Selim 19.indb Keith Glaeske, SELIM 19 (2012): 161–174ISSN: 1132–631X GOWER AND THE DAUGHTERS OF EVE 1 In the beginning of the eighth book of his CONFESSIO Amantis, which he devotes to an extended discussion on marriage and incest, John Gower names two daughters of Eve, Calmana and Delbora, as the sister-wives of Cain and Abel, respectively. These two extra-Biblical daughters also appear within texts written both in Middle English and other medieval vernaculars. Earlier in the same poem Gower mentions that Delbora was the inventor of linen, an unusual detail, but not wholly unexpected, since traditionally her mother Eve is considered the fi rst spinner and thus also weaver of cloth. In this article I will examine Gower’s use of Calmana and Delbora within the wider contexts of Middle English literature and medieval literature, and show which other traditions concerning the daughters of Eve were known by a Middle English audience, and where Gower accords with these traditions, and where he contradicts them, and might have used other traditions. The book of Genesis names only three of the protoplasts’ sons—Cain, Abel and Seth—but alludes to other (unnumbered) progeny in Genesis 5:4: “et facti sunt dies Adam postquam genuit Seth octigenti anni genitque fi lios et fi lias” (“And the days of Adam, aft er he begot Seth, were eight hundred years: and he begot sons and daughters”). The Bible never names any daughters (or additional sons) of the fi rst human couple; it thus falls to non-Biblical texts to provide us the numbers and names of their progeny, both daughters and sons. For example, the Vita Adae et Euae 24:2 states that Adam and Eve had 30 sons and 30 daughters in addition to their three Biblical sons. Versions of the 1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2014 International Congress on Medieval Studies in Kalamazoo, Michigan. I would like to thank the attendees of the session “Holy Gower!” and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful questions and comments, as well as Marian Haggard and Lynette Chambliss, who read earlier draft s of this article. Keith Glaeske 162SELIM 19 (2012) Latin Vita that survive in Greek, Armenian, Georgian, and Old Church Slavonic agree on the total of 63 children (Anderson & Stone 1994: 23), as do most redactions of the Latin Vita itself.2 Numerous medieval Armenian Adambooks preserve a similar tradition, stating that Eve bore 60 children in total, in 30 births of twins during 30-year timespan; several of these texts name the twin sisters of Cain and Abel, and occasionally of Seth (Stone 1982: 22–23; Stone 1996: 92, 118, 194, 203). Other texts are much more modest: Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities 1:1–4 names twenty of Adam’s progeny (twelve sons and eight daughters), whereas The Book of Jubilees 4:1, 7–11 indicates that Eve bore only fourteen children (Charlesworth 1985: 304, 61). Aside fr om Cain, Abel and Seth, Jubilees names only Awan and Azura, the sister-wives of Cain and Seth. The Cave of Treasures 5:19–20 explicitly states that the fi rst couple produced only fi ve children (their three Biblical sons plus two daughters),3 and The Combat of Adam and Eve with Satan 2.2.8 and The Book of the Bee §18 agree (Malan 1882: 106; Budge 2006: 24–26). Although these texts include the names and numbers of the protoplasts’ children, they provide no additional details about 2 Jean-Pierre Pettorelli’s recently published critical edition of the Latin Vita Adae et Euae identifi es two recensions (“latin-P” and “latin-V”), the latter of which is further divided into fi ve redactions. The “latin-P” recension lists 52 sons and 72 daughters, but the “latin-V” recension consistently lists 30 sons and 30 daughters, plus Cain, Abel and Seth, with the exception of “E,” the “rédaction anglaise.” See further Pettorelli (2012a: 92–101), and the discussion on the Middle English Life of Adam and Eve below, which tends to follow the “rédaction anglaise” by listing 30 sons and 32 daughters. 3 The Cave of Treasures was originally written in Syriac, before being translated into Arabic, Ethiopic, and Georgian. Andreas Su-Min Ri edited critically and translated into French two recensions of the Syriac (1987); the Arabic has been edited critically and translated into Italian by Antonio Battista and Bellarmino Gabatti (1980); Sylvan Grébaut translated the Ethiopic into French (1911); and Jean-Pierre Mahé translated into French Ciala Kourcikidz e’s critical edition of the Georgian (1992). Gower and the daughters of Eve 163 SELIM 19 (2012) them, with one notable exception. Several texts of the secondary Adam literature recount an alternative reason for Cain’s murder of Abel. According to The Cave of Treasures, Cain and Abel both have twin sisters, named Lebouda and Kelimath, respectively. Adam decrees that Cain and Abel should each marry the other’s twin sister. However, Cain tells Eve that he wishes to marry his own twin sister, because of her great beauty. Cain’s desire for Lebouda and his jealousy of Abel spur him to slay Abel aft er the two of them return fr om off ering sacrifi ces in the Cave of Treasures, before all four are to marry (The Cave of Treasures 5:18–32; cf. Genesis 4:3–5, 8).4 The Combat of Adam and Eve with Satan 1.78–79 (Malan 1882: 96-103) and The Book of the Bee §18 (Budge 2006: 24–26) repeat the same scenario, and Epiphanius of Salamis alludes to it in Panarion 40.5.4, as do certain Jewish rabbinical texts.5 Middle English texts exhibit a similar diversity. Most simply note that Adam and Eve bore some variant of “many sons and many daughters,” akin to Genesis 5:4; examples include the Middle English Genesis and Exodus, 412–414, 427–428 (Arngart 1968: 64), The Historye of the Patriarks (Taguchi 2010: 45), and the Middle English Paraphrase of the Old Testament, 247–248, which states that “Then scho suns and doyghters sere,  / the story says sexty and moe” (Livingston 2011: 52). The “story” mentioned here is probably the Vita Adae et Euae, either in the original Latin, or in Middle English translation. Three distinct prose versions of the Middle English Life of Adam and Eve survive, as do the stanzaic Canticum de Creatione and the incomplete Auckinleck Couplets. 4 Ri 1987: 18–21; Battista and Bagatti 1979: 45–46; Grébaut 1911: 170–171; Mahé 1992: 10–11. For commentary, see Ri 2000: 183-190. 5 “They [Archonitics] concoct another story and ⟨say⟩, “They were both in love with their own sister and that was why Cain attacked Abel and killed him” ” (Williams 1987: 266); cf. Panarion 40.5.7 and 40.6.9. The Testament of Adam 3:5 mentions the same scenario: “Cain, your brother, who killed your brother Abel out of passion for your sister Lebuda” (Charlesworth 1983: 994). The tradition also appears in Jewish writings, e.g., Bereshit Rabbah 22:7 (Ri 2000: 185, fn. 34). Keith Glaeske 164SELIM 19 (2012) These Middle English versions of the Life of Adam and Eve, while based on the Latin Vita, include additional material fr om Genesis and other apocryphal sources, such as Holy Rood legends. In fact two diff erent copies of the Middle English Life contradict the Latin Vita in the number of children produced by the fi rst couple. The copy in London, British Library, Harley MS 4775 notes that Adam begat 33 sons and 32 daughters whereas the copy in Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley MS 596 states that he begat only 30 sons and 32 daughters.6 The former fi gures seem to be the exception, since another copy of the Life found in London, British Library, Additional MS 39754 (the “Wheatley Manuscript;” Day 1921: 87) and the Canticum de Creatione 505–506 (Murdoch & Tasioulas 2002: 79), agree with Bodley 596, as does the Adam and Eve material appended to the Middle English Gilte Legende (Hamer & Russell 2000: 1002, 1014). The fi gures of 30 sons and 32 daughters are actually consistent with the Latin Vita in Pettorelli’s recent critical edition. While Pettorelli’s “latin-V” recension consistently lists 30 sons and 30 daughters, plus Cain, Abel and Seth, “E,” the “rédaction anglaise” of the “latin-V” recension instead lists 30 sons and 32 daughters (Pettorelli 2012b: 582). This variant was fi rst noted by John Mozley in his edition of the Latin Vita, which, like Pettorell’s “rédaction anglaise,” was based on manuscripts of British provenance.7 Besides the Confessio Amantis, the only Middle English texts to name Calmana and Delbora as the daughters of Eve are The Historye of the Patriarks and the Cursor Mundi. Each text, however, treats them diff erently. The Historye of the Patriarks comes closest to the 6 Carl Horstmann (1885: 345–365) has edited the Middle English Life of Adam and Eve fr om both these manuscripts; but compare to the copy of the Life in Oxford, Bodleian Library, Eng. Poet. MS a.1, the Vernon Manuscript: “Adam hedde xxx sones and moni doughtres withouten Caym and Abel” (Blake 1972: 113). 7 “Et uixit Adam postquam genuit Seth dccc annis et genuit fi lios xxx et fi lias xxxii qui multiplicati sunt sumper terram in nacionibus suis” (Mozley 1929: 135). Gower and the daughters of Eve 165 SELIM 19 (2012) secondary Adam literature, for it notes explicitly that Calmana and Delbora were the twins of Cain and Abel, respectively (Taguchi 2010: 37): Wherfor Adam […] knewe Eve his wyf carnally and begat a son named Caym and a doughter named Cha[lmana]. Furthermore, fy ft ene yere aft er that, Adam bygat his second son Abel and his suster Delbora. The Historye, however, does not tell us which sister married which brother; instead, this is noted by Cursor Mundi 1215–1222, 1449– 1450, 1501–1502 (Morris 1874: 78–79, 90–91, 94–95; cf. Horrall 1978: 71, 79, 81): Vs tells of adam his stori; O suns þat he had thirtti, And he had doghtres als fel, Wit outen caym and abel.8 Þe sister giuen was to þe broþer, Þe lagh moght certayn be non oþer; Sua wald drightin, and behoued nede To do þair kin al for to sprede. […] Seth spused his sister delbora, For drighten self had biden sua; […] Til him [i. e., Cain] was spused calmana, Als giuen to seth was delbora and Confessio Amantis viii.59–72 (Macaulay 1901: 387–388): A Sone was the ferst of alle, And Chain be name thei him calle; Abel was aft er the secounde, And in the geste as it is founde, Nature so the cause ladde, Nature so the cause ladde, Tuo douhtres ek Dame Eve hadde, The ferste cleped Calmana Was, and that other Delbora. 8 The Cursor Mundi provides another set of numbers for the sons and daughters of Adam and Eve, 32 and 30 respectively. Keith Glaeske 166SELIM 19 (2012) Thus was mankinde to beginne; Forthi that time it was no Sinne The Soster forto take hire brother, Whan that ther was of chois non other: To Chain was Calmana betake, And Delboram hath Abel take Unlike The Historye of the Patriarks, neither the Cursor Mundi nor the Confessio Amantis give any indication as to whether Calmana or Delbora were single births or twins to their brothers. From the Confessio we might infer that Calmana was the elder of the two daughters at least, since she is named fi rst, as Cain is. Both the Confessio Amantis and the Cursor Mundi state that sisters married brothers in order to fulfi ll God’s command to be fr uitful and multiply. Both, however, indicate a diff erent husband for Delbora: the Confessio names Abel whereas the Cursor Mundi notes that she married Seth; the Cursor Mundi is unusual, but not unique, in this regard (Murdoch 2009: 220, 240). Of course, given Abel’s early death, there is nothing to prevent Delbora fr om subsequently marrying Seth, perhaps anticipating the levirate marriage arrangement described in Deuteronomy 25:5–6. Among the medieval texts that mention Delbora, none indicates that she was the wife/widow of Abel and subsequently the wife of Seth; she is only ever mentioned as the wife of one or the other (and usually, it is Abel). Gower mentions Delbora only one more time (Confessio Amantis iv.2435–2438; Macaulay 1900: 367): The craft Minerve of wolle fond And made cloth hire oghne hond; And Delbora made it of lyn: Tho wommen were of great engyn. The fourth book of the Confessio discusses the sin of sloth, and it provides many examples of both slothful and industrious individuals. These four lines appear in an extended section (iv.2396– 2450) listing the inventors of numerous human craft s and trades; Gower and the daughters of Eve 167 SELIM 19 (2012) most of the other inventors are either classical deities or Biblical personages. Here the Roman goddess Minerva and Delbora are named the inventors of weaving. Minerva, the Roman counterpart to Athena, has a strong connection to weaving through the myth of Arachne; moreover, her surname Mercanitis (“inventor”) alludes to presiding over and instructing humanity in all manner of arts (Bell 1982: 302). Delbora’s connection to weaving derives fr om her mother. Eve has a long-standing connection to weaving in popular tradition as evidence by the fourteenth-century proverb “When Adam delved, and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?” The character Eve refers to spinning thread aft er the Fall and Expulsion in the Chester Mystery Cycle as a result of her sin (Lumiansky & Mills 1974: 33), and Adam makes a similar reference in the N-Town Play (Spector 1991: 34). Delbora’s status as an inventor of weaving in the Confessio Amantis actually contradicts Cursor Mundi 1523–1526 (Morris 1874: 96–97; cf. Horrall 1978: 81) and The Historye of the Patriarks (Taguchi 2010: 43), both of which state that Naamah (in the Greek Septuagint: Noema) was the fi rst weaver. Although Naamah herself is not considered such within Genesis, her brother Tubal- Cain and two half-brothers Jubal and Jabal introduce smithing and musical instruments to humanity (Genesis 4:22; cf. Confessio Amantis iv.2016-2033). They are the children of Lamech and his wives Zillah and Adah, and thus the great-great-great-great- grandchildren of Cain. Both the Cursor Mundi and The Historye of the Patriarks follow the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor: “De generationibus Caym […] Soror uero Tubalcain Noema, que inuenit artem uarie texture” (Sylwan 2005: 55). Other examples of medieval Insular literature, however, demonstrate that there are several contenders for the inventor of weaving: for example, Irish texts can be found to support either a daughter of Eve or Naamah or both as the fi rst weaver. The poem Dúan in chóicat cest §19 asks “[w]hich woman did weaving before every woman?” answered by the gloss “that is, Eve wove Keith Glaeske 168SELIM 19 (2012) palm leaves, or Catafl uia, or Olivana wife of Japheth.”9 The prose Banshenchas in the Book of Leinster, however, names Naamah as the fi rst weaver (Dobbs 1930: 316), and Lebor Gabála Érenn mentions either Catafl uia or Naamah as the fi rst weaver in diff erent contexts (Macalister 1938: 90–91, 189–190). Gower’s mention of Delbora as the creator of linen specifi cally, while not found in contemporary (or prior) surviving Middle English texts, is later incorporated by John Lydgate in his Pageant of Knowledge 89–90 (MacCracken 1934: 727). Gower himself fails to be consistent even within the Confessio Amantis: later, in the fi ft h book, he declares that Minerva is the creator of both woolen cloth and linen (Confessio Amantis v.1202–1205). Given that Gower states that Delbora is the wife of Abel—a herder of sheep—one would assume her to have spun wool; Calmana, the wife of Cain—a farmer—would be a more logical choice as a spinner of fi bers fr om fl ax, a plant. Even if one assumes that linen, as a symbolically more pure fabric (because it is produced fr om a plant, and not an animal), would more appropriately be woven by the wife of Abel instead of the cursed Cain, it would be even more appropriately woven by the wife of Seth (the ancestor of the promised Christ); but Gower does not explicitly name Delbora as such. Where do the names Calmana and Delbora come fr om? Delbora appears as a variant of Deborah, the name of the nurse of Rebecca, the wife of Isaac, in Genesis 35:8 and a Judge of Israel, whose story is told in Judges 4–5. Indeed, her name appears thus in both contexts within the Wycliffi te Bible (Lindberg 1959: 79). The names Calmana and Delbora are not otherwise attested in either the Bible or any of the apocryphal sources I mentioned above, although they are included in a single late Latin version of the Vita Adae et Euae found in Oxford, Balliol College, MS 228, as noted 9 “Cía ben doringe fi ghe  / ria cach mnái co míngile,” with the accompanying gloss: “.i. Eua rofi g duili na pailme nó Cata Fluia .i. Olivána bean Iáfeth” (Meyer 1903: 236); translation mine. According to Irish lore, Catafl uia is one of the names attributed to Eve’s daughters; see further Glaeske (2006). Gower and the daughters of Eve 169 SELIM 19 (2012) in the editions of Mozley and Pettorelli.10 They likewise appear in the Welsh translation of the Vita Adae et Euae (the Ystoria Adda ac Efa, preserved in the White Book of Rhydderch [Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 5] and in the Red Book of Talgarth [Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales, Llanstephan MS 27]; Murdoch 2009: 123). Outside of vernacular versions of the Latin Vita Adae et Euae, the names Calmana and Delbora are recorded within several medieval chronicles, both fr om the continent and fr om England. Middle High German metrical chronicles record both names, as does the Weltchronik of Heinrich von München and the prose chronicle of Jean des Preis (Murdoch 2009: 123, 146, 151; Murdoch 2003: 11, 61). Among Middle English chronicles their names appear both in Polychronichon ii.4 of Ranulph Higden and the English translation made by John Trevisa, as well as the Chronica majora of Matthew of Paris and the Eulogium historiarum (Murdoch 2009: 114, fn. 58). Many of these texts cite their source as Methodius, and Trevisa translated a tract ascribed to him, which does mention the two sisters (Perry 1925: 95), but all of these chronicles are largely indebted to the late twelft h-century Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor, and it is there where we fi nd the earliest mention of Calmana and Delbora as the twin sisters of Cain and Abel: “De generationibus Ade: Adam cognovit uxorem suam […] Et anno vite Adam decimo quinto natus est ei Caym et soror eius Calmana […] Post alios quindecim annos natus est ei Abel et soror eius Delbora” (Sylvan 2005: 48). To conclude, Gower’s use of Calmana and Delbora as the daughters of Eve seems to derive either directly fr om the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor, or indirectly fr om other Middle English texts that used it as source material. Gower does not appear to have known any of the texts of the secondary Adam literature (i. e., The Cave 10 “Et genuit fi lios xxx et fi lias xxx preter Caym et sororem eius Calmanam et Abel et sorerem eius Deboran et Seth et multiplicati sunt in nacionibus super terram” (Mozley 1929: 135). For further discussion concerning this specifi c manuscript, see Pettorelli 2012a: 76–77, and Pettorelli 2012b: 536–544. Keith Glaeske 170SELIM 19 (2012) of Treasures, The Combat of Adam and Eve with Satan, or The Book of the Bee), as he does not refer to the alternative rationale behind Cain’s slaying of Abel, surely its most noteworthy addition to the Bible. This seems clear, given the context of the Confessio Amantis where he includes Calmana and Delbora: although the secondary Adam literature is never explicit on this point, the reason for Adam to decree that his sons not marry their own twin sisters, seems to be because he considered doing so somehow to be less incestuous. For Gower not to mention Cain’s incestuous desire for his own twin sister as the impetus for killing his brother strongly suggests that he was unaware of this tradition; had he known it certainly he would have mentioned it in the eighth book of the Confessio Amantis. In fact, Gower does not explicitly describe Calmana and Delbora as the twins of Cain and Abel, although the Historia scholastica and other Middle English texts all seem to suppose so. Gower’s designation of Delbora as the inventor of linen remains puzzling. It contradicts other surviving Middle English texts, which do not mention Delbora (or any daughter of Eve) as a weaver at all: they either attribute the discovery of this craft to her mother Eve or to Cain’s descendant Naamah, following either popular tradition or the Historia scholastica.11 This association of weaving as a result of the Fall, and/or with one of the descendents of Cain (but also with a Roman goddess) suggests a symbolic ambivalence with the craft . Since Gower appears not to have derived this designation fr om contemporary Middle English texts, it suggests that he knew other traditions concerning the two sisters, possibly fr om other insular texts. Keith Glaeske Independent scholar 11 Contemporary iconography supports this supposition: a miniature of Naamah sitting at a loom appears in the Egerton Genesis Picture Book (London, British Library, Egerton MS 1894, f. 2v). Gower and the daughters of Eve 171 SELIM 19 (2012) References Anderson, G. A. & M. E. Stone eds. 1994: A Synopsis of the Books of Adam and Eve (Early Judaism and its Literature 5). Atlanta, Scholar’s Press. Arngart, O. ed. 1968: The Middle English Genesis and Exodus. Lund, C. W. K. Gleerup. Battista, A. & B. Gabatti eds. 1980: La caverna dei tesori (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio Minor 26). Jerusalem, Franciscan Printing Press. Bell, R. E. 1982: Dictionary of Classical Mythology: Symbols, Attributes and Associations. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO. Blake, N. 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