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SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 514
Contribution of Support and Incentive
Programs to Entrepreneurial Orientation and
Start-up Culture in South Africa
________________________________________________________________
Marius Pretorius and Jurie van Vuuren
Department of Business Management, University of Pretoria
________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
This paper discussed the role of an entrepreneurial orientation (EO) and start-up
culture to enhance economic development. It investigates the proposition that
the South African culture is conducive to EO. Secondly, this paper investigates
the available programs from an entrepreneurial culture perspective. Programs
are categorised to delineate their different focuses. Key issues reported include
the program focus, the level of venture development aimed at and their target
groups. Finally it questions the contribution of these programs to entrepreneurial
culture and suggests remedies. The paper concludes that despite the number of
different programs that exist, the concept of entrepreneurial culture to improve
EO is not addressed.
JEL M13
1 INTRODUCTION
In the rush to stimulate entrepreneurial activity, policy makers often rely on
success stories, anecdotes and cases to demonstrate the utopia that will result
when entrepreneurial activities take off.
In South Africa, as in many other countries, the national strategy for the
development and promotion of small business in South Africa identifies small
business development and the empowerment of entrepreneurs as the most
important avenue for economic growth. (Act 102, 1996: 10). Gorman, Hanlon
and King (1997: 56) confirm that there is widespread recognition that
entrepreneurship is the engine that drives the economy of most nations.
Timmons (1999: 4) also refers to entrepreneurship as America�s secret weapon
and argues its value as the main contributor to the superior position that the USA
holds as part of the global economy. He suggests entrepreneurship to be the
fundamental difference in the American culture where 37 per cent of the
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 515
population is somehow involved in their own ventures apart from their regular
jobs.
This opinion underscores the need for large numbers of entrepreneurs for a
successful economy as described by Sunter (1994: 4). However, four years later,
Sunter (1998: 2) still calls for entrepreneurial development and again highlights
its importance when he states, �It is only through the creation of millions of
enterprises that millions of jobs will be created�. Today, the use of the phrase
entrepreneurial development has become a buzzword in the speeches delivered
from almost every public platform, but the question could rightly be asked; what
has changed in entrepreneurship, small business development and economic
growth since the initial call?
Driver, Wood, Segal and Herrington (2001) in their annual global
Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) reports an overall lack of entrepreneurial
elements from the culture of South Africa. Factors such as: attitude towards
entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial role models, negative mindsets towards
confidence, initiative and creativity, negative perception towards
entrepreneurship as a career choice and negative attitude towards failure are all
sited to contribute towards the South African entrepreneurial culture.
2 PURPOSE OF THE ARTICLE
The focus of this paper, thus, centres on entrepreneurial culture and its role and
effect within the society under the premises that when it exists or is high, growth
in numbers of entrepreneurs and their associated business ventures will benefit
economic development. Understanding cultural influences on the development
of entrepreneurial potential is crucial to the internalisation of entrepreneurship
theory and the development and implementation of policy initiatives to
encourage entrepreneurship.
2.1 Entrepreneurship
The construct of entrepreneurship is both complex and controversial as there is
no agreement on the definition. Kaufmann and Dant (1998: 7) categorize
entrepreneurship based on the different contemporary representative definitions
found in the literature. They conclude that three perspectives can be determined
by the definition focuses namely:
� Definitions stressing the characteristic traits or qualities supposedly
possessed by entrepreneurs including risk taking, leadership, motivation,
ability to resolve crises, creativity, low level of risk aversion, decision
making ability and more.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 516
� Definitions stressing the process of entrepreneurship and it�s result
including the creation of new enterprise, introduction of new
combinations of production factors and new, unique and valuable
combinations of resources in an uncertain and ambiguous environment.
� Definitions focussing on the activities entrepreneurs perform including
connecting to new markets, overcoming market deficiencies, creating and
managing contractual arrangements and input transforming structures,
supplying resources lacking in the marketplace, activities to initiate,
maintain and develop profit oriented business, to fill currently unsatisfied
needs and to take operational control of the organization.
The study of Kaufman and Dant (1998), however, concludes that consensus
about the construct of entrepreneurship remains elusive. Morris (1997: 17)
defines entrepreneurship as the process through which individuals and/or teams
create value by bringing together unique packages of resource inputs to exploit
opportunities in the environment. It can occur in any organizational context and
results in a variety of possible outcomes, including new ventures, products,
services, processes, markets and technology. Given this broad definition of
entrepreneurship, its applicability is much broader than merely limiting it to the
discipline of business only.
This paper, however, is concerned with entrepreneurial thinking, orientation,
activities and the way of being entrepreneurial as found specifically in its
manifestation within individuals and how it is viewed and supported by the
society and the impact of the culture as a contextual factor determining the
entrepreneurial way of being.
2.2 Entrepreneurial culture and entrepreneurial orientation
The assertion that there is a greater predisposition or propensity towards
entrepreneurship in some societies than others points to the implicit role of
culture. Thomas and Mueller (2000: 289) quote Weber (1904) who argues that
at the society level, differences in entrepreneurial activity could be explained by
cultural and religious factors. They also quote McClelland (1961) who
suggested that socialization factors such as parental influences determine the
need for achievement, which in turn generates entrepreneurial propensity within
a society. He further predicted that societies with cultures that emphasise
achievement would exhibit greater levels of entrepreneurship than societies that
did not.
Culture considers the shared values, beliefs and norms of a society and is an
important contextual factor affecting the number of potential entrepreneurs in a
given community, ethnic group, region or country. Maasdorp and Van Vuuren
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 517
(1998: 727) propose a model that includes the population (society, supporting
and cooperative environments to determine the number of entrepreneurs entering
the economy through venture start-ups. They suggest these factors influencing
entrepreneurial environment include several aspects including: the acceptability
of entrepreneurship in the society, availability of financing, training and
development programs, deregulation and even infrastructure.
Meuller and Thomas (2000: 52) conclude that some cultures are more conducive
for entrepreneurship than others. Culture, it appears, may condition potential for
entrepreneurship, generating differences across national and regional
boundaries.
The question is therefore: How do cultural mores, values and beliefs either
encourage or discourage individuals from entrepreneurial activity.
Understanding the nature of the relationship between culture and
entrepreneurship can provide valuable information to policy makers to motivate
new venture creation and thereby increase employment and economic growth
that is so desperately needed.
Thomas and Mueller (2000) describe four dimensions of culture for different
countries and identify differences between countries and even within regions of
the same country. The four dimensions they used to describe culture are based
on Hofstede (1980) and include:
� Innovativeness, which include creativity, imaginative, inventive,
enterprising, original, resourceful and farsighted.
� Internal locus of control, which is closely related to individualism
compared to collectivism on the profile of Hofstede (1980).
� Risk taking, which is closely related to the opposite of risk avoidance
described by Hofstede (1980).
� Energy, which is associated with individualism as described by Hofstede
(1980) as well as time usage.
These authors conclude that three of the above traits associated with
entrepreneurial potential, namely internal locus of control, moderate risk taking
propensity and high energy level decrease in frequency as cultural distance from
the United States profile increases where the US is taken as the benchmark in
fitting the culture dimensions supporting entrepreneurial activity and orientation.
Anonymous (2001: 60) in the Economist reports some visible changes taking
place within the Korean corporate culture namely:
! Fear of failure is no longer the deterrent to starting new business in South
Korea than it once was, a big step forward in a country in which failed
businessmen have traditionally been looked down on.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 518
! Performance based pay schemes to motivate employees to develop
achievement orientation (internal locus of control).
! Abandoning of lifetime employment for movement between jobs, which
encourages risk taking.
Considering these changes it seems that components of entrepreneurial culture
are more subject to change than factors generally associated with culture. Billig
(1994: 679) also suggests that entrepreneurial culture may not be as deeply
entrenched than other cultural determinants. It is therefore more flexible in its
response to changes in the political, economic and social conditions.
Dana (1995: 95) suggests that social values may cause entrepreneurs to be
looked up to, or down upon, depending on the beliefs of society and their
prominent moral code of behaviour. He sites the case of men in Laos that
embraces the traditional values of Theravada Buddhism, a belief system that
opposes achievement motivation as it proposes the elimination of �desires�,
which in that culture is the root of all evil. A respectable person within the Laos
culture, then, should not work towards the satisfaction of materialistic desires.
However, it is acceptable for women to do so and the result is women
entrepreneurs who works and trade.
The lack of enterprise and entrepreneurial studies at school, in vocational
education and training in higher education forms part of the reason why there is
not a strong small business culture in Australia (Donnely, 1995: 21). Education
forms a crucial part of the fixation of a culture. Lee and Peterson (2000: 403)
quotes Berger�s statement that culture serves as the conductor while
entrepreneurship is the catalyst for the development of an entrepreneurial
orientation within individuals.
Lee and Peterson (2000: 410) also proposed a model depicting the relationship
between culture and entrepreneurial orientation and how it relates to global
competitiveness (See Figure 1). They compare different countries (cultures)
including the United States, Former Russian countries, Japan, China and Mexico
and show clearly that entrepreneurial orientation is very different between those
measured. They conclude that a culture that is low on power distance, weak in
uncertainty avoidance, masculine in nature, individualistic, achievement
oriented, and universalistic will engender a strong entrepreneurial orientation,
characterised by autonomy, pro-activeness competitive aggressiveness,
innovativeness and risk taking. Such a strong entrepreneurial orientation will
ultimately lead to increased entrepreneurship and global competitiveness.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 519
Arguing that entrepreneurship and the manifestation thereof within the culture
are complex constructs, the understanding of the relationship cannot be less
complex. Meuller and Thomas (2000: 52) indicate that culture is only one of
many contextual factors that contribute to the rate of venture creation. It is
argued that the components of culture are often vague and depends on
perceptions, intention and even the motivational level of the researcher. Suffice
it to say that the ideas associated with this paper have as aim to open what is
generally perceived as a �taboo� subject in the South African context as culture
is generally viewed a racial issue and very sensitive.
The authors are of the opinion that a core issue hampering entrepreneurial
development may be covered up by being politically correct, as seen in the
figure below. Rather than opening a can of worms that may lead to meaningful
discussion, research and action to improve the current situation if it proves to be
relevant, people tend to shy away from the risk of being politically incorrect.
The authors believe that it is worth the risk if it can make a difference and based
on the evidence cited, it is very relevant.
This paper concentrates on South African context but could have wider
application especially cited in the context of the rate of globalisation.
It is argued that while there are several programs available to enhance economic
development, few, if any, impact on the development of an entrepreneurial
culture as suggested in this text.
Three of the key programs of South African service providers are investigated.
The key vehicles in South Africa that have to do with entrepreneurial
development is the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and its
implementation arms namely the IDC, Ntsika and Khula. This research
evaluated the goals of their programs and involvement in the economic
development through business creation.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 520
Figure 1 Model depicting the relationship between culture and
entrepreneurial orientation as it relates to entrepreneurship and
global competitiveness (Lee & Peterson, 2000: 410)
3 PROPOSITIONS
Firstly it is required to determine whether the South African culture is conducive
to entrepreneurial orientation and therefore the proposition is set that the South
African culture is conducive to an entrepreneurial orientation rather than not
being conducive.
Secondly it is required to determine whether development and support programs
contribute to the enhancement of entrepreneurial start-up culture and therefore
ENVIRONMENT
• Political
• Education
• Economic
• Social
CULTURE
• Power distance
• Uncertainty
avoidance
• Individualism
• Masculinity
• Achievement
• Universalism
ENTREPRENEURIAL
ORIENTATION
• Autonomy
• Competitive aggressiveness
• Pro-activeness
• Innovativeness
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 521
the proposition is set that official development and support programs contribute
to the enhancement of entrepreneurial start-up culture rather than not contribute.
4 METHODOLOGY
Firstly, the literature was searched for references to South African or African
culture and its impacts on entrepreneurial orientation and possible relationship to
the culture dimension as described by Lee and Peterson (2000: 405) based on
the framework of Hofstede (1980) and Trompenaars (1994) that they cited.
Thereafter, the most well known programs namely those of the DTI and its
associated implementation bodies (IDC, Khula and Ntsika) with their different
programs were investigated as a cross sectional secondary data study. The
programs have different goals and target groups as part of their overall aim to
improve economic growth and development. The available programs were
evaluated based on how they are described in the promotional material and web
sites of the DTI with an investigative evaluative method.
The descriptions of the goals and prerequisites for each program were evaluated
and classified into categories for business size and growth stage of the venture
the programs are aimed at. Figures were developed to depict the difference
between programs.
5 FINDINGS
Table 1 depicts references from the literature that are directly related to South
African, African, Sub Sahara African and even to developing economies where
African is implied and its relationship to the dimension of culture.
Table 1 Categorising African culture for the main dimensions that may
impact on entrepreneurial orientation based on Lee and
Peterson�s evaluation
Cultural
dimension1
Conducive to
entrepreneu-
rial culture2
Categorisation
for African
culture
Reference for
African evaluation
Uncertainty
avoidance
Weak Strong Themba et al. (1999: 110)
Driver et al. (2001: 4)
Sono (1994)
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 522
Table 1 continued
Cultural
dimension1
Conducive to
entrepreneu-
rial culture2
Categorisation
for African
culture
Reference for
African evaluation
Power
distance
Low High Themba et al. (1999: 110)
Fadiman (2000: 82)
Sono (1994)
Masculinity Masculine Féminine Themba et al. (1999: 113)
Individualism Individual Collective Rutashobya (1999:39)
Themba et al. (1999: 112)
Fadiman (2000: 80)
Sono (1994)
Achievement Achievement Ascription Rutashobya (1999: 39)
Driver et al. (2001: 42)
Universalism Universal Particular Olomi (1999: 166)
Sono (1994)
Dimensions based on Lee and Peterson 2000: 405
1 Power distance � degree of tolerance for hierarchical or unequal
relationships where low power distance is conducive to entrepreneurial
orientation. Uncertainty avoidance � degree of acceptance for uncertainty or
willingness to take risk. Individualism � degree of emphasis placed on
individual accomplishment. Masculinity � degree of stress placed on
materialism and wealth (masculine) versus harmony and relationships
(feminism). Achievement � describes how power and status are achieved
either through competition and hard work (achievement) versus birthright,
age or gender (ascription). Universalism � describes the norms for regulating
behaviour either through a code of laws that apply equally to all
(universalism) that are conducive to entrepreneurial orientation versus some
who enjoy special rights or privileges because of their status (particularism).
2 Coincides with the evaluation of the US culture.
Figure 2 depicts the distribution of the programs offered by the DTI, IDC and
Khula according to their focus, size and level of its target market. Although the
categories are subjective, the programs are positioned according to their focuses
used.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 523
Figure 2 Graphical presentation showing that the program focuses of
IDC, DTI, and Khula programs lean towards larger ventures
and growth rather than SMME and start-ups (own compilation)
Combined program focuses �
Khula IDC DTI
External
Investors
Growth
Pre start /
Innovation
/
Incubation
Life
cycle
stage
vs Size
Survival
Prospect
Micro
Small
Medium
Large
Other:
Training
Market
Research
Competitiven
ess & Export
Expansion /
Recapitalize
Finance
Bridging
Start-up /
Acquisition
18
27 327
24
12
3
9
10
30 2
19
11 15
16 35
13
17
1
Proposed
Existing
21
33
29 30
34
22
4
20
8
25
26
6 31
23
Also shown on Figure 2 are two lines categorising the �existing� focus versus
the �required� focus where it is believed that programs will contribute to more
start-ups.
The focuses of the Ntsika programs are differently depicted in Figure 3. The
core target markets are the service providers to a large extent and the
entrepreneurs to a lesser extent.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 524
Figure 3 Graphical presentation showing that the program focuses of
Ntsika programs lean towards service providers more than
towards SMME�s (own compilation)
N ts ik a p ro g ra m fo c u s e s
S M M E
p o o l
w ith n e e d s fo r
s e r v ic e s
S e r v ic e
P r o v id e rs
(L B S C �s )
G o v t
D e p t�s
S M M E �s
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
9
1 01 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
6 CONCLUSION
From Table 1 it seems that the available literature points towards a culture in
South Africa that is not supportive to the development of an entrepreneurial
orientation. Although empirical research is required to prove or disprove this
generalisation, indications are clear to those who have the nerve to postulate it
that: The evaluation points that entrepreneurial orientation and start-up culture
levels are oppositely valued especially for uncertainty avoidance, individualism
and achievement. Power distance, masculinity and universalism appear to be
evaluated as sending mixed signals about their status within the South African
society.
Based on the literature evidence, it is fair to reject the first proposition that the
South African culture is conducive to entrepreneurial orientation. Empirical
research in this regard is, however, required.
Figure 2 shows that there is a general program convergence on the level of
medium and large ventures although some programs tend towards small
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 525
business. The core focuses of the programs from Khula, IDC and DTI include
finance, growth, expansion and competitiveness (through export) that are more
relevant for existing business than for start-ups.
Figure 2 also shows that there is a general tendency of the Khula, DTI and IDC
programs to focus on the larger and existing ventures as their target audience.
Very few programs are aimed at micro and small business. Although some
programs do focus on start-up the prerequisites suggest that they are more
relevant for larger ventures.
The question arises whether this could be construed as a latent
acknowledgement that real growth comes from true entrepreneurs, which
eventually create larger businesses than the conventional small businessperson.
This, despite the general thinking that growth depends on SMMEs as described
earlier in this paper. Could this also be support for large businesses as they are
the real employment creators and therefore the focus rather than micro and small
business?
One could argue further that these programs were not designed to influence
anything else than what they are doing. The question is whether they could
contribute to enhancement of entrepreneurial culture and if so, how? There,
however, seems to be no indication that these programs contribute directly
towards the development of entrepreneurial orientation.
Apparently the role of Ntsika is more towards the assistance of small business
and the creation of more micro business where one would tend to find programs
that are more related to entrepreneurial culture.
Figure 3 further shows the focuses of the Ntsika programs. The majority of the
programs are focused on assisting their service providers. A smaller portion of
the Ntsika programs focus directly on the entrepreneurs that are the proposed
beneficiaries of the programs whether directly or indirectly. The question is
whether Figure 3 shows any support to the issues related to improvement of
entrepreneurial orientation. Ntsika�s strategy requires a strong service provision
sector to impact on the SMME pool that requires its services and therefore
explains the larger portion of the programs that are aimed at the service
providers. The question arises that if the service providers need such an amount
of inputs from Ntsika before they can operate, what is the level of
entrepreneurial orientation within these service organisations.
Based on the evidence presented its seems that the second proposition that
official support programs contribute to the enhancement of entrepreneurial
orientation and start-up culture should be rejected and the opposite accepted.
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 526
7 RECOMMENDATIONS
Accepting that these programs do not support the enhancement of
entrepreneurial orientation and start-up culture opens the debate for how these
can be influenced.
Figure 1 shows the role of the environment and the social and specifically the
education environment should be investigated. Further research is, therefore,
proposed into the role of entrepreneurship education within the primary and
secondary school curricula to impact at the earliest potential intervention point
rather than at the stage where IDC, DTI, Khula and Ntsika incentives are
focused. The DTI may investigate entering into discussions with the department
of Education to labour this issue.
Based on the general line of the discussion in this paper, Table 2 identifies some
speculative issues that require further research. When looking at entrepreneurial
orientation and start-up culture, al of these factors may be relevant.
Table 2 Contributors to entrepreneurial culture based on speculative
perceptions to stimulate debate (own compilation)
Environmental
contributors
relevant for
entrepreneurship
Speculative perception
of the typical South
African scenario
Speculative perception of
the typical US scenario
General view
towards failure
Bad � shows poor
judgment
Good − show perseverance
Achievement
motivation
Someone will do it for
you
I want to do it myself
Innovation This is how it works �
don�t tamper with it
I can do it better
I�ll find an alternative way
Locus of control I can�t change the way
things works
I am in charge
Risk propensity Don�t make a mistake
Find right answer only
Try to win the lotto
There will be more chances
if this doesn�t work.
Energy Passivity and wait for
someone to do it
Fired up to do something
yourself
Typical role models Lack of entrepreneurial
role models
Achievers in business and
sport through hard work
Aspirations Don�t hurt the other Make a difference
SAJEMS NS 6 (2003) No 3 527
ENDNOTES
1 Paper originally presented at: South Africa Entrepreneurship and Small
Business Association, (SAESBA) Conference at Sun City, 4-6 August
2002. Awarded best paper prize.
2 The assistance of the officials from the different institutions is hereby
acknowledged. Opinions expressed in this paper and conclusions arrived
at, are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to the
institutions and programs investigated.
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