15 Assessment of Speech Intelligibility in Five South-Eastern Bantu Languages: Critical ^ Considerations Marlene Carno Jacobson, Ph.D (Witwatersrand) Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Anthony Traill, Ph.D (Witwatersrand) Department of Linguistics, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg abstract This paper examines criteria underlying the development of tasks and materials for the measurement of speech intelligibility in five South- EasternBantu languages. The chief considerations include utterance length, word familiarity and structure, and phonetic balance. It is established that the foundation research necessary for devising materials in South-Eastern Bantu languages on the same basis as those of Fnelish has not yet been conducted. Salient properties of the relevant African languages include multilingualism, dialectal variation, vocabulary differences between rural and urban speakers of the same language, borrowed words, the simple vowel systems, the fairly elaborate consonant systems prosodic features, certail syllable structure characteristics, and noun morphology. A rationale for the use of two measures of intelligibility is presented, while the need to adapt many criteria characterising English materials is demonstrated. OPSOMMING . Hierdie referaat ondersoek die kriteria wat onderliggend is aan die ontwikkeling van take en materiaal vir die meting van spraakverstaan- baarheid in vyf Suid-Oosterlike Bantoe tale. Die hoofoorwegings sluit lengte van uiting, woordbekendheid en -struktuur. en fonetiese batons in. Dit is bevestigdat die basiese navorsing wat benodig is vir die saamstel van materiaal in Suid-Oostelike Bantoe-tale nog nie op dieselfde basisas Eneels eedoen is nie Opvallende kenmerke van die relevante Afrika-tale is veeltaligheid, dialektiese variasies, verskille in woordeskat tussen landelike en stedelike gebruikers van dieselfde taal, leenwoorde, die eenvoudige vokaalsisteme, die betreklik uitgebreide konsonantsisteme, nrosodiese kenmerke, sekere eienskappe van lettergreepstrukture, en naamwoordmorfologie. 'n Rasionaal vir die gebruik van twee verstaan- baarheidsmetings is aangebied en die noodsaak om kenmerkende kriteria vir Engelse materiaal aan te pas, word ook uitgewys. The present paper explores the range of issues confronted on undertaking research which sought to measure the speech intelli- gibility levels of a series of surgically-treated oral cancer patients each of whom spoke one of five South-Eastern Bantu languages (viz. Jacobson, 1986). The problem was approached by critically "dissecting" the notion of intelligibility in an effort to extract salient properties and, thereafter, by extrapolating applicable criteria of intelligibility measures to the set of phonetico-linguistic conditions characterising these languages. As such, the major concerns underlying speech intelligibility in the present paper are two-fold. The reconciliation of these two aspects forms the rationale for the choice of designated measures of intelligibility, and is represented in the materials themselves. I Nine members of the South-Eastern Bantu family of African languages are recognised and have developed as educational media and literary languages in South Africa (South Africa, 1985): | 1. Nguni languages: Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele, among a total of twelve Nguni languages. 2. Sotho languages: Southern Sotho, Northern Sotho and Tswana, among a total of eleven Sotho languages. 3. Tsonga. 4. Venda. The present paper happens to deal with the Nguni and Sotho groups of indigenous languages, each of which is sub-divided to form dialect clusters. It was coincidental that the languages spoken by the randomly selected subjects of the study reflect the five most frequently spoken Bantu languages in South Africa, namely, Zulu, Xhosa, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, and Tswana. In view of the number of dialects, some of which are poorly known, certain dialects have been raised to standard forms by taking into account various factors, such as the prominence of a Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 33, 1986 leader, or tribe size (Ziervogel, Louw, Ferreira, Baumbach & Lombard, 1967). A second major feature of this group of languages is the profound multilingual situation which character- ises speakers of the Bantu languages of South Africa. No materials appear to have been published previously in the rele- vant African languages for the specific purpose of measuring intelligibility. Speech discrimination word lists used in audiology (e.g. Baragwanath Hospital, 1977) and phonetic inventories (e.g. Hillbrow Hospital, 1981) did not meet those requirements deemed fundamental to the study concerned, namely, clear evi- dence of the formulation of a set of criteria for item selection, taking into account previous research on intelligibility. Speech intelligibility is the property of speech communication involving meaning, and is the quality or state of being compre- hended or understood. A signal is intelligible to a listener, and for a speech signal to have intelligibility, both a speaker and a listener must be involved (Lehiste & Peterson, 1959). Hence, because both speech production and speech perception are involved, distinctly more complexity is implied than is suggested by the use of superficially related terminology, such as articulation, recognis- ability, identifiability, and discriminability, which do not neces- sarily pertain to speech communication, consider meaning, or take full account of the listener. Numerous factors determine this "communicative effectiveness". In the main, these are the social context, message content, the stimulus signal and the medium used for signal transmission, the speaker and his speech mechanism, and the characteristics of the listener. Speech intelligibility is employed by numerous disciplines (e.g. speech pathology, audiology, and acoustical engineering), each of which places differential emphasis on these major ele- ments of the communication process. In the research on which this paper is based, the emphasis was on speaker characteristics with an attempt being made to control all other parameters as closely as possible, so that non-speaker parameters could serve © SASHA 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 16 • II thic naner seeks to determine l a r g e l y as constants^ Es^ntially^ thus ̂ ^ ^ intelligibility in a optimal message content in oraer valid fashion. . Λΐηο feature of speech inteUigibility is its performance ^ ^ ^ Υ 0 * Γ a „ d " y m a n 1981). As such, it supersedes several related criteria and models' which capture a more limited scope. These include qualitative, perceptually-based tools used for differential diag- nosis (e.g. Darley, Aronson & Brown, 1975), the evaluation of individual components of speech production, such as defective articulation (e.g. Prather, 1960), phonation, or resonance, and models which systematically evaluate the anatomical or physio- logical locus of disturbance along the vocal tract, such as the "point-place system" of Rosenbek and LaPointe (1978). The inclusive nature of the concept of intelligibility is further exemplified by its pertinence to different speech-disordered groups (e.g. the cerebral palsied, alaryngeal speakers, cases of congenital orofacial malformations, among numerous others), despite the varying nature of the pathological elements of the speech production process. The concept of intelligibility is there- fore sufficiently flexible to house a range of speech production variables, varying in combination and degree. It is thereby possible for each clinical population to bring to research its asso- ciated symptomatological milieu and still be investigated under the broad umbrella of intelligibility. The potential information offered by intelligibility data is diverse, depending on both task selection and on the level of analysis undertaken: the more detailed the analysis, the richer and more versatile the applications of the data. In the literature, the analysis and presentation of intelligibility data assume a variety of forms: 1. Simple percentages of intelligibility reflecting the number of discrete units perceived correctly. 2. Analysis of perception-production confusions to form matrices (e.g. Nichols, 1976). 3. Analysis of the distance between produced and perceived phonemes (in words) in terms of distinctive features: manner, place or voicing differences. 4. Breakdown into analysis of vowel and consonant intelligibility, once the basic word intelligibility scores have been computed. 5. The determination of the patholect for a particular clinical population, or the pattern of phonemic confusions for a particular clinical group. 6. Combination of inteUigibility measures with other measures such as speech rate, for example "Intelligible Words per Minute" (IWPM) and "Unintelligible Words per Minute" (UWPM) — Yorkston and Beukelman (1981). 7. Description of auditory or perceptual characteristics of the speech. 8. Development of a classification system for recognition of different groups demonstrating a particular speech disorder. 9. Development of an intelligibility measure which reflects severity of involvement such as Shriberg and Kwiatkowski's (1982) Percentage Consonants Correct (PCC), which is, however, defined as "a measure of articulatory proficiency". Methods of assessment of surgically-treated oral cancer patients apparently sample the range of procedures generally employed in the examination of intelligibility in English-speaking pathological populations. The range of methods described in current and older research is extensive. However, whereas older research glosses informally through accounts of intelligibility, current research appears to aim at greater qualitative and quantitative specificity, Marlene Carno Jacobson and Anthony Traill with certain intelligibility materials even being designed for particular clinical populations and the ranges of severity within them. Standardised word lists frequently constitute the materials of speech intelligibility assessment, e.g. the CID W.22 phonetically balanced (PB) word lists (Hirsh, Davis, Silverman, Reynolds, Eldert & Benson, 1952), as employed in numerous studies (e.g. Skelly, 1973); the Consonant-Syllable Nucleus-Consonant words (Lehiste and Peterson, 1959), as selected and adapted by Tikofsky (1970), for example, for use with dysarthrics; the Fairbanks (1958) test of Phonemic Differentiation (a "Rhyme" Test), as used by Kipfmueller and Prins (1971), for example; the word lists of Black (1957), as used by Yorkston and Beukelman (1981), for example; and Moses' (1969) monosyllabic word lists (as cited by Nichols, 1976). Standardised sentence materials (e.g. the CID "Everyday Sentences") have also been utilised in examining the construct and criterion validity of various intelligibility procedures (Schiavetti, Metz and Sitler, 1981). Finally, standardised phonetically balanced passages of reading, such as "My Grandfather", "The Rainbow Passage" and "Arthur the Rat", (Fairbanks, 1960), have been employed as elicitation material for intelligibility measurement (e.g. Piatt, Andrews, Young and Neilson, 1978). However, the use of read material introduces a prerequisite of patient literacy, which was inappro- priate in the research concerned. A further batch of materials includes those designed for specific clinical populations, such as the glossal and labial word lists for surgically-treated oral cancer patients (e.g. Skelly, 1973). In contrast, other research methods are individualistic from the viewpoint of the researcher, for example, the use of read sentences from early reading books in the case of deaf school-leavers (Kyle, Conrad, McKenzie, Morris & Weiskrantz, 1978), picture description (Markides, 1978), and spontaneous speech samples (Weiss, 1978, cited by Schmidt, 1984). Under the latter circumstances, the properties of the spoken material are clearly far less stringently controlled. As mentioned above, no similar spectrum of formalised materials exists in the languages under consideration. Nonetheless, within the above range, certain themes and issues pertaining to the choice and characteristics of materials recur with remarkable regularity, thereby illustrating the origins of useful criteria for devising appropriate intelligibility measures. These may be categorised in terms of three key components: i A. The composition of speech materials, which takes into account the message to be communicated, its length, complexity,! and spontaneity. I B. The form of response required of the listener, in order that he may register his reaction to or understanding of the message, either by written or spoken means. C. The choice of general procedural characteristics influencing the reliability and validity of the assessment, such as the manner in which stimuli are presented, and the selection of judges. The first component, the composition of spoken materials, is the chief area of interest in the present paper. The second component extends beyond the focus selected for the present discussion. Only isolated aspects of the third component are relevant here: irrespective of the nature of the materials that are selected, or the manner in which the listener responds to the signal, the mass of methodological details pertaining to stimulus presentation and listener characteristics is largely independent of the language of the speaker and thus warrants routine consideration. Such factors The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 33, 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) A s s e s s m e n t of Speech Intelligibility in Five South-Eastern Bantu Languages: Critical Considerations 17 include the decision to pre-record the speech stimuli or to present hese live whether to use the same stimuli repeatedly, the selection of suitable carrier phrases, and details of judge selection and training. Certain aspects of judge selection are, however, incorpo- rated in the discussion below. Furthermore, this review proceeds from overriding linguistic properties of the five languages, largely of a general, sociolinguis- tic nature — with implications at a semantic level, and progresses towards the enumeration of more specific, phonetic, phonological and morphological characteristics. All of these considerations affect the choice of individual word items. KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN DEVISING APPROPRIATE MATERIALS A. COMPOSITION OF SPEECH MATERIALS 1. UTTERANCE LENGTH While single words regularly form the basis of speech intelligibility scores, researchers frequently comment that single- word performance does not permit the evaluation of several critical parameters of speech, such as the effects of juncture, rhythm and stress patterns, and rate control (e.g. Griggs, 1958). Furthermore, the addition of context requires less fine discriminations of the listener (Miller, Heise & Lichten, 1951). As such, there appears to be a demand for the development of formal materials suitable for studying the intelligibility of connected speech and its intrinsic prosodic properties. Towards meeting this need, Schiavetti, Sitler, Metz and Houde (1983) recently estab- lished two formulae for calculating contextual speech intelligibili- ty on the basis of single-word intelligibility scores. In spite of the above-mentioned criticism, Nichols (1976) reports that excellent correlations exist between PB scores and sentence intelligibility scores for esophageal speakers: " . . . hence, word intelligibility measures may be used as estimates of connected speech abilities with confidence". Hodson and Paden (1982) cite research with phonologically-impaired children demonstrating that essentially the same processes were revealed by single-word elicitation procedures as by both delayed sentence imitations, and by connected speech samples. This work therefore plays down, to some extent, the presumed effects of utterance length. Yorkston and Beukelman (1978) support the above findings noting that mean intelligibility scores for sentences were not different from scores derived from single-word tests. However, for transcription tasks, there was an interaction between severity and intelligibility score's on sentences versus words, that is, the most intelligible speakers tended to score higher jon sentence transcriptions, while the least intelligible speakers received higher scores on single words. The same researchers also found that various measure- ment techniques, including bojth sentences and single words, tended to rank speakers similarly. Beukelman and Yorkston (1979) confirmed the close relationship between both single-word and sentence intelligibility, and the amount of information transferred between a speaker and a listener. Interestingly enough, Piatt, Andrews, Young an/ - III I - 111*1 - 11 hi - 1*111 - /1//8/- /,]*///- 11. VOWELS /a/ It I /e/ m h! lol /u/ voiceless dental aspirated dental nasalised dental delayed voice dental fully voiced denta] preceding naaal+volceless voiceless alveopalatal aspirated alveopalatal nasaliaed alveopalatal delayed voice alveopalatal fully voiced alveopalatal preceding nasal+voiceless voiceless lateral aspirated lateral delayed voice lateral nasalised lateral fully voiced lateral preceding nasal+voiceless GLOTTALS Ihl - voiceless fricative - voiced fricative Table 1 contains the phonemic inventories of Zulu, Xhosa, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho and Tswana, based on the works of Brown (1971), Cole (1955), Doke (1931), Doke and Mofokeng (1957), Jordan (1966), Khumalo (1981), Mabille and Dieterlen (1961), Ziervogel et al. (1967), Ziervogel, Louw and Taljaard (1981), and Ziervogel and Mokgokong (1975). These inventories are presented in order to identify the phonemic constituents of the South-Eastern Bantu languages and to informally observe differences from English. To capture subtle phonetic differences between ostensibly similar articulations belonging to different languages (e.g. / b / in Zulu as compared to the Sotho languages), finer phonetic specifications are incorpo- rated within the phonemic description (viz. / b / versus / b / : murmured versus voiced / b / ) . The purpose of depicting certain phonetic variants, comprising members of consonant clusters or nasal compounds; is that clusters are particularly complex and therefore most taxing phonetically — quite conceivably affecting intelligibility. For this reason they would add an additional dimension of complexity to intelligibility word lists. In Table 1 elements of clusters or nasal compounds are marked with a "C". 1 Dialectal variants are incorporated in Table 1 too, primarily to mark alternative correct productions which could be miscon- strued as errors, and for the sake of completeness. These are marked with a "D". In conducting a single-word intelligibility task, dialectal variation would need to be taken into account and should not incur penalty. For example, in Northern Sotho, the labio-alveolar fricative, /#e/ , may also be produced as /te/ , or / h / , or / f / )Ziervogel et al. 1967). Certain segments appear only within ideophones in the canonical forms cited above. An ideophone is an onomatopoeic word form with its own morphology, phonology and prosodic rules (Kunene, 1978). In view of these properties, the controversial definition of ideophones (Wilkes, 1978), and their frequent appearance within a particular grammatical structure, such as "ho re . . ." (Southern Sotho), from which it may be indivisible, it would seem unwise to consider ideophones as word items. This view would hold irrespective of whether an ideophone contained a required phoneme. The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 33, 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) A s e s s m e n t o f Speech Intelligibility in Five South-Eastern Bantu Languages: Critical Considerations 21 tensive range of consonants in each of the above languages ared to English, has implications for the length of word lists C ° Uwould be desirable to include all consonants more than once for reliability purposes. m D a r i s o n of the phonemes of Zulu, Xhosa, Southern Sotho, u r t h e r n Sotho and Tswana, reveals language-specific trends rTable 1)· the vast repertoire of clicks, voiced and voiceless f Lives Λ / and / y , and murmured forms o f / b / , / d / , and L are characteristic of Zulu and Xhosa. Xhosa also has an extended range of palatal phonemes, depicted orthographically as " t y " and "dy", and the ejected velar affricate A W . In addition any Zulu fricatives are pronounced as affricates in Xhosa, for example, "inhloko" is "intloko", and "insimu" is pronounced "intsimi". Particular to the Sotho group of languages are the alveolar trill, / r / the aspirated lateral stop, / t l h / , the voiced alveopalatal fricative, Μ , and the labio-palatal "double" phonemes (affricate-like, generally characterised by two virtually simul- taneous, non-adjacent places of articulation), /f S /, / , /pW, and / W · Members of the latter group tend to be dialectal in Tswana. Characteristic of Northern Sotho are the labio-alveolar phonemes, /to/, ,/ps·/ and fysW Tswana contains marked dialectal variation, which influences the production of alveolar and alveopalatal affricates, and also leads to the non-lingual voiceless fricative also being produced as either / ( / or / h / . All five languages display phonemic aspiration, ejection of conso- nants, and the palatal nasal phoneme, Μ . As a group these therefore show a variety of airstream mechanisms in speech: glottalic ingressive and egressive, velaric, as well as pulmonic airstream mechanisms. Where vowel phonemes are concerned, South-Eastern Bantu languages have five to seven pure vowels as a rule, no central vowels, and no diphthongs. The Nguni languages, Xhosa and Zulu, both have five basic vowel phonemes with one variant each of / e / and / o / , acting in complementary distribution as a result of adjacent vowel influence. The Sotho languages, Southern Sotho, Northern Sotho and Tswana, have seven basic vowels and four additional phonetic variants (Ziervogel et al. 1967). B. RESPONSE FORMATS j The formalised materials discussed above require that the listener's response consists of' repetition, transcription, written completion of a word with one letter, or completion of multiple- choice response formats. It would appear though that transcription or stimulus repetition serves as the closest means of reflecting the listener's actual perceptions. Although multiple- choice formats have excellent quantifiability and recognised usefulness, analysis of such tasks indicates that these may well test identifiability rather than intelligibility. The listener's "percep- tions" are structured to fit a particular framework and real perceptions may be ignored. Furthermore it has been demonstrated that multiple-choice response formats may be graded in difficulty by systematically altering the information provided to the judges, while keeping the stimulus constant (Yorkston & Beukelman, 1980). In this instance there is an inverse relationship between the number of selection options and inteUigibility (ibid.). The influential effects of various response formats with specified options suggest that these may contaminate the results of intelligibility tests and are best avoided. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 33, 1986 Where test materials comprise connected speech, rating scales are commonly used to capture gradations of speech intelligibility. These clearly demand a different type of subjectivity to that of the procedures described previously, in that they rely on appraisals rather than the listener's actual comprehension of speech. However, the appropriateness of different rating scales deserves judicious consideration to ensure the selection of valid indices of speech intelligibility (cf. Schiavetti, Metz & Sitler, 1981). Many of the issues concerning response formats are examined by Yorkston and Beukelman (1978). These researchers conclude that it may be beneficial to take advantage of the task hierarchy that apparently exists among quantification procedures, instead of relying on a single measurement technique to quantify speech across the entire performance range. However, this suggestion would appear more suited to clinical practice than research, as in the case of the latter, a standard methodology is necessarily implemented. THE NATURE OF REDUNDANCY The foregoing discussion reveals various factors which could increase the redundancy of the speech signal during intelligibility testing. These include the offer of options in identifying stimulus words, the use of linguistic context, the exclusive selection of singular verb imperatives, and an increase in the number of syllables per stimulus word (certainly for English). However, redundancy in a word inteUigibility task is an undesirable feature in that it meddles with the attempt to measure "absolute" inteUigibility. Meyerson, Johnson and Weitzman(1980)comment on the contribution of redundancy to the intelligibility glossectomees, reporting a 50 per cent discrepancy in intelligibility scores based on single words versus connected speech. In the present South-Eastern Bantu languages, there is likely to be some degree of redundancy in single words existing independently of that contained in connected speech, largely due to the multisyllabic, tonal nature of words in these languages. As such redundancy is potentially introduced at the word level in the form of semantic and grammatical tonal cues. These properties, in conjunction with fairly consistent syllable shapes and sequences, conceivably provide supplementary cues to single-word intelligi- bility stimuli. On a morphological level, furthermore, many single words in the Bantu languages are polymorphic, with all prefixes and some suffixes showing grammatical tone. In this regard, it is noteworthy that in Zulu, for example, noun prefixes are composed of only three vowels and seven consonants (Westphal, 1973). This limited range could possibly aid the listener's decision when the noun stem is doubtful. On the other hand, noun stems are so varied that it is uncertain whether the class prefix effectively contributes any redundancy to the speech signal, in spite of its tonal characteristics and phonetic composition. It would seem, nonetheless, that if grammatical tone does add redundancy to work items, this would operate in the case of nouns predominantly. In attempting to eliminate all the above-mentioned potential sources of redundancy in a word inteUigibility task, the syllable composition of the words would probably need to be restricted to being as short but as representative as possible, the noun class prefix would have to be limited to only one syllable, and the use of options in the response format would be rejected. CONCLUSION A detailed account has been presented of paramount considerations in resolving the issue of task and material selection R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 22 Marlene Carno Jacobson and Anthony Traill for the measurement of intelligibility in five South-Eastern Ban u languages. The final outcome of the effort to attain maximally vThd measures was therefore arrived at under the following restrictive circumstances: 1. t h e a b s e n c e o f a D e w e y - t y p e i n d e x o f r e l a t i v e p h o n e m e frequency; . 2. the absence of a Thorndike-Lorge-type index of word frequency for languages other than Southern Sotho; 3. the absence of standardised passages of reading; 4. the paucity of intelligibility materials for English-speaking glossectomees to act as guidelines for the development of materials in African languages. The decision was made to couple two complementary tasks: a single-word task, which may be viewed as a "molecular-intensive" or detailed analytical measure, while rating of a spontaneous speech task comprises a "molar-extensive" or global measure (Hollenbeck, 1978), and may be regarded as a "molar taxonomy", as it combines a "a number of features, actions, directions, and objects of behaviour" (Sackett, 1978: 25). This decision was determined by three factors which receive elaboration below: the specific research objectives, the emergency of two distinctive genres of intelligibility measures, and the limitations of any single measure of intelligibility in isolation. Firstly, in considering the purpose of the research, there was dual interest in "how well speech was understood", which indexes overall speech effectiveness, as well as in specific error patterns. It seems logical that there be an underlying commonality to both processes and one would predict that the number of errors relates closely to the understandability of contextual speech. However, two discrete tasks were deemed necessary: it could not be assumed that the percentage word intelligibility based on unstandardised materials would accurately parallel the level of spontaneous speech intelligibility; neither could it be assumed that a word list, assembled on the basis of strict criteria such as phoneme position and syllable structure, would reflect the properties of everyday speech and vocabulary. The use of spontaneous speech samples was therefore important for the criterion validation of an unstandardised work intelligibility task. Hence, a word intelligibility task incorporating the phonetico- phonological properties of the relevant language was desirable in that 1. phonemes could be included in a controlled and structured manner; 2. the lack of context normally provided by syntax would allow evaluation of each phoneme in a minimally redundant form; 3. a numerically specific index of the percentage of intelligible words could be computed; 4. words are the work-horse of intelligibility materials in English, and serve as highly accessible units of speech for a researcher who is not a fluent speaker of a foreign language. Similarly, a spontaneous speech task was desirable in that 1. ratings of performance on such a task could tackle the construct of speech intelligibility directly as everyday connected speech would be typified, providing a reasonable approximation of the normal communication process; 2. the task promotes the linguistic style and vocabulary of the subject and thereby captures a congruent communicative whole. Isolated words, in contrast, are in danger of falling peripheral to either the judge's or the subject's vocabulary, despite careful item selection. The particular method whereby spontaneous speech samples may be evaluated, constitutes a separate methodological decision which lies outside the scope of the present paper. The lists of single words in Zulu, Xhosa, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho and Tswana, appear in Appendixes 1-5. As far as possible, these were formulated and items selected according to the following criteria: 1. Vocabulary items should be familiar to both rural and urban speakers of the relevant language. 2. The word structure should be highly representative of the particular language in question. A scan of common vocabulary items in Nguni and Sotho languages, combined with the notion of shortest word having least redundancy, suggested that it was most appropriate to include bisyllables in the Sotho languages where the simplest uninfected nouns and verbs have a CVCV (nasal) structure, and trisyllables in the Nguni languages where nouns of a VCVCV structure pre- dominate because of the pre-prefix. Although CVCV verb imperatives are readily available in the Nguni languages, the final V is always / a / which acts to increase the redundancy of stimuli in that the final vowel is always given. 3. All consonant phonemes in each language should be included twice in the list, once as the first consonant in a word and secondly, in an intervocalic position. 4. Within the scope of these criteria, the number of items presented to the judges was restricted to as few as possible by eliminating the least satisfactory items. This represented an attempt to increase both reliability and validity. The least satisfactory items in the research were those of doubtful conversational familiarity. It was hoped that the remaining items would constitute sufficiently long tests and that these would be more reliable, comprehensive and valid than lists that would have been any shorter. 5. Rigorous balancing of vowel phonemes was not undertaken due to the stringency of primary requirements already mentioned. An attempt was made, however, to keep the frequency of different vowel phonemes equivalent within each word list. Secondly, the above exposition of intelligibility and related issues reveals two distinguishable categories of assessment methods: the first category, comprising formalised procedures, displays a certain stringency of both item selection (the maximal units of which are sentences), and procedural design (which facilitates quantification and error analysis). However, English procedures of this nature are at times of questionable validity, in terms of the definition of intelligibility provided earlier in this paper, as these could be more accurately regarded as exercises in stimulus discriminability. In the case of South-Eastern Bantu languages, materials of this nature could be formulated through the informal application of principles such as word familiarity, word length, and phonetic balance. | ι In contrast, less formalised procedures, in that either the material or the assessment procedure itself is irregular, perhaps represent more valid appraisals of intelligibility. These procedures generally have, as a minimal unit, the sentence, and usually consist of either read or spoken samples of connected speech. Hence, these demonstrate high face validity in representing overall speech behaviour, which is of prime interest. However, in this instance, the validity of the listener's task or tool of judgment may be questionable in relation to the construct of speech intelligibility. / These observations suggest that both formal and less formal procedures have merits and demerits, and probably represent complementary entities, which are most effective in unison. Thirdly, as demonstrated by English materials, although the above range of intelligibility measures and procedures is vast, in most cases, only a portion of overall speech performance is R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) A s s e s s m e n t of Speech Intelligibility in Five South-Eastern Bantu Languages: Critical Considerations 23 c a p t u r e d by a single measure, which furthermore, cannot be employed to describe performance across the entire severity range: as all measures have both a ceiling and a floor effect, these are sensitive to performance changes in only a limited range. These limitations underscore the strength of any single measure of intelligibility in research which is combined with at least one other intelligibility task, or the event of intelligibility comprising only one measure within a battery of measures of speech production, where such a battery also incorporates acoustic, articulatory, and physiological studies. Additional measures then serve as concurrent validation procedures. If "the observer's perception and subsequent judgment represents the final validity for the identification and measurement of disordered speech" (Young and Downs, 1968: 6), the present paper comprises a preliminary step in the direction of reflecting this criterion, that is, intelligibility, among speakers of South- Eastern Bantu languages. A CKNO WLED G Ε ME NTS The Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, and the Senior Bursary Fund, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, are gratefully acknowledged for their generous financial support of the doctoral research on which this paper is based. inhlanzi igazi ixhegu iqanda umeqo izinyo insimu uqhotho iviki iphepha iconsi umpompi igeja umgqomo iwashi indlebe idlelo induku umshado inantshi ilanga inzule i jaha amakha ingiqi isiklabhu igceke ingqondo uxamu PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /inti andzi/ /igazl/ /i//hcgu/ /i!anda/ /umL!d/ /iziro/ /ints imu/ Λι! hot\V /ufudu/ /ivik'i/ /iph'pha/ /i/onts 'i/ /ump -̂ mp i/ /ig'd ψ/ /izi.E»V /iliKlo/ /induk u/ /um fad o/ /inant J"'i/ /ila^a/ /indzule/ /id^aha/ /amakha/ / i rji ι i / /isiki 'abu/ /i/gEk'r./ /irj'.gondo/ /u//amu/ GLOSS - fish - blood - old man - an egg - a jump - field - shrivelled thing; homeless person - tortoiae - week - paper - drop of liquid - a tap - a plough - sheep - barrel; drum; "round person" - goat - a vatch - pasture - a stick - a wedding - naartjie fruit - sun; day - type of indigenous cow - strapping fellow - perfume, scent - lazy person - sheep - courtyard - mind; brain - leguaan APPENDICES igxathu /i//gathu/ - stride (n) ingxangxa / if)//gar)//ga/ - a green-striped frog APPENDIX 1 : ZULU WORD LIST igxolo /i//§.ilo/ - bark of tree ORTHOGRAPHY PHONEMIC GLOSS icici /i/i/i/ - earring TRANSCRIPTION. ipapa /ip 'ap 'a/ - porridge idada /idada/ - duck umunwe /umunwe/ - a finger ungcede / /uo/gede/ - common little bird APPENDIX 2 : XHOSA WORD LIST unyawo /upawo/ - leg ORTHOGRAPHY PHONEMIC GLOSS inxele /in//eie/ - left-handed person TRANSCRIPTION isifo /isifo/ - sickness inzala /indzala/ - progeny; interest (on capital) itiye /it 'ΐτε/ - tea indlovu /indtpvu/ - elephant incwadi /in/wadi/ - a book indyebo /inre Co/ - treasure; plenty inyoni /ipDni/ - bird ityhefu /ic h,-fu/ - poison (n) umhambi /um ̂ambi/ - traveller intyelo /inc'rio/ - information ugogo /ueogo / - grandmother intlahla /inti'aia/ - shiny, glossy appearance ithanga /ithana/ - pumpkin ibhokwe /ibokw 't·/ - goat ingxoxo - a conversation irafu /ixafu/ - tax, hut-tax, poll tax iqhude /i!hudt/ - a cock igronya /iiOPa/ - sack-cloth, coarse cloth; sack ihhashi / i Fia J i / - horse ikrele /ikx 'εΐε/ - stabbing assegai, sword, sickle indlovu /indlovu/ - elephant ihashe /ihaje/ - horse, mount; abcess imvubu /im»vuBu/ - hippo imvubu /im<4vu£u/ - hippopotamus inhlanhla /int* 'anti a/ - luck indoda /indoda/ - man, husband /uzip o/ intsimi /ints 'imi/ - arable field, garden uzipho /uzip o/ - nail I ihlombe /iiambe/ - shoulder imfene /im)wi!i/ igatya /igac 'a/ umhambi /umtambi/ iqands /i!anda/ ichibi /i/hifci/ igxalaba /i//gala&a/ inxele /in//ClC/ umnqwazi /umn!wazi/ ingwanqwa /i η!w an!a/ icangci /i/arygi/ inkcazo /ink/azy uncipho /un/ip h y inkxvaleko /ink//walek 'ο / umngqusho /umqkIu/o/ ingqumbo / i>)! gun bo / injini /ind^ini/ ijaji / itĵ ad̂ i/ umgcini /um/gini/ umgodi /urngô i/ ingoti /irjgozi/ inkqu /irjklu/ unoqho /uno1ho/ iaixa /isi//a/ ungwebi /umgwCM/ APPENDIX 3 : NORTHERN SOTHO WORD LIST taebe /te' ebe/ pudi /p 'udi/ dijo /di^o/ GLOSS - something circular; earning; small group . time, period; watch, clock . door (not a doorway); cell in a honeycomb • conversation - old man • doctor, medicine-man, witch-doctor - bag, pouch, sack, pocket - pupil, scholar, reader, disciple, student • loaves of bread • paper; page • feeling, senaation; view, opinion; impression • root • button, buckle; coin; seashell - discovery - rat - councillor; splinter - Jar - a roast • joy· gladness, rejoicing - watch, clock - summer - change (n) - arrow - dam, reservoir - bee - mane - leeway - granary - a gulp, swallow - clause; branch - traveller - egg; large bead - pool, pond, lake - shoulder, shoulder-blade - left hand; left-handed person - cap, hat - step - piece of corrugated iron; metal sheet - memorandum; explanation - decline, decrease - misery - eamp - anger - engine - Judge - one who keeps - deep excavation, mine; a hole - danger; misfortune, accident, injury - reality - clothes-peg - bunch; handful (of grasa, corn flowers) - those who judge • ear ORTHOGRAPHY noka kgogo topa toro bjala botse ngaka nyala tsea hlogo tlala khuta phiri motho p6hap6ha tshipi tlhaba psinya holla dinku ngwana motse nnosi tehwene sego kofi hwile fase gohle legong Tshwane leho ' swiri maswi pholo ngwaga robja monna haka Jase patSi kgomo 11a nnyane mpheng gomme thunya kua sebopsa ngwe lefaega ipehina PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /nok 'a/ /kx 'οϊο/ /t ops/ /toro/ /P3ala/ /bots e/ /oak 'a/ /moo/ /psla/ /tj'ea/ /ioio/ / tl 'ala/ /khut 'a/ /phiri/ /motho/ /pjhapjha/ /tj'ipi/ /tlhaba/ /ps 'ipa/ /foia/ /dii'jk 'u / /^wana/ /mots e/ /Aoji/ /tJ 'wene/ /i+iele/ /Ap'a/ /sets/ /k'ofi/ /hwile/ /fase/ /roie/ /le*oV /tshwane/ /lets/ /«fcsiri/ /maai/ /pholo/ /Twa^a/ /rop̂ a/ /morla/ /F-aka/ /d^aae/ /pat f i/ /wet J 'we/ /kx 'omo/ /la/ /p/hatl'a/ /pane/ /mp he /xome/ /thupa/ /kua/ /sebop J 'a/ /me/ /na/ /rjwe/ /lefje*a/ /ipjhina/ - river - chicken - pick up - dream; prickly pear - plant; beer - beautiful - doctor - maater, owner; one, other (adj.) - to marry, give dowry - take, receive, get hold, take on; marry - head - hunger - hide - hyena, wolf - person - applaud, clap - iron; bell - slaughter, to stab a person - defaeeate! - child - village, town - baboon - body - stomach; skipping rope; sky between two clouds - calabash - coffee - has passed away; dead - under, below, down - everywhere - wood, timber - Pretoria - spoon, ladle - lemon - ox - year - break, break off (paaaive of "roba") - man · - to hook on - overcoat I - coat I - fall toward; to fail in (causative of "wela") ! - heard of cattle ^ - cry; mourn; ring; strike (a bell) play a musical instrument; bellow; yelp; mew; whistle - to break (into pieces); break in (to burgle); smash - small, little, miniature - a handle - and; furthermore - cauae duat; blossom; ache; explode -·over there - creature - my / our mother - I, me - another - faacea of diarrhoea; a coward - enjoy, be happy he South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 33, 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) A s s e s s m e n t of Speech Intelligibility in Five South-Eastern Bantu Languages: Critical Considerations 25 PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /mokx'wa/ /dirapfa/ . SQUTHERH flOTHO L I S T PHONEMIC IANSCRIPTI01 /pita'a/ /buk'a/ /thipha/ /noma/ /leino/ /k 'olol/ /kx 'aut'a/ /hemp e/ /ict'o/ /tahela/ /iitsha/ /nt J"'a/ /pjhatl'a/ /net 'e/ /moho/ /lei \ra/ /kx'aba/ /phiri/ /mat he/ /φ» ana/ /di^>/ /Me/ /dutl 'a/ /diha/ /foia/ /haok'a/ /tl'atl'a/ /tlhok'a/ /J wa]a/ /ta'oie/ /tshwtpha/ /mots o/ /!a!a/ /mona/ /tj 'otj'a/ /tjNlo/ /motJhI/ /kx'wa*a/ /^ak'a/ /sits'a/ /madi/ /pjhana/ /pj 'atl'a/ /t'oaa/ /b^arats a/ /porwa/ /la/ /pjhehs/ /ab^wa/ /mD-kx'0/ /iata 'wa/ lefjwa /lefjwa/ Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif mokgwa dimpSa pitsa buka thipa nana leino koloi kgauta hempe qeto tahela ntsha ntja pjhatla nnete mmoho leqhwa kgaba phiri ma the ngwana dijo eheshe dutla diha fohla hanka tlatla tlhoka shwaya tsohle tshwepha motsho qaqa monna tjotja tjhello motjhi kgwahla jaka sitsa madi pjhanya pjatla tosa bjaratsa nyorwa 11a pjheha abjwa mookgo hlatswa • manner, custom, habit • dogs GLOSS - pot, vessel - book - knife - meat - tooth - wagon, car - gold; a big gold or silver bead - shirt - the end, conclusion; decision - to cross (a road); to cut meat; to live; to pour - to take out, to aend, tp eontribute - dog; despised person; dysentry of children; very heavy stone - to spesk much, to tell; to break into pieces - truth - together; on one side - ice - to be besutiful; to dress well; a spoon; to have a nice action - hyena - saliva - child, infant; tooth of a baby; charm used for frightening birds away - food; crops - violence; type of tree - to leak, trickle out, drip - to cause to fall; to throw, to cast down, to put into trouble - to peel; to enlarge s hole - to walk proudly - to shine; a wooden dish (for meat) - hardened ear-wax; to shout '- to prick, to sting, cause a rash - all, everything - to twist, entwine - black - to be plain, evident r - man, husband j- to continue raining J- damage sustained through fire not anywhere - to run; to become atrong, firm; to shrivel up - to go and live in a foreign place - to give, to grant, to favour with - blood; beer - to speak, to say - to boil well - to stretch out, to raise - to crunch, to smash - to become thirsty - weep, cry, emit a sound, bellow - to have diarrhoea, to be purged; to act in a cowardly manner - to divide, hand out, distribute - tears (n) - to wash vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 33, 1986 ORTHOGRAPHY nku kgafa nna mme tshwara kgomo yaka repha APPENDIX 5 mantswe mollo kgopa tlase podi taie tshimo thuto ruri koko moagi ngaka nyals rwele Jala tshups lwana tshweu tshwara gagwe nkgvana dinku yaalo mow a yona leswe puo tau kobo sejo nama rre gotlhe pitsi tshipi khudu phutha tlhaba kgopho phepha fofs wesi tefo senya rragwe rrunidi PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /ik'u/ /kx'afa/ /na/ /m/ /tshwara/ /kx omo/ /jak'a/ /rt-pha/ nnye nnetlane nkga tlhwaya (tsebe) 11a : TSWANA WORD LIST /msnta we/ /molo/ /kx'op'a/ /tl'ase/ /p'odi/ /ts'ie/ /tsh imo/ /thut'o/ /ruri/ /k'ok'o/ /moaxi/ /oak'a/ /pala/ /rwele/ /d^ala/ /tsNjps/ /lwana/ /ts wEu/ /tshwara/ /gagwe/ /t}kx 'wons/ /dirjku/ /jsalo/ /mowa/ /jona/ /leswe/ /puo/ /t'au/ /kobo/ /sed^o/ /nama/ /rt/ /x3tlhe/ /p'its'i/ /tship'i/ /khudu/ /•ε/ /phutha/ /tlhaba/ /kx'opho/ /phepha/ /fofs/ /wesi/ /t'efo/ /sepa/ /raxwe/ /midi/ /n·/ /netl'ane/ /nkx1 a/ /tlhhwajs/ /la/ GLOSS sheep • tax, hut-tax-duties • I, myself; to be; continually - mother of; and, also, indeed - to seize, to get hold of, to capture - a herd of cattle - it seemed that - to become loose, old • words • fire - snail; to trip up, stumble, offend, vex, displease - down - a gost - locust - a garden - lesson, education - true - grandmother - a builder - a doctor - to marry - hss worn - plant:· - wesvil - fight, quarrel, strive with each other - white - hold - his, hers - a water pot, calabash - sheep - like that - air - it - dirty, nasty - apeech - lion - a kaross; blanket - food - meat - father, my fsther - entirely, all - a horse; a zebra - iron, metal - tortoise - my mother - to gather, collect - to slaughter, stab - β small bush with edible fruit - clean - fly! - own; alone - payment - spoil) - his father - mealie - little - something - to emit s smell - to listen carefully - cry R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 26 ORTHOGRAPHY PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION GLOSS lwantsha /lwantsha/ cause to quarrel or strive with each other lotswa /lot] 'ws/ - be required, demanded, asked foi „pho /mpho/ - gift sekhi /sekhi/ a species of thorny bush supa /supa/ - to show, point; seven aeba /stba/ to whisper, to backbite aga /axa/ - to build; live, dwell fitlha /fitlha/ - to arrive; to bury, hide kgakge /kx'akx'e/ - wonder, astonishment maswi /majwi/ - milk, sweet milk taoma /te'oma/ - to hunt dikgwa /dikx'wa/ - clumps of bush mmini I /mini/ - dancer bonnye /bope/ - smaller setshaba /setjhaba/ - nation tlhatsa /tlhata'a/ - vomit gotlha /xotIha/ - rub a aurface aonyo /mopo/ - dew; mist REFERENCES Baragwanath Hospital, Department of Speech Therapy and Audiology. 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Prediction of contextual speech intelligibility from isolated (Continued on Page 28) / The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 33, 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) V NEW AUTOMATIC HEARING AID A truly advanced and innovative sound amplifier The AUTOMATIC SOUND PROCESSOR (ASP) was developed especially for those people who have difficulty in hearing speech in noisy environments. For years, hearing aid wearers have avoided restaurants, theatres, church and parties because of the inability of an ordinary hearing aid to control background noises. The A.S.P. is simply and uniquely designed to normalize background noise so that speech is more easily ' understood. * To be able to restore sound to even one human being makes your L life especially important. To restore hearing... what a blessed talent to have MEDIFIX (PTY) LTD. SURGICAL & MEDICAL CAPE P.O. Box 19 , P.O. Box 52 Bedfordview Lynedoch 2008 7603 South Africa Phone: (02234) 442 Phone: (Oil) 53-4188/9 or (02231)93442 /7ΛΝ NATAL P.O. Box 47443 Greyville 4023 Phone: (031) 236164 | R | R I C H A R D S hearing systems Tomorrow's Technology for Today's Hearing Problem R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2) 28 (Continued from Page 26) word intelligibility measures. Journal f Speech and Hearing Research 27, 623-626, 1984. Schmidt S intelligibility and the child with multiple articulation deviations. In H.A. Winitz (Ed.), Treating Articulation Disorders: For Clinicians by Clinicians. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1984. Schultz, M.C. World familiarity influences in speech discrimina- tion. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 7, 395-400. Shriberg, L.D. and Kwiatkowski, J. Phonological disorders III: A procedure for assessing severity of involvement. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders. 47, 242-256, 1982. Skelly, M. (ed.) Glossectomee Speech Rehabilitation. Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas, 1973. South Africa 1985: Official Yearbook of the Republic of South Africa. Eleventh Edition. Johannesburg: Chris van Rensburg, 1985. Tikofsky, R.S. A revised list for the estimation of dysarthric single word intelligibiliy. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 13, 59-64, 1970. Tobias, J.V. On Phonemic analysis of speech discrimination tests. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 7, 98-100, 1964. Van Wyk, E.B. Language Contact and Bilingualism. In L.W. Lanham and K.P. Prinsloo (Eds.), Language and Communi- cation Studies in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1978. Westphal, E.O.J. Syllable and sound change in Southern Bantu languages. Journal of the South African Speech and Hearing Association, 20, 22-41, 1973. Marlene Carno Jacobson and Anthony Traill Wilkes, A. Bantu Language Studies. In L.W. Lanham and K.P. Prinsloo (Eds.), Language and Communication in South Africa, Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1978. Yorkston, K.M. and Beukelman, D.R. A comparison of techniques for measuring intelligibility of dysarthric speech. Journal of Communication Disorders, 499-512, 1978. Yorkston, K.M. and Beukelman, D.R. A. A clinician-judged tech- nique for quantifying dysarthric speech based on single word intelligibility. Journal of Communication Disorders, 13, 15-31 1980. Yorkston, K.M. and Beukelman, D.R. Communication efficiency of dysarthric speakers as measured by sentence intelligibility and speaking rate. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46, 296-301, 1981. Young, M.A. and Downs. T.D. Testing the significance of the agreement among observers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 11, 5-17, 1968. Ziervogel, D., Louw, J.Α., Ferreira, J.Α., Baumbach, E.J.M. and Lombard, D.P. Handbook of the Speech Sounds and Sound Changes of the Bantu Languages of South Africa, Unisa Handbook Series No. 3E. University of South Africa, Pretoria, 1967. Ziervogel, D., Louw, J.A. and Taljaard, P.C. A Handbook of the Zulu Language. Third Edition. Pretoria: J.L. Van Schaik, 1981. Ziervogel, D. and Mokgokong, P.C. Groot Noord-Sotho Woordeboek. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1975. Kritiese Beoordeling van Evaluasietegnieke van toepassing op Gesplete-lip-en-verhemelte- babas Brenda Louw, D.Phil (Pretoria) Isabel C. Uys, D.Phil (Pretoria) Departement Spraakheelkunde en Oudiologie, Universiteit van Pretoria, Pretoria. OPSOMMING Die verkryging van 'n klinies geldige en 'n voorskrywende proflel van 'n baba se kommunikasiefunksionering verg noukeurige seleksie van ondersoekmetodes en meetinstrumente wat aangewend word. Voorgestelde evaluasietegnieke wat van toepassing is op swart gesplete-lip-en- verhemeite-babas word teen die agtergrond van 'n kritiese oorsig van die evaluasieproses beoordeel in terme van navorsings- en kliniese toepassingswaarde. Vyf-en-twintig swart babas met gesplete verhemelte onder die ouderdom van twaalf maande het asproefpersone gedien. Riglyne vir toepassing van die voorgestelde evaluasiemodel deur middel van direkte dienslewering deur die spraakterapeut en deur middel van konsultasie-as-voorkoming in 'n multi-kulturele gemeenskap word verskaf. / ABSTRACT The obtaining of a clinically valid and prescriptive profile of the communication function of infants calls for an accurate selection of the research methods and measuring instruments to be used. Suggested evaluation techniques applicable to black cleft lip and palate infants are judged and evaluated within the framework of a critical review of the evaluation process in terms of research and clinical applicability. Twenty-five black cleft lip and palate infants under the age of twelve months served as subjects. Guidelines are supplied for use of these techniques through direct services provided by the speech pathologist and through consultation -as- prevention in a multi-cultural society. © SASHA 1986 The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 33, 1986 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2)