Language Intervention at Schools: Changing Orientations w i t h i n the S.A. context 9 Language Intervention at Schools: Changing Orientations within the South African context Erna Alant, D Phil (Pretoria) Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology, University of Pretoria ABSTRACT The role of the speech therapist in the school has changed drastically over the last decade. The reasons for these changes originate from a grow- ing realisation of the importance of contextualising intervention within a particular community. This article aims at providing an analysis of the present school population in South Africa with specific reference to the Black schools as a basis for discussion on the role of the speech and language therapist within this context. The problems of second language learning and teaching are highlighted and the role of the language therapist as a consultant within the Black school system is emphasized. OPSOMMING Die rol van die spraak- en taalterapeut binne die skoolkonteks het die afgelope dekade drastiese veranderinge ondergaan. Die redes vir hier- die veranderinge spruit uit 'n groeiende bewuswording van die belangrikheid van die kontekstualisering van intervensie binne 'n be- paalde gemeenskap. Hierdie artikel poogom 'n analisetemaakvan diehuidigeskoolbevolkingvan Suid-Afrika met spesifiekeverwysingna die swart skole as basis vir bespreking van die rol van die spraak- en taalterapeut binne hierdie konteks. Die probleme van tweedetaalonderrig en -leer asook die rol van die taalterapeut as konsultant binne die swart skoolsisteem word beklemtoon. The role of the speech and language therapist in language remediation has changed drastically over the last decade. These changes are evident in diagnostic and therapeutic inter- vention and can be seen as,an outcome of the paradigm shift from a traditional medical model of service where the therapist was mainly involved in individual therapy, to a functional or Consultative model where the therapist is more involved in the facilitation of the individual's communication within specific functional contexts (Marvin, 1987). The n e w pragmatic ap- proach (Gallagher et al. 1983) with the strong emphasis on the functionality of language and interaction has forced the thera- pist to move out of the therapy room and into the classroom or every day environment, as the following quotation illustrates: "We cannot expect to be employed by a school if we only pro- vide limited services within a medical model." (Simon, 1987:41.) Apart from a n e w theoretical or philosophical orientation, focus on the functionality of language brought with it many more issues that confront the language pathologist. For exam- ple, if the aim of language intervention is to improve general communicative competence by alleviating language patho- logy, what exactly is meant by communicative competence and language pathology? Firstly, the therapist has to consider the dynamic nature of the concept of'communicative competence'. A functional orienta- tion towards therapy implies that the therapist has to consider the social context within which individuals interact. She has to be aware of the use of language in different contexts in order to plan relevant intervention goals. Being aware of the norms of the broader society (or ruling class) as well as the immediate environment of the individual therefore forms the basis of intervention. The therapist can work in a variety of contexts (daily living, the home and work environment, or the academic context), which pressupposes a thorough understanding of communication skills required within these contexts. Effec- tive intervention thus necessitates a sound understanding of the interrelationship between the individual and the society, and the specific contexts within which he functions. Only by acknowledging the dynamic nature of society can the concept of communication competence be operationalized. Secondly, much emphasis has been placed on sensitising the- rapists to the difference between language pathology (devian- ce) and language difference within varied linguistic contexts in order to prevent misdiagnosis of language pathology. Once again, this implies an active understanding of the linguistic contexts within which nonstandard language variations are used, the cultural implications as well as the problems involv- ed in communicating within the broader societal context. Therapists have to be sensitized to work with both bidialecti- cal and bilingual language situations in an attempt not only to diagnose, but also to plan effective and relevant interven- tion. Although basic to the work of the language pathologist, the issue of what constitutes communicative competence and pa- thology remains complex and difficult to deal with, especially within the South African context. This article aims to describe some of the broader communication needs within the educa- tional system in South Africa in order to facilitate the restruc- Die Suid-Afikaanse Tydskrif vir Kmmunikasiafykins, Vol. 36, 1989 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 10 Erna Alant turing and reformulation of the role of the language therapist within this context. One of the major difficulties confronting any profession is the need for continuous adaptation of training in order to ensure the creation of relevant skills in the context of a changing society (Adler, 1988; Uys, 1985). It is therefore difficult to de- scribe the role of the speech and language pathologist without some reference to the context within which these professio- nals have to function. One of the more controversial issues in the American litera- ture in the last decade, has been the involvement of the speech and language therapist in dealing with children who speak nonstandard languages. This problem did not only lead to much critical evaluation and discussion on the effectiveness of evaluation and therapeutic procedures (Taylor, 1986; Vaughn- Cooke, 1986), but also highlighted the language needs of these children. In this regard, ASHA (1983) stated that "Speech- language pathologists may also be available to provide elective clinical service to nonstandard language speakers who do not present a disorder." Sol Adler (1985), however, describes the approach taken by ASHA as a "do nothing" or laissez-faire strategy that is totally unacceptable as he believes that the therapist should be involved in the facilitation of bidialectism within the school context. The urgency of this appeal stems from the many research studies (Edwards, 1979; Taylor, 1986) which confirm the disadvantaged position of these children when entering the school context. This disadvantage also extends to the employment situation when the children are not able to familiarize themselves adequately with the standard language used within a particular society (Edwards, 1979; Terrell et al. 1983). An equally important assertion by Adler (1985) in answer to the position paper of ASHA (1983) is that the focus on the linguistic aspects of bidialectism and bilingualism detracts from the importance of a sound cultural understanding when working within any communication context. Many authors stress the interrelationship between communicative com- petence in language and understanding of the social context within which that language functions, which supports the issues raised by Adler in this regard (e.g. Chick, 1987; Trudgill, 1987). To become a bidialectical or bilingual speaker involves much more than learning the rules of a particular language. Various authors (Taylor, 1986; Westby and Rouse, 1985) in the field of bilingual education have stressed the importance of cultural education in an attempt to enhance bilingualism. For example, the importance of the cultural context in evalua- tion and remediation is highlighted by Taylor (1986:1 1) in the following statement "... the study of normal and pathological communication must be couched ifi cultural terms. To do otherwise is to run the risk of making claims and judgements about the communicative behaviours of a given group of speakers from an inappropriate or, even worse, an ethnocen- tric set of assumptions and norms." T H E ROLE OF THE SCHOOL THERAPIST WITHIN AN AMERICAN CONTEXT It may be useful in attempting to find our bearings in the South African situation to examine the role of the school therapist in the United States. Sensitivity to the social context within which the child func- tions demands that the role of the therapist has to be dynamic in order to comply with the orientations and pressures expe- rienced within a particular school context (Marvin, 1987). Simon (1987:41) elaborates on this point by stating that "... most change is the result of economic factors. When school dis- tricts find they are using 26% of the budget to service 10% of the school population, current practices are scrutinized." It is therefore important that the therapist critically evaluates her own role in the school context and improves her account- ability by identifying the most pressing needs of the children in the school and developing the most effective methods for reaching the largest number of children. Recent awareness of the therapist's role in nonstandard lan- guage as well as the learning disabled contexts stems from a growing realisation of the important role of language within the learning process. The realisation that many students are not successful learners and that there are obvious differences in how children from different social, ethnic and linguistic backgrounds experience the educational set-up contributed to the "rediscovery" of the role language proficiency plays in the educational process (Damico, 1987:17). At the same time, the unease many educators displayed when the topic of language- across-the curriculum was discussed highlighted the fact that "Few teachers have the academic background, practical expe- rience and professional freedom to address language-related issues by themselves. Consequently language issues are over- looked and children with language differences suffer a variety of abuses within the educational system." (Damico, 1987:17.) According to Damico (1987) the most likely professional to confront the concerns, abuses and other language related issues in the school is the speech and language pathologist. He emphasizes that the role of the language therapist should be that of a "language specialist" and she should have the flex- ibility to interact with students and teachers without being tied to a caseload or schedule. This role would involve that the therapist be available to the rest of the school as a consultant on problems relating to language and its impact on classroom activities, testing procedures, culturally diverse populations and other issues. This consultancy would not only involve dis- cussing individual children with the class teacher, but helping to facilitate the student's mastering of the demands made by the school, particularly with regard to the medium of instruct tion or standard language. "No matter what activities are targetted, language is the delivery medium of instruction. U n | less students understand the language, they will not benefit from the instruction." (Comkowycz et al. 1987.) ' j ι To facilitate the interaction of the child in the classroom there-1 fore necessitates a closer look at the cultural context and' mother-tongue of the children involved, to ensure that inter- vention is relevant. It is against this background that the educational context with- in which the speech and language therapist has to work within South Africa will be discussed. The emphasis in the article is on mainstream education although the same issues apply to the special education context. ' T H E EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT IN SOUTH AFRICA In order to provide some basis from which the speech and language therapist's role in the educational process in South Africa can be evaluated,a description of the school context is The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 36, 1989 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) Language Intervention at Schools: Changing Orientations w i t h i n the S.A. context 11 essential. This will be done by looking at three different aspects: A description of all the children at school in South Africa during 1988 according to their race in order to get an overall view of the school population. A description of the different languages used by staff and students in the Black Schools in 1987. A description of the language used most frequently as the medium of instruction in Black schools in 1987. Figure 1: Pupils to population group for 1 9 8 8 including self-governing states *Data obtained from Dept of National Education (NATED 02-214) Table 1: Mother-tongue language used by students and staff in primary schools in DET for 1 9 8 7 * LANGUAGE ! STUDENTS STAFF Zulu 1 395 090 27 675 / N Sotho 649 263 16 633 S Sotho 386 547 9 503 Xhosa 365 644 9 459 Tsongo 286 604 6 485 Tswana 215 869 6 576 Swazi 183 992 4 444 S Ndebele ι 102 683 374 Ν Ndebele | 33 531 2 091 Venda \ 14 316 328 English/Afrikaans & Other · 124 * Data obtained from DET Annual Report (1987) From figure 1 it is clear that the majority of the school-going population in South Africa (70,00%) is Black, with white children accounting for only 14,41% of the overall population. This paper will therefore concentrate only on this majority group in order to highlight specific issues. One of the major issues in the Black school context relates to the different languages used as mother-tongues within this population. Table 1 gives some indication of the number of students speaking a particular mother-tongue. It is clear from this table that the diversity of languages poses a problem in terms of which language should be used as the medium of instruction within Black schools. The major argu- ments for and against mother-tongue education will not be discussed here, but the reader can consult Reagari (1986) for a summary of the debate. For the purpose of this article it will suffice to quote from the Department of Education and Train- ing's annual report for 1987 in relation to their policy as regards the medium of instruction (DET Annual Report 1987:51.) "From Substandard A up to the end of Standard 2, the medium of instruction is the pupil's mother-tongue. In Substandard Β the teaching of one of the official languages is introduced: that is Afrikaans or English, according to the parent's choice. The teaching of whichever official language was not chosen in Sub- standard Β commences in Standard 1. As from Standard 3 the medium of instruction is the mother-tongue or one of the two official languages, as decided by the governing body of the school. Special attention is given to the official language which serves as medium of instruction. Increasingly, the teaching of this language will "cut across the complete curriculum", so that the language becomes an effective medium of instruction. Irrespective of the language being used as the medium of instruction, the mother-tongue and the second official lan- guage are offered as subjects." From this passage, it becomes clear that firstly the second language that will become the medium for instruction of the school is introduced after one year of schooling (Sub B) and is used across the curriculum after three years of exposure to this language. Secondly, the mother-tongue is continued in the form of a subject in the school curriculum. Apart from an ack- nowledgement and acceptance of the child's home language, this could reflect a sensitivity in the system towards the "inter- dependency principle" (Kessler, 1984; Mcdonald, 1988) which stresses the importance of the development of the first language for the acquisition of the second language. From table 1 it is also clear that a very small percentage of teachers in the DET are mother-tongue speakers of English with the majority speaking Zulu as their home language. Figure 2 provides a clear picture of the languages used as medium of instruction in primary schools. Figure 2: Enrolment according to medium of instruction in primary schools in DET for 1 9 8 7 * * Data obtained from DET Annual Report (1987) Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasicafivykinys, Vol. 36, 1989 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 12 Erna Alant It is clear that English is the language most commonly used as the medium of instruction, followed by relatively small per- centages of a range of other languages. In addition all secon- dary schools (with only few exceptions) also use English as the medium of instruction. In this regard, Johanson (1988) states from observation of students at the University of Bophuthatswana that English was widely used, and that only 27% of student communication recorded took place in the mother-tongue. The mother-tongue was mainly used in communication with parents and elderly people, and in community gatherings, churches and courts. In its pure form, the mother-tongue is very seldom used. Instead mainly a mixture of languages is used in daily interaction. She concludes that English plays an important, but essentially academic role, and is a lingua franca among the educated and sophisticated. "Its importance cannot be questioned, but it is by no means a language of the masses:" (Johanson, 1988:2.) Obviously, any generalization is problematic, but it seems reasonable to conclude that the urban areas would be less mother-tongue orientated than the rural areas. The implication of these observations is that one can assume a great difference in linguistic background between home and school environments, a factor which contributes to a restricted use of English outside of the academic context. The medium of instruction therefore is (for most of the children) learned and acquired within the school environment, with very little sup- port for the use of English in the actual community (Alant, 1988; Mawasha 1986). T H E ROLE OF T H E SPEECH AND LANGUAGE THERA- PIST IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS A number of important points flow from the above analy- sis: At least 70% of the total school population (excluding Coloured, Asian and white children speaking a nonstan- dard language) come from cultural and linguistic contexts which are different from the standard language or pre- vailing standard English used in South Africa. Due to various considerations (Reagan, 1986) it is impor- tant for these students to obtain entrance into the stan- dard English or ruling-class cultural context to facilitate the acquisition of communicative competence within the content. Teachers at Black schools are mostly teaching in their second language and have limited communicative com- petency in standard English which not only inhibits and limits teaching, but also causes a high level of frustra- tion. Various authors have also suggested a strong relationship be- tween the above issues and the generally poor performance of students at school (Odendaal, 1985; HSRC Report 1986). When looking at the overall educational set-up in South Africa it is clear that therapists should be involved within this context of second language teaching particularly as regards the pre- vention of learning problems at schools. The mere fact that far more than half of the children in schools have to study through a second or third language with only limited support from their own environments accentuates the problems that arise from the language issue within the school context (Lewis, 1988). Under the circumstances, what should the involvement of the language therapist be? Traditionally the therapist's primary involvement is with the identification and remediation of communication pathology particularly as this pertains to mother-tongue interaction problems. The underlying philo- sophy of intervention centers around the individual's basic ability to make contact with people in his immediate environ- ment. Obviously the importance of mother-tongue proficiency cannot be underestimated, particularly also in view of its importance for second dialect or second language learning. At the same time, the emphasis on functional communication and the acknowledgement that different situations or contexts require different communication skills necessitates that the therapist has a better understanding of the communication demands in specific contexts. The issue centers around the relevance of facilitating communication skills (e.g. mother- tongue) in limited contexts only, thus ignoring interactional difficulties and learning problems the individual might en- counter in the broader community. This involvement does not, however, imply that the therapist should become a lan- guage teacher. Various writers have expressed the opinion that the therapist is not a teacher and that she can therefore not be held respons- ible for the actual teaching of a second language (Taylor, 1986; Yoder 1970). As therapists have no background in teaching, this argument is valid. Of critical importance to the therapist, however, is the student's competency in the language used as medium of instruction in schools, as this is a prime factor in the development of learning problems. In order to prevent as well as remediate language learning problems at school, the thera- pist has to be involved in the design and planning of language programmes within the school context. To expect the teacher to take full responsibility for the planning of language pro- grammes and the execution of such programmes seems unrea- listic, not only because of the complexity of the phenomenon of second language learning, but also because of the teachers' own lack of proficiency in English, the medium of instruction in the majority of schools (Mawasha, 1986). Damico's asser- tion that the language pathologist seems to be the most approp- riate person to confront the concerns, abuses and other lan- guage related issues in the school seems relevant in that the language pathologist has the linguistic background and the sensitivity towards communication contexts to support arid advise the teacher on strategies and methods that might facili- tate language performance (Damico, 1987.) j The therapist's role as languag^ consultant within the school context should therefore be emphasized. She has to aid in the planning and execution of in-service training programmes for teachers and although not responsible for the teaching of a second language, should participate extensively in helping teachers to facilitate interaction in the classroom by demon- strating certain communication skills and strategies. The the- rapist should therefore be available to teachers as a language specialist as Damico (1987) suggests. The implication of the above for the training of speech and language therapists within South Africa is self-explanatory. Firstly, students need a firm grounding not only in the deve- lopment of the mother-tongues, but also in the development of second language skills. Obviously, the emphasis oh the deve- lopment and remediation of the mother-tongue is of prime importance in providing an adequate basis for general interac- tion skills. The fact that over 70 per cent of children in South The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 36, 1989 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) Language Intervention at Schools: Changing Orientations w i t h i n the S.A. context 13 Africa s t u d y by m e a n s of a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e n e g a t e s t h e possi- bility t h a t t h e r a p i s t s c a n r e g a r d t r a i n i n g in s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d skills as a n 'elective' ( A S H A 1983). T h e t r a i n i n g of s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e t h e r a p i s t s i n S o u t h Africa h a s b e e n closely l i n k e d t o t h e A m e r i c a n m o d e l . H o w e v e r , in t h e l a s t decade, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e s t r e s s o n c o m m u n i t y w o r k ( A r o n , 1 9 8 7 ) a n d c o n s u l t a t i o n (Uys, 1 9 8 5 ) t h e r e h a v e b e e n definite a t t e m p t s at c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g t h e profession in o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e its r e l e v a n c e t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . T h e s e a t t e m p t s c a n o n l y be w e l c o m e d , as t h e y reflect a d y n a m i c m o v e m e n t w h i c h is vital in t h e g r o w t h p r o c e s s of a n y profes- sion. O n l y by o n - g o i n g self-evaluation a n d d i s c u s s i o n c a n t h e " e l i t i s m " w h i c h often c h a r a c t e r i z e s p r o f e s s i o n s in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s be r e d u c e d i n o r d e r to b e c o m e m o r e r e l e v a n t to t h e p e o p l e m o s t in n e e d of i n t e r v e n t i o n . R E F E R E N C E S Adler, S. Comment on social dialects. ASHA, 27, 4, 46-47, 1985. Adler, S. A new job description and a new task for the public school clinician. LSHSS, 19, 1, 28-33, 1988. Alant, E. The strengths and weaknesses of written English of Black high school pupils. Per Linguam, 4, 1, 16-23, 1988. Aron, M.L. Community-based rehabilitation for communication dis- orders. In W. Smith and S. Meyer (Eds.) SASHA National Con- ference Proceedings,"Wits: Johannesburg, 1987. ASHA Social dialects: a position paper. ASHA, 25, 9, 23-24, 1983. Chick, K. Interactional perspectives on communication needs of Zulu work seekers .Journal of Multilingual and Multicultu ral Develop- ment, 7, 6, 479-492, 1987. Comkowycz, S.M. Ehren, B.J. & Hayes, Ν.,Η. Meeting classroom needs of language disordered students in middle and junior high school: a program model.Journal of Childhood Communica- tion Disorders, 11, 1, 119-208, 1987. Damico, J.S. Addressing language concerns in the schools: the SLP as consultant. Journal of Childhood Commu nication Disorders, 11,1, 17-40, 1987. Department of Education and Training (DET): DET Annual Report for 1987, RP 65/1988, Pretoria: Government printer, 1988. Department of National Education: Preliminary Education Statistics for 1988. NATED 02-214 (88/07), Pretoria. Edwards, J.R. Language and Disadvantage. London: Edward Arnold, 1979. Gallagher, T.M. and Prutting, C.A. Pragmatic assessment and interven- tion issues in langu age.CaYifornia: College-Hill press, 1983. HSRC-Report. The role of language in Black education. Pretoria: HSRC, 1986. Johanson, L. In search for the common tongue- necessity or dream? Mathlasedi, 7, 1/2, 7-8, 1988. Kessler, C. Language acquisition in bilingual children. In N. Miller (Ed.) Bilinguatism and language disability. San Diego: College- Hill, 1984. Lewis, R. Memorandum on language-learning deficit in Katlehong Township. Communiphon, Sept/Oct, 285, 20-21, 1988. Marvin, C. A. Consultation services: Changing roles for the SLP's. Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders, 11, 1, 1-15, 1987 Mawasha, A. L. Medium of instruction in Black Education in South- ern Africa. HSRC-report: The Role of Language in Black Educa- tion. Pretoria: HSRC, 1986. Mcdonald, C.A. Primary English school curriculum- on the threshold of radical change. Mathlasedi, 7, 1/2, 18-19,1988. Odendaal, M.S. Needs analysis of higher primary teachers in Kwa- zulu. Per Linguam, Special issue, 1985. Reagan, T. The role of language policy in South African Education. Language problems and language planning, 10, 1, 1-13, 1986. Simon, C.S. Out of the broom closet and into the classroom: the emerg- ing SLP .Journal of Childhood Communication Disorders, 11, 1, 41-66, 1987. Taylor, O. Treatment of communication disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse populations. San Diego: College Hill Press, 1986. Terrell, S.L. and Terrell, F. Effects of speaking Black English upon employment opportunities. ASHA, 25, 6, 27, 1983. Trudgill, Ρ Accent, dialect and the school. London: Edward Arnold, 1987. Vaughn-Cooke, F.B. The challenge of assessing the language of non- mainstream speakers. In O. Taylor (Ed.) Treatment of com- munication disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse popu- lations. San Diego: College Hill, 1986. Uys, I.C. 'n Mede-konsultasie model vir spraak- en gehoorterapie in die RSA. In I.S. Hay en I.C. Uys (Eds.) Taalverskeidenheid en taalpatologie. Pretoria: Universiteit van Pretoria, 1985. Westby, C.E. and Rouse, R. Culture in education and the instruction of language learning-disabled students. Topics in Language Disor- ders, 5, 4, 15-28, 1985. Yoder, D. Some viewpoints of the speech, hearing and language clini- cian. In F. Williams (Ed.) Language and Poverty. Chicago: Mark- ham, 1970. i 1 V X E D I F I X H e a r i n g S y s t e m C o . CAPE P . O . B o x 5 2 L y n e d o c h NATAL P.O. 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