Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition vol. 3 (2) 2017, pp. 11–28 Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Opole University, Poland The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning A b s t r a c t In adolescents the main groups of social support are their family, peers, and teachers with whom they interact most frequently. They play a buffering role between stress and psychological well-being by helping to cope with adverse challenges, and by providing social integration. Consequently, it is believed that in the situation of stress caused by the necessity to learn a foreign language (FL) as a compulsory subject, social support can be viewed as an important factor that may positively inf luence learners’ academic achievement, exposing the role of the perceived availability of significant others’ help in achieving FL success. To date, in spite of the call for research on the general functioning of the language learner as a member of the society, the study on the role of social support in the process of foreign language learning is still scarce. The existing research has though proved that perceived social support significantly predicts resilience in foreign language learning. The feelings of close- ness and support the learners receive from the support network protect them from stressors, and they validate the feelings of self-esteem, competence, and personal control in the face of stressful situations. The three main support groups (parents, teachers, and peers) help learners develop their social competence, problem-solving skills, autonomy, and a sense of purpose. Keywords: social support, parental support, teacher support, peer support, foreign language Introduction Humans are social by nature. Their sociability complex enables them to create social structures and systems whose purpose is to express values, rituals, and ideas (Levy Martin, 2009). These social networks are made up of many cooperating and competing groups whose role is to help individuals establish and sustain their bonds with others. Although personal resources are the first Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel12 line of defense in response to stress, it appears that turning to others for sup- port, especially when one’s resources are depleted, protects the individual from social isolation (Reblin & Uchino, 2008). In adolescents the main groups of social support are their family, peers, and teachers with whom they interact most frequently (Camara, Bacigalupe, and Padilla, 2017). They play a buffer- ing role between stress and psychological well-being by helping to cope with adverse challenges, and by providing social integration (Torres and Solberg, 2001). They also provide opportunities of expression of and support for ap- propriate social identities. Consequently, it is believed that in the situation of stress caused by the necessity to learn a foreign language (FL) as a compulsory subject (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008), social support appears to be an important factor that may influence learners’ FL academic achievement. To date, in spite of the call for research on the language learner as a member of the society (Ushioda, 2009), the study on the role of social support in the process of foreign language learning is still scarce. The aim of this paper is to present an overview of the general research on social support carried out in the field in general human functioning, in educa- tion, and also in the field of foreign language learning. First, the basic defini- tions, typologies, and role of social support is presented. In the next step the support received from the main support groups in adolescence (parents, teach- ers, and peers) is outlined. Then the main findings from empirical research on social support in the sphere of foreign language learning follow. The concluding section is devoted to the presentation of possible research directions on social support in the foreign language learning field. Social Support: Definitions and Role There are varying approaches to the concept of social support It can be broadly defined as the “process of interaction in relationships which improves coping, esteem, belonging, and competence through actual or perceived ex- changes of physical or psychosocial resources” (Gottlieb, 2000, p. 29). This comprehensive definition stresses the importance of communication stemming from interactions, as well as supportive outcomes it creates; that is an improve- ment of one’s functioning in key areas, induced by exchanges of resources of different kinds. Other definitions of the term underlie the significance of one’s ability to take advantage of “social assets, social resources, or social networks that people can use when they are in need of aid, advice, help, assistance, ap- proval, comfort, protection, or backing” (Vedder, Boekaerts, & Seegers, 2005, p. 269). Overall, it can be stipulated that social support is the perceived notion The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 13 that one is cared for, valued, understood, able to gain the assistance, and evalu- ation of significant others, and will be aided whenever in need. There are several overlapping typologies of social support, the basic one connected with the perception and reception of support. Perceived social sup- port can be understood as “an individual’s subjective appraisal that people in their social network care for them and are willing to provide assistance when needed” (Ciarrochi, Morin, Sahdra, Litalien, & Parker, 2017, p. 1155). This highly subjective judgment can be opposed to actual or received social support. In this case the support actually performed in terms of communication, physical objects or favors is taken into consideration. Its beneficial effects are crucial when the individual’s attempts to cope with stresses fail. However, perceptions of social support appear to be more influential in comparison to actual sup- port because they reduce one’s feelings of helplessness, leading to perceiving stressful situations as less stressful (Chu, Saucier, & Hafner, 2010). On these grounds, it can be proposed that social support is well defined as a measure of “social embeddedness (e.g., indicators assessing the frequency of contact with others), received support (e.g., measures of the amount of tangible help actu- ally provided by social network members), and perceived support (subjective evaluations of supportive exchanges)” (Dalal & Ray, 2005, p. 227). In a similar vein, social support consists in “an individual’s perceptions of general support or specific supportive behaviors (available or enacted upon) from people in their social network, which enhances their functioning and/or may buffer them from adverse outcomes” (Malecki & Demary, 2002, p. 2). From this point of view, social support is presented as a factor indispensable for one’s successful functioning in the society. The construct of social support can also be conceptualized on the basis of five different dimensions of support, as proposed by Tardy (1985). Direction de- fines whether social support is being given or received, as well as who gives and who receives. The dimension of disposition refers to the availability of social support (available or enacted). When accessible, it provides a sense of security in an unfamiliar situation, especially when one perceives being supported. The feature of description/evaluation is connected with an individual describing or assessing their social support experience. Network refers to the sources of an individual’s support network, or people responsible for providing support. Finally, the dimension of content is connected with the emotional, instrumental, informational, and appraisal aspects of support. The first type (emotional) com- prises perceptions of love, trust, empathy, and belonging (Demaray, Malecki, Jenkins, & Cunningham, 2012). Instrumental support includes the provision of tangible resources, such as money, skills, or time that help someone in need. The information category refers to providing guidance or advice that aids in solving a problem. The last type of support (appraisal) deals with offering evaluative feedback that can be either the critical assessment of one’s performance and/ Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel14 or instructions concerning its improvement. In this way information relevant to self-evaluation can be obtained (Cutrona & Russell, 1990). The individual’s need for attachment, care, and attention can be fulfilled by an optimal support system, which can enhance one’s sense of trust and life direction (Kleinke, 1998). On the one hand, it reduces the effect of nega- tive events happening, while on the other, with its buffering effect it changes the interpretation of events, promoting one’s health and well-being (Cranford, 2004). Accordingly, two main models of the action of social support have been hypothesised: the main effect model and the stress-buffering effect model. The main/direct effect model proposes that social support has a positive influence on the individual’s well-being, and function at all the time, irrespective of the individual’s exposure to a stress (House, Landis, and Umberson, 1988). In view of its strong version, an increase in social support is related to a rise in well- being, independently from the current level of support (Cohen and Wills, 1985). Alternatively, the stress-buffering model posits that social support plays a role only when the individual is exposed to a stressful situation (Melrose, Brown, & Wood, 2015), while in the absence of stress, the effects of great or small social support are similar (Hashimoto, Kurita, Haratani, Fujii, & Ishibashi, 1999). Both models are supported empirically with conflicting evidence, mostly proving that direct effects of social support occur consistently (Aneshensel & Stone, 1982), and the buffering effect appears inconsistent or weak (Alloway & Bebbington, 1987). In general, social support plays a beneficial role in the individual’s life. Understandably, it helps to cope with adverse challenges, prevent stress, expand problem solving abilities, develop beneficial actions, and augment one’s well- being (Tang, 2009). It also develops resilience – the ability to adapt successfully to difficult and hostile situations (Ozbay et al., 2007). It satisfies one’s need for attachment, care and attention (Hale, Hannum, & Espelage, 2005), providing companionship needed for one’s well-being. Importantly, it predicts high posi- tive affect, low negative affect, as well as high satisfaction with life (Steptoe, Dockray, and Wardle, 2009). Last but not least, social support increases happi- ness and makes one’s life better in general (Diener & Seligman, 2002). What is more, social support also plays a role in education – it enhances overall school achievement and academic competence, such as grades and test performance (e.g., Ahmed, Minnaert, Werf, & Kuyper, 2010). Aside from that, there is a positive relationship between social support and school adjustment, the sense of school coherence and the ability to handle daily school hassles (Danielsen, Wiium, Wilhelmsen, & Wold, 2010). However, it is not quite clear how social support operates on school outcomes. It is though argued that this influence can be explained by means of uncertainty reduction (Rosenfeld, Richman, and Bowen, 2000). When circumstances are stressful, such as the ones accompanying the educational process, the individual wants to develop The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 15 a sense of perceived control by means of reducing ambiguity and unpredict- ability. Supportive communication from significant others may boost feelings of control, and help the individual recognize realistic alternatives, and develop skills needed for the learning process. More importantly, classroom atmosphere that is nurturing and encouraging at the time when social support and under- standing is of utmost importance plays a significant role (Harter, 2015) Social Support in Adolescence The primary sources of social support are usually related to work and non-work related contexts (Adams, King, & King, 1996). Work-related sources of social support refer to supervisors and co-workers, while non-work related sources refer to spouse, family, relatives, and friends. In the adolescent’s life the basic groups of social support can be identified in relation to their family, peers, and teachers, with whom they interact most frequently (Essau et al., 2011). In most cases for adolescents’ parents are sources of affection, instru- mental assistance, reliable help, and appraisal to enhance feelings of value (emotional and information support), while teachers are perceived as sources of guidance (informational support), with friends being the source of companion- ship (emotional support) (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985). It has been established that among adolescents, the extent of a social support network has a tendency to remain constant over time, but its composition may change due to varying needs for healthy functioning and adjustment (Cairns et al., 1995). For this reason, at this specific period a decrease in family support (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005), accompanied by an increase in support from friends is observed (Cheng & Chan, 2004). It can be attributed to the fact that the adolescents’ attempts to establish more mature and balanced relationships with their parents often lead to stress and conflict, frequently buffered by more intimate friendships and group acceptance (Seiffge-Krenke et al., 2013). However, the research on these types of support is inconsistent, demonstrating that teenagers may turn to friends for assistance only when their parents are out of reach (Cicognani, 2011). It has not yet been established exactly why such a modification occurs; nevertheless, it can be strictly connected with adolescents’ changing roles (del Valle, Bravo, & López, 2010). Prompted by biological influences, such as hormonal fluctuations and resulting physical alteration, teens also undergo intense psychological transition. At the same time, environmental influences of academic and social nature lay the groundwork for their attaining future stable adult roles. From this point of view the crucial role of social support in adolescence stems from the significance of the environmental impact, whereby Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel16 adolescents’ successful development demands “trusting and caring relationships and autonomous self-expression, choice, and decision making” (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000, p. 459). Consequently, as human development is entwined in important social contexts, adolescents’ formative changes are influenced by their interactions with significant others in these contexts. In the case of family, parents and siblings are regarded most influential, while the school environment comprises teachers, but also peers who interact within a larger adolescents’ network (Chen, 2005). These three support systems simultaneously influence students’ academic outcomes and general well-being of teens. Thus, if adoles- cents are not able to identify opportunities for such relationships, a mismatch between developmental needs and unfavorable context will make them suffer from psychological and academic maladjustment. Parental support can be understood as “gestures or acts of caring, accept- ance, and assistance that are expressed by a parent toward a child” (Shaw, Krause, Chatters, Connell, & Ingersoll-Dayton, 2004, p. 4). The main role of parents is to provide a secure home for their children. As primary caregivers, they are also the main providers of social support for their children’s needs. At the same time, they impart cognitive representations and models of social relationships to their children. In this way parent-adolescent relationships are generalized, constituting the basis of adolescents’ social competence (Parke, Buriel, & de Haan, 2007). This type of support induces a more outgoing social disposition that will help children seek relationships with friends, and adjust to higher educational institutions (Holahan, Valentiner, & Moos, 1994). It has also been established that good relationships with parents are significant for posi- tive self-esteem, as well as lower levels of emotional problems in adolescence, proving to be a good indicator of positive development (Helsen, Vollebergh, & Meeus, 2000). All in all, research suggests that parents appear to be a crucial source of social support during the transition to adulthood. Their support is also valuable in reference to school-related problems. Stimulating and respon- sive parenting practices have been found to constitute important influences on a child’s academic development (Topor, Keane, Shelton, & Calkins, 2010). There are two mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon: parents deeply engaged with their child increase the offspring’s self-perception of cognitive competence, and parents engaged with the teacher and school endorse a stronger and more positive student-teacher relationship. Hence, parents’ positive attitudes and inter- est in school can impart encouragement and help, and render assistance in their child’s school work (Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009). Obviously, not all parents are able to help their children with a specific content matter or skill, but they can boost their children’s feelings of competence and control, together with positive attitudes towards teachers (Grolnick, Friendly, & Bellas, 2009). “[W]hen parents believe in children’s competence and have high expec- tations for them, provide the resources that children need to feel connected to The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 17 others, and facilitate a sense of autonomy by supporting children’s initiations and problem-solving, children’s motivation is most likely to thrive” (p. 295). Parental involvement can induce a stimulating learning environment at home, in effect leading to the development of their children’s feelings of competence, direction, interest, and positive attitudes to teachers. As far as teacher support is concerned, its role is also vital due to the fact that adolescents spend much of their time at school in the company of teachers and classmates; hence, it is apparent that both parties significantly influence their development (Bokhorst, Sumter, & Westenberg, 2010). It follows that teachers are important sources of perceived social support within the educa- tional context as significant others identified in this part of the student’s social network. Teacher support has been defined as the degree to which students feel supported, esteemed, and appreciated by their teacher (Doll, Brehm, & Zucker, 2004). Students’ perceptions regarding whether their teacher cares about them and will help them when necessary underline their successful functioning in the academic domain. In general, teachers provide knowledge, but also a positive classroom climate (Ahnert, Harwardt-Heinecke, Kappler, Eckstein-Madry, & Milatz, 2012). Understandably then, the teachers’ role is not only vital in respect to achieving academic goals, but also with regard to the regulation of emotional and social processes (Furrer, Skinner, & Pitzer, 2014) because students learn better when they perceive their classroom environment positively. Supportive teacher-student relationships help maintain students’ academic interests and more positive peer relationships (Wentzel, 1998), leading to higher achievement (Marchand & Skinner, 2007). The link between teacher support and student success has also been recognized in empirical research set in different cultures and school levels (Jia et al., 2009). Whereas the majority of research investi- gating teacher support has mainly concentrated on academic outcomes, it has also been proved to be a significant contributor to mental health. It has been found to correlate negatively with depression, and positively with self-esteem and social skills (Murberg & Bru, 2009). Positive perceptions of teacher support can endorse psychological wellness, such as higher levels of life satisfaction and subjective well-being (Suldo, Shaunessy, & Hardesty, 2008). While maturing, young people also focus on their relationships with friends, which means that they tend to look for social support outside their family (Levitt et al., 2005). Aside from being companions in leisure activities, peers are sources of instrumental and emotional support, helping the adolescent cope with everyday stressors, and overseeing adherence to behavioral norms (Wentzel, 2003). Peer support then, seen as the individual’s general support or specific support behaviors from friends or peers, which enhances their function- ing and buffers them from adverse outcomes, is also an important predictor of emotional well-being or emotional distress (Wentzel, Barry, & Cauldwell, 2004). Actually, this type of support happens to be the most sought after source of aid Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel18 and backing by individuals in this specific age group. The adolescent’s social development can easily be boosted by the mutual sharing of personal, social, or ethical ideas by peers (Turner, 1999). Aside from that, peer support can pro- vide a form of substitute for insufficient parental support (Halpenny, Greene, & Hogan, 2008). In this way friends can compensate for the missing support by providing instrumental aid in the educational context: they can form study groups, share notes and experiences, and give advice about classes to take and strategies to use. These might be types of activities that parents may not pro- vide (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005). Although students may differ in the levels of their personal motivation, perceptions of the learning environment, as well as their own personal characteristics, their in- and out-of-class interaction with friends, and cooperation can induce effective support of learning (Urdan & Schoenfelder, 2006). As another factor contributing to students’ satisfaction with school, peer support may nurture their needs for relatedness, autonomy, and competence (Hamm & Faircloth, 2005). For this reason, students with high levels of peer support experience higher levels of school engagement (Wentzel, Battle, Russell, & Looney, 2010). Consequently, this factor may be viewed as both academic and social in nature (Kiefer, Alley, & Ellerbrock, 2015). Social Support in Foreign Language Learning The foreign language learning process may be a cause for serious problems of various types with its extraordinary requirements that are not easily met by every student. Aside from a regular study of the subject’s content matter, it requires using the language that has not been fully mastered, exposing the learners’ insufficient knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation or aspects of culture. Consequently, the specific language learning situation is permeated by ambiguity and its inherent characteristics: novelty, complexity, and contradiction (Ehrman, 1999). As a result, the learner is likely to experi- ence a limited sense of control, leading to increasing helplessness over the (perceived) danger (Furnham & Marks, 2013). The consequences of this cog- nitive and affective entanglement can be quite serious; starting from growing stress levels to avoidance, delay, suppression or denial, manifesting as low at- tainment. For this reason, social support can be viewed as an important factor that may positively influence learners’ academic achievement, exposing the role of the perceived availability of significant others’ help in achieving FL success (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). However, within the domain of foreign language learning social support has received little attention on the part of researchers, in spite of a growing need to The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 19 focus on “the language learner as an active self-reflective agent of an interac- tion with the social context” (Taylor, 2013, p. 34). Hence, the research on the role of social support in the process of foreign language learning is still scarce. It has though been proved that perceived social support significantly predicts resilience in foreign language learning. More specifically, social support from teachers, family, and friends provides FL learners with effective coping skills manifested as resilience in confrontation with unwelcoming stressful tasks and challenges in the process of language learning (Rahimi, Bigdeli, & Rouhollah, 2014). The feelings of closeness and support the learners receive from their sup- port network protect them from stressors and validate feelings of self-esteem, competence, and personal control in the face of stressful situations. These are aided by the growing perception of one’s social competence, problem-solving skills, autonomy, and sense of purpose (Nguyen, Stanley, Stanley, & Wang, 2015). Social support in language learning is also important for developing the student’s willingness to communicate in that language (MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Conrod, 2001), that is currently viewed as a foundation for foreign language success (Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004). Aside from that, positive effects of social support on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be observed among Iranian (Vatankhah & Tanbakooei, 2014) and Polish FL learn- ers (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2013). As far as parental support for adolescents learning a foreign language is concerned, its positive relation to educational outcomes has already been es- tablished. More specifically, parental advice at home is positively associated with an improved sense of self-efficacy towards English as a foreign language, intrinsic motivation in English and academic engagement (Weihua & Williams, 2010). The beneficial role of parents in the foreign language learning process is also confirmed in Polish students. Parental support, though modestly correlated with final grades, turns out to be the most important source of social support (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2013). That finding can be attributed to the character of Polish culture, where parents still play a very important role in the life of adolescents, thereby eliminating ambiguity. Similarly, in the Iranian sample, parental support stimulates L2 learners to have both integrative and instrumen- tal motivation towards learning a foreign language (Vatankhah & Tanbakooei, 2014). This result is also established in the Indian educational context (Olusiji, 2016), as well as in Albanian, where parental support is an important correlate of final grades (Softa, 2016). However, the role of parents’ support in their children’s FL learning is found to be more complex, as parents can send mixed messages in terms of the usefulness of the foreign language (Csizér & Lukács, 2010). Hence, there are contradictory findings pertaining to the role of this type of support in this specific area. For example, in Chinese studies parents play the least role in affecting students’ FL motivation; mostly, as the author specu- lates, due to their low social and economic status, alongside with low income Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel20 (Wong, 2007). Ostensibly, the role of parents in the foreign language learning process of their teenaged offspring is quite pronounced, affecting their child’s functioning in various contexts—social, educational, and private. It seems clear that teachers are the most valid source of direct support within the educational context, their role in foreign language learning appears of greatest importance due to the specificity of the process itself and the perils it generates. It is expected that in the FL classroom teachers are able to help students achieve success through their perceived strong support. Better support, meanwhile, is expected to lead to more safety in the FL classroom and lower levels of negative emotions, such as anxiety (Abu-Rabia, 2004). Also, in studies on Taiwanese English-language learners, teacher academic support turns out to be the most pervasive variable in relation to language-learning anxiety (Huang, Eslami, & Hu, 2010). The teacher who shows understanding, empathy, and con- sistency in behavior helps pupils start forming an identity that will assist them in coping with stress and anxiety (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2008). Hence, students’ positive relationships with teachers correlate with their language acquisition (Wong, 2007). Supported learners also experience lower language anxiety levels, evaluate their language abilities highly, and receive better final grades (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2011). Moreover, it has also been established that foreign language learners’ feelings of alienation from school and forms of cooperative learning are negatively correlated with teacher support, significantly influenc- ing academic achievement (Ghaith, 2002). Thus, it can be deduced that the FL teacher’s support is generally limited to the educational context. Social support received from friends allows for the extension of the stu- dent’s social network by including new friends from another cultural context (MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Conrod, 2001). It offers students the opportunity to use the L2 for authentic communication, especially outside the classroom. Moreover, learning from each other’s experiences appears a vital effect of peer support (Kobayashi, 2003). Another useful peer support behavior is the sharing of workload between group members (Hue Nguyen, 2013). By that token, learn- ers are able to scaffold their language development in a more understandable way. Thanks to peer support advice and feedback can be provided (Hyland, 2016), facilitating the language learning experience and offering opportunities for academic collaboration. It is enforced by the fact that learners can share very similar experiences and more easily offer peer support when challenges arise (Mompoint-Gaillard, 2011). Then student-student interactions enable the learn- ers jointly to construct a scaffold that allows them to successfully complete the activity and co-construct their own system of making meaning through words in a language they have not yet mastered (Li, 2011). Aside from that, peer support has been found to be positively correlated with desire to learn English in the Polish educational context where English is perceived as a dominant language (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2016). However, research results on the role of peer support The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 21 in foreign language learning are not quite conclusive. From being the most in- fluential of the three main support groups in adolescence (Wong, 2007), it may be believed to have no significant direct or indirect relationship to student FL achievement (Chen, 2008). It also turns influential only when peers are highly motivated (Chang, 2010). All in all, peer support, though primarily rooted in the educational context, can also permeate the wider, social context of the FL learner, especially when peers come from another background. Conclusion Due to the growing need for understanding how individuals operate in the society, the issue of social support still remains a developing research area. However, in the field of foreign language learning it yet demands more fine- tuned and thorough studies, investigating the value of specific support types, perceived and enacted, of various character: emotional, esteem, network, in- formational or tangible. Though the role of parental support appears decisive in shaping the learners’ social dispositions responsible for their future attitudes to support, little is known about the parents’ background (education, socio- economic status, family structure, to mention a few) that might shape their parental behaviors. Moreover, the factor that may play a role in their support is the attitude to the language their children learn or their proficiency with it. As far as teachers are concerned, the value of their informational and emotional support is stressed; however, it seems worthwhile to investigate the impact of teacher support on the learner’s out-of-school behaviors, such as self-esteem and social, mostly soft skills. Also, the role of peer support requires greater clarification. Again, little is known about the specificity of the support coming from classmates, and from neighborhood friends. It can be expected that these influences may differ, bringing about pronounced discrepancies that may result in variable language attainment. More importantly, to date, isolated support groups have been investigated, so it is still unclear how their between-group cooperation may influence the foreign language learner’s attitudes and behavior. Few attempts to analyze the mutual influence of support groups in the general context (e.g., Li, Albert, and Dwelle, 2014) have given a promising insight into a deeper understanding of so- cial support. However, the foreign language learning behaviors and perceptions viewed from a larger, social perspective still demand a more in-depth analysis. Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel22 References Abu-Rabia, S. (2004). Teachers’ role, learners’ gender differences, and FL anxiety among seventh-grade students studying English as a FL. Educational Psychology, 24(5), 711–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341042000263006 Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conf lict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.411 Ahmed, W., Minnaert, A., Werf, G. van der, & Kuyper, H. (2010). Perceived social support and early adolescents’ achievement: The mediational roles of motivational beliefs and emotions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9367-7 Ahnert, L., Harwardt-Heinecke, E., Kappler, G., Eckstein-Madry, T., & Milatz, A. (2012). Student-teacher relationships and classroom climate in first grade: how do they relate to students’ stress regulation? Attachment and Human Development, 14(3), 249–263. https:// doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.673277 Alloway, R., & Bebbington, P. (1987). The buffer theory of social support – A review of the literature Psychological Medicine, 17(1), 91–108. Aneshensel, C. S., and Stone, J. D. (1982). Stress and depression: A test of the buffering model of social support. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39(12), 1392–1396. Bokhorst, C. L., Sumter, S. R., & Westenberg, P. M. (2010). Social support from parents, friends, classmates, and teachers in children and adolescents aged 9 to 18 years: Who Is perceived as most supportive? Social Development, 19(2), 417–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9507.2009.00540.x Camara, M., Bacigalupe, G., & Padilla, P. (2017). The role of social support in adolescents: Are you helping me or stressing me out? International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(2), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2013.875480 Chang, L. Y.-H. (2010). Group processes and EFL learners’ motivation: A study of group dynam- ics in EFL classrooms. TESOL Quarterly: A Journal for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages and of Standard English as a Second Dialect, 44(1), 129–154. Chen, J. J.-L. (2005). Relation of academic support from parents, teachers, and peers to Hong Kong adolescents’ academic achievement: The mediating role of academic engage- ment. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 131(2), 77–127. https://doi. org/10.3200/MONO.131.2.77-127 Chen, J. J.-L. (2008). Grade-level differences: Relations of parental, teacher and peer support to academic engagement and achievement among Hong Kong students. School Psychology International, 29(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034308090059 Cheng, S. T., & Chan, C. M. A. (2004). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: Dimensionality and age and gender differences in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1359–1369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.006 Chu, P. S., Saucier, D. A., & Hafner, E. (2010). Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and well-being in children and adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(6), 624–645. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624 Ciarrochi, J., Morin, A. J. S., Sahdra, B. K., Litalien, D., & Parker, P. D. (2017). A longitudinal person-centred perspective on youth social support: Relations with psychological wellbeing. Developmental Psychology, 53(6), 1154–1169. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000315 The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 23 Cicognani, E. (2011). Coping strategies with minor stressors in adolescence: Relationships with social support, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(3), 559–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00726.x Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. Cranford, J. A. (2004). Stress-buffering or stress-exacerbation? Social support and social under- mining as moderators of the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms among married people. Personal Relationships, 11(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475 -6811.2004.00069.x Csizér, K., & Lukács, G. (2010). The comparative analysis of motivation, attitudes and selves: The case of English and German in Hungary. System, 38(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. system.2009.12.001 Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, and G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 319–366). New York: Wiley. Dalal, A. K., & Ray, S. (2005). Social dimensions of health. Jaipur, Rajastan: Rawat Publications. Danielsen, A. G., Samdal, O., Hetland, J., & Wold, B. (2009). School-related social support and students’ perceived life satisfaction. The Journal of Educational Research, 102(4), 303–320. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.102.4.303-320 Danielsen, A. G., Wiium, N., Wilhelmsen, B. U., & Wold, B. (2010). Perceived support pro- vided by teachers and classmates and students’ self-reported academic initiative. Journal of School Psychology, 48(3), 247–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.02.002 Del Valle, J. F., Bravo, A., & López, M. (2010). Parents and peers as providers of support in ado- lescents’ social network: A developmental perspective. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(1), 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20348 Demaray, M. K., Malecki, C. K., Jenkins, L. N., & Cunningham, C. M. (2012). Social support. How to assess and include it in research on prevention and youth outcomes. In B. Doll, W. Pfohl, and J. S. Yoon (Eds.), Handbook of Prevention Science (pp. 165–178). New York and London: Routledge. Dennis, J. M., Phinney, J. S., & Chuateco, L. I. (2005). The role of motivation, parental sup- port, and peer support in the academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students Journal of College Student Development, 46(3), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1353/ csd.2005.0023 Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13(1), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00415 Doll, B., Brehm, K., & Zucker, S. (2004). Resilient classrooms. Creating healthy environments for learning (2 edn.). New York: The Guilford Press. Ehrman, M. (1999). Ego boundaries and tolerance of ambiguity in second language learning. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in Language Learning (pp. 68–86). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Essau, C. A., Ishikawa, S.-I., Sasagawa, S., Sato, H., Okajima, I., Otsui, K., & Michie, F. (2011). Anxiety symptoms among adolescents in Japan and England: Their relationship with self-construals and social support. Depression and Anxiety, 28(6), 509–518. https:// doi.org/10.1002/da.20819 Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21(6), 1016. Furnham, A., & Marks, J. (2013). Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the recent literature. Psychology, 4(9), 717–728. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.49102 Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel24 Furrer, C. J., Skinner, E. A., & Pitzer, J. R. (2014). The inf luence of teacher and peer relation- ships on students’ classroom engagement and everyday motivational resilience. National Society for the Study of Education, 113(1), 101–123. Ghaith, G. M. (2002). The relationship between cooperative learning, perception of social support, and academic achievement. System, 30(3), 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346- 251X(02)00014-3 Gottlieb, B. H. (2000). Selecting and planning support interventions. In Sheldon Cohen, L. G. Underwood, & B. H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 195–220). Oxford University Press. Grolnick, W. S., Friendly, R. W., & Bellas, V. M. (2009). Parenting and children’s motiva- tion at school. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 279–300). New York and London: Routledge. Hale, C. J., Hannum, J. W., & Espelage, D. L. (2005). Social support and physical health: The importance of belonging. Journal of American College Health, 53(6), 276–284. https://doi. org/10.3200/JACH.53.6.276-284 Halpenny, A. M., Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2008). Children’s perspectives on coping and support following parental separation. Child Care in Practice, 14(3), 331–325. https://doi. org/10.1080/13575270802041720 Hamm, J. V., & Faircloth, B. S. (2005). The role of friendship in adolescents’ sense of school belonging. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 107, 61–78. https://doi. org/10.1002/cd.121 Harter, S. (2015). The construction of the self: Developmental and sociocultural foundations New York: Guilford Publications. Hashimoto, K., Kurita, H., Haratani, T., Fujii, K., & Ishibashi, T. (1999). Direct and buffering effects of social support on depressive symptoms of the elderly with home help. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 53(1), 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1819.1999.00478.x Helsen, M., Vollebergh, W., & Meeus, W. (2000). Social support from parents and friends and emotional problems in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(3), 319–335. ht- tps://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005147708827 Holahan, C. J., Valentiner, D. P., & Moos, R. H. (1994). Parental support and psychological adjustment during the transition to young adulthood in a college sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 8(2), 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.8.2.215 House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241(4865), 540–545. Huang, S., Eslami, Z., & Hu, R.-J. S. (2010). The relationship between teacher and peer support and English-language learners’ anxiety. English Language Teaching, 3(1), 32–40. Hue Nguyen, M. (2013). EFL students? Ref lections on peer scaffolding in making a collabora- tive oral presentation. English Language Teaching, 6(4), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt. v6n4p64 Hyland, F. (2016). Challenges faced by second language doctoral student writers in Hong Kong and their writing strategies. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 39(2), 158–180. https: //doi.org/10.1075/aral.39.2.04hyl Jia, Y., Way, N., Ling, G., Yoshikawa, H., Chen, X., Hughes, D., & Lu, Z. (2009). The inf lu- ence of student perceptions of school climate on socioemotional and academic adjustment: A comparison of Chinese and American adolescents. Child Development, 80(5), 1514–1530. Kiefer, S. M., Alley, K. M., & Ellerbrock, C. R. (2015). Teacher and peer support for young adolescents’ motivation, engagement, and school belonging. RMLE Online, 38(8), 1–18. Kleinke, C. L. (1998). Coping with life challenges. New York: Brooks/Cole Pub. The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 25 Kobayashi, M. (2003). The role of peer support in ESL students’ accomplishment of oral aca- demic tasks. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(3), 337–368. LeClair, C., Doll, B., Osborn, A., & Jones, K. (2009). English language learners’ and non- English language learners’ perceptions of the classroom environment. Psychology in the Schools, 46(6), 568–577. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20398 Levitt, M. J., Levitt, J., Bustos, G. L., Crooks, N. A., Santos, J. D., Telan, P., & Milevsky, A. (2005). Patterns of social support in the middle childhood to early adolescent transition: Implications for adjustment. Social Development, 14(3), 398–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-9507.2005.00308.x Levy Martin, J. (2009). Social structures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Li, D. (2011). Scaffolding in the second language learning of target forms in peer interaction. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 107–126. Li, S. T., Albert, A. B., & Dwelle, D. G. (2014). Parental and peer support as predictors of de- pression and self-esteem among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 55(2), 120–138. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0015 MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(03), 369–388. https://doi.org/null Malecki, C. K., & Demary, M. (2002). Measuring perceived social support: Development of the child and adolescent social support scale (CASSS). Psychology in the Schools, 39(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10004 Marchand, G., & Skinner, E. A. (2007). Motivational dynamics of children’s academic help- seeking and concealment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 65–82. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.65 Melrose, K. L., Brown, G. D. A., & Wood, A. M. (2015). When is received social support re- lated to perceived support and well-being? When it is needed. Personality and Individual Differences, 77, 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.047 Mompoint-Gaillard, P. (2011). Toward a community of practice: Supporting the collaborative work. In J. Huber and P. Mompoint-Gaillard (Eds.), Teacher education for change. The theory behind the Council of Europe Pestalozzi Programme (pp. 81–88). Strasbourg: Conseil de l’Europe. Murberg, T. A., & Bru, E. (2009). The relationships between negative life events, perceived support in the school environment and depressive symptoms among Norwegian senior high school students: A prospective study. Social Psychology of Education, 12(3), 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-008-9083-x Nguyen, K., Stanley, N., Stanley, L., & Wang, Y. (2015). Resilience in language learners and the relationship to storytelling. Cogent Education, 2(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/233118 6X.2014.991160 Nickerson, A. B., & Nagle, R. J. (2005). Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(2), 223–249. https://doi. org/10.1177/0272431604274174 Olusiji, L. (2016). Parents, teachers and peers effects on college students’ motivational intensity to learn English. Language in India, 16(4), 61–80. Ozbay, F., Johnson, D. C., Dimoulas, E., Morgan, C. A., Charney, D., and Southwick, S. (2007). Social support and resilience to stress. Psychiatry, 4(5), 35–40. Parke, R. D., Buriel, R., & de Haan, M. (2007). Socialization in the family: Ethnic and ecological perspectives. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology (pp. 95–138). Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0201 26 Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2005). Good teacher qualities from the perspective of a secondary school student learning a foreign language. Orbis Linguarum, 29, 317–328. Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2008). Language anxiety in secondary grammar school students. Opole: Opole University Press. Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2011). Perceived teacher support and language anxiety in Polish secondary school EFL learners. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 211–223. Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2013). Forms of social support and foreign language attainment: The mediating effect of gender. In D. Gabryś-Barker, E. Piechurska-Kuciel, & J. Zybert (Eds.), Investigations in teaching and learning languages (pp. 133–148). Berlin–Heidelberg: Springer. Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2016). Polish adolescents’ perceptions of English and their desire to learn It. In D. Gałajda, P. Zakrajewski, & M. Pawlak (Eds.), Researching Second Language Learning and Teaching from a Psycholinguistic Perspective (pp. 37–52). Berlin–Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31954-4_4 Rahimi, A., Bigdeli, A., & Rouhollah. (2014). Iranian EFL learners at Loggerheads with per- ceived social support. Research in English Language Pedagogy, 2(1), 31–38. Reblin, M., & Uchino, B. N. (2008). Social and emotional support and its implication for health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21(2), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f3ad89 Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2000). School as a context of early adoles- cents’ academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. The Elementary School Journal, 100(5), 443–471. Rosenfeld, L. B., Richman, J. M., & Bowen, G. L. (2000). Social support networks and school outcomes: The centrality of the teacher. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 17(3), 205–226. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007535930286 Seiffge-Krenke, I., Persike, M., Karaman, N. G., Cok, F., Herrera, D., Rohail, I., & Hyeyoun, H. (2013). Stress with parents and peers: How adolescents from six nations cope with relation- ship stress. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(1), 103–117. Shaw, B. A., Krause, N., Chatters, L. M., Connell, C. M., & Ingersoll-Dayton, B. (2004). Emotional support from parents early in life, aging, and health. Psychology and Aging, 19(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.4 Softa, V. (2016). Relationship between the socio-education factors to English language learning in Albania high schools and pupil’s final grades in English course. EJLS European Journal of Language and Literature Studies, 6(1), 19–25. Steptoe, A., Dockray, S., & Wardle, J. (2009). Positive affect and psychobiological processes relevant to health Journal of Personality, 77(6), 1747–1776. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 6494.2009.00599.x Suldo, S. M., Shaunessy, E., & Hardesty, R. (2008). Relationships among stress, coping, and mental health in high-achieving high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 45(4), 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20300 Tang, Y. (2009). Social support of elderly caregivers. International Journal of Business and Management, 3(8), 81. Tardy, C. H. (1985). Social support measurement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00905728 Taylor, F. (2013). Self and identity in adolescent foreign language learning. Multilingual Matters. Topor, D. R., Keane, S. P., Shelton, T. L., & Calkins, S. D. (2010). Parent involvement and student academic performance: A multiple mediational analysis. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 38(3), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2010.486297 The Role of Social Support Systems in Adolescent Foreign Language Learning 27 Torres, J. B., & Solberg, V. S. (2001). Role of self-efficacy, stress, social integration, and family support in Latino college student persistence and health. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2000.1785 Turner, G. (1999). Peer support and young people’s health. Journal of Adolescence, 22(4), 567–572. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1999.0249 Urdan, T., & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 331–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.003 Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 215–228). Bristol, U.K.; Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from http://webcat. warwick.ac.uk/record=b2252937~S1 Vatankhah, M., & Tanbakooei, N. (2014). The role of social support on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among Iranian EFL learners. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1912–1918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.622 Vedder, P., Boekaerts, M., & Seegers, G. (2005). Perceived social support and well being in school: The role of students’ ethnicity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(3), 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-4313-4 Weihua, F., & Williams, C. M. (2010). The effects of parental involvement on students? Academic self-efficacy, engagement and intrinsic motivation. Educational Psychology, 30(1), 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903353302 Wentzel, Kathryn R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202–209. Wentzel, Kathryn R., Battle, A., Russell, S. L., & Looney, L. B. (2010). Social supports from teachers and peers as predictors of academic and social motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35(3) 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.03.002 Wong, R. M. H. (2007). Motivation and English attainment: A comparative study of Hong Kong students with different cultural backgrounds. Asia Pacific Education Researcher, 17(1), 45–60. Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishide, L., & Shimizu, K. (2004). The inf luence of attitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning, 54(1), 119–152. Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Die Rolle der Systeme gesellschaftlicher Unterstützung im Prozess der Aneignung von Fremdsprachen bei Jugendlichen Z u s a m m e n f a s s u n g In der Pubertät bilden die Familie, die Lehrer und die Kollegen die wichtigsten Unterstützungsgruppen mit denen die Jugendlichen oft in Kontakt kommen. Diese Gruppen spielen die Rolle eines Buffers zwischen dem Stress und dem psychologischen Wohlbefinden, indem sie bei dem Zurechtkommen mit den Widrigkeiten des Schicksals helfen und die Integration in die Gesellschaft gewährleisten. Man kann also annehmen, dass in der mit dem obligatorischen Fremdsprachenunterricht verbundenen Stresssituation die gesellschaftliche Unterstützung seitens der als wichtige Personen im Leben des Schülers wahrgenommenen 28 Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Menschen, einen positiven Einf luss auf den Lernerfolg ausüben kann. Obwohl es erforderlich ist, den eine Fremdsprache lernenden Schüler als ein gesellschaftliches Wesen zu erforschen, wurden solche Forschungen bis jetzt nur sehr selten durchgeführt. Bisherige Untersuchungen beweisen jedoch, dass die vom Schüler wahrgenommene Unterstützung eine wesentliche Vorhersage der Widerstandsfähigkeit des Schülers im Prozess der Fremdspracherlernung ist. Das Bewusstsein, dass er gefördert wird, schützt den Schüler vor Stress, erhöht sein Selbstwertgefühl und hilft, in der Stresssituation nicht die Kontrolle zu verlieren. Die drei wichtigsten Unterstützungsgruppen helfen den Schülern, ihre gesellschaftlichen Kompetenzen, ihre Fähigkeiten Probleme zu lösen, ihre Autonomie und Zielbewusstsein zu entfalten. Schlüsselwörter: gesellschaftliche Unterstützung, Elternunterstützung, Lehrerunterstützung, Kollegenunterstützung