40 Saloshni Moodley, Sandhya Chetty and Jenny Pahl 

THE SCHOOL-BASED SPEECH-LANGUAGE THERAPIST: 
CHOOSING MULTICULTURAL TEXTS 

Saloshni Moodley, Sandhya Chetty & Jenny Pahl 

Disciplines of  Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology 
School of  Therapeutic and Rehabilitative Sciences 

University of  KwaZulu-Natal 

ABSTRACT 

School-based  speech-language  therapists  have a pivotal  role  in the transformation  of  education  as directed  by current  education  policy. 
The  Revised  National  Curriculum  Statement,  for  example, foregrounds  a multicultural  perspective in education,  which impacts on the 
choice of  Learning and  Teaching  Support  Materials.  Inappropriate  support materials  could  create barriers  to learning.  Folktales  were 
selected  as an example of  multicultural  Learning and  Teaching  Support  Materials.  The  responses of  10-year-old  mainstream learners  to 
five  folktales  reflecting  a diversity  of  cultures  were explored.  Five  girls  and  five  boys in Grade  5 participated  in the study,  which was 
conducted  in three phases. A questionnaire, a focus  group interview, and  audio-visual  recordings  were used  to gather  data.  The  qualita-
tive method  of  constant  comparison was used  to analyse emerging  themes. Five  main themes were identified.  Findings  revealed  that 
some participants  responded  most positively  when folktales  reflected  their culture,  gender,  or physical characteristics.  Participants' 
views on less familiar  cultures  were influenced  by the mass media.  The  results  highlighted  the importance of  the text  as 'mirror'  and  as 
'window'.  The  potential  of  folktales  as multicultural  Learning and  Teaching  Support  Materials,  the powerful  influence  of  the educator 
on learners'  responses, and  the need  for  an anti-bias approach within education  are discussed.  Implications  for  future  research and 
practice are highlighted. 

Key words: speech-language therapist, educator, cultural diversity, folktales,  multicultural learning and teaching support materials, bar-
riers to learning, anti-bias approach 

INTRODUCTION 

The Department of  Education employs a number of 
speech-language therapists to render speech and language therapy 
services within schools. These speech-language therapists are 
regarded as educators and registration with the South African 
Council of  Educators (SACE) is mandatory. An 'educator' is de-
fined  as "any person... who provides professional  educational 
services, including professional  therapy... at an institu-
tion" (Education Labour Relations Council [ELRC], 2003, p. E-
3). Within this article, the term 'educator' therefore  refers  collec-
tively to the speech-language therapist and the teacher. 

A number of  policy documents seek to transform  the 
South African  education system into one that is unbiased, inclu-
sive, and multicultural. At present, the most pertinent documents 
are Education White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education 
(Department of  Education, 2001) and the Revised National Cur-
riculum Statement Grades R-9: Schools (Department of  Educa-
tion, 2002a). The principles espoused in these documents present 
a challenge to all schools and educators to change their thinking 
and their practice. While the Revised National Curriculum State-
ment (RNCS) outlines a multicultural curriculum for  grades R to 
nine, Education White Paper 6 is focused  on restructuring the 
current dual system of  education, which segregates learners on 
the basis of  disability. At present, learners who are identified  as 
having.special educational needs (e.g. physical disabilities; spe-
cific  learning difficulties)  are removed from  the mainstream sec-
tor and placed within 'special schools'. Thus only a small per-
centage of  learners are receiving specialised support and educa-
tion (Department of  Education, 2001). The White Paper, how-
ever, acknowledges that all learners need support, and hence sup-
port should be provided in all classrooms to ensure the full  par-
ticipation of  all learners. It has therefore  introduced a key shift 

away from  focussing  on the intrinsic problems of  learners, to 
identifying  and minimising barriers to learning. 

A barrier to learning is anything that hinders the learn-
ing and development of  a learner. Such barriers could thus be 
societal (e.g. poverty), systemic (e.g. an inflexible  curriculum), or 
located in the learner (Department of  Education, 2001). Educa-
tors are expected to fulfil  the important responsibility of  address-
ing barriers to learning when implementing the RNCS. This im-
plies that the classroom environment, teaching strategies, and 
Learning and Teaching Support Materials, for  example, must be 
adjusted to respond to learner diversity within every classroom. 
This transformation,  which is needed so that the existing re-
sources can be used optimally (Department of  Education, 2001), 
has implications for  the present role of  the school-based speech-
language therapist. J 

Within an inclusive education system, the speech-
language therapist will have a consultative and collaborative role 
in district-based and institution (school)-based support teams 
(Department of  Education, 2001). Support has been redefined  in 
the White Paper to encompass training, mentoring, monitoring, 
and consultation. As part of  the support team, the speech-
language therapist will help to develop strategies to identify  and 
manage barriers to learning at learner, educator, curriculum, and 
institutional levels (Department of  Education, 2001). They also 
have a responsibility to interpret the RNCS, as it is pertinent to 
their redefined  role in curriculum delivery. 

A perusal of  the RNCS reveals that the-speech-language 
therapist would be most involved with curriculum delivery within 
the Literacy Learning Programme, which focuses  on language 
acquisition, language development, and communication. It has 
been well documented that reading or telling stories to children 
within the home and the classroom promotes language develop-
ment (Champion, Katz, Muldrow, & Dail, 1999; Galda, Ash, & 

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The School-based Speech-Language Therapist: Choosing Multicultural Texts 
41 

Cullinan, 2001; Owens & Robinson, 1997). Story reading can 
also be used as an intervention tool (Champion et al., 1999; 
Owens & Robinson, 1997) to improve listening skills, vocabu-
lary, literacy skills, language comprehension, and verbal expres-
sion (Owens & Robinson, 1997). Furthermore, the RNCS ac-
knowledges that "listening to stories is also part of  the foundation 
for  literacy" (Department of  Education, 2002c, p. 9). Thus an in-
tegral part of  one's role as a school-based speech-language thera-
pist could be the use of  story reading to address the needs of  mul-
tiple learners in the classroom. Within such a Learning Pro-
gramme, sharing children's literature with the learners would in-
volve much more than merely reading aloud. Rather, it would be 
an interactive process where the speech-language therapist would 
facilitate  each learner's participation and comprehension by ask-
ing and answering questions, responding to the learners' com-
ments, and relating learners' responses to their life  experiences. 

While it is important to consider how children's litera-
ture would be used within the classroom, it is also pertinent to 
reflect  on what type of  literature would be selected. Booysen 
(1996) claims that reading aloud to children within the classroom 
gives educators the opportunity "to introduce children to quality 
literature" and enables children "to recognise that reading good 
literature is something which adults prize" (p.411). It can be ar-
gued that the type of  literature that one would regard as 'quality 
or good literature' would be strongly influenced  by the one's per-
sonal preferences.  According to Outhwaite (1994) school-based 
literacy in South Africa  continues to reflect  Western middle class 
values, beliefs,  and norms. This implies that Anglo-centred litera-
ture and the English language are valued (Lemmer, 1996). Given 
the linguistic and cultural diversity of  learners and the multicul-
tural perspective promoted by the RNCS, choosing literature that 
continues to reinforce  Anglo-centred cultures could act as a sig-
nificant  barrier to learning. 

Research has shown a strong link between culture and 
learning (Nieto, 1996). Learners who do not see a reflection  of 
themselves in their schooling may feel  that they are not valued by 
the educator, the school, or society (Montgomery, 2001). Learn-
ers may become dissociated and, resistant towards a curriculum 
that alienates them (Gardner, 2001) which may impact negatively 
on their school performance.  Furthermore, cultural identity serves 
an important function  in people's lives as it facilitates  a sense of 
peoplehood (Schultz, 1995) and enables the individual to answer 
the question "Who am I?" All educators must acknowledge that 
they direct learners towards particular actions, values, and lan-
guage, through the learning materials (e.g. stories) they present in 
the curriculum. Thus there is a pressing need for  a transformation 
to a multicultural perspective as cultural dissonance between the 
school and culturally diverse learners could create a barrier to 
learning. 

The term 'culture' refers  to the values, beliefs,  and be-
haviours, traditions, symbols and ideas that are shared by a group 
of  people (Kavanagh & Kennedy, 1992; Locke, 1992). It includes 
explicit features  (e.g. language and dress) and implicit features 
such as attitudes and family  relationships (Kavanagh & Kennedy, 
1992; Locke, 1992; Nieto, 1996). The term 'multicultural' there-
fore  encompasses the diversity of  cultures or subcultures that ex-
ist within a given society. As Ford (1999) states: "... a multicul-
tural perspective indicates a transformational  change from  the 
dominant Eurocentric perspective shaped through socialization... 
to an inclusive view of  multiple perspectives and multiple reali-
ties" (p. 14). Advocates of  multiculturalism in schools support 
the inclusion of  multiple perspectives and an attitude of  social 
justice within education (Willis <fc  Johnson, 2000). They believe 

that this will enrich education and enable learners to understand 
issues related to difference,  dominance, power and privilege 
(Locke, 1998). These beliefs  are fundamental  to the RNCS. 

Both Education White Paper 6 and the RNCS emphasise 
that educators have a responsibility to accommodate and manage 
diversity by providing a flexible  curriculum that can be accessed 
by all learners. While it is acknowledged that the educator has to 
review all aspects of  the curriculum for  a multicultural perspec-
tive, the focus  of  the discussion is on the learning support materi-
als (viz. stories) used within the curriculum. The discussion has 
emphasised that a bias towards Learning and Teaching Support 
Materials that reflect  only Anglo-Saxon English-speaking cul-
tures, would encourage learners to view the world from  only one 
perspective. It would exclude the multiple realities and perspec-
tives of  learners. The educator has an important role in fostering 
the learner's thinking about literature, culture, and diversity 
(Althanases, 1998). By carefully  selecting the literature that is 
used as Learning and Teaching Support Materials, speech-
language therapists could provide learners with opportunities to 
view or take part in the lives of  people from  diverse cultures and 
with different  or similar life  experiences. 

A number of  authors (Bieger, 1996; Gillespie, Powell, 
Clements, & Swearingen, 1994; Sims Bishop, 1992) have high-
lighted multicultural literature as a valuable tool in providing 
multiple perspectives within the curriculum. Gillespie et al. 
(1994) have pointed out that multicultural literature has an impor-
tant role to play in developing three perspectives that are pertinent 
to a multicultural society. Multicultural literature can show us 
how we are connected through common experiences, needs, and 
desires; it can help us to celebrate the cultural differences  that 
enrich society, and it can help us to understand how social and 
political forces  affect  our lives. These outcomes are closely linked 
to the overall contribution of  the Languages Learning Area to the 
curriculum, namely, to encourage "intercultural understanding, 
access to other views, and a critical understanding of  the concept 
of  culture" (Department of  Education, 2002b, p. 7). Thus educa-
tors need to make informed  choices about the types of  multicul-
tural literature that would be appropriate as Learning and Teach-
ing Support Materials. 

'Multicultural literature' refers  to literature such as sto-
ries, poems, prose, and plays that reflect  the multiple values, ex-
periences, and perspectives of  various cultural groups. Taylor 
(2000) describes multicultural literature as literature that focuses 
on people whose histories, contributions, and identities have been 
undervalued, distorted, or omitted in the school curriculum and 
society. Any 'multicultural literature programme' should reflect 
the principles of  inclusiveness and the deconstruction of  stereo-
types. The speech-language therapist who wishes to function 
within the tenets of  the South African  Department of  Education 
(2002b) needs to examine which type of  storybooks with multi-
cultural themes would be a suitable vehicle for  the promotion of 
multicultural awareness and understanding. 

The RNCS (2002b) echoes views stated in the literature 
that educators have to provide learners with opportunities to make 
connections, and to celebrate the differences  and similarities 
among humans (Sims Bishop, 1992). Using stories about different 
cultures, it is believed, will facilitate  tolerance and understanding 
(Booysen, 1996). Folktales have been recommended as a good 
springboard (Booysen, 1996) for  discussions about different  cul-
tures as they are said to be reflective  of  their culture of  origin 
(Bieger, 1996; Sims Bishop, 1992). It has been suggested that all 
children enjoy folktales  or stories set in other cultures and times 
(Wade, 1990, cited in Booysen, 1996). Folktales are fictional  sto-

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42 Saloshni Moodley, Sandhya Chetty and Jenny Pahl 

ries that do not have a particular location in space or time, and 
either concern royalty or common people, or animals behaving 
like people (Rosenberg, 1997). They are ideal for  'read-alouds' 
because they originate from  the oral tradition (Bieger, 1996). 

There is an extensive body of  research that investigates 
learner response to multicultural literature in linguistically and 
culturally diverse classrooms (Althanases, 1998; Galda et al., 
2001; Jordan & Purves, 1993; Naidoo, 1992; Webster, 2001; 
Willis & Johnson, 2000). These researchers used multicultural 
literature that was either overtly inter-racial, depicting diverse 
children interacting with each other, or that aimed to show how 
to cope with racism and discrimination. Stories like folktales, 
which do not focus  on integration but aim to show the distinctive 
experience of  belonging to a specific  cultural group (Sims 
Bishop, 1992), were not used. The studies mentioned above fo-
cussed on the responses of  high school learners in the USA and 
Britain. Thus there is a paucity of  research on learners' responses 
to folktales  even though folktales  have been described as a rich 
source for  developing understanding about cultural diversity. 
There also appears to be a lack of  South African  studies and a 
lack of  studies using primary school learners. Consequently, 
there is a need to explore the phenomenon of  learners' responses 
to folktales  as one type of  multicultural literature. The purpose of 
this study was therefore  to explore primary school children's re-
sponses when folktales  reflecting  a diversity of  cultures were 
read to them. The findings  would contribute to the body of 
knowledge available on children's responses to culturally diverse 
literature. Based on her research findings,  Saccardi (1994) pro-
posed that children's responses to books could enable educators 
to make wise choices when selecting books for  use with children. 
Thus the information  from  the present study could inform  educa-
tors on how best to handle multicultural practice and how to ad-
dress possible barriers to learning within the curriculum. 

METHODOLOGY 

Aim 

To explore the responses of  a group of  ten-year-old learn-
ers within mainstream education when folktales  reflecting  a di-
versity of  cultures were read to them. 

Critical  questions.  What were the participants' responses to the 
folktales?  Why did the participants have these responses to the 
folktales? 

Research Design 

In the study, the term 'response' included written and 
spoken responses, spontaneous responses such as laughter, and 
non-verbal responses such as nodding to show agreement or 
shrugging as a sign of  doubt or indifference.  A qualitative 
approach best enabled the researcher to gather data that 
represented 'responses' as defined  in this study. Researchers 
using a qualitative approach gather data, in the form  of  written or 
spoken language, by interacting personally (Pidgeon, 1996) with 
participants. They attempt to understand or discern phenomena 
"in terms of  the meanings people bring to them" (McMillan & 
Schumacher, 2000, p.395). The present researcher supports the 
interactive nature of  qualitative research where the researcher 
interacts with each participant as an individual. This interaction 
closely resembles the relationship between the educator and the 
learner. Furthermore it is deemed 'good practice' for  researchers 

to provide clarification  of  their methodological stance, as it is 
believed that the researcher's ideology influences  the research. 
The present researcher agrees with Denzin and Lincoln (1998) 
that qualitative research is a multicultural process because it is 
shaped by the gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural perspective of 
the researcher. Denzin and Lincoln also stress the intimate 
relationship between the 'multiculturally situated researcher' and 
the focus  of  the research. In addition it is crucial for  the 
researcher to understand the political and socio-cultural dynamics 
of  the research context because such dynamics also impact on the 
data collected within that context. It is within these beliefs  that 
the study attempted to describe and explore learners' responses to 
culturally diverse folktales. 

The research design for  the study was based on Grounded 
Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, as cited in Pidgeon, 1996). A 
grounded theory research design has certain distinguishing 
characteristics. The data collection and analysis phases of  the 
research occur simultaneously. The researcher can move between 
the two phases and the emerging analysis shapes the data 
collection procedures. The researcher creates analytic codes and 
develops categories from  the data, not from  preconceived 
concepts. Furthermore there are specific  methods of  data analysis 
available to the researcher, for  example, constant comparison and 
theoretical sampling (Pidgeon, 1996). 

Based on the characteristics of  a grounded theory research 
design mentioned above, the present study was originally 
structured into two phases. During Phase 1, four  folktales  were 
read aloud to the participants and the participants answered a 
questionnaire about their responses to each folktale.  Phase 2 
consisted of  a focus  group interview. Based on the data that 
emerged during Phase 1, a third phase was added to enable the 
researcher to collect more data on emerging questions and 
themes. This change is in keeping with the flexible  nature of  a 
grounded theory research design, which enables the researcher to 
collect additional data and follow  up on questions. 

Research Site 
The site in question was an urban primary school cater-

ing for  mainstream learners and learners with special educational 
needs (LSEN). The site was selected because the population of 
learners at the site represents a cross section of  learners in terms 
of  socio-economic status, race, culture, and language. Further-
more, the results would inform  the researcher's understanding of 
how the educational policies regarding multiculturalism and liter-
acy may be applied to the practice of  Speech-Language Therapy 
within education. < j 

Participants  ' 
Participants had to be ten-year old, fifth,  grade 

'mainstream' learners at the research site. Research by Lemmer 
(1988) and Sims (1983) showed that it was possible to success-
fully  interview ten-year old learners on their responses to story-
books. There is also a paucity of  research with this age group 
(Sims, 1983). Ten-year olds were therefore  selected for  the study. 
Learners in mainstream Grade 5 classes were selected because 
the Department of  Education (2002b;. 2002c) highlighted that 
learners in Grade 5 can be expected to ask and respond thought-
fully  to critical questions that do not have obvious answers; to 
express and justify  their own opinions with reasons; and to un-
derstand how interviews work as a means of  obtaining informa-
tion. The teachers of  the Grade 5 classes were asked to identify 
learners who would be able to follow  grade-appropriate instruc-

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The School-based Speech-Language Therapist: Choosing Multicultural Texts 4 3 

dons, read a questionnaire and record answers legibly, and partici-
pate in a group interview, all within the medium of  English. LSEN 
were excluded as their specific  difficulties  with receptive, expres-
sive, and written language would affect  their ability to read the 
questionnaire, record their answers in writing, and express them-
selves verbally during the focus  group interview. 

Naidoo (1992) found  that the girls in her study responded 
more frequently  during small group discussions than whole class 
discussions. In light of  Naidoo's finding  and considering that the 
sample in the present study would need to be of  a manageable size 
for  the focus  group interview in Phase 2, the researcher decided 
that a sample of  10 learners would be appropriate for  the study. 
Furthermore, an equal number of  boys and girls were needed to 
control for  possible gender bias. The subsequent list of  names 
identified  by the teachers was divided into two groups according 
to gender. Five girls and five  boys were randomly selected from 
these groups. All the learners who had been selected were willing 
to participate in the study and written informed  consent was ob-
tained from  their parents, See Appendix A for  a profile  of  the par-
ticipants. 

Folktales 
The folktales  had to fulfil  the general criteria for  authentic 

and accurate multicultural literature outlined in Appendix B. Web-
ster (2001) pointed out that similarities between the cultural back-
grounds of  the participants and the texts might hinder the partici-
pants from  'entering the story'. Thus the researcher wished to 
minimise participant discomfort  and enable each person to re-
spond and comment without feeling  that his or her culture was 
being criticised. Folktales that were culturally, historically, and 
geographically distant to the participant and that did not mirror the 
culture of  any specific  participant were therefore  deemed suitable 
for  this study. The folktales  had to highlight the theme of  family 
relationships, which are an implicit feature  of  the concept of  cul-
ture (Locke, 1992). Four folktales,  from  Russia, China, Czecho-
slovakia, and Cambodia were selected. These folktales  were dis-
tant to the cultures of  all participants and were read to them during 
Phase 1. 

Data Collection  Instruments 
A questionnaire schedule (Appendix D) and an interview 

schedule (Appendix E) were used to collect the data. The ques-
tionnaire schedule comprised a total of  nine questions, with both 
open-ended questions and dichotomous-response questions 
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2000). The researcher developed the 
questionnaire specifically  for  this stydy, by drawing from  Sac-
cardi's (1994) project on children's responses to books in general 
and Jordan and Purves' (1993) research on reader's responses to 
culturally diverse texts. Saccardi (1994) categorised children's 
evaluations of  the books they had read or listened to, according to 
a framework  that included the children's feelings  about the books, 
their reasons for  liking or disliking a book, what the books re-
minded them of,  and their judgements of  the books. Jordan and 
Purves (1993) examined the data obtained in their study according 
to a set of  questions within four  categories namely, expectations, 
judging, stereotyping, and interpreting. The present researcher 
generated questions for  the questionnaire in this study by using 
Jordan and Purves' (1993) categories and Saccardi's (1994) 
framework.  For example, under the category of  judging, Saccardi, 
and Jordan and Purves looked at the reasons that participants gave 
for  liking or disliking a text. The present researcher used this in-
formation  to frame  Questions 1 (What did you like about the 

story?) and 2 (What didn't you like about the story?) on the ques-
tionnaire. Questions 1 and 2 would, for  example, elicit a descrip-
tive response from  the participants. The reasons for  these re-
sponses would be explored further  during the focus  group inter-
view in Phase 2. 

Procedure 

Pilot  phase 
Once ethical clearance was obtained from  the University of 

Durban-Westville's Research Committee, a pilot phase was con-
ducted. The aims were to familiarise  the participants with the data 
collection procedure for  Phases 1 and 2, and to determine whether 
they would be able to listen and attend for  the duration of  the ses-
sion, to understand and complete the questionnaire, and to partici-
pate during a group interview. The researcher read an illustrated 
storybook titled 'Herb, the vegetarian dragon' to them. All 10 par-
ticipants were able to concentrate adequately, to read and under-
stand the questions and to record their answers in writing without 
any difficulty.  The questionnaire was therefore  not revised. Partici-
pants were also able to take turns when answering the researcher's 
questions during the group interview. 

Phase 1. This phase consisted of  four  sessions, one for  each 
folktale.  During each video-recorded session, a different  folktale 
was read aloud to the participants. Before  reading the folktale  to 
the participants, the researcher explained the vocabulary that may 
have been difficult  or unfamiliar  to them and answered any ques-
tions that they asked about the vocabulary. They were asked what 
their expectations were of  the folktale,  based on its country of  ori-
gin. Thereafter,  the folktale  was read aloud and the participants 
were shown the illustrations at appropriate points in the story. The 
participants then gave written answers, via a questionnaire, about 
their responses to that folktale.  The researcher read through each 
completed questionnaire once they were handed in and asked for 
clarification  from  respondents where necessary. This strategy was 
adopted as a form  of  'member checking', which was used to en-
hance design validity (McMillan & Schumacher, 2000). In addi-
tion, the use of  the same data collection methods (viz. audio-visual 
recorded observation and self-administration  of  the questionnaire) 
on different  occasions is a type of  methodological triangulation 
used to verify  the findings  of  the study. The transcribed data from 
the video-recordings and the completed questionnaires were ana-
lysed after  each session. Based on the analysis of  the data from  the 
questionnaires and transcripts, the focus  group interview schedule 
was constructed. 

Phase 2. Using the focus  group interview schedule 
(Appendix E), the researcher conducted the 60-minute interview 
with all ten participants. The session was video-recorded. The tran-
scription of  the interview was analysed. 

Phase 3. The Russian and Chinese folktales  were presented 
as planned during Phase 1. Participants were able to say what they 
would expect from  these folktales.  When the Czechoslovakian 
folktale  was introduced to the participants, they did not know what 
to expect from  such a folktale.  Their uncertainty may have been 
due to their unfamiliarity  with Czechoslovakia. The folktale  was 
possibly "too distant" from  their experiences. It was determined 
that, by this stage of  the data collection, each participant appeared 
to be quite aware that folktales  were inherent to all cultures and 
therefore  might not be uncomfortable  with an African  folktale. 
Thus it was included in a Third phase. 

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4 4 Saloshni Moodley, Sandhya Chetty and Jenny Pahl 

Data Analysis 

Multiple data sources were used, namely, transcribed data 
from  the video-recordings of  the story-telling sessions, written 
responses to the nine questions on the questionnaire; one com-
pleted questionnaire per participant for  each of  the five  folktales, 
transcribed data from  the video-recording of  the focussed  group 
interview, and the researcher's reflective  journal and field  notes. 
The presence of  related themes in the data collected from  multiple 
sources enhanced the credibility of  the interpretation. 

The method of  constant comparison (McMillan & 
Schumacher, 2000) was used to analyse the data. The first  step in 
this process involved line-by-line coding, which entailed studying 
each line of  the data and providing a topic or descriptive name. 
The second step involved focused  coding, where the researcher 
chose a limited number of  topics, which reappeared often  in the 
initial line-by-line coding, and used these to sift  through the data. 
By comparing and contrasting the topics, the researcher was able 
to organise the topics into categories and identify  patterns of  simi-
larities among the categories (McMillan & Schumacher). When 
identifying  themes and subthemes in the data, 'member catego-
ries' and 'researcher categories' were used (McMillan & 
Schumacher). Member categories represented the data from  the 
participants' perspective while researcher categories represented 
the meaning of  the phenomenon to the researcher (McMillan & 
Schumacher). 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Five main themes were identified  as follows. 
• The family 
• Retribution 
• The influence  of  mass media on our cultural knowledge and 

worldviews 
• Texts as 'mirrors' 
• Children's views on the purposes of  stories 

As all the folktales  focused  on the broad theme of  family  relation-
ships, the first  theme emerged as a result of  the nature or content 
of  the folktales.  The second to fourth  themes represented re-

Table 1. The Influence  of  the Mass Media on Cultural Knowledge: 

searcher categories while the fifth  theme was a member category 
derived directly from  the participants' responses. 

In the ensuing section, only two of  the main themes, 
namely, 'the influence  of  the mass media on our cultural knowl-
edge' and 'texts as mirrors', will be discussed. The reader is re-
ferred  to Moodley (2003) for  a detailed discussion of  the other 
themes and related subthemes. The possible reasons for  the par-
ticipants' responses in relation to these two themes will be ex-
plored. In addition, the implications for  future  research and prac-
tice will be highlighted. Finally, the study will be critically evalu-
ated. 

The Influence  of  the Mass Media on our Cultural Knowledge 

The participants' responses to the folktales  underscored 
the powerful  influence  of  the mass media on our cultural knowl-
edge and views of  the world. Participant VA (see Appendix A), 
for  example, expected the Russian folktale  to be about 'Red Indi-
ans' because the illustrations showed the characters wearing moc-
casins, clothing made from  soft  buckskin with fringes  and bead-
work, and feathers  in their long, plaited hair. That is, they were 
dressed in a manner similar to the traditional portrayal of  Native 
Americans in the mass media. Furthermore, the participants ex-
pected the Chinese folktale  to be about martial arts, possibly be-
cause cinema and television tend to emphasise that aspect of  Chi-
nese culture. 

Mass media has been cited as one of  the ways in which 
children learn stereotypes and acquire cultural knowledge (Gay, 
2002; Ford, 1999). For many learners, mass media is the sole 
source of  information  about cultural diversity and what is viewed 
on television is more striking and persuasive than what is discov-
ered from  books or classrooms (Gay, 2002). The participants' re-
sponses showed that there were several reasons why they pre-
ferred  television as a source of  information.  Participants regarded 
television as more entertaining than books and believed that it 
gave one a 'better idea' or clearer picture of  the culture and peo-
ple. They stressed that the information  conveyed on television was 
more memorable than that in books. The participants' responses in 
Table 1 further  emphasise the persuasive influence  of  the mass 
media. 

i 

Excerpt from  the Focus Group Interview j 
RES: Now if  you spit in somebody's face  it means.. .Do you know what it means? j 

| 

ML: Saying goodbye. Miss.. .because Miss I once watched a Jim Carey movie and when they greeted each other they spit at each other. 

RES: They did? Which country was the movie in? I 

ML: I saw it on a Jim Carey movie one or two. I 
ι 

RES: If  it's a Jim Carey movie, do you think they really do things like that? 

ML: It's a culture Miss. It's a culture. 

RES: It's about a different  culture? 

VOICES: Yes, Miss. 

RES: Which culture is this? 

CE: They want to say hello. 

RES: By spitting? 

CE: Yes, Miss, (other participants said 'yes' in the background) 

ML: Because Miss, we can say hello and goodbye Miss, they can't 
Note: The spitting incident occurred in the Russian folktale.  The goldsmith spat in the Shaman's face  to show his disgust at the Shaman's behaviour. 
RES = Researcher 

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45 

Based on what he had seen in a movie, ML believed that 
spitting was a way of  greeting and part of  the 'culture' of  the 
group portrayed in the movie (see Table 1, lines 2 & 6). CE and 
the other participants agreed with ML (lines 10 & 12). These re-
sponses underscore the power of  mass media, especially as the 
participants embraced what was seen in the movies as the truth. 
Similarly, Beach and Freedman's study (as cited in Benton, 1999) 
confirmed  the tendency of  learners to blur reality and fiction  when 
discussing images portrayed in the mass media. Thus the mes-
sages transmitted via the mass media are extremely influential  and 
should not be ignored as much of  this information  is inaccurate 
and often  prejudicial (Gay, 2002). Other authors concur. 

Banks (2001) has discussed how the mainstream media in 
the USA has controlled the construction of  the Native American 
identity. It is important to remember that South African  children 
are exposed to films  that are produced mainly in the USA or the 
UK that reflect  the values and perspectives of  scriptwriters and 
producers from  those societies. For example, even the popular 
animated film  'The Lion King', which might be regarded as an 
African  story, was produced in the USA. One could therefore  ar-
gue that the mainstream film  and television media in the USA also 
exert a tremendous influence  on South African  society. VA's ex-
pectation that the Russian folktale  would be about 'Red Indians' 
and the references  to 'Jim Carey movies' in Table 1, illustrate this 
influence.  These examples confirm  the importance of  media liter-
acy within the RNCS, where the ability to recognise the influence 
of  radio, television, film,  and advertising on people and societies 
is an important Learning Outcome. 

Texts as Mirrors 

It was suggested earlier that cultural dissonance between 
the leaner and the text, for  example, would present as a barrier to 
learning. Learners "need to locate themselves, their life  and learn-
ing experiences, culture, values, language and physical character-
istics within the books they are exposed to at school" in order for 
them to relate to school and the school culture (Taylor, 2001, 
p.24). This implies that texts must act as mirrors that reflect  learn-
ers' lives. Several authors (Bieger, 1996; Cairney, 1995; Sims 
Bishop/1992) have recognised the importance of  literature as 'a 
mirror'. Those who see their own experiences reflected  in litera-
ture or in texts are affirmed  (Bieger,1996; Sims Bishop, 1992). In 
exploring the importance of  the text as mirror, the discussion will 
focus  on the responses of  participant NQ to the African  folktale. 
NQ's response to this folktale  was distinctive from  her responses 
to the other folktales.  The African  folktale  was the only one of  the 
five  folktales  that she would recommend her friends  to read. 

It was evident from  the researcher's analysis of  the video-
recordings, from  comments recorded in the researcher's reflective 
journal, and from  NQ's responses on the questionnaires, that NQ 
found  most of  the folktales  uninteresting. On the video-recordings 
of  Phase 1 NQ appeared distracted when the folktales  were read 
out to the participants. She did not focus  on the researcher while 
the story was read and would either shrug or smile when asked for 
her opinion during the discussions. The researcher, also observed 
these responses during the reading of  the Cambodian folktale  even 
though NQ described this folktale  as 'not boring'. There was a 
noticeable difference  in NQ's attentiveness and responsiveness to 
the African  folktale  (see Appendix C for  a synopsis). At times, 
she leaned towards the researcher while listening and she pro-
vided a spontaneous verbal response for  the first  time (see Table 
2, line 6), during the discussion of  the African  folktale. 

Table 2. 
Excerpt of  Written and Spoken Responses to the African  folktale 

Part A: Written responses to the question 
'How did the story make you feel?  Why?' 

CH: Bored. No humour. 

NI: Bored. Very bored. Because it was not interesting. 

NQ: Happy. Because it was nice. 

SN: Happy, 'cos it was exciting. 

VA: Happy. It was nice and interesting. 

Part B: Spoken responses 

NQ: It's nearly the same story. Cinderella also married the prince. 

RES: Why did you think that story was 'nice'? 

NQ: Because it was an African  story. 

RES: Was that because it had things that were familiar  or because it 

was set in Africa? 

NQ: It was set in Africa. 

RES: VA, why did you think the story was nice? 

VA: Because it was about a girl. I liked about Nyasha. 

Note: RES = Researcher 

It can be asserted that NQ responded positively to the 
African  folktale  because she was able to locate herself,  her physi-
cal characteristics and language (Taylor, 2000) within the folktale. 
Jordan and Purves' (1993) research suggest that some learners 
were hesitant about entering the story realms of  other cultures. In 
addition, they found  that cultural differences  between the learner 
and the text also hampered the close identification  of  the learner 
with the text. Thus one cannot ignore the possibility that the cul-
tural distance between NQ and the first  four  folktales  may have 
presented a barrier to her participating to a greater extent in the 
discussion of  the folktales. 

The participants' identities in terms of  their gender, race, 
culture, family  background (see Appendix A), and personalities, 
influenced  their responses to the folktales.  It is possible that NQ 
related to the main characters in the African  folktale  because they 
were female.  This was VA's reason for  liking the story (see Table 
2, line 12). The comments in Table 2 highlight that three of  the 
five  female  participants in the study responded positively to the 
African  folktale.  These three participants (NQ, VA & SN) were 
also the most similar to the main characters in terms of  'race' and 
home languages, which may have maximised their participation in 
the discussion. The results have gender implications as the text as 
mirror appeared to be of  special significance  to these three partici-
pants. Naidoo (1992) emphasised the need to create opportunities 
for  girls' voices to be heard along with boys' voices. In a similar 
vein, the Department of  Education (2002a) stresses that it is im-
portant to free  the potential of  girls and boys. It appears from  the 
results that, by selecting texts that girls can identify  with, one can 
create the impetus for  them to participate more actively in the dis-
cussion of  texts. 

During the focus  group interview CE stated that he found 
it difficult  to understand "different  things" and agreed that he pre-

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ferred  stories about people who were similar to him. When chil-
dren are allowed to choose texts independently, they tend to 
choose texts that reflect  their own culture and interests, and are 
therefore  familiar  (Bieger, 1996). Other researchers have also 
discovered that learners preferred  stories of  their own culture (e. 
g. Altieri as cited in Webster, 2001). The Department of  Educa-
tion (2003) notes that issues of  identity become increasingly sig-
nificant  to learners in the Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 - 7 ) and 
educators need to consider the relationship between language, 
culture and identity. Establishing a sense of  personal identity is 
an important theme in children's lives. It has been suggested that 
each person has three identities (Locke, 1998). We have a global 
identity because all of  us belong to the human race; a shared 
group identity as we belong to a cultural group or groups; and a 
unique personal identity as each of  us differs  from  the other be-
cause of  our unique experiences (Locke, 1998). It is important to 
be aware that membership of  a cultural group impacts on per-
sonal identity (Locke, 1998), which may be why CE indicated a 
preference  for  stories about people who were similar to him. 

Implications for  Future Practice and Research 

The Literacy Learning Programme is intended to create 
opportunities for  each learner to understand and value their cul-
ture and identity, and that of  others (Department of  Education, 
2003). Educators need to realise that the learning process is never 
value free.  Power relations and ideology are ever present in the 
curriculum (Gay, 2002; Shor, 1999) and therefore  to educate is to 
encourage learners in a given direction. This implies that as a fa-
cilitator of  learning, one would need to discern when to accept 
learners' comments and when to explore their points of  view. In 
addition, one would need to make learners aware that a point of 
view is not the truth, which is closely linked to facilitating  the 
development of  critical literacy and critical thinking. A strategy 
that would enable one to facilitate  critical thinking amongst 
learners is an anti-bias approach to education. Such an approach 
promotes transformation,  as there is increased awareness of  how 
oppression and bias serve as barriers to learning (ELRC, 1997) 
for  the learner and the educator. 

Like all educators, the speech-language therapist needs 
to think carefully  about the power that he or she has to influence 
the lives of  learners. It is acknowledged that the speech-language 
therapist's focus  on language learning and remediation through 
story reading is important. However, the discussion has focussed 
on how the types of  Learning and Teaching Support Materials 
influence  the response of  the learner. The speech-language thera-
pist therefore  needs to have a broader focus  and consider the im-
pact that his or her choice of  text has on the learner. NQ's re-
sponses to the African  folktale  in particular highlight this point. 
Learners are influenced  by their literary experiences, which could 
provide educators with opportunities to nurture learners' self-
esteem, cultural sensitivity and critical thinking. Educators need 
to lay the foundation  skills for  critical thinking during Grades 1 
to 3. The speech-language therapist in schools and the teacher 
can begin this process by asking the right questions, such as 
'Who is the story about? Whose point of  view is reflected  in the 
story?' 

Educators are ultimately responsible for  choosing texts 
and therefore  need to be aware of  the values portrayed in their 
choices. Texts used solely to promote language learning would 
still need the educator to determine if  the chosen texts promoted 
negative stereotypes or affirmed  some cultural groups at the ex-
pense of  others. Such texts may create a barrier to learning for 

some learners. Some of  the folktales  that were selected for  this 
study failed  to capture the interest of  the participants or to stimu-
late their active participation during the discussion. Not all par-
ticipants responded in the same way and there needs to be an 
awareness of  this level of  diversity. An interesting area for  fur-
ther investigation would be learners' responses to other kinds of 
multicultural texts such as plays or poems. Such information 
would augment our knowledge of  different  multicultural Learn-
ing and Teaching Support Materials. 

Some speech-language therapists and teachers may dis-
agree with the need for  a multicultural, anti-bias perspective. 
However one must avoid the trap of  believing that a multicultural 
perspective is only necessary when there is a diversity of  learners 
in terms of  race, culture or language. "An unbiased inclusive 
perspective can and should be present whether or not people of 
color are present" (Hooks as cited in Ford, 1999, p. 195). Change 
begins with the educator. Few educators have been trained to 
work with learners in a democratic style within multicultural and 
multilingual contexts (ELRC, 1997). 

Most educators currently active in South African 
schools were taught within a system of  apartheid education and 
were raised during a divided, oppressive, and authoritarian era. 
The educators' schooling and life  experiences have impacted on 
their identities, perceptions and beliefs,  and their assumptions 
about learners and about themselves. Consequently, "a conscious 
and definite  strategy is required to bring about the paradigm 
shifts  necessary to enable us to create a new society in which all 
differences  and similarities amongst people are recognised, ap-
preciated and drawn upon" (ELRC, 1997, p. 7). Every educator 
therefore  should adopt an anti-bias approach to education. A fur-
ther area of  investigation would be to determine the type of  facili-
tative skills that speech-language therapists and teachers require 
when using texts to promote critical literacy and critical thinking 
within an anti-bias approach. 

Speech-language therapists also have a vital role to play 
in enabling LSEN in 'special schools', to achieve the same learn-
ing outcomes as learners in the mainstream learning context. 
Educators may believe that by focusing  on the use of  multicul-
tural texts to foster  critical literacy and critical thinking skills, the 
speech-language therapist would be trespassing on the domain of 
the teacher. Educators may believe that this is beyond the: speech-
language therapist's scope of  practice because the speech^ 
language therapist usually has focused  on language-learning dif-
ficulties.  However, in order for  the changes mandated by Educa-
tion White Paper 6 and the RNCS to be implemented success-
fully,  all speech-language therapists and teachers need to con-
sciously change their attitude towards their roles and responsibili-
ties. Educators can no longer afford  to work in isolation. Collabo-
ration and consultation are crucial if  speech-language therapists 
and teachers are to provide an equitable, inclusive and cost effec-
tive service (Department of  Education, 2001) to all learners. 

A Critical Evaluation of  the Study 

Every researcher has to make methodological choices 
when designing a research study. Two of  the researcher's.deci-
sions may have constrained the results of  the present study. First, 
the decision to focus  on 10-year old learners-within Grade 5 did 
not take into account that there are varying levels of  ability 
amongst learners within the same age group and within a single 
grade (Department of  Education, 2003). It may have been more 
appropriate to randomly select participants from  all learners in 
the same grade, regardless of  age. Such a decision also would 

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have eliminated the possibility of  teacher bias in identifying 
participants for  the study. Teachers may have suggested names 
of  learners whom they perceived as 'well-behaved' rather than 
'troublesome' in class. Second, the researcher chose folktales 
that were written in English because English is the language of 
teaching and learning at the research site. However, seven of 
the participants spoke Zulu as their home language and English 
as their first  additional language. Consequently, the use of  Eng-
lish as the medium for  the folktales,  for  the questionnaires, and 
for  all spoken interactions, could have constrained the results. 
The participants' output, for  example, may have been limited 
given that seven of  them were responding in their additional 
language. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The following  conclusions may be drawn from  this 
study. Folktales that were set in ancient times and were not true 
to life  were judged as boring by the participants. Such folktales 
appeared to be poorly matched to the interests and contempo-
rary realities of  10-year old learners in Grade 5. However folk-
tales that were filled  with humour and action, or that mirrored 
aspects of  the learners' lives or identities, were better able to 
capture their interest and stimulate their participation in the dis-
cussions. 

The results of  the study emphasise the importance of 
texts as mirrors. It was found  that cultural distance between the 
learner and the text may hinder the learner's response to the 
text. All educators need to facilitate  the full  participation of  all 
learners (Department of  Education, 2003). From this study it 
can be concluded that one way of  enhancing the potential of  all 
learners, would be to ensure frequent  opportunities for  them to 
see themselves reflected  positively in texts, balanced with texts 
that act as windows onto other peoples and worlds. 

This study reflected  the pervasive influence  of  the mass 
media on the learners' cultural knowledge and understanding 
of  diversity. The messages conveyed in the mass media, espe-
cially television, appeared to be more potent than the informa-
tion contained in books. There is a tendency for  learners to blur 
reality/and fiction  and to embrace what was depicted in the 
mass' media as truth. Critical literacy and media critique are 
therefore  crucial for  all learners. The educator has an important 
role in facilitating  the learner's {enjoyment of  and critical think-
ing about texts. A multicultural, anti-bias perspective is a cru-
cial aspect of  an educator's role as a facilitator  of  learning. 
Critical self-awareness  by educators is an essential first  step, 
with a pressing need for  examination of  their own biases, as-
sumptions, and worldviews. 

Final Thoughts 

Multicultural literature or texts have considerable edu-
cational potential. However, it is in "the meeting of  minds" be-
tween the educator and learner that this potential is fulfilled  or 
unleashed (Naidoo, 1992, p. 138). Every speech-language 
therapist and teacher has to begin the essential process of 
change if  they wish to be the kind of  educator envisaged within 
the RNCS, to become lifelong  learners, researchers, mediators 
of  learning and "key contributors to the transformation  of  edu-
cation in South Africa"  (Department of  Education, 2002a, p. 
9). Only then can one aspire to the motto of  'UNITY IN DI-
VERSITY' emblazoned on the,South African  coat of  arms. 

Acknowledgements 

This article is the culmination of  a thesis submitted to the 
University of  Durban-Westville (now the University of 
KwaZulu-Natal) by the first  author, in partial fulfillment  of  the 
requirements for  the degree Master of  Communication Pathology 
(Speech-Language Pathology), under supervision of  the second 
and third authors. 

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http://www
http://cela.albany
http://www.lesley.edu/journals/ippp/4/shor
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/


The School-based Speech-Language Therapist: Choosing Multicultural Texts 

APPENDIX A 

Description of  participants 

Participant Family Structure/Religion Home languages/ 
Gender 

LI ο Mother, father,  2 brothers, aunt, 2 cousins 
β Christian 

® Zulu; English used with brothers and cousins 
® male 

ML ® Mother, father,  3 brothers, 2 aunts, uncle, cousin 
ο Christian/church-going 

O Zulu 
ο male 

NQ ® Mother, father,  2 brothers, 2 sisters, aunt, uncle 
β Christian 

• Zulu; English 
® female 

M O 
β Mother, father,  brother, 2 sisters 
β Christian/church-going 

® Zulu; English used with older sister 
® male 

CE ® Mother, sister, grandmother, aunt, uncle, 6 cousins 
ο Christian 

® Zulu; English 
® male 

NI ® Mother, aunt, grandmother 
® Christian 

» English 
® female 

TH ° Mother, stepfather,  step-brother 
® Hindu 

® English 
® male 

SN ο Mother, father,  sister 
® Christian 

® Zulu; English 
® female 

CH ® Mother, sister 
ο Christian 

® English; Afrikaans 
® female 

VA ® Mother, father,  sister, brother 
® Christian 

® Zulu 
® female 

/ 
/ 

j A P P E N D I X Β 

| Criteria for  selecting the folktales 

(Adapted from  Gillespie, Powell, Clements, & Swearingen, 1994; Sims Bishop, 1992) 

ο The culture and the characters should be portrayed as multifaceted,  that is, strong three-dimensional char-
acters. 

ο The cultural dimensions should be presented authentically. 

ο The folktale  should not promote stereotypes. 

ο The language and dialect in the folktales  should be presented authentically. 

ο The illustrations should contain authentic representations of  scenes and people from  the different  cultural 
groups. Furthermore the illustrations should be attractive and able to capture and hold the attention of  the 
target audience. 

The  South  African  Journal  of  Communication  Disorders,  Vol  52, 2005 

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Saloshni Moodley, Sandhya Chetty and Jenny Pahl 

APPENDIX C 

Synopsis of  the African  folktale  'Mufaro's  beautiful  daughters' 

This folktale  is similar to the plot of  Cinderella. It is about Mufaro's  two daughters, Manyara and Nyasha. Manyara, who is vain, 
proud, and very jealous of  her sister, pretends to be loving in front  of  Mufaro.  Nyasha, by contrast, is genuinely industrious, kind and 
humble. The king wishes to marry one of  them and asks Mufaro  to choose which daughter should become the queen. However, Mufaro 
asks the king to make the decision. Manyara is determined to become queen and will do anything to be chosen. Using magical powers, 
the king tests the two sisters, without their knowledge, to determine who is worthy to be his wife.  The folktale  shows how Manyara's 
true character is revealed and how Nyasha is chosen to marry the king because of  her gentleness and honesty. 

Note: This folktale  contained seventeen detailed full-page  colour illustrations of  all the significant  details of  the story. 

APPENDIX D 

Questionnaire for  Phase 1 

Please read this section and sign before  answering the questions. I understand: 
• What the study is about 
• That all my details will be kept confidential. 

Signed: 

1. What did you like about the story? 
2. What didn't you like about the story? 
3. Was the story about what you expected? 
4. What surprised you about the story? 
5. What did this story show you about people? 
6. What did the story make you think about? 
7a. How did the story make you feel?  (For example: bored, sad, happy, confused,  irritated, curious angry) 
7b. Why? 
8a. Would you tell your friends  to read this story? 
8b. Why 
9a. Was there anything that you did not understand? 
9b. What was it? 

APPENDIX Ε | 

Focus Group Interview Schedule 

• Tell me what you thought of  the folktales? 
® How would you feel  about reading other stories like this? 
« If  all the stories had been fun  or enjoyable, which one best showed you about another culture? 
• In what ways were the people in the stories just like you/different  from  you/your family/friends? 
• How did you feel  about a story when you thought that the people in the story were very different  from  you? 
® How did you feel  about the story when it was about a boy? 
® How did you feel  about the story when it was about a girl? 
• How have the folktales  changed your ideas about how people from  other countries/race groups/ cultures could be different  from 

you? 
3 · I n what ways did the stories make you think about how people are different  or about how people are the same? 

• How. did the stories show you that people from  another culture can have problems just like you? 
• Would you like to read more books about people who are the same as you or people who are different  from  you, or both? 
® In what ways did the stories remind you of  your own family/school/friends/home? 
β What sort of  books do you think should be in the library? What sorts of  books don't we have enough of?  / 
• In which/what ways have your experiences been similar to the experiences of  the people in the story 

Die Suid-Afrikaanse  Tydskrif  vir Kommunikasieafwykings,  Vol.  52, 2005 

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(Ed.),Handbookofclinicalaudiology  (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Wil-
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