P A R E N T A L P E R C E P T I O N S A N D P R A C T I C E S OF E M E R G E N T L I T E R A C Y D E V E L O P M E N T IN Y O U N G C H I L D R E N W I T H D O W N S Y N D R O M E : T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF I N T E R V E N T I O N G U I D E L I N E S Cherie van Heerden and Alta Kritzinger Clinic for High Risk Babies (CHRIB) Centre, University of Pretoria, South Africa Key findings of emergent literacy research conclude that emergent literacy experiences correlate with later reading successandthatemergentliteracyinterventionforchildrenwith special needsisessential.Asagroup with special needs, children with Down syndrome require emergent literacy intervention.They may attain functional literacyskillsandtheirlanguagedevelopmentdeterminestheirreadingability.Speech-language therapists have an important role to play in emergent literacy programme development in South Africa. As a first step towards programme development and emergent literacy intervention goal selection, the aim of this study was to determine the applicability of a self-administered questionnaire to describe parental perceptionsandpracticesregardingtheemergentliteracydevelopmentoftheiryoung children with Down syndrome. Aquantitativeresearchapproachwasusedwithinacross-sectionaldescriptivesurvey.Fifteenliter- ate parents, with preschool children with Down syndrome aged between two and five years were selected asparticipants.Datawerecollectedviaemailand/orfacsimile.Theresultsshowedthatallparticipantsvalued emergent literacy development.They appeared to have knowledge about book-reading but not about the broad spectrum o f emergent literacy experiences to which they might expose their children. Participants were actively promoting emergent literacy development of their children, but they had certain needs that could potentiallybeaddressedbyspeech-languagetherapistsworkinginearlycommunicationintervention. The questionnaire proved to be applicable, but changes are required for application with illiterate parents andthosewith lowliteracyskills.Basedontheresultsaframeworkwithguidelinesforemergentliteracygoal selection is provided. ! Keywords: Emergent literacy development; parental perceptions; emergent literacy intervention; Down syndrome; earlyjcommunication intervention. As a developmental construct emergent lit­eracy has become a dynamic field o f study in recent years. Key research findings such as the correlation between emergent literacy experi­ ences and later reading success, and the necessity of emergent literacy intervention for children with spe­ cial needs (Ezell & Justice, 2 0 0 5 ), focus the attention on the importance o f emergent literacy knowledge and facilitation skills for all involved in early child­ hood interventions. In the U SA , A S H A (2001) advocates the view that speech-language therapists play an important role in promoting literacy for young children with commu­ nication disorders. However, there appears to be a dearth o f information on the promotion o f emergent literacy development across the diverse spectrum of South African contexts, despite the fact that many young children are at risk for communication dis­ orders and have special needs. Apart from a major study by Willenberg (2007) on the emergent literacy competencies o f Grade R learners on the Cape Flats in the Western Cape Province and the development o f an assessment tool for young children, the inclu­ sion o f literacy skills in early communication as­ sessment protocols (Kritzinger 6c Steenkamp, 20 0 6 ; Kritzinger &c Louw, 2 0 0 2 ), and minor surveys such as Kritzinger and Louw (1997), Pieterse (1998) and Prinsloo (1998) to determine awareness o f emergent Author Contact: Cherie van Heerden an d Alta Kritzinger, Clinic f o r High Risk Babies (CHRIB) Centre, University o f Pretoria, Lynwood Road, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa TH E S O U T H A FR IC A N J O U R N A L OF C O M M U N IC A T IO N DISORD ER S, V O L . 5 5 2 0 0 8 37 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) CHERIE V A N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K R ITZIN G ER literacy skills among parents, little is known about interven­ tion efforts by speech-language therapists in South Africa during the earliest stage o f literacy development. In a literate context, emergent literacy represents the first stage (birth to five years), followed by the early literacy stage (five to seven years) on the continuum o f literacy develop­ ment (Justice, 2 0 0 6 ). According to Ezell and Justice (2005), emergent literacy describes the concepts, skills and knowl­ edge that preschool children acquire about the process o f reading and writing before beginning their formal educa­ tion. Em ergent literacy not only refers to the child’s foun­ dational skills o f print knowledge, but also includes phono­ logical awareness, writing skills such as invented writing and name writing, and oral language skills, which include gram­ mar, vocabulary and narration. Although emergent literacy development is closely related to language and communica­ tion development (Owens, 2 0 0 5 ), it constitutes a separate developmental construct and is not merely a useful medium to facilitate early language development. Typical characteristics o f children in the emergent lit­ eracy stage o f development include having a keen interest in print despite not being able to read, viewing themselves as being able to read, particularly with familiar storybooks, playing with writing utensils and media, viewing their read­ ing and writing attempts as meaningful, using and enjoy­ ing books as a play or relationship-building activity, play­ ing with the phonology o f oral language, such as reciting or making up rhymes, identifying alliterative patterns across words, demonstrating awareness o f words, syllables, pho­ nemes and numbers, and utilising literacy themes or props within their dramatic play. Exposure to print includes be­ ing made aware o f print in books and in the everyday envi­ ronment such as street signs and brand names on products, the ability to handle books correctly, the knowledge o f print directionality and the knowledge o f major book elements, such as knowing that the cover o f a book holds the title o f the book, as well as exposure to numeracy skills (Boudreau, 2002; Buckley, 2 0 0 0 ; Justice, 2 0 06). Since acquisition o f these diverse emergent literacy char­ acteristics and skills facilitates successful reading at a later stage (Ezell & Ju stice, 2 0 05), emergent literacy development should begin very early in a child’s life. Exposure to a rich variety o f books at home, in early childcare settings and pre­ schools is assumed. Em ergent literacy centers around books and may be viewed as a non-essential commodity when re­ sources are scarce. These important developmental experi­ ences may not be accessible to all children in South Africa, including those with special needs. L ocal research is there­ fore needed to determine the nature o f emergent literacy development in young children from families who represent the entire spectrum o f literacy, from fully literate, to those with low literacy skills, to illiteracy. D ata obtained can direct emergent literacy intervention programmes to train parents and caregivers to optimise the emergent literacy stage o f young children with various special needs. The involvement o f parents and caregivers in emergent literacy development is consistent with the emergent literacy intervention ap­ proach (Justice, 2 0 0 6 ) and the principles o f early communi­ cation intervention (Rossetti, 2 0 01). According to Kumin (2003) reading can be a very suc­ cessful route in assisting children with Down syndrome to learn language, and emergent literacy experiences have posi­ tive effects on receptive and expressive language, cognitive and memory skills. Em ergent literacy skills were found to enhance a young child’s vocabulary, speech and other ex­ pressive language skills such as syntax, morphological skills and syntax length, the initiation o f conversation, under­ standing o f concepts and awareness o f sound structure. The future learning o f young children with Down syndrome is also enhanced as emergent literacy promotes reading and writing, educational progress, inclusion, independence, op­ portunities for employment and quality o f life (Boudreau, 2 0 0 2 ; Buckley, 2 0 0 0 ; Elias, Hay, Homel, 8c Freilberg, 20 0 6 ; Ezell 8c Justice, 2 0 0 5 ; Kumin, 2 0 0 3 ). Since many children with D ow n syndrome can attain functional literacy skills in inclusive education (Bochner, Outhred 8c Pieterse, 20 0 1 ) and the finding that language skills are a strong predictor o f their reading ability (Boudreau, 2 0 0 2 ) it is important that parents and caregivers are sufficiently informed about the long-term effects o f early communication and emergent lit­ eracy intervention. Inform ation on the advantages o f emergent literacy skills and parental involvement are available to South African parents with children with Down syndrome and who have access to the Internet, on the Down Syndrome Association o f South Africa website (www.downsyndrome.org.za/main. aspx?artid=67).The association is also involved in promoting literacy in a paper-based publication, the D ow n Syndrome B ulletin (2000, 2 0 0 1 , 20 0 2 , 2 0 0 3 and 2 0 06). The question remains as to whether parents actively promote the emer­ gent literacy skills o f their children with Down syndrome or i f they only have the knowledge o f emergent literacy devel­ opment but do not put this knowledge into practice. The advantages o f emergent literacy intervention are en­ hanced when children have access to literacy experiences in their homes (Ezell 8c Justice, 2 0 0 6 ). According to Owens (2006) o f all the factors predicting reading success, early book-reading practices by parents to their children and a literate atmosphere at home appear to be most important for early reading success. Elias et al. (2006) confirm that the, frequency and quality o f parent-child reading is an impor­ tant determinant o f a child’s later literacy attainment. Kad-j eravek and Justice (2004) emphasize that parents can be! literacy facilitators, which implies that literacy can be fa-! cilitated throughout the day in a number o f different ac- tivities. According to Roberts, Jurgens and Burchinal (2005) the responsiveness and support o f the home environment is the strongest and most consistent predictor o f children’s language and emergent literacy skills. These research find­ ings confirm the importance o f parent involvement in sup­ porting emergent literacy development. Yet, it appears that they may not always sufficiently facilitate emergent literacy development in their children. ^ According Ezell and Justice (2005) there is considerable variation among American school children in language and literacy skills when they enter the early literacy stage. The variation may be partly due to insufficient exposure to lan­ guage-rich experiences during adult-child storybook read­ ing. A local study by Kritzinger and Louw (1997), described the book-reading practices o f 25 mothers and their young 38 | DIE SU ID -AFR IKA AN SETYDSK R IF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , VO L. 5 5 ,2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) http://www.downsyndrome.org.za/main T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F IN T E R V E N T IO N G U ID E L IN E S children, 0 -2 years old with risks for communication dis­ orders. The results indicated that only 36% o f the mothers were aware o f the value o f jo in t book-reading, 12% were unsure and 52% were unaware o f the value o f jo in t book- reading. In contrast with the majority o f participants’ lack o f knowledge about the benefits o f book-reading, a study by Prinsloo (1998) showed that 80% o f the parents with infants aged 6 -2 4 months with Down syndrome knew that their children could benefit from early jo in t book-reading. These two studies focused on jo in t book-reading activities only and not on the broader perspective o f emergent lit­ eracy experiences. Furthermore, these studies were already conducted nine and ten years ago. I t is therefore important to continue investigating emergent literacy development in children with D ow n syndrome so that guidelines for emer­ gent literacy programme development may be obtained. As research participants, parents and caregivers may be utilised to determine strengths and areas o f need in their children’s emergent literacy experiences (Bennett, W eigel 8c M artin, 2 0 0 2 ). Since children with Down syndrome repre­ sent a group with special needs that requires emergent lit­ eracy and early communication intervention to optimize success in inclusive education (Kumin, 2 0 0 3 ), their parents were targeted in the present study. I t was not known to what extent parents expose their children to the wide range o f ac­ tivities associated with emergent literacy skills and the value they placed on the development o f these skills in their chil­ dren with Down syndrome. Moreover, it appears there is a dearth o f research on emergent literacy development in children with Down syndrome within the South African context. The available literature mostly describes the A meri­ can and British contexts, including the work o f authors such as Bird and Buckley (2007), Boudreau (2002) and Kumin (2003). In order to start the process o f emergent literacy pro­ gramme development, and to involve parents from the be­ ginning, a self-admlinistered questionnaire was developed to determine parental perceptions o f the broad spectrum o f emergent literacy activities and what they report doing regarding emergent; literacy development in their children. The research question was how applicable the questionnaire proved to be as a tool to determine a literate sample o f par­ ents’ perceptions and practices o f emergent literacy support o f their children, and i f clinical guidelines might be gained from the results. Method Aim s o f the study The main aim o f the study was to determine the appli­ cability o f a self-administered questionnaire to describe pa­ rental perceptions regarding emergent literacy development in their young children with Down syndrome in order to provide guidelines for clinical practice in an emergent liter­ acy intervention programme. The following sub-aims were identified to achieve the main aim: T o determine the value parents attach to the de­ velopment o f emergent literacy development in their young children with Down syndrome. To describe the materials parents report using to facilitate the development o f emergent literacy in their chil­ dren. To describe parental reporting on how they facili­ tate the emergent literacy development o f their children. To determine the parental perceptions o f the time they spend on facilitating the emergent literacy develop­ m ent o f their children. To determine the needs o f parents to facilitate emergent literacy development in their children. Research design The research study took the form o f a cross-sectional sur­ vey. Data on parental perceptions regarding emergent lit­ eracy development o f young children with D ow n syndrome were collected on ce-off and described without determining relationships between the variables. A self-administered questionnaire with mostly closed- ended questions was used to collect data. D ata were there­ fore measurable and could be described quantitatively. Since quantitative research uses methods that enhance objectivity when variables are measured, conclusions may be less biased (Leedy 8c Ormrod, 2 0 05). A self-administered question­ naire allowed participants to complete the questions at their own time, without interference from the researcher. Self-ad- ministered questionnaires were successfully used in previous studies with parents o f children with Down syndrome such as Bennett et al. (2002) and Boudreau (2005). This data col­ lection method also permits anonymity, although it may be compromised when the questionnaire is returned via email or facsimile. The use o f electronic media for data collection, however, did not lim it the participants to a small geographi­ cal area and avoided possible delays with postal services. Research Ethics E thical clearance was obtained from the Research E th ­ ics Com m ittee o f the Departm ent o f Communication Pa­ thology, University o f Pretoria, before commencing with data collection. Informed consent was obtained from all the research participants. The participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any point in the re­ search process. Data were analysed and reported anonymously, although the one researcher knew the participants’ identities, as she received the questionnaires. W h en questionnaires were re­ turned, all identifying information such as facsimile num­ bers and email addresses were removed from the copies and coded. A t the time o f data analysis the questionnaires could not be traced back to any specific participant. No deception was used and data were analyzed and reported from a group perspective. A ll data were treated with confidentiality and were securely stored according to University regulations. Participants Since the study targeted literate parents o f young chil­ dren with D ow n syndrome (two to five years) to determine the applicability o f the questionnaire for this group, a lim­ ited number o f participants were available. The research par­ ticipants were selected according to the following criteria: Parental status The research participants were the parents (mothers and/ or fathers) o f young children with Down syndrome, between the ages o f two to five years. According to Kumin (2003) and Buckley (2000) young children with D own syndrome o f two to three years are usually able to learn to read. Language proficiency and level o f education TH E S O U T H A F R IC A N J O U R N A L O F C O M M U N IC A T IO N DISO RD ER S, V O L. 5 5 2 0 0 8 | 39 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) C H E R If V A N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K RITZIN G ER Table 1. Participant characteristics (n=15) C h a ra c te ris tic s V a lu e 1. Age of parents (years) 26 -3 0 3 1 -3 5 36 -4 0 > 40 ye a rs - M o th e rs: 1 4 7 3 - F ath ers: 1 4 4 5 2. Position of child with Down syndrome in the family First: 6; Second: 7; Third: 2 T o ta l: 15 3. First language spoken at home English: 9; Afrikaans: 5; Southern Sotho: 1 T o ta l: 15 4. Additional languages spoken English: 4; Afrikaans: 5; Germ an: 1; French: 1; Northern Sotho: 1; Swazi:1; No additional languages spoken: 2 T o ta l: 15 5. Place o f residence Pretoria: 3; Hoedspruit: 1; Johannesburg: 6; Port Elizabeth: 1; C ape Town: 1; Bloemfontein: 2; Krugersdorp: 1 T o ta l: 15 6. Level of education M a tric D ip lo m a D eg ree - M o th e rs: 7 5 3 - F ath ers: 6 5 3 7. Em ployment of parents Mothers: 15; Fathers: 13 8. Age of children with Down syndrome - R an g e: 2y4m to 5y - A v e ra g e a g e : 3y10m 9. Number of children in families Only child: 3; Two children: 8; Three children: 3; Four children: 1 T o ta l: 15 10. Speech-language therapy - 11 children w ere receiving speech-language therapy at the time of the study- 3 children received speech-language therapy in the past - 1 child had never received speech-language therapy T o ta l: 15 The participants had to be liter­ ate and competent in English and/ or Afrikaans in order to answer the questionnaire. This questionnaire was only available in English and Afrikaans. As a first step in emer­ gent literacy programme develop­ ment, literate parents were target­ ed in this study. It was hoped that useful information might be gained from this study so that research tools might be designed for follow- up studies with parents with low lit­ eracy and those with limited func­ tional literacy skills. Access to technology The participants needed to have had access to either Internet or fac­ simile facilities in order to be able to receive and return the question­ naires. Access to the Internet and facsimile were required, as these op­ tions are more efficient than postal services and suited the short dura­ tion o f the research project. Geographical location Since the study was conducted via email and/or facsimile, the par­ ticipants were not limited to a spe­ cific geographical region. For the purpose o f this study, in ­ clusion criteria did not require that the toddlers with Down syndrome had received speech therapy in the past or were receiving therapy at the time o f the study. Participant sampling design Two sampling procedures were selected for this study, namely purposeful sampling and snowball sampling. A c­ cording to Struwig and Stead (2001), purposeful sampling provides a sample o f inform ation-rich participants as the participants show specific characteristics that the researcher is interested in. The Down Syndrome Association o f South Africa was contacted and a list with potential participants for the study was obtained. Participants were also selected from the C linic for H igh Risk Babies (C H R IB ) research database, University o f Pretoria. The C H R IB database con­ tains datasets o f families who have children with develop­ mental disabilities, including Down syndrome (Kritzinger, Louw 8c Rossetti, 2 0 0 1 ). Families with children with Down syndrome aged between two and five years old were recruit­ ed. Additional participants were then obtained from infor- ■mation provided by the initial participants, via snowball sampling (Struwig 8c Stead, 2 0 0 1 ) .This technique was used to locate possible participants for the study. P articipant selection procedure The Down Syndrome Association o f South Africa sup­ plied a list o f 16 parents with children with Down syndrome aged between two and five years from their membership list. The head o f C H R IB granted permission to use the C H R IB database to identify possible participants in the study and a list o f nine families were obtained. A ll the potential par­ ticipants were contacted by telephone requesting their par­ ticipation in the research study. O f the 2 5 parents from the combined list received from the Down Syndrome Asso­ ciation o f South Africa and C H R IB database, 15 verbally agreed to participate. Through snowball sampling, another nine parents were contacted and all o f these verbally agreed to participate. Participant information brochures and letters o f informed consent were sent out to 2 4 parents with chil­ dren with Down syndrome. | A total o f 15 parents sent their letters o f consent back and those parents were selected as participants for the rej- search study. A ll 15 questionnaires were returned after one reminder. The participant characteristics are described in Table 1. According to Table 1, the characteristics o f the partici­ pants provide the following profile o f parents and their chil­ dren with Down syndrome: The majority o f the parents were in their middle adult years, with the majority o f their chil­ dren with Down syndrome being the second or third born child. This may indicate that the participants were^experi­ enced in parenting. W h ile the majority o f the families spoke English as their first language, most o f the families were bilingual. There were also a variety o f different languages spoken at home, reflecting the multilingual nature o f South African families (Swanepoel, 2 0 0 4 ). The participants were geographically widespread, thus the means o f communica­ 40 | DIE SUID -AFR IKA AN SE TYDSKRIF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , V OL. 55, 2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F I N T E R V E N T I O N G U ID E L IN E S Table 2. Content o f the questionnaire S F C T IO N 1: B IO G R A P H IC A L IN F O R M A T IO N C o n te n t J u s t if ic a t io n In fo rm a tio n w a s g a th e r e d a b o u t th e p a r e n ts ’ a g e , o c c u p a tio n a n d le v e l o f e d u c a tio n , th e ir to w n o f r e s id e n c e , la n g u a g e s s p o k e n , n u m b e r o f c h ild re n , p o s itio n o f th e ch ild w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e in th e fa m ily , a n d th e c h ild ’s a g e . T h is s e c tio n w a s im p o rta n t a s it p ro v id e s b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e p a rtic ip a n ts a n d th e ir c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e . T h is p ro v id e d th e r e s e a r c h e r w ith d e e p e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e fa m ily (S h ip le y & M c A f e e , 2 0 0 4 ) a n d th e d a ta w e r e u s e d to in te r p re t th e re s u lts . S E C T IO N 2: T H E V A L U E O F E M E R G E N T L IT E R A C Y Q u e s tio n s in c lu d e d a s k in g w h e r e p a r e n ts h e a r d a b o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f e m e r g e n t lite ra c y , w h e th e r th e y p a r tic ip a te d in d e v e lo p in g th e ir c h ild ’s e m e r g e n t lite ra c y a n d w h e r e th e y re c e iv e d th e ir in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e im p o rta n c e o f e m e r g e n t lite ra c y . T h is s e c tio n p r o v id e d in fo rm a tio n p e rta in in g to th e S o u th A fric a n c o n te x t. It w a s im p o rta n t to d e te r m in e th e v a lu e p a r e n ts p la c e d o n e m e r g e n t lite r a c y so th a t s p e e c h -la n g u a g e th e r a p is ts m ig h t k n o w w h ic h g u id e lin e s s h o u ld b e p ro v id e d to fa m ilie s w ith c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e . E m e r g e n t lite ra c y fa c ilita te s c o m m u n ic a tio n d e v e lo p m e n t a n d a c a d e m ic le a r n in g skills in c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e (K u m in , 2 0 0 3 ) . S E C T IO N 3: T H E M A T E R IA L S P A R E N T S U S E T O F A C IL IT A T E E M E R G E N T R E A D IN G S K IL L S Q u e s tio n s w e r e a s k e d a b o u t th e ty p e s o f b o o k s p a r e n ts re a d to th e ir c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e , w h e r e th e y o b ta in e d t h e s e b o o k s , th e ir c rite ria fo r s e le c tin g b o o k s to r e a d a n d a d d itio n a l lite ra c y e x p e r ie n c e s to w h ic h th e child w a s e x p o s e d . It w a s im p o rta n t to id e n tify w h a t m a te r ia ls p a re n ts w e r e u sin g to fa c ilita te e m e r g e n t lite ra c y d e v e lo p m e n t. R e a d in g m a te ria l n e e d s to b e a g e a p p r o p r ia te in te r m s o f h o w th e b o o k n e e d s to b e h a n d le d (e .g . c a r d b o a r d p a g e s v e r s u s p a p e r p a g e s ) a n d w h a t kind o f in fo rm a tio n it p r o v id e s (e .g . s iz e o f print a n d ty p e s o f p ic tu re s ). L ite r a c y g o e s fa r b e y o n d b o o k -r e a d in g a n d is th u s im p o rta n t to d e te r m in e w h e th e r p a r e n ts e x p o s e th e ir c h ild re n to th e e n tir e s p e c tru m o f e m e r g e n t lite ra c y e x p e r ie n c e s (B o u d r e a u , 2 0 0 5 ) . S E C T IO N 4 : S T R A T E G IE S A N D M E T H O D S P A R E N T S U S E T O F A C IL IT A T E L IT E R A C Y D E V E L O P M E N T Q u e s tio n s w e r e a s k e d to d e te r m in e th e e n v ir o n m e n t in w h ic h th e child w a s re a d to a n d th e s tr a te g ie s p a r e n ts u s e d w h ile re a d in g to th e ir ch ild . I ! R e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n th a t c e r ta in s tr a te g ie s a n d m e th o d s , s u c h a s jo in t b o o k -r e a d in g , u s e d in e m e r g e n t lite r a c y c o n trib u te to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f la n g u a g e skills (J u s tic e , 2 0 0 6 ) . It is im p o rta n t to d e s c r ib e h o w p a r e n ts e n h a n c e b o o k -re a d in g in o r d e r to p r o v id e a p p r o p r ia te g u id e lin e s . S E C T IO N 5: F A C T O R S R E G A R D IN G T IM E A s p e c ts s u c h a s jth e a m o u n t o f tim e s p e n t re a d in g a n d th e tim e o f d a y th a t re a d in g o c c u rs , w e r e a d d r e s s e d . i M o r e tim e s p e n t o n e m e r g e n t lite ra c y d e v e lo p m e n t c a n re s u lt in m o r e b e n e fits fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n d e v e lo p m e n t (K a d e r a v e k & S u lz b y , 1 9 9 8 ) . Id e n tify in g h o w m u c h tim e p a r e n ts s p e n d on lite ra c y a c tiv itie s m a y p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n w h e r e g u id e lin e s c a n a g a in b e g iv e n , s in c e c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e le a rn b e s t if m e a n in g fu l a c tiv itie s a re r e p e a te d o fte n (K u m in , 2 0 0 3 ) . S E C T IO N 6: P A R E N T A L N E E D S Q u e s tio n s re g a rd in g th e s p e c ific n e e d s p a r e n ts h a d re g a rd in g e m e r g e n t lite ra c y . A d d itio n a l s p a c e w a s p ro v id e d fo r p a r e n ts to s u p p ly th e ir s p e c ific n e e d s . T h e id e n tific a tio n o f p a r e n ta l n e e d s is a n im p o rta n t e m e r g e n t in te rv e n tio n p rin c ip le (R o s s e tti, 2 0 0 1 ) , If p a r e n ta l n e e d s a r e k n o w n , e m e r g e n t in te rv e n tio n m a y b e a p p lie d in a s s is tin g p a r e n ts to fo c u s o n th e e m e r g e n t lite ra c y d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e ir c h ild re n w ith D o w n s y n d ro m e . tion via email and facsimile were advantageous. A ll the par­ ticipants were well educated having completed matric and about h alf o f the parents had tertiary qualifications. M ost o f the parents were employed. The majority o f the children with Down syndrome had siblings and thus had opportuni­ ties for interaction with other children. M o st o f the chil­ dren with Down syndrome had received speech-language therapy, which could imply that the participants were aware TH E S O U T H A F R IC A N J O U R N A L O F C O M M U N IC A T IO N DISO RD ER S, V O L. 55 2 0 0 8 | 41 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) CHERlE V A N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K R ITZIN G ER o f the importance o f early communication intervention. M aterial The materials used in the study were the participant in­ formation brochure, letter o f informed consent and the self­ administered questionnaire. The questionnaire was made available in both English and Afrikaans and targeted the ar­ eas based on the main and sub-aims o f the study. The ques­ tionnaire content and arguments to justify the inclusion o f questions are summarized in Table 2. Procedures A pilot study was conducted to determine whether the material and procedures were appropriate and applicable for the study. A parent with similar participant characteristics as the target group was selected. The child with Down syn­ drome in the pilot study was aged 7, slightly older than the children in the main study in order not to utilize a partici­ pant from the limited pool o f participants available for the main study. The pilot study gave a clear indication that the questionnaire and information brochure would be suitable for the purposes o f the study. Validity and reliability To ensure validity o f the data collection instrument, the questions in the questionnaire were based on a review o f recent literature regarding emergent literacy development o f children with Down syndrome (Bird 8c Buckley, 2 0 0 7 ; Bochner et al., 2 0 0 1 ; Boudreau, 2 0 0 5 ). The pilot study in­ creased the reliability o f the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to ensure accurate and consistent data. Reli­ ability amongst participants was further enhanced, as they all received the same questionnaire without prior knowledge about the questionnaire from the researcher. Data Collection The questionnaires were sent via email and/or facsimi­ le, according to the participant’s preference. Questionnaires sent via email or mail may pose certain problems. There are often low response rates, at times the questionnaires may be completed by someone other than the intended participant and participants may not understand some o f the questions or how to complete the questionnaire (Struwig 8c Stead, 2 0 0 1 ). To ameliorate the disadvantages, the researcher en­ closed an information brochure explaining the value o f the research. The questions were easy to answer, well formulated and did not test knowledge. Participants were encouraged to share their views and may have felt positive about the op­ portunity to report on their practices to develop their chil­ dren’s literacy skills. Follow-up phone calls were made to remind participants o f the deadlines for returning the ques­ tionnaires, but care was taken not to pressurize participants to reach a point o f involuntary participation. Data Analysis The raw data were converted into more meaningful and interpretable information by means o f encoding. The encod­ ed information was entered on a spreadsheet (M icrosoft E x ­ cel© ). O nce the coding was done, the data were statistically analyzed and frequency counts, averages and ranges were determined. No inferential statistical analysis procedures could be carried out since the number o f participants was limited (Leedy 8c Ormrod, 2 0 05). Text data were analysed according to recurring themes and reported as comments. Results and Discussion Sub-aim 1: The value parents attach to the development o f emergent literacy development in their young children with D ow n syndrome A ll 15 participants valued emergent literacy develop­ ment. A total o f 87% o f participants regarded this devel­ opmental area as very important, while the remaining 13% viewed emergent literacy as moderately important. A study by Prinsloo (1998) showed that 80% o f the parents valued the practice o f book-reading with their young children with Down syndrome. The higher result obtained in the present study may be attributed to the time that has passed between the two studies and the improved resources and technology now available to parents. The high value placed by parents on emergent literacy development may also be a function o f the nature o f the study, i.e. parents could have concluded that a positive answer was desired. A few participants also explained why they placed such a high value on the emergent literacy development o f their children. Reasons included the fact that they knew the im ­ plications o f emergent literacy on their child’s future de­ velopment. I t therefore appears that participants knew that emergent literacy is the basis for further learning at school and independent functioning later on in life. The different sources from which the participants re­ ceived information about emergent literacy development are reported in Table 3. T able 3. The d ifferen t sourcesfrom w hich th e p articip an ts receiv ed in form ation abou t em ergent literacy developm en t (N=15) S o u r c e s o f in fo r m a t io n N u m b e r o f p a r tic ip a n ts 1. S p e e c h - la n g u a g e th e r a p is t 9 2 . P o p u la r m e d ia : P a r e n t m a g a z in e s , te le v is io n , in te rn e t 6 3. P h y s io th e ra p is t, o c c u p a tio n a l th e ra p is t, s p e c ia lis t in lite ra c y , c h ild ’s te a c h e r 4 i 4. N o in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d r 3 5. O w n k n o w le d g e fro m fie ld o f s tu d y (te a c h e r ) 2 1 6. F rie n d s 2 7. D o w n S y n d r o m e A s s o c ia tio n 2 ! Participants received emergent literacy information mostly from a speech-language therapist and also from other early intervention team members. This was a positive result and suggested that speech-language therapists and other professionals were keeping up with the new trends in emergent literacy development for young children with Down syndrome. Popular mass media also played an impor­ tant role in providing information about emergentTiteracy. Even though most o f the participants were recruited from the Down Syndrome Association o f South Africa, only two participants indicated receiving information on emergent literacy development from the Association. The Association is actively involved in promoting emergent lit­ eracy in publications such as the D ow n Syndrome Bulletin 42 | DIE SUID -AFR IKA AN SE TYDSKRIF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , VOL. 5 5, 2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F IN T E R V E N T I O N G U ID E L IN E S ( 2 0 0 0 ,2 0 0 1 ,2 0 0 2 ,2 0 0 3 and 2 0 0 6 ) but the information may not have been noted by the parents in this study. I t is a con­ cern that three participants did not receive any information on emergent literacy. I t therefore appears that much can still be done to ensure that all parents who have young children with Down syndrome receive information on emergent lit­ eracy.̂ The next question enquired about the people who read books to the child. I t appeared that persons who read to the child with Down syndrome were mostly family mem­ bers, i.e. mothers (14), the fathers (10), grandmothers (9) and siblings. O nly one child in the study was not read to by anyone. Even though being read to is only one activity o f all the possible emergent literacy experiences, it is consid­ ered as the most important. Shared book-reading promote timely development o f oral language and other areas o f emergent literacy development (Ezell 8c Justice, 2 0 0 5 ). A c­ cording to E zell (2006) storybooks offer an opportunity to decontextualise language, which implies that the events and concepts are not restricted to the here and now. D econtex- tualised language may be more linguistically advanced than contextualised language and therefore challenges cognitive development. Children with Down syndrome may therefore require support in understanding the decontextualised dis­ course o f storybooks. Knowing that most o f the children with Down syndrome in the present study were exposed to jo in t book-reading through their parents and others implies that their communication development and their future ac­ ademic success could be enhanced by these experiences. It appeared that grandparents and siblings played a sig­ nificant role in emergent literacy experiences and it is rec­ ommended that the speech-language therapist should utilize them as an additional source to facilitate the de­ velopment o f the emergent literacy skills o f children with Down syndrome. Since children with Down syndrome learn more effectively i f skills are reinforced, the option o f multi­ ple readers in jo in t book-reading should be utilised (Spiker 8c Hopmann, 1997). Sub-aim 2: H ie materials participants report using to fa­ cilitate the development o f em ergent literacy in their young children with D ow n syndrome M ost participants used children’s and baby books when reading to their children. Depending on the child’s develop­ mental age, these types o f books are appropriate for the pre­ school years, which was the age range o f the children in this study. The extensive use o f children’s books instead o f baby books may not have been appropriate for all the children in the study, who may be on a lower developmental level. A c­ cording to Kumin (2003) books with cardboard pages, flaps, and touch-and-feel features help children to explore and manipulate books, thus making the reading experience more enriching. Cardboard books are more durable and are thus a good alternative for the child who mishandles books. As a result o f low muscle tone, cardboard books make book han­ dling and turning the pages an easier task for the child with Down syndrome (Ezell 8cju stice, 2 0 0 5 ; Kumin, 2003). Ten participants indicated using magazines as materi­ al to read to their children. Magazines are not the optimal reading source for young children because the size and type o f paper is unsuitable for young children in the oral phase o f mouthing objects (Kritzinger 8c Louw, 1997). Homemade books, photo albums, birthday cards given to the child, toys with letters and words, flash cards and multimedia appara­ tus were used to a limited extent by the participants. The results therefore indicated that the participants require in­ formation about appropriate emergent literacy materials for their children. M ost participants reported that they bought their own books for their children or they have their own collection o f books. This was a positive result as it showed that par­ ticipants did not have resource needs to obtain books. M ost participants reported that they had more than nine books available for their children. Participants also indicated the content o f books they had for their children to read. The books ranged from books about different concepts such as colours and shapes, books with vocabulary on certain topics, such as the body and ani­ mals, general vocabulary, such as a child’s first 100 words, books with narratives such as Disney stories, picture books and books with nursery rhymes. Books with different physi­ cal characteristics such as pages with tactile and auditory stimulation were also listed as being used by the partici­ pants. This large variety o f books indicated that children were exposed to many different book-reading experiences and these experiences were likely to enhance the child’s de­ velopment. There are currently a large variety o f books for young children available in stores (Owens, 20 0 6 ) and it ap­ pears that the participants in this study were making use o f these resources. The participants’ educational level and parenting experience (see Table 1) may have contributed to the knowledge they possessed regarding the selection o f dif­ ferent books available for young children. Table 4 indicates the criteria participants reported us­ ing when selecting reading material for their child. The il­ lustrations in the book, the child’s lev el o f interest and the story line were the three most important criteria for par­ ticipants when choosing a book. The illustration in a book is central to sustaining the child’s attention and enhancing understanding (Ezell 8c Justice, 2 0 0 5 ). I t appears that the participants selected books according to the most important criterion to maintain their child’s interest. Participants also reported choosing books with bold graphics and few words, which according to Kumin (2003) are appropriate for chil­ dren at the emergent literacy level. Although participants may have needed guidance on the variety o f sources and ap­ propriate materials they could use for emergent literacy de­ velopment in their children, they appeared to know how to choose appropriate books. Table 5 indicates the different literacy experiences to which participants exposed their children, apart from that o f book-reading. In general, it appears that the majority o f participants did not expose their children to a wide variety o f experiences. This may have been due to a lack o f knowl­ edge and a lack o f information provided by speech-language therapists and other information sources regarding the va­ riety o f emergent literacy experiences. A few participants added comments on the questionnaire and wrote that they thought exposure to some o f these literacy experiences was too advanced for their child with Down syndrome. E x ­ posure to experiences such as being made aware o f brand TH E S O U T H A F R IC A N J O U R N A L OF C O M M U N IC A T IO N D ISO RD ER S, V O L 55 2 0 0 8 | 43 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) C H ER ie VA N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K RITZIN G ER Table 4. Criteria participants use to select reading m aterial Table 5. Literacy experiences participants expose their chil- (N=15) dren to (N=15) C r it e r ia V a lu e • A c c o rd in g to th e p ic tu re s a n d /o r illu stratio n s in th e bo o k 13 • A c c o rd in g to c h ild ’s le v e l o f in te re s t 1 2 • A c c o rd in g to th e sto ry line 1 0 • A c c o rd in g to bold g ra p h ic s (e .g . fe w y e t bo ld w o rd s p e r p a g e ) 7 • A c c o rd in g to c h ild ’s atte n tio n s p a n 5 • A c c o rd in g to th e length o f th e sto ry 4 • A c c o rd in g to th e fa m ilia rity o f th e story 3 • A c c o rd in g to c h ild ’s fa m ilia rity o f th e story 2 • D o n o t h a v e crite ria b u t ra th e r g iv e a n y b o o k for child to re a d 1 names and logos does not happen formally but rather within the environmental context where print recognition may oc­ cur (Owens, 20 0 6 ) and it is the task o f the speech-language therapist to make parents aware o f the variety o f inciden­ tal emergent literacy experiences to which they can expose their children. Sub-aim 3: Participants’ reports on how they facilitated the em ergent literacy o f their children Alm ost all the participants read to their children in a comfortable environment in their homes. M any participants ensured that the environment was well lit and sat next to their child while reading, or the child sat on the parent’s lap. I t appeared that participants were aware o f the benefit o f books being shared by both parent and child when posi­ tioned in this way (Ezell & Justice, 2 0 0 5 ). O nly a few par­ ticipants reported that they limited background noise while reading. Lim iting background noise is an important strat­ egy to enhance jo in t book-reading to children with Down syndrome, as they are at risk for poor listening skills (Hugo, Louw, Kritzinger & Sm it, 2 0 0 0 ) due to recurrent otitis me­ dia and auditory processing difficulties (Kumin, 2003). M any participants indicated that they took the lead to read to their children as well as participatd in interactive book-reading where they elicited participation from their children. Som e parents indicated that they combined three approaches i.e. reading to their child without eliciting much interaction, participating in jo in t book-reading and leav­ ing their child to read alone. According to E zell and Ju s­ tice (2005) jo in t book-reading is the ideal reading activity as both parents and children are active participants. I t appears that parents may need more information regarding jo in t book-reading and its benefits. M o st participants regarded reading as play time. This _ .was a positive result as children learn best through their play experiences and when the experiences are active, pleasur­ able, spontaneous and voluntary in their involvement with the environment (Owens, 2 0 06). Early reading experience should be fun since the advantage is to create a positive atti­ tude towards reading in the future (Justice, 2 0 0 6 ). Literacy- enriched play settings foster children’s exposure to print and interactions with other literacy experiences (Kaderavek 8c E m e r g e n t lite r a c y e x p e r ie n c e s V a lu e E n co u ra g e child to scribble 12 D raw child’s attention to w ords on toys 7 T each child to re c o g n ize their n a m e and siblings’ n a m e s in print 7 D ra w child’s attention to w ords on food item s o r to specific brand n am e s 5 D ra w child’s attention to w ords o r num bers on clothing 4 D ra w child’s attention to letters/num bers on your cell phone 4 D ra w c hild’s attention to posters or pictures with print 3 Point out w ords on the television screen 3 D ra w child’s attention to billboards w hile driving 2 D ra w child’s attention to road signs w hile w alking a n d /o r driving 1 Point out c a r’s registration n u m b e r a n d /o r logo 1 Point out street n a m e and house num ber 0 D ra w c hild’s attention to w ords on co m p u ter s creen s and letters on keybo ards 0 Justice, 2 004). Table 6 indicates the various strategies parents reported using during reading activities. I t appeared that parents had an idea about certain strategies but were not fully aware o f all the strategies that are available to use with their chil­ dren during reading activities. These strategies, compiled as a checklist in the questionnaire, can be viewed as interven­ tion techniques to train parents to use while reading to their children (Justice, 2006). Sub-aim 4: Participant perceptions o f the tim e they spent on facilitating the em ergent literacy development o f their young children M o st o f the participants’ children were read to once a day, for 1 0 -1 5 minutes, four to six days per week. A few partici­ pants indicated they read for less than 10 minutes because o f their child’s short attention span. According,to Ezell arid Justice (2005) children should be read to on a daily basis with a recommended length o f a 10-m inute session. E ach child is, however, different and these guidelines should be adjusted to suit each family. M o st participants reported that they read for an appropriate amount o f time and some for even longer. The appropriate and extended time parents read to their children may be attributed to the criteria parents used when selecting books, as seen in Table 4, as well as the strategies parents reported using, in Table 6, which could help to sustain their child’s attention. Justice (2006) s u g -, gests that reading on a regular basis is more important than the length o f a reading session. M o st participants appeared to be reading on a regular basis to their children, but about h a lf o f the participants indicated that they did not have a specific reading routine. Having a regular reading routine may assist children to anticipate reading time and help to teach children about routine in other daily activities. 44 DIE SU ID -AFR IKA AN SE TYDSKRIF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , V O L 55, 2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F IN T E R V E N T I O N G U ID E L IN E S Table 6. The strategies participants used while reading to their children w ith D ow n syndrome (N=15) S tra te g ie s V a lu e - U s e an a n im a te d voice 11 - U s e short s e n te n c e s 10 - R e a d favo rite b oo ks ve ry often 10 - M a k e rea d in g fun a n d en jo y a b le 10 - A d a p t th e story to child’s level o f und erstand ing 10 - R e a d a t a rate child can c o p e with 9 R e p e a t an d p ractice w ord s th a t a re beco m in g m o re fa m ilia r w ith b o o k- reading 8 - E x p a n d on th e stories th a t a re read 8 - Link th e pictu res in the boo k to real w orld e x p e rie n c e s 8 - S h o w real objec ts re lated to th e pictu res in th e story 7 - U s e a v a rie ty o f rea d in g m a te rials 7 - Le t child ta lk a n d tell the story 6 - O n ly re a d s e le c te d w o rd s from the story 4 - R e a d the story w ord for w ord 4 - U s e p a u s e s w h ile rea d in g to child 4 - A sk o p e n -e n d e d qu es tio n s 3 - T a k e turns w h ile reading 3 - S o u n d o u t th e letters in w o rd s read 1 - In c o rp o ra te re a d in g into activities o f d aily life 1 - A d a p t th e b o o ks for e a s y handling 0 Even though not all participants had a specific reading routine, most o f them read to their children in the evenings during the week and on weekends. This may be attributed to the fact that most parents in the study were employed (see Table 1) and therefore only had time to read to their chil­ dren in the evenings during the week and on weekends. Sub-aim 5: The!needs o f participants regarding teach­ ing emergent literacy to their young children w ith Down syndrome j The participants experienced a number o f problems when trying to read to their children. M any parents felt that they did not have time to read to their children because they were too busy. Participants commented that apart from the time constraints they experienced, there were many other devel­ opmental issues o f their children with Down syndrome that needed to be considered. Em ergent literacy was not always the priority. M any participants also mentioned that their child’s attention span was too short for them to appreciate reading. Some parents also indicated that they were too tired when they get home from work to still read to their chil­ dren. O ne solution would be to ask significant others to read to the child i f parents’ schedules are too hectic and i f they are too tired to read to their children (Ezell Scju stice, 2005). I t is important for the speech-language therapist to ensure that parents and significant others receive training and in­ formation about establishing a reading routine and allocate sufficient time for the activity. The participants also utilized the opportunity to describe their needs in terms o f the emergent literacy development o f their children. M any parents identified their need to know what reading material was age appropriate. Table 4 showed that parents have knowledge when selecting books for their children to read, but age appropriate selection requires spe­ cific knowledge o f a child’s literacy developmental function­ ing. The speech-language therapist can assess the child’s lit­ eracy skills, as they have specialized knowledge regarding development and emergent literacy. Participants therefore needed guidelines in terms o f choosing books according to their child’s developmental age. M any participants identified the need to learn effective reading strategies and how to teach reading to their children with Down syndrome. Table 6 provided an indication that parents were aware o f some strategies to teach reading but all reported a need to learn more, especially to keep their child’s attention. Teaching reading to children w ith D ow n syndrome: a guide f o r parents a n d teachers by Logan Oelwein (1995) and E arly communication skills f o r children w ith D ow n syn­ drome. A guide f o r parents a n d professionals by Kumin (2003) are two resources that provide specific strategies for the fa­ cilitation o f emergent literacy skills for children with Down syndrome. O ne participant indicated that it was only after having her child’s eyesight tested and ascertaining that her child was diagnosed as extremely far-sighted, that her child’s abil­ ity to participate in early reading experiences improved. A f­ ter her child received glasses, the participant reported that her child’s concentration and interest in reading had “grown in leaps and bounds”. Since children with Down syndrome are at risk for visual problems (Kumin, 2 0 0 3 ) their eyes should be tested in order to ensure optimal literacy experi­ ences and book-reading. Lastly, participants described what they liked and en­ joyed most about reading with their children. The major­ ity o f the participants described the jo y they experienced in the closeness, interaction and time spent together during their reading activities with their children. Seeing their chil­ dren’s reactions and facial expressions when understanding and recognizing familiar pictures and stories was another aspect parents enjoy while reading to their children. Partici­ pants also derived pleasure from the excitement their chil­ dren showed during reading activities. According to Owens (2005) reading is a highly social activity in which both par­ ents and children participate. Sensitive, responsive and sup­ portive strategies used by parents during book-reading is said to support positive parent-child interaction (Roberts et a l.,2 0 0 5 ). I t was clear that participants were actively promoting and enjoyed the emergent literacy development o f their children, but they had certain needs that should be addressed by the speech-language therapist working in early communication intervention. Conclusions and Recommendations The main aim o f the study was achieved by describing the participants’ perceptions and practices o f various aspects o f emergent literacy development in their young children with Down syndrome. The questionnaire proved to be ap­ plicable to collect sufficient data to describe the results o f a T H E S O U T H A F R IC A N J O U R N A L O F C O M M U N IC A T IO N DISO RD ER S, V O L. 55 2 0 0 8 45 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) C H E R lE V A N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K RITZIN G ER literate group o f participants and to provide guidelines for intervention. The results indicated that participants valued emergent literacy development and most thought that it was very im ­ portant for their children. I t appeared that participants had a general knowledge o f book-reading but they were una­ ware o f the broader spectrum o f emergent literacy experi­ ences such as the exposure to logos and posters or pictures with print. The majority o f participants were unaware o f daily life experiences that may provide rich opportunities for enhancing emergent literacy development in their children. Participants also needed guidelines on how to facilitate the broader spectrum o f emergent literacy experiences such as exposure to print on clothing or cereal boxes so that their children could learn from these diverse experiences and gain a stronger foundation for their future literacy development. Since computers play such an important role in accessing information in the 2 1 st century, the facilitation o f basic com ­ puter skills in preschool children may be considered as an expansion on emergent literacy development. W h ile most o f the participants received information re­ garding emergent literacy from their speech-language thera­ pists, it appeared that there were speech-language therapists who did not provide information to their clients regarding this important developmental area. The effect o f the emer­ gent attainment o f literacy skills on a child’s later achieve­ ments emphasizes the importance o f developing an effective model o f emergent literacy intervention (Kaderavek 8c Jus­ tice, 2 0 0 4 ). According to Kaderavek and Justice (2004) the em bedded-explicit model o f emergent literacy intervention takes into account natural, meaningful and intentional daily experiences o f literacy as well as focused clinician directed intervention to target skills necessary for later reading suc­ cess. I t is important for the speech-language therapist to use a model o f emergent literacy intervention to design emer­ gent literacy programmes, particularly for populations o f children at risk for communication disorders, such as chil­ dren with Down syndrome (Kaderavek 8c Justice, 2 0 04). The results revealed that participants were aware o f the various types o f reading materials available for their chil­ dren with Down syndrome but they were unaware o f the developmental appropriateness o f the books for their chil­ dren. Participants also revealed knowledge with regard to the most important criteria that might be used when select­ ing books for their children. Participants reported that they selected books according to illustrations, the child’s level o f interest and the story line, but more criteria may be used to select developmentally appropriate books for children. I t is the role o f the speech-language therapist to assess the devel­ opmental age o f children and provide guidelines to partici­ pants regarding relevant types o f books, i.e. books with card­ board pages or children’s books that would be best suited for the child’s developmental age. The results indicated that specific information needs to be provided by the speech- language therapist regarding how to choose books, which books are developmentally appropriate and the criteria that one needs to adhere to when selecting books, such as the size o f pictures. The results also showed that most participants ensured that the reading environment was conducive to learning. W h ile some o f the participants acknowledged participat­ ing in jo in t book-reading, it would benefit parents to be in ­ formed o f the advantages o f jo in t book-reading with their children with Down syndrome instead o f leaving children to page through books on their own. Join t book-reading re­ quires care and attention to important elements such as the physical arrangement o f seating, materials selected, reading style and the opportunity to engage in conversation with the child which may yield impressive results over time with regard to children’s language and emergent literacy skills (Ezell 8c Justice, 2 0 05). The results further indicated that participants needed training regarding the various strategies that can be used during emergent literacy experiences such as asking the child open-ended questions and using pauses while reading to the child. Again, the speech-language therapist has an important role to fulfill in providing information and train­ ing on these different strategies and a rationale as to why these strategies may benefit emergent literacy experiences. It is also important for the speech-language therapist to com ­ ment on and commend parents on their efforts with regard to the time they spend reading to their children with Down syndrome, in order to encourage regular jo in t book-reading routines. I t appeared that the greatest concerns expressed by par­ ticipants were that they did not always have time to read to their children, their child’s attention span was too short and that they as parents were often too tired to engage in reading activities. The speech-language therapist can assist in providing parents with realistic guidelines in terms o f what can be done to alleviate these pressures. As suggested by Ezell and Justice (2005), a reading schedule can be cre­ ated to suit each family, which can include significant oth­ ers to help during specific reading times. Another solution would be to incorporate emergent literacy activities within the daily activities o f the child and family (Kumin, 2 0 03). The speech-language therapist has a role to play in facilitat­ ing ideas that can be used in order to meet individual family needs, so that a family-centered approach to emergent lit­ eracy intervention may be followed. The clinical implications o f this study are that speech- language therapists need to provide the appropriate and comprehensive guidelines to parents with children with Down syndrome with regard to emergent literacy develop!- ment as part o f a comprehensive emergent intervention pro­ gramme. Speech-language therapists need to keep abreast o f new research and should inform and train parents regard­ ing techniques to enhance the development o f emergent lit­ eracy skills in their children with Down syndrome. Further implications are that parents need to be recog­ nized and guided in what they are already doing for their children’s literacy development in order to follow an asset- based approach. M ore emphasis needs to be placed on uti­ lizing the broader spectrum o f emergent literacy experienc­ es as optimal learning opportunities. In order to ensure full participation in literacy experiences the vision o f children with Down syndrome should be tested at a young age. V is­ ual problems as well as hearing difficulties in children with Down syndrome may interfere with emergent literacy de­ velopment and should be diagnosed and treated. 46 DIE SU ID -AFR IKA AN SE TY DSK R IF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , VO L. 5 5 ,2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F IN T E R V E N T I O N G U ID E L IN E S In order to summarize pa­ rental needs that emerged from the results, a compre­ hensive framework for emer­ gent literacy intervention in young children with Down syndrome is presented in F ig ­ ure 1. The different guide­ lines may be used by speech- language therapists to select goals for emergent literacy intervention, and to expand the current focus o f emergent literacy facilitation o f both therapists and parents. A number o f limitations were identified throughout the study. Although a coun­ try-wide survey was possible, only a small group o f parents with children with Down syndrome agreed to partici­ pate in the study. M o st o f the participants came from simi­ lar cultural backgrounds, rep­ resenting middle class fam i­ lies. A n attempt was made through the Down Syndrome Association o f South Africa to include a culturally diverse participant sample but this was not achieved. Thus the results o f this study cannot be generalized to all cultural groups within the South A f­ rican context. j There are a number o f rec­ ommendations for further research. I t is recommended that this study be replicated with a larger target popu­ lation that includes differ­ ent cultural groups. Sepa­ rate studies should also be conducted with participants with low literacy skills and illiterate parents. This would change the research design to a qualitative study where interviews would need to be carried out, but some o f the questions in the questionnaire may still be relevant. I t has been demon­ strated by Armstrong (1 9 9 8 ) that parents with low literacy skills may enhance their own literacy skills when they are trained to read books to their children. Further recommendations are to adapt and apply this study to other at-risk populations such as young children with cleft-lip and palate in order to identify a broader spec­ trum o f emergent literacy training needs so that speech-lan­ guage therapists can provide specific guidelines for emergent literacy intervention to different populations o f children with special needs.. 1. C o n d u c t a c o m p re h e n s iv e a s s e s s m e n t to d e te rm in e th e c h ild ’s la n g u a g e a n d c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g - T h e as sess m e n t should include the use of a joint book-reading checklist such as th e K ad e rav ek-S u lzb y Book R ead in g O bservational Protocol (1 9 9 8 ) in order to d eterm ine the child’s interest in books and level o f book-reading involvem ent. - T h e questionnaire designed for this study m ay also be used as a self-co m pleted as sessm ent instrum ent__________ 2. R e fe r th e c h ild fo r a v is io n te s t in o rd e r to e lim in a te v is u a l b a rrie rs to lite ra c y d e v e lo p m e n t H e a rin g te s tin g is a ls o a b a s ic re q u ire m e n t b e fo re c o m m e n c e m e n t w ith in te rv e n tio n __________________ 3. B a s e d o n th e a s s e s s m e n t re s u lts , a c o m p re h e n s iv e e m e rg e n t lite ra c y in te rv e n tio n p ro g ra m s h o u ld b e d e s ig n e d fo r th e c h ild , fa m ily a n d c a re g iv e rs . T h e fo llo w in g to p ic s s h o u ld b e i n c l u d e d : _____________________________________ F igu re 1. A fram ew ork with guidelinesfor g o a l selection in emergent literacy intervention f o r young children w ith Down syndrome Further research can be conducted to determine the value that speech-language therapists place on the emergent lit­ eracy development in young children with Down syndrome and to determine what they do in emergent intervention with regard to emergent literacy development. The current study indicated that not all speech-language therapists giv­ ing therapy to the participants’ children provided informa­ tion on emergent literacy development. As a component o f early communication intervention, the importance o f emer­ gent literacy intervention in young children with Down syn­ drome should be recognized by speech-language therapists, as “emergent literacy experiences should be a regular, enjoy­ able part o f life for the young child with Down syndrome. Reading is an important, empowering skill and helping the young child with Down syndrome to read is an effort that will have great rewards” (Kumin, 2 0 0 3 , p.291). TH E S O U T H A FR IC A N J O U R N A L O F C O M M U N IC A T IO N D ISO RD ER S, V O L . 55 2 0 0 8 | 47 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) C H ER ie V A N HEER DEN A N D ALTA K RITZIN G ER References Armstrong, M. B. (1998). Storybooks to literacy: A collabora­ tive shared reading project. Infant-Toddler Intervention. The Transdisciplinary Journal\ 8 ,4,365-375. ASHA. (2001). 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Foundations for literacy: Emergent literacy competencies of Grade R learners on the Cape Flats. The South African Journal o f Communication Disorders, 5 4 ,20-28. 48 | DIE SU ID -AFR IKA AN SE TV DSK R IF VIR K O M M U N IK A S IE -A FW Y K IN G S , VO L. 5 5 ,2 0 0 8 R ep ro du ce d by S ab in et G at ew ay u nd er li ce nc e gr an te d by th e P ub lis he r (d at ed 2 01 2. ) http://www.down