283 Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching Department of English Studies, Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz SSLLT 10 (2). 2020. 283-305 http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2020.10.2.4 http://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/ssllt Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and practice Dario Luis Banegas University of Strathclyde, UK Ministry of Education in Chubut, Argentina https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0225-0866 dario.banegas@strath.ac.uk Paige Michael Poole Universidad del Norte, Colombia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0137-8801 ppoole@uninorte.edu.co Kathleen A. Corrales Universidad del Norte, Colombia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6778-3925 kwade@uninorte.edu.co Abstract Bilingual education, usually a community’s L1 and English continues spreading geographically and across educational systems worldwide. With this expansion, the development of bilingual education approaches is under constant scrutiny. One recent approach is content and language integrated learning (CLIL). Euro- pean in origin, CLIL can be viewed as an educational or language teaching ap- proach and it refers to the teaching of curricular content and L2 in an integrated manner. This approach has received international attention, yet, how CLIL un- folds in settings outside Europe appears underrepresented in international pub- lications. The aim of this article is to provide a critical review of CLIL in Latin America between 2008 and 2018. We surveyed 64 items (articles, book chap- ters, and dissertations) published in regional and international outlets: 41 em- pirical studies, 19 practice-oriented publications, and four reviews. It begins by Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 284 summarizing the CLIL continuum with a focus on content- and language-driven CLIL and CLIL frameworks. It then provides a synthesis of empirical studies and practice- oriented publications about CLIL in different Latin American settings. The corpus is analyzed following these unifying themes: pedagogy, perceptions and beliefs, teacher education, global citizenship, and language development. From this review, it transpires that Latin American CLIL is mostly implemented and examined from a language-driven perspective in private primary, secondary and higher education. Suggestions and implications for further research and practice are included. Keywords: CLIL; bilingual education; Latin America; teacher education 1. Introduction Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has emerged in the European (language) education arena as an approach to offer socio-economic mobility, in- ternationalization of higher education, and plurilingualism within the European Union by integrating L2 learning and curriculum content (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010; Marsh, Maljers, & Hartiala, 2001; Nikula, Dafouz, Moore, & Smit, 2016). Concerning the evolution of CLIL, Cenoz (2013) suggests that “CLIL is part of regular education. Within this context, a clear distinction can be made between conceptualizing CLIL as a language teaching approach or as an educational ap- proach” (p. 390). These two conceptualizations can be subsumed under a CLIL continuum offering content-driven CLIL models (i.e., teaching a content subject through the medium of an L2) and language-driven CLIL models (i.e., teaching English as an additional language through topics derived from the school curricu- lum) (Gallardo del Puerto, Basterrechea, & Martínez Adrián, 2020). However, Eu- ropean CLIL is established towards the content-end of the continuum in the quest for narrowing down the scope of CLIL as an umbrella term (Ball, Kelly, & Clegg, 2015), a term criticized for unclear boundaries (Cenoz, Genesee, & Gorter, 2014). Whatever the model, CLIL, according to Coyle et al. (2010), is anchored in sociocultural theory, cognitive engagement following the revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Roussel, Joulia, Tricot, & Sweller, 2017), a systemic functional view of language, and genre-based peda- gogy (Llinares & Morton, 2017; Llinares, Morton, & Whittaker, 2012). Language is the vehicle for education; therefore, L2 learning must be supported in either content- or language-driven models. The language triptych developed by Coyle et al. (2010) is usually employed to help teachers organize the interface between language and content-knowledge education. The language triptych consists of: (1) language of learning (subject-specific terminology, general academic lan- guage), (2) language for learning (language structures and speech acts needed Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 285 to complete the learning tasks), and (3) language through learning (emergent lan- guage needed by learners during the learning process). Furthermore, the need to strengthen content and language systematic integration is channeled through Coyle et al.’s (2010) 4Cs Framework. The framework consists of four contextually related blocks: content (subject matter), communication (language), cognition (thinking skills), and culture (intercultural and global citizenship). Due to the expansion and ramification of bilingual education in general (Macedo, 2019) and CLIL in particular, it becomes necessary to understand how CLIL is operationalized internationally. Publications on CLIL often examine teach- ers’ and learners’ beliefs on CLIL (e.g., Doiz & Lasagabaster, 2017), CLIL pedagogies and teacher education (e.g., Ikeda, 2019; Sylvén, 2019; Tsuchiya & Pérez-Murillo, 2020), global citizenship (Coyle et al., 2010), and language development (e.g., Lli- nares & Morton, 2017). Through these foci, researchers present a picture that ad- dresses the different facets that contribute to successful and organic CLIL provi- sion. Nevertheless, there is a lacuna in terms of CLIL in other contexts, particularly in Latin America. In the international landscape, how CLIL is enacted and theorized in Latin America remains underrepresented in high-impact journals. Hence, the aim of this review article is to conduct a comprehensive discussion of CLIL in Latin America in the 2008-2018 period to enhance local knowledge production and knowledge democratization (Feldman & Bradley, 2019). In this review, we have refrained from comparing CLIL in Latin America with Europe and other contexts since our aim is to discuss CLIL in Latin America in its own right, in this way allow- ing a lesser heard voice in the CLIL arena to be considered. In this review, the year 2008 is our point of departure for two major aca- demic events: (1) the launch of the LACLIL Journal in Colombia, and (2) the CLIL- themed Annual FAAPI (Spanish for Federación Argentina de Asociaciones de Profesores de Inglés) Conference held in Argentina (Fernández, 2008). 2. Methodology We formulated the following criteria to determine which publications would be reviewed. The publications had to (1) be in the public domain, (2) be available online and set in the 2008-2018 period, (3) be contextualized in Latin America, regardless of level (e.g., primary or secondary) or type (e.g., formal, state, pri- vate) of education or authors’ nationality and affiliation, (4) be empirically grounded or informed CLIL implementation accounts (including reviews), and (5) focus on English as the additional language in CLIL due to our background in English language teaching. With these criteria, we surveyed the public domain in the following order: Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 286 1. Journal articles published in regional journals such as LACLIL Journal, Pro- file, AJAL (Argentinian Journal of Applied Linguistics), Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, GiST Education and Learning Research Journal, MEX- TESOL. These journals were manually examined. 2. Journal articles published in international journals such as ESP Journal, or Language Learning Journal, using key words such as “CLIL + (a Latin American country, Latin America, Central America, South America).” 3. Repositories from Latin American universities: We concentrated on bachelors, masters, and doctoral dissertations. 4. Conference proceedings from the region (e.g., FAAPI Conference Se- lected Papers). 5. Book chapters in local, regional, and international volumes. Last, we took the broadest possible road by Googling “CLIL + (a Latin American country, Latin America, Central America, South America).” Table 1 summarizes the 64 publications reviewed categorizing them according to publication type and country as described in this paragraph. Upon examination of geographical distribution, Argentina (24 publications) and Colombia (19) lead the number of contributions to the CLIL literature. However, it should be noted that in the case of Argentina, eight belong to one author in particular. Table 1 CLIL outputs according to country and publication type Country Journal articles Book chapters Dissertations Argentina 20 3 1 Brazil 5 0 1 Chile 1 0 2 Colombia 18 0 1 Costa Rica 1 0 1 Cuba 1 1 1 Ecuador 1 0 0 Honduras 0 0 1 Mexico 2 0 1 Panama 0 0 1 Peru 0 0 1 Total 49 4 11 The items were classified to show the extent to which CLIL publications in Latin America have a tendency towards empirical studies, reviews, or reflec- tive/practice accounts. We identified the following contributions: 40 empirical studies, 19 practice-driven outputs, and four reviews. Regarding the latter, we found reviews on: CLIL in Argentina (Banegas, 2011), CLIL in Brazil (Coelho Lib- erali & Megale, 2016; Pimentel Siqueira, Landau, & Albuquerque Paraná, 2018), Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 287 and CLIL in Colombia (McDougald, 2009). They trace CLIL research and practice, discuss benefits and challenges from a descriptive stance and do not engage in critiquing research methods or pedagogies. In this article we concentrate on the 41 empirical studies and the 19 prac- tice/ reflective accounts. The remainder of the review is organized as follows: (1) empirical studies, (2) reflective and practice accounts, and (3) common themes, and implications across empirical and practice outputs. The common themes emerged from content analysis (Selvi, 2020). This method contributed to summarizing and synthesizing the corpus as we identified recurrences in themes, contexts, findings, and research methods. 3. Empirical studies The 41 empirical studies were analyzed to identify their focus, context, and re- search methodology, as shown in Table 2. In some cases (e.g., Curtis, 2012a, b), publications have been combined as they report on the same study. Table 2 Summary of CLIL empirical studies Country Author and date Focus Context Research methods Argentina Banegas (2013a, 2013b) Language-driven CLIL im- plementation: motiva- tion, collaboration, and language learning gains 3 groups of learners and 4 teachers at a state secondary school Collaborative action re- search (three cycles); in- terviews, surveys, class- room observations, analysis of teaching ma- terials Argentina Banegas (2014a) Negotiation of topics, skills development, and materials Secondary school learners and one teacher in an EFL class at a state school Action research (three cycles), learner inter- views, survey, teacher’s journal Argentina Banegas (2014b) Inclusion of CLIL in gen- eral EFL coursebooks EFL coursebooks used in secondary state ed- ucation in Argentina Content analysis of se- lected coursebooks Argentina Banegas (2015) How student-teachers plan language-driven CLIL lessons A group of student- teachers completing an initial English lan- guage teacher educa- tion program in south- ern Argentina Mixed-methods; survey, content analysis of les- son plans (corpus) Argentina Banegas (2016) Teachers’ CLIL lesson planning and materials development A workshop on CLIL pedagogies completed by secondary EFL teachers Content analysis of teachers’ lesson plans and materials Argentina Banegas (2018) CLIL pedagogies applied to an English for specific purposes (ESP) course to increase motivation and explore authenticity An ESP class at an ini- tial geography teacher education program in southern Argentina Action research (four cy- cles); questionnaire and interviews with student- teachers, author’s jour- nal Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 288 Argentina Castellani, Dabove and Colucci (2009) Language-driven CLIL im- plementation for ad- dressing art in the EFL and French lessons through project work Groups of secondary school learners and their teachers Collaborative action re- search; interviews, anal- ysis of teaching and learning artefacts Argentina Pistorio (2010) Language-driven CLIL im- plementation to enhance cooperative learning and social constructivism Groups of private sec- ondary school learners interested in social studies Action research; grade comparison, document analysis, learner journals Argentina Tavella and Bane- gas (2016) Language-driven CLIL im- plementation from lesson planning to assessment 2 teachers at a private secondary school Case study; classroom observations and inter- views Argentina Porto (2016) Implementation of an online intercultural and ecological citizenship ex- perience in the primary English classroom be- tween Argentina and Denmark Year 5, 6, 7 learners from state schools in Argentina and Den- mark and their teach- ers Case study; conversation analysis of Skype conver- sations, chats in wikis, class discussion, group interviews; document analysis of collaborative posters, student produc- tions (songs, videos and drawings), reflection logs Argentina Porto (2018) CLIL and intercultural citi- zenship Undergraduate stu- dents from Argentina and the UK Case study; class discus- sions, interviews, stu- dent productions Brazil Costa-Rau (2016) CLIL needs analysis 155 learners and 5 teachers at a private bilingual school Quantitative; question- naires, language profi- ciency tests Brazil Finardi, Silveira and de Alencar (2016) Content-driven CLIL im- plementation 70 adult learners in a navy boarding school Action research; ques- tionnaire, classroom ob- servations and research diaries Brazil Finardi, Leão and Pinheiro (2016) Pre-service teachers’ be- liefs on the use of CLIL in Brazil A group of students and their teachers at a university English teaching degree course Qualitative; interviews and classroom observa- tions Chile De La Barra, Veloso and Maluenda (2018) Making students more aware of their oral lan- guage production through assessment within a content course Student-teachers at a university English lan- guage teacher educa- tion (ELTE) program Action research; rubrics for oral assessment, questionnaires Chile Pueblas Miranda and Pérez (2012) A comparison of bilingual skills and methodology of a National Volunteer Cen- tre initiative with results from 2 bilingual and 1 traditional school (EFL) Learners and teachers from an NVC program, 2 bilingual schools and 1 private school Mixed methods; class- room observations, in- terviews and question- naires Colombia Anderson (2011) Implementing CLIL for im- proving adult learners’ cognitive academic lan- guage proficiency (CALP) Adult learners in higher education Qualitative; interviews Colombia Bryan and Habte-Gabr (2008) Content-driven CLIL im- plementation in a geogra- phy course Undergraduate learn- ers at a geography program Action research; surveys Colombia Castillo (2008) Reading comprehension skills and strategies in a French-medium content lesson 19 teachers of English attending a workshop Quasi-experiment; read- ing tests Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 289 Colombia Correa Guzmán (2017) Teachers’ perceptions and practices in CLIL for teaching math and sci- ence to young learners 7 bilingual teachers at a private primary bilin- gual school Qualitative; surveys, in- terviews, classroom ob- servations, analysis of lesson plans Colombia Corzo Zambrano and Robles Noriega (2011) English language scaffold- ing by a math teacher 1 teacher and his class at a private primary bi- lingual school Qualitative; classroom observations and inter- views Colombia Curtis (2012a, 2012b) Teachers’ perceptions of CLIL and concerns about preparation 80 EFL teachers en- rolled in a masters program Qualitative; question- naire Colombia Garzón-Díaz (2018) Using content-driven CLIL to incorporate a cultural component into science classes through environ- mental science projects 1 group of teenage learners and their sci- ence teachers at a state secondary school Action research; ques- tionnaires, teacher jour- nals, teaching and learn- ing artefacts and inter- views Colombia Keogh (2017) Using WhatsApp in lan- guage-driven CLIL as an ex- tension of the classroom to continue practicing lan- guage and discussing top- ics covered in the class 19 undergraduate stu- dents and their teacher of English Action research; student reflections, analysis of WhatsApp conversations Colombia Leal (2016) Examination of test items from an assessment grid that integrates content, at different knowledge levels, CALP functions and cognitive skills 3rd grade learners at a private bilingual pri- mary school Quantitative; assess- ment item analysis Colombia Mariño Avila (2014) How some of the charac- teristics of a content- based English class can be taken into account to implement CLIL 15 5th grade learners and their teacher at a primary school Case study; question- naires, classroom obser- vation, teaching and learning artefacts Colombia McDougald (2015) An understanding of the perspectives of teaching content classes in English at different educational levels 140 content teachers from primary, second- ary and higher educa- tion in Colombia Mixed methods; surveys and interviews Colombia Zhyrun (2016) Design and implementa- tion of videos for listen- ing and cultural content 15 students and their English teacher at an international relations English course Quantitative; survey Costa Rica Castro García (2017, 2018) Learner development of receptive and productive vocabulary comparing two schools and ap- proaches (CLIL-EFL) 185 secondary school learners from a private and a state school Quantitative and com- parative; vocabulary and reading tests, writing tasks and questionnaires Cuba Fisher, Herrera Ochoa and Díaz Moreno (2013) Relationships between atti- tudes, behaviors and teach- ing competencies of foreign language teachers in CLIL A group of university undergraduates and their tutors Qualitative; interviews and focus groups Cuba Gil Felipe (2017) Design and implementa- tion of a handbook for teachers of sociocultural content integrated with teaching English University courses Qualitative; student sur- vey, document analysis, teachers’ diaries, tests, interview with teachers Ecuador Argudo, Abad, Fa- jardo-Dack and Cabrera (2018) Understanding the align- ment of an initial ELTE 121 student-teachers at an ELTE university program Quantitative; language proficiency tests, surveys Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 290 program with CLIL peda- gogies; correlation be- tween language profi- ciency, higher-order thinking skills and con- tent learning Honduras Bettney (2015) Analysis of teaching strat- egies and student and teacher characteristics of CLIL-immersion courses 239 students and 18 teachers at a bilingual private school Qualitative; focus groups, interviews, classroom observations Mexico Gamero Calderón (2017) Teaching biology follow- ing CLIL to enhance au- thenticity, motivation, and language proficiency 34 7th graders at a bi- lingual secondary school and their teacher Action research; ques- tionnaires, analysis of teaching and learning ar- tefacts Mexico Lara Herrera (2015) Analysis of students’ per- ceptions and feelings to- wards learning Mexican history in English Primary and second- ary school students in Mexico and the US qualitative /phenome- nological approach; in- terviews Mexico Núñez Asomoza (2015) Analysis of students’ per- ceptions of learning through CLIL 11 student-teachers completing a bachelors in foreign languages Qualitative; interviews Panama Barrios Núñez (2017) Assessing the effective- ness of combining CLIL and TBL (task-based learning) 35 primary school learners and their teachers Mixed methods; interviews, classroom observations, and analysis of teaching and learning artefacts Peru Amado Valdivia (2012) The effectiveness of a CLIL course and the inter- woven development of the 4Cs through TBL in students’ interlanguage 3 groups of teenage and adult learners at a private language school Quasi-experiment (pilot, control, and experi- mental groups); lan- guage proficiency tests A critical analysis of the empirical studies summarized in Table 2 reveals that these studies have been mostly carried out by teacher-researchers imple- menting language-driven CLIL in their own teaching contexts (e.g., Mariño Avila, 2014). Other studies have been conducted by researchers involved in CLIL im- plementation through broader projects (e.g., Amado Valdivia, 2012; Porto, 2016). From a critical perspective, Latin American CLIL research tends to be qual- itative, case-study based (e.g., Tavella & Banegas, 2016), and descriptive-explor- atory of wider benefits and drawbacks in CLIL implementation (e.g., Corzo Zam- brano & Robles Noriega, 2011). The studies included the following data collection instruments: question- naires and surveys (20), interviews (20), classroom observations (10), teaching and learning artefacts (17), including lesson plans, coursebooks and interactions as evidence of learning as in Keogh (2017), journals (6), and tests (6). The data collected through these instruments was subjected to thematic analysis (e.g., Lara Herrera, 2015), content analysis (e.g., Banegas, 2014b), and descriptive sta- tistics (e.g., Castillo, 2008). While CLIL research is expected to report on linguistic and content/cognitive gains, Latin American CLIL has so far reported on learners’ general progress in L2 language development without rigorous analysis of specific Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 291 linguistic performance. In this sense, Latin American CLIL research is at an embry- onic stage and it calls for the inclusion of researchers to help teacher-researchers refine their methodological frameworks and to enhance collaboration. 4. Reflective and practice accounts Similarly to the empirical studies, the foci and contexts of the 19 reflective and practice accounts were identified, as presented in Table 3. Like the empirical stud- ies, the reflective and pedagogical accounts also concentrate on language-driven CLIL as it related directly to their context. We identified: (1) reflections on how CLIL is defined (e.g., Rodríguez Bonces, 2012), (2) suggestions for how it can be implemented (e.g., Ravelo, 2014), (3) descriptions of CLIL within program curric- ula (e.g., Fernández, 2009), (4) descriptions of implementations of CLIL in specific classrooms (e.g., Pistorio, 2010) or materials, lesson plans, or pedagogical se- quences for future implementations (e.g., Czischke Alvarez, 2013), and (5) frame- works for including CLIL in teacher education (Hillyard, 2011; Pistorio, 2009). Table 3 Summary of CLIL reflective and practice accounts Country Author and date Focus Context Argentina Banegas (2012) Reflection on the challenges of CLIL that includes a description of CLIL teacher development opportu- nities and suggestions for including CLIL as a mod- ule in teacher education in Argentina CLIL teacher education in the UK and Argentina Argentina Cendoya and Di Bin (2010) Description of a teaching sequence combining reading and writing genre instruction with task- based learning and language-CLIL to develop lin- guistic competence and content knowledge 20 3rd grade students of a bilingual primary school Argentina Fernández (2009) Description and justification of curriculum deci- sions within a business English program (language- driven CLIL) Technical English for school of economics university students Argentina Helver (2015) Description of a pedagogical proposal with twelve lessons combining content-driven CLIL with English, art, and citizenship education 15 to 16-year old students at a secondary school Argentina Hillyard (2011) Theoretical account of teacher training to prepare teach- ers to implement CLIL in their classrooms in Argentina as a response to government decisions to use CLIL Teacher training courses in Europe, Asia, and Latin America Argentina Liendo (2012) Curricular reflection with practical ideas on the in- corporation of intercultural competence training in an English course Advanced English course for translators and teach- ers Argentina Pistorio (2009) Proposal for teacher training program to certify ability to teach English and content Teacher training courses in Argentina Argentina Pistorio (2010) Pedagogical account of implementing course com- bining content-driven CLIL and cooperative learning 36, 5th-year students of social studies in a private school Argentina Ravelo (2013) Pedagogical account of implementing comic strips in a content-driven CLIL history class 5 students in private Eng- lish conversation course Argentina Ravelo (2014) Reflection on solutions to address the challenges of implementing CLIL Primary and secondary schools in Buenos Aires, Argentina Argentina Tavella and Fer- nández (2017) Curricular reflection on an ESP course based on language- driven CLIL and fostering intercultural communication ESP course for university tourism students Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 292 Brazil Finardi, Silveira, Lima, and Mendes, (2016) Pedagogical account that presents a set of activities and pedagogical sequence for an English for aca- demic purposes (EAL) course on sustainability that combines an inverted CLIL approach in a massive open online course (MOOC) No specified context: appli- cable to intermediate level students and related to topics covered at federal institutes in Brazil Chile Czischke Alvarez (2013) Undergraduate thesis focused on developing a unit of material for teaching the conquest of the Aztecs in a history class (content-driven CLIL) Secondary school history class Colombia García-Herreros Machado (2017) Curricular reflection on the use of an immersion model for foreign language teaching and learning and development of 21st century skills Primary and secondary bi- lingual school Colombia Gardner (2009) Classroom account describing the integration of vo- cabulary and business communication University business English program Colombia Montoya and Sala- manca (2017) Pedagogical account that presents and analyzes the use of CLIL as a tool for internationalization at a university level 210 university teachers (undergraduate and gradu- ate) Colombia Otálora (2009) Descriptive account of past and future research to be carried out regarding the identification of effec- tive instructional strategies for teaching English at the university level Foreign language depart- ment faculty Colombia Rodríguez Bonces (2012) Reflection on the characteristics of CLIL and sug- gestions about how it can be implemented Colombian education sys- tem (primary to university and professional) Cuba Rojas Gonzáles, and Liviero (2014) Conference proceeding describing the theoretical and methodological framework for an English for medical purposes (EMP) program at a medical university 4th and 5th year medical students Overall, within the 2008-2018 timeframe, the reflective and pedagogical accounts are essentially descriptive, anecdotal at times, with little critical com- parison to how these experiences relate to those occurring within (and outside) the region. They also lack a critical review of how CLIL research and theoretical underpinnings may be challenged in practice or how practice could be theorized from context-responsive pedagogies. 5. Common themes In this section, we offer a critical review of Latin American CLIL under five broad themes: (1) CLIL pedagogy, (2) CLIL perceptions and beliefs, (3) teacher educa- tion, (4) global citizenship, and (5) language development. These themes emerged from the literature search and analysis of commonalities in terms of the publications’ foci. 5.1. CLIL pedagogy Under this theme we conflate CLIL rationale and design, including projects, ideas, lesson plans and materials, and CLIL implementation, that is, experiences actually put into practice including lesson plans, materials, teaching and learn- ing strategies, and assessment practices. Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 293 A critical examination of the conceptual framework underpinning all pub- lications reviewed shows that the works of EU-based experts (e.g., Coyle et al., 2010; Marsh et al., 2001) are used for CLIL definitions and pedagogical frame- works such as the 4C’s in, for example, Garzón-Díaz (2018). This feature reveals that Latin American CLIL acknowledges the European origin of CLIL and selects those early definitions which understand CLIL as an umbrella term for different models of integrating content and L2 learning. This feature is found not only in studies be- tween 2008-2010 (e.g., Pistorio 2009) but also in more recent studies (e.g., Keogh, 2017), which may signal that while European CLIL has narrowed down the scope of CLIL to learning content through an L2 (Ball et al., 2015), Latin American CLIL gravi- tates between the language-driven and, to a lesser extent, content-driven ap- proaches. Upon scrutiny of the focus of each publication, we identified 37 studies which explore CLIL as a language-driven approach for teaching English as a foreign language (e.g., Czischke Alvarez, 2013), and 20 studies which examine CLIL imple- mentation for the teaching of content such as history (e.g., Lara Herrera, 2015; Ravelo, 2013), science (e.g., Gamero-Calderón, 2017, Garzón-Díaz, 2018; Leal, 2016), geography (e.g., Costa-Rau, 2016), math (e.g., Corzo Zambrano & Robles Noriega, 2011), first aid (e.g., Finardi, Silveira, & Alencar, 2016), business (e.g., Gard- ner, 2009) or ELT methodologies (e.g., De la Barra et al., 2018). As mentioned above, Latin American CLIL has been envisaged as a mean- ingful and innovative bilingual education approach in different contexts and with different learners, sometimes in connection with other L2 learning ap- proaches, such as task-based learning (e.g., Castro García; 2017; Cendoya & Di Bin, 2010), immersion (e.g., García-Herreros Machado, 2017), or ESP (e.g., Bane- gas, 2018; Rojas Gonzáles & Liviero, 2014). Thus, CLIL, as implemented in Latin America, seems to be compatible with different approaches that highlight the need to provide learners at different lev- els with authentic, purposeful and engaging learning experiences which connect L2 learning with the curriculum and broader social imperatives such as global citizenship (see Section 5.4). In complying with such needs, there are publica- tions which offer details around CLIL lesson planning (e.g., Banegas, 2016; Helver, 2015), materials development (e.g., Bettney, 2015; Zhyrun, 2016), and rubric-supported assessment (e.g., De la Barra et al., 2018; Leal, 2016) as an integral part of the learning process. These publications share the criteria that these aspects of CLIL need to be driven by (1) authenticity of tasks and multi- media input (e.g., Banegas, 2018, Porto, 2016) and (2) language scaffolding (e.g., Castillo, 2008; Keogh, 2017). The lesson plans and materials particularly feature the use of graphic organizers and visuals such as pictures or photographs and collaborative tasks that lead to a major project (e.g., Castellani et al., 2009). Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 294 According to the publications reviewed, CLIL has been explored in differ- ent settings and educational levels. In the state sector, we identified one in- stance in primary education in Argentina (Porto, 2016) and seven in secondary education (e.g., Helver, 2015). In the private sector, we found 10 experiences in primary (e.g., Pueblas Miranda & Pérez, 2012), and five in secondary education (e.g., Costa-Rau, 2016). There are 15 instances set in higher education, all of them linked to ESP courses (e.g., Montoya & Salamanca, 2017; Tavella & Fernán- dez, 2017), and five instances of CLIL implementation in English language teacher education (e.g., Argudo et al., 2018). Last, two publications draw on pri- vate language schools (e.g., Ravelo, 2013). According to the articles reviewed, CLIL is thus implemented in private education due to learners’ daily in-school exposure to English and advanced L2 language level. Such practice may reinforce the view of CLIL and bilingual edu- cation as elitist (Coelho Liberali & Megale, 2016) and the view that CLIL success, and bilingual education in general, depends on learners’ high English language proficiency in order not to oversimplify content (Ball et al., 2015). Even when CLIL finds traction as a language learning approach, its preeminence lies in pri- vate bilingual education learners’ advanced English language proficiency. 5.2. CLIL perceptions and beliefs Content and L2 teachers’ and learners’ beliefs on CLIL have been examined in seven empirical studies. In four studies (Costa-Rau, 2016; Curtis, 2012a, 2012b; McDougald, 2015) teachers believe that CLIL can be a meaningful approach for learners’ development of language skills and subject-matter knowledge. Addi- tionally, Finardi et al.’s (2016) study has similar findings but warns about chal- lenges related to context and materials. In Tavella and Banegas (2016), the teachers view CLIL as an opportunity for language recycling (i.e., practicing pre- vious language through different topics and tasks) provided the content is se- lected by the learners. Teachers across the Latin American region are concerned with their lack of content knowledge and overall preparation thus favoring lan- guage-driven CLIL. They signal that even when CLIL can become a source of pro- fessional development given the opportunity to develop materials, they need specialized training and support in scaffolding content and language. Regarding learners, studies with primary (Barrios Núñez, 2017), secondary (Lara Herrera, 2015), and higher education students (Núñez Asomoza, 2015) show that they believe that CLIL can help them improve their CALP (cognitive ac- ademic language proficiency) and operate in English across a wide range of con- texts. Notwithstanding, they have reported struggling with understanding con- tent due to their limited language proficiency, academic writing and vocabulary, Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 295 and feel that teacher preparation and materials are critical elements that need further attention within CLIL implementation. In sum, CLIL is perceived as a meaningful language learning approach for improving L2 proficiency and for recycling prior language knowledge rather than incorporating new language; however, its success depends on teacher prepara- tion, context-responsive materials, and learners’ English language proficiency. 5.3. Teacher education Several empirical and practice-based articles focus on CLIL within teacher edu- cation. Banegas (2012) argues that teacher education programs, especially in Argentina, should be re-evaluated to include CLIL modules that promote critical CLIL practice and which should be created through input from all stakeholders (educators, administrators, etc.). Two studies which focus on CLIL modules within existing teacher education programs are Banegas (2018) and Argudo et al. (2018). Banegas (2018) finds that CLIL can increase motivation of pre-service subject teachers who need to improve their English while learning their subject content. At the end of a CLIL-ESP module, teachers had not only improved their language skills but also their content knowledge demonstrating that CLIL-ESP modules could be a valuable component of pre-service teacher education pro- grams. Likewise, Argudo et al. (2018) evaluates whether a particular EFL pro- gram for pre-service teachers truly complies with the principles of CLIL, finding that teachers do not develop enough language proficiency to actually learn the content they will teach in English. Concerning, practice-based contributions, Hillyard (2011) and Pistorio (2009) review teacher development models and necessary competences for teachers to successfully implement CLIL and call for the creation of stronger pre- and in-service teacher development opportunities in various parts of the world, including Latin America. Banegas (2016) presents one idea for teacher develop- ment through the designing of CLIL materials by teachers who may not have been originally prepared for teaching with CLIL. Based on this experience, the author suggests allowing teachers to participate in materials design as a way of decreas- ing top-down policy and allowing teachers to become “agents of change” by cre- ating more context-responsive materials. In Colombia, Montoya and Salamanca (2017) describe the implementation of a CLIL training program as an internation- alization tool for university professors of different disciplines. This program in- cluded a component of English language development, training in CLIL methodol- ogies and the design of activities, and an implementation in the classroom. Similarly to the conclusions from teacher perceptions and beliefs, in general, for CLIL to be implemented successfully, teachers must be exposed to training and Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 296 professional development through which they learn how to adequately combine content and language teaching and learning in the classroom in a way that is spe- cific to their teaching-learning context. The need for professional development in CLIL is not exclusive to Latin America; it is a frequently cited challenge around the world (Mahan, Brevik, & Ødegaard, 2018; Pérez Cañado, 2018; Yi Lo, 2020). 5.4. Global citizenship Four empirical studies (Garzón-Diaz, 2018; Porto, 2016, 2018; Zhyrun, 2016) and three reflective and practice accounts (Helver, 2015; Liendo, 2012; Rojas Gonzáles & Liviero, 2013) were analyzed for their focus on some facet of global citizenship in relation to CLIL. In general, there are two articles that explore ways of incorpo- rating local culture(s) into the English classroom (Helver, 2015; Zhyrun, 2016) through different activities and the creation of context-specific material. There is also one study that presents examples of pedagogical tasks for incorporating a mul- ticultural focus in an English for medical purposes course with the goal of students using English as a lingua franca to communicate with and attend to patients from cultures different from students’ own (Rojas González & Liviero, 2014). In the same way, Liendo (2012) presents suggestions for developing intercultural communica- tive competence in pre-service teachers and translators in their EFL courses. Two articles present projects carried out with secondary school students, Helver (2015) to incorporate intercultural competence through EFL lessons fo- cused on linguistic rights of minority groups and Garzón-Diaz (2018) to develop scientific citizenship by using CLIL as a tool for raising students’ cultural aware- ness in science class. Similarly, Porto (2016) presents data collected from a vir- tual intercultural project with primary school students in Argentina and Den- mark aimed at developing ecological citizenship in the EFL classroom. Finally, at a more general level, Porto (2018) argues the case for Michael Byram’s (2008) theory of intercultural citizenship in language education as a way to expand CLIL both theoretically and pedagogically through the example of an intercultural telecollaboration project between Argentinian and UK undergrad- uate language students. Overall, it is clear that CLIL is being used as a vehicle not only to develop content and language knowledge but also to develop learners’ global citizenship competences through a variety of materials, curricula, and project models. 5.5. Language development Language development has been particularly observed in five empirical studies and two reflective and practice accounts. One area that has been predominantly Content and language integrated learning in Latin America 2008-2018: Ten years of research and. . . 297 reviewed is vocabulary development. Castro García’s (2017, 2018) studies found that students’ receptive vocabulary knowledge was stronger and more uniform in content-driven CLIL courses as compared with those of traditional EFL courses. This positive result was also tied to students’ motivation for learning English (Castro García, 2018). Gardner (2009) describes the process of designing vocabulary lists for four CLIL business English courses and suggests the best way to determine the words is to look at students’ needs. Other studies look at English development in general. Banegas (2013b) highlights the connection between motivation and language learning in lan- guage-driven CLIL, finding that students perceived they developed their lan- guage skills (speaking, reading, listening, and writing) because they found the topics and materials relevant. In a similar study, Banegas (2014a) demonstrates that using learners’ suggestions systematically and coherently to develop les- sons and materials allows for improved language learning because the teacher- learner negotiation stimulates discussion on learners’ motivations, needs, and interests. Additionally, García Herreros Machado (2017) describes an adapted immersion model found to take advantage of the content of different areas in order to support student foreign language development in English. A final article analyzed content-driven CLIL as a way to develop pre-service teachers’ oral com- petences. De la Barra (2018) concludes that the use of CLIL-based assessment tools helps to raise teachers’ content and language awareness in a content class. Overall, research related to language gains in CLIL in Latin America relies heavily upon teacher and student perceptions, with the exception of vocabulary, and has been tied to other sociocultural aspects such as motivation and rele- vance of content. As discussed above, Latin American CLIL research still needs to provide robust evidence of language development at the level of language systems (e.g., syntax) and skills (e.g., writing). 6. Conclusion In this article, we conducted an extensive review of CLIL in Latin America be- tween 2008 and 2018. For an entire region, the overall corpus size is relatively small. Based on our experiences, we believe there is much more CLIL being done in Latin America. However, much of this work is not published and, as seen in this review, the empirical research is limited. Despite this shortcoming, drawing on the publications scrutinized, we conclude that CLIL is predominantly lan- guage-driven in Latin America, and it is predominantly found in private educa- tion institutions with learners with advanced proficiency in English. When it is implemented in other settings, learners’ English proficiency is highlighted as an issue. Additionally, more teacher preparation is necessary for CLIL success. Dario Luis Banegas, Paige Michael Poole, Kathleen A. Corrales 298 We believe that our review is an example of Chapman and Ainscow’s (2019) call for research that promotes equity, social learning, and local knowledge cre- ation within specific settings. Through this review, it may be concluded that CLIL in Latin America has adopted a broader pedagogical perspective; nonetheless, we observed a tendency for CLIL research to be carried out through action re- search or mixed methods usually by teacher researchers focused on their own practices. Thus, the studies tend to be small-scale and connected to context- specific pedagogical implementation. On the other hand, practice-based ac- counts are generally descriptive and lack an analytical and critical stance. In this regard, both Latin American CLIL research and practice should strive for rigorous frameworks that connect the region with global conversations about CLIL. Amer- ica to engage in more sophisticated and finely tuned studies that examine lan- guage and content gains not only through case studies but also through studies with larger samples and triangulated data collection and analysis that examine specific language skills or language systems (e.g., syntax). In this way, Latin American CLIL researchers can better contribute to the global conversation on CLIL and highlight the unique applications occurring in the region and create a path for stronger future research. 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