Title


Science and Technology Indonesia
e-ISSN:2580-4391 p-ISSN:2580-4405
Vol. 7, No. 4, October 2022

Research Paper

Investigation of the Physical Properties and Droplet Combustion Analysis of Biofuel
from Mixed Vegetable Oil and Clove Oil
Adhes Gamayel1*, Mohamad Zaenudin1, M. N. Mohammed2, Eddy Yusuf3
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science, Jakarta Global University, Depok, West Java, 16412, Indonesia2Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Gulf University, Sanad, 26489, The Kingdom of Bahrain3Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jakarta Global University, Depok, West Java, 16412, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: adhes@jgu.ac.id

AbstractThe study of vegetable oil used as fuel in conventional engines leads to problems like the low volatility and high viscosity. Thisresearch aims to evaluate the droplet combustion characteristics that correlated with the density, viscosity, and the flash point of thebiofuel from mixed vegetable oil with clove oil. Biofuels used in research are Jatropha Oil (CJO), Kapok Oil (KSO), Coconut oil (CCO),and all biofuel mixed with clove oil in 5% basis volume. Fuel properties that tested both biofuel and fuel mixture using the ASTMmethod are density (ASTM D1298), viscosity (ASTM D445), The flash point (ASTM D93). The droplet combustion experiment usedsuspended droplets placed in the junction of the K-type thermocouple and the Ni-Cr wire (as the coil heater) to heat the droplet untilthe combustion occurred. The result indicates that adding 5% clove oil in biofuel creates higher density, the viscosity decreasesuntil 10%, and the flash point decrease to 30%. Droplet combustion results that adding 5% clove oil creating a more completecombustion process in CCO than KSO and CJO. Higher viscosity in KSO and CJO leads to eugenol and terpene (clove oil compound)trapping in the fuel droplet. Due to eugenol and terpene having great volatility, they are evaporating rapidly leading to secondaryatomization and micro-explosion phenomena.
KeywordsBiofuel, Vegetable Oil, Clove Oil, Micro-Explosion, Combustion

Received: 21 July 2022, Accepted: 12 October 2022
https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2022.7.4.500-507

1. INTRODUCTION

The issue of global warming and climate change continues to
strengthen cause the demand for substitute fuel has increased.
Many researchers have been conducted studies to substitute
diesel fuel with vegetable oils because of their advantages such
as non-toxic and biodegradable (Che Hamzah et al., 2020).
However, the demerit of vegetable oils for feasibility as diesel
fuels are high viscosity and low volatility. High viscosity leads
to poor fuel atomization and has a signicant eect on spray
characteristics. Subsequently, the rate of evaporation of fuel
has been decreased and creates inecient mixing of oil with
air that contributes to incomplete combustion and leads to car-
bon deposit formation on the crown piston, ring, and injector.
Misre, ignition delay, and poor cold engine start-up are the
eect of a combination of high viscosity and low volatility of
vegetable oils. To reduce the demerit of vegetable oil, they
can be mixed with oil that has low viscosity and high volatility
(Al-Abdullah et al., 2015).

Essential oil is a natural volatile oil that renewable resource

and it is mostly used as additives in the pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industries. It can be extracted from leaves, roots,
buds, and petals using distillation (Gad et al., 2021). The main
compound of essential oil is aromatics which involves single or
multiple rings which are planar and have a periodic order of
a p orbitals having 4n+2𝜋 electrons, and each atom involved
in the fragrant ring includes a p orbital (Fu and Turn, 2018).
Nowadays, the researcher is studying essential oil as blended
fuel due to the equivalences in properties to conventional fuel.
Pine oil has some prominent fuel-related properties, such as
lower viscosity, ash point, and boiling point than those of pure
diesel (Huang et al., 2019; Vallinayagam et al., 2013). Another
essential oil, turpentine oil, could be implemented as additional
fuel for implementation in diesel engine refers at many studies
haveresulted inmuch-improvedperformancewhenturpentine
oil has been used for up to 30% (Jeevanantham et al., 2020).
Eucalyptus, tea tree oil, and orange have comparable values in
basic fuel properties and higher surface tension than diesel fuel
(Rahman et al., 2019). The addition of clove oil which acts as
an antioxidant to B20 has decreased viscosity, density, ash

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

point, and caloric value and meet the ASTM standard for cold
ow properties (Jeyakumar and Narayanasamy, 2019).

To analyze combustion characteristics based on fuel com-
ponents and properties, droplet combustion is a simple method
thathavemodestutilization,andanattractiveanalysis (Gamayel
et al., 2020). The disruptive burn in multicomponent fuel
droplets has been compared with the steady burn in mono-
component fuel (Hoxie et al., 2014). Many researchers have
studied the single droplet combustion of vegetable oil in re-
cent years. The Jatropha oil change at various diameters of
droplet, but it does not change the ignition temperature at vari-
ous oil temperatures (Wardana, 2010). Ignition characteristics
and burning behaviors from butanol in the range of 25-75%
mixed with soybean oil were analyzed as a result of the micro-
explosion case in most violent at mixed butanol in 40% (Hoxie
et al., 2014). In an extended experiment, butanol, pentanol,
and soybean oil were blended in the binary-ternary form and
then examined as single droplet combustion (Coughlin and
Hoxie, 2017). Based on the previous study, a single droplet
experiment and multicomponent analysis using essential oil
as an addition to vegetable oil are rare. The correlation of
molecule geometry and the motion of the molecule with prop-
erties and the combustion need to be observed. Subsequently,
an explanation of the ame geometry during micro-explosion
needs to be studied. Hence, this experiment aims to study the
performance of mixed vegetable oil with clove oil in terms of
basic fuel properties and single droplet combustion.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

2.1 Materials
Vegetable oil used in this experiment was crude oil, namely
Jatropha Oil (CJO), Kapok Seed Oil (KSO), and Coconut
Oil (CCO). Clove oil was mixed with each vegetable oil in
5% basis volume with initial namely, CJO95C5, KSO95C5,
and CCO95C5. The observation in basic fuel properties and
droplet combustion between vegetable oil and its blend. They
were prepared using the splash blending method and kept at
room temperature for several days to observe any phase sepa-
ration in the fuel blend.

Table 1. The Chemical Compound of Clove Oil

Compound %

Eugenol 63.74
cis-Caryophyllene (C15H24) 26.32

Caryophyllene 6.31
a-Humulene 3.53

The chemical compound of clove oil taken from our pre-
vious study Gamayel et al. (2020), shown in Table 1 eugenol
has the biggest compound with 63.74% in clove oil. Eugenol
has a structure consisting of aromatics and hydroxyl groups
(-OH). Phenol is one classication of eugenol where the pri-
maryantioxidant which has a function to convert radical energy

to become stable. An aromatics structure is a bulky structure
composed of ring benzene. It leads to the density of aromatic
compounds higher than diesel fuel and biofuel. Aromatic pro-
motes the adiabatic ame temperature (Han, 2013). Hydroxyl
groups are atoms with electronegative and donors in hydrogen
bond (Lapuerta et al., 2015). a-Humulene, cis-Caryophyllene,
and Caryophyllene are classied as sesquiterpenes with volatile
compounds, a strong odor, and an antioxidant.

Thevegetableoilcompositionfromtheliteratureandshown
in Table 2. According to fatty acid composition, both CJO and
KSO are unsaturated fatty acids, due to the high percentage of
oleic acid and linoleic acid which have double carbon chains
and bulky structures of the molecule. Meanwhile, CCO is a
saturated fatty acid due to the highest compound is lauric acid
which builds with 12-carbon atom a single chain.

2.2 Methods
2.2.1 Fuel Physical Properties
Density is an important quality indicator for automotive, ma-
rine, and aviation fuels. This number aects handling, storage,
and combustion. Density is expressed in units of grams per
liter, dene as the relationship between the mass and volume
of a liquid (Atabani et al., 2013). It was found to relatively
increase in density with the increase of unsaturation degree of
vegetable oil (Altaie et al., 2015). Viscosity is an indication of a
uid ability to owand it’s related to the cohesion forces among
the molecule (Conceição et al., 2005). It has a signicant eect
on spray characteristics and takes a long time to mix with air.
The measurement used Leybold Didactic viscometerapparatus
with the standard of ASTM D445. This method determines
of kinematic viscosity of a liquid both transparent or opaque.
The ash point indicates the presence of a highly volatile and
ammabilityproperties of fuel (Atabani et al., 2013). The ash
point also denes as a temperature that shows the rst ignition
above the liquid of fuel (Keshavarz and Ghanbarzadeh, 2011).
The measurement method used ASTM D93 with the closed
cup ash point tester from Leybold Didactic. These test meth-
ods cover the determination of the ash point of petroleum
products, but this standard also can use for vegetable oil in
similar diesel engine implementation

2.2.2 Droplet Combustion
The experimental setup was similar to the previous study by
Gamayel et al. (2020) were used the transformer, Ni-Cr wire,
K-type thermocouple, syringe, data acquisition system, and
camera. The Hamilton microliter syringe was used to create
a droplet in the volume range 0.5∼1 microliter. The use of
syringes is dierent from the previous studydue to the dierent
syringe materials leading to an easier practical handling of the
droplet in junction thermocouple. Digital single-lens reex
camera at 25 fps (Canon EOS 4000D) used to record the
ame evolution. The disruptive light has created the capture
of ame shape and the color degradation of ame is unclear.
Besides that, the micro-explosion phenomena that describe in
’ame in ame’ can’t be captured. The disruptive light in ame

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

Table 2. Fatty Acid Percentage

Fatty Acid
Composition

Number
of C

CCO (Nakpong and
Wootthikanokkhan, 2010)

KSO (Wirawan
et al., 2014)

CJO (Meher et al.,
2013)

Caprylic Acid (C8:0) 3.35 0.009 -
Capric Acid (C10:0) 3.21 0.072 -
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 32.72 0.071 -
Myristic Acid (C14:0) 18.38 1.22 0-0.1
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 13.13 2.4 14.1-15.3
Stearic Acid (C18:0) 3.6 - 3.7-9.8
Oleic Acid (C18:1) 12.88 20.15 34.3-45.8
Linoleic Acid (C18:2) 4.35 53.78 29-44.2
Linolenic Acid (C18:3) n.d 1.30 0-0.03
% Unsaturation 17.23 73.93 63.3-90

duringtherecordwouldbeminimizedwithsetuptheExposure
Value (EV) in 1600. The result of the video recording is to
be converted to image in JPEG format using "Free Video to
JPG Converter" to know the detail of the evolution of ame.
The thermocouple was plugged into the DATAQ acquisition
system to measure the droplet combustion temperature. This
installation was connected to the computer to display the result
in excel form. The experiments were performed in normal
gravity and shown schematically in Figure 1. A microliter
syringe creates a droplet and takes it to suspend in the junction
of the thermocouple. Thus, the nickel coil heater and video
recording are turned on together to ensure data take at the
same time with the thermocouple. When ame-o occurs, all
measurement takes a stop.

Figure 1. Droplet Combustion Experimental Set-up

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSSION

3.1 Fuel Physical Properties
The result of density according to Figure 2; for CJO, KSO,
CCO, namely 0.921 gr/mL, 0.917 gr/mL, 0.913 gr/mL, then
add clove oil become slightlyhigh at 0.93 gr/mL, 0.926 gr/mL,
0.923 gr/mL. The previous experiments result the density of
CJO, KSO, CCO, namely 0.901-0.940 gr/mL (No, 2011),
0.923 gr/mL (Vedharaj et al., 2013), 0.920 gr/mL (Chin-
nammaetal.,2015). Thefuel injectionprocessdependsonthe
densitydue to the estimation in its volume (Sajjadi et al., 2016).

CCO has a lowerdensity than CJO and KSO. Molecularweight
and structure are the factors that aect density. Vegetable oil
has a molecular weight of 600-900 g/mol (Misra and Murthy,
2010) due to triglycerides and their fatty acid. Based on Ta-
ble 2, fatty acids with double bonds in each vegetable oil are
CJO±80%, KSO±70%, and CCO±18%. It can be stated that
density increases in vegetable oil with a high percentage of
unsaturated fatty acid. The aromatic structure that compounds
clove oil consists of one aromatic ring and a few sides of the
alkyl chain. The aromatic ring that arranged in a dense and
rigid was inuenced a high density of clove oil. The result
shows that blending with clove oil at 5% makes all the density
of vegetable oil increase. CJO95C5 is the highest density due
to the unsaturated fatty acid percentage until 80%. Since the
density of vegetable oil and its blend higher than diesel fuel
(0.840 gr/mL), the use of fuel blends in diesel fueling systems
would require modication of the equipment designed to work
with a lighter fuel (Laza and Bereczky, 2011).

Figure 2. The Density of Vegetable Oil and Their Mixture

Figure3 illustrates theeectsofmixedcloveoil at5%onthe
viscosity of vegetable oil. CJO and KSO are a higher viscosity
than CCO due to the percentage of oleic acid in CJO and KSO
higher than in CCO. Oleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid
with a single double bond. The presence of a single double

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

Figure 3. The Viscosity of Vegetable Oil and Their Mixture

bond leads to increase viscosity, whereas two or three double
bonds caused a decrease in viscosity (Demirbas, 2008). It
gave rise to stronger intermolecular interaction between the 𝜋
electron of the double bond because a spatial geometry of the
cis conguration of the one double bond of oleic still allowed a
close packing between a molecule (Romuli et al., 2019). The
stronger intermolecular interaction causes the motion of the
molecule to become inactive and viscosity is become increase.
In this experiment, CCO is the most viscous oil due to more
percentage of lauric acid, which has a weak van der Waals
interactions and does not have strong orbital.

BasedonFigure3,viscositydecreasedto10%whenblended
with clove oil 5%. Viscosity in 24.33 mm2/s2 reached by CCO
mixed with clove oil 5% marked as lower viscosity than KSO
and CJO. Meanwhile, the viscosity of clove oil is 4.1 mm2/s
(Mbarawa,2010) betweentherangeofdiesel fuelviscosity(2.2-
5.3 mm2/s). It can be stated that all of these vegetable oils and
their blend can’t directly use in the engine due to the viscosity
number not being in the range of diesel fuel. It requires fuel
modication like preheating or transesterication to biodiesel.

Figure 4. The Illustration Motion of Molecule (a) Vegetable
Oil, (b) add Clove Oil

Vegetable oils are non-polar molecules with a low degree
of electronegativity. The intermolecular bond in vegetable oils
is the London dispersion force with the instantaneous dipole
and the aected dipole. The London dispersion force causes
the molecule to move even if only for a moment. Adding
clove oil makes the motion of the triglycerides becomes active.

Clove oil is moderately polar due to eugenol and terpene be-
ing a major compound that has a hydroxyl group (-OH) and
aromatic structure. The dipole generated by eugenol that its
polarity induced by the hydroxyl group (-OH). The electron
has active motion around the aromatic ring which is called de-
localized. The repulsive and attractive force created byelectron
motion between aromatics and triglyceride. The force leads
to molecule oscillation between them. A detailed illustration
of the molecule’s motion can be seen in Figure 4. With more
oscillation of molecules on the fuel blend, viscosity would be
lower or the fuel mixture more viscous.

The ash point of vegetable oil depends on molecular
weight, long-chainhydrocarbon, andthedegreeofdoublebond
fatty acid (Carareto et al., 2012; Keshavarz and Ghanbarzadeh,
2011). The previous paper reported that the molecular weight
of vegetable oil is 20% higher than diesel fuel and causes low
volatility (Misra and Murthy, 2010; No, 2011). Vegetable oil
has a strong London dispersion force caused by its large molec-
ular weight and bulky structure. That makes vegetable oil need
more energy to vaporize and dicult to ignite when exposed
to a ame.

Figure 5. The Flash Point of Vegetable Oil and its Blend

Figure 5 shows that the ash point of KSO is the highest.
Other literature Blin et al. (2013) was stated that the higher
percentage of the single double bond composition in the veg-
etable oil led to a higher ash point. More energy is needed to
break this interaction and release the molecule which is in the
liquid to vapor phase to form a combustible mixture in air. It
produces higher temperature in the liquid where the tempera-
ture is the main factoron the ash observed. The mixture at 5%
clove oil on vegetable oil can depress the ash point until 30%.
All vegetable oils that add 5% clove oil has the ash point in the
range of 182-188◦C. It means that the blended fuel with clove
oil increases the volatility and consumes lower energy than
usual to obtain the same evaporation amount. The aromatic
structure and hydroxyl group in clove oil are the main factor
to depress the ash point in vegetable oil. The presence of
aromatic structure and hydroxyl group makes molecular inter-
action of triglyceride weaker than usual and causes oscillation
of triglyceride more active. As a result, the fuel blend needs
lower energies to be vaporized into the vapor phase. At the

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

ash point, the concentration of vapor on a fuel surface is equal
to the lower explosive limit (LEL) of the vegetable oil-clove
oil, vapor-air mixture.

3.1.1 Droplet Combustion

Figure 6. The Sequence of Droplet Combustion in Vegetable
Oil and its Blend

Figure 6 exhibit the ame evolution with the sequence
in each frame is 0.04 second with the result that CCO and
CCO95C5 get a more complete combustion process than KSO
and CJO. The ovoid ame denes as a ame with the similar
shape of an egg and has around in tip ame. It explains perfect
combustion in the sequence of ame. It’s exhibits that the
ovoid ame occurs more frequently in CCO than in KSO and
CJO. The ovoid ame that occurs in CCO was captured in 10
frames, CCO95C5 in 11 frames, KSO and CJO in the range
of a 6-8 frame.

Generally, the geometry of ame gets dierences from the
rst ignition, micro-explosion, and ame extinction in CCO,
KSO, CJO, and its blend. The bulge geometry of ame and
rapid change becomes like a spike is the mark of the initial
micro-explosion (Wardana, 2010). In CCO, the geometry of
ame is like an ovoid from the start ignition until 0.4 seconds
and then the bulge geometry and spike ame height take place.
The Ovoid ame geometry takes place in CCO95C5 more
than in CCO. It takes time in 0.48 second before the bulge
geometry and spike ame starts. The ovoid ame geometry
in CCO and its blend has a long duration time due to the
presence of lauric acid which contain up to 30% in triglyceride
that led to stable combustion. In CCO, the change of oil in
liquid phase to vapor phase, namely lauric acid, unsaturated
fatty acid, and glycerol. Lauric acid is a carbon chain without a
double bond with the advantages such as creating a combustion
process perfectly and being easier to evaporate than fatty acid
with a double bond.

In CCO95C5, the fuel component that has been evapo-
rated namely eugenol, terpene lauric acid, unsaturated fatty
acid, and glycerol. Figure 6 exhibits the micro-explosion in
CJO, KSO, and its blend occur earlier than CCO. The unsat-
urated fatty acid contains in CJO and KSO until 70% leads
to viscosity higher than CCO and its blend. Vegetable oil
with high viscosity causes eugenol and terpene trapping in the
droplet. The rapid evaporation of eugenol and terpene lead to

micro-explosion inside the droplet and form secondary atom-
ization outside the droplet. The presence of eugenol, terpene,
and the double bond in KSO and CJO aect the geometry of
ame. Micro-explosion in KSO and CJO take place due to
the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid having dierences in
volatility.

Figure 7. Flame Geometry at Micro-Explosion (a) CCO, (b)
CCO95C5, (c) KSO, (d) KSO95C5, (e) CJO, (f) CJO95C5

Figure 7 exhibit the ame geometry at micro-explosion
phenomenaineachvegetableoilanditsblend. Micro-explosion
exhibits the ame geometry of KSO95C5 and CJO95C5 have
disruptive burning due to trapped molecules in droplets like
eugenol and terpene. They have great volatility that creates
them to come out of the droplet and initiate more micro-
explosion. Theevaporationphasecreates thegrowthofbubbles
inside the droplet. It leads to an internal pressure increase and
the droplet sheet becomes thinner (Rao et al., 2017). Due to
the pressure, the bubble comes out from the droplet and form
secondary atomization, resulting in a substantial decrease in
droplet size and an increase in burning rates (Coughlin and
Hoxie, 2017). The small size of the bubble that ejected outside
thedropletwaseasier toburnthanthemaindropletandformed
a spherical ame. At that moment occur the ame-in-ame
phenomena, which was illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The Sequence of Coming Out Bubbles Creates
Micro-Explosion and Flame-in-Flame

The thermocouple signal is given from the droplet that
was ignited on the K-type thermocouple shown in Figures 9
and 10. Heating, evaporation, and burning are the step of the
droplet combustion process. When the coil heater ignited, heat
transfer takes place from coil to droplet until reached around
400◦C to 500◦C. At this temperature, evaporation and droplet

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

Figure 9. The Droplet Combustion Result of Vegetable Oil

ignition occurs at the same time. The dierences in volatility at
each compound led to evaporation occurring in more than one
step. The burning process is identied as increasing steeper
temperature from ignition temperature until peak temperature,
then continuing to burn out temperature. Based on Figure 9,
CCO has a lower ignition delay than CJO and KSO due to their
chemical composition such as lauric acid in apercentage of 47%.
CCOisalsocalledsaturatedoilbecauseof thepresenceof lauric
acid and stearic acid. More sequential CH2 (methylene) groups
in the fatty compound cause the ignition delay to become short
and the cetane number becomes high. On the opposite, long
ignition delay times with low Cetane Numbers and subsequent
poorer combustion have been associated with more highly
unsaturated components.

The peak temperature in Figure 10 shows that KSO and
CJO are higher than CCO. The presence of a double bond in
their composition caused more energy to abstract hydrogen
bonds until complete combustion. More energy is identied
as more combustion temperature in the droplet. KSO and
CJO are bulkier than CCO because they have rigid molecules.
This rigid molecule led to evaporation and burning diculties
at low temperature. CJO has the highest peak temperatures
due to its density of CJO is the highest. Besides that, CJO has
unsaturated fatty acid composition more than CCO.

In the range of temperature 400-500◦C, evaporation and
droplet ignition occurat the same time. Figure 11 describes the
presence of clove oil that aects droplet ignition temperature.
The ignition delay time of dierent fuels varied greatly, which
was mainly related to the ash point of the fuel (Meng et al.,
2020). The volatility of clove oil created evaporation time to
become concise and ignition occurred at a lower temperature.
The previous study mixed the coconut oil with clove oil in 10%
basis volume and have the lowest ignition temperature if com-
pare with the present study. It means that more percentage of
clove oil in the fuel blend can decrease the ignition temperature
and get a lower ignition delay time.

Figure 10. The Droplet Combustion Result of Vegetable Oil
Blended with Clove Oil 5%

Figure 11. The Ignition Temperature of Vegetable Oil and its
Blend

4. CONCLUSION

The density of vegetable oil mixed with clove oil is slightly
higherthanpurevegetableoil. CJO,KSO,CCO,namely0.921
gr/mL, 0.917 gr/mL, 0.913 gr/mL, then add clove oils be-
come slightly high at 0.93 gr/mL, 0.926 gr/mL, 0.923 gr/mL.
It’s due to the cumulative large molecular weight and the bulk
structure of vegetable oil with the dense and rigid molecules of
clove oil. As the density of the fuel blend is higher, fuel con-
sumption will increase. The viscosity of vegetable oil mixed
with clove oil is lower than pure vegetable oil. Viscosity CJO,
KSO, and CCO namely decrease from 37.17 to 33 mm2/s,
37.83 to 35.24 mm2/s, 30.1 to 24.43 mm2/s. The energy
input in the molecule creates rotation and vibration movement
that causes the viscosity to decrease. The ash point of veg-
etable oil mixed with clove oil lower than pure vegetable oil.
Their mixture can decrease the ash point to 35%. It’s due to
the volatility of clove oil creating short evaporation time in the
fuel blend.

Droplet combustion of vegetable oil blended with clove
oil gets a shorter ignition delay time than pure vegetable oil.
The presence of clove oil can reduce the ignition delay time
by 5%. It’s due to the volatility of clove oil that can reduce
the evaporation time and trigger the ignition. In vegetable oil

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Gamayel et. al. Science and Technology Indonesia, 7 (2022) 500-507

mixed with clove oil, more ovoid ame occurs at the begin-
ning of combustion. Non-ovoid ame marked as incomplete
combustion with bulge or spike ame geometry.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was supported by Research Management Centre
of Jakarta Global University under grant No. 005/L4/KP-
MONO/IV/JGU/2022.

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	INTRODUCTION
	EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
	Materials
	Methods
	Fuel Physical Properties
	Droplet Combustion 


	RESULT AND DISCUSSSION
	Fuel Physical Properties
	 Droplet Combustion


	CONCLUSION
	ACKNOWLEDGMENT