha coefficients of the adapted
and translated versions of the MBI-GS for the three language
groups are reported in Table 5.
Table 5 shows that, in the Afrikaans home language speaking
sample, all four scales were found to be reliable (α > 0.70;
Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). In the English home language
speaking sample, three scales, namely Exhaustion, Cognitive
Weariness, and Professional Efficacy, showed acceptable
reliabilities. However, the alpha coefficient of Cynicism was just
below the recommended value of 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein,
1994). In the Setswana home language speaking sample, only
two scales, namely Exhaustion and Professional Efficacy, had
higher alpha coefficients than 0.70. Such results provide partial
support for Hypothesis 3.
The product-moment correlations between the scales of the
adapted and translated versions of the MBI-GS for the three
language groups are reported in Table 6.
The results in Table 6 indicate that Exhaustion is positively
and statistically significantly related to Cognitive Weariness
(large effects) and Cynicism (large effects) in the English and
Afrikaans samples. Furthermore, Cynicism is also positively
statistically significantly related to Cognitive Weariness (large
effects) in three samples. Professional Efficacy is negatively
and statistically significantly related to Cognitive Weariness
(medium effects) and Cynicism (medium effects) in the English
and Afrikaans home language speaking samples. In the Setswana
home language speaking sample, Exhaustion is statistically and
practically significantly related to Cognitive Weariness and
Cynicism (medium effects).
DISCUSSION
The objective of the study described in this article was to
investigate the construct validity, measurement invariance
and internal consistency of the translated MBI-GS and the
CWS. The results support the construct validity of an adapted
and translated MBI-GS for SAPS members. The adapted and
translated MBI-GS, however, showed a lack of measurement
invariance for participants who completed the English, Afrikaans
and Setswana versions of the instrument. The reliabilities of the
Exhaustion and Professional Efficacy scales were acceptable for
the three language groups. However, the reliabilities of the CWS
and Cynicism scale were not acceptable.
The first step in achieving this was to determine the construct
validity of the adapted burnout model, including exhaustion,
cognitive weariness, cynicism and professional efficacy. This
model was tested by comparing three models using SEM.
The results revealed that burnout can be characterised as a
four-dimensional construct that distinguishes between the
four dimensions, supporting previous research undertaken
regarding the proposed four-structure model of the MBI-GS
(Coetzee & Rothmann, 2004; Van Horn et al., 2004). Cynicism
had the highest loading on Burnout, followed by Cognitive
Weariness, Exhaustion, and Professional Efficacy. The results
showed that the predictors of Cynicism explained 80% of its
variance, while 69%, 59% and 26% of the variances of Cognitive
Weariness, Exhaustion and Professional Efficacy respectively
explained their predictors. The results support the previous
research undertaken regarding the psychometric properties
of the instrument (Leiter & Schaufeli, 1996; Roelofs et al., 2005;
Storm & Rothmann, 2003; Taris et al., 1999).
Next, the hypotheses relating to the measurement invariance of
the adapted and translated four-factor MBI-GS were tested at the
statistical level (using χ2 statistics). The results did not support
the measurement invariance of the adapted and translated
MBI-GS. The measurement weights were equally constrained
between the English, Afrikaans and Setswana home language
TABLE 5
Descriptive statistics and alpha coefficients of the adapted and translated MBI-GS
ENGLIsH AFRIkAANs sETsWANA
ITEM MEAN SD α MEAN SD α MEAN SD α
1. Exhaustion 2.92 1.72 0.88 3.19 1.49 0.85 2.56 1.56 0.78
2. Cognitive Weariness 2.12 1.42 0.79 2.00 1.21 0.75 2.02 1.23 0.59
3. Cynicism 2.24 1.45 0.69 2.44 1.46 0.72 1.41 1.45 0.69
4. Professional Efficacy 4.82 0.97 0.71 4.76 1.03 0.74 5.16 0.99 0.72
TABLE 6
Pearson correlations of the adapted and translated MBI-GS
ENGLIsH AFRIkAANs sETsWANA
ITEM 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1. Exhaustion - - - - - - - - -
2. Cognitive Weariness 0.53*++ - - 0.53*++ - - 0.49*+ - -
3. Cynicism 0.61*++ 0.58*++ - 0.54*++ 0.52*++ - 0.48*+ 0.55*++ -
4. Professional Efficacy -0.24* -0.33*+ -0.35*+ -0.21* -0.39*+ -0.39*+ -0.12 -0.19* -0.28*
* Correlation is statistically significant at the 0.01 level
+ Correlation is practically significant, r > 0.30 (medium effect)
++ Correlation is practically significant, r > 0.50 (large effect)
The psychometrical properties of translated versions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey Original Research
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speaking samples, and produced a statistically significant
difference from that obtained in the observed unconstrained
model. The same tendency was found when structural weights
and structural covariances were equally constrained between
the three language groups. It could, therefore, be presumed
that, even though the translations and backward translations
were accurate, the different cultures could still ascribe different
meanings to individual or collective items. The construct being
investigated might, therefore, assume a different meaning in the
respective cultures, since the cultures in question differ from that
in terms of which the instrument had originally been developed.
Although a valid and reliable translation or adaptation of a
measuring instrument would stand to combine high levels of
linguistic, psychological and statistical equivalence, attaining
such equivalence is not always possible, so that the development
of a new and culturally specific instrument is called for.
Analysis of the standardised regression coefficients showed
that the three translated items made a notable contribution to
the lack of measurement invariance. Such items include CW3
(‘I have trouble concentrating’) in the Setswana sample; CW1 (‘I
find it difficult to focus my attention on my job’) in the Afrikaans
sample; and MBI-GS5 (‘I can effectively solve the problems that
arise in my work’) in the Setswana sample. However, after these
items had been removed from the analysis, the measurement
invariance for the three language groups was still not regarded
as acceptable.
Although it can be concluded that the factor structures of the
adapted and translated MBI-GS are acceptable in the English,
Afrikaans and Setswana home language speaking groups, the
measurement invariance of the measure is not acceptable. The
lack of measurement invariance can be attributed to one of the
following: (1) semantic differences, resulting from the translation
of the original English text into Setswana and Afrikaans; (2)
the cultural differences between the three different language
groups; (3) both the semantic and cultural differences existing
between the three different language groups. However, it is
more plausible that measurement invariance in the adapted
and translated MBI-GS is the result of semantic differences
associated with the former cause. Researchers often make use
of translation and back-translation procedures; however, despite
the usefulness of back-translating, such a procedure does not
guarantee the achievement of valid results, since it is difficult
to assess the quality of translations (Cheung & Thumboo, 2006).
Zhang’s (2008) experiment showed that cultural factors only
play a minor role in determining people’s lexicon; with linguistic
elements, such as the phonological structure, the syntactic
category, the morphological structure and the presence of
semantically related words, being the leading dominants. Storm
and Rothmann (2003) showed the measurement invariance of
the MBI-GS when it was administered in English to samples of
SAPS members from different cultural groups.
The reliability analyses showed that Exhaustion and Professional
Efficacy, being two of the four scales of the adapted and
translated MBI-GS, are sufficiently reliable for English, Afrikaans
and Setswana home language speakers. Such results support the
findings made in various international and South African studies
(e.g. Coetzee & Rothmann, 2004; Leiter & Schaufeli, 1996; Roelofs
et al., 2005; Storm & Rothmann, 2003; Taris et al., 1999). However,
the results showed that the CWS was not sufficiently reliable for
the Setswana home language speakers, and that the reliability of
the Cynicism scale was lower than the recommended guideline
for both the English and Setswana home language speaking
groups.
The results show that the relation between the experience of
Cynicism and Cognitive Weariness are the only constructs
that are shared between the three samples. Furthermore, very
high correlations were found between Exhaustion, Cognitive
Weariness and Cynicism in the English and Afrikaans home
language samples, compared to the correlations between
these constructs within the Setswana home language speaking
sample. Such findings were in accordance with a study
conducted by Schaufeli, Leiter and Kalimo (1995), in which the
researchers found that exhaustion was associated with mental
strain. To a certain extent, the results of the study discussed
in this article are similar to those of Coetzee and Rothmann
(2004), who found that Afrikaans and English home language
speakers reported experiencing higher levels of exhaustion and
cognitive weariness than did the indigenous language groups.
The interviews conducted with the Afrikaans home language
speaking members of the SAPS revealed that they regarded the
following factors as increasing the levels of burnout that they
experienced: their lack of promotion due to affirmative action;
the demanding workload; the lack of adequate resources; and
the generally negative view of the public towards them.
Limitations and recommendations
The study described in the current article had various
limitations. Firstly, the participants in the study consisted only
of some SAPS members working in the North West province.
More research is needed into the psychological well-being of
employees from other organisations. Secondly, the sample sizes
were not optimal. Most notably, the Setswana home language
speaking sample (N = 166) was relatively small, which could
have impacted on the results obtained in the initial construct
validity study. Also, the sample size in general was relatively
small, given the assumptions of the statistical analysis technique
(SEM) that was employed.
The implication of the results of the study under review is that
the adapted MBI-GS scores obtained by the English, Afrikaans
and Setswana home language speaking participants were
not comparable in terms of the different translations of the
instrument. Therefore, separate norms have to be developed
to assess the extent of burnout experienced by the English,
Afrikaans and Setswana home language speaking members
of the SAPS who participated in the study. As the translated
versions of the adapted MBI-GS are clearly not equivalent, more
studies are needed to minimise the semantic differences existing
between the different translations of the instrument. The use
of linguistic validation interviews, in which a group of native
speakers of the target language assess the new translation and
discuss their understanding of it, will help (Cheung & Thumboo,
2006).
As the study described in the current article focused only on
SAPS members in the North West province, additional studies
with the original, as well as with the translated, instruments
should be carried out in the other eight South African provinces.
The results obtained in such studies could then be compared
with those obtained in the present study. Furthermore, the study
reviewed in the current article translated the two instruments
concerned into only two of the 11 official languages of South
Africa. Translating the MBI-GS into the other eight official
languages as well would promote the in-depth investigation of
burnout across cultures in South Africa.
Since the present study was conducted among a relatively
homogenous group, other studies, exploring a greater variety
of demographic characteristics, should serve to enhance the
reliability and usefulness of the MBI-GS. Furthermore, it is
recommended that external variables, such as job characteristics,
ill health and personality variables be investigated by means of
additional research into the phenomenon of burnout in South
Africa.
AUTHOR’S NOTE
The material described in the current article is based upon work
supported by the National Research Foundation, under reference
number TTK2005081000025. The research was carried out as
part of Carin Marais’ doctoral studies, which were completed at
North-West University.
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