Olena Cherniavska* TheoreTical approaches To The deTerminaTion oF The phenomenon of «technoglobalism» Abstract. This article examines the  main factors and pre-conditions which caused the  emergence of technoglobalism in the 20th century. The author identified the role of the research activity of trans- national corporations in making this process more intensive, and also the main attention is concen- trated on national and foreign approaches to understanding of such a new phenomenon as “techno- globalism”. Keywords: scientific and technological progress; information revolution; postindustrial economy; techno-economic structure; research and development (R&D); transnational corporations; scientific and technological globalization; technoglobalism. 1. inTrodUcTion In the second half of the 20th century the new stage of scientific and technological revolu- tion has begun, in the epicenter of which there were the USA, Japan, USSR, France, Italy and some other countries of  Western Europe, and also Canada. If previous scientific and technological revolution, the scientific base of which was created in the beginning of the 20th century as a result of revolution in natural history and theoretical physics by such countries as Germany, France, Great Britain and the USA, caused essential changes mainly in industry, the modern one carried out revolution practically in all spheres of not only industrial pro- duction and services but also in the sphere of intellectual labor. Thus, in  1950th in  most capitalist countries formation of  favorable conditions for the  economic growth took place, which was carried out mainly due to  the  extensive use torun international studies 2015, No. 1 (8), pp. 5-12 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/TIS.2015.001 * Kyiv National Economic University named after Vadym Hetman, elena-kneu@mail.ru http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/TIS.2015.001 6 Olena Cherniavska of natural and intellectual resources, but by the end of 1950th the rate of economic growth had slowed down considerably and the  intensification of  production by means of  intro- duction in  all spheres of  economy of  the  last achievements of  scientific and technological progress, in  particular new resource, labor and energy saving, environmentally clean and waste-free technologies has come into question. Researching the modern features of formation of technoglobalism, it is necessary to pay special attention to  interpretation of  this phenomenon by foreign and domestic scientists who study the  problems concerning the  development of  global technological civilization. The term «technoglobalism» itself hasn’t become widespread so far. And there is no unanim- ity among researchers about the  meaning of  this concept and its relation to  the  number of other correlated categories, such as «technological progress», «global problems», «techno- logical globalization», and «internationalization of R&D». Taking into account the above mentioned, it is necessary to analyze different approach- es to determination of «technoglobalism» and discover the essence of this concept. First of all let’s pay attention to the basic driving forces which caused the emergence of technoglobal- ism. 2. material and methods We analyze the driving forces of formation of the technoglobalism as factors or the obstacles to development the sphere of technologies which influence this development indirectly. By their nature they are distinctive catalysts which contribute to the formation of this phenome- non, or or else the factors that slow it down. In our opinion, at the current stage of economic development such forces are as follows. First, the revolution in information and communication technologies, which promoted the appearance of new organizational forms and production processes. As a result, the tran- sition from industrial to «information» economy and society, where financial capital gives a way to new intellectual and information technologies, and also an important aspect that there is a rapid spread of worldwide Internet network. The well-known Ukrainian scientist Filipenko A.S. adheres to the similar point of view, and states, that «formation of the postindustrial information and technological mode of civi- lization development» (Filipenko, Rogach & Shnyrkov, 2001, p. 184) had assisted the devel- opment of technoglobalism; at the same time there are «such its elements as: an overwhelm- ing dynamics of «fundamentalization» of technological processes in scientific and technical progress, influence on  the microstructure of  substance, perfection of  immaterial elements of  productive forces, that requires joining the  efforts at a  global level (genetic engineer- ing, biotechnology, new composites, thermonuclear synthesis, artificial intelligence etc.); all-embracing informatization of public life on the basis of the swiftly progressing computer engineering, planetary computer networks, electronic, fiber optic and space telecommunica- tions» (Filipenko, Rogach & Shnyrkov, 2001, p. 184). Secondly, increasing number of  TNCs and considerable increase of  their activity in the R&D sphere and in global distribution of new technologies. The experts of UNCTAD pointed out that the number of TNCs today is about 80 000 against 35 000 in 1990 year, in addition nowadays they have about 900 000 foreign branches against 150 000 in 1990 year (UNO, 1992 & 2008). 7Theoretical approaches to determination the phenomenon of «technoglobalism» Thirdly, intensification of  international competition in  technology-intensive indus- trial sectors and growth of volumes of foreign direct investments, in particular investments in capital- and technology-intensive industrial sectors grew more quickly than investments in resources- and labor-intensive production. Fourthly, increased capacity of  hi-tech production, especially in  industrial countries, and «intraindustrial trade», that is  trade within one industrial sector or product group. Such trade model represented growing specialization of  oligopolistic companies and the increase of the foreign investments in such companies. «Intraindustrial trade» usually took place inside TNCs, between parent companies and subsidiaries, between its branches, and mainly in high-paid, technology-intensive sectors such as machinery, electric and transport equipment. At the same time the intensity of R&D became the most essential determinant of the intercompany export and import, also the highest level of concentration of this type of trade was observed rather in Japan than in the USA. Fifthly, considerable changes in  the  sector of  the  international trade (from low tech to hi-tech commodities), especially in the developed economies. Thus, the part of low tech commodities in  industrial export was constantly diminishing from 45% in  the  middle of 1960th to 35% at the end of 1980th, at the same time the part of hi-tech types of commod- ities rose from 16 to 24% during the indicated period (Ostry, Nelson, 1995). And in 2005 the part of high- and middle-tech commodities’ export made up about 65% of the general export in OECD (OECD, 2007). We should notice that the USA gradually lost its competitive positions because the hi- tech trade got out of its control. In the second half of 1980th the same tendency was observed in  the  countries of  Western Europe, and also in  Japan, where a  decline of  hi-tech export volumes took place. Unlike the «Triad countries» only in the new industrial Asian countries there was a positive tendency of growing technological competitive advantages. As a result, in many developed economies steps towards modernization of the national trade and revi- sion of the domestic trade policy were carried out. Sixthly, aggravating the global problems of technological development, that is a contra- diction between society and nature represented a contradiction of scientific and technologi- cal progress, which was the reason for emergence of such problems. That is why at the end of the 20th century sharp necessity to minimize the technogenic impact of human civiliza- tion on environment appeared, above all, applying resource saving, ecologically clean and waste-free technologies in industry; introduction the new types of alternative energy; usage of hybrid transport and technologies of clean car etc. Thus, considering the causal factors of technological development nowadays, it is also necessary to identify such basic factors which contributed into formation of technoglobal- ism as  contradiction between old and new technical ideas, permanent change of  techno- economic structures, shaking off its old elements and formation of  new ones, contradic- tion between scarcity of  natural resources that remained, and growing human wants and needs. Shukhardin S.V. adheres to the similar point of view. He notes that the «main motive force of technological development is a necessity of society in material and cultural welfares, that it’s shown in contradiction between the constantly growing material and cultural needs of people and economic feasibility to satisfy these needs» (Shukhardin, 1965, p. 42). In professors L.Rotsios and V.D. Sikora’s opinion, the history of technoglobalism be- gan in  1977 when R. Ronstadt (Ronstadt, 1997) made attempts to  estimate the  impor- tance of R&D, which are conducted by multinational corporations (Rotsios, Sikora, 1995). 8 Olena Cherniavska He analyzed the research activity of 7 most influential American TNCs, which conducted considerable part of the corporate R&D abroad. On the initial stage of the research Ronstadt noted that, for example, the company IBM spent $200 million (and it is about 30% of its budget) in  1974 on  overseas R&D (Douglas W., Douglas N., 1998). Thus, the  other 6 TNCs such as Otis Elevator, CPC International, Exxon (energy sector), Exxon Chemical, Union Carbide (industry of  chemical preparations and plastic) and Corning Glass Works also spent 45, 39, 25, 23, 12 and 9% of  the  budget respectively on  R&D abroad during the same period (Wiley Company, 1978). These companies created or purchased 55 R&D centers in  the  following regions in  the  world: in  Canada and Europe, in  India (2 centers), in  Japan (2 centers), and in  Australia. For analysis the  researchers chose 42 centers, which had been founded by American TNCs, and classified them into 4 categories: Centers of  Technological Transfer (31), of  Local Technologies (2), of  Global Commodities (5) and Centers of  Corporate Technologies (4). Creation of  R&D centers was directed to  help transfering technologies from parent companies to daughter ones, and also it was very important to provide techni- cal help for foreign daughter companies concerning the usage of technologies brought from the parent company, gaining higher local market share, developing new and improved com- modities for foreign markets, production of innovative technologies for parent corporations in the USA, gathering information in the field of new technologies with the purpose of their use in the home country, and so on. Thus, R. Ronstadt came to  the  conclusion that in  all cases the  decision concerning placing and conducting of  R&D in  a foreign country was based mainly on  the closeness to  the  production facilities, presence of  favorable market conditions and foreign scientific and technological competence. So, Ronstadt’s research was the proof of that. The research activity of American TNCs in foreign countries was successful enough in the field of R&D in the second half of the 20th century. The  importance of  R&D that was conducted by the  foreign branches of  TNCs constantly grew in  most countries-recipients in  1990 although this proceeded differenly in  different countries: for example, it  had the  most importance in  Ireland, Great Britain, Spain, Hungary and Canada, and the least – in Japan, France, and Sweden. It is also neces- sary to note that TNCs conducting the activity in the field of R&D in a foreign country gave rise to a subsequent development of technoglobalism. That is why the process of internation- alization of R&D can be considered to be the first stage of formation the technoglobalism. As opposed to  L.  Rotsios and V.D. Sikora, professors J.A. Peck and H. Wai-Chung Yeung claim that at first the term «technoglobalism» was used by S. Ostry and R. Nelson in 1980th. Like Ronstadt’s research (Ronstadt, 1997) S.Ostry and R.Nelson also tried to ex- plain the research activity of multinational corporations, which conducted it in key R&D centers in many industrial countries with the developed network of university research cen- ters. Moreover, they stated that distribution of  information technologies and global tele- communication networks had provided the  firms with material and technical possibilities and potential for organization and coordination of R&D, and also the possibility to obtain technical knowledge at global level (Peck Jamie, Wai-Chung, 2003). Later a lot of research works were published by S. Ostry and R. Nelson, D.Archibugi and J. Michie, E. Mensfild and J. Howell, who studied the  formation and development of  technoglobalism. That is  why, it  is possible to  assert that majority of  technoglobalist researchers came to  the  conclusion that technoglobalism appeared and started to  develop 9Theoretical approaches to determination the phenomenon of «technoglobalism» in 1980, simultaneously with the development of the new stage of scientific and technologi- cal progress, which is characterized as information (postindustrial) revolution, when infor- mation technologies, «intellectual» computers, electronic automatization and robotization of all spheres and sectors of the economy gradually took place. 3. results and discussion We should mention that the concept of technoglobalism is usually interpreted by domestic and foreign scientists as an element of globalization process of the economy, also as the re- search, innovative or informational globalization (Tab. 1). However, it is mostly understood as the  technological globalization or globalization of  technologies. In our opinion, such equation is not quite clear and needs a comprehensive discussion. In fact, in common under- standing we determine technological globalization as one of the basic directions of the pro- cess of globalization, which spreads on science and technological sphere and is characterized by the global influence of the newest results and achievements of scientific and technological progress in all spheres of the mankind’s activity. However, we characterize the phenomenon of  technoglobalism not as  a  process, but as  a  result of  technological globalization, conse- quence of  information communications (postindustrial) revolution, when undoubtedly the most active impulse in its formation and development belongs to TNCs, which conduct their activity in  high-tech industrial sectors of  the  economy (aerospace equipment, bio-, nanotechnologies, ICT, genetic engineering, pharmaceutics, and so on). In our opinion, interpretation of  the  technoglobalism essence by the  well-known Ukrainian scientist O. G. Bilorus is the most complete and all-embracing. In fact, studying the problems of scientific and technical globalization and international technological safety of  Ukraine, he came to  the  conclusion about active development of the  world processes of technoglobalism, and connected it with telecommunication revolution and pointed out at the same time, that in the center of those technological changes concerning the develop- ment, exploitation and transfer of the newest technologies, undoubtedly there are TNCs for which a question of correlation of their internal and external activity in the sphere of tech- noglobalism is the most valid at the modern stage (Bilorus, Lukjanenko, 2001). Taking into account the above stated, it should be mentioned that modern industri- alization, which began to operate in the society, have accelerated the progress of replaying human labour force with automated processed. Technologies and forces of  nature which worked on  society, have accelerated this progress, thus improving the  conditions of  pop- ulation’s life. However, almost all technical  equipment which was used by people began to violate the ecological equilibrium and balance between nature and mankind gradually, at the same time creating the threat for stability of biosphere. That is why it is possible to claim that determination of  technoglobalism essence is  inextricably intertwined with ecologiza- tion of human activity, i.e. creation of the new range of ecologically clean, energy saving and waste-free technologies, facilities for an environmental monitoring etc. http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d1%82%d0%b5%d1%85%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%ba%d0%b0&translation=equipment&srcLang=ru&destLang=en 10 Olena Cherniavska Tab. 1. The definition of “technoglobalism” in different scientific researches The Definitions Authors, their researches Technoglobalism in a broad sense – is the process of glo- balization, which extends its influence on  the sphere of inventions and innovations; in a narrow – is the pro- cess of production, transfer and diffusion of technology that is becoming more international. Rotsios L.  and Sikora V.D. (1995). Globalization of  technology and national globalization innovation systems. Kyiv. Technoglobalism means a  strong interaction between the  process of  technological internationalization and globalization of the economy. Dr R. A. Mashelkar. Technology: Opportunity and challenge. The  Tribune (online edition). Indian Science Congress. January, 2004. Technoglobalism is  a comprehensive international co- operation in R&D and a global partnership in the field of technological innovation. Richard P. Shuttmeier. Strategic Asia 2004- 05: Confronting Terrorism in  the  Pursuit of  Power // Ashley J. Tellis, Michael Wills, 2004, the  National Bureau of  Asian Research. Washington, p. 548 Technoglobalism is  an ideology that improves global- ism on  technological grounds, meanwhile Internet and e-commerce are essential parts of  modern tehnoglobal vector of economic development. Alan Tonelson. „The Perils of  Techno- Globalism”. National Academy of  Sciences. Issues in  Science and Technology. Summer 1995, Volume: v11 Issue: n4 – pp. 31-38 Technoglobalism is  a phenomenon when TNCs use their technology globally and   at the  same time get the  access to  new technologies through the  diffusion of global R&D and technology cooperation. S. Ostry, R. Nelson. Techno-Nationalism and Techno-Globalism: Conflict and Cooperation (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995), p. 132 Technoglobalism is a world process of internationaliza- tion, invention and development, industrial and com- mercial usage, transfer and diffusion of technologies. Filipenko A.S., Rogach O.I., Shnirkov O.I. World economy. 2nd ed., Kyiv.: Lybid , 2001, p. 582 Technoglobalism is  a merger of  innovation and new technologies in a single system of technical knowledge, the emergance of “technological macrosystems” in com- munications and transport areas, the effects of telecom- munication revolution, spreading the Internet. Bilorus O.G., Lukyanenko D.G. Globalization and Security Development. Monography. Kyiv: KNEU, 2001, p. 733 Technoglobalism is a modern wave of implementation the new technologies, especially ICT. Patricia  A.  Glenn. Information technol- ogy in  a global economy// «Computational Economics».  – Springer Netherlands: Volume 6, Number 2, 1993, p. 107-114 Technoglobalism is  a process of  displacement the  na- tional innovation systems and unreasonable &  ineffec- tive efforts of national governments to stimulate techno- logical development within countries. Archibugi D. and Michie J. // The  globali- sation of  technology: a  new taxonomy // Cambridge Journal of  Economics, 1995, Vol. 19 (1), p. 121-140 Source: structured by the author. Thus, the development of technoglobalism is useful for most countries as revolution- ary technologies cause less harm for environment than technologies which were resource- intensive and contaminated the ecology. At the same time a lot of countries, especially de- http://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Asia-2004-05-Confronting-Terrorism/dp/0971393850/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product http://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Asia-2004-05-Confronting-Terrorism/dp/0971393850/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product http://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Asia-2004-05-Confronting-Terrorism/dp/0971393850/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=si3_rdr_bb_author?index=books&field%2dauthor%2dexact=Ashley J%2e Tellis http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=si3_rdr_bb_author?index=books&field%2dauthor%2dexact=Michael Wills http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%bd%d0%b5%d0%be%d1%82%d1%8a%d0%b5%d0%bc%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bc%d1%8b%d0%b9&translation=essential&srcLang=ru&destLang=en http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%bd%d0%b5%d0%be%d1%82%d1%8a%d0%b5%d0%bc%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%bc%d1%8b%d0%b9&translation=essential&srcLang=ru&destLang=en http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Translate/en-ru/at the same time http://www.springerlink.com/content/100248/?p=ba9d018b75ad4de8b138f7b33126eed0&pi=0 http://www.springerlink.com/content/100248/?p=ba9d018b75ad4de8b138f7b33126eed0&pi=0 http://www.springerlink.com/content/t66570l67n37/?p=ba9d018b75ad4de8b138f7b33126eed0&pi=0 http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d1%87%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bc%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%bd%d1%8b%d0%b9&translation=unreasonable&srcLang=ru&destLang=en http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Translate/en-ru/ineffective http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Translate/en-ru/ineffective http://cje.oxfordjournals.org/ http://cje.oxfordjournals.org/content/vol19/issue1/index.dtl http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%bf%d0%be%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bd%d1%8b%d0%b9&translation=useful&srcLang=ru&destLang=en 11Theoretical approaches to determination the phenomenon of «technoglobalism» veloping ones, are often deceived and place its production facilities that are dangerous for environment on their territories. As we know, technoglobalism changed not only scales and pattern of production in the developed industrial countries but also had a huge global influ- ence on the quality of life, interpersonal relations and their attitude towards environment. Simultaneously a powerful potential of the new scientific and technical achievements is not always used to the benefit of mankind. However, in spite of that today the mankind doesn’t have other alternative except for a subsequent intensification of the process of global techno- logical development because of the gradual exhaustion of present natural resources, popula- tion growth and various ecological problems. 4. conclUsions Summing up, it is necessary to conclude that application of the newest achievements and results of  modern scientific and technological progress became key to  economic develop- ment and contributed to  accelerating globalization processes, especially in  scientific and technological spheres. Changes to  the  new technological method of  production, to  high science-intensive technologies, rapid and wide distribution of information and communi- cation technologies, which eliminates barriers on  the way to  the transfer of  commodities, services, capitals are basic motive forces, which stimulate the process of globalization, both economic and technological in particular. From the initial stage of technoglobalism origin the  powerful technical and technological changes took place in  different industries of  na- tional economy. Its structure and principles of placing the productive forces of society (the rates of their development were considerably accelerated) changed and resulted in a substan- tial economic revival in the developed industrial countries. In world economic development a transition took place gradually from the capitalism of «free competition» to the monopo- listic one. The process of concentration of capital in sectors of heavy industry resulted in the creation of large industrial objects. This period was connected with the formation of world currency and credit markets, increasing the international division of labor, the importance and intensity of the international trade that grew sharply, especially in technology-intensive industries. Thus, revolutionary transformations in  the  sphere of  science and technology gradually gained a global character. More and more often the key role of technological factor is noticed in the process of the economy growth for most countries in the world. reFerences Bilorus. O.G., Lukjanenko D.G. (2001). Globalization and safe development. Kyiv. Douglas P. Woodward, Douglas W. Nigh. (1998). Foreign Ownership and the Consequences of Direct Investment in the United States: Beyond Us and Them. USA. Filipenko A.C., Rogach O.I., Shnyrkov O.I. (2001). World Economy. Kyiv. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007: Innovation and Performance in the Global Economy. (2007). Paris. www.oecd.org/sti/scoreboard Ostry S. and Nelson R.. (1995). Techno-Nationalism and Techno-Globalism: Conflict and Cooperation. Washington. http://www.lingvo.ua/ru/Search/Translate/GlossaryItemExtraInfo?text=%d0%be%d0%b4%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%bd%d0%be&translation=simultaneously&srcLang=ru&destLang=en http://www.google.com.ua/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffidcentro.homelinux.org%2FArch%2Fobserva_info%2FOECD%2520SCIENCE%2520AND%2520TECHNOLOGY%2520AND%2520INDUSTRY%2520SCOREBOARD%25202007.pdf&ei=ZybKSruYIM-JsAachangDg&rct=j&q=OECD+SCIENCE%2C+TECHNOLOGY+AND+INDUSTRY+SCOREBOARD+216+2007+%E2%80%93++OECD+2007&usg=AFQjCNFnpZRqtmzezIm370gyryvIa-SJxw http://www.oecd.org/sti/scoreboard 12 Olena Cherniavska Peck Jamie A., Wai-Chung Yeung Henry. Remaking the  Global Economy: Economic- Geographical Perspectives. (2003). London. Ronstadt R. (1977). Research and Development. Abroad by US Multinationals. Praeger. New York. Rotsios L. and Sikora V.D. (1995). Globalization of technology and national globalization innovation systems. Kyiv. Shukhardin S.V. (1965). Question of moving foces of technology development. Questions of history of natural science and technology. Moscow. The  International Executive. (1978). Volume 20 Issue 1, Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company, Winter.  – p. 1-62. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/full- text/114116276/PDFSTART World Investment Report 1992: Transnational corporations as engines of growth // United Nations, NewYork, 1992, p. 367. World Investment Report 2008: Transnational Corporations and the  Infrastructure Challenge// United Nations, 2008, p. 411. http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=si3_rdr_bb_author?index=books&field%2dauthor%2dexact=Jamie A Peck http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=si3_rdr_bb_author?index=books&field%2dauthor%2dexact=Henry Wai%2dChung Yeung http://www.amazon.com/Remaking-Global-Economy-Economic-Geographical-Perspectives/dp/0761948988/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product http://www.amazon.com/Remaking-Global-Economy-Economic-Geographical-Perspectives/dp/0761948988/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117920662/home http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/114116276/PDFSTART http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/114116276/PDFSTART