34 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1)) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine ROLE MODEL AND CAREER PROFILE FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF THE POOR IN PHILIPPINE 1)Keiichi Yamada Nakamura Gakuen University Email : yamakei2626jp@gmail.com Submit : 13th March 2019, Revised : 15th March 2019, Accepted : 20th March 2019 ABSTRACT the poor accounts for larger part of the population. Despite long-term and energetic effort of supporting institution (SI) including NGOs, most of the middleclass poor who occupy the major part of the poor are still staying in poverty. For the fundamental solution, the individual efforts of self-reliant and endogenous development for their independence are indispensable, by those marginalized people themselves who cannot access enough supports of SI. For those who need to become independent, they need to recognize who they are, where they are from (past history) and where they would like to go (goal of their life). However, for their self-independent, motivation for independent and self-development of their own career seem to be useful. Such motivation and career development have close relationship with maturity and self-determination, self-efficacy and personal-causation of the said person, and kind of motivation. Namely, person who has high maturity has high self-determination, hi self-efficacy, hi-personal-causation, and intrinsic motivations are effective, and who has low maturity has low self-determination, low self-efficacy, low personal-causation and extrinsic motivations are effective. In this paper, we proposed a method of ‘role model’ and ‘career profile’ for self-independence through the literature reviews and discussions. Firstly, we present macro vs micro approach of solving poverty issue, then focus on micro approach – we review about motivation, time-perspectives, and career development. Secondly, on role models, we discuss about its definition and functions, role models and mentor, four types of role models. Thirdly, on career profile, we discuss about its definition and functions, self-analysis, structure and elements, life history analysis, and goal setting and roadmap. Finally, we show result of our preliminary questionnaire and discuss about problems and future issues. I. INTRODUCTION Reduction of poverty is one of indispensable issues to be tackled with both in developing and developed countries, and it is now SDG1. Despite Supporting Institution’s (SI) including national governments, local governments, NGOs, People Organizations (PO), private enterprises and individuals, long time and great effort for this issue, fundamental solution of poverty is still far beyond our reach. Although, in accordance with economic development, unemployment ratio is decreasing and it is little more than 5 percent (as of 2018) in Philippines, poverty still seems to account for more than 2/3 of its populations including potential poor. Depending on where we draw the line divided poor and non-poor, people who lead unstable daily life under the informal economy (Hart 1973) are still categorized as the poor even if they are not unemployed. aditya Typewritten text Reduction of the poverty is one of the SDGs and one of the major issues in the developing countries where 35 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine Their income is small, irregular, and unpredictable, and they have to manage basics, to cope with risk, and to raise lump sum, in order to stabilize their family life (Collins et al. 2009). However, it is not easy for them to do so, and once they suffer ad hoc problems such as accident, incident and disease, etc., they have to pay a huge amount of money. As the result, they cannot manage their family economy, and their life become unstable and even go bankrupt. Yet SIs have been supporting the poor, they cannot cover those huge number of the non-extreme poor. Therefore, in order to solve or at least reduce the poverty, these non-extreme poor have to become independent by their self-reliant and endogenous development. In this paper, based on field of the business administration such as management, marketing and industrial/organizational psychology, etc., we study about macro approach vs micro approach of poverty issue, and then in the stand point of micro approach, we study about how to motivate the poor, how to support them to set their goal, and draw picture of their future in their work and life. II. MACRO APPROACH VS. MICRO APPROACH It is effective that poverty issue is firstly examined both in macro and in micro approach, and then to be integrated (Yamada 2017a). Macro approach is that SI plans and implements uniformly by a specific supporting program to a specific class or specific group in a specific area. Major arenas of supporting programs are 1) Refugee/ extreme poor Assistance for survival, 2) Housing, 3) Education, 4) Finance, 5) Health Care and Medical Support, and 6) Business and Entrepreneurship (Chart 3)(Yamada 2017b). Micro approach is that, in supportee’s point of view, SIs support the poor for the purpose of satisfying real needs/wants of each supportee in order for him to make his life stable, develop his skills and abilities, become independent, and get out of the poverty (Yamada 2017a) depending on his will. As Macro Approach, we firstly classified the poor to 5 categories in accordance with living status, 1) refugee/extreme poor, 2) lower poor, 3) middle poor, 4) upper poor, and 5) post poor (Chart 1). Then we secondly proposed a stage model (SPI model) of becoming independent – 1) Survival, 2) Participation, and 3) Independence (Chart 2). Then we thirdly plotted possible supporting program(s) in the major arenas stated in the above (Chart 3) (Yamada 2017b). Although SIs can support a certain area or group – usually refugees/extreme poor and partly lower poor – in these macro approach, they cannot cover major part of the poor – rest of lower poor, middle and upper. Grasping real needs and wants of the poor are becoming very difficult, as their needs and wants differ and are changeable by person and situation or life scene even in the same categories of the poor. Especially in considering marketing paradigm shift 36 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1)) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine from content-orientation to context-orientation, to meet these diversified and changeable needs/wants are impossible only by uniform program in macro approach. In order to satisfy real needs/wants of the poor, supporting program should be order-made, or selection in assortment of products/services which should be furnished through networking of SIs (Yamada 2017b). There proposed several measures trying to solve the poverty problem, such as micro-finance (CARD MRI), inclusive business (PBSP), entrepreneurships and new venture (PCEF), etc. by SIs. In these cases, how to motivate poor people and support them to be independent is important issue. III. MICRO APPROACH – FROM MOTIVATION TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT (1) Motivation According to Chart 4, as Maturity becoming higher, Motivation Factors could change from Deficiency Needs to Growth Needs, Hygienes to Motivators, Extrinsic Rewards to Intrinsic Rewards. And Self-Determination, Self- Efficacy, and Self-Causation could be higher. 1) Maturity We introduce the term “maturity” here. Maturity is degree of being matured which consists of three dimensions, 1) learning (learning from experience) and kinds of experience (work experience, life experience, etc.), 2) time-length, width, and density of learning/experience are related to maturity, and 3) awareness (or consciousness) and motivation. 2) Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs Maslow (1962) wrote that neurosis “to be a deficiency disease” and “it was born out of being deprived of certain satisfaction which I call needs in the same sense that water and amino acids and calcium are needs, namely that their absence produces illness”. Although he stated that “no good behavioral definition of motivation has yet been found”, “I am motivated when I feel desire or want or yearning or wish or lack.” Thus, the lack of satisfaction of needs motivates us to obtain shortage or deficit. On the other hand, he stated that “healthy people have sufficiently gratified their basic needs for safety, belongingness, love, respect and self- esteem so that they are motivated primarily by trends to self-actualization.” He defined self-actualization as “ongoing- actualization of potentials, capacities and talents, as fulfilment of mission (or call, fate, destiny, or vocation), as a fuller knowledge of, and acceptance or, the person’s own intrinsic nature, as an unceasing trend toward unity, integration or synergy within the person.” Growth motivation is motivation of pursuing self-actualization 3) Factors of Hygienes vs. Factors of Motivation Herzberg et al. (1966) proposed factors of hygienes and factors of motivation. Factors of hygines are job-dissatisfaction caused by supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, salary, company policies, and administrative practices, benefits, and job security, etc. On the other hand, factors of motivation are job-satisfaction brought by recognition, achievement, possibility of growth, the nature of work, responsibility, promotion, and personal growth, etc. 4) Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation is derived from intrinsic rewards which is not given from outside such as sense of accomplishment, sense of growth, 1 We divided 2nd stage (Participation) and 3rd-stage (Independence) into 2 sub-stages each; 2A (Security of Daily Life and Social Participation) and 2B (Preparation of Independence), and 3A (Implementation of Independence) and 3B (Continuation of Indepen- dence). 37 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine sense of competence, pleasure of work, and self-actualization. etc. Deci & Flaste (1995) stated that Intrinsic Motivation is “the process of doing an activity for its own sake,” and is “doing an activity for the reward that is inherent in the activity itself”– which is similar to “Flow” experience that Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed. On the other hand, Extrinsic Motivation is derived from extrinsic rewards which is given from outside such as pecuniary rewards (salary, bonus, etc.), non-pecuniary rewards (promotion, award, praise/approval, acceptance, consideration, etc.), etc. On the problem of extrinsic rewards, Deci & Flaste (1995) stated that “once people started getting paid, they lost interest in the activity” and “then, when the rewards stopped, they did not perform as well.” In addition, Deci & Flaste (1995) referred that “not only do controls undermine intrinsic motivation and engagement with activities but – and here is a bit of bad news for people focused on the bottom line – they have clearly determinantal effects on performance of any tasks that require creativity, conceptual understanding, or flexible problem solving”. 5) Self-Determination, Personal Causation, Self- Efficacy Deci & Flaste (1995) referred that “people need to feel that their behavior is truly chosen by them rather than imposed by some external source – that the locus of initiation of their behavior is within themselves rather than in some external control”. Personal Causation is defined as “the intention by an individual of behavior intended to produce a change in his environment” (de Charms 1986). Kanai (2016) explained that it is better for a person to become a player than be a piece in chess. He must be motivated by his personal causation. It means that a person would be more motivated by doing something by himself than by being controlled by someone. Bandura (1994) defined “perceived self- efficacy” as people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. He added that self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave, and such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes – including cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. Bandura (1994) stated that “a strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways”. (2) Time Perspectives 1) 1) Time Perspectives Lewin (1951) defined time perspectives (TP) as “the totality of the individual’s views of his psychological future and his psychological past existing in a given time.” TP has cognitive feature – what sort of events a person would remember or expect, and emotional or behavioral feature – what sort of emotion or view about his past and future (Tsuzuki 1982). Zimbardo & Boyd (1999) developed ZTPI (the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory) scale and classified TP into 5 categories, including past-negative, past- positive, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, and future. In each term, past, present and future show time orientation of a person, and negative, positive, hedonistic, and fatalistic show cognitive orientation. According to this categorization, time-orientation and cognitive orientation differ by each type, and as a result TP of a person can be different. As TP has a close relationship with a person’s thought, behavior and action in his past, present and future, it is very important to study a person’s present status, and his cognition about his present status, past events and his cognition about them, and his thought about his future (Chart 5). 38 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1)) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine 2) Life Stage/Life Cycle Levinson (1978) introduced “Seasons of a man’s life” as 1) Childhood and adolescence, 2) EALY ADULT TRANSITION, 3) Entering the adult world, 4) Age 30 transition, 5) Settling down, 6) MID-LIFE TRANSITION, 7) Entering middle adulthood, 8) Age 50 transition, 9) Culmination of middle adulthood, 10) LATE ADULT TRANSITION, and 11) late adulthood. He categorized 2) to 5) as Early adulthood (up to 40), 6) to 9) as Middle adulthood (up to 60), and 10) and 11) as Late adulthood (over 61 years old). Erikson (1982) wrote a life stage as 1) Infancy, 2) early childhood, 3) play age, 4) school age, 5) adolescence, 6) young adulthood, 7) adulthood, and 8) old age 3) Transition – When should We Design/redesign our Career? Kanai (2002) proposed that Career Design should be made at the time of “transition”. Bridges (2004) distinguished “change” and “transition”, and defined “transition is psychological” while “change is situational”, and “transition are the inner re-orientation and self-redefinition that you have to go through in order to incorporate any of those changes into your life.” Bridges (2004) introduced transition process as ending, the neutral zone, and new beginning. Causes of ending include disengagement, dismantling, disidentification, disenchantment, and disorientation. a) Design and Drift – State of Career Development Kanai (2002) proposed that Cycle of Career Design and Career Drift are effective for good career. Career Design Even if it may not be a detailed planning, we need to have rough orientations, dreams, or ambitions, etc., to carry out reality-testing of dreams, and to have rough orientation about how we would like to lead our life and what kind of career we would like to have (Kanai 2002). In order not to drift our life, and in order to utilize Career Drift it is necessary for us to make Career Design at the time of transition. Career Drift In order to find something good incidentally, and enjoy serendipity, it had better not to design career completely. In addition, career should be formed in the process of drifting. Therefore, it is better for us to drift other than transition time (Kanai 2002). Burt if we do not design at all, our life would be completely drifted, it is important to design our career at the period of transitions. b) Signs of Transitions Kanai (2002) took up signs of Transitions as following 4 cases; 1) facing certain crisis; 2) opportunity of mentor’s suggestions; 3) affluent and fulfilled; and 4) specific time of calendar or age. c) Questions in Transition Kanai (2002) recommended that we should respond to following 3 questions at the period of transitions; 1) What are you good at? (skills and competencies); 2) What do you really desire? (motives and wants); and 3) what do you value in the context of what your occupation organization considers important, what your colleagues value, and how the kind of organization culture you encounter fits with those value? (meanings and values). Kanai (2002) stated that it is effective to respond to 3 questions at the period of transitions; 1) What are your advantages (knowing how); 2) Why do you want to do something? (knowing why); 3) With whom have you had relationship and how have you utilized those relationships? (knowing whom). (3) Career Development 1) Critical Tasks for Career Development and Changes Life Patterns Hansen (1997) proposed 6 critical tasks for career development and change life patterns; 1) Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts; 2) Weaving out lives into a meaningful whole; 3) Connecting family and work; 4) Valuing pluralism and inclusivity; 5) Exploring spirituality and life purpose; and 6) Managing personal transitions and organizational change. 39 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine 2) Career Development Career Development is “process that an independent individual actualizes his own needs and expectations optimally by harmonizing with those of organizations in his work life during his life stage,” and “he should have self-responsibility in selecting and deciding his career (Hirano 1994)”. In considering Career Development, it is helpful to use 2 elements of career dynamics; selection of individual career or individual hope, and request of society which needs talented person who has ability of carrying out required work or needs of society. Career counseling plays a role of matching both individual needs and society’s needs, of which point is “how to match talented person whom society needs and individual career and his life” (Schein, et al. 2017). They presented elements for improving matching process as 1) process which individual finds his own need (Career Anchor), 2) process which organization finds their own needs (Career Survival), and 3) better interactive communication (Schein, et al. 2017). IV. PROPOSAL OF ROLE MODEL(S) AND CAREER PROFILE As we showed in Chart 4, persons who have lower maturity, especially people in adolescence or even college students, are considered not easily and correctly able to analysis their present and recall their past, and set their future goal and how to pave the way, and thus it is helpful to have assist of counselors or mentors, and tools such as Role Model as reference model and Career Profile. (1) Role Model 1) Role Model and Mentor Hurd, et al. (2011) stated that “in some studies role model and mentor have been used interchangeably”. A role model is a person who is perceived by others as worthy of imitation and who may or may not have personal contact with the people who perceive him/her as a role model (Pleiss & Feldhusen 1995). A mentor is someone who guides, encourages, supports and interacts closely with his or her mentee (Zimmerman, et al. 2002). Hurd, et al. (2011) mentioned that “mentors may often be role models, but role models are not necessarily mentors”. In addition, “mentors have patterns of regular contact with mentees and also have relationships with mentees that occur over period of time,” while “role models can vary in the amount of personal contact and interaction they have with youth” (Hurd, et al. 2011). They concluded that “pertaining to adolescent development, the most important function of role model is to model attitudes, values, and behavior that the adolescent may incorporate into his/her own attitudes, values, and behavior (Hurd, et al. 2011). 2) 4 Types of Role Model Role Models are classified into 4 types; Charismatic, Occupational, Way-of-Life, and Religious (especially in religious countries such as Philippines). Charismatic or Person Model Role model by using specific person as desirable model with his life stories, etc. Ex.) President Duterte, a boxing super star Manny Pacquiao, etc. Occupational Model Role model of Specific occupation – ex. nurse, flight attendant, professional teacher, etc. in the form of Career Guidance or Reference books/manuals of specific type of occupation, etc. Way-of-life Model Role model of specific way of life in the form of Career Guidance or Reference books/ manuals of specific type of way of life, etc. This model can be categorized further 4 types; Work-centric; Family-centric; Pleasure- centric; and Hybrid type. Religious Model Role model based on tenets in scripture and/or sermon of priest, etc. (2) Career Profile 1) What is Career Profile? Making a Career Profile, firstly, person who would like to make his career profile (object person) shall write his own life story (from the 40 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1)) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine past to the present) and analyzes it and make a Life Story Analysis through dialogue with counselor. Process of making Career Profile is 1) object person shall imagine his desirable future by referring Role Model, 2) object person shall relate his present to his past by referring Life Story Analysis, 3) object person shall write a scenario from the present to the future (including a roadmap). It is the most important that object person himself become aware of his life from the past to the future by making it by himself. In addition, as working life and his life have close relationship, a Career Profile shall include one’s life itself (not only working life but also daily life and after retirement, etc.). 2) Self-Analysis Career Profile is a kind of Self-Analysis which objectives is to know oneself. Horney (1942) stated that “self-analysis is an attempt to be patient and analyst at the same time.” She point out three main tasks to confront the patient as 1) to express himself as completely and frankly as possible, 2) to become aware of his unconscious driving forces and their influence on his life, and 3) to develop the capacity to change those attitudes that are disturbing his relation with himself and the world around him (Horney 1942). Horney (1942) wrote that “complete self- expression is achieved by means of free association” and “to associate freely means an endeavor on the part of the patient to express without reserve, and in the sequence in which it emerges, everything that comes into his mind, regardless of whether it is or appears trivial, off the point, incoherent, irrational, indiscreet, tactless, embarrassing, humiliating.” In addition, Horney (1942) stated the analyst’s general task is “to help the patient to recognize himself and to reorient his life as far as the patient himself deems it necessary.” She divided the analyst’s task into five main divisions; 1) observation; 2) understanding; 3) interpretation; 4) help in resistance; and 5) general human help. 3) Structure and Elements of Career Profile Career Profile should consist of 1) Present Status, 2) Human Environment, 3) Past History and Analysis, and 4) Future Goals and Roadmap. 4) Life History Analysis for Past A person in question shall describe brief past history of events, incidents and accidents, etc. in accordance with 5W1H. Then he shall add brief episodes, view, influence in present self, etc. in free style. 5). Goal Setting for Future and Drawing a Roadmap At first, in order to draw a picture for his future, he had better set goals of his life. If he cannot easily set his goals, he can utilize Role Models as reference model. And then he shall set milestone by considering practical time span – say 20 years, 10 years, 5 years, 2 years, and 1 year. For instance, if an entire time span of human life is 80 years, we can divide it into 4 parts 20 years each. 1st 20 years is the stage of growing up, 2nd 20 years is the stage of young adult, 3rd 20 years is stage of middle age, 4th 20 years is the stage of old age. Usually working life is mainly in 2nd and 3rd stages, and sometimes extended to 4th stage. He shall imagine final goal of his working life – what kind of work and what kind of status, or how he lives in accordance with Role Models, if he cannot image his final goal easily. V. DISCUSSIONS (1) Result of Preliminary Questionnaire According to our preliminary questionnaire , compared students who have their dreams/goals (haves) and who do not have (have-nots), 69 percent of haves replied they think they are active, while 22 percent of have-nots replied active. On self-determination such as “would you like to decide your own future by yourself?”, 60 percent of haves replied “yes, I think so very much”, while 25 percent of have-nots replied “yes, I think so very much ”. On self-efficacy such as “can you decide you’re 2 We carried out it on January 8, 2019, towards 137 3rd year students (male 40, female 97) in our undergraduate school. 3 Although 92 percent of haves replied “yes”, while 82 percent of have-nots replied “yes”, “I think so very much” is 60 percent vs, 25 percent. This means, both haves and have-nots would like to decide their own future, but have-nots are weaker than haves. 41 SINERGI, Volume 9 Number 1 March 2019 Keiichi Yamada1) Role Model and Career Profile for Career Development of the Poor in Philippine your own future by yourself?”, 74 percent of haves replied “yes” while 45 percent of have-nots replied “yes”. On future course after graduation, 80 percent of haves replied “yes”, while have-nots were 45 percent. On effectiveness of Role Model, 62 percent of haves replied “yes”, while have-nots were 30 percent. On effectiveness of Self-Analysis, 82 percent of haves were “yes”, while have-nots were 74 percent. In summary, students who have their dreams and/ or goals are active, and have already decided his future course after graduation, have high self-determination and high self-efficacy, and appreciate effectiveness of Role Model and Self- Analysis positively. In other words, active students appreciate Role Model and Self-Analysis, and cope with their future actively, while many non-active students are skeptical about Role Model and are non- active about their future. (2) Issues to be Discussed The first issue is what kind of approach is effective for non-active persons to think about their future by using Role Models and Career Profile. In our research, 37 percent of respondents think themselves active, while 63 percent is not active. Considering effect of intrinsic motivation, making Career Profile with Role Models should be intrinsic and voluntary, not be forced extrinsically. These issues are matter of good counseling or mentoring. The second issue is optimism/pessimism and learned helplessness, or resilience. We did not ask about these issues in our preliminary questionnaire, decision of future and/or goal setting would be affected by whether they recognize their situation optimistic or pessimistic, or positive or negative, or challenging or not. VI.CONCLUSION Reduction of Poverty is still significant issue to be tackled with. In this issue there are 2 approaches, macro and micro. In macro approach, based on a specific program, SIs plan and implement a specific unified support to a specific group. However, for fundamental solution of poverty problem, raising the living standard of the poor by self-reliant, endogenous and self-helping effort are necessary. In micro approach, we focus on this stand point and studied about motivation and career development, and proposed Role Models and Career Profiles. In our preliminary questionnaire, non-active students account little less than 2/3, and they are not active towards their future plan, goal setting and career development, and do not appreciate Role Models. However, it is significant to motivate these non- active students intrinsically and voluntarily. We should design effective methods for encouraging these non-active students to be able to do it. This must be one of next issue. In addition, our future issues other than stated in DISCUSSIONS are 1) attitude survey towards their future course in Philippine – same questionnaire as we did in our university; 2) to make proto type of Role Models and Career Profile, shall be tested and modified through experiment, and verified their effectiveness accordingly. VI. REFERENCES Bridges, William (2004). Transitions: Making Sense of life’s Changes, Second Edition, Cambridge, MA., Da Capo Press. Bandura, Albert (1994). “Self-Efficacy,” in V. S. 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The Season of a Man’s Life, New York, Ballentine Books. Maslow, Abraham H. (1962). Toward a Psychology of Being, Princeton, NJ., D. Van Nostrand. Pleiss, Mary K., and John F. Feldhusen (1995). “Mentors, Role Models, and Heroes in the Lives of Gifted Children,” Educational psychologist, 30(3), pp.159-169. Schein, Edger H., Joichi Ogawa, and Taiga Ishikawa (2017). Career Counseling Progress, Tokyo, Hakuto Shobo (in Japanese). Tsuzuki, Manabu (1982), “Jikanteki Tenbou ni Kansuru Bunkenteki Kenkyu, (Literature Research on Time Perspectives),” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XXX, No.1, pp.73-86. (in Japanese). Yamada, Keiichi (2017a). “Research on the Stage Model for Self Development of the Poor (SPI Model) in South East Asia: Through the Field Survey in Philippines, Nakamura Gakuen University Journal of Distribution Science, Vo.17, No.1, pp.73-85 (in Japanse). Yamada, Keiichi (2017b). ”Supporting the Poor: NGOs/NPOs and their Networks of Services,” Nakamura Gakuen University Journal of Distribution Science, Vol.16, No.2, pp.17-25. Zimbardo, Philip G. and John N. Boyd (1999). “Putting Time in Perspective: A Valid, Reliable Individual-Differences Metric,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1999, vol. 77, no. 6, pp.1271-1288. Zimmerman, Marc. A., Jeffery B. Bingenheimer, and Paul C. Notaro (2002). “Natural Mentors and Adolescent Resiliency: A Study with Urban Youth,” American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, pp.221-243. Dr. Keiichi Yamada Nakamura Gakuen University 2-50-5-803, Hoshiguma, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka City, 814-0132, Japan +81-92-834-2710 (Home) +81-90-59396134 (Mobile) Untitled Untitled