293 Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching Department of English Studies, Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz SSLLT 13 (2). 2023. 293-315 https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.38276 http://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/ssllt “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary education to higher education in relation to EMI in Sri Lanka Nadee Mahawa ha Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka h ps://orcid.org/0000-0003-1099-1488 nadi@mgt.sab.ac.lk Romola Rassool Open University of Sri Lanka h ps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2507-0836 dirpgie@ou.ac.lk Abstract Although bilingual education has been offered in some schools of Sri Lanka since 2001, primary and secondary school education has been conducted mainly in the first language (L1), that is, Sinhala/Tamil. As a result, most stu- dents sit for the General Certificate of Education – Advanced Level (GCE (A/L) examination, which determines university entry, in their L1. Thus, the majority of students entering state universities do so after receiving their entire edu- cation in their L1. At the tertiary level, where many (if not most) degree pro- grams are conducted in the English medium, students struggle to make the transition from Sinhala/Tamil medium instruction to English medium instruc- tion (EMI).1 This study examines the challenges faced by students and lectur- ers in three selected state universities due to this language transition. It em- ploys a qualitative research design. Data were collected through official docu- ments and semi-structured interviews with forty academics. Three focus group interviews were conducted with thirty undergraduates. In addition, eighteen non- 1 This term is used to iden fy classes in specific subject disciplines, as opposed to language support classes. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 294 participant lectures were observed in mainstream2 classrooms. The findings indi- cate several structural, institutional, and linguistic challenges on the way to a suc- cessful implementation of EMI in state universities and demonstrate that the tran- sition from GCE (A/L) to EMI in universities is a challenging experience for both stu- dents and lecturers. We propose that the concept of academic literacies be used as a productive means of supporting undergraduates through their transition to EMI. Keywords: challenges; English medium instruction; higher education; school education; Sri Lanka 1. Introduc on Research into English medium instruction (EMI) has consistently demonstrated that globally there has been an increase in the phenomenon in higher education, and Sri Lanka has followed this trend. Although English was the medium of instruction when the university system was first introduced into Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1942,3 the medium of instruction in the arts, humanities, social sciences, and the performing arts was changed to the vernaculars of Sinhala or Tamil in the 1960s. However, in more recent years, the University Grants Commission (UGC) of Sri Lanka has been promoting EMI due to the belief that it will improve the level of employability of grad- uates as well as the contemporary trend of internationalization. Most students enter university a er comple ng their studies in one of the vernaculars – Sinhala (78.4%) or Tamil (19.4%) (Annual School Census of Sri Lanka, 2020, p. 11). Therefore, most of those who enter state universi es start their academic careers with a poten al handicap: Despite all studies at school level being in the Sinhala/Tamil medium, as undergraduates, they are expected to transi on to English as their medium of instruc on with, presumably, inade- quate support from the system. Based on over 35 years of combined experience as providers of English language support in the state university system, the researchers had observed that despite the increase in the number of English medium degree programs (EMDPs) and the powerful discourse surrounding the need for English in the world of work, it appeared that undergraduates were not being provided with the support they needed to make the transition to EMI. Therefore, the present authors 2 This term is used to identify classes in specific subject disciplines, as opposed to language support classes. 3 The precursor to the University of Ceylon was the Ceylon University College, which was established in Colombo in 1921 “to prepare students for the external degree examinations of the University of London” (de Silva, 2021, p. 3). This establishment was absorbed into the University of Ceylon in 1942. “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 295 felt it necessary to investigate more rigorously such challenges and possible ways of suppor ng the various stakeholders. Delving into the literature on this issue, the researchers realized that the concept of academic literacies4 could be a produc ve means of suppor ng the transi on from secondary to ter ary educa on. Therefore, they undertook this study to explore the challenges faced by undergraduates as they transi on from instruc on in the first language (L1) to EMI and the poten al of using the con- cept of academic literacies to minimize these challenges. Our study adopted Macaro’s (2018) defini on of English medium instruc on (EMI)5 as “the use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdic ons where the first language of the majority of the popu- la on is not English” (p. 19). 2. Literature review The aims of this sec on are twofold: (i) to present the theore cal perspec ves that inform this study, and (ii) to review the global and Sri Lankan literature on this area of research. As regards the first of the two aims, this study is informed by the theoretical perspective of new literacy studies (NLS). The field of NLS paved the way for the development of the notion of academic literacies (Lea & Street, 2006), which is a particularly useful construct when addressing the challenges of EMI. Lea and Street (2006) further present three models: study skills, academic social- ization, and academic literacies as valuable means of examining issues of students’ at higher education level. These three models are summarized below, with an em- phasis on the academic literacies model as it is directly relevant to this study: – The study skills model aims to address students’ language/literacy inac- curacies and different language skills which are taught independently of the mainstream curriculum (Muhirwe, 2012). – The academic socializa on model directs students to study how the members of an academic community speak, write, think, and use liter- acy and how to replicate these prac ces themselves. However, this model is cri cized on the grounds that it presumes that the academy is a rela vely homogeneous culture (Muhirwe, 2012). 4 The term “academic literacies” implies that two or more literacies that are interrelated operate together to ensure academic success. Acknowledging the multi-faceted nature of the concept, the researchers consistently use this term throughout this paper except when they are referring to the work of other authors who have used the term in its singular form. 5 In this paper, we use the acronyms EMI (following Macaro, 2018) and EMDP (English me- dium degree program) interchangeably to refer to degree programs that include subject content that is taught through the English medium. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 296 – The academic literacies model views the notion of academic literacies from a wider perspective. It is concerned with “meaning making, identity, power and authority” and highlights the “institutional nature of what ‘counts’ as knowledge in any particular academic context” (Lea & Street, 2006, p. 227). This model views the process of acquiring the requisite skills as “more com- plex, dynamic, nuanced, situated, and involving both epistemological issues and social processes including power relations among people and institu- tions, and social identities” (Lea & Street, 2006, p. 228). These three models provide this study with a strong theoretical framework which enables one to understand the nature of students’ learning (in terms of both the mainstream and English support programs) in EMI in second language higher educa on (SLHE). When it comes to EMI challenges identified at a global level, Aizawa and Rose (2020) explored language-related ones faced by students entering a Japa- nese university where the medium of instruction (MOI) is English after studying in high schools where the MOI was the L1. The findings indicate that even a “soft EMI” school experience may facilitate a smooth transition. Siddiqui et al. (2021) explored the perspectives of undergraduates on EMI in a public university in Pa- kistan, identified the challenges faced by them, and proposed strategies to over- come these challenges. Using semi-structured interviews, they found that stu- dents viewed EMI as advantageous for “higher education, jobs and progressive thought” (p. 10). Lecturers’ “English competence, code switching, vocabulary, and receptive and productive abilities” (p. 10) were identified as challenges. Further, the participants proposed that “English-skilled teachers, constant English use, and university language support” (p. 10) were necessary to overcome such challenges. The views of lecturers regarding the challenges posed by EMI were investigated by Tang (2020) in an international college in Thailand. The interview data revealed four types of challenges: “linguistic, cultural, structural, and identity-related (in- stitutional)” (p. 97). Further, this study emphasizes the importance of four aspects in EMI implementation: “language improvement, subject matter learning, career prospects, and internationalization strategy” (p. 97). In many contexts, having studied in the English medium is seen by univer- sity managers as adequate prepara on for teaching in English, whereas receiv- ing pedagogical training is not viewed as a necessity (Chapple, 2015). However, Barnard (2014) claims that merely possessing “the ability to read widely and write at length in a second language does not necessarily transfer to effec vely explaining key concepts to students in such a way as to make the lectures com- prehensible” (p. 13). This observa on suggests that lecturers would benefit from con nuous professional development (CPD) that focuses on teaching in “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 297 EMI. Academics would benefit from CPD that focuses on discipline-specific con- tent (Jeschke et al., 2021) and effective integration of discipline-specific content and the medium of instruction (Uys et al., 2007). Jacobs (2006) and McKenna (2004) point to the importance of developing academic literacies in EMI. Their findings are vital when iden fying transi onal challenges in EMI because they address the issue through a holis c approach. They discuss the challenges from two different perspec ves – curriculum and pedagogy – and state that both perspec ves are equally important to a ain pro- ficiency in academic literacies. McKenna (2004) presents three curriculum cy- cles: (i) English as a second language (ESL), (ii) English for academic purposes (EAP), and (iii) academic literacy (AL) as a means of providing English language support in EMI in universi es, and asserts that the third curriculum cycle (i.e., AL) is the most beneficial as it gives “overt instruc on . . . in the norms and ex- pecta ons of the discipline” (p. 67) and helps students write their assignments, projects, or essays with con nuous and clear feedback on their wri ng. The studies conducted in the Sri Lankan context reveal that the lack of basic English language proficiency (ELP) at the entry-level of EMI is a major tran- si onal challenge. In addi on, they discuss the perceived link between EMI and employment among both undergraduates and employers. Studies on the transi onal challenges faced by undergraduates in Sri Lanka iden fy the lack of basic ELP as their root cause. For instance, Sriyalatha (2016) examined the factors affec ng academic performance in a study con- ducted in the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, one of the Sri Lankan state uni- versi es, and asserted that the low level of ELP of undergraduates is one of the most cri cal factors which affects academic performance at the university level. Navaz (2016) also points out that the many undergraduates in EMI whose ELP is low at the entry-level find it hard to con nue their studies in state universi es. In this regard, Mahawa ha and Rassool (2021) emphasize the importance of systema c, addi ve, and gradual support for undergraduates to progress from general English, EAP/English for specific purposes (ESP) to academic literacies to overcome the transi onal challenges in SLHE. A report from the National Education Commission (NEC, 2009) has identi- fied ELP as an essential graduate attribute but has not specified what this means in the EMI context. The Graduand Employment Census (GEC) (Ramanayake, 2012) documents the obstacles faced by graduands and the recommendations made by them and claims that the labor market needs of the country “encourage students to study in English medium” (Ramanayake et al., 2013, p. 55). Undergraduates are faced with two pressures as they seek to complete a degree in order to enter the world of work: on the one hand, they are pressured into obtaining a “class” (first- or second-class honors) in their degree programs and, on the other, they are told that Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 298 they need to improve their ELP. Those who choose to focus on the former – obtaining a class – sometimes choose the safer option of following the degree in the first lan- guage in order to ensure the class. However, according to this report, “graduands said they did regret the fact that they decided to study in Sinhala medium” (Rama- nayake, et al., 2013, p. 57). The possible reason for this regret is that when they start seeking jobs, they find themselves at a disadvantage due to their lack of academic literacies in English and other job-related English skills. The World Bank report also recommends the expansion of EMDPs in uni- versities (Aturupane et al., 2009, p. 35). Further, this report points out that not only students but also lecturers face ELP-related issues with respect to EMI when they are not properly trained for the purpose. In this regard, the report states that “Vice-Chancellors could request all academic staff to strengthen their English and include it as a key criterion in staff selection and appointment . . .” (Aturupane et al., 2009, p. 35). The importance of revising the existing English curricula and de- veloping new curricula was another focus of this report. This recommendation is significant because the Departments of English Language Teaching (DELTs) of Sri Lankan state universities generally offer the same English support programs for undergraduates of all the degree courses regardless of their MOI. However, the literature on supporting EMI states that mainstreamed and contextualized English support courses which focus on developing academic literacies are necessary to ensure success in EMDPs rather than offering ELP development-oriented courses or decontextualized study skills programs (McKenna, 2004; Wingate, 2006). There is a dearth of studies related to AL in EMI in Sri Lanka. However, Mahawa ha and Rassool (2021) iden fied the lack of AL-oriented prac ces in EMI as the major transi onal issue for students at state universi es. In par cular, they found that the following aspects were lacking in the Sri Lankan system: (a) understanding regarding academic literacies, (b) collabora on between the con- tent lecturers and the language lecturers, (c) support from the system for provi- sion of the necessary language support for EMI at the entry-level. This review of the theore cal and empirical literature has highlighted that a departure from the conven onal approach to English language enhancement, which takes the form of general English or EAP/ESP courses, is necessary to min- imize the transi onal challenges faced by undergraduates. The literature also recommends academic literacies as an approach that can lead to posi ve out- comes during this transi on. Thus, it is evident that there is a gap between this recommended prac ce and the prevailing situa on in the state universi es of Sri Lanka – a research gap which, as stated earlier, this paper a empts to fill. To reach the above aims the following research ques ons were formulated: “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 299 1. What are the perceived language/medium of instruction-related challenges faced by stakeholders in transitioning from secondary to tertiary education? 2. What solutions are considered as possible for minimizing these challenges? 3. Methodology 3.1. Context The data for this study were collected from ten facul es (3 facul es of manage- ment, 3 facul es of science, 1 faculty of humani es, 1 faculty of social sciences, 1 faculty of social sciences and humani es and 1 faculty of social sciences and languages) of three state universi es. All the students in these facul es were enrolled in EMDPs from the first year onward. The selec on of the three universi es for this study was based on the need to access as varied a sample as possible. Thus, two of the most established, older, urban universi es (University 1 and University 2) and a newer, regional university (University 3) were chosen. 3.2. Data collec on This study used a qualita ve approach to arrive at nuanced responses to the research ques ons. Therefore, data collec on was done through interviews with lecturers, focus groups with students, lecture observa ons, ques onnaires, field notes, and the study of selected official documenta on on SLHE. 3.3. Par cipants Forty lecturers and thirty undergraduates from the three selected state univer- si es were the par cipants in this study. All the par cipants were informed of the aims and other details of the study and their informed consent was sought and received prior to the commencement of the data collec on process. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the lecturers who were se- lected using a purposive sampling method, thus ensuring a range of disciplinary ar- eas and teaching experience. The average length of an interview was 22.21 minutes. In some instances, these interviews were followed by shorter follow-up interviews. Of these forty interviews, nineteen were with academics who held administrative positions in universities: deans of faculties and heads of departments. We inter- viewed ten deans6 from three universities who were all PhD qualified and of whom 6 In one university, under the arts stream, there were two separate faculties (Faculty of So- cial Sciences and Faculty of Humanities), whereas in other cases, there was just one faculty: Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 300 five were professors. We also conducted interviews with nine heads of departments. All of them were senior lecturers and six had completed their doctorates at the time we interviewed them. Our interviews with these academics in administrative posi- tions focused on their views of the administrative challenges in the system. Among the forty interviews, thirty-seven were conducted with disciplinary experts. All were senior lecturers and fourteen had PhDs, while the rest possessed masters’ degrees. We also interviewed three language experts who had com- pleted their masters’ degrees, but none had doctoral degrees. All these academics had over ten years’ experience in higher education. Our questions in the case of the disciplinary experts focused on the teaching-learning process in EMI and our discussion with them focused on their teaching experience when they were teaching in the English language support courses offered for EMI (see Table 1). Table 1 Summary of the demographic informa on about the academics Site Faculty No. of academics Age range in years Gender (M/F) Highest qualification University 1 Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce Faculty of Applied Sciences Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 13 34-61 M: 8 F: 5 11 PhDs 2 Masters University 2 Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies Faculty of Science Faculty of Humanities Faculty of Social Sciences 14 37-66 M: 9 F: 5 11 PhDs 3 Masters University 3 Faculty of Management Studies Faculty of Applied Sciences Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages 13 35-55 M: 10 F: 3 8 PhDs 5 Masters Table 2 Summary of the demographic informa on about the undergraduates Site No. of undergraduates Age range in years Gender (M/F) Faculty Academic year University 1 10 21-25 M: 7 F: 3 Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce Faculty of Applied Sciences Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences First year – 2 Second year – 3 Third year – 4 Fourth year – 1 University 2 10 21-25 M: 6 F: 4 Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies Faculty of Science Faculty of Humanities Faculty of Social Sciences First year – 2 Second year – 4 Third year – 2 Fourth year – 2 University 3 10 21-25 M: 4 F: 6 Faculty of Management Studies Faculty of Applied Sciences Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages First year – 3 Second year – 3 Third year – 3 Fourth year – 1 Additionally, three focus group interviews were conducted with students. Each group comprised ten students from different academic years ranging from Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities/Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages. There- fore, we interviewed two deans in the former case. “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 301 first year to third year. The members of these groups were randomly selected, and therefore comprised varying numbers of males and females. They were at different levels of fluency both in their mother tongue, that is, Sinhala, and English. They ex- pressed themselves either in Sinhala, English, or bilingually. The average length of a focus group interview was 26.33 minutes (see Table 2). 3.4. Lecture observa ons We also observed eighteen lectures from various departments of the three se- lected universi es. The main purpose of observing lectures was to understand the teaching process of disciplinary lecturers engaged in teaching in EMDPs. Of the eighteen lectures observed, seventeen were conducted for two hours and the dura on of the remaining one was one hour (see Table 3). Table 3 Summary of the lecture observa ons Site Faculty Subject area Designation and highest qualification of academic University 1 Faculty of Management Studies Marketing Senior Lecturer (PhD) and Commerce Faculty of Applied Sciences Marketing Senior Lecturer (PhD) Food Science Senior Professor (PhD) Economics Senior Lecturer (PhD) Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Information Systems Senior Lecturer (Masters) Economics Senior Lecturer (PhD) University 2 Faculty of Commerce and Marketing Senior Lecturer (Masters) Management Studies Accounting Senior Lecturer (PhD) Faculty of Science Statistical Physics Senior Professor (PhD) Zoology Senior Professor (PhD) Faculty of Humanities Economics Senior Professor (PhD) Faculty of Social Sciences Geography Senior Lecturer (Masters) University 3 Faculty of Management Studies Management Senior Lecturer (Masters) Macro Economics Senior Lecturer (Masters) Faculty of Applied Sciences Sports Sciences Senior Lecturer (Masters) Biochemistry Senior Lecturer (PhD) Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages Statistics Senior Lecturer (PhD) Economics Senior Lecturer (PhD) We also collected data from official documenta on related to SLHE to un- derstand how EMI has been understood, defined, and described in higher edu- ca on. We found that there was no evidence to indicate the existence of a com- mon policy on EMI in SLHE. At each university, EMI operates independently and varies based on the ideologies of the academic staff of that ins tu on and the available resources. Further, we studied the sec on on language of the cons - tu on of Sri Lanka (Chapter IV), the Sri Lanka Qualifica ons Framework (SLQF) prepared by the Quality Assurance Council (QAC), circulars/acts regarding the Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 302 pedagogical training of lecturers, subject benchmarks, the University Test of the English Language (UTEL) (General) benchmarks, UTEL-A (Academic) benchmarks, university ac on plans, faculty prospectuses and department curricula to exam- ine how policy-makers and administrators have ar culated their expecta ons of EMDPs, especially in terms of academic literacy as a final outcome. 3.5. Data analysis The data collected through the above means were triangulated and analyzed through qualitative content analysis and the major themes were identified. The data were an- alyzed on the basis of the framework suggested by Biggam (2008) (see Figure 1). Qualitative analysis process Collect data under specific themes [based on which the interview protocol was developed] Describe data Group themes and issues Perform analysis, i.e., interpret what is happening Figure 1 Qualita ve data analysis framework (Biggam, 2008, p. 118) This study applied qualita ve content analysis (QCA) as the primary means of analyzing the data. While mainly focusing on applying summa ve QCA, this study also applied conven onal and directed QCA (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Most of the lecturer interviews were in English but some of the lecturers and students in focus group interviews were bilingual in their responses (Sinhala and Eng- lish). Two lecturer interviews were entirely conducted in Sinhala. In such instances, the sections in Sinhala were translated into English by the researchers. The coding process began after the interviews had been translated into English. In the case of the interviews and focus group discussions which were conducted in English, they had been transcribed verbatim and triangulated before the coding process was em- barked on. The initial coding was done based on the literature survey (theoretical “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 303 and empirical) and then the recurring themes were identified. Table 4 provides an example of the coding process and the identification of themes. Table 4 An example of the coding process and the iden fica on of themes Transcript Implication/Latent view Theme This low English proficiency . . . in this regard we are totally helpless . . . that means, we are selected to the campus and we came to the university with a huge pride . . . but . . . since we don’t have sound English knowledge, we face a lot of difficulties . . . Low English language proficiency is a barrier to studying in EMI. The inability to succeed with academic work due to low English language proficiency affects their ego (because they have received university entrance after facing a highly competitive examination which has already given them huge recognition in society. They faced this exam in their first language). The gap between school education and university education in terms of medium of instruction is a barrier for students to succeed with EMI in the university. 4. Results 4.1. The sudden transi on from L1 instruc on to EMI The undergraduates’ sudden transi on from the secondary to the ter ary edu- cation system and the accompanying change in the medium of instruction is iden- fied by all study par cipants as an enormous challenge: Student 2 (Focus Group 1) This low English proficiency . . . in this regard we are totally helpless . . . we came to the uni- versity with huge pride . . . but . . . since we don’t have sound English knowledge, we face a lot of difficulties . . . we are embarrassed . . . it’s our fault . . . that means from the beginning we didn’t get a good foundation in English from a teacher, we have never got a proper English teacher in our school, right? You can’t now fix it at once in the university . . . now we are in real trouble . . . Student 6 (Focus Group 1) I thought we would be given an English course once we were enrolled, but we were not . . . at least in our orientation, we thought we would have a three-month English course . . . I have one friend in Wayamba,7 they had three- or four-month English course at a stretch . . . Even in Ruhuna8 they had, but we didn’t. I thought . . . I personally thought we too would get one in our university . . . We couldn’t go to an English course after A/Ls due to our economic problems at home . . . our parents can’t afford . . . . 7 One of the state universities located in the north-western province. 8 Another of the state universities located in the southern province. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 304 In addi on to the absence of a proper intermediary support system, the lack of coordina on and collabora on between the various state agents respon- sible for educa on was also iden fied as a structural challenge in the transi on from the school system to the ter ary system: Lecturer 21 . . . we don’t see even collabora on between higher educa on ministry and educa on ministry as well as with the department of examina on . . . and also NIE [Na onal Ins tute of Educa on]. These are ins tutes who are handling educa on, so no collab- oration at all with any. So . . . there now, prepare syllabuses . . . . Then examination branch… educa on department they teach their subject separately …. Then finally when it comes to evaluation, [the department of] examination takes some other exam- iner and prepares the papers . . . so totally different things are going on. It was pointed out that the lack of coordination among the state agents of education is not only a problem in the school education system but also within the networks of higher education. A comment made by a lecturer regarding the courses offered by DELT emphasizes the issue (see Mahawattha & Rassool, 2021): Lecturer 19 . . . they cater for the common needs. Because we have some unique . . . areas. We have some subject specific needs. If the lecturers are attached to our faculty, then we can discuss and then . . . we have some authority to . . . amend [the curriculum and pedagogy]. But when the ELTU9 handle then they will come and teach only the grammar and general English. A few academics explained that the existing “sub-cultural,” political and social situation does not allow undergraduates to make progress in English. Moreover, flu- ent speakers find it difficult to continue with their ELP mainly due to “ragging” from some fellow-students. Ragging is defined as “any act which causes or is likely to cause physical or psychological injury, fear or mental pain in an undergraduate . . .” (University of Colombo, 2016). One of the lecturers stated the following: Lecturer 6 Because the first semester, especially with the ragging, they are totally screwed up. And that culture does not allow them to learn a single word of English. Even . . . those who know English are not allowed to talk in English . . . So, English is a tool that you’ve got to be using . . . Other- wise, it fades off. They are not allowed to use English for one whole semester, the only exposure they get is when we talk to them. So even at that time they are in a transition state, they don’t [understand] anything we talk. So, you see, the first semester, being ragged [leads to a state of turmoil] . . . we are teaching them in English, nothing goes through. It’s an utter failure. 9 English language teaching unit. DELT was identified earlier as ELTU. “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 305 4.2. Unawareness of academic literacies oriented prac ces This study found that none of the lecturers interviewed was aware of the con- cept of academic literacies and that therefore they perceived content and lan- guage as two different components that operate independently. For instance, Lecturer 10 stated the following (see Mahawa ha & Rassool, 2021): Lecturer 10 . . . they should have some knowledge in the grammar and but beyond that in higher level I believe that they should have a good level in logical wri ng and how academ- ically they fit it into the wri ng they should learn . . . The struggle experienced by the students is summed up by one of them: Student 4 (Focus Group 2) The problem I have is, I find wri ng in the exam in English extremely difficult. Even though I understand the lecture, I don’t have any confidence that I can write the exam in English and score marks. I thought when I come to university my English will be fine, but it takes such a long me. We take me and get late when we write in the exam . . . The importance of lecturers receiving training in effec ve pedagogy for the delivery of EMI was iden fied only by a few lecturers. One of these lecturers, who belonged to a management faculty, stated: Lecturer 9 . . . I was teaching in Australia, I was teaching there five and a half years to English speaking set of native speakers . . . I have . . . I have my own way of delivering because I keep experi- menting things and I did these teaching methodology course at Colombo University and also the SEDA10 qualification, again it was the broader qualification of pedagogical approaches we can adopt and in light of those theories and concepts broader teaching and learning, I experiment things and you know identify things that work, identify things that do not work in the classroom, it’s a continuous reflecting process that I adopt from which I learn . . . 4.3. The impact of ins tute-specific policies The major problem with regard to the low level of English language proficiency was viewed by students from different angles. As pointed out by Student 3 (Focus Group 10 SEDA refers to the Staff and Educational Development Association which operates under the supervision of the Education Development Service (EDS) of Birmingham City University in the UK. It provides services in selected universities all over the world. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 306 1), some students have le the university because they were not proficient in English and could not cope with the demands of EMI: Student 3 (Focus Group 1) Because of English, some give up the degree, there are such students, you know . . . a few of our friends they do give up, that means they already le . . . English is the problem . . . can’t carry on anymore . . . Student 7 from Focus Group 1 also stated that he had transi oned from EMI back to L1 instruc on due to his low level of ELP and fear that he would not be able to get a first or second class degree. Yet, he was disappointed because most of the reading materials were available in English and because the scores of his mandatory English language courses also counted toward his Grade Point Average (GPA). Therefore, unfortunately, he thought that he would not be able to obtain first or second class honors in his Sinhala medium degree either: Student 7 (Focus Group1) Now, even though they say by the fourth-year things will improve, a student who can obtain a class will lose the class because of the system. We selected Sinhala medium since we don’t know English, . . . we may lose the class as CELL [English support pro- gram] course results are also counted for the GPA . . . . Student 9 (Focus Group 2) also pointed to a similar issue, as seen below: Student 9 (Focus Group 2) . . . We are in the dark . . . our GPA is anyway ge ng lower due to this English problem and our workload is too much, have to get English things translated . . . 5. Discussion In the following subsec ons, we discuss the above findings and relate them to previous literature. 5.1. The sudden transi on from L1 instruc on to EMI The views of Student 2 (Focus Group 1) exemplify how the lack of ELP has led to a low level of self-esteem in a student who should be celebrating the fact that she is one of the few selected to a state university. There is self-blame for a situation that is not of her making. School-level English language teaching is undermined by sev- eral structural problems and is considered by some to be largely unsuccessful (Gun- awardana & Karunarathna, 2017). The sense of hopelessness she feels as a new “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 307 undergraduate indicates that she does not have much faith in the university system either. Students feel unprepared to embark on their EMDP. Further, they highlight an inability to attend private tuition classes to improve their English – a common phenomenon in Sri Lanka – due to their family’s economic situation. In addi on to the macro and micro level sociocultural factors that deter- mine access to English, economic circumstances play a crucial role in determin- ing a person’s ability to access the English language in Sri Lanka (de Silva & Pali- hakkara, 2020). In fact, referring to the nexus between economic situa on and language choice, Tollefson (1991, p. 14) states: “in general economic disad- vantage is associated with constrained linguis c choices . . . .” Several students declared to be dissatisfied with the level of support they re- ceive to improve their ELP. The Department of English Language Teaching (DELT) of each state university is tasked with supporting undergraduates to transition to EMI. However, for a wide variety of reasons,11 this support has been patchy. In the 1990s, a program called General English Language Training (GELT) was implemented at pro- vincial/district level for all the students selected for university entry from that prov- ince or district, and it was generally considered a success, but it was a short-lived experiment. Since then, the only support provided to new entrants is an “Intensive Course in English” which is conducted by the DELTs of the various universities.12 These courses vary in duration, content, approach, and quality. Further, Lecturer 21’s views indicate that there are concerns regarding the lack of coordina on and collabora on between the various state agents respon- sible for educa on (the Ministry of Higher Educa on which handles ter ary level educa on, the Ministry of Educa on which oversees school educa on, the Na- onal Ins tute of Educa on which handles teacher training, curriculum, syllabus, and materials design, the Department of Examina on which oversees tes ng and evalua on at school level), which has also been iden fied as a structural challenge in the transi on from the school system to the ter ary system. This results in a gap between secondary and ter ary educa on, not only in terms of English language learning but in every other respect too. One of the major draw- backs in the system is the absence of a proper mechanism to bridge this gap. As stated earlier, English support programs for the degree programs in univer- sities are most often offered by the DELTs of the various universities. Most DELTs pro- vide this support in the form of generic ELP courses. Although a few do offer ESP and EAP courses, the content is only distantly related to the EMI course contents and, as 11 These reasons include inadequacy of academics, lack of training for academics, and lack of understanding of the differences between improving general English proficiency and fo- cusing on specific forms of support for EMDPs. 12 A new UGC-funded initiative called the Pre-University English Course has been designed as an online self-access course for students selected for university entry, but it is still at the trial stage. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 308 we have seen, lecturers highlighted this as a shortcoming. There is a similar sense of frustration among lecturers with the general approach of the DELT, with some aca- demics feeling the need for a subject-specific approach to English language teaching. Further, some feel it important for students to have their own English language lec- turer with whom they can discuss their unique issues and who can be dedicated to addressing their specific language-related needs in their own discipline. Students face many social, economic, and cultural challenges as they transition from the secondary education system to the tertiary education system. Of these, the most traumatic is the practice of “ragging” which exists in all state universities. This practice is treated as an essential part of initiating the new students (called “freshers”) into the university “sub-culture” and often results in trauma which is caused by phys- ical and mental abuse. The main reason for the prevalence of this practice is imbal- ance in social class (Gamage, 2017). Since the majority of students who enter the state university system are from lower socioeconomic classes, there is “class jealousy” that results in them viewing the undergraduates from “well to do families and urban schools or with western outlooks [as seen] in [their] behaviour, i.e., dress, hair style, English language ability, social contacts, etc. as class enemies who needed to be tamed and put in their place” (Gamage, 2017, p. 37). As signaled by Gamage (2017), the lack of English language proficiency (ELP) of students from lower socioeconomic classes and the perception that therefore they cannot access positions of wealth, influence, or social prestige results in discouraging the widespread use of English on university premises and subjecting those who challenge this “sub-culture” to severe ragging. From the very outset, the senior students brainwash the “freshers” into not speaking in English, and, because of the power imbalance, there is little possibility of challeng- ing this ideology. This has negative consequences for freshers’ attempts to learn Eng- lish at university and even more dire ramifications for students who have to transition from Sinhala/Tamil medium in school to EMI at university. 5.2. Unawareness of academic literacies oriented prac ces The lack of awareness of the concept of academic literacies leads to the perception that content and language are two different components that operate independently. How- ever, according to the theorists who view academic literacies as a social approach, these two factors are inextricable (Gee, 1992; Jacobs, 2006; McKenna, 2004; Volbrecht, 2003). This study shows that the entry-level ELP is needed to function in EMI (Jacobs, 2006; McKenna, 2004; Volbrecht, 2003); however, to excel in it, students need to go beyond mere ELP and gain proficiency in academic literacies (Jacobs, 2006; McKenna, 2004). Not only the content lecturers but also the language lecturers interviewed in this study overemphasize the importance of the development of ELP in EMI instead of the development of academic literacies. This overemphasis on ELP rather than academic “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 309 literacies is seen in the South African EMI context as well (McKenna, 2004). Due to this issue, there is a lack of focus on academic literacies-oriented practices. It is clear from the views of Lecturer 10 that he expects students to de- velop logical answers that demonstrate that they are members of that par cular academic community – in his case, the management studies-related community. Such expectations or the faculty or individual lecturers’ practices are not clearly ar- ticulated to students, especially at the time they enrol in the study program. Per- haps such norms are never discussed overtly by the subject lecturers (McKenna, 2004), although they expect the students to adhere to them. Further, as is evident from the views of Student 4 (Focus Group 2), stu- dents’ academic difficul es are also not clearly communicated to lecturers. This gap between the two groups is possibly due to the power dynamics between them (McKenna, 2004). This is especially evident in the Sri Lankan culture where, like in most South Asian contexts, the lecturers are held in high esteem. As a result, students generally do not complain overtly or even men on academic difficul es directly to their lecturers. Perhaps, towards the end of the program, students may gradually become familiar with the individual lecturer’s expecta- ons, but it might be too late to overcome their academic difficul es and obtain a high GPA by the me they reach the fourth year. Our findings underscore the importance of pedagogical training for lectur- ers. Among the eighteen lectures we observed, there were two who demon- strated strategies which were effective for the EMI context, and they both had previous teaching experience in Australia and the USA. As pointed out by Lecturer 9, his teaching experience overseas helped him improve his teaching in EMI. As stated in the literature review, there is a need for a two-pronged approach to the pedagogical training that is required for lecturers in EMI – one which focuses on teaching content and another which focuses on teaching content in English (Uys et al., 2007). However, when the subject lecturers were asked about any pedagogi- cal training that they may have already obtained, they were emphatic that they had not received any such training. The only pedagogy-related training they had re- ceived was the Certificate of Teaching in Higher Education (CTHE) which is a com- pulsory prerequisite for academics in Sri Lankan state universities to be confirmed in their permanent positions. However, the CTHE is general pedagogical training that does not prepare academics for the challenges of teaching undergraduates in a lan- guage that is not the L1 of the teacher or the student. 5.3. The impact of ins tute-specific policies The case of Student 7 (Focus Group 7) is typical of many others. This student thinks he is disadvantaged at all levels. He has chosen to study in the Sinhala Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 310 medium due to his perceived lack of ELP and the importance he has ascribed to securing a “class” in his degree, but the fact that English is mandatory and that the marks secured in the English language courses count toward his GPA cause him grave concerns. Student 9 (Focus Group 2) reported a similar issue. Such perspec ves are linked to Aizawa and Rose’s view (2020) that stu- dents who have been exposed to English during school educa on face a smoother transi on to EMI than those who have not. Unfortunately, in the Sri Lankan system, the approach seems to be “sink or swim” and most students seem to be sinking, at least during the early period of their studies in EMI. Several students mentioned the lack of support for those who struggle due to the shift of medium of instruction in the system and the absence of long-term plans to overcome such difficulties. Most academics and students in this study viewed low English language proficiency as a major obstacle to performing optimally in EMI. Therefore, some lecturers highlighted the importance of re-introducing the GELT program conducted by DELTs, which, as stated earlier, is viewed as a successful inter- vention preparing students to embark on their tertiary education in EMI. Table 5 Communica on standards of SLQF – Level 5/6 (SLQF, 2015, p. 26) Categories of Learning Outcomes SLQF – Level 5 Bachelor’s Degree SLQF – Level 6 Bachelors Honors Degree 3. Communication Present information, ideas, and concepts efficiently and effectively Present information, ideas, and concepts efficiently and effectively Demonstrate awareness of the current develop- ments in the area of study The cons tu on of Sri Lanka, in its sec on on language (Chapter IV), states that SLHE ins tu ons may use a language other than a na onal language for the dissemina on of knowledge (Chapter IV, Parliament Secretariat, 2000). However, the researchers found few explicitly defined official statements or reference points that provide details concerning the level of language proficiency that is expected from a graduate at the end of an English medium degree program. The SLQF describes (see Table 5) the standard of English language proficiency that is expected from a graduate at the end of their degree (SLQF – Level 5/6). Thus, although the SLQF indicates the generic communica on skills ex- pected from a graduate, it does not provide any specific informa on regarding the expecta ons. Based on these standards, the QAC of the UGC of Sri Lanka has prepared subject benchmarks which “aimed at improving the capacity of subject communities to regulate their academic standards” (QAC, 2015). These statements provide more detailed guidelines for each degree program. However, even the subject benchmark statements of the various degree programs do not articulate the explicit linguistic expectations of graduates of a particular field of “A smooth transition or a giant leap?” The challenges posed by the transition from secondary . . . 311 study. This indicates that in the absence of clear articulation of the linguistic expec- tations of each discipline, most of the academics implement their degree programs at their own discretion. In many disciplines the “Communication” mentioned in the SLQF is understood as general English language proficiency and therefore instruc- tors in those fields do not focus on academic communication. The only excep on to this observa on was from the field of food science and technology where the subject benchmarks stated the following: “Communica on skills (with special emphasis on scien fic communica on); · receiving, evalua ng and responding to a variety of informa on sources (e.g., electronic, textual, numerical, verbal, graphical); · communica ng accurately, clearly, concisely, confidently, and appropriately to a variety of audiences in wri en, verbal, and graphical forms; · contribu ng construc vely to group discussions; · listening to, apprecia ng and evalua ng the views of others.” (The subject benchmark statement for Food Science and Technology Degree Program, 2010, p. 8). Our research is not without its limita ons. One of the major limita ons is that we have considered only three universi es out of the seventeen in the state system. Within these three universi es, we only focused on three facul es (fac- ul es of science, management studies, and arts). 5. Conclusion Using extensive data gathered through interviews, focus group discussions, and policy documents related to the issue, this study iden fied major structural, in- s tu onal, and linguis c challenges that need to be overcome before under- graduates can proceed to achieve their poten al in their EMDPs. The data reveal that student responses to these challenges range from decline in self-esteem, disappointment that their expecta on of adequate and meaningful English lan- guage support is not provided in the first year of undergraduate study to, in ex- treme cases, actually dropping out of university. The challenges of the subject lecturers include frustra on that they have to deal with the results of the per- ceived lack of coordina on and communica on that is seen in the ins tu ons that handle school educa on, lack of sa sfac on with the DELT’s approach which they perceive as unsuccessful in its a empts to support EMI, and the low level of AL displayed by the undergraduates. An examina on of the documents related to policy on EMI at ter ary level reveals that there are no policies, guide- lines, or reference points regarding the level of ELP expected of students in EMI. Nadee Mahawattha, Romola Rassool 312 This is another major drawback of the system as it means that mechanisms are established in an ad-hoc manner. This study suggests that the frequently witnessed overdependence on ge- neric English language enhancement courses which focus on general English or EAP/ESP (generally seen in the teaching approaches adopted by the DELTs) is inadequate to prepare students for EMI and, ci ng evidence from the literature on AL, we argue that the concept of academic literacies provides an alterna ve approach that may yield more posi ve results. The major sociocultural barrier to EMI is the “sub-culture” of ragging that prevails in the universi es. The pressure exerted by this outdated and extreme prac ce results in students being discouraged and actually afraid to use the Eng- lish they know and being unable to seek the support that is provided by the DELTs during their first year. It also results in stress and anxiety first-year students who do not have the peace of mind and posi ve environment to focus on Eng- lish (or anything else for that ma er). 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