Three Seas Economic Journal

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Vol. 3 No. 4, 2022

1 Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine (corresponding author)
E-mail: oleksandra.belz@lnu.edu.ua
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7462-8501

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms 
of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30525/2661-5150/2022-4-1

USE OF SCHEMA.ORG MICRO-MARKUP  
IN E-COMMERCE PROJECTS

Olexandra Belz1

Abstract. The purpose of the article is to identify the most effective schema.org micro-markup schemes used  
in e-commerce projects. Methodology. The research included competitive intelligence among the leading online 
platforms operating in Europe in general and in Ukraine in particular. The study involved TOP-8 e-commerce 
projects in Ukraine and TOP-9 global cross-border marketplaces operating in Europe. The service validator.
schema.org was chosen as the research tool. Results. The study showed that the most popular schema.org micro- 
markup format is JSON-LD. In general, 82.4% of the surveyed sites use JSON-LD microdata format. Some sites use  
two microdata formats: JSON-LD and Microdata. But none of the top online marketplaces use the RDFa micro-
markup format. Popular marketplaces operating in Ukraine and Europe often use the same types of schema.
org vocabulary. However, the frequency of using micro-markup by top marketplaces operating in Ukraine is 
much higher than the frequency of using micro-markup by top marketplaces operating in Europe. In addition,  
Ukrainian marketplaces use a much wider list of schema.org micro-markup properties than marketplaces  
operating in Europe. However, no online store has implemented the properties of advantages and disadvantages 
of goods recommended by Google in the scheme. Practical implications. The study suggests schema.org  
micro-markup schemes for homepage, category page, product page, about page, payment and delivery 
page, warranty and returns page, contact page and blog. The proposed templates of micro-markup schemes 
were validated using the validator.schema.org service. The study recommends using the JSON-LD format for  
semantic markup of website content. Value/originality. Implementation of effective semantic markup of site  
content will allow search engines to more accurately identify the information presented on the site. This, in turn, 
will improve the visibility of the online marketplace in the Search Engine Results Page of Google, Bing, Yahoo! etc.

Key words: e-commerce, online marketplaces, schema.org, semantic markup of site content, SEO, micro-markup  
of site content, formats JSON-LD, Microdata and RDFa.

JEL Classification: O32, F23, C80

1. Introduction
Today the communication environment of the 

Internet creates new opportunities for business 
development. Promotion of business in the 
Internet is a necessary condition for ensuring  
the competitive position of the company.

The most popular platform for doing business  
on the Internet is a website. However, it is not 
enough to have a website to run a business. The 
website must be visible to potential customers.  
For this purpose, various measures are imple-
mented to promote the site: SEO-optimization; 
contextual advertising; Google Shopping;  
dynamic and classic remarketing; targeted 
advertising; SMM-marketing; e-mail marketing, 

etc. An integral part of successful SEO  
optimization is the use of web page markup data.  
his allows search engines to more accurately  
identify the information presented on the site.  
In addition, competent markup expands the 
snippet – a short description of a web resource 
or its individual page. Rich snippet looks more 
informative and attractive, increases the relevance 
of the page and its CTR (click-through rate). The 
most popular markup to web pages supported  
by many search engines, including Bing, Google 
and Yahoo!, is the schema.org. This micro-
markup was developed in 2011. It involves the 
use of so-called "schemas". Schemas are a set of 
types, each of which is associated with a set of 



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properties. The types are arranged in a hierarchy. 
The vocabulary currently consists of 797 Types, 
1457 Properties, 14 Datatypes, 86 Enumerations 
and 462 Enumeration members (Schema.org, 
2022). Additionally, there are currently three 
schema.org micro-markup formats: Microdata, 
RDFa, and JSON-LD. That is why website  
developers have to decide which web page  
markup schemes to use.

The issue of using schema.org micro-markup 
has received much attention in scientific  
literature and practical projects. Since 2008, 
the Common Crawl project has been crawling  
websites to collect web page data (extracting 
metadata and web page text). At the time 
of writing, the latest scan took place from  
November 26 to December 10, 2022. As a result  
of this scan, 3.35 billion web pages were processed 
and 420 petabytes of content were removed 
(Common Crawl, 2022). Both scientists and 
practitioners are working with the obtained data 
sets of the Common Crawl project.

On September 22, 2022, the Web Data  
Commons (WDC) project released the  
Schema.org Table Annotation Benchmark 
(SOTAB) for public download (Web Data 
Commons, 2022). SOTAB is based on data from 
schema.org and Common Crawl. SOTAB has 
two annotation tasks: Column type annotation 
and column property annotation. The purpose of 
the Column Type Annotation (CTA) task is to 
annotate table columns with 91 schema.org types. 
The purpose of the Columns Property Annotation 
(CPA) task is to annotate pairs of table columns 
with one of 176 schema.org properties. That 
is, SOTAB collects the most used types of web  
page markup with the most used properties 
describing them. The benchmark consists 
of 59,548 tables annotated for CTAs and 
48,379 tables annotated for CPAs, originating  
from 74,215 different websites.

Scientists analyzed SOTAB data. The authors 
identify the top 19 most common types of  
schema.org. The study shows that only a small 
number of schema.org properties are widely used  
on the Internet (Bizer, Primpeli, Peeters, 2019).

Based on data from the Common Crawl project, 
researchers analyzed the popularity of data micro-
markup formats and identified the most popular 
types of schema.org vocabulary (Tonon, Felder, 
Difallah, Cudre-Mauroux, 2016; Muhleisen, Bizer, 
2012). Based on data from the Common Crawl  

and Web Data Commons projects, researchers 
analyzed the best practices of using the Product 
type of the schema.org vocabulary (Selvam, 
Kejriwal, 2020). The vision of extending  
schema.org micro-markup to describe the  
semantic profile of a corporate web resource is 
presented (Zosimov, Bulgakova, Pozdeev, 2021).

As can be seen from the above review,  
scientists and practitioners do not focus on the  
use of effective schema.org micro-markup schemes.

The aim of the work is to identify the most 
effective schema.org micro-markup schemes  
used in e-commerce projects.

The research toolkit is the validator.schema.org 
service.

The search for effective schema.org micro-
markup schemes will be conducted by analyzing 
the most successful e-commerce projects. The 
following were selected for the study:

1. TOP 8 by attendance of e-commerce projects 
of Ukraine: rozetka.com.ua; olx.ua; prom.ua; 
epicentrk.ua; tabletki.ua; allo.ua; comfy.ua and  
ria.com (Krotovskaia, 2022).

2. TOP 9 global cross-border marketplaces 
operating in Europe, namely: amazon.com; 
aliexpress.com; ebay.com; etsy.com; discogs.
com; vinted.com; bandcamp.com; ubereats.com; 
zalando.com (Cross-Border Commerce Europe, 
2022).

2. The schema.org micro-markup format
In the studied projects the most popular  

schema.org micro-markup format is JSON-LD.  
In general, 82.4% of the studied sites use this 
microdata format. However, the study found 
that not all website developers follow the 
recommendations for using this format. Only  
sites rozetka.com.ua, olx.ua, comfy.ua, etsy.com 
 and discogs.com have JSON-LD code in the  
<head> section. Marketplaces prom.ua, epicentrk.ua,  
tabletki.ua, allo.ua, amazon.com, aliexpress.com, 
ebay.com, ubereats.com and zalando.com place 
JSON-LD code in the <body> section or after  
the <body> section. This practice violates the 
validity of the program codes of sites. This has 
a negative impact on search engine optimization 
in general. Some sites (rozetka.com.ua,  
epicentrk.ua, allo.ua, comfy.ua, ria.com and  
ebay.com) use two microdata formats: JSON-LD  
and Microdata. Marketplaces ria.com, vinted.com 
and bandcamp.com use only Microdata format. 
57.1% of the surveyed sites use Microdata format.



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None of the top online marketplaces use the 
RDFa micro-markup format. Search engines  
also do not recommend using this format for 
semantic markup of website content.

3. Popular schema.org microdata types  
in top e-commerce projects

TOP-8 Ukrainian online marketplaces use 
twenty-nine types of schema.org micro-markup 
to form extended snippets. TOP-9 European 
online marketplaces use twenty-eight types of  
schema.org micro-markup. However, there 
are only twenty-one common types, namely: 
AggregateOffer, AggregateRating, Answer, 
Brand, BreadcrumbList, FAQPage, ImageObject, 
ItemList, ListItem, Offer, Organization, Person, 
Place, PostalAddress, Product, Question, Rating, 
Review, SearchAction, WebSite and WebPage.

Popular online marketplaces operating in 
Ukraine and Europe most often use the same 

types of schema.org vocabulary (Table 1 and 
Table 2). However, the frequency of using micro-
markup by top marketplaces operating in  
Ukraine is significantly higher than the frequency  
of using micro-markup by top marketplaces 
operating in Europe.

Top online marketplaces operating in Ukraine,  
on average, use 1.6 types of schema.org micro-
markup on the Homepage, 5.9 types on the 
Category Page, 7.1 types on the Product Page, 
2.1 types on the About Page, on the Payment & 
Delivery Page – 2.3 types, on the Guarantees & 
Returns Page – 1.4 types, on the Contact Page – 
1.6 types, on the Blog – 1.3 types. The top online 
marketplaces operating in Europe use an average 
of 1.8 types of schema.org micro-markup on 
the Homepage, 2.0 types on the Category Page, 
2.9 types on the Product Page, and 0.8 types 
on the About Page, on the Payment & Delivery 
Page – 0.2 types, on the Guarantees & Returns 

Table 1
Schema.org micro-markup types that are most often used by the TOP 8 Ukrainian online marketplaces

Type  
of micro-markup

Percentage of online marketplaces that use micro-markup on a web page

Homepage
Category 

Page
Product 

Page
About Page

Payment & 
Delivery Page

Warranty and 
Returns Page

Contact 
Page

Blog

AggregateRating 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
BreadcrumbList 0.0 100.0 87.5 25.0 50.0 37.5 50.0 25.0
ListItem 0.0 100.0 87.5 25.0 50.0 37.5 50.0 25.0
Offer 0.0 50.0 75.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Organization 37.5 50.0 62.5 37.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
Person 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Product 0.0 37.5 87.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SearchAction 50.0 37.5 25.0 25.0 12.5 0.0 12.5 12.5
WebSite 50.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 12.5 0.0 12.5 12.5

Source: compiled by the author based on competitive intelligence of online marketplaces operating in Ukraine (service  
validator.schema.org , 2022)

Table 2
Schema.org micro-markup types most often used by TOP 9 online marketplaces operating in Europe

Type  
of micro-markup

Percentage of online marketplaces that use micro-markup on a web page

Homepage
Category 

Page
Product 

Page
About Page

Payment & 
Delivery Page

Warranty and 
Returns Page

Contact 
Page

Blog

AggregateRating 0.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Brand 0.0 0.0 44.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
BreadcrumbList 0.0 33.3 11.1 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
ListItem 0.0 33.3 11.1 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Offer 0.0 11.1 44.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Product 0.0 11.1 55.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SearchAction 44.4 0.0 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WebSite 55.6 11.1 11.1 33.3 0.0 0.0 11.1 11.1

Source: compiled by the author based on competitive intelligence of online marketplaces operating in Europe (service  
validator.schema.org , 2022)



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Page – 0.0 types, on the Contact Page – 0.1 types, 
on the Blog – 0.3 types. In addition, Ukrainian 
marketplaces use a much wider list of schema.
org micro-markup properties than marketplaces 
operating in Europe. However, not a single 
online store has implemented the properties of  
advantages and disadvantages of goods 
recommended by Google in the micro-markup 
schemes (Google Search Central, 2022).

4. Recommended micro-markup schemes  
for use in e-commerce projects

Analyzed the experience of using schema.org 
micro-markup by popular online marketplaces  
and analyzed the recommendations of micro-
markup developers (Schema.org, 2022 &  
Google Search Central, 2022). Therefore, the 
author recommends using the JSON-LD format 
for semantic markup of site content. Also for 
e-commerce projects, the author has developed 
recommended micro-markup templates for the 
main types of pages of the site.

Recommended micro-markup schemes for the 
Homepage:

1. Organization:
<script 
t y p e = " a p p l i c a t i o n / l d + j s o n " > { " @ c o n t e x -
t":" http://schema.org ","@type":"Organization", 
"brand":"My-website", "logo":"https://my-website.
com.ua/icons/icon.svg","name":"MY-WEBSITE", 
"a l te r n a te Na m e " : " M Y-W E B S I T E " ,"s a m e A s " : 
[" https://w w w.facebook .com/my website.ua",  
" https://tw itter.com/mywebsite_ua"," https://
w w w.yo u t u b e.co m / c han n e l / U Cr 7 r 1 - z 7 9 T Y-
fqS2IPeRR47A"," https://www.instagram.com/
my w e b s i t e u a / " ," h t t p s : / / t . m e / my w e b s i t e " ] ,  
" u r l " : " h tt p s : / / my- w eb s i te.c o m .u a / " ,"d e pa r t -
m e n t " : { " @ c o n t e x t " : " h t t p : / / s c h e m a . o r g " , 
"@type":"Organization", "image":"https://my- 
website.com.ua/assets/icons/icon.svg","telephone": 
["+38 (032) 000-00-00","+38 (032) 111-11-11","+38  
(032) 222-22-22"],"name":"Name-My-Shop","email": 
" i n f o @ m y - w e b s i t e . c o m . u a" , " a d d r e s s " : { " @
type":"PostalAddress", "addressLocality ":"My-City ", 
"streetAddress":"My-Street-Address"}}}</script>

2. WebSite:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
"http://schema.org", "@type": " WebSite", 
"url": "http://my-website.ua", "potentialAc-
tion": {"@type": "SearchAction", "target": 
" http://my-website.ua/search?search_ter-

m={search_term}", "query-input": "required 
name=search_term"}}</script>

3. FAQPage:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
" h t t p s : / / s c h e m a . o r g / " , " @ t y p e " : " -
FAQPage","mainEntity ":[{"@ty pe":"Ques -
tion","name":"My-Question 1","acceptedAn-
swer ":{"@type":"Answer ","text":"My-Answer 
1"}},{"@type":"Question","name":"My-Ques-
tion 2","acceptedAnswer":{"@type":"Answer", 
"text":"My-Answer 2"}}]}</script>

Recommended micro-markup schemes for the 
Category Page:

1. Organization, FAQPage – similar to the 
corresponding schemes of the Homepage.

2. Action:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
" h t t p : / / s c h e m a . o r g " , " @ t y p e " : "A c t i o n" , 
"potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction", 
" t a r g e t " : " h tt p s : \ / \ / my - w e b s i te.c o m .u a \ 
/search\/?text={search_term_string}","query- 
input":"required name=search_term_string"}} 
</script>

3. BreadcrumbList:
<script type="application/ld+json">{"@con-
text":"http://schema.org", "@type":"Bread-
crumbList", "ItemListElement": [{"@type": 
" L i s t I t e m " , " p o s i t i o n " : 1 , " i t e m " : { " @ i d " : 
"https://my-website.com.ua", "name":"Name-
My-Shop"}}, {"@type":"ListItem","position":2, 
"item":{"@id":" https://my-website.com.ua/" 
,"name":"My-Category "}}]}</script>

4. Product (if a line of products of the same type 
is sold on the site):

<script 
type="application/ld+json"> {"@context": 
" https://schema.org/","@ty pe":"Product ", 
"name":"Name-Product ","offers":{"@ty pe": 
"A ggregateOf fer ","priceCurrenc y ":" UAH ", 
" lowPrice":"4.44"," highPrice":"9.99","offer-
Count":3,"availability ":"InStock"}} </script>

5. WebPage:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
" htt p://schema .org ","@t y pe":" WebPage", 
"name":"My-Title","description":"My-Descrip-
tion","url":" http://my-website.ua/my-page"} 
</script>

Recommended micro-markup schemes for the 
Product Page:



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1. Organization, FAQPage – similar to the 
corresponding schemes of the Homepage.

2. Action, BreadcrumbList, WebPage – similar to 
the corresponding schemes of the Category Page.

3. Product:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
"http://schema.org","@type":"Product","sku": 
" 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 " ," u r l " : " h t t p s : / / my - w e b s i te. 
com.ua/product1","name":"Name-Product 1", 
" I m a g e " : [ " h t t p s : / / m y - w e b s i t e . c o m .u a /
g o o d s / i m a g e s / p r o d u c t 1 . j p g " , " h t t p s : / /
my- web s i te.co m.u a / go o d s / i mages / p ro d-
uct2.jpg"],"description":"Description-Pro duct 
1"," itemCondition":" htt ps://schema .org/ 
New Condition","of fers":{"@t y pe":"Of fer ", 
"availability ":" http://schema.org/InStock", 
"url":" https://my-site.com.ua/product1","-
pr ice":"999.99","pr iceCurrenc y ":" UAH ","-
priceValidUntil":"2023-11-16T17:52:22"}, 
" b r a n d " : { " @ t y p e " : " B r a n d " ," n a m e " : " My -
B r a n d " , " u r l " : " h t t p s : / / m y - s i t e . c o m . u a /
producer/brand1/"},"rev iew ":[{"@t y pe": 
" R e v i e w " , "a u t h o r " : { " @ t y p e " : " Pe r s o n" , 
"name":"Name-Author 1"},"datePublished": 
"2022.12.01","description":"My-Description 
1","positiveNotes":{"@type":"ItemList","item-
ListElement":[{"@type": "ListItem","position":1, 
"name":"Positive 1"},{"@type":"ListItem", 
"position":2,"name":"Positive 2"}]},"negative 
Notes":{"@type":"ItemList","itemListElement": 
[{"@t y pe":" ListItem","position":1,"name": 
"Negative 1"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2, 
"name":"Negative 2"}]}},{"@type":"Review", 
" a u t h o r " : { " @ t y p e " : " P e r s o n " , " n a m e " : 
"Name-Author 2"},"datePublished":"2022.10.30", 
"description":"My-Description 2"}],"aggregat-
eRating":{"@type":"AggregateRating","rating-
Value":4.7,"ratingCount":12," bestR ating ":5, 
"worstRating":1}}</script>

Recommended micro-markup schemes for the 
About Page, the Payment & Delivery Page, the 
Warranty & Returns Page, the Contact Page:

1. Organization, FAQPage – similar to the 
corresponding schemes of the Homepage.

2. Action, BreadcrumbList, WebPage –  
similar to the corresponding schemes of the  
Category Page.

Recommended micro-markup schemes for  
the Blog:

1. Organization, FAQPage – similar to the 
corresponding schemes of the Homepage.

2. Action, BreadcrumbList, WebPage –  
similar to the corresponding schemes of the 
Category Page.

3. Blog:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
"https://schema.org/","@type":"Blog","@id": 
" h t t p s : / / m y - w e b s i t e . c o m . u a / b l o g / " , 
"mainEntit y Of Page":" https://my-website.
com.ua/blog ","name":" My-Title","descr ip -
t i o n" : " My -D a s c r i p t i o n" ," p u b l i s h e r " : { " @
t y p e" : "O rgan i z at i o n" ," @ i d " : " htt p s : / / my- 
website.com.ua","name":"Name-My- Shop", 
" logo":" https://my-website.com.ua/icons/
icon.svg"}}</script>

4. BlogPosting:
<script 
t y pe="application/ld+json">{"@contex t ": 
" https://schema.org/","@ty pe":"BlogPost-
ing","mainEntityOf Page":"https://my-website.
com.ua/blog/my-post","name":"My-Post-Ti-
t l e" ,"d esc r i p t i o n" : " My-Po st-Desc r i p t i o n" , 
"datePubli shed ":"2022-01-14","dateModi-
fied":"2022-12-14","author ":{"@ty pe":"Per-
so n" ," @ i d " : " htt p s : / / my- web s i te.co m.u a /
a u t h o r / m y - n a m e " , " n a m e " : " My - Na m e " } , 
" i m age " : { " @ t y p e " : " Im age O b j e c t " ," @ i d " : 
"https://my-website.com.ua/image/image.jpg", 
"url ":" https://my-website.com.ua/image/ 
image.jpg"},"url":"https://my-website.com.ua/
blog/my-post"}</script>

The proposed micro-markup schema templates 
were validated using the validator.schema.org 
service. The validation result is as follows: zero 
errors and zero warnings.

5. Conclusions
In this work, a competitive intelligence of the 

top online stores operating in the Ukrainian and 
European markets was conducted in order to 
use schema.org micro-markup. In the process 
of work, the shortcomings of using the schema.
org micro-markup scheme by top online stores 
were revealed. It was also found that Ukrainian  
online marketplaces use more informative  
schema markup schemes.

Based on the results of the work, templates to 
schema.org micro-markup schemes are proposed 
for the Homepage, the Category Page, the Product 
Page, the About Page, the Payment & Delivery 
Page, the Warranty & Returns Page, the Contact 
Page and Blog.



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Since the schema.org dictionary is dynamically 
updated, SEO specialists need to follow 
the recommendations of search engines 

regarding the use of micro-markup and,  
if necessary, make changes to the program code  
of the site pages.

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Received on: 2th of November, 2022
Accepted on: 10th of December, 2022

Published on: 30th of December, 2022