DEVELOPMENT OF A ZULU SPEECH RECEPTION THRESHOLD TEST FOR ZULU FIRST LANGUAGE SPEAKERS IN KWAZULU-NATAL Seema Panday, Harsha Kathard, Mershen Pillay & Cyril Govender Discipline o f Audiology School o f Audiology, Occupational Therapy and Speech-Language Pathology University o f Kwa Zulu-Natal The D e v e lo p m e n t o f a Z ulu Speech R eception Threshold T est for Z ulu First L anguage Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 111 a b s t r a c t The measurement o f speech reception threshold (SRT) is best evaluated in an individual’s first language. The present study f o ­ c u s e d on the development o f a Zulu SRT word list, according to adapted criteria fo r SRT in Zulu. The aim o f this paper is to p re ­ sent the process involved in the development o f the Zulu word list. In acquiring the data to realize this aim, 131 common bisyllabic Zulu words were identified by two Zulu speaking language interpreters and two tertiary level educators. Eighty two percent o f these words were described as bisyllabic verbs. Thereafter using a three point Likert scale, 58 bisyllabic verbs were rated by 5 linguistic experts as being familiar, phonetically dissimilar and being low tone verbs. According to the K endall’s co-efficient o f concordance at 95% level o f confidence the agreement among the raters was good fo r each criterion. The results highlighted the importance o f adapting the criteria fo r SRT to suit the structure o f the language. An important research implication emerging from the study is the theoretical guidelines proposed fo r the development o f SRT material in other African Languages. Further­ more, the importance o f using speech material appropriate to the language has also being highlighted. The developed SR T word list in Zulu is applicable to the adult Zulu First Language Speaker in KZN. Key words: speech reception threshold, Zulu First Language Speaker, SRT word list development, familiarity, phonetic dissimi­ larity, low tone verbs INTRODUCTION The Speech Reception Threshold (SRT) test is part o f the ini­ tial conventional audiological test battery. SRT is defined by the (American Speech and Hearing Association [ASHA], 1988) as the hearing level in decibels (dB) at which the individual can respond correctly to 50% of the test words presented to him/ her. However, in order to recognize and understand the test words the individual should be familiar with the words (Lyregaard, 1997). Therefore, Balkisson (2001) suggests that it is best achieved if the test materials used are presented in a language in which the individual is most familiar, i.e. in his/her first language. Furthermore, testing patients with materials re­ corded in a language other than their native tongue would "adversely affect performance ' and interpretation o f re­ sults” (Nissen, Harris, Jenningk, Eggert & Buck, 2005, p. 392). In considering the above recommendation, there is a need for linguistically matched, easily understandable and highly familiar words for the' establishment of SRT in Zulu. The need for linguistically matched speech materials has moti­ vated many researchers to embark on the formidable task o f developing word lists in the client’s mother tongue language. Some o f these researchers include, Ashoor & Proschazka (1985) who developed test words in Arabic, Plant (1990) fo­ cused on the development o f words in Walpiri and Tiwi; and more recently, Nissen et al. (2005), who developed words in Mandarin. Nissen et al. (2005) also strongly argued that to develop a suitable word list in a language other than English requires an in-depth understanding o f the linguistic structure of the language because the criteria for the original English SRT materials have been designed around the structure o f English. It !s also well known that each language has its own linguistic structure. Therefore, the rules governing one language may not always be applicable to other languages. Hence, it was deemed necessary to develop a word ilist that was relevant to the Zulu language in Kwa Zulu-Natal (KZN). The need for linguistically-matched speech materials for Zulu First Language Speakers (ZFLS) is a reality when considering the demographic profile o f KZN. Zulu is the first language o f 80% of the 9.426 million people in KZN (Population Census, 2001). In fact, Zulu is the Nguni language spoken by almost 8.5 million people in the whole o f South Af­ rica (Grimes, 1992). Zulu is also one o f the eleven official languages o f South Africa. The concentration of Zulu speakers is, however, in KZN. In spite of Zulu speakers being the major­ ity o f the population o f KZN, the development o f linguistically appropriate materials has been lacking. Speech audiometry, like most other areas of speech, language and hearing services in South Africa, has a paucity o f relevant test materials to evaluate the majority of the individuals who do not speak Eng­ lish as their first language (Bortz, 1992). As a consequence the service provided to African first language speakers of KZN is poor (Pillay, Kathard and Samuel, 1997). In order to address this shortcoming, appropriate and relevant tools should be de­ veloped and made available for clinical use. The lack of carefully developed Zulu materials has re­ sulted in audiologists following one o f three trends in current practice in KZN. John (1990) indicates that speech reception testing is omitted from the initial test battery, or that the SRT is obtained using the Standard English material viz. Central Insti­ tute for D eaf CID WI and W2 spondee word list. Finally, SRT is obtained using modified methods and non-standardized ran­ domly selected bisyllabic words in Zulu. However, according to Nissen et al. (2005), the use o f such materials could affect the performance and interpretation of the results. Thus casting doubt on the validity o f the test. The underlying reason for this is that one of the most important characteristics of SRT materials and SRT testing is familiarity of stimuli to the client (Carhart, 1965). Furthermore, Knight (1997) warns that developing linguistically matched word lists should be based on specified criteria such as familiarity o f the words in the language. In addition, Rudmin (1987) also stated that each na­ tion’s linguistic milieu should be considered when offering The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) speech audiometry services. The current practice o f using Eng­ lish material or randomly selected bisyllabic words for the as­ sessment o f SRT in Zulu is problematic and a more valid tool is required. Clearly, the inappropriate practice in the current con­ text provided the rationale for the development o f a word list in Zulu. Furthermore, the measurement o f hearing threshold for speech is integral to the comprehensive diagnostic evaluation of hearing (Ramkissoon, Proctor, Lansing, Bilger, 2002). This is so since the understanding o f speech is an important human faculty and the speech signal according to Martin (1997) forms the basis o f auditory stimulation that occurs in everyday life. Young, Dudley & Gunter (1982) and ASHA (1988) also assert that speech audiometry evaluates the listener's ability to hear, recognize and understand speech communication in the every­ day environment. In addition speech audiometry, inclu ding SRT test­ ing, complements the other conventional tests o f audiometry, such as pure tone audiometry. It is well known that pure tone audiometry provides the ‘gold standard’ for the initial audi- ological assessment o f hearing (Roeser, Valante & Horsford- Dunn, 2000) Nonetheless, while pure tone thresholds are impor­ tant in predicting the hearing patterns at discrete frequencies, the speech threshold test is able to provide a more comprehen­ sive and realistic description o f hearing in everyday life. Nissen et al. (2005) explains that speech testing contributes more infor­ mation about the hearing impairment o f an individual than do pure tones. Moreover, Gelfand (1997) reported on the clinical value of SRT which is described as, SRT quantifies the listener’s hearing level for speech. SRT also serves as a validity check for pure tone audiometry. SRT provides diagnostic and prognostic value to the total audiometric test battery and is the reference point for suprathreshold speech tests. SRT has also serves as a tool to assess medical, surgical and rehabilitative intervention. The clinical value o f SRT testing, confirms its importance in the test battery. Therefore, in view o f the important clinical value, developing appropriate materials for SRT testing is clearly war­ ranted. The focus o f this paper therefore is on the process to­ wards the development o f a word list for ZFLS in KZN, with specific emphasis on the key theoretical considerations that emerged during this process. This aspect was one o f three aims that were a part o f a larger study conducted by Panday (2006). However, for the purposes o f this paper the development aspect o f the SRT word list is presented. The nature o f the topic under discussion also required reference to several seminal references and current literature. In order to develop materials for the establishment o f the SRT in ZFLS, there should also be an understanding o f how speech is perceived. Lyregaard (1997) explains speech percep­ tion as a pattern recognition process where the listener hears certain acoustic cues and selects the appropriate category where the item fits. The important aspect o f this selection is that it is not only based on acoustic or phonetic factors, but also on the syntax, semantics and the overall context (Lyregaard, 1997). It is therefore clear that the perception o f speech is a complex task. The context, semantic, syntactic cues and the cognitive resources o f the listener assists in the processing of the signal. Therefore, most listeners are able to perceive the signal under difficult listening conditions. The implication o f contexts is best seen when words are presented to individuals acquiring a second language (Criag, 1997). Identical speech signals presented to one group o f listeners who are first lan­ guage speakers and to those who are second language speakers 112 D ie Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieajwykings, Vol. 54, 2007 results in latter group being unable to hear subtle sounds seg­ ments and prosodic nuances. First language listeners however are able to appreciate these differences (Criag, 1997). Words having a higher frequency o f occurrence are more easily recog­ nized than those that have a lower frequency o f occurrence. This is particularly relevant for the development o f the materials in Zulu. The ZFLS would be more familiar with the Zulu words from both the acoustic properties o f the words and the prosodic, semantic and lexical aspects. These elements fa­ cilitate easier recognition o f the words when the stimulus is closer to threshold. In view o f the foregoing argument on the influence of both contexts and the acoustic properties o f the language on the perception and understanding of speech, the process towards the development of a suitable SRT word list in Zulu has to also be guided by the rules that govern the language. Zulu is an Nguni language. The Nguni languages are part o f a larger related group o f South Eastern Bantu languages. In terms o f structure, Zulu is an agglutinative language, which commonly has roots bound to prefixes and suffixes (Jacobson & Trail, 1986). The root o f the word usually carries lexical mean­ ing. The word structure without the prefix and suffix would be purely a bisyllabic word in the consonant vowel, consonant vowel sequence (CVCV), e.g. /hamba/ meaning “to go” in Eng­ lish. This word form only appears as a verb imperative and hardly ever as a noun. Noun classes in Zulu are often trisyllabic in nature because o f the prefix formative e.g. /ihashi/ meaning “horse’ in English (Jacobson & Trail, 1986). This aspect o f the language had to be carefully considered, as the type o f stimuli selected for the SRT material in Zulu is dependent on the avail­ ability o f stimuli in the language. An important consideration therefore, with regard to the development o f the word list, relates to the type o f stimuli to be considered. Historically researchers focused on developing SRT words that were bisyllabic and equally stressed, known as spon­ dees (Silman & Silverman, 1991; Gelfand, 1997). The main advantage o f using spondees centered on the need for words to have equal stress on each syllable. This allowed for uniformity and precise testing. On the contrary, Hodgeson (1980) stated that spondee words were not so common in English since the stress o f bisyllabic words is usually placed on the first syllable. Many words such as, “baseball”, “hotdog”, “cowboy’ j easily satisfied the criterion if care was taken to stress the first' sylla­ ble. The change in stress pattern is permissible in English and does not alter the meaning of the word. Therefore, several words o f this structure were selected for the original word list. However, while Zulu is able to satisfy the criterion o f bisyllabic words, the use o f equally stressed words is unavailable structur­ ally. This is so since Zulu is a “non-stress” language where stress is not used to indicate emphasis nor is used to differenti­ ate words or syllables as seen in English (Cope, 1982). Furthermore, unlike English, the introduction o f artificial stress patterns on each syllable in Zulu could possibly alter the meaning o f the words. This is so since Zulu is a tonal language (Rycroft & Ncgobo, 1979). Tonal variations are lexically sig­ nificant in Zulu (Rycroft & Ncgobo, 1979), implying that the pitch o f the word corresponds to the difference in,meaning. To illustrate, the word /inyanga/ can mean “doctor” or “moon” or “month” depending on where the pitch o f the word occurs. The role o f tone has three distinct functions in Zulu, i.e. semantic (affecting the meaning of words), grammatical, and emotional (Cope, 1982). These tonal variations may influence the meaning o f the stimuli, thus having implications for speech understand­ ing. If Zulu does not have the linguistic characteristic o f Seem a Panday, H arsha K athard, M ershen Pillay & C yril G o v e n d e r R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) The D evelopm ent o f a Z ulu Speech R eception Threshold T est for Z ulu First Language Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 113 equally stressed words, then the criteria for SRT materials needs adaptation or the development o f new criteria to suit the struc­ ture o f the language is required. This point o f view has been widely supported by studies conducted in languages other than E nglish, e.g. Plant (1990) who developed the Tiwi and Walpiri word lists, and Nissen et al. (2005), who developed Mandarin word lists. Studies such as these emphasize important theoreti­ cal considerations regarding the structure o f the language at a lexical, phonological and syllable level. The Tiwi and Walpiri languages were found to have a different stress pattern to that of E nglish i.e. the stress o f the word is usually placed on the penul­ timate syllable, (Plant, 1990). These structural differences there­ fore required adaptation o f the original SRT criteria. Nissen et al. (2005) also supported the notion adapting the original SRT criteria to suit the structure o f the language. Nissen et al. (2005) concluded that 24 trisyallbic Mandarin words could be utilized to measure an individual’s SRT if the native language was Mandarin. Their study showed highly fa­ vorable results when the trisyllabic words were assessed, with results comparable to those o f English. Locally the literature with regard to word list develop­ ment is in its infancy. However, the issues raised in the some of the African and South African studies support the contention made in the present study. Chetty (1990) reported that the choice o f bisyllabic words and the tone o f the words appear to be critical to the overall development o f a Zulu word list. In fact, the abundance o f commonly used bisyllabic verb impera­ tives with low -high tones in Zulu was considered a suitable option for SRT word list development in Zulu (Chetty, 1990) As consequence o f Chetty’s work it was considered necessary to evaluate the low tone, bisyllabic verbs under more stringent methodological conditions. Closer inspection o f the historical criteria for SRT word list development suggested by Hudgins, Hawkins, Karlin & Stevans in 1947 confirms the need for adaptation or review o f these criteria to suit the language o f Zulu. These criteria in­ clude familiarity, phonetic dissimilarity, and homogeneity with respect to audibility or intelligibility. Familiarity refers to the choice o f vocabulary used. How­ ever, on perusal o f the literature the concept o f familiarity is explained on the basis o f two perspectives viz, familiarity as it relates to the test product (word list) and familiarity as it relates to the test process (Testing), (Kruger & Kruger, 1997). For the purpose of this study an acceptance o f both these concepts are considered. Wilson & Margolis (1983) explained familiarity as it relates to the test product. These authors explain that words selected for the SRT test must be based on the number o f times the listener uses the word in everyday speech. To this end, the above authors claim that the most commonly used words are considered to be the most familiar words. Thus, familiarity has remained an important criterion for the development SRT words. There is both historical and current acceptance amongst researchers to include familiarity as a criterion. This has been repeatedly reinforced in the historical and current literature (Hirsh, Silverman, Reynolds, Eldert & Benson, 1952; Wilson & Margolis, 1983; Young et al, 1982; ASHA, 1988; Ramkisson, 2000; Nissen et al., 2005). Familiarity is "arguably one of the most important criteria to be considered in word list develop­ ment" (Nissen et al., 2005, p. 1). This position is also supported in the present study, as common and familiar words are avail­ able in the Zulu language. However, researchers must be cognizant o f what makes a word list familiar. The "inherent flexibility o f the human lan­ guage causes it to be extremely variable and changes over time", (Akamajian, Demers, Farmer & Hamish, 1990, p. 265). Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that the s h e lf life o f the words chosen must be considered. Vocabulary within a lan­ guage is ever changing and expanding according to the influ­ ences o f a changing society (Fromkin & Rodmin, 1993). Thus, despite familiar words being available in Zulu, careful consid­ erations o f how words are selected to represent this criterion is important. The concept o f familiarity within the English lan­ guage was addressed by consulting a formal list such as the list o f word frequency compiled by Thorndike and Lorge, (1944) as cited in Jacobson & Trail (1986). This method of selecting words has assisted researchers such as Hirsh et al. (1952) to apply this criterion. There is however, a paucity of adequate tools for the Zulu language (Jacobson & Trail, 1986). There­ fore, the need for alternative methods of selecting common fa­ miliar words is advisable. Jacobson & Trail (1986) suggested the utilization o f informal methods, such as consulting language educators and linguists. This method is well supported in the literature by Plant (1990) who suggested utilizing highly skilled linguists to assist with the complexities in the language when word lists are being developed. Consequently, the use o f speak­ ers o f the language and linguistic experts allows for words to be more representative o f the language at any given time as com­ pared with making mere references to the dictionary. In addition to the way words are selected, the criterion of familiarity is also influenced by other socio- linguistic aspects e.g. borrowed words in a language. Many of the African lan­ guages spoken in South Africa have been historically influenced by dominant languages such as English and Afrikaans. These languages were predominantly spoken in the educational, tech­ nical, commercial and industrial spheres (Jacobson & Trail, 1986). The inclusion o f borrowed words in a list allows for the word list to be applicable to the majority o f the Zulu - speaking people in KZN. Familiarity as a criterion is relevant, but the socio-linguistic factors relevant to each language, such "shelf life" o f vocabulary and borrowed words must also be consid­ ered. The complexity o f satisfying historical criteria in mother tongue languages is further demonstrated when the concept of phonetic dissimilarity is reviewed. Hudgins et al. (1947) as cited in Silman & Silverman (1991), suggests that the test material must consist o f stimuli that vary in terms of consonant and vowel combinations within the language being used. Phonetic dissimilarity in a word list prevents confusion between words (Silman & Silverman, 1991). However, this criterion has not received the attention that other criteria such as familiarity and homogeneity o f audibility has received. This could perhaps be related to the difficulty in satisfying this criterion in lan­ guages that have fewer consonant and vowel combinations. The basic five vowel system in Zulu could possibly influence the criterion o f phonetic dissimilarity and may require adapta­ tion accordingly. However, the complex consonant system, with the addition o f the click sounds that appear frequently in the vocabulary o f Zulu, which has implications for the development o f the word list i.e. inclusion o f click phonemes in the word list may influence the variability o f phoneme choices in the words. The foregoing discussion indicates that key theoretical considerations have been raised and these have implications for the development o f an appropriate Zulu word list. The word list development in this study, therefore, was based on the interac­ tion o f both the socio-linguistic and structural aspects of the language. Moreover, the need to adapt the original criteria for SRT words to suit these theoretical principles is warranted and is well supported in the literature. Thus, in view o f the uniqueness o f SRT, its contributing value to the conventional test battery and the structure o f the The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) 114 Seem a Panday, H arsha K athard, M ershen Pillay & Cyril Govender Zulu language the need to develop an appropriate SRT word list for the ZFLS in KZN is justified. In so doing the linguistic needs o f the clients serviced by audiologists in KZN would be appropri­ ately met. Therefore the aim of this study was to develop a SRT word list for ZFLS in KZN and to answer the following critical question “What is the process involved in establishing appropriate criteria for the development o f a SRT word list for ZFLS in KZN? METHODOLOGY Aim The aim o f the study was to develop a Zulu word list for SRT testing. This aim generated two objectives i.e. Objectives • To identify commonly used bisyllabic Zulu words and sec­ ondly • To rate the commonly used bisyllabic Zulu words according to the adapted SRT criteria for Zulu viz.: Familiarity, phonetic dissimilarity, and tonal patterns o f the words. Study Design The design strategy adopted for this aim of the study was a de- scriptive-survey design. A descriptive-survey design was consid­ ered a suitable choice because it focused on describing the process involved in the establishment of appropriate criteria relevant to the development o f a SRT word list in Zulu. Hence, a survey ap­ proach and a rating strategy were adopted to realize this aim. The descriptive design "describes a situation as it is" in order to gain more information (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005, p. 179). Thus, for this aim the researcher was concerned with describing the develop­ ment o f an SRT word list for Zulu. In the process, relevant lan­ guage specific information about the suitability o f criteria to be used in the selection o f Zulu words was explored. This aim was realized through two distinct objectives. Objective one and two incorporated the criteria for selecting SRT words i.e. identifying bisyllabic Zulu words that were common and ensuring that the words met the criteria of familiarity, phonetic dissimilarity and low tone verb imperatives. Objective 1: The identification of commonly used bisyllabic Zulu words for adult ZFLS in KZN Participants Two Zulu language educators from a tertiary institution and two Zulu language interpreters were considered for this objec­ tive o f the study. Four participants were considered adequate be­ cause the word pool generated at this stage o f the study was rated and validated by linguistic experts in objective 2 o f the study. The educators and interpreters were selected through purposive sam­ pling, as they were most familiar with the use o f the Zulu lan­ guage as spoken by the adult population on whom the new word list would be used. The educators were also familiar with Zulu as a language, since it is their subject o f specialty. The interpreters used the language daily and are familiar with Zulu as a language in the KZN community specifically the dialect spoken in the Greater Durban and Pietermarizburg region. Selection criteria f o r the participants The criteria for the selection o f the Zulu language educa­ tors were; • The educators had to speak Zulu as a first language • The educators needed to have at least five years o f tertiary teaching experience. The criteria for the selection of the Zulu language interpreters were: • The interpreters had to be Zulu First language speakers. • They had to reside in Kwa Zulu-Natal (Durban, Pietermariz­ burg region) for more than five years. • The language interpreter had to have passed Grade 12 as a minimum academic qualification. The above criteria ensured that the participants had sufficient experience with the language. Their experience would thus fa­ vorably influence the word choices made in terms o f the com­ monality of the words. Sampling method The purposeful sampling technique was used to select the participants for this objective of the study. Purposive sam­ pling allowed the researcher to choose a sample that represented some feature or process in which the researcher was interested in (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001; Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Therefore, this method was selected, as the participants chosen were representative o f the linguistic group for which this word list would be relevant to i.e. ZFLS in KZN. Furthermore, the participants were informed of the topic of interest i.e. Zulu word selection. Selection criteria f o r the words The criteria for selection of the words included, com­ monly used bisyllabic words in Zulu. For the purposes of this study, common words refer to the most frequently used bisyl­ labic words in Zulu in the Durban, Pietermarizburg region of Kwa-Zulu-Natal. The linguistic structure o f Zulu permitted the selection of bisyllabic words. Further, Zulu has many bisyllabic words that can be considered common and would satisfy the requirements of an SRT word list (Chetty, 1990). The words considered as being common had to also be identified by two or more participants. Data collection instrument A modified word identification schedule (Appendix A) adapted from (Balkisson, 2001) was provided to each! partici­ pant to record the chosen words. The use of the word identifica­ tion schedule ensured that a standard method o f recording the words was maintained across all four participants. j ii Data collection process j Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Kwa Zulu-Natal Ethics committee. Permission from the head of the department o f Zulu of a tertiary institution was subsequently sought to gain access to the Zulu language educators. The inter­ preters, however, were approached personally with regards to their participation, outside o f their formal work time. Informed consent from the language educators and interpreters was ob­ tained regarding their willingness to participate in the study. The language educators and interpreters were advised on the nature of the study via a meeting with each participant inde­ pendently. An instructional letter concerning objective 1 was provided to each participant. Each participant was asked to identify a separate list of bisyllabic Zulu words commonly used by ZFLS in KZN (Durban, Pietermarizburg region). A mini­ mum o f one hundred words per participant was required. One hundred words per participant ensured that the final list was not too small in terms of the set size. This decision is in keeping with the suggestion made by Punch & Howard (1985). Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieajwykings, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) The D evelopm ent o f a Zulu Speech R eception Threshold T est for Z ulu First L anguage Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 115 Analysis The words were extracted from the identification sched­ ule and captured onto an Excel spread sheet. The spreadsheet vvas designed to represent each participant's response in terms of the words identified. All words were arranged alphabetically on the spreadsheet. The researcher manually extracted those words that met a fifty- percent or more inclusion criteria. This implies that if a word was suggested by two or more of the par­ ticipants, the word was included for the next objective o f the study. The fifty- percent or more criterion is also known as the two-word selection criteria. This method o f inclusion and ex­ clusion has been recommended for word selection by (Madden, 1996). Those words that did not meet the 50% inclusion crite­ rion were excluded from the study. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the most com­ mon words suggested by the respondents. Frequency counts, bar graphs and pie charts were among the tools utilized. These techniques indicated the most and least commonly identified words (Mcmillan & Schumacher, 2001). A second level of analysis included the categorization of the words into different word classes selected i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns etc. Percentage counts were used to describe the word class distribu­ tion. After careful analysis of the words using the inclusion and exclusion criteria stipulated above, the common bisyllabic words selected were included in objective two of the study viz.: selection o f the words according to the adapted SRT criteria for Zulu. Objective 2: Selection of words according to the SRT crite­ ria that suited to the Zulu language. Participants Five linguists from two tertiary institutions in KZN par­ ticipated in objective two of the study. For this objective, the linguists rated the words selected in objective one according to the following criteria i.e. a) familiarity, b) phonetic dissimilarity and c) low tone bisyllabic verb imperatives. Selection criteria f o r participants The participants had to| be linguists who were knowl­ edgeable in Zulu phonology and the linguistics o f Zulu. They had to be familiar with the dialect o f Zulu spoken in Durban- Pietermarizburg region of KZN. The linguists had to have a masters degree in linguistics as a minimum qualification. This was in keeping with the recommendation by Plant (1990) who reported that the use of highly skilled linguistic experts is re­ quired in development of a word list. Sampling method Purposeful non-probability sampling was also used for this objective o f the study. Purposive sampling allowed the re­ searcher to select linguists who were represented as experts in the field o f Zulu. Data collection instrument An instructional letter accompanied with the three rating scales i.e. rating scale for familiarity, low tone verbs, phonetic dissimilarity of the hundred and thirty one words (131) selected in objective one were presented to each of the linguists (see Panday, 2006). The three point Likert scale was used. The scal­ ing system chosen was similar to most studies of this nature (Hirsh et al. 1952; Madden, 1996). This Likert scaling method represented e.g. the most familiar, fairly familiar and very unfa­ miliar words in the list. The scaling system was rank ordered and could also be described as a graphic numerical scale. This scale allowed for accurate description of beliefs and opinions in terms o f familiarity (Mcmillan & Schumacher, 2001). The three point scale as opposed to a five point or seven point scale was considered due to the nature o f the task. The researcher was concerned with identifying the most familiar words versus the most unfamiliar words in the list. Therefore, the limited rating options provided to the linguists prevented the linguists from providing too many unsure responses. The items on the scale were presented down the left- hand side of the scale with 1, 2, and 3 in the column adjacent to each word. This format allowed for uncomplicated and rela­ tively quick completion of the task, whereby the participants had to tick in the appropriate column or merely selected the number that represented their opinion. Data collection process Ethical clearance was obtained as described in objective one above. The researcher obtained informed consent from each o f the linguists in order for them to participate in the study. A meeting was held with all linguists to provide them with an in­ structional letter informing them of the nature of the. study and the requirements for this objective. Each linguist was presented with the rating scale o f the one hundred and thirty one words selected in objective one. The words were rated according to chosen criteria. The linguists worked independently so that per­ sonal judgments could be made. In order to control for proce­ dural variables the same set o f instructions were presented to all participants as per the instructional letter. Prior to confirming participation in the study, the length of the scale was discussed with all participants, so as to minimize the loss of interest dur­ ing its completion. It was emphasised that this was not a test and that there were no right or wrong answers. The data ob­ tained were then analysed. Analysis o f data Data were analyzed using a quantitative analysis ap­ proach. All statistical procedures and analysis were carried out using the SPSS version 11.6 computerized statistical program. The statistical analysis was completed under the advisement of a statistician (Ms. Cathy Connolly & Ms. Rebecca Shunmugam) at the Medical Research Council of South Africa in Durban in August 2006. Mean scores were calculated so that the degree o f famili­ arity, phonetic dissimilarity and low tone verbs could be meas­ ured across all raters. The words that achieved an average rating of 1.5 or less on all of the criteria, as indicated in previous stud­ ies (Hirsh et al. 1952; Madden, 1996) were to be selected. Mean scores are calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). The mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency (Mcmillan and Schumacher, 2001). In addition the Kendall's co-efficient of concordance was used to assess inter-rater reliability. The rationale for the use of the Kendall’s test was to determine the extent to which the rat­ ers agreed about what they rated (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001). The Kendall's Coefficient o f concordance estimates agreement among multiple raters for ordinal responses as indi­ cated in this study. Kendall's statistic is a measure of the asso­ ciation among appraisers' ratings (Kendall & Babington-Smith, 1939). Kendall's statistic therefore can only be used when the data has three or more possible levels with natural ordering, such as strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. Therefore, this test of inter-rater reliability was suitable because the present study utilized three levels of natural order­ ing. The following table illustrates the values in terms of The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) 116 Seem a Panday, H arsha K athard, M ershen Pillay & C yril G ovender strength of the agreement when Kendall's W score is consid­ ered. Table 1 was used in the interpretation of the Kendall's W score in this study. The coefficient was calculated using the SPSS ver­ sion 11.6 and a W score was calculated. A score between 0 to l was regarded significant in terms o f overall inter-rater reliability. This score assisted the researcher in terms of overall strength o f the information received from the partici­ pants. It also confirmed that there was consistency in the measurement or rating o f the words. After careful analysis using the above procedures, the words were selected. Value of kappa Value of Kendall Strenath of <0.20 -1.0 t o -0.2 Poor 0.21-0.40 -0.6 to -0.2 Fail 0.41-0.60 -0.2 to 0.2 M oderate 0.61-0.80 0.2 to 0.6 G ood 0.81-1.0 0.6 to 1.0 V e ry G ood Table 1: Values representing strength of agreement for Kendall's W score. Reliability and Validity The following considerations were made to ensure reliability and validity for this aim of the study and for the larger study conducted by Panday (2006). With regards to reliability all participants were provided with the same in­ structions regarding their role in the study, the data obtained for this aim and for the larger study were verified by linguis­ tic experts. The rating scales used were standard across all raters. Further, the Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was used to assess reliability and consistency among the raters. Considerations related to validiy o f the results were ensured by the overall two phase methodological approach of the Panday (2006) study. The words were developed and as­ sessed based on both audiological and linguistic principles. RESU LTS AND DISCUSSION A total word pool o f five hundred and five common words was obtained from the four participants. The average num­ ber of words identified per participant was 126 words. The number of words identified ranged from 123 to 133. Appen­ dix B, illustrates the words suggested by each participant. Many o f the words obtained by each o f the four participants were repeated by more than one participant. The 505 words were categorized for inclusion and exclusion in terms o f a 50% inclusion criterion. One hundred and thirty one words o f the 505 words (26%) met the inclusion criterion. Seventy four percent o f the words were excluded. Appendix B illus­ trates the distribution o f the 131 words according to the number of participants that suggested the words for objec­ tive one. There were 57/131 words that were suggested by two participants. Three of the participants suggested 52/131 words and 22/131 words were suggested by all four o f the participants. However, all o f the 131 words pre-selected were included in objective 2 o f the study. The 131 words identified were further categorized in terms of the character­ istics of the words identified. Figure 1 illustrates the per­ centage of words according to the word classes. The majority (82%) of the words chosen were bisyl­ labic verbs with pronouns being (6%), adverbs (5%), con- 82% Figure 1: Pie chart illustrating the percentage of the words according to word classes junctions (4%), and nouns (3%) respectively. Examples of words within this distribution can be found in Table 2. These findings are in accordance with the linguistic structure of Zulu. The majority of bisyllabic words in Zulu are verbs rather than nouns (R. Bailey personal communication, April, 2006). The Nguni languages like Zulu and Xhosa share this linguistic feature (Jacobson & Trail, 1986). Bisyllabic nouns in Zulu are few because most noun classes have a prefix formative e.g. / ubisi/ meaning milk in English. Thus, the syllable structure becomes trisyllabic. The present study con­ sidered the use o f bisyllabic verbs. This decision was based on the abundance and availability o f bisyllabic verbs in Zulu compared to the paucity o f bisyllabic nouns. Further, the majority (82%) o f the words pre-selected within the present study was verbs. It was also necessary to maintain uni­ formity in the word classes o f the words. For objective two, the 131 words were rated by the linguists, so that careful decisions were made to exclude words that were not verbs. The words were only adjusted on the basis of the results of objective two. The five-hundred and five bisyllabic words generated at this stage o f the study appeared adequate, even though many o f the words were repeated across the four participants. This was in ac­ cordance with the Madden (1996) study that generated 720 familiar words using similar methods of word pool generation, as indicated in the present study. The large word pool at the preliminary phase of the study prevents the final word list from being limited in num­ ber. The overall number o f words selected has been documented as an important consideration for researchers and clinicians. This fol­ lows the argument that SRT scores improve significantly if there are a limited number o f SRT words (fewer than 36) in the final word list (Punch & Howard, 1985). The underlying reason for the improvement is related to the possible learning effect as would be the case if there are too few words. Therefore, to prevent the learn­ ing effect, the present study supports the above contention of gen­ erating a large pool o f words. T able 2: Examples of bisyllabic words according to their different word classes B fs y H a M c Y irO S Pronouns Adverbs Conjunc­ tions KlAtirie Bhala zake Lapha Futhi N yam a G xeka zabo Phansi Nyanga Khanya Phezu G eza Muva D ie Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) The D evelopm ent o f a Z ulu Speech R eception Threshold T est for Z ulu First L anguage Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 117 jng effect, the present study supports the above contention of generating a large pool of words. The exclusion of 74% of the words could possibly be related to the methodological choice made within the study i.e. only common words were selected. The literature however is not explicit about standard methods used. Knight (1997) suggests that words must be selected after careful analysis o f written texts, articles and national radio and television newscasts. Fur­ thermore, studies such as Hirsh et al. (1952) used dictionaries and word resources such as the thousand most common words spoken in a language. The use o f dictionaries and word re­ sources has been known to historically generate large word pools that are representative o f the most common words in a language. This method could be considered a good starting point for word selection. However, this method of selection is appro­ priate for languages where there are well-developed dictionaries and word list resources e.g. The English Thorndike's list o f word frequency, used in the (Hirsh, 1952) study. The South African Zulu language literature has not yet come to consensus in so far as the most common words spoken in Zulu are concerned (R. Bailey, personal communication, September, 2006). Therefore, the paucity o f such resources in the African languages has re­ sulted in the researcher considering the present methods of word selection, by utilizing tertiary educators and Zulu language in­ terpreters. The use o f speakers o f the language to identify common words as indicated in the present study implies that the words generated may have more relevance in present times. Generating a word pool from the speakers o f a language at the time would naturally result in the words being more familiar than if words were selected out o f a dictionary that might have been devel­ oped many years prior to the study. This also supports the notion that vocabulary does indeed possess a "shelf life" and that all living languages change over time (Fromkin & Rodmin, 1993). A closer analysis o f the common words selected indicate that a small percentage of the words (3.8 %) or (5/131) were words borrowed from English e.g. "wina". Thus, indicating that all words considered common i may not be completely indige­ nous to the language. The inclusion o f the borrowing merely enhances the relevance of the list in terms being common, to the diverse Zulu-speaking clinical population. The support for the inclusion o f borrowing in a language is limited to what linguists and language rights activists state i.e. that languages have devel­ oped over the years through "liberal borrowings from neighbor­ ing languages" (Alexander, 2006, p. 3). Zulu should be no dif­ ferent, especially when one considers the present state o f global­ ization within the South African context. T he p r e s e n t r e ­ searcher argues that while an indigenous word list for Zulu is relevant, the content o f the words list must be highly familiar to the population for which it is meant for. This argument also il­ lustrates that researchers could possibly run the risk o f excluding highly familiar and common words should their methodological design follow rigid and traditional methods of relying on dic­ tionaries and standard dialects. These standard dialects are often spoken on newscasts for television and radio, which would ex­ clude words that may be borrowed from another language. The results obtained in objective one o f the study, there­ fore, indicate that careful consideration o f the linguistic structure of that language is certainly relevant in word list development. In addition, this study demonstrated that in the development phase of a word list, the researcher has to develop astute meth­ ods of generating the word list. While adhering to linguistic and audiological principles for word choices, reliability and validity in the data were ensured. Therefore, in order to fulfill objective two, six linguists were asked to rate the 131 words on a three point Likert scale for the following criteria i.e. familiarity, pho­ netic dissimilarity and tonal patterns o f the words. Words in­ cluded in objective two o f the study had to achieve a mean rat­ ing score o f 1.5 or less on all criteria. The scores o f five of the six linguists were analyzed, as one linguist did not complete the criterion on tone and many o f the words in the other two sections were omitted. Therefore, in terms of reliability of the data, the ratings from five linguists were analyzed. In terms o f familiarity, the majority (106/131) (81%) of the words obtained a mean rank of less than 1.5 on the Likert rating scale across all five raters. Eighty one percent o f the words in the pre-liminary list were regarded as very familiar and a mere 19% were indicated as being unfamiliar. However, the final selection of the words also depended on the mean ranks for tone and phonetic dissimilarity as discussed below. In terms o f tone of the words a larger number of words obtained a mean score greater than 1.5 (45%) compared to the results obtained for familiarity. Fifty five percent of the words obtained a score o f less than 1.5 on the Likert scale. These words were thus indicated as low tone words. The remaining 45% were considered high tone verbs. For the purposes o f this study the low tone verbs were selected. In terms o f the results obtained for phonetic dissimilar­ ity, the majority (102/131) of the words were rated as phoneti­ cally dissimilar. However, there were a small percentage of words that were highly similar in their phonetic structure. Pho­ netic dissimilarity was determined by the focusing differences in consonant and vowel structures within each word. Careful analysis o f each o f the mean ranks for each cri­ terion resulted in the selection of 58 words. The 73 words that did not meet the criteria were excluded from the study. The 58 selected words satisfied the criteria for familiarity, tone and phonetic dissimilarity and are included in Appendix C. In addition to the above result, the researcher measured the reliability of the ratings across all five linguists. The test statistic in Table 3 indicates that a W score 0.823 was obtained for the criterion o f familiarity. This implies that a very good agreement existed among all five raters. The agreement is noted at 0.05 level o f confidence (Assyp.Sig= 0.000<0.05). Therefore, with 95 % confidence there was little difference among the raters with regard to the rating of the words for fa­ miliarity. However, the coefficient o f concordance for criterion of tone was 0.431 which implies that there was a moderate agreement among the 5 raters for the criteria of tone. These results suggest that there were also no significant differences in the rating of the tone o f the words, even though the agreement was moderate as compared to very good agree­ ment in the familiarity aspect. Similarly the coefficient of con­ cordance o f 0.665 for phonetic dissimilarity which implied that there is good agreement among the 5 raters at the 0.05 level of significance (asymp. sig. = 0.000 < 0.05). Familiarity PhonsUedissim ilarity Tone N* 5 5 5 Kendall’s W 0.823 0.431 .665 Chi Square 481.488 252.067 388.906 Df 117 117 117 Asym. Sig .000 .000 .000 * Number o f raters The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) 118 Seem a Panday, H arsha K athard, M ershen Pillay & C yril Govender Table 3: Test statistic for the Kendall’s Co-efficient of Concordance for familiarity, phonetic dissimilarity and tone The researcher could therefore accept the contention that the 58 words rated as familiar, low tone and phonetically dissimilar by the 5 raters were reliable. These 58 words were further assessed for the criterion o f homogeneity with respect to audibility using logistic regress ion analysis. However the details o f this aim o f the study are beyond the scope of this paper and would be pre­ sented in a subsequent paper. This high percentage o f words (81%) that were rated as very familiar confirms that these words identified by participants in objective 1 are common to the KZN Zulu speaking population. This result also reinforces the conten­ tion that words considered most common in everyday environ­ ment can be considered to be the most familiar words in that environment (Wilson & Margolis, 1983). With regard to fa­ miliarity o f words in other studies, it would appear that re­ searchers have relied on various methods for the selection of familiar words. Traditionally Hirsh et al. (1952) utilized a judg­ ing system whereby English words were rated on a Likert scale. A recent study conducted on Mandrin speakers selected familiar words on the basis o f dictionaries that existed in their language. In addition the use o f judges was only considered for screening the word list for culturally insensitive words which were deemed unfamiliar. However, in the present study taking into account the paucity o f dictionaries that indicates the most fre­ quently occurring bisyllabic verbs in Zulu, having all the 131 words rated for familiarity by linguistic experts was a suitable alternative. While the mean ratings for the familiarity o f the words indicated that the majority o f the words were highly familiar, the selection o f the words for the study was also dependent on the tone and phonetic dissimilarity o f the words. Low tone verbs were introduced as an adapted criterion for SRT words in Zulu. This criterion was introduced after careful analysis o f the lin­ guistics o f Zulu. Zulu has only one main stress in most words, which prevents the language from having spondee words. However, after consultation with a linguist o f Zulu it would appear that low tone verbs allows for the lengthening o f the penultimate syllable, thus allowing for the final syllable to gain prominence. Tone is a complex phenomenon in Zulu and even linguists and users o f the language have grave difficulty identi­ fying tonal patterns (R. Bailey, personal communication, Febru­ ary, 2004). The complexity of the tone o f Zulu is also expressed by Buell (2004). There are “scant sources for lexical tone in Zulu” (Buell, 2004, p.l). This could possibly explain the results obtained within the present study with regards to the rating o f the tone o f the words. The moderate level o f agreement among the linguists, i.e. the Kendall’s w score of 0.431 is indicative that even lin­ guistic experts differ with regard to low tone and high tone verbs. However, the agreement is still considered reliable at 95% o f confidence. These results merely confirm the complex­ ity o f languages and also illustrate that developing a word list with adapted criteria requires extensive resources and expertise. The 55% o f the words indicated as low tone words were veri­ fied against a list o f Zulu verbs with tone markers compiled by Buell (2004). Further, within the present study the use o f low tone verbs limited the variability o f the phonemes among the words. Low tone verbs generally end in the same vowel /a/ e.g. Bhala, Bhema, Gqoka. Hence, the second syllable o f most verbs in the list could potentially be very similar in phoneme structure. This suggests that words in the final list for Zulu would possibly have variability o f consonants and vowels in the first syllable, Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieajwykings, Vol. 54, 2007 but variability would be limited in the second syllable as illus­ trated in the example. However, Zulu has a much more com­ plicated consonant system than English. In addition to the known sound system like fricatives, stops and plosives, Zulu has the prominent click sounds. The inclusion of the click sounds in the phoneme distribution of the words contributes to consonant variability in the words. Thus, within the present study, because o f the importance of low tone verbs, the re­ searcher concentrated on the variability o f the consonant struc­ ture and to lesser extent on the variability o f the vowel system. This standpoint was supported by the linguistic choices made within the study. The overall agreement among the raters for the criteria o f familiarity, tone and phonetic dissimilarity provided the necessary reliability with regard to the choice o f words for the study. The choice of words, using the adapted and modified criterion discussed above, is a clear indication that the words selected represent the linguistic structure of the Zulu language, the acoustic properties o f Zulu and the sociolinguistic aspects. This principle is the inherent theoretical premise that fore­ grounded this study. The clinical usage of the test tool was also dependent on the very important criterion o f homogeneity o f audibility that was used to assess the words for inclusion into Phase two o f the study which is documented in Panday (2006). CO N CLU SIO N AND REC O M M ENDATIONS This study therefore concluded that 131 words were identified as common bisyllabic words for the adult ZFLS. Descriptive statistics indicated that the majority o f the words identified were bisyllabic verbs which was in accordance with the struc­ ture o f Zulu. Objective two o f the study concluded that 58/131 words satisfied the criterion o f familiarity, phonetic dissimilar­ ity and low tone verbs. These words were rated on three point Likert scale by linguistic experts. The Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was found to be very good for familiarity, moder­ ate for tone and good for phonetic dissimilarity. These were obtained at 95% level of confidence. Therefore the results ob­ tained were reliable. These words can be used to form a suit­ able SRT word list for Zulu First Language Speakers, i Therefore the following recommendations are made i.e.! • The present paper can be used as an example o f how words could be developed in mother tongue languages by| adher­ ing to both the audiological and linguistic principles inher­ ent in speech reception testing. J • The present paper could also serve as a guideline towards the development o f linguistic relevant SRT materials in other African languages locally and internationally. • The developed word list was assessed for its application to a normative clinical population as described in Panday (2006). The final word list therefore could be assessed for application on a varied clinical population. • The final word list developed in Panday (2006) may be used clinically with caution via recorded material for the assessment o f hearing for speech for the adult ZFLS. Further clinical and research implication for the test tool is available in Panday (2006). ^ ACK N O W LED G EM EN TS This article is the culmination o f thesis submitted to the Uni­ versity o f Kwa Zulu- natal by the first author for the require- R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) The D evelopm ent o f a Z ulu Speech R eception Threshold T est fo r Z ulu First Language Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 119 g^FERENCES Akm ajian, A., D em ers, R. A., F arm er, A. K , H am ish. R. M. (1990). A n introduc- tion to language and communication. M assachusetts: L ibrary o f C ongress Cataloging. Alexander, N. (2006). L anguage po licy a n d planning in the new South A frica. R etrieved D ecem ber 12, 2006 f r o m w w w .codesria.org/links/publications/ a s r lf u ll/a le x a n d e r .p d f American Speech-L anguage-H earing A ssociation. (1988). G uidelines for d eter­ m ining the threshold for speech. ASHA, 3, 85-88. 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Speech reception th resh o ld for digits. Journal o f Auditory Research, 27, 15-21. Rycroft, D. K , & N gcobo, A. B. (1979). Say it in Zulu. P ieterm arizburg: U ni­ versity o f N atal Press. Silm an, S., & S ilverm an, C. A. (1991). Audiology diagnosis. Principles an practice. N ew Y ork: A cadem ic press, inc. W ilson, R. H ., & M argolis, R. H. (1983). M easurem ents o f auditory thresholds or speech stim uli. In D.F. K onkle & W .F. R intlem an (Eds.), Principles o f Speech Audiometry (pp. 79-126). Baltim ore: A cadem ic Press. Y oung, J.R ., D udley, B., & G unter, M. B. (1982). T hresholds and psychom etric functions o f the individual spondaic w ords. Journal o f Speech and Hearing Research, 25, 586-593. The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) http://www.codesria.org/links/publications/ http://www.fizzylogic.com/users/bulbul/school/zuluverblist.html http://wwjw.lmp.ucla.edu/profiles/profz01 http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/ 120 Seema Panday, Harsha Kathard, Mershen Pillay & Cyril Govender APPENDIX A Identification Schedule: Adapted from Balkisson (2001) P lease list the most commonly u sed bi-syllabic Zulu w ords u sed by Zulu F irst Language Speakers in KZN. Each individual must f i l l a minimum o f 100 words No Commonly used EM -syllabic Zulu words N O Commonly u s e d B l -syllabic l u l u words 1 51 2 52 3 53 4 54 5 55 6 56 7 57 8 58 9 59 10 60 11 61 12 62 13 63 14 64 15 65 16 66 17 67 18 68 19 69 20 70 21 71 22 72 23 73 24 74 25 75 26 76 27 77 28 78 29 79 I 30 80 31 81 ' 32 82 33 83 34 84 35 85 I 36 86 ‘ 37 87 38 88 39 89 , 40 90 41- 91 42 92 43 93 44 94 45 95 46 96 4 7 97 48 98 49 99 50 100 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) APPENDIX B A description of the words obtained per participant for objective one The D evelopm ent o f a Z ulu Speech R eception Threshold T est for Z ulu First L anguage Speakers in K W A Z ulu-N atal 121 Words suggested by any of the two participants W ords suggested by any Of the three participants W ords suggested by any o f the fo u r participants ^ i B h a l a Bona Bhaka 2.Bhema Banga Biza 3 .Buza Bheka Bola 4.cela Cwewa Cacha 5 .chela Dinga Cinga 6.dansa Dlala Donsa 7 .duda Faka G cina 8.dula Futhi G eza 9. fika Ganga Hamba 10-funa Goba Khipa 11 .funda Gxeka Landa 12.finya Hleka Netha 13.gcaca Hoya Ndiza 14.gqoka Hlala Pheka 15.hola Hluba Phuma 16.jika Hlupha Shaya 17jula Hlenga Siza 18jaha Jeza Shada 19khiye Khanya Thatha 20.khala Kheta Vala 21.klekha Khola W oza 22letha Khaba Yifa 23.lima Lala 24.loya Linda 25.lapha Luma 26.minya Lunga 27.ngena M anje 28.nuka Mina 29.nyanga Mila 30phansi i Muva 31phezu j Ncam a 32.phuza j Nyama 33qeda | Phupha 34.qonda ( Phosa 35.qina | Phapha 36.senga ! Pheza 37.sula I Qala 38.sefa i Q oba 39.shiya Q uela 40.Sika Q haqha 41.sina Q aqa 42.susa Shesha 43.Thola Thenga 44.Thula Thanda 45.thela Vuka 46,tshala Vula 47.veza Vum a 48.w aw a W asha 49.xoxa W ina 50,xola Xosha 51,Yeka Yeba 52.Yanga Yosa 53.yenza 1 54.yona 55,zakhe 56.zosha 57.Zabo R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) APPENDIX C The fifty eight words selected according to the criteria of familiarity, phonetic dissimilarity and tone 122 Seem a Panday, H arsha K athard, M ershen Pillay & C yril G o v e n d e banga hlala loya veza bheka hleka lunga vula bhema hlenga minya vuma chela hluba pheka washa cinga hola phonsa wina dansa jaha qoba xola dinga jeza sefa yanga donsa khaba shada yeba faka khanya shaya yeka finya kheta thanda yenza geza khipa thatha yifa goba landa thela yona gonda letha thenga yosa gqoka lima thola gxeka linda vala Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 54, 2007 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS n a t u r e o f p u b l i c a t i o n The South A frican Journal o f Com m unication Disorders p u b lis h e s re p o rts and papers con ce rn e d w ith re s e a rch , and c ritic a lly e v a lu a tiv e th e o re tic a l and p h ilo so p hica l c o n c e p tu a l issues d e a lin g w ith a spects o f h u m a n c o m - m u n ication and its d is o rd e rs , d y s p h a g ia , se rvice p ro v is io n , tra in in g and policy- The Jo u rn a l w ill a cce p t th e fo llo w in g th re e ty p e s o f m a n u s c rip ts : Research m anuscripts d e fin e d as re p o rts based on q u a lita tiv e o r q u a n tita tiv e research. , o rig in a l general m anuscripts w h ic h are re p o rts o f w o rk u s u a lly , b u t no t e x c lu s iv e ly , th e o re tic a l in n a tu re and reg a rd e d as p ro v id in g a s ig ­ n ific a n t, c r itic a lly e v a lu a tiv e c o n trib u tio n to th e fie ld o f h u m a n c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n and its d is o rd e rs a n d /o r d ysp h a g ia . . Review m anuscripts w h ich a re u s u a lly w ritte n by a u th o rs in v ite d by th e J o u rn a l's e d ito ria l te a m to c o m m e n t, e xp re s s o p in io n s and o r c r it i­ cally e v a lu a te a to p ic. The J o u rn a l w ill n o t acce p t m a te ria l w h ic h has been p u b lish e d e ls e w h e re or th a t is c u rre n tly u n d e r re v ie w by o th e r p u b lic a tio n s . m a n u s c r ip t s u b m i s s i o n & s t y l e r e q u ir e m e n t s , M a n u scrip ts m u s t he a cc o m p a n ie d b y a c o v e rin g le tte r p ro v id in g th e a u th o r's ad d re ss, te le p h o n e and fa x n u m b e rs and e -m a il ad d re ss. , THREE p rin te d copies o f th e m a n u s c rip t m u s t be s u b m itte d . - The t it le page o f ONE c o p y m u s t c o n ta in : - T itle o f th e m a n u s c rip t. - Full n a m e s o f th e a u th o rs . - In s titu tio n a l a ffilia tio n . - A b s tra c t o f th e m a n u s c rip t in th e la n g u ag e o f th e m a n u s c rip t. • The t it le page o f th e re m a in in g TWO copies m u s t NOT c o n ta in th e a u th o r(s ) n a m e s o r in s titu tio n a l a ffilia tio n s . . ONE e x a c t e le c tro n ic co p y o f th e t it le page and m a n u s c rip t on disk m ust be s u b m itte d . F ile na m e s m u s t in clu d e th e fir s t a u th o r's in itia ls and a c le a rly id e n tifia b le ke y w o rd and m u s t he ty p e -w r itte n on th e last line o f th e la s t page o f th e R eference lis t ( fo r re trie v a l pu rp o se s on ly). • An e le c tro n ic co p y o f th e t it le page and m a n u s c rip t m u s t be e m a ile d to a d m in @ s a s lh a .c o .z a . The E d ito r-in -C h ie f a n d /o r th e S o u th A frica n S p e e c h -L a n g u a g e -H e a rin g A s s o c ia tio n (SASLH A) a d m in is tr a to r w ill a c k n o w le d g e re c e ip t o f th e m a n u s c rip t w ith in a m a x im u m o f 7 days. I f a t th is s ta g e , no a c k n o w le d g e m e n t has been rece ive d by th e a u ­ th o r, th e a u th o r is k in d ly re q u e s te d to fo llo w th is up w ith th e SASLHA office. • MS W ord m u s t be used f o r th e te x t. MS W ord o r MS P ow erP oint should be used fo r fig u re s , and MS Excel fo r ta b le s . • M an u scrip ts m u s t be in d o u b le sp a cin g and in a fo n t size o f 12. • M an u scrip ts m u s t be on A4 pages in d o u ble sp a cin g and in a fo n t size o f 12 ' • Filenam es m u s t in clu d e th e f ir s t a u th o r's in itia ls and a c le a rly id e n tifi­ able key w o rd . • M a n u scrip ts m u s t n o t exceed 30 pages. • The o rd e r o f th e m a n u s c rip t sh o u ld be: t it le page, a b s tra c t and key w ords, t e x t, re fe re n c e s , ta b le s , le g e n ds, and fig u re s . • Each m a n u s c rip t m u s t c o n ta in an English a b s tra c t o f no m o re th a n 200 w o rd s w ith 5 -7 key w o rds. • S tric t a d h e re n c e to th e P u b lica tio n M anual o f th e A m e ric a n Psycho­ logical A s so cia tio n (5 th e d ., 2 0 0 1 ) is re q u ire d . • H eadings a re NOT NUMBERED. The o rd e r o f im p o rta n c e is in d ic a te d as fo llo w s : - Main h e a ding in c a p ita ls and bold p rin t - S u b -h e a d in g s in u p p e r and lo w e r case and bold - S u b -s u b h e a d in g s in u p p e r and lo w e r case bold and ita lic p rin t. - S u b -s u b -s u b -h e a d in g in u p p e r and lo w e r case ita lic p rin t. • M a jo r h e a ding s, w h e re a p p lic a b le , m u s t be in th e o rd e r o f INTRO DUC­ T IO N , METHOD, RESULTS, D ISC U SSIO N , CONCLUSION, ACKNOW L­ EDGEMENTS, and REFERENCES. • All p a ra g ra p h s sho u ld be in d e n te d . • All ta b le s , fig u re s and illu s tra tio n s m u s t be n u m b e re d and p ro v id e d w ith title s . • The t it le o f ta b le s , w h ich a p p e a r a b o v e , and o f fig u re s , w h ic h a p p e a r below , m u s t be concise b u t e x p la n a to ry . • A llow f o r 5 0 -7 5 % re d u c tio n in p rin tin g o f ta b le s , fig u re s and illu s tra ­ tio n s. • Each ta b le , fig u re o r illu s tra tio n m u s t a p p e a r on a SEPARATE page. • Do n o t in clu d e m ore th a n 10 ta b le s , fig u re s o r illu s tra tio n s . • C olour g ra p h ic s are NOT p re fe rre d . I f s u b m itte d , e x tra c o s t o f c o lo u r re p ro d u c tio n and p rin tin g m u s t be co v e re d by th e a u th o r p rio r to p u b - lica tio n . A s h o rt ru n n in g t it le sh o u ld be liste d a t th e to p le ft-h a n d c o rn e r o f th e title page. A n y in fo rm a tio n a b o u t g ra n ts o r o th e r fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt should be s u p p lie d as an u n n u m b e re d fo o tn o te to th e m a n u s c rip t title . • G rap h ics, a u d io a n d /o r vid e o file s ( n o t e x ce e ding 2M B) m a y be s u b m itte d f o r fu tu re p u b lic a tio n as an e le c tro n ic o n lin e Jo u rn a l. C o n s u lt th e E d ito r-in -C h ie f re g a rd in g re q u ire d file fo rm a ts . • A u th o rs m u s t use g e n d e r-, ra c e -, and c re e d -in c lu s iv e la n g u ag e . • A u th o rs m u s t e n s u re a d h e re n c e to n a tio n a l a n d /o r in te rn a tio n a l e th ic a l codes. • B ritis h s p e llin g (e .g . c e n tra lis e n o t c e n tra liz e , b e h a v io u r n o t b e h a v ­ io r) is p re fe rre d . REFERENCING • R eferences m u s t be cite d in th e te x t by a u th o r's na m e and th e d a te , e .g . Van R iper (1 9 7 1 ). • W h e re th e re are m o re th a n tw o a u th o rs , a fte r th e fir s t o cc u rre n c e , e t al. m a y be used. • The n a m e s o f all a u th o rs m u s t a p p e a r in th e R eference L ist, w hich m u s t be lis te d in s tr ic t a lp h a b e tic a l o rd e r in tr ip le spacing a t th e end o f th e m a n u s c rip t. • All re fe re n c e s m u s t be in clu d e d in th e List, in c lu d in g se c o n d a ry sources. • O n ly a c c e p ta b le a b b re v ia tio n s o f jo u rn a ls m a y be used, (see D S I-1 ABSTRACTS, O c to b e r; o r The World List o f S cientific Periodicals). • A u th o r(s ) sh o u ld use re fe re n c e s th a t re fle c t an in te rn a tio n a l d iv e r ­ s ity a m o n g a u th o rs o f b o th so u rc e a rtic le s and c ite d a rtic le s . • The n u m b e r o f refe re n ces sh o u ld n o t exceed 30, unless s p e c ific a lly w a rra n te d . Exam ples Locke, J.L. (1 9 8 3 ). C linical P sychology: The e x p la n a tio n and tr e a tm e n t o f speech sound d is o rd e rs . J. Speech H ear D isord., 4 8 3 3 9 -3 4 1 . Penrod, J.P. ( 1 9 8 5 ). Speech d is c rim in a tio n te s tin g . In J. K a tz (Ed.), Handbook o f clinical audiology (3 rd e d .). B a ltim o re : W illia m s & W ilkin s. D avis, G. & W ilc o x , M.J. (1 9 8 5 ). A d u lt aphasia re h a b ilita tio n : A pplied pragm atics. San Diego, CA: C o lle g e -H ill. EDITING • M a n u s c rip ts m u s t be c o rre c te d f o r g ra m m a r and s ty le p rio r to s u b ­ m issio n . • O n ly m a n u s c rip ts c o m p ly in g w ith th e a b o ve re q u ire m e n ts w ill be acce p te d fo r re v ie w . REVIEWING SYSTEM • T he d o u b le -b lin d p e e r re v ie w s y s te m is e m p lo y e d as a m e th o d o f q u a lity c o n tro l o f th is p u b lic a tio n and e n s u re s th a t a u th o r(s ) and re v ie w e rs do n o t kn o w each o th e rs ' nam es. • Each m a n u s c rip t is s e n t to tw o in d e p e n d e n t re v ie w e rs , se le cte d a cco rd in g to th e ir area o f e x p e rtis e , to assess th e q u a lity o f th e m a n u s c rip t's s c ie n tific and te c h n ic a l c o n te n t. • A u th o r(s ) m u s t e n s u re th a t th e m a n u s c rip t does n o t c o n ta in in fo r ­ m a tio n /c lu e s as to th e id e n tity o f th e a u th o r(s ). • The E d ito r-in -C h ie f re ta in s th e fin a l re s p o n s ib ility fo r d e cisio n s re g a rd in g re v is io n , acce p ta n ce o r re je c tio n o f th e m a n u s c rip t. T his process is u s u a lly done in c o n s u lta tio n w ith th e m a n u s c rip t's e d ito r a n d /o r th e e d ito ria l te a m , as necessary. DEADLINE FOR CONTRIBUTIONS. 2 8 th/ 2 9 th F e b ru a ry each y e a r PUBLICATION FEE: A u th o rs w ill be e xp e c te d to p ay a p u b lic a tio n fee. The e x a c t a m o u n t is d e te rm in e d by p rin tin g costs. QUERIES AND CORRESPONDENCE: sh o u ld be a d dressed to The E d ito r-in -C h ie f, South A frican Journal o f Com m unication Disorders, S o u th A fric a n S p e e c h -L a n g u a g e -H e a rin g A s s o c ia tio n , PO Box 1 0 8 13 , L in to n G ra n g e , 6 0 1 5 , S o u th A fric a . E m a il S A SLH A a t ad m in @ s a s lh a .c o .z a fo r th e c u rre n t E d ito r-in -C h ie f's e m a il address. A u th o r's R e s p o n s ib ility : The S o u th A fric a n Jo u rn a l o f C o m m u n ic a ­ tio n D is o rd e rs is n o t re s p o n s ib le f o r a u th o rs ' v ie w s and does n o t e n ­ d o rse a n y o f th e p ro d u c ts o r m a te ria ls a d v e rtis e d in th e Jo u rn a l. C o p y rig h t: The c o p y rig h t o f all m a n u s c rip ts p rin te d in T he S o u th A fric a n J o u rn a l o f C o m m u n ic a tio n D is o rd e rs is re se rve d by T he S o u th A fric a n S p e e c h -L a n g u a g e -H e a rin g A s so cia tio n (SASLH A). 2 0 0 7 Editorial Board E d ito r-in -C h ie f: D r M ershen Pillay E d ito rs: P ro f H arsha K a th a rd , D r Elsie N aude, P rof E le a n o r Ross E d ito r (a s s is ta n t): Dr. M ichelle Pascoe (e d ito r-e le c t 20 08 ) T ech n ica l E d ito r: Ms C arm en M ilton R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) mailto:admin@saslha.co.za mailto:admin@saslha.co.za