vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 v editorial presentation in the past, scientific dissemination was carried out through publications mainly in the field of medicine and biology. several years ago, by consulting the journal science, although i was not an expert on its topics, i realized the extraordinary scientific quality and the significant impact on the scientific community of the published articles . indeed, the magazine, explaining the latest advancement in the medical field, offered the opportunity to be continuously updated and sollecited new and innovative research activities able to save the life and improve its quality. nowadays, the publishing of articles has a key role in all scientific and technical fields. the dissemination of the results of innovative research activities by both research institutions and industries is the driving force to develop new ideas, to open up new horizons and achieve goals that are more ambitious. unfortunately, especially in recent years, there has been a proliferation of publications, which are often devoid of new elements compared to the state of the art, deriving by the need to publish at any cost required by the system of evaluation of scientific quality in the academic world. this adverse side effect of the scientific dissemination threatens to cause the debasement of the important role of the innovations and news sharing ideas, subordinating it to the distorted logic of having to write articles. the journal vitruvio aims to counteract this drift by offering an opportunity for an authentic comparison among those who intend to communicate and to question their own beliefs and the results of their research. vitruvius intends to belong to the large group of strict scientific journals that cover topics of engineering and architecture from the sustainable, innovative and multidisciplinary point of view with a focus on the materials, methods and applications advancements. the articles published in our new journal will have a common thread or they may deal with subjects completely different from each other. this feature is the strong point of the magazine that provides a broad and not pre-established vision on the current way of carrying out research activities in work team facing complex situations with a multidisciplinary approach that leads to follow different and sometimes unforeseeable paths. another important goal of the newspaper is the dissemination of innovations in information technologies, which are nowadays a powerful tool of support to achieve qualitative and quantitative results in all types of investigations. coming back to talk about the issues of vitruvio, it can be stated that it is a singular magazine in the architecture and engineering fields, which gives special attention, for example, to the deconstruction and the selective demolition, considering them as key stages of the construction process and not as fashion items that often haven’t got its precise dissemination. the same attention is given to the interventions on urban scale such as that of the smart cities as well as the sustainable and eco-efficient rehabilitations, topics that are a viable alternative but also a hard challenge compared to the obvious option for new constructions. finally, i would like to point out the criteria of the magazine that are sustainability, actuality, innovation, and respect and sensitivity to others as well. i hope that the adoption of these principles can bring personal and professional benefits to everyone who will want to contribute to our magazine. luis palmero http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4470 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 vii editorial memory and technology the concept of "memory" has different meanings zkhq� dqdo\]hg� zlwklq� vshflóf� fxowxudo� frqwh[wv�� ,q� general, the memory expresses the ability of man to keep track of events, information, sensations, ideas, experiences, and recall this consciousness as soon as certain motivations make necessary the contribution of past experience. however, in particular the history of western culture teaches us that the re-enactment of the information and the experiences of the past have been fundamental to the development of knowledge and of the research, and hence of the "technology" that includes many disciplines in itself and has as main object the application of different technical tools for problem vroylqj�iru�vshflóf�jrdov� this issue of vitruvio journal offers an interesting rssruwxqlw\� wr� uhôhfw� rq� wkh� lpsruwdqw� gldorjxh� between "memory" and "technology" analyzing case studies that illustrate projects and research that highlight the different methodological paradigms for suhvhuylqj� wkh� klvwru\� zlwkrxw� vdfulóflqj� ixqfwlrqdo� compliance contemporary. $�gldorjxh��phpru\�whfkqrorj\��wkdw�uhôhfwv�rq�wkh� methodological and constructive evolutions especially of the history of western engineering which, since the ��wk�fhqwxu\��kdv�kdg�pdmru�uhshufxvvlrqv�hvshfldoo\�lq� the latin american area, referring to the two articles relating to projects in colombia and guatemala. $� gldorjxh� wkdw� óqgv� pdq\� frqóupdwlrqv� lq� wkh� history of constructive techniques that have greatly contributed to the progress and growth of research in wkh�óhog�ri�dssolhg�whfkqrorjlhv� 7kh�sdshuv�vhohfwhg�lq�wklv�lvvxh�ri�vflhqwlóf�mrxuqdo� dovr�kljkoljkw�wkh�lpsruwdqfh�ri�uhvhdufk�lq�wkh�óhog� of sustainable technological development without, however, obfuscating the inheritance received from history but rather enhancing existing experiences and methodologies to meet contemporary needs. bernard stiegler, french philosopher, in the book etats de choc. bêtise et savoir au xxie siècle �������vd\v�wkdw� any form of knowledge presupposes a techno-logical attitude, supported by a cognitive and, at the same time, critical ability capable of guiding and responding best to the cultural needs of the time. stiegler argues that any evolutionary process of a collective knowledge is based on a technological research supported by the memory of the past. an example is the communication system that the man has adopted during his evolution: he moved from the altamira rock paintings to the johannes gutenberg suhvv�dqg�wkhq�wr�wkh�skrwrjudsk�zlwk�wkh�óuvw�pdmru� experiments by louis daguerre in france, to the advances in digital technology in the second half of the twentieth century. they are all processes in which the dialogue between "memory" and "technology" has helped to improve the knowledges thus put it at the service of community. in contemporary language, just for technological advancement, we have also witnessed the change of the concept of "memory", a word that is used to indicate a hard drive of a computer where computer data is stored and which relies on the preservation of digital documents. but this concept does not obviously cancel the original one, that of "memory" as a complex of memories, and thus the ability to guard and recall facts of the past that help us interpret the present to build the future. thanks to human memory and the inheritance of the past, we have come to know our experiences and the millenarian knowledges. now we just have to hope that the best results of the most advanced technologies can help us in this conservation and valorization of the cultural heritage to transfer our present to the future. olimpia niglio https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.9008 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 vii editorial sustainability: a social responsability the dissemination of the awareness and attention towards a sustainable way of building in the present and the immediate future is one of the goals that the vitruvio magazine intends to achieve through its articles and participations. in recent years, sustainability has taken on a number of meanings that go beyond the compliance with environmental protection requirement, becoming a real moral obligation for every individual. for this reason, we have several protocols and basic frqfhswv�dv�zhoo�dv�vshflóf�vwdqgdugv�dqg�odzv��zklfk� enable us to apply good practices on sustainability. in wkh�frqvwuxfwlrq�óhog��wkh�deryh�phqwlrqhg�surwrfrov� have such an overwhelming logic that it is natural to zrqghu� zk\� wkh\� kdyh� qrw� ehhq� dgrswhg� \hw� óiw\� years ago at the beginning of european economic development. currently, the different aspects of sustainability, such dv� hqhuj\� hióflhqf\�� qdwxudo� uhvrxufh� vdihjduglqj�� etc, are spread across all technological projects of any nature. these issues have economic implications that often compromise the project feasibility, becoming just a merely statements of intention that will never be realized for lack of money, as often stated by all the politicians of the european states. unfortunately, in more and more cases, sustainability issues are dgyhuwlvlqj� vorjdqv� zlwkrxw� d� uhdo� ehqhów� iru� wkh� collectivity and for the ccompanies, which by their nature make concrete things, the products. at this point, it is reasonable to wonder whether companies can really contribute to the sustainable development of our society through targeted actions of social responsibility the concept of social responsibility was introduced ehwzhhq� wkh� odwh� ����v� dqg� wkh� hduo\� ����v� lq� wkh� united states when the collectivity realized that the companies go beyond the production of goods and services and they are responsible for the health and safety of their workers and the generation of pollution of their production processes as well. concern for these social and environmental problems raises a demand for information that companies have to provide in a written document called social responsibility. %hwzhhq�wkh�odwh�vl[wlhv�dqg�hduo\�vhyhqwlhv�wkh�óuvw� social balance sheets was drawn up for the external bodies to the company, essentially consumers, which in the us have had a special sensitivity and attention for this theme. at the beginning, the information provided by the frpsdqlhv� glg� qrw� frqirup� wr� d� vshflóf� prgho�� the need to use a single scheme for all companies that could both provide information and allow a comparison between their social performance dates edfn�wr�wkh�����v��zkhq�d�uhvxujhqfh�ri�wkh�frqfhuq� for social responsibility was experienced. in this period, also the term "sustainability", which includes both economic, environmental and social concepts, ehjdq�wr�eh�xvhg��,q�������wkh�zhoo�nqrzq�%uxqgwodqg� 5hsruw�pdunv�d�uhdo�wxuqlqj�srlqw�e\�wkh�ghóqlwlrq�ri� “sustainable development” able to reconcile economic development with social and environmental issues. 7kh�sxeolfdwlrq�lq������e\�wkh�(xurshdq�&rpplvvlrq�ri� the green book on promoting a european framework for corporate social responsibility has begun a broad debate on how the european union could promote corporate social responsibility at european and international level. the above-mentioned green book aims to achieve rqh�ri�wkh�vwudwhjlf�remhfwlyhv�ghóqhg�e\�wkh�/lverq� european council in 2000, that is "to become the country with the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion". nowadays, a growing number of companies recognize their social responsibility, considering it an integral part of their business. however, the technological advancements and the current forms of cross-sectoral work impose the adoption of a new social responsibility control model able to assess the role played by https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7650 viii multiple companies in a given production cycle. in addition, companies are transforming into complex manufacturing systems involving several experts in order to remain competitive. in this scenario, the social responsibility model focused on the analysis of a single product shows signs of fragility and obsolescence. therefore, we should be looking for a new social responsibility assessment model that meets the current requirements of the production system in order to dyrlg�kdylqj�wr�uhshqw�lq�óiw\�\hduv� luis palmero vitruvio 7 | 2 (2022) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 2 v editorial vitruvius, a roman pragmatist of vast talent and engineering mind, accepted the conventions of his common sense and knew, as he recounts in his entertaining book the ten books on architecture, the functioning of machines and devices of war, pythagorean cabals or astrological suppositions, a very varied and therefore shallow compendium. yet, it brought him fame as the only known treatise in antiquity that amply demonstrates a practical knowledge of these subjects. on the other hand vitruvius is, for almost all of us, his famous and widely disseminated triad of architectural practice: utilitas, firmitas and venustas. if utilitas is attributed to the space and firmitas to the ceiling and the walls that enclose it venustas is not specified in any of the above, so it is supposed to be something added and of appearance, perhaps ornament, but always something outside the containing space our architect shows that the whole is a supposition of elements interrelated among them with a final (and beautiful) result. in short, he proposes tectonics skillfully defined. it is clear that, in our past and current times and those of the past, utilitas was a determining factor in architectural practice. thus, vitruvius is not wrong if we think of his proposal regarding the robustness of the system, but at the same time he makes us reflect on the fact that this is an ambiguous idea, of an elasticity that is incompatible with the creative and design rigour of today’s architecture. nowadays, the implementation of utility implies a knowledge of use, implicit in the context of the designer, as umberto eco relates in certain social codes or customs. the issue, then, as far as use is concerned, must be considered through the prism of functionalist theories, those that propose the constant form follows function, a moderate and foreseeing idea of essential nuances, but another, as arnau states, more radical position not formulated in theory but de facto manipulated in practice, wants the function to be reified as form: that is, form is engendered by function. this nonsense beats, however, and in an euphoric way, from the majority of design methodologies. today architecture presents a challenge in the gravity-rigidity binomial emphasised by vitruvius. we find ourselves in a spatial way of proceeding to design, where the challenge of design must, by force, consider functionalism linked to technological innovation. the historiography presents valuable and enriching examples that relate structural synthesis with constructive synthesis and the interaction between the two as we referred to earlier, but now, innovative technological artefacts have modified the form, exterior and interior, giving rise to other formal solutions and, therefore, to different visual ranges. systems that can transform the architectural space by employing openings, sliding, and movable roofs give rise to changing forms and create an important relationship with the exterior and interior space. in all these cases, there is a reciprocal dialogue and interaction between technology (innovation) and the form of architecture (spatiality), a contemporary vision in which we must necessarily arrive at the concept of design through virtual methodologies (3d, bim), which can anticipate the final result through simulations of form provided by technology. vitruvio 7 | 2 (2022) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 3v jay david bolter, in his book turing’s man: western culture in the computer age (1984) argues that it makes sense to examine plato and ceramics to understand the greek world, descartes and his mechanical clocks to understand seventeenthand eighteenth-century europe, as well as computers as a technological paradigm for the science, philosophy and even art of future generations. bolter analyses the cultural impact of computers in our era, comparing the computer to earlier technologies that redefined fundamental notions of time, space, language, memory and human creativity. surprisingly, he finds that in many ways the outlook of the computer age is more like that of the ancient world than that of the enlightenment. the classical philosopher and the computer programmer share a suspicion of infinity, an acceptance of the necessary limitations of human achievement, and a belief that results are more important than motives. while bolter fears that the increasing use of computers may diminish our culture’s sense of the historical and intellectual context of human endeavour, he argues that the computer also offers new ways of looking at intellectual freedom, creativity and the conservation of precious resources. it is our paradigm of technology that changes the spatial and material sense of the project and allows an “architectural freedom” out of established contexts and patterns and that is possibly its greatest appeal. and not only that. now we are heading towards a new paradigm called meta-verse, where the new frontiers of the digital are in the metaverse (beyond the universe), which brings an evolution of the internet, virtual and augmented reality, with the possibility of unfolding living alternative experiences and emotions. does this have something to do with vitruvian architecture? there must be, since we create digital twins of buildings, not just individual structures, but even entire urban environments. it allows simulating different scenarios, modifying them and even making them exist or vanish. the new digital frontiers represent a participatory and shared advance in design and open even new procedures for the conservation of heritage and contemporary architecture. luis manuel palmero iglesias vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 vii editorial architectural technologies, forms of culture and creativity that emerge and evolve an approach to architectural technology from different óhogv� fdq� eh� khosixo� lq� uhprwho\� xqghuvwdqglqj� wkh� dynamism, twists and turns, of the very sense of technology and sustainability and their importance in the discourse. architecture has to deal with certain cultures, with societies inhabiting a space, with their edfnjurxqg�dqg�lqwhuhvwv�dqg�óqdoo\�zlwk�wkh�txdolw\�ri� the engineered element, its materials and its adherence wr� zhoo�ghóqhg� prghov�� +rzhyhu�� wkh� uhodwlrqvkls� between the society and the architectonic object, zkrvh�lqwhudfwlrqv�fdq�eh�orrvho\�ghóqhg��uhtxluhv�d� multidisciplinary approach. an analysis that helps us understand the polyhedral shape of the matter. in this volume, there are quite different approaches to architectural technology and sustainability. from the perspective of spatial analysis there are approaches to cultural landscapes and monuments including digital technologies for documenting heritage assets and their social interaction. in the realm of transformation ri�8uedq�$uhdv�wkhuh�duh�vshflóf�fdvh�vwxglhv�uhodwlqj� wr�suhvhuydwlrq��dgdswlyh�uhxvhv��hqhuj\�hióflhqf\�dqg� management; contributions that inform adaptation, reuse and regeneration of buildings and districts. all of the approaches, the vernacular, the monumental dqg�wkh�xuedq��duh�frqwulexwlrqv�wkdw�uhihu�wr�vshflóf� forms of culture and creativity that emerge and evolve from ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ simulations in their making. these creations and transformations are not incidental, they emerge from social practices which frqvwdqwo\�uh�ghóqh�wkh�uhodwlrqvkls�ri�lqglylgxdov�zlwk� their environment. this calls for architectural objects that can be connected to multiple alterities and favour new territories for adaptation and re-creation. therefore, this editorial critically explores the ways in which built environments come into being and how they change along the way through justifying the need for processual questions on objects and habitats. technology and sustainability are approached not just as a quality inherent to an object but as a quality inherent to a living space with a rich potential for connecting and readapting past qualities towards future. the discourse aims to explain the evolving concepts of technology and sustainability as key roles in analyzing behaviours, expressions and adaptations as causes of idiosyncratic innovation and experimentation in the pdwhuldo�zruog�ri�vshflóf�yhuqdfxodu��prqxphqwdo�dqg� urban contexts. the papers provided in this number offer options to comprehend contemporary ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ constructions and reconstructions, although they are subject to the hidden structuring of the different contexts and timeframe. in any case, technology is intrinsically related to creativity and quality and they have priority, as was once pointed out when referring to the legacy of the past. &uhdwlylw\�dqg�txdolw\�vrphwlphv�ghóqh�wkh�elqrpldo� distinctiveness of every technicality in a given context. the distinctiveness tend to be settled when it is viewed from a future tense, nonetheless in that distinctiveness values are rarely represented and perceived as absolute. it happens because representation and perception allow alternative interpretations that depend on contextualization. thus, the prioritization of creativity and quality is fully dependent on the cultural contexts where the architectonic technicality is created and eventually re-created. for that reason, a wide view to cultural heritage, music, painting, craftsmanship may well explain intermediate processes where static and dynamic authentic objects ghóqh�fxowxudo�vshflóflwlhv��7kh�h[dpsoh�vhuyhv�zhoo� to understand that objects and places are constantly re-engineered not only technically but societally. they are the result of progression, adaptation and new interpretations new approaches where facts –the h[lvwlqj�sodfh��fdq�eh�uhfrqójxuhg�dqg�qduudwlyhv�êwkh� evolving technologycan change. https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2018.10444 viii traditional technologies in which evolving decay and unsustainable maintenance perform the role of this heritage for the future. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 ix that is why vitruvio journal seeks to establish new paradigms in order to comprehend alternative and polyhedral views on the reuse and reinterpretation of architectural technology just because it is entirely affected by dynamic socio-cultural processes of decay, maintenance, abandon and reconstruction. finally, i will pose a remark on what has been a cornerstone in my professional career. as senior lecturer, i understand that a challenge exists on assuming the need for a multidisciplinary education where architects, technicians and engineers merge with geographers, sociologists and philosophers looking for new insights. therefore, there is a need for not to isolate concepts such as heritage, historic built environments, smart built environments, landscape, buildings, uses, users, techniques, materials, (ióflhqf\� dqg� 7udqvirupdwlrq�� :h� qhhg� wr� orrn� iru� new university degrees at adapting and understanding technologies, social demands, tradition, environment and globalization. there is a need to apply multidisciplinary knowledge and multidisciplinary science in architectural technology. juan antonio garcía-esparza vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 2 vii editorial in order to respond to the call of past months, our magazine vitruvio has on this occasion approached lwv� frqwhqw� lq� d� vshflóf� zd\� wrzdugv� wkh� uhxvh� and sustainable recovery of the built architectural and landscape heritage. currently, and in spite of having as a starting point the intrinsic, academic and constructive approaches of the past, two fundamental txhvwlrqv�ehfrph�hylghqw��7kh�óuvw�lv�wkh�gliófxow\�ri� intervening on the built environment; that is to say, how can intervention proposals be undertaken (as a consequence of new designs and very imaginative surmhfwv���wr�rewdlq�d�suhflvh�dqg�fohdu�uhvxow���$q\�qhz� intervention has to be compatible and respectful of the existing conditions. this operation, which can produce contradictory results, not only for the lay person (who can certainly be our best observers, as they do not xqghuvwdqg� wkh� lghd� wr� eh� frqyh\hg��� fdq� surgxfh� different scenarios which, in time, could lead to the very failure of the interventions themselves. before undertaking any intervention proposal, it is necessary to know their mechanical and physical capabilities, as well as the forms and aesthetics, sometimes referred to as cultural or traditional constructions. the proposals must be compatible, not only in terms of technological and material solutions, but also in terms of legislative regulations. in the end these proposals must provide d�óqdo�vroxwlrq�wkdw� lv�idlwkixo�wr�wkh�ruljlqdo�surmhfw� without diminishing it or give rise to confusing interpretations. in this issue we will discuss the application of these questions in a concrete context. in one of the best-known books by architect le &ruexvlhu�� 9huv� xqh� dufklwhfwxuh�� wkh� óuvw� fkdswhu� ehjlqv�zlwk�d�yhu\�vljqlófdqw�wlwoh��ì$hvwkhwlfv�ri�wkh� engineer, architecture”. there, from the beginning, he clearly expresses his idea about industry: “the tool is the direct, immediate expression of progress; the tool is the obligatory collaborator; it is also the liberator”. this “new tool” is the second question we refer to at the beginning of the editorial: the purpose of the new tool or tools, which at present can be described as new technological instruments of support are coming from computerization and communication. this question about tools will be discussed in depth in this issue because the intervention on the built heritage, from conception to completion of a project, is very much associated with the application of these tools or instruments. not only those of mechanical nature and proven effectiveness, such as the use of a simple drone for the precise capture of hard to reach data, but also other instruments such as the use of the latest generation software, or techniques of augmented reality such as hbim (heritage building information 0rgholqj��ru�$5��$xjphqwhg�5hdolw\��dprqj�rwkhuv��� all of these instruments allow different and varied uses including pedagogical and didactic. this condition gives rise to an interdependence of actions which gives way to a multidisciplinary way of proceeding. in term, each and all parties participate with a concrete and positive approach in order to reach optimum results. this methodological, holistic position, regardless of the óqdo�ru�jhqhudo�uhvxow��zloo�dovr�eh�d�uhdvrq�iru�uhvhdufk� on its own development of the work by the participant entities, since each of them is going to highlight the yluwxhv� �hiihfwlyhqhvv��ru�ghihfwv� �dgmxvwphqwv��ri�doo� other parts and participants. likewise, the work carried out will have in addition an obligatory consideration which will be none other than to take into account sustainability as a general concept. within this concept, the work has to establish parameters regarding the compatibility of the materials, their durability and therefore their life cycle as well as environmental care and energy savings. as discussed in two of the articles, rural areas also need to take into account the environmental integration of the proposals, and if it is a question of using existing constructions, their reuse, as it is the case here. the articles investigate and demonstrate the relative lqwhudfwlrq�ri�wkh�sursrvdov�wr�wkh�vshflófdoo\�vwuxfwxudo� and spatial aspects of the technological adaptability of computer systems to better respond to the needs of the information society and its consumers. in the case of historic urban centers one can employ effective simulations using appropriate software and following state regulations. the simulations can be dssolhg�wr�vljqlófdqw�exloglqjv�zlwk�pdvvlyh�vwuxfwxuhv�� ,q�pdq\�fdvhv�lw�lv�gliófxow�wr�nqrz�lq�ghswk�wkh�ehdulqj� https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2018.11151 viii and mechanical aspects of the same, and to provide useful information serving as a complement to the research carried out from the beginning. currently we are destined for the permanent changes of our cities and our environment, be it on a small or large scale. the social demands and the requirements ri�frqvxphuv��yrudflrxv�dqg�lpphgldwh�lq�pdq\�fdvhv��� as well as other conditioning factors (economic, spatial dqg� whfkqrorjlfdo��� pdnhv� xv� wklqn� wkdw� wkh� srhwu\� and affection with which anastylosis was treated in an architectural complex or in a monument, refers to the times of the very origin of the term. that is to say, we are as far away as greece itself. luis palmero vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 vii editorial sustainable development past and future throughout most of human history, societies have olyhg� d� vhoi�vxióflhqw� h[lvwhqfh�� 7khlu� lpphgldwh� environment was the place from which they harvested or collected their basic needs. they drew water from streams, grew food, used timber to keep warm, cook, and build shelters, and wool from domesticated animals to make garments. the inhabitants took from the land only what was required for their existence. in fact, the available natural resources often determined population size. it was a simple existence, where resources were consumed in measure and the needs of future generation was never at risk. this took place when most communities where rural and agrarian. the industrial revolution changed all that. when people abandoned farms in search of employment, cities swelled. those vastly expanded urban hubs could no longer rely on their surroundings to provide their daily supplies, which now had to come from afar. when electricity began to light up cities, the urban population grew dependent on it to power factories and dwellings on their many newly invented appliances. a system and an organization had to be put into place to meet the daily requirements of all the inhabitants—be they food, sanitation or energy. gradually homes were linked to utilities like fresh water supply and drainage. food had to be trucked in from wkh� klqwhuodqg� dqg� odqgóoov� qhhghg� wr� eh� vhw� dvlgh� for the growing mountains of industrial and domestic waste generated. the dependence of humans on their surroundings grew to be utterly critical. severing all supply links became impossible to imagine. perhaps the greatest manifestation of this dependency was the post-second world war urban sprawl in the periphery of established cities. build away from the center, a typical sub-division and its single-family detached dwellings consumed valuable resources during construction and after occupancy. buildings were built with disregard to the site’s natural conditions and the chosen planning and construction practices had very little to do with vernacular paradigms. the community was dependent on external sources for its entire existence and function. things have changed since the mid-twentieth century. it takes, at times, cataclysmic events and ominous signs to remind us that human existence is at the mercy of nature. phenomena like global warming and climate change, prolonged periods of drought in one part of wkh�zruog�dqg�ôrrgv�lq�dqrwkhu��wkh�phowlqj�ri�wkh�lfh� caps, the depletion of fossil fuel and the sharp rise in energy costs, the increase in the cost of food and the depletion of many natural resources and minerals which were once abundant are some of these aspects. socio-economic transformations have also brought to the forefront other issues: the widening gap between rich and poor nations, the ongoing global economic downturn, rapid population growth in some places and the aging of society in others. these natural and social phenomena have forced us to rethink how development should take place. we ehjdq�uhôhfwlqj�rq�lvvxhv�wkdw�zhuh�rqfh�frqvlghuhg� marginal – making them of global concern. they have prompted a search for alternatives to the way we currently dwell ourselves and use buildings. the term sustainable development has become synonymous with a search for a new mindset. ,wv� ghóqlwlrq� sxw� iruzdug� e\� d� 8qlwhg� 1dwlrq� commissioned report called “our common future,” regards the needs of future generations as we conduct our present actions. in its simplest interpretations the report called on society to consume only what is needed and minimize its environmental footprint. but is this possible? have we passed a tipping point beyond which we can no longer reverse a course of action that was charted several decades ago? one can argue that it is possible. new technologies, contemporary designs and advanced means of production enable us to put in place an accelerated process that will see the establishment of new paradigms where building consume fewer resources and to some degree even contribute to improving the environment such as net-zero building and those with green roofs. on a more detailed level design for sustainability may https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2019.11866 viii also be achieved by observing several principles. the path of least negative impact is a course of action that zloo�hqvxuh�olplwhg�vkruw�dqg�orqj�qhjdwlyh�udplófdwlrqv� of the process. to ease the effort and ongoing contributions by all parties involved, a self-sustaining system should be sought. any method that improves the environment and contributes to social equity would be sought after. if the relationship between the subelements is supportive, it will likely reduce costs and improves performance of them all. finally, a lifecycle approach sees the built environment subjected to an rqjrlqj�fkdqjh�dqg�hyroxwlrq�e\�ehlqj�ôh[leoh�dqg� able to easily adapt to various realities if society is to attain a sustainable existence, one hopes that ideas that are manifested in a single building or lghd�zloo�óqg� wkhlu�zd\� lqwr�pdlqvwuhdp�ghvljq�dqg� construction. this is in fact, as history demonstrates, the course of evolution. people tend to follow a lead. the cost of products is reduced when more people consume them, and educational institutions incorporate knowledge about them into their curricula. one needs to hope that the process will be swift. avi friedman vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 5 is 2 vii editorial 2020, what a year it has been. the world has seen the worst health crisis in more than a century with the covid-19 pandemic. public institutions across the globe are still facing unprecedented challenges in dealing with this global crisis, which scale has caught us by surprise. it is fair to say that global interconnectivity has certainly contributed to how fast the virus has spread and to the scale of the pandemic. though we like to think of our world as technologically advanced this pandemic is showing us that we are still very much vulnerable to threats that have been known to us for a long time. in turn, the covid-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected already vulnerable populations around the world whether in developed or developing countries. beyond access to quality healthcare other factors have emerged as contributing to the spread of the virus as well as creating challenging conditions in the pandemic. dense urban centers have emerged as places where the virus has spread vljqlófdqwo\�gxh�wr�wkh�qdwxuh�ri�shrsohïv�lqwhudfwlrqv�� socially, at work or while commuting. dense urban fhqwhuv� idfh� vshflóf� fkdoohqjhv� zkhq� ghdolqj� zlwk� an airborne pandemic due among other things to limited open outdoor spaces, socially active lifestyles an outdoor air quality. in that context the widespread model of dense urban centers as the only model of dynamic economic development may need to be reevaluated. this pandemic has in fact brought about a number of issues that are being investigated in the current issue of vitruvio. one of these issues deals with how people interact inside buildings and how architectural design can reduce the spread of airborne diseases through vsdfh� sodqqlqj�� pdqdjlqj� kxpdq� ôrzv�� plqlpl]lqj� surface contact and adequate mechanical systems. these types of issues are not only relevant for public dqg� riófh� exloglqjv� exw� dovr� iru� krxvlqj� dqg� pruh� vshflófdoo\�pxowl�idplo\�exloglqjv��,q�idfw��pxowl�idplo\� apartment buildings can be studied in order to address the shift in working habits that has occurred in the past 10 months. as a large number of people have been working from home for months it has become clear that their living spaces were not originally designed wr�lqwhjudwh�wkdw�qhz�ixqfwlrq��1rwlrqv�ri�ôh[leoh�dqg� multi-use spaces are interesting concepts to explore especially as the trend of working from home at least part time is likely to increase in the future. another subject discussed deals with providing quality public spaces and emphasizing the need for green and blue infrastructure in urban areas. these types of spaces, including play areas for children, become fuxfldo�suhvvxuh�ydoyhv�lq�wlphv�zkhuh�shrsohvï�prelolw\� is very limited. as a broader theme the quality of dense urban spaces is especially important as cities remain a unique driver in terms of economic growth and social aspirations. on the other hand, there seems to be new opportunities for people to relocate outside major city centers. the trend of working remotely was already developed and will continue to grow as it increases ôh[lelolw\��orzhu�frppxwh�wlph�dv�zhoo�dv�wkh�exughq� on transportation and infrastructures. it can also contribute to improve outdoor air quality by reducing pollution. this trend may provide opportunities to revitalize rural communities in dire need of new residents and allow the development or upgrade of a series of infrastructures and services. this would surylgh�d�frxqwhuedodqfh�wr�wkh�ryhu�ghqvlófdwlrq�ri� urban centers where life overall remains costly. in the context of students having to shift to a completely virtual space for learning this year, we can see the emergence of promising technology. in fact, vr and ar are providing opportunities for students to communicate but also to design in a co-presence environment where they can interact in real time with their fellow students or their instructor. the use of whiteboard applications such as miro, concept board or murals has also brought new opportunities to share information in a purely digital environment. in terms of pedagogy the past 10 months have shown us that digital tools have inaugurated new ways to interact and exchange information successfully but it is also clear that these tools cannot replace our need and longing for face-to-face interaction. https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2020.14826 viii as expected with acute challenges the covid pandemic has revealed complacencies and weaknesses in terms of infrastructures, resources allocations and social behaviors but also shed light on the false expectations wkdw�ìdoo�zloo�eh�óqhí�zlwk�plqlpxp�hiiruwv�iurp�rxu� part. in some way the covid pandemic is a condensed version in time of the upcoming challenges associated with climate change and its impact on future generations. in all fairness it is always hard to deal with a situation that we have not yet experienced to the fullest but nevertheless our current challenges show us that the human enterprise is still very much vulnerable despite what we would like to think. to conclude on a positive note this pandemic has highlighted a number of areas related to architecture, urban design and construction where there are great opportunities to develop design related innovations that will make us more resilient. olivier chamel vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 2 vii editorial engaging architectural heritage in climate action the icomos working group on climate change and cultural heritage have recently released an outline of climate change and cultural heritage. the document starts claiming the general absence ri�wkh�fxowxudo�khulwdjh�óhog�lq�wkh�folpdwh�glvfrxuvh�� it emphasizes the gap between culture and heritage sectors, as important institutions in most communities, and their lack of mobilization on climate change actions. accordingly, the texts ambitions climate change to become a baseline competency of heritage management against which heritage communities may measure their engagement. 7kh� odvw� lvvxh� ri� 9lwuxylr� iru� ����� sd\v� wulexwh� wr� the engagement of architectural heritage in climate action. following the outline of icomos, the alhambra contribution emphasises the need for regular maintenance, as it can ensure optimization of conservation and protection without negatively impacting its heritage values, authenticity and integrity. regular cleaning and maintenance, and use of traditional construction methods and materials, as zhoo�dv�pdlqwhqdqfh�ri�odqgpdunïv�vxuurxqglqjv��doo�fdq� contribute to adaptability to the natural and anthropic ulvnv�� zklfk� duh� lq� wxuq� vshflóf� wr� wkh� klvwru\� ri� lwv� fragile materials and the maintenance of the physical condition, both under increased contemporary pressures. according to the icomos document, good conservation practice of buildings and structures always begins with a clear understanding of the fxowxudo� vljqlófdqfh� ri� wkh� sodfh�� *duridor� idfwru\� research brings in the needs of stakeholders, the neighbourhood and the city. this approach goes beyond a physical condition and fabric analysis to understand the history of the development of the site to assess its associations in search of the reuse of a large industrial asset. this type of assessment follows the basis of conservation management plans, which are the standard methodological approach for systematically managing change to heritage places. the outline document of icomos makes explicit mention of the ability of cultural heritage to support dgdswdwlrq� �$uwlfoh� �� ri� wkh� 3dulv� $juhhphqw��� especially when cultural values are incorporated into adaptation governance. the instituto do café analysis provides here the analysis of functional and appealing cultural values as an asset to guide adaptation options and bolster the enabling conditions for adaptation that should explore the notion of cultural commons; the city structure and the revitalization process among others. therefore, in the adaptation context, also different w\shv�ri�&xowxudo�6ljqlófdqfh��dqg�gliihuhqw�w\shv�ri� khulwdjh��duh�lq�qhhg�wr�eh�fduhixoo\�frqvlghuhg�� in the section correlating heritage to the paris agreement of the outline document, loss and 'dpdjh� �$uwlfoh� �� ri� wkh� 3dulv� $juhhphqw�� uhihu� wr� wkh� lghqwlófdwlrq� dqg� grfxphqwdwlrq� ri� nqrzohgjh� systems likely to be lost or damaged due to climate actions. similarly, company towns approach includes loss of local and industrial knowledge. the disappearance of landscape features and relative elements on which knowledge systems are based leads to the loss of cultural practices, loss of historic character and setting. in this line, the paris agreement recognizes the importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss, and the role of sustainable development in reducing loss and damage. cultural heritage and social resilience act as a climate action asset. following the outline document, community and societal responses to climate change ydu\�zlgho\��exw�doo�fdq�ehqhów�iurp�wkh�sduwlflsdwru\� jryhuqdqfh�prghov�irxqg�lq�wkh�fxowxudo�khulwdjh�óhog�� as it is the case of the study undertaken in barcelona, in some cases, citizen science approaches utilise technology to monitoring and recording heritage at risk and vulnerable environments. cultural heritage inventories and participatory cultural mapping initiatives, serving as a knowledge-gathering process as well as a platform for citizen capacity building to detect hazards and raise awareness to minimise imbalances depends on perception and resilience. both, traditional approaches like oral histories and new technologies such as gis and big data applied to architectural heritage assist in this task. https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2019.12817 viii in good conservation practises, the outline document calls for proactive management and $vvhwvï�prglófdwlrqv� iru�fduerq�plwljdwlrq��%xloglqj� rehabilitation, as showcased here, is becoming the driver of heritage conservation management policies. 3ursrvdov�wr�dqdo\vh�wkh�h[whqw�wr�zklfk�&2��hplvvlrqv� can be diminished by means of different measures of hqhuj\� hióflhqf\� fdq� vwduw� e\� vlpsoh� prqlwrulqj� ri� change, or by an analysis of the embodied energy of existing heritage infrastructure. other actions such dv� uhwurów� surjudpphv�� sursrvdov� ri� zhw� dqg� gu\� constructive solutions and the use of tools like life &\foh� $vvhvvphqw� uhyhdov� krz� vshflóf� dfwlrqv� fdq� help integrate architectural heritage in climate action. irrespective of the architectural heritage we deal with, today we are creating the nostalgia that others will xqirog�wrpruurz��7khuhiruh��d�idfw�wkdw�idfhv�frqôlfwlqj� objectives before that future unfolding has to do with the approaches we undertake towards contemporary heritage that suffers not only from climate change, poor conditions and lack of renovation and repair but also from the increase of rent and housing costs, energy poverty, evictions, homelessness, etc. architectural heritage would necessarily need to meet the global indicator framework for the sustainable development *rdov� �6'*v��� 7kh� euhdgwk� ri� wkh� dufklwhfwxudo� heritage sector allows for meaningful connections zlwk�doprvw�doo����6'*v��)ru� lqvwdqfh��6'*���:dwhu� dqg�6dqlwdwlrq���6'*���$iirugdeoh�dqg�&ohdq�(qhuj\��� 6'*���3urgxfwlyh�dqg�'hfhqw�zrun���6'*����5hvlolhqw� infrastructures, inclusive and safe cities, sdg13 �&olpdwh� fkdqjh� dqg� lpsdfwv��� 6'*��� �6xvwdlqdeoh� 8vh�ri�(frv\vwhpv��� juan a. garcía-esparza notes this editorial was written in a zero-energy building. references icomos climate change and cultural heritage working group. 2019. the future of our pasts: engaging cultural heritage in climate action, july 1, 2019. paris: icomos. united nations. 2017. global indicator framework for the sustainable development goals and targets of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. resolution a/res/71/313. vitruvio 7 | 1 (2022) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 2 v editorial who is the third who walks always beside you? when i count, there are only you and i together but when i look ahead up the white road there is always another one walking beside you gliding wrapt in a brown mantle, hooded i do not know whether a man or a woman -but who is that on the other side of you? t.s. elliot, the waste land, 1922 in 1997 the bbc broadcasted a series of six episodes based on steward brand’s book ‘’how buildings learn: what happens after they’re built’’, these episodes have very suggestive titles that not only stands out as a ‘must watch’ show but also takes the spectator into a deep reflection in each one of the cases. titles like “built for change”, or “the romance of maintenance” or “flow”, show how brand is a firm defender of proposals that now return to the present time and relate to the life of a diverse amount of buildings that at the same time are trying to adapt to new uses and needs. in 1968, brand published world earth catalog, an archetype of very complex situations in which he was treated as an idealist, but the reality is that in the world during the last decades, 1,300,000 people have been mobilized each week. ‘’i had an idealized idea of the countryside life, but evidently i never lived in a village’’, a sentence by brand himself that allows us to reflect on a current reality in the depopulation of many small towns and villages where life was generous, friendly and close, also in the relationship with nature and what it offers. it is true that this depopulation of the countryside allows for a natural regeneration of its products, entering into the circular dynamic that is so on trend nowadays. these people who arrive to the city, like those who arrive into a new world, are presented with the problem of habitat, something they must solve immediately because they are not only responsible for their own selves, but this migration in all directions, drags with them children of all ages, basic necessities with an unsure gaze into an uncertain future. the circumstance of resolving this “provisional” relocation, frequently in the countries of the so-called southern zone, curiously leads to a return to the primitive, vernacular habitat, (another circular relationship with the architecture of yesteryear), where living together was done in a single outbuilding. that is, the use of a single space shared by the whole family and where all the domestic activities and functions of the time were carried out. this idea was contrary to the approach to modern life acquired in the dwellings of the early 20th century, where a formal idea of compartmentalization of spaces in the house appeared. the kitchen becomes an independent room, the children’s room and the guest room are programmed, a dissociation from the previous idea of shared living. therefore, we find ourselves with a very classist differentiation of habitat according to the part of the world in which we find ourselves. although this is not today’s case, because the latest events following russia’s invasion of ukraine with more than five million citizens displaced in a country like poland once again made the situation a cause for permanent reflection in the https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2022.17793 vitruvio 7 | 1 (2022) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 3v search for long-term solutions. at the same time, we (especially young people) live in a social situation where everyday life is programmed in a short term view, resulting in what bauman calls the liquid society, a call to adapt to the vital moment. this contemporary sociologist and philosopher affirms that the difference between solids and liquids is a reflection of the society of the new millennium, a society dominated by constant change, by the need to adapt to new stimuli that arrive almost suddenly in a multitude of different scenarios, mainly in the technological field, and which have nothing to do with those of the last century bauman identifies society as a fluid entity that moves, passes through, filters, leaks, floods the new reality, thus adapting itself more and more to current needs in an ever-changing way. in an excerpt from his famous book liquid modernity, (2000), says: “these reasons justify our view of “fluidity” or “liquidity” as appropriate metaphors for apprehending the nature of the current in many ways new phase in the history of modernity”. expectations are transforming, management itself in many sectors and at all levels, but the main ingredient for this multifaceted change is the new “short-term” social mentality, which is replacing the “long-term” mentality. as bauman comments: “till death do us part’’ marriages are out of fashion, there is no longer an expectation of forever. society no longer thinks that a person can develop a job for life, and of course, they are certain that they will probably never work in what they studied and graduated in, therefore, their way of thinking is mutating towards this capacity to adapt, to accommodate themselves to a new situation in constant movement. and this leads to question, is flexibility in the same matter as adaptability? it could be said that the idea is basically identical in the terms where there is a visible spatial transformation, for example, we can say that certain elements can mutate in a fixed space, such as the design itself and the elements that form it, where these can be changed according to the passage of time or the needs of the people who live there, as defended by schneider and ‘’till in flexible housing’’ (2007), when it is stated that flexible housing is one which is capable of adapting to the diverse and changing needs of its inhabitants. this definition, intentionally broad, includes both the possibility of choosing between different compartmentalization options prior to the occupation of the dwelling, as well as the capacity for transformation and incorporation of technological advances over time or the potential for it to be adapted to non-residential uses. it is true that social demand will mean that from now on we will have to rationalize and define the way of designing, so that flexibility can be achieved; the possibility of growth and addition, the spaces under the occupants’ low usage demand, the technology referred to alternative systems, (mobile, transformable partitioning, ...), to the more rigid traditional construction, to the more rigid traditional construction, as well as the idea of prefabrication and the capacity to be able to design with final dismantling are going to be very important premises that help to avoid the obsolescence of housing and public spaces of habitual use. steward brand, with whom we begin this editorial, proposes the separation by layers and construction systems, john habraken’s concept of frame or support, walter segal’s approaches in favour of self-construction and interchangeability or the principles of modular coordination and prefabrication will from now on not be theories of future trends, but will be the necessity of the present. luis manuel palmero iglesias vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 5 is 1 vii editorial there is a book, el amor en tiempos de cólera by the colombian writer and nobel prize winner gabriel garcía márquez, which tells the story of those who knew how to live a deep love giving meaning and values to own existences in the age of cholera. even today, the whole world is lost and the fear of death seems to prevail over every other feeling. for more than two months, the world has put aside many of the issues, let us say common ones, to concentrate just on one: how to solve the covid-19 pandemic that, unexpectedly, is involuntarily changing our life. it is not something new, more than a hundred years ago the socalled spanish fever; a name given by the arrival of the disease in spain, already created a situation of social panic worldwide. it needs to be acknowledged that spain remained neutral in the first world war, what helped not to censor the reports on the disease and its consequences, unlike what happened in those countries at war to not to undermine the spirits of soldiers. from similar circumstances as regards the form of affection to the human organs, only the brotherhood, which is also love, could palliate a disease that, two years later, disappeared as it had arrived, that is to say, without leaving a trace. on this occasion, there has also been love, one without measure or shame paid by the health system’ workers, without exception, towards the sick and affected by wklv� hylo� yluxv�� )ru� wkh� uhfrug�� pdjqlófhqw� %dqnv\ïv� painting donated to the hospital of southampton in which a child is playing with his new hero dressed as a nurse. that love has been recognized and gratefully corresponded every day through applauses and actions that highlight, despite being isolated, some in their protective suits, others in their homes, that we are not alone. as the days go by, we see how revealing this time of ‘cholera’ is. nature wakes up less threatened, water runs cleaner, seas are less contaminated, the air is fresher, and the blue colour of the sky is announcing an environmental improvement hopefully. animals are leaving their natural habitat and walk through urban centres, in front of fashionable shop windows, pharmacies and hospitals, and in front of the heroes who never sleep. it seems they feel comfortable, relaxed, what a paradox: they are loose wandering while we are placed on lockdown. perhaps we deserve it. this situation, on the one hand, devastating and on wkh�rwkhu�uhyhdolqj��kdv�rqo\�dióuphg�zkdw�zh�douhdg\� imagined, but we could not demonstrate without stopping our activity. now, we know the concept of sustainability, or the acceptable, relies on our decisions and therefore, on our actions. if this time of ‘cholera’ has been useful, it is to demonstrate that human values still prevail in a permanently changing world. the most important thing is to acknowledge that people have been able to manage their daily life alone, reinventing themselves and courageously acquiring a unique degree of personal responsibility. governments, except for those ruled out by women, just have articulated a message full of improvisations, errors and situations of little or no credibility. we, citizens, have not failed, let us congratulate ourselves..., we have done well. without doubt, this is a time to learn, but it is also a time to recognize mistakes and to face up effective hqylurqphqwdo�vroxwlrqv�dqg�vwudwhjlhv�zlwk�d�ghóqlwh� and renovating air, which in turn will guarantee a much more hopeful future than the moment we are living in. many concepts will have to change when it comes to designing, for example, architecture. it has become clear that our houses do not respond to conditions of comfort for extended stays. we do not have convertible spaces, but blocked-up ones, which condition any family, social, working or private manoeuvres... oh, yes! we are familiar with terms such as smart working but where? ..., how? ..., on-line teaching, but where? ..., how? ... from this moment, we have to think that the standard model of housing project does not serve; or rather, it is not useful. urban infrastructures need redesign as well to leave more space for future social vwdqgdugv� �h�j�� wudqvsruw�� sodqhv�� hwf��� dqg� lq� wxuq�� be environmentally less aggressive. it is a full-blown reorganization in many cases, and this is, unfortunately, the price to pay; furlough people and job losses that will change the previous social and commercial model. ,q�wkh�whfkqrorjlfdo�óhog�wkdw�frqfhuqv�dufklwhfwxuh�� lw�shukdsv�zloo�eh�hqrxjk�wr�vhulrxvo\�uhôhfw�rq�dqg� https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2020.13758 viii value the professional skills to seek, and therefore qhfhvvdulo\�óqg��d�prgho�hiihfwlyho\�pdqdjhg�wrzdugv� hqhuj\�hióflhqf\�dw�d�joredo�ohyho� therefore, vitruvio as a publication is committed to upholding the criteria set out above and that the methodology of project intervention is focused on the search for ethical values so that it interacts responsibly with communities, nature and land. in the next issue, we can start analysing how to improve historical centres dw�wkh�ohyho�ri�urdg�wudióf��lq�idyrxu�ri�iuhhlqj�xs�wkh� space that can be used otherwise, perhaps reinforcing and revitalising squares and buildings by proposing new solutions for enhancing their sustainability. we also pay attention to abandoned religious buildings, zklfk� uhsuhvhqw� vljqlófdqw� vsdfhv� ri� dufklwhfwxudo� and heritage richness and may have new functions to preserve them being a future legacy in time. we cannot also forget our modern, rationalist heritage, in this case, from the 1950s where construction techniques were bold in the use of a dominant material, the reinforced concrete. furthermore, we cannot ignore the digitalization techniques and strategies used in the analysis and data collection in architectural heritage, since with these irupv� ri� dssurdfk� zh� rewdlq� wlpho\� dqg� vxióflhqw� information to survey buildings without harming the physical environment; which is a sustainable approach at this level of intervention. for this journal, it is also enriching to know the techniques that have been used in vernacular construction worldwide. they allow readers to understand how, through the word and the legacy of inhabitants, through educational experiences and outreach activities, architectural technology in rural areas host a wealthy folk heritage that today is valued as a sustainable resource; as much by the use of materials as by the form of being executed. luis m. palmero editor in chief vitruvio 6 | 2 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability viii v editorial cultural matters are integral parts of the lives we lead. if development can be seen as enhancement of our living standards, then efforts geared to development can hardly ignore the world of culture. amartya sen in 1881, the english sociologist william morris (1834-1896) in the book “the prospects of architecture in civilization” had affirmed that architecture hugs the human environment and we cannot forget this relationship because the architecture modifies nature in dialogue with the human needs. indeed, we must know very well the natural laws to build a better future. but, what helps us to understand the value of nature, of the natural laws, and the significance of the cultural heritage and so of the “common house” where all humanity live? the magic word is “education”. the articles contained in this issue bring out various aspects and lines of research that can be further investigated and expanded to promote a complete development of the circular architecture concept. walter gropius (1883-1969), a german architect, boss of the bauhaus, in 1939 in the book scope of total architecture had written: ... training must be started therefore in nurseries and kindergartens, giving the children abundant opportunity to build, model, draw, and paint in a very free form, as in play, which is intended to attract the child and to stimulate his imagination. two important visions that allow us to introduce another important concept: “education’s ecology”. in an extraordinary pedagogical work by the american historian lawrence cremin (1925-1990) he introduces this comparison between “ecology” and “education” where the first word emphasizes the close relationship that exists between communities and natural laws, and therefore how education vitruvio 6 | 2 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability ixv must refer to the rigorousness of the laws that regulate the norms of transmission between living beings. therefore, education – according to cremin – constitutes a coherent and precise system through which to transmit, stimulate and acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, abilities and sensitivities, all fundamental aspects for human life on earth. however, the “ecological education” finds important references in relation to the environment as communities are strongly solicited and educated by the context in which their activities take place. all these important interdisciplinary references allow us to enhance the role of education and the concept of the “lifelong learning” that starts at the kindergarten and to continue throughout life. the knowledge of the ecological system helps us to improve our sensibility and our awareness to be part of a life cycle from which no one can escape because it is the very process of life. so, as every person is the result of genetic transmission (from parents) that transfers to future generations, at the same time our education is the result of much knowledge that we have inherited from previous generations and now the commitment is to continue this educational process, this life cycle very important for the future of the earth. the awareness of this relationship between life and education will help us to analyze our specific residential context with new eyes and above to understand the ecological value of our actions when we intervene with transformation processes. now we need to put again on the center the meeting between community, culture, environmental and education. it is necessary to observe the world from different perspectives capable of structuring a multiple relationship between the different realities that interact in the construction of being. in the first instance it will be essential to understand how the contribution of technologies has so far interacted with the development of culture and the environment; then how the models of behavior vitruvio 6 | 2 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability x v of the communities have increasingly conformed to deterministic models and finally how these models have favored, or not, the development of culture and therefore of educational processes. we are certainly in a very complex historical step of humanity’s history that is calling into question many historically determined methods and models. however, this is a great opportunity to reflect and put back at the center the values of man and the environmental context because it is precisely the environment that is the great driving force of cultural change and that encourages new actions within the existing cultural complexity. the development of a new educational process will be possible by favoring the encounter between cultures that have developed according to principles that are often “opposite” but from whose interaction important feedbacks have been born. this is demonstrated by the knowledge of history and especially what has happened since ancient times along the ancient silk road that connects europe with asia. in this specific cultural context also the international pedagogical program “reconnecting with your culture”, born in 2020, invites the communities in the world to begin a new path and to commit to the education of the young generations that represent our future. in fact, now through a simple exercise of creativity, the educational path must help to reflect on the original values of life and to approach the cultural contents of one’s existence in order to know, appreciate, enhance our specific cultural heritage and transmit that to the future, thus becoming “ambassadors” of a fundamental cultural process to build a sustainable world. so, the architecture represents the materialization of a creative process where the “education’s ecology” defines the first step for starting a correct methodology to transform the inherited environmental respecting the natural laws and the human needs. this specific issue of the international journal vitruvio opens important reflections that help the readers to approach the values of education, creativity, and sustainability for imagining and creating a world to the human dimension. every historical period that generated important changes was a vitruvio 6 | 2 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability xiv fundamental reference for the development of the communities; also, this historical step will be no different, but everything depends on our capacity knowing how to imagine new challenges in dialogue with the sustainability of our common house. indeed, suzanna arundhati roy, indian writer, in an interesting article published in 2020 in the newspaper “financial time” affirms: … historically, pandemics have forced humans to break with the past and imagine their world anew. this one is no different. it is a portal, a gateway between one world and the next. we can choose to walk through it, dragging the carcasses of our prejudice and hatred, our avarice, our data banks and dead ideas, our dead rivers, and smoky skies behind us. or we can walk through lightly, with little luggage, ready to imagine another world. and ready to fight for it. olimpia niglio giancarlo mazzanti 3d survey and virtual reconstruction of heritage. the case study of the city council and lonja of alcañiz marta quintilla*, luis agustín architecture with childhood rethinking and reflecting on public spaces seen through the 8-80 lens fabiola colmenero fonseca sustainable mobility and beauty of public space luciana mastrolonardo collective actions for reconfiguration of urban space biały bór, poland sergiy ilchenko perceived sensations in architectural spaces through immersive virtual reality hugo c. gomez-tone1*, jorge martin-gutierrez2, john bustamante-escapa1, paola bustamante-escapa1 and betty k. valencia-anci1 dynamics of performing aesthetics in architecture: a critical study pashmeena vikramjit ghom¹, abraham george² innovative technologies, certification and assessment tools for a sustainable building heritage fabio minutoli vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 vii editorial the natural matter as a new architectural paradigm the natural matter as a new architectural paradigm. at tipasa, i see equals i believe, and i am not stubborn enough to deny what my hands can touch and my lips fduhvv�������7khuh�lv�d�iuhhgrp�wkhuh� nuptials at tipasa: albert camus the experience of the stone has transformed my architectural approach. without premeditation as nothing in me has changed through the thought, the act precedes it. i like it before understanding it. architectural form comes from the desire to caress and love the willing matter. and in this way all proceeds from the matter and the experience built. the parthenon is the great human dream alienated by the sterile forms of the aesthetics. the art disappears in the contemplation of dead forms of plastics events. only the vernacular building connects the human to his existence. the designed architecture purposely alienates. in vernacular architectural forms is the matter which guides. architecture of stone, wood, earth, straw, connects with those who live them. there are no limits between the human’s body and houses emerging from the site. what we identify as suitable forms, are not, ehfdxvh� wkhuh� lv� qr� irup� wkrxjkw�� 0dwwhu� glfwdwhv�� and the human is guided. he loves before knowing he loves it. he is not concerned about the love of beauty. he puts his body in unison with its environment. his art is thrifty. having to think before building is the true perversion. perverse reversal that forces the pencil on the blank page. the architect must be a surveyor. he must measure the terrain with a human step. stick the wood stakes. place the stones. the act removes the drawing. the adventure can begin. 7kh�fhoodu�ri�9dxyhuw��p\�óuvw�vwrqh�frqvwuxfwlrq��zdv� born of a chance encounter. it was during holiday near the famous roman aqueduct, the pont du gard. on the path i took every day to reach the river, there was an enclosure of cyclopean stones. they were stacked by a scrapyard worker anxious to hide the object of his work. that is to say, the barbarity of a consumer society rejecting and throwing to the ground the objects used that doesn’t want. seduced by the power of this building, i sought to know from where were drawn those stones. the discovery of the quarry was an emotional shock. the monstrous pile of stacked stones sprang to my eyes. i was swept up in a “maelstrom” kinetics. i saw at the same time the pyramids and temples of egypt, the palace of herod, the great cathedrals and ankhor9dw��0dfkx�3lfkx�dqg�wkh�0d\dq�s\udplgv��7kh�vwrqhv� told me their secret. they whispered me: take us; we will take you beyond time. each grain of our skin will uhôhfw�wkh�frvprv��<rx�zloo�eh�dw�shdfh��*odg�\rx�sxw� us honestly on the ground at the service of those who frppdqg� \rx�� :h oo� gr� wkh� uhvw�� 7khvh� o\wlf� 6luhqv� hqfkdqwhg�ph�� ,�zhqw�rq�wkh�gliófxow�zd\�ri�irupdo� h[loh��,�pdgh�d�óuvw�h[shulhqfh�exlow�lq�vwrqh��wkh�fhoodu� of vauvert. it touched me by changing my architectural paradigms. every evening after the working day i put my hands and my face against the stone. i put together the large blocks erected in the night wind. i sniffed the strange smell and powerful millions of prisoners skeletons of inert gangue. every part of this stone was telling me about his life, his destiny, i discovered on them celestial universes. i plunged into the great crash of atoms jostled by the energy that gave birth to our universe. i recognized the stone as mine. the nose against the matter i dove in galaxies. i saw dancing stars, large nebulae, stellar snakes, red dwarfs and cosmic swirls. stone veins are the life that animates us. i then realized that the matter was our history. upright ru� o\lqj� vwrqh� zdv� uhyhohg�� 6kh v� p\� wzlq�� 3duw� ri� myself. i had no need to format the matter was matter that took shape. industrial technology has alienated us from living matter, our double. we are no longer one with it. to shape the blacksmith struggles. or dances. the matter likes being caressed, shaped, sheared, furnished. she http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2016.7022 viii gets caught but the blacksmith does not possess it. in the end it is she who makes the rules. how far will she accept? forging steel blacksmith becomes steel. it is the subject who possesses him. is the same for the carpenter, the masoner, the stonemasoner. the matter guides their hand to his desire. industrial products are dead matter. the pestilential stench of their rotting gives nauseas. we build dwellings fhoov� zklfk� duh� odujh� frióqv� zkhuh� rxu� olyhv� zlwkhu�� lives distracted by the circus games. schizophrenic life in an unknown environment that ignores them. our work by imposing industrial "products" separates us from the matter. we are asked to make buildings like we were going to the supermarket: some perforated sheet here, some concrete blocks there, two kilos of glass suspended above, a box of red or black paint to hide the poverty.... in short, go fast for a world zkhuh�vshhg�lqfuhdvhv�zlwk�surów��+dyh�eulooldqw�olyhv�� uklqhvwrqhv�dqg�vwuhvv��7r�eh�óqdoo\�ghyrxuhg�lq�wkh� great machine of oblivion. to excel you have to forget. wedding matter of time. i did my nursery school with large peasant father. he was born in the nineteenth century. in a time when men took their resources from their immediate environment. he knew to do everything: baking bread, dig with a wooden log, make wine, make baskets. under the stems of a hazel tree recently cut he drew long strips of soft bark. the bare stem, bent, deformed, attached, formed the carcass. then we braid long bark snakes to blend with this structure. the basket was born of a reincarnated hazel. it took me ten years to understand this childhood experience. it is the matter that dictates. by accepting the dictates my grandfather engendered wonderful forms. no need to foresee them. as far as we love living and natural matter, it will provide us. we must vxuuhqghu�wr�lw��$ffhsw�klv�lqôxhqfh��6xeplw�klv�odz� there is a freedom there. gilles perraudin 86 save the world!!! by pavel ahmed, 16/06/2010, used under cc by 2.0, modification:cut, source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ pavelahmed/4770270959/ vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 87 abstract enviromental responsability and corporate social responsability jesús marí farinós1 1universitat politècnica de valència the environmental management of companies and organizations in general is going to be internalized in the operation and management structures, linking conceptual and chronologically to improve corporate reputation, management excellence, knowledge and innovation. embracing, undoubtedly too, with the assumption of an ethical commitment of the company to society: environmental sustainability and generational solidarity in the transmission of culture and values of that nature. the existing need to know the potential impact of business operations on society and the environment results in the appearance of a document, which may well be called a sustainability report or social balance, which is compiled from a series social indicators, which are the instruments responsible to reflect the value of the shares held by the company in social and environmental fields. keywords social responsability ; environmental responsability http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4477 http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4477 88 environmental responsibility after directive 2004/35 / ec and the existing environmental responsibility law and the regulations that partially develop it, have provided the spanish legal system of a solid support and major weapons to prevent, anticipate and repair actions that occur, will occur or might occur to the environment. something, that perhaps, in other areas of csr has not happened so deeply and demanding, sometimes staying on mere proclamations of principle. in fact, environmental responsibility and profuse regulation are both at european and spanish level, the origin of today’s modern concept of corporate social responsibility and the subsequent regulations issued about this last matter. in the above sense, they are to emphasize some issues, which are listed below. first, corporate social responsibility (csr) should be understood as a whole or harmonious set where all the elements that comprise it must be also fully internalized by the members of the company. it does not seem right that a company being rigorous in the environmental aspect because, surely, there are european, national and regional regulations forcing the company to do it, however, acting with greater laxity in matters of equality, labour, human rights, etc. second, the current legislation on csr suffers from being too programmatic, most part dispositive and rarely imperative, as has been collected in the brief exegesis of article 39 of the law of sustainable economy as has been done in this job. a responsibility, whether social, contract, tort or whatever its nature, must respond to an existing prior obligation, to face or on behalf of society, stakeholders or interest groups. it cannot be left to who should respond, faculty or will to do so. therefore, we propose a legislative change that, even if it is gradually inserts some obligations regarding csr: obligation to prepare an annual report for all listed companies, obligation of the cnmv and the state council on csr ; regulating the procedure for granting, review and revocation seal socially responsible company, obligation to evaluate and quantify csr by companies, resulting in csr accounting, etc. in addition, one must understand csr as the result of a new social contract, business and society, where this requires that some extra negotiable derivatives behaviours, among other things, reiterating what howard r. bowen said, noting that companies were and are “vital centers of power and decision-making whose actions affect the lives of citizens in many ways.” therefore, they must respond, in a synallagmatic way. csr must increasingly be configured as a set of obligations-responsibilities in society, social interest groups that aim to improve the quality of life in general and environment in particular. it is important also to note that within csr, environmental responsibility, as both conceptual, practical application and nominal level it is part of the organizational culture, both private and public, companies and institutions: thus people. in addition, it is integrated across the broader business or corporate social responsibility, but unlike this as a whole, its implementation and requirement is more stringent, predictably for being confined within mandatory rules and because society as a whole has a more clear conscience, rigorous and demanding in terms of companies’ compliance. finally, environmental responsibility has been developed to provide a solid and settled legal system interiorized could be said in this case thanks to a series of “virtues” of european, national and regional rules referred to in this paper, which has fulfilled hyper regulation, sometimes with the criteria and requirements of legal certainty, imperativeness and accomplishing objectives of vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 89 general interest pursued, thereby offsetting the hipo regulation of csr as a whole. these “virtues” can be summarized in the following items: along subjective in determining, imputation, preventing and repair of environmental damage, and, therefore, consideration of environmental damage as a disease that needs no explicit legal reproach in the sense of requirement of intent or negligence. just the concurrence of the harmful fact and the causality relation linking it to an act or omission of a person, natural or juridical, to deploy all responsibility purposes. of environmental responsibility with the civil extra contract responsibility, giving value to the environment per se, setting it as legally protected. insist that, regardless of other protected rights, as may be the property, life or physical integrity of the people affected by the damage. however, for the first time, environmental damage requires repair, prevention or restitution merely because of the damage and that there has been an environmental legal right. it is what we might call the subjectivity or customizing the environment. that is, nature, environment acquire naturalization as a legal personification, at least as a subject susceptible to be damaged, which acquires its own right to be compensated. this is one of the most significant advances: the environment as a subject of rights, such as value figure 1. 90 and legally protected. besides, additionally, tort for damage caused to persons or properties of these remains. the above duality sets an advanced environmental law and the administration, public authorities must play an important role, as configured as representatives, guardianship or protectorate of the environment. along with those public authorities, citizens, interest groups, are also environmental volunteering and are set up as public authorities, but also of the companies, in order to prevent or, if necessary, repair, anticipate and avoid for the future, potential damage to the environment as a subject of rights. another virtuous element of the new environmental law is that it is not only in a palliative level but also in the preventive one. not only the post damnum regulating actions, but is intended to anticipate and prevent such damage can even happen. the duties of information and periodic reporting, the obligation to take preventive measures by companies and organizations and, fundamentally, the obligation to have a financial guarantee (materialized in insurance policy, bank guarantee or constitution of technical reserves by a fund for this purpose) with a coverage of 20 million euros, is one of the major advances of the new environmental regulations, which also is a logical corollary of objective responsibility instituted. in conclusion, we note and reiterate that csr is a whole and must be treated holistically, plus they must also partially deploy their particular analysis and effects. csr and instruments to make it effective by companies are part of the neo-capitalist corporate culture, or at least, should be part, because it is one of the best stocks to advance sustained and solidarity and ensuring business and peaceful processes inside and outside the company. csr come together and participate in other business elements linked to the concepts of the new business management (nbm), such as knowledge management, quality management, management of ideas and innovation. the intangible capital, the economy, or the society knowledge, are the ones which can help and contribute to the progress already made in companies and organizations, the development and excellence of its resources and of themselves, and efficiency. and knowledge, excellence, efficiency, today nor ever really cannot be divorced from the responsibility, individually, corporate (group) or social, because hardly can someone be quality excellent, if specific aspects that affect people are not taken into account, even if not from business relationships about supply of goods or services. because you cannot be efficient if the costs are not avoided nor are warned not responding to the legitimate social demands that also contribute to the improvement of processes, procedures and products. moreover, at the time of serious crisis in which we live, or we stand by these differential aspects or we can hardly survive, survive and thrive. because knowledge ultimately is everywhere, and like baltasar gracian stated that there was no one who i could not learn from or anyone who i could not teach something, advanced company knows that everything and everyone has to learn, at least listen, and always respond when asked or is required to. that is transparency, and only those who have something to hide becomes opaque. csr helps to be transparent, it helps to be firm, to be a corporation. up to now, the reality seems to get us closer to a state of translucency-and precisely the crisis has not come to help, but vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 91 should be taken as an advantage to promote these aspects-precisely. it therefore seems necessary that public authorities should encourage with imperative determined character to go from translucency to transparency with the imperative legislation, rationalizing that leads us to the internalization, which make the imposition of culture change, culture responsibility. because only if we are responsible we can be more demanding at least ethically, having more arguments to be demanding. in addition, with it, we will generate confidence, confidence that in many areas, we are missing and needing and is always in the basis of social action. in fact, the history of humanity, in a modern and universal sense, is defined as the story of cultural relations and scientific and technological progress of human beings and their societies from its origin to the present1, in short: culture and science, or the name that can encompass both: knowledge, and hence the or knowledge society2. what advances and progress the human being, in positive sense, is precisely the increase in knowledge, as such, it is sterile and therefore their effects unfold positive and negative consequences on those human relationships and self-evolution. therefore, the ethical aspect ponders those advances in knowledge in two ways: eliminating the harmful aspects for the man itself (principle of dignity); and ensuring that the benefits thereof reach all (principle of distributive equality). such is the importance and significance of this business aspect and perhaps its historical contribution to the future of humanity from the ethical and productive perspective. a brief outline of this incardination of corporate social responsibility would be as described in the fig. 1. notes 1. in this regard, unesco has emphasized this cultural and scientific-technical side, as the key to understanding and peaceful evolution between people and humans and harmonious understanding of the history of mankind. a contribution to this was the completion in 2009 of the publication of the 51 volumes of the collection of general and regional histories unesco, thorough work that has lasted for about 57 years and has enjoyed the participation of more than 1,800 historians and experts in the world. the six collections of unesco are: history of humanity, general history of africa, general history of latin america, general history of the caribbean, history of civilizations of central asia and different aspects of islamic culture. you see: http://portal.unesco.org/geography/es/ev.php-url_ id=11754&url_do=do_topic&url_section=201.html. 2. what might be called the “triple c: culture + science = knowledge”. the term knowledge society or knowledge society refers to the extensive and intensive use of ict, although these are configured as instrumental or mediate element of the essentially important: the ability and the possibility of increasing that knowledge like never before took after all, thanks to icts, and make it available to society as well as ever could be. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 1 vii editorial from kyoto to paris: searching the sustainability the united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc), signed in 1992 in rio de janeiro, has laid the groundwork in pursuit of common objectives for the reduction of atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system on earth. the treaty, which is still in force, did not establish mandatory limits, but it has delegated the definition of them to the same protocols (cop). the kyoto protocol (cop 3) was adopted in 1997 and entered into force on 16/02/2005. for the first time, it established quantitative parameters, according to which the industrialised countries and the countries with economies-in-transition (eit) undertook to reduce, in the period of 2008-2012, greenhouse emissions by 5.2% compared to the levels present in 1990 (article 3), considered as year zero. although signed by 160 countries, the protocol foresaw a concrete commitment from only 39 countries listed in annex i. the reason lies in the principle of common but differentiated responsibility, which is an environmental principle of international law according to the principles of equity and cooperation, under which industrialised countries have major responsibilities in the current pollution situation. for this principle, the developing of the developing countries should not be limited, allowing them greater leeway. the united states never ratified http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2016.5799 figure 1. april 2016 nasa-giss surface temperature analysis (source: http://data.giss.nasa. gov/gistemp/maps/) viii the protocol. major national emitters such as china, mexico, south korea and india ratified; however, they were not required to reduce emissions. the protocol additionally provided for flexibility mechanisms (emission tradingarticle 3, joint implementation – article 6 and clean development mechanism – article 12) conceived with the objective to promote cooperation between countries to achieve common objectives, and also with the aim to economically penalise polluting countries. such mechanisms have led to the creation of a market for environmental credits, which help to free polluting countries from their "responsibility to pollute." moreover, countries not listed in annex i have been able to break into this market in an uncontrolled manner, not having to account in terms of the quantity of pollution produced. under the premise of necessary and unstoppable "development" and in the name of the principle of equity between countries, a justification to the commodification of pollution was found. however, this idea ignores both the economic and environmental repercussions that the pollution produces. such an investment should produce a profit, not a loss. the flexibility mechanisms and the "commercialisation of co2" also seem to forget that every country is part of a larger complex system called earth, and that moving a problem within the same system does not represent a solution, but provides only a partial vision that apparently shows a problematic course of solution. despite the objectives of energy efficiency, promotion of sustainable agriculture and reduction in transport emissions, the kyoto protocol in many cases did not allow for the planned reduction involving states with minimal impact on the overall percentage of global emissions and did not produce the desired global effects. in the second commitment period of the kyoto protocol (2013-2020), which falls under the doha amendment (cop 18), developed nations pledged to reduce emissions by 20% compared to 1990 levels. it is an important objective, however, the countries involved make up only 14% of total global emissions. from 30 november 2015 to 11 december 2015 in paris, a new conference was held (cop21), which gave rise to a new agreement on climate change. the first significant difference with the kyoto protocol is represented by the recipients. it eliminates the distinction between developed and developing countries. the paris protocol is directed equally to all signatory states and establishes the following common objectives (article 2): keep the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °c above preindustrial levels; pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °c; increase the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development in a manner that does not threaten food production and the adequacy of finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development. unlike the kyoto protocol, which unevenly established reduction burdens (conditioning of industrial development, income and levels of efficiency) and referred to a specific time frame, in paris common objectives are given without a specific period to reach them. in addition, greater importance is given to the adequacy of financial flows. the participatory factor of individual countries is further expanded through the "intended nationally determined contributions" (indcs). the countries shall establish their voluntary action plan to mitigate climate change. the indcs have to be reported to the united nations and subsequently formalised, which represents a specific commitment and bearer of the peculiarities of each nation. it is a bottom up approach, different from the topdown approach of the kyoto protocol. forms of control are implemented. every five years the countries need to identify a goal and inform the unfccc secretary while also providing all the necessary information for transparency and understanding (article 4). in addition, every five years starting in 2023, the global stocktake must be shared, evaluated and updated (article 14). the active participation of countries that have ratified the vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 1 ix identification of common guidelines established a system of monitoring and verification of the actions taken (arts. 4, 7, 13). the paris agreement does not have the goal of achieving zero emissions, but it appeals to the principle of compensation of flows: the pollutant emission rate must not exceed the capacity of the atmosphere, water and soil to absorb and transform these substances (article 4). the concept is consistent with the principles developed in the aalborg charter (charter of european cities& towns towards sustainability) of 1994. the charter, in addition to indicating strategies for a sustainable urban model, reiterates that sustainability is a local and creative process. it states, "environmental sustainability means maintaining the natural capital. it demands from us that the rate at which we consume renewable material, water, and energy resources does not exceed the rate at which the natural systems can replenish them, and that the rate at which we consume non-renewable resources does not exceed the rate at which sustainable renewable resources are replaced” (aalborg charter, 1994). while not making a distinction between developed and developing countries, the principle of equity is invoked (article 4 c.1) and it aims to not hinder the development of poor countries. the recognition of the damage caused by the development of industrialised countries must include a choice to define alternate modes of development that are truly sustainable and related to the characteristics of the place. the indcs have the task to not fall into the deception where the name of respect for the principle of equity is legitimised by repeating past mistakes. the agreement is dynamic, as it assumes the mutability of needs and a progressive development. it also includes the ability to review objectives and introduces the concept of "ambition.” for this concept, the fiveyear objectives have to address increasingly complex challenges (article 4). the importance of biodiversity and the protection of forests are also underlined (article 5). the importance of the protection of man and nature is also confirmed in the goal of adaptation (article 7), which is to increase the adaptive capacity (meaning the ability to resist change), resilience (the ability to bounce back from a shock) and the reduction of vulnerability to climate change (understood as the capacity to reduce the fragility and the conditioning of a system before an event). with regard to market mechanisms, the paris agreement (article 6) stands in continuity with the kyoto protocol, but tries to overcome the limits and confirms a cooperative approach. a different mechanism is introduced to help achieve national mitigation targets. interventions must reduce overall emissions as well as designed mechanisms to avoid a double counting of emission reductions. finally, the role of cooperation in innovation and technology transfer is strengthened consequently in the increase of resilience and in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (article 10). it is a clear reference to all technologies that allow the exploitation of renewable energy sources. presently, the paris agreement was signed by 177 countries. however, it will go into effect and be enforced on the thirtieth day after the date on which at least 55 parties to the convention have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession and account for at least an estimated 55 per cent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions (article 21). the paris agreement seems to have a dynamic, concrete and specific aspect and seems to be on point in overcoming some of the problems encountered in the kyoto protocol, but borrowing the words of carole dieschbourg: "...let us not forget that paris is just the beginning of a long journey. together with all stakeholders-ngos, the business community, and every citizen-we will now have the responsibility to translate the agreement into action." so what are the concrete actions that the construction sector, specifically in the field of architectural technology, can implement in pursuit of the objectives of the paris agreement? it is possible to locate the nourishment for thought and leave the realization of actions to the x insight of specific research sectors? therefore, to control and prevent the environmental crisis means paying attention to the compensation between incoming and outgoing flows, which result in closed cycles, where the "waste" of a cycle feeds a different cycle within the same macro-system (bevilacqua, 2006). this is according to a complex pattern found in nature, where every action has a balanced reaction to it (latouche, 2006). as detectable by air, it is the only way to safeguard the fundamental resources for survival and offer protection to our climate, water and food, as classified by a function of time during which we can live without (friedman, 2003). the categories of climate protection and food also imply the protection of soil. mobility, water and sanitation, clean energy, food and health, soil and densification, urban dimension, local government capacity and renewable resources are some of the fields of action which stress the decisive role of the city in contrast to the environmental crisis. the construction industry specifically holds significance due to the heavy impact it has in terms of land use, natural resource consumption (energy and materials), emissions and waste production (butera, 2007). it is therefore necessary to redefine the relationship between city land, the production system and building materials (donolo c., 2007). in conclusion, starting from a large point of view until it zones into minute detail, it is possible to distinguish three systems of action, which have their own specificity but are closely related: •  urban-territorial system: we need actions of soil conservation and regeneration of networks related to flows of mobility, water and wastewater, energy and the rapid exchange of information and knowledge; •  building system: we need actions of valorisation, recovery, rehabilitation and energy efficiency of the buildings and to also improve the environmental comfort; •  construction and material system: we need actions of technological implementation aimed at promoting flexible, maintainable, and reversible building systems and materials with a low environmental impact resulting from local supply chains, which ensure adequate performance on the intended use. stefania de gregorio vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 1 xi references bevilacqua p., la terra è finita, breve storia dell’ambiente, editori  laterza, bari, 2006 butera f., dalla caverna alla casa ecologica, edizioni ambiente,  milano, 2007 carta di aalborg, carta delle città europee per uno sviluppo  durevole e sostenibile (approvata dai partecipanti alla conferenza  europea sulle città sostenibili tenutasi ad aalborg, danimarca il 27  maggio 1994) conference of the parties twenty-first session , paris, 30 november  to 11 december 2015, adoption of the paris agreement donolo c., sostenere lo sviluppo, ragioni e speranze oltre la crescita, mondadori, milano, 2007 emendamento di doha al protocollo di kyoto, gazzetta ufficiale  dell'unione europea, 04/08/2015 - l 207/6 friedman y., l’architettura di sopravvivenza, bollati boringhieri,  torino, 2003 latouche s., le pari de la décroissance, librairie anthéme fayard,  2006 kyoto protocol to the united nations framework convention on  climate change, 1998, united nations http://ec.europa.eu 30/04/2016 http://newsroom.unfccc.int/paris-agreement/two-more-countriessign-the-paris-agreement-the-seychelles-and-gambia/ 02/05/2016 http://unfccc.int 02/05/2016 http://www.accordodiparigi.it/index.htm 02/05/2016 http://www.camera.it/camera/browse/561?appro=9&l'attuazione+del+protocollo+di+kyoto 30/04/2016 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/it/policies/climate-change/international-agreements-climate-action/ 30/04/2016 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/it/meetings/international-summit/2015/11/30/ 30/04/2016 http://www.minambiente.it/normative/carta-di-aalborg-carta-delle-citta-europee-uno-sviluppo-durevole-e-sostenibile-aalborg  28/04/2016 sito archeologicodi basta in giordania. individuazione tramite indagine con georadar vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 41 abstract the paper sets in prominence the newfound cooperation between engineering and archaeology. this integration of knowledge is particularly useful in the development of preventive archaeology that allows targeted excavations with a considerable saving of resources and a widening of the possibilities for the protection of the cultural heritage. in many cases, the engineering reading of the ancient buildings reveals surprisingly good construction practices in seismic areas. particularly, the architectures of archaeological sites shows a series of cases that meet the criteria of seismic assessment by combining the formal and functional aspects of space destruction to the static and dynamic behaviour of the construction. keywords preventive archaeology, engineering approach, non-destructive investigations, anti-seismic technologies 1department susef, università degli studi del molise engineering how support of archaeology. instrumental and safeguard technologies for interdisciplinary integration. agostino catalano1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2019.11817 42 2. engineering for preventive archaeology the first great novelty in the combination of archaeology and engineering is the use of nondestructive investigations. they are non-invasive techniques that do not alter the nature of the buried anthropic deposit, they are able to adapt and investigate in every type of research environment and return very detailed results, reliable and accurate in a short time with a significant “optimization” of energies and budget (cozzolino, 2009). their use presupposes a delicate multidisciplinary work, including the integration of humanistic and scientific expertise that demonstrates how it is wrong to consider a culture subdivided into sectors. this is the way to make visible what is submerged. preventive archaeology has become a real sector of archaeology. in italy, it has not yet been configured as a real discipline despite the many important results obtained by synergy between engineers, geophysicists and archaeologists. the path of cooperation is well underway abroad. in france, a public research institute “institut national de recherches archéologiques préventives (inrap)” has been found in 2002 by the ministry of culture and communication and the ministry of research. its task is to proceed to the localization and study of the archaeological sites as well as to operate for the diffusion and the valorisation of the archaeology. similarly, a specific legislation on preventive archaeology has been issued in england, which has resulted in a significant increase in archaeological data included in the spectrum and midas information systems. the first geophysical applications go back to the 30s and 40s of the twentieth century, although there are applications starting from the nineteenth century. these investigations are based on the electrical characteristics of the ground. in 1946, richard atkinson investigated the neolithic site of dorchester and john martin with anthony clark the roman city of cunetio (wiltshire). over the time, the results of such prospections have become increasingly important. in 1954, the polytechnic of milan under 1. introduction for too long there has not been interdisciplinary cooperation between archaeology and building engineering. it seemed like there was an inviolable barrier that prevented engineers from making their contribution to archaeological science. according to the author, this state of affairs has depended, since the 1960s, on a “formation regression” with an excess of teachings based on numerical calculation that have been produced a cultural isolation of the engineer’s figure. in addition, the engineer's training has been focused exclusively on the design of reinforced concrete structures, placing in “a cone of shadow” we can say the knowledge of ancient masonry buildings that had characterized previous teachings in the engineering field.. in this regard, the evaluation of the entire cultural path from the middle ages to the creation of the école des ponts et chaussées in the napoleonic era, passing through leonardo and galileo that have been led to the foundations of the current engineering schools is particularly enlightening. this analysis indicates the great contribution that the engineer field can express for the archaeological sector in order to achieve an integrative approach into the cultural heritage conservation. this paper describes an already started path of cooperation, which includes not destructive investigations with the relative interpretations for targeted excavations. moreover, the work illustrates another innovative cooperation path, which is the interpretation of classical antiquity buildings as a product of anti-seismic technologies. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 43 the coordination of richard linington has founded the section for archaeological exploration of the lerici foundation. it is a european reference point for geophysical surveys applied to archaeology. the same foundation in 1966 inaugurated the magazine «archaeological prospections». obviously, the great successes achieved in the field are closely linked to the processing of the acquired data, as well as to the innovations of the raw data filtering systems such as that one of irwin scollar in 1958. in addition to geoleptric surveys, other methods has been introduced and used from the mid-90s. martin aitken and edward hall, creators of a prototype proton magnetometer, carried out some tests in the roman city of durobrivae (northamptonshire). ralph of the university of pennsylvania experimented the first magnetometer in radiometric configuration near the ancient city of sibari. john alldred designs the fluxgate gradiometer. in 1967, john musty established the geophysics section of the ancient monuments laboratory focusing on the study of the innovative multi-probe system for geoeleptric surveys and the production of more manageable equipment that required use of a single operator (boschi, 2009). from a technical point of view, the methods used aredivided between active and passive investigations. in the latter case, the equipment picks up signals originating from natural sources, including magnetic, gravimetric, thermographic and spontaneous potentials. the active methods, instead, send a signal in the subsoil and evaluate the modifications undergoing during the course. both the abovementioned methods are based on the principle that an object present in the subsoil impresses its image, not for itself, but for the effects produced by certain elements that surrounding and hiding it (bianchini, 2008). 2.1 principles for methodological choice. the role of engineers all not-destructive investigations are based on the properties of both materials and construction technologies according the methodological approach of the engineers specialized in technical architecture. they interpret the characteristics and properties of the building in function of both the single materials and the construction technologies that assemble materials into a single system. the choice of the most appropriate method requires a sound knowledge of the area in which the presumed archaeological element is buried, as well as factors such as the interference produced by the infrastructure of built-up areas. in the preliminary phase, it is also fundamental the planning of the measures, both from a technicalscientific point of view and logistic, an accurate and careful study of the surveyed maps and bibliographic and archiving investigation on the cultural heritage of the territory. the active method more suitable for the purposes of technical architecture is the geoeleptric survey used by the 60’s of the last century. even though it has longer data acquisition times, it provides results that are easy to interpret. moreover, it is very versatile to variations of soil conditions and allows the detection of even very deep structures. the technique is based on the electrical resistivity that is the resistance that each body opposes to the passage of electric current. the subsoil due to presence of moisture is a good conductor of electricity, while the stone structures (remains of foundations of buildings, walls, streets or voids referred to tombs) have insulating properties. in this way, buried geometries can be easily identified according to the physical parameter that indicates such behaviour (camarano, mauriello, patella, piro, 1997). the resulting vertical and horizontal sections (topographies) allow the creation of threedimensional models that facilitate the identification of the location of the main detected anomalies (figure 1,2)1 collected in time-slice. the low variations of amplitudes, reflected by the ground, indicate the presence of homogeneous material. the high ones, the useful ones, indicate the presence of buried 44 objects2. variations in amplitude in time-slices are combined with a chromatic scale in shades of grey or colour that makes it easier to read anomalies. these anomalies are “translated” into construction systems by engineers who read the way they are assembled in a preventative and useful way for the investigation of archaeologists. the seismic method, among the active ones, is decidedly less reliable in the archaeological field for the very limited times of interference between the provoked signal and the anthropic structure. it measures the propagation in the subsoil of artificial seismic waves generated by a source: the perturbation is propagated in the ground with a velocity proportional to its elastic characteristics.the active method most used by archaeologists is the ground penetrating radar (gpr)3. it allows mapping accurately the spatial extension of structures and figure 2. view of 3d solid figure 3. archaeological site of pompei. schola armaturarum. reconstruction. figure 1. time-slices figure 4. archaeological site of pompei. schola armaturarum after the collapse. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 45 archaeological sites at depths ranging from a few tens of centimetres to a few meters (goodman, 1994). moreover, the gpr equipment is easy to carry and easy to handle. the gp system sends electromagnetic pulses in the ground through a transmitting antenna with frequencies between about 10 and 2000 mhz. the frequency of the electromagnetic return signal, captured by a surface receiving antenna, changes according to the different materials present in the subsoil (conyers, 2004). on the indication of the archaeologist, the frequency of the antenna is varied according to the depth and dimensions of the structure under investigation. there are some important limitations, which can be summarized in the following points: the topographical surface of the ground and vegetation; the ground moisture; the depth of burial of objects and masonry structures. 3. seismic protection of archaeological sites the seismic risk is defined by factors such as dangerousness, vulnerability and exposure. the first is a technical parameter related to the probability of an earthquake of varying magnitude. the second one evaluates the possibility that a building will be damaged or destroyed. the third factor is linked to the amount and value of cultural heritage that can be lost as a result of an earthquake. the normal interventions that the engineering uses in order to reduce the seismic risk are not able for the conservation of archaeological sites. these interventions provide for the insertion of complex dissipative mechanisms into a sound structural frame. the extreme weakness of the archaeological site masonry would require a preconsolidation of masonry. actually, the presence of artistic parts prevents this type of intervention. in the last years, the site of pompeii is seriously subjected to damaged, testified by the numerous collapses related to the action of both dynamic and static forces. the figure 5. archaeological site of pompei. schola armaturarum. detail of the collapsed masonry. figure 6. temple of athena in makistos. figure 7. temple of hera in olimpia. 46 schola armaturarum has been completely destroyed, also due to a dated, wrong, and invasive consolidation intervention that demonstrates the ineffectiveness of the consolidation methods into archaeological sites (figures 3,4,5). it must also be said how it is evident the contribution of engineering to archaeology as an essential factor both from the scientific and economic point of view. the masonry interpretations on the basis of not destructive surveys and the related engineering considerations clearly indicate the way to be pursued in the field of preventive archaeology. in addition, their applications can provide interesting explanations about the construction methods in the classical era. the cognitive approach provided by the field of engineering in the study of archaeological constructions shows that some solutions have been adopted with the aim of having a good seismic behaviour of the ancient construction in the mediterranean geographical areas, frequently affected by earthquakes. the findings of ancient structures have shown masonry having a considerable thickness and wooden panels and beams. in addition, many factors, such as the symmetry of the plan, the presence of foundation grids, the regularity of the structure in elevation with longitudinal and transverse walls, the low eccentricity of the loads, testify an antiseismic design of the buildings of the classic period that met only functional and compositional criteria. the symmetry in plan, as in the case temple of athena in makistos (figure 6), has a decisive role in the response to the dynamic actions of earthquakes. in the same way, the compactness of the structural organization of the temple of hera with the cell and the colonnade close together (figure 7) or the presence of transverse walls having a thickness event greater than the longitudinal ones of temple c of selinunte (figure 8) are other important testimonies of the anti-seismic design of archaeological sites. another technological detail useful to improve the seismic behaviour of ancient constructions is the connection of the stone elements with grips or with refined surfaces technique such as in the shaped blocks detectable in the valley of the temples in agrigento (figure 9). figure 8. temple c in selinunte. figure 9. agrigento, valley of the temples figure 10. iran. cyrus the great’s tomb. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 47 finally, it should be highlighted that the the first seismic isolation technique dates back to 2500 years ago. according to plinio il vecchio, the temple of artemis at ephesus was built on a soft ground that was recovered with a layer of coal and fleeces in order to protect the construction from earthquakes4. in the same way, the greek temple stands can be read as possible insulators separating the foundation soil and elevation structure. this interpretative possibility can be found in another area with very high historical seismicity such as iran (figure 10). the innovation in the engineering field has given in recent years a significant contribution to the preservation of the archaeological heritage with the development of satellite monitoring systems and innovative devices for remote control of horizontal and vertical movements of structures. notes 1. the figures are taken from the doctoral thesis “integration of geophysical surveys, satellite data and 3d survey techniques at the archaeological site of egnazia (br)” of which the author has been a tutor. phd by vincenzo gentile. 2. the data obtained by a geoelectric survey are analyzed by mathematical theories related to the physical conditions determining the measured data. to create an electrical resistivity tomography (ert) it is necessary to have at disposal the greater number of data concerning the apparent resistivity of the subsurface with which is carried out a combined inversion of all the single tests using an algorithm in order to characterize the smallest differences existing in the acquired parameters. a two-dimensional ert tomography can be obtained from inversion of an apparent resistivity data set. if a set of parallel profiles is assembled, the inversion of the entire apparent resistivity data set provides a 3d ert. 3. the first applications took place in the study of the lunar ground but later it was used for the localization of cavities, pipes, tunnels, lithological contacts. in 1975, it was tested for the first time in the archaeological field for the purpose of identifying masonry structures located at depths greater than 1,00 m. these studies conducted in the city of chaco canyon (new mexico) were followed by researcher activities of peter fisher at the site of hala sultan tekke in cyprus), payson sheets in el salvador (at the site of ceren) and trudy vaughan in in canada (in red bay labrador). the most successful exploration was that one of 1993 conducted in japan by dean goodman, who had the intent to map the houses and burial mounds. obviously, the success of gpr applications is linked to the progressive development of data acquisition and processing techniques. in this regard, we remember the contributions of lawrence b. conyers, jeffrey lucius and dean goodman, thanks to which today we can talk about time-slice and 3d reconstructions of the buried reality. 4. ...graece magnificentiae vera admiratio exstat templum ephesiae dianae cxx annis factum a tota asia. in solo id palustri fecere, ne terrae motus sentiret aut hiatus timeret rursus ne in lubrico atque instabili fundamenta tantae molis locarentur, calcatis ea substravere carbonibus, dein velleribus lanae… (plinius, naturalis historia). references boschi f., (2009). introduzione alla geofisica per l’archeologia, «groma», 2, ed. e. giorgi, bologna, 291-315 bianchini m., (2008), manuale di rilievo e di documentazione digitale in archeologia, roma cammarano f., mauriello p., patella d., piro s., [1997], integrated geophysical methods for archaeological prospecting, in volcanism and archaeology in mediterranean sea. conyers l., (2004), ground-penetrating radar for archaeology cozzolino m., (2009), sviluppo di una metodologia geofisica integrata per i beni culturali, tesi di dottorato in ambiente e territorio, xxi ciclo, università degli studi del molise goodman d., (1994), ground-penetrating radar simulation in engineering and archaeology. in geophysics, vol.59, 224-232. the luminous environment vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 15 abstract the theme of office space is of particular interest because it is a sector strongly involved by technological development. the high concentration of plant engineering systems makes it essential to the attention to environmental parameters and to research on the quality of the relationship which binds man to artificial dimension of built space. in the design of office spaces, the general objective must be to be able to achieve a new working environment relationship. a ratio in which optimal balance is always sought in terms of igrothermal, acoustic and luminous comfort conditions, without noting that the psychological and sociological component plays an important role among the environmental factors, and this significantly interferes with the conditions of physiological comfort. the following work is an essay on the subject. keywords office space, comfort, daylighting dipartimento di architettura, università degli studi “g. d’annunzio” di chieti-pescara italia gdpa gruppo di progettazione ambientale design and comfort in office space michele m. lepore https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.8844 16 1. introduction designing an environment, a place of work, durably affects, the behaviors of those who live there daily and spend most of his working life there. often the effects of such a conditioning, whether positive or negative, escape to the knowledge of the designer especially when it is called upon to deal with very fast evolutionary dynamics. first of all it is rapidly lowering the so-called "threshold of discomfort" in respect of the environment. in part for the improvement of the standard of living, in part for the most widespread information on the environment, we condone always less noise, the inadequate lighting, the pairings strident, disorder. any good designer can and must give satisfactory answers to these requirements. each one of us, both in the role of the designer and the inhabitant, goes behind positive or negative environmental ideals often linked to minor details. for clarity, it is useful to introduce the concept of “environmental energy maintenance”. in other words, a certain office environment, once designed and constructed, does not automatically retain itself as such forever. because the conditions that do define “office” evolve to we need a collective commitment, a check on the behavior in its interior, an awareness of the draft together by those to whom it is intended. certain choices technical and aesthetic requirements can make the environment more or less tiring to dwell. where the articulation of the environment is not clear where the lay-out of the walls and furniture appears random, where the creativity of the designer, rather than develop requirements and complex problems to which the project must constitute the solution and response, respecting and enriching its contents, instead opposes it, the energy of maintenance required by that particular behavior setting may become excessively high. then occurs an emotional disinvestment from users-inhabitants, all the available energy is concentrated in the defense of its own territory individually; the threshold of the annoyance lowers and growing intolerance for defects even minimal, of the same environment. in order to analyze the complexity of the confined artificial environment in which we live, we work, etc., it is necessary to disassemble in its elementary components. for the physical environment alone we can locate the thermal, acoustic, bright environment etc. not being able to face them all here, even just superficially, we will deal with one who, though having a great influence on the degree of comfort, with both psychological and physiological repercussions and hence safety for our health, is too often not sufficiently considered since the design stage: the luminous environment with particular attention to the problems of who, though having a great influence on the degree of comfort, with both psychological and physiological repercussions and hence safety for our health, is too often not sufficiently considered since the design stage. it is therefore obvious how it is ever more urgent to strengthen the capacity of assessment and forecasting (on the part of the designer) on expectations in terms of quality and performance required to the environment (by the user). learning to grasp and to assess the relationship between things, their synergies, the thin quality of the environment in which we live, all we learn to always observe more critically the built environment that surrounds us and to compare to our personal life project. the work of the designer in such an ongoing context becomes even more important and delicate. 2. comfort and environment the environment enfolds us and engages us, constantly engaging our perceptive system in a job of selection and discrimination on the infinite amount of information that transmits us, work that always has as our starting point and arrival our past actions and actions that we propose for the future. this kind of perception is to be attributed to the radical cultural dichotomy that is found between the designer and the inhabitant (origlia, 1990). each of them has its own perceptive model, functional to the different purposes and modes of action in the environment. designer and inhabitant personify to the limit the two vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 17 opposing models among which the behavior of every human being oscillates: on the one hand, the action of adapting (transforming what exists in function of a behavioral project), on the other hand the action of adapting (transforming its behavior in function of the project of what already exists). these opposing models of relationship with reality correspond to non-opposing perceptual models that sometimes lead the designer to be bothered by the unplanned behavior of the occupant, feeling misunderstood in his creative commitment, and symmetrically lead the inhabitant to not respect the project because it is inconsistent with his expectations. but let us not forget that each of us, whether it’s an architect or not, constantly modifies and designs the space around it to suit its needs: these two different perceptual models, which we bring in, need to constantly communicate with each other. the key language is what you could call the “collective project” of the environment. it is what remains in the typologies of environments, furnishings, tools and objects, in its formal and functional aspects, the result of a millennial work of setting up what constitutes a scenario and support to habit behaviors. and it is the learning process of this “collective project”, that each of us develops and customize according to the context and their own inclinations which provides us with those indicators-limit which are called, according to the cases, “threshold of annoyance” or “threshold of adequacy”. it is the learning of these different perceptive markers or selectors that allows us to behave adequately during a mass or, more simply, cross the road without being invested. they act as valves that direct our behavior towards the action of adapting or adapting to action. certain environments confuse, rather than favor, the social regulation of behaviors, leaving doubts about who can or should do what. but how and why does this happen? how to use, for example, the notion of disruption threshold to design environments that do not stimulate conflict or reaction? the population is considered to be an integral part of the environment itself, which is defined as the behavioral scenario (fig.1). according to this point of view the same physical space, a large open plan office, seen at ten o’clock by the cleaner, is a completely different environment than the one seen by the employee working there eight hours a day together with fifteen colleagues. as we mentioned previously, a specific office environment, once designed and realized, does not automatically maintains as such for ever. because the figure 1. central beheer, alpendoon, olanda 1972 h. hertzberger, this building is still today, over forty years after its completion, one of the most important examples in europe of unconventional design of office space. (continenza r., 1988, architetture di herman hertzberger, gangemi, roma). 18 conditions that make it “office” continue to occur, a collective commitment, a control of behaviors within it, requires a non-superficial understanding of its overall design by those who are destined (environmental maintenance energy). the designer should always realize that certain technical or aesthetic choices can make the environment more or less tiring to live. where the articulation of the environment is unclear, where lay-out of walls and furnishings appears random, where the creativity of the designer, instead of developing from the “collective project” respecting and enriching its contents, opposes it, the maintenance energy required by that particular behavioral setting may become excessively high (carver, 1981). there is then an emotional disinvestment towards the parts of collective interest, all the available energy is focused on the defense of one’s own territory, the threshold of discomfort decreases and intolerance grows for even the slightest defects in the environment. 3. the holding circuits, control and rejection the need for a certain energy to maintain the office setting behavior is physiological and positive. what worries more about who works in the office environment is not so much the energy needed to maintain the behavioral setting, but the risk that frequent so-called “stress circuits” are set up, or even “waste circuits” for the environment. the control circuit is set when you have to observe someone, or you have to constantly raise to close a door that others leave open, or you have to turn off a light because it is reflected on the monitor. when the control circuit in an environment entails levels of stress there is definitely a mistake, either in the design choice, or in the information given to the designer or, more often than not, of the maintenance of the project. it is a grave and typical mistake of many companies to consider the intervention of the designer as a one-off performance, ignoring the fact that in a living and constantly transforming office the organizational scenario can change completely over a couple of years, and that this would require an equally complete redesign of physical space. even the “waste circuit”, especially as interpersonal dynamics turned against members who do not integrate into the setting, can be turned against the environment. for at least two decades, the office landscape has been synonymous with democracy, open mindedness, modernity, in spite of the high maintenance required, so as to inhibit the waste stream towards the environment: the environment is good, bad is who does not democratically accept sacrificing their own egoistic need for privacy. in fact, the landscape office model has been well received by cultures more used to self-control, the melteleuropean and scandinavian, while never captured in the latin countries (fig.2). in japan, the office landscape has remained an exotic curiosity, probably because the problem of offering countervailing values to self-control has never occurred. all this to observe that conceptions of the type of discomfort, control circuit, waste circuit, have very variable values and connotations in the different cultural areas. 4. comfort and design: the luminous environment the luminous quality of a confined space can not be defined, represented and evaluated with quantitative terms. a good light around must be at the same time comfortable, pleasing, relevant, and appropriate for the uses for which it is used. the natural lighting of a confined space is important not only for energy savings that may result from its proper use, but also for its chromatic quality, its variability linked to time scanning and its stimulating effects. from a biological point of view, natural light stimulates human metabolism and helps, for example, regulate blood pressure, while lack thereof causes increased melatonin secretion by some internal glands. subjects forced to stay in an environment free of view toward the outside or with constant artificial lighting will experience visual fatigue in a shorter time than subjects subjected to variable sensory stimuli and need higher levels of illumination to perform equally vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 19 accurate visual tasks. the search for optimum indoor lighting conditions for each visual task was supported by the conviction that by artificially achieving and maintaining the “best” possible living environment in a building, the best possible performance would be obtained from the users. this hypothesis comes from some studies carried out at the end of the last century that linked the increase in productivity in working environments with the increase in the internal brightness level. already in the ’20, subsequent and more extensive research conducted at harvard university has shown how the productivity increase produced by the rise of the luminous level remains constant even with its subsequent decline. studies (canazei, 2014) have shown that any company’s alleged concern for workers’ health and the working environment translates into a rise in productivity and that this increase could have been more easily achieved and at lower costs by acting on the quality of the light field rather than on the intensity. the planning process, attentive to the lighting issue, can no longer rely solely on the list of luminous levels to be reached in the different rooms, and therefore on the size of the windows, but should carefully consider the activities that are to be carried out within them and the needs biological ones by identifying their implications with the enlightened environment that comes to be determined (fig.3). another consideration to be made is that of the "meaning" of the light field, namely its ability to communicate information and feelings, for this ability to interact with the structure of the space by exalting or limiting some relationships: an interesting, varied figure 2. a typical example of hot desk typology, to solve the nomadic needs of collaborators, organizing the space of maximum organizational flexibility and non-territoriality. 20 and stimulating luminous circle. it will therefore be much more "efficient", at the same luminous level, of a matte gray and constant brightness. there is also a relationship between the desktop daylight illuminance and the preferred colour temperature (galasiu, 2006), which suggests that at low daylight levels (500 lux) the average preferred colour temperature was around 3300 k, while at higher daylight levels (1500 lux), the preferred colour temperature increased to 4300 k. 5. artificial light and natural light exposure to natural light from which man, a daytime animal, had made and depends on the regulation of many of its metabolic processes, is gradually decreasing until reduced to our days, in some cases, to a few tens of minutes day. what can be the consequences of such a dramatic change in the human body is not yet possible to say precisely. however, in physical and temporal terms, what are the main differences between current exposure to natural and artificial light? the parameters that specify these differences are three: light intensity, light spectrum, time and rhythm of exposure. 6. intensity and spectrum differences the intensity of sunlight here understood as illumination on the ground, varies with the season, the day of day and the atmospheric conditions, oscillating between 20.000 and 100.000 lux; for artificially lit environments, lighting levels are considerably lower, with values generally ranging between 40 and 2.000 lux. the solar spectrum can be assimilated to the spectrum of an ideal incandescent source at a temperature between 5.500 and 6.800 degrees (kelvin); is of a continuous type for wavelengths between 290 nm and 700 nm and includes a portion of medium to long wave uv. artificial light, on the contrary, has a limited and variable spectral distribution depending on the type of lamp, among those typical of the civil sector: 80% of the total emission toward the red (770 nm) and have always been mostly used in homes, on average 2.800 °k. today have been superseded by those with low consumption; frequently present in work environments because of their low power consumption, emit in the region figure 3. sieeb building, mario cucinella, architects (https://divisare.com/projects/153709) vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 21 of the yellow-green, i.e. around 550 nm; other instead, reaching a color temperature of 6.000°k, are equipped with a good spectral continuity and emit a light more similar to solar energy; levels of color temperature up to 6.000°k, but with a somewhat higher efficiency with respect to the tubular fluorescent. equipped with hitch a e27 standard; color temperature quite warm of fluorescent, have an efficiency four times greater than fluorescent, fifteen times those incandescent and with an average life of 100.000 hours against the 1.000 of those incandescent and 6.000 of the compact. 7. the relationship between light and metabolic functions already in 1805, a scholar christof ebermaier (ebermaier, 1805) published a treatise containing a precise description of the correlation between cyclic variability of some biological functions in humans (fourth chapter) and equally cyclical changes in ambient light, hypothesising health damage from a low exposure to sunlight. on this basis it is considered that the light that strikes the retina is sent, by means of nervous structures present in the optical paths, at different centers from those deputies to the vision. it is from these studies that we have come to the current norms that provide adequate levels of natural lighting in confined spaces, and therefore also in working environments. in fact, from these first observations, the researches have developed in many directions, gathering data demonstrating the presence, in many animal species and humans, of a complex neuroendocrine system in which the pineal gland plays a primary role and appears to be the ability to acquire information about the environmental light conditions so that they can adapt to them many physiological and behavioral activities. the pineal gland, or epiphysis in humans weighs about a tenth of a gram and is placed at the intersection of the two cerebral hemispheres on the floor of the third ventricle; it, despite being partially calcified at puberty, maintains an endocrine activity throughout the course of life. in mammals the pineal is no longer directly sensitive to light, as occurs in the lower vertebrates, in which the “third eye” is called, but assumes the role of a neuro transducer endocrine capable of converting the nervous input coming from the retina into a output figure 4. melatonin levels in the 24 hours (http://ghiandolapineale. blogspot.it) consisting of hormonal substances, the most studied of which is melatonin. melatonin has a circadian rhythm characterized by high night levels, with peak amplitude at 2 am and low daytime levels (fig.4). melatonin synthesis times and rhythms seem to be determined by the integration of two factors: the first is light-dark alternation, while the second appears to be self-generated by an endogenous system. the latter should normally be subordinate to the previous one, but can be activated if, for environmental anomalies or of another nature, the first is less. numerous studies have shown that light inhibits night-time melatonin secretion in all animal species to be studied, including humans. in particular, human studies seem to show that for our species we need higher light levels than other mammals because of inhibition of pineal activity. from these studies it 22 emerges that the light produced by fluorescent lamps similar to the solar spectrum, with illumination values of 500 lux which is the average illumination found in most offices and homes does not inhibit the nighttime secretion of melatonin, while a light of 2.500 lux, that is equal to measurable illumination near a window of a clear summer day, has a marked inhibitory effect; intermediate values (1.500 lux) seem to cause an intermediate inhibitior. some data also suggest that the body’s response to light is closely related to its previous light exposure story. melatonin and alterations of the circadian rhythms it is well known that there is a pathology of circadian rhythms defined as jet lag syndrome: it occurs in subjects transcontinental air travel that involve a marked change in time zone and consists of disorders of sleep and of the psychic sphere such as irritability, fatigue and decreased psychomotor performance. in conclusion, it is possible to say that the already proven existence in the man of extra-visual effects of light, mediated optical pathways gives labor medicine a new area of study and research of great interest for a better understanding of the effects that professional activities, carried out under low or no exposure to natural light, can cause the operator to metabolic rate. furthermore, for artificial light, in some studies (baron, 1992), subjects exposed to warm white light reported stronger preferences for resolving conflicts through avoidance than subjects exposed to cool-white light. 8. conclusion in the design of office spaces, the general objective must be to be able to achieve a new working environment relationship; a ratio in which optimal balance is always sought in terms of igrothermal, acoustic and luminous comfort conditions, without noting that the psychological and sociological component plays an important role among the environmental factors, and this significantly interferes with the conditions of physiological comfort (lepore, 2004). as we have seen, the natural light / artificial light is closely tied to this. if it is true that artificial light with minor control problems is also true that depriving natural light, as well as causing the lack of a real, concrete energy saving, ultimately results in an extremely dangerous and damaging decision from the point of view of a psycho-physical balance of a man working at his workplace for eight hours a day. in fact, the need for man to remain stable, at all times of his working day, the relationship with the outside, with the other by himself, with the dynamic fluidity of life with which he can continue to tune in from the windows of their work space vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 2 23 references baron r.a., rea m.s., daniels s.g. effects of indoor lighting (illuminance and spectral distribution) on the performance of cognitive tasks and interpersonal behavior, the potential mediating role of positive affects. motivation and emotion, 16:1, springer new york, usa. 1992. carver c. s. attention and self-regulation: a control-theory approach to human behavior, springer-verlag, new york, usa. 1981. canazei m., dehoff p., staggl s. e pohl w. effects of dynamic ambient lighting on female permanent morning shift workers, lighting research & technology, vol 46, iusse 2, pp. 140-156. 2014. ebermaier c. saggio storico della luce in riguardo alla sua influenza sulla complessa natura e particolarmente sul corpo umano oltre alla visione, giustino pasquali, venezia. 1805. galasiu, a. d. and j. a. veitch. occupant preferences and satisfaction with the luminous environment and control systems in daylit offices: energy and buildings. 38: 728–742. 2006. lepore m. evoluzione dello spazio ufficio nell’era della “information technology”, aracne, roma. 2004. origlia g. abitare l’ufficio: percezione e ambiente, (prima parte), in habitat ufficio n°42. 1990. insights fuller, m. concept and practice of architectural daylighting, van nostrand reinhold company inc., new york. 1985. heerwagen j.h. ,heerwagen d.r., lighting and psychological comfort, lighting design and application 16 (4).1986. origlia g. abitare l’ufficio: la psicologia dell’ambiente di lavoro, in habitat ufficio n°43. 1990. piccoli b., ed altri, effetti extra visivi della luce, in edifici intelligenti n°3. 1994. raiteri s. ambiente luminoso e parametri socioculturali, in office lay-out n°52. 1993. reinhart, c., j. mardaljevic, and z. rogers. dynamic daylight performance metrics for sustainable building design. national research council canada. 2006. rogora, a. il progetto illuminato, in modulo n°191.1993. scuri p. vederci non basta, in costruire n°135. 1994. slater, lighting controls in offices: how to improve occupant comfort and energy efficiency, in: proceedings of the cibse national lighting conference, bath, london, uk: cibse,, pp. 178–184. 1996. tuaycharoen, n. and p.r. tregenza . view and discomfort glare from windows. lighting research and technology, 39: 185–200. veitch j.a., psychological processes influencing lighting quality, journal of the illuminating engineering society 30 (1). 2001. zelenay, k., perepelitza m. and lehrer d., high-performance facades: design strategies and applications in north america and northern europe. california energy commission 51. 2011. x thermal map of urban space, www.pedroborjamunoz-arquitecto.es, modification: cut vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 1 abstract 1 università degli studi “g. d’annunzio” di chieti-pescara, dipartimento di architettura today, the cities need to increase energy efficiency, reduce polluting emissions and achieve a sufficient level of sustainability. the urban microclimate plays an important role on the buildings energy consumption and the feeling of comfort in the spaces. the microclimate parameters are of central importance for the activities that are carried out in the open spaces and to a large extent determine the use. the responses to the microclimate may be unconscious but very often result in a differentiated use of open spaces just as function of the different climatic conditions. for this reason, the aim of this work is focused on the environmental parameters and on the methodology of analysis aiming at the establishment of bioclimatic strategies for buildings on the basis of morpho-type of the components of the geometries and surface quality of the materials used in urban spaces and in function of the consequent microclimatic conditions obtained. keywords urban microclimate, comfort, energy efficiency, bioclimatic design urban microclimate parameters for buildings energy strategies michele lepore1 http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2016.6944 2 1. environmental design in urban context the environmental parameters that affect the outside comfort thermal conditions, although similar to those relating to the interior spaces, are characterized by a greater and more complex variability. therefore, because of this variability and the broad diversification of activities in which people are involved, there have been so far few attempts to understand the comfort conditions on the outside but especially as the climatic effects outside could have an impact on the technologies of the building envelop and consequently on the conditions of comfort within the confined spaces. one of the objectives of environmental design in urban contexts is the creation of districts with comfortable open spaces. the microclimate parameters are therefore of central importance for the activities that are carried out in the open and to a large extent determine the use. for this reason, understand the richness of the microclimatic features into urban spaces outside, and the implications in terms of comfort for the people who use them, opens up new possibilities for the design of these spaces both in terms of new interventions, both in the retraining of existing agglomerations. the study of the districts must be configured through a series of analysis developed in successive stages of deepening the spatial characteristics, technological and environmental concerns both the settlements scale, is a typological both technological. in particular: analysis of geographical context and climate; analysis of the morphological characteristics to the building scale; analysis of the conditions of comfort outside in the residential settlements; analysis of the technological characteristics of the building envelop; the system building-plant. 1.1 methodology the methodology is based on an evaluation of the climatic conditions and the thermal comfort in different conditions. the climatic parameters are obtained by parametric evaluations and computer simulations based on fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and irradiation in an urban environment using numeric approach. the great advantage in the use of computing systems is the ability to evaluate different scenarios. from a careful analysis on the external climate conditions and thermal comfort in the immediate neighborhood of the residential settlements, you want to locate the appropriate technologies to the redevelopment of the individual units by improving the parameters of thermal comfort inside of the dwellings themselves. primary objective, therefore, is the search for a methodology to assess the quality of the microclimatic public space, that is repeatable in cases and different places with verifying the possible influences of the external climate on the overall energy efficiency of the settlement and the consequent identification of appropriate technologies that are not based only on climate class referring to the locality. specific objectives: analyze urban spaces according to the physical aspects environmental, through a system of indicators that characterize study areas. define indicators for analysis of the aspects of microclimatic space, able to put in relation the environmental conditions to the comfort of users in order to define certain minimum quality requirements. the identification of a methodology for the calculation capable of assessing the quality microclimates of public space in an objective manner and replicable in other cases in other places, evaluating specific software for the simulation of the phenomena that occur in the urban space outside. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 3 2. urban microclimate urban areas have particular climatic condition as results of complex urban microclimates, where many factors come into play. it is important to describe how and why the urban climate differs from the climatic condition of the surrounding rural areas. urban and industrial growth has caused significant changes in the radiant balance of the urban spaces, the convective heat exchange between the ground and its buildings, the air flowing above the urban area and the heat generation within the city. the main consequence is differences in value of air temperature and in wind conditions between urban and rural areas. air temperature in dense urban areas are higher then temperatures in the surrounding countryside. this different is known as the “urban heat-island effect and characterised almost every city or town in the world. the heat that is absorbed during the day by all urban constructions (buildings, roads, etc.) is reemitted after sunset, and the greatest temperature differences are observed during the night. furthermore, additional heat is given by all human heat sources. urban space creates unique climatic conditions called the urban microclimate. the first consideration is that it is possible associate the urban morphology to microclimatic behaviour, or in other words, to define a microclimatic patterns characteristic for each urban typology. the second one, as mentioned before, is based on the observation that the environmental conditions influence the use of urban outdoors spaces. if it is possible to quantify the thermal comfort through the study of climatic parameters, the modification of the urban microclimate will affects the thermal comfort of people. the confirmation of the two assumptions leads to the definition of the third hypothesis: it is possible to mitigate the impact of the microclimate through the modification of the constructed urban space, and consequently, improve citizens thermal comfort conditions. the specific objectives to achieve this aims are: 1. define a system of indicators to characterize and describe the physical and environmental aspects of study areas. these indicators should be able to describe the current situation and guide refurbishment project. 2. define indicators for the analysis of microclimatic aspects of outdoor spaces, able to establish a relationship with environment conditions and comfort sensation, in order to find a minimum quality target. 3. establish a calculation methodology able to evaluate the microclimatic quality and comfort of public space in an objective way and suitable for the application on other cases and other locations. 4. elaborate the guidelines for the refurbishment of built spaces from the perspective of microclimatic and environmental improvement of urban areas. 5. evaluate specific software for the simulation of climatic phenomena which occur in outdoor urban space. figure 1. heat island effect 4 2.1 analysis of thermal comfort the environmental performance relative to the urban space in its entirety is the description of the thermohygrometric behavior mixed as a result of the combination of morphological parameters, matter and microclimate in relation to a specific use. this type of description it is useful to make it through the use of the indicator of comfort, because the indicator contains in itself the mixer of the parameters in the game. it is important to use for comfort indicators in relation to environmental requirements, whether they are expressed by users or that are unaware. to assess the environmental performance of an urban space as a whole there can be no limit to the analysis of the microclimatic conditions in point, as it cannot be limited to evaluate the various parameters individually. a good result is obtained by providing the areal distribution of the comfort conditions throughout the area. the maps of comfort represent an evaluation of the existing conditions or a check of the design choices. from the observation of these maps you can get further information on the project, which relate in particular to the placement of the urban equipment that allow the carrying out of activities compatible with the environmental performance in the given time interval. from the evaluation of the performance in the moment in which they were not congruent with the environmental requirements of users, we derive guidance on specific requirements that define the project and characterize it. 2.2 the analytic indicators the analytic indicators are calculated by following the path of the heat flow from the human metabolism to the environment vice versa whereas the variations of this flow in relation to the variation of environmental factors. they derive from the equation of energy balance based on models which consider all the climatic parameters significant. these models use a balance equation of heat with a models more or less simplified to evaluate the mean radiant temperature. the thermal comfort can be described with the use of certain indices: wbgt takes only climatic data into account such as air temperature, radiant heat, solar radiation, air movement. pmv has solid base in the indoor environment but takes into account relevant factors and the affect thermal sensation. pet and out set are for outdoor environments. pet does not calculate individual parameters and out set takes personal parameters for one standard type of person. the iso 7730 defines thermal conditions of outdoor environment in which the probability of negative vote is minimised. the index “predicted mean vote pmv” and the index “predicted percentage dissatisfied ppd” are based on iso 7730 and are taking into account the climatic parameters in conjunction with the relevant factors affecting the thermal sensation of each respondent (clothing, metabolic rate, eating or drinking). the pmv-index describes the comfort levels with the prediction of the possible votes taking into account meteorological factor in combination with human biometeorology values. the value of the index is between -7 which means too cold and +7 with means hot and the value of zero represent the comfort vote. with this scale the closets the value of the pmv index is to 0 the better are the comfort levels for the human. still this index cannot take into account the psychological factors described and that is the why there are certain differences of the value of the pmv and the real votes on the field surveys (fanger, 1992). common microclimatic data with the pmv (predicted mean vote) require two other indexes: pet (physiologically equivalent temperature) and out set (standard effective temperature). all those thermal indices are well documented and include important meteorological and thermo-physiological parameters so as to define the total comfort. the scale that are measured is in °c but the vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 5 parameters required in the model are both climatic (air temperature, humidity, radiation environment, wind speed and direction) but also physical characteristics of every interviewee (age, sex, weight, height, clothes, metabolism rate). a full application of these thermal indices on the energy balance of the human body gives detailed information about the effect of the thermal environment on every human (van hoof, 2010). in the case of areas with a great variety of spaces, ranging from dense vegetation and extensive shading, to areas completely exposed to the sun and wind, the data from the meteorological station cannot adequately represent the microclimatic conditions in the site. comfort models should be able to approach the microscale for design purposes, distinguishing figure 2. relation between pmv and ppd, and other sensation thermal indices, as found by fanger between sunny and shaded areas, or areas protected and exposed to the wind, which ultimately directly affects thermal comfort conditions in a given space. it is therefore of value to devise a way to include design related parameters into environmental data. identifying simplified correction factors between locally measured conditions and those of the nearby meteorological station, during the field surveys, can reflect the modification of the microclimate. such correction factors can be used as modification parameters for design oriented comfort models, reflecting the microscale, thus of value to designers. in this context, vegetation can affect the microclimate in a number of ways, reducing air temperature compared to hard surfaces, shading and providing wind protection (cres, 2014). 6 figure 3. givoni bioclimatic chart for comfort evaluation 2.3 wind one of the most important factors influencing pedestrian comfort conditions in outdoor open spaces is the wind. wind environment is difficult to foresee and control because it is influenced by a number of global, regional and local factors. on a global scale wind comes from air moving from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. the wind velocity and direction produced by the global weather systems are subsequently influenced by the regional and local landscape typology. it is therefore important to understand that there can be large differences in the wind environment from one part of a city to another or even on micro scale from one part of a space to another. wind is not a constant phenomenon. it varies momentously in direction and strength (wind gusts) and variations can be seasonal or annual. the direct effects of the wind can be divided into two main categories, mechanical and thermal effects: mechanical effects of wind can be felt with wind velocities above 4-5 m.s-1. above 10m.s-1 it will be unpleasant to walk and above 15m.s-1 there is a direct risk of accidents; for thermal effects the 5 m.s-1 comfort criteria used presumed that people will adapt their behaviour and clothing level to the season. it should be noted that depending on climate a certain level of wind could be regarded as undesirable or desirable. in cold climates wind will almost always decrease outdoor comfort conditions, whereas the opposite is the case in hot climates (ghiaus, 2007). vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 7 2.4 the impact of materials in order to reduce the heat island intensity, the first method is to design the external environment in order to minimise solar heat gains. in general, this can be achieved by increasing the solar reflectivity of construction material surfaces and reducing te insulation of susceptible structures. during this procedure, the albedo of the various materials and surface is a crucial factor (santamouris, 2006). the albedo of a surface is defined as the reflected solar radiation divided by the incident solar radiation. urban areas and cities are characterized, in general by a relatively reduced effective albedo. this is due to the greater absorption of solar radiation by urban construction materials and multiple reflection inside urban canyons. thus, the optical characteristics of used materials have an important impact their albedo-to-solar radiation and emissivity of longwave radiation being the key parameters. high albedo material reduce the amount of solar radiation absorbed through building envelopes and urban structures, and in this way keep their surfaces cooler. respectively, materials with high emissivity are good emitters of long-wave energy and release the energy that has been absorbed as short-wave radiation. in this way their surface temperature is lower and contributes to the reduction of ambient temperatures through the mechanism of heat convection (santamouris, 2001). figure 4. interaction between the wind and buildings 3. energy audits to scale settlements the first action is constituted by the stripping "thermal" of the isolate to assess separately the environmental quality of the context both under the profile of thermo-hygrometric (temperatures, levels of relative humidity) and is reported to the climate wellness, evaluating the levels of both thermal sensation that the index of feeling on the part of the inhabitants of the settlement building. these parameters were evaluated by comparing two calculation methods: the asv (guidelines rurors) and pmv (fanger). the main critical points found to scale settlements are of type "physiological", linked to the levels of thermal sensation on the part of the inhabitants of the district refers to the outdoor spaces. in the case of study (monticchio in the province of l'aquila) to which has been applied this methodology, comparing the two methods of calculating the asv and pmv show, both coincidence of results both while negotiating on climatic conditions in winter have highlighted deficiencies in the summer period, giving as a result a feeling of "hot", abnormal done in a mountain resort. figure 5. ground reflected irradiance with varying albedo 8 3.1 6%2)&)#ø4)/.�/&�4(%�35.�ø)2�)-0ø#4 a careful analysis of the impact the sun-air has highlighted the objective relationship between settlement and environmental context and climate. in the preliminary stages, the quality checks have the aim to assess the relationship between climate and the morphology of the settlement with respect to the orientation to the compactness of the intervention, in addition to the climatic parameters specific to the site. in detail dismantling “thermal” of settlements and identification of external surfaces deemed more burdensome from the point of view of energy consumption and comfort of the occupants. for verification of environmental performance related to the state of fact, the first step was the “thermal decomposition” of the agglomerate, associating to each element a thermal role as for example: buildings = thermal mass; green spaces private loggias, etc. = microclimatic niches; spaces paved impermeable, paved, etc. = thermal amplifiers; garages, garages, box, cellars, etc. = buffer space. 3.2 analysis of the conditions external comfort in residential settlements. the microclimate parameters are of central importance for the activities that are carried out in the open and to a large extent determine the use. the responses to the microclimate may be unconscious but very often result in a differentiated use of open spaces according to the different climatic conditions. the typological dimension, diagnosis has focused on performance verification residual thermal building system-installations of buildings, highlighting the poor quality of the thermal insulation and energy management in period both winter and summer in addition to an overall inefficiency of the system engineering. all homes are in class g. also, verification of environmental quality inner is consistent with that carried out the urban scale or, in summer levels are obtained significant discomfort. the first results show that a pure physiological approach is inadequate in characterizing the conditions of comfort outdoors and an understanding of the dynamics of the human parameter is required in the design of spaces for public use. the thermal environment is of fundamental importance because they influence the persons to use these spaces, but the psychological adaptation (choice available, environmental stimulation, thermal history, expectations) is equally important. the responses induced by microclimate may be unaware, but they often translate into a different use of the urban space as the climatic conditions vary. best microclimatic conditions in turn have important implications for the development of the city. through the control of the sources of discomfort, are favored sedentary activities, as well as the use of public transport, movement on foot and the use of the bicycle. the same image of the city can benefit from the quality of the external spaces. in san francisco, the planning laws stipulate that new buildings must be placed in such a way as not to promote air motions over 5 m/s, 90% of the hours of light, in areas where people can sit. the shading of whole streets is achievable with the shafts with the advantage to obtain a cooling through evapotranspiration through the leaves. always in the case of monticchio, diagnosis has focused on performance verification residual thermal building system-installations of buildings, highlighting the poor quality to the thermal insulation and to energy management in the winter period in addition to an overall inefficiency of the system engineering. all homes are in class g. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 9 figure 6. case study of monticchio (aq), study of the impact of solar radiation on the external surfaces of buildings 10 references aa.vv. progetto ruros, progettare gli spazi aperti nell’ambiente urbano: un approccio bioclimatico, cres (centre for renewable energy sources, department of buildings), 2004 fanger p. o., thermal comfort. macgraw-hill, 1972. ghiaus c. and allard f., natural ventilation in the urban environment, earthscan, london 2007. mayer, e. a new correlation between predicted mean votes (pmv) and predicted percentages of dissatisfied (ppd). in: j. e. woods, d. t. grimsrud and n. boschi, editors. proc healthy buildings/iaq ’97, bethesda, 2, 189194 (1997) santamouris m., environmental design of urban buildings, an integrated approach, earthscan, london, 2006. santamouris m., energy and climate in the urban built environment, james&james, london, 2001. van hoof j., mazej m., hensen j. l. m. thermal comfort: research and practice in frontiers in bioscience 15, 765-788, january 1, 2010. 4. conclusions this study is conducted in several different steps. the final goal was to define the basic parameters that affect the comfort levels on open urban spaces and to implement a design strategies for building refurbishment project. the basic hypothesis is that the comfort condition in outdoor spaces comes as a result of the interaction of all the microclimate parameters together. for the effectiveness of this methodology, further analysis are needed for full representation of climatic behaviour of each seasonal period. this would assist the choice of buildings energy strategies through the design of outdoor spaces and eventually the use of these spaces, by allowing for different activities to be carried out by inhabitants. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 1 is 2 11 56 the living roof academy of sciences by daniel ramirez, 03/03/2010, used under cc by 2.0, modification: cut, source: https://www. flickr.com/photos/danramarch/4439864056/in/album-72157623562136212/ vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 57 abstract design strategies for integration of green roofs in sustainable housing avi friedman1 1 school of architecture, mcgill university green roofs are the integration of plant material and its supporting structures in buildings. such an approach provides a habitat for local flora and fauna, helps manage storm water, reduces heat demand in winter and the cooling load in the summer, enhances the aesthetic values of dwellings, provides the occupants with comfort and amenities and strengthens environmental responsibility. because roofs represent approximately 40 percent to 50 percent of the surfaces in urban areas, green roofs have an important role in drainage and as a result water management as well. in fact, when a green roof is installed on 50 percent or more of the roof’s surface, it guarantees 2 points and can contribute 7 additional points toward leed certification almost 20 percent of the required rating. this paper classifies green roofs and offers strategies for their integration in residential buildings and examines their benefits, construction principles and applications. keywords green roof, classification, maintenance, vegetation, construction http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4475 http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4475 58 1. classification of green roofs a green roof or eco-roof is an extension of what is traditionally called a ‘roof-top garden’, where growing is done in planters. a brown roof is also included in this classification, to distinguish roofs that are not intentionally planted, but are filled with layers of various materials that would have otherwise been wasted in landfill such as gravel, brick rubble, crushed concrete and subsoils. this accidental process can create valuable ecosystems for plants and insects through selfcolonization, similar to brownfield conditions (mauritius ecobuilding, 2008). pitched green roof is another type, which originated in iceland where sod roofs and walls have been in use for thermal reasons for centuries and spread throughout the scandinavian countries (greenroofs, 2010). pitched roofs are typically simpler to design than flat ones. the slope allows rainfall and excess water to drain more easily, reducing the risk of leakage. sloped green roofs, therefore, need less waterproofing and drainage methods than flat ones, thereby saving materials and labour costs (mauritius ecobuilding 2008). the design of the pitch is also simplified since it is harder to access and use pitched green roofs for diverse activities and planting. slopes of up to a maximum of 35 degrees are possible, though some systems mandate no more than 20 degrees to prevent soil slippage and slump, as will be discussed below (kwok and grondzik, 2007). another classification of green roofs is according to their maintenance level and upkeep. there are three common categories: intensive, semiintensive and extensive (fig. 1.1). these systems also vary in cost, depth of soil and type of plants they can support (lawlor et al., 2006). ���� %84%.3)6% � 3%-)�).4%.3)6%� ø.$� intensive roofs vary depending on the depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance required. extensive green roofs typically require minimal maintenance, are lightweight, inexpensive and have little plant diversity. the plants are grown in a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed brick, leca, perlite, peat, organic matter and some soil (peck and kuhn, 2008). this mixture is usually between 2 in. to 6 in. (5 cm to 15 cm) in depth, and full figure 1.1 extensive, semi-intensive and intensive roofs vary depending on the depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance required. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 59 saturation will cause a increase in weight between 16 lb./sq. ft. to 35 lb./sq. ft. (78.1 kg/m2 to 169.4 kg/m2) (peck and kuhn, 2008; lawlor et al., 2006). once the plants take root, maintenance is only needed twice annually for weeding and safety inspections. these plants are typically indigenous and hardy enough to withstand extreme climate conditions (greenroofs, 2010). semi-intensive roofs have the same low or no-input practice as an extensive one and similarly use lightweight substrates and modern construction technologies, but they have slightly deeper layers of growing medium of about 4 in. to 8 in. (10 cm to 20 cm) and therefore enable a wider and more diverse range of plants to be grown (dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). while semi-extensive roofs are classified as intermediate between the other two green roofs methods, it is also feasible to combine extensive and intensive techniques on accessible roofs, with larger herbaceous and woody plant material in strategically placed containers or planters to create sustainable gardens. an intensive green roof is similar to traditional gardens, where plants are maintained the way they would be kept on ground. they can support diverse vegetation, are labour-intensive, have deeper soils and heavier weight, cost more and require irrigation, fertilizing and additional maintenance. the substrate here is predominantly soil and can range in depth from 8 in. to 24 in. (20 cm to 60 cm), which allows for trees, shrubs, and a more diverse ecosystem to grow and can weigh over 61 lb./sq. ft. (300 kg/ m2) (peck and kuhn, 2008; bcit, 2009). also, because the roof is accessible to people, it requires additional features such as railings, lighting, access and egress (bcit, 2009; dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). when trees are planted, they need to be protected from, and anchored against, strong winds, which are a concern at high elevations. it is important to note that dry substrate weighs approximately 60 percent to 70 percent of its total weight when its fully saturated (optigreen, n.d.). 2. advantages of green roofs motives for the integration of a green roof in residential design are rooted in social, economic, environmental and cultural aspects, which affect both a single user and the community at large and are described below. a rooftop patch can be used to grow fruits, vegetables, herbs and flowers particularly in high-density urban areas or where conventional garden space may be limited. many herb species perform best in free-draining soils in sunny conditions, which are available on rooftops. the substrate and vegetation also help insulate the building from outside noise. soil has been found to absorb and block lower frequencies, while plant life blocks the higher ones (mauritius ecobuilding, 2008). a green roof with a soil layer of up to 8 in. (20 cm) can reduce noise pollution by up to 50 decibels (liveroofs, n.d.). furthermore, planted roofs could slow down the spread of fire to and from the building, particularly when the growing medium is saturated. on the other hand, very dry vegetation on a roof can pose a fire hazard. where fire is a concern, integrating of firebreaks such as gravel or concrete pavers at regular intervals and using fire-retardant plants with high water content, such as sedums, is advised (mauritius ecobuilding, 2008). green roofs offer thermal insulation that is superior to conventional interior insulation. a green roof prevents heat from escaping out the top in cold climates, and prevents heat from penetrating through in summertime. the insulation values can be increased by using a 60 low density soil with a high moisture content and large, leafy plants. an 8 in. (20 cm) substrate with an additional 8 in. (20 cm) thick layer of grass has an equivalent insulation value of 6 in. (15 cm) of mineral wool as shown in figure 2 (peck and kuhn, 2008). 2.1 comparison between intensive green roof (left) and conventionally constructed and insulated flat one (right). reductions of up to 90 percent in passive solar gain can be achieved when using green roofs. indoor temperatures have been shown to be 6of to 8of (3oc to 4oc) lower under a green roof when outdoor temperatures are between 77of and 86of (25oc and 30oc). an environment canada study shows that a typical one-storey building in toronto with a grass roof and 4 in. (10 cm) of substrate brought about a 25 percent reduction in summer cooling needs, compared with an unvegetated reference roof (dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). when green roofs are constructed properly such that the likelihood of leaks and damp penetration to the house is minimized, they can last longer than conventional ones, which will result in obvious cost benefits. in fact, studies have shown figure 2.1 comparison between intensive green roof (left) and conventionally constructed and insulated flat one (right). that green roofs may last two to three times longer than conventional ones and will receive less maintenance (mauritius ecobuilding, 2008). plants can shield the roof from the elements, including the sun’s ultraviolet (uv) radiation that degrades components, dry winds which cause cracks, and up to 90 percent less contraction and expansion due to temperature fluctuations (liveroofs, n.d.). finally, green roofs can offer a pleasant roofscape view, eliminating the unsightly expanse of dark asphalt and gravel. even where roofs are inaccessible but clearly visible, attractive planting can be beneficial. the therapeutic effects of having green plants and nature around one are known to be considerable and include stress reduction, lowering blood pressure, relief of muscle tension and increase in overall positive feelings (liveroof, n.d.; sassi, 2006). when the load-bearing capacity is sufficient, green roofs can provide outdoor recreational areas for several dwelling units in neighbourhoods with little ground-level space. in an apartment block development, for instance, casual activities, such as clothes drying, barbecuing, and fitness can take place. it has the advantage of controlled access, thereby creating a safer place. the enhancement of biodiversity through the use of green roofs is closely linked to the choice of vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 61 plant species and the habitat or vegetation type used. extensive roofs, which are not designed to be walked on and are, therefore, isolated, and can be potentially very good undisturbed habitat for flora and fauna such as butterflies, insects and birds. green roofs can also be the place on which community garden for urban agriculture can be located. a green roof not only affects the home’s indoor thermal conditions, it also influences the climate of the city as a whole by reducing the urban heat island effect. heat island effect is caused by a large, hard surface area that absorbs, reflects and re-radiates the sun’s heat. this in turn leads to air currents, dust, smog, and micro-climate changes. green roofs mitigate this phenomenon by cooling, slowing down currents, and filtering out air pollutants and dust (peck and kuhn, 2008). rainfall on land covered with vegetation is different than rainfall on the hard surface of builtup areas. the vast majority of precipitation on a green roof is absorbed by plants and through them is transpired back to the atmosphere. on man-made hard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete, roof tiles), on the other hand, water cannot be absorbed and runs off, through drainage systems, into rivers. the main aim of conventional drainage systems is to remove a maximum amount of water from an area as quickly as possible to prevent flash flooding. as a result, around 75 percent of rainfall on urban areas is lost as surface runoff compared to around five percent for a forested area (dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). green roofs can reduce the amount of water leaving a site, either through retention, detention or by capturing it and reusing the water for irrigation or domestic purposes. this also reduces pressure on urban drainage systems, enabling ground-water to be replenished, providing areas of habitat and amenity wetlands, reducing flood risk and lowering infrastructure cost. because roofs represent approximately 40 percent to 50 percent of the surfaces in urban areas, green roofs have an important role in such drainage (lawlor et al., 2006). green roofs have additional benefits. as air pollution causes respiratory diseases and breathing difficulties, planted roofs can filter out fine airborne particles as the air passes over the plants, settling onto leaf and stem surfaces. this material will then be washed off into the soil by the rain. trees and larger vegetation can also absorb gaseous pollutants in their tissues. 3. construction principles and components despite its many benefits, the construction of green roofs poses a challenge. careful attention needs to be paid to various factors that affect the roof’s performance, which will be outlined below. structural considerations of green roofs have to take into account the intensive and the extensive types that were discussed above, since each one has a different weight. lightweight extensive systems with substrate depths of 2 in. to 6 in. (5 cm to 15 cm), for instance, increase the load on a roof by between approximately 14 lb./sq. ft. and 35 lb./sq. ft. (70 kg/m2 and 170 kg/m2). each country or region will also have its own building standard for the minimum capacity of a roof. in ontario, canada, for example, roofs must be designed to support a loading of at least 40 lb./ sq. ft. (195 kg/m2) (peck and kuhn, 2008). this takes into account a typical winter snow loading of 22 lb./sq. ft. (107 kg/m2). it then leaves 18 lb./ sq. ft. (88 kg/m2) spare capacity – enough for a simple extensive system (dunnett and kingsbury, 62 it is necessary to use special media mixes and devices (dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). 3.1 green roofs can be designed with various slopes. steeper slopes will be subject to greater moisture stress and will require different designs. in addition, roofs also need to withstand high wind uplift due to their exposed conditions. a strip of gravel, stones or pavers around the roof’s edge can prevent wind damage. such strips are also often used as vegetation barriers, preventing damage by plants to the edges where the waterproofing layer rises above the surface of the growing medium. finally, irrigation for green roofs should also be designed and controlled, part of which could be provided by rainwater storage and recycling systems. four main irrigation methods are used on green roofs: surface spray with traditional sprinklers, drip and tube, capillary and standing water systems. figure 3.2 illustrates these methods. in general, 2008). furthermore, in calculating load, it must be noted that the weight of green-roof materials will vary greatly depending on how compacted and how moist they are (portland online, 2006). besides bearing capacity, another construction consideration in pitched green roofs is slippage. the maximum possible slope is controlled by the friction coefficient between the two slipperiest materials. virtually no green roofs avoid having a fabric-membrane or membrane-membrane interface for example, at root barriers and sheet drains. these are the planes along which slope movement will occur. without additional slope stabilization measures, it is unwise to design green roofs for slopes steeper than 2:12 (9.5 degrees). figure 3.1 illustrates two green roof slope designs. slipping and slumping can be countered by the use of horizontal strapping, laths, battens or grids. in using these methods, green roofs can readily be constructed on pitches up to 7:12 (35 degrees) that is the angle of repose for most granular materials. to build on steeper pitches, than the ones noted above, figure 3.1 green roofs can be designed with various slopes. steeper slopes will be subject to greater moisture stress and will require different designs. pitched roof up to 20 degrees pitched roof up to 35 degreeswith a slippagepreventing measurepreventing measure vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 63 traditional surface spray is less recommended because it wastes water and can cause surface rooting (greenroofs 2010). 3.2 various irrigation methods for green roofs. green roofs can be constructed over any type of deck, whether steel, wood or concrete, as long as the structural considerations discussed above are met. layering components in a green roof for residential use remains consistent throughout the different situations. these components have to satisfy weather-proofing, protecting the roof surface from root penetration and damage, drainage and the support and growth of the vegetation layer (werthmann 2007). these components are illustrated in figure 3.3 and are discussed below. 3.3 the various components of green roofs. the weatherproof membrane consists of the built-up roof, single-ply and fluid-applied membranes. built-up roofs are commonly encountered and are composed of conventional bitumen/asphalt roofing felt or bituminized fabrics. these roofing materials generally have a lifespan of fifteen to twenty years and are susceptible to degradation from temperature extremes and ultraviolet radiation – both of which cause cracking and leakage, although a layer of substrate and vegetation will reduce this. equally important is their susceptibility to plant root growth. a root protection barrier must therefore always be used with such membranes. this type of roof, however, is not recommended as a base for a green roof (cantor, 2008). there are other types of built-up roofing systems that are more robust and entirely different in material figure 3.2 various irrigation methods for green roofs. and performances than conventional asphalt/felt built-up systems. single-ply roof membranes are rolled sheets of inorganic plastic or synthetic rubber material that are overlapped at the joints and sealed with heat. they may also be available as tiles (i.e. sometimes made of recycled rubber). these membranes can be very effective if properly applied. the seams or bonds between the sheets and tiles can, however, be weak points that may be exploited by plant roots and can cause leaks. sealing material can be susceptible 64 to degradation from uv rays, therefore it is essential that all parts of the liner are protected from sunlight. on the other hand, fluid-applied membranes are available in hot or cold liquid form that is sprayed or painted onto the surface of the roof and forms a complete seal when set, eliminating joint problems. they are also easier to apply to vertical or irregularly shaped surfaces (werthmann, 2007). a root protection barrier is extremely important. if the membrane on a roof upon which a green roof is to be installed contains bitumen, asphalt, or any other organic material, it is crucial that a continuous separation is maintained between the membrane and the plant layer because the membrane will be susceptible to root penetration and the activity of micro-organisms – these organic oil-based materials are not root proof. if the roof is not completely flat, then any pockets of water can also form the basis of plant growth on a roof – again there must be protection from root damage. plants particularly known to have aggressive roots that can penetrate the membranes are bamboo, lupines and blackberry (bcit 2009). a drainage layer is necessary to protect the waterproof roof membrane. the function of the drainage layer is to remove excess water or underflow as quickly as possible to prevent saturation. without “greening”, flat roofs are 50 percent more susceptible to damage after five years than slightly sloped roofs as a result of water collecting and pooling. roofs require a slope of at least two percent and a drainage layer to drain properly. it is important to place the drains at the lowest point half way between structural supports. regular maintenance is necessary to prevent the drains from any clogs or blockage that might cause water accumulation (bcit, 2009). also, one needs to avoid using vine plants on the edge of a green roof because these might grow into the gutters and block the drainage path. because green-roof vegetation, particularly of the extensive type, is selected to be droughtresistant and tolerant of dry, free-draining soils, prolonged soil saturation is likely to cause plant failure, rotting, sour and anaerobic conditions and may also lose its thermal insulating properties. drainage can be achieved in several ways, especially for flat roofs less than five degrees, which requires more specialized techniques. in addition, combining a drainage layer with a water-storage layer below it not only further reduces runoff compared to those without such a layer by 11 percent to 17 percent, but acts as a reservoir for plants to draw upon in dry weather (dunnett and kingsbury, 2008). the last layer for green roofs is the growing medium or substrate, which absorbs and retains water while at the same time provide freedraining properties. specifications for materials used in the substrate layer should be advised by experts since it is not necessarily a concern of the architect. figure 3.3 the various components of green roofs. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 65 when all functional layers of green roofs are properly applied, planting can begin. specification of plants on green roofs can be determined from various sources. in general, there are four main approaches to establishing vegetation on green roofs: direct application of seed or cuttings, planting of pot-grown plants or plugs, laying of pre-grown vegetation mats including turf, and spontaneous colonization. plants on these roof gardens are encouraged to be sustainable, that is, to be able to grow without the need for regular and prolonged irrigation unless using recycled water and feeding (cantor, 2008). on the other hand, accessibility and visibility of the roof are also particularly interesting in architectural language, as related to the type of plants chosen. 4. conclusion despite the many benefits to dwellers and their neighbors alike, green roof design is still globally in its early stages. a number of municipalities, such as toronto, canada, have implemented by-laws that require the implementation of green roofs on any new construction project. while these initiatives present a step in the right direction, the building industry is still a long way off from understanding the full extent of green roof implementation and management. architects and designers must work in consortium with agricultural specialists to develop innovative approaches and design guidelines for rooftop growing. it is also needs to be recognized that green roofs are not the ultimate strategy for every building. their choice and specific application needs to consider the type of building, budget, climate and the maintenance skills of the occupants to name a few factors. references british columbia institute of technology (bcit). the centre for architectural ecology: collaborations in green roofs and living walls. 2009. http://commons.bcit.ca/greenroof/ 12/11/2015 cantor, s. l. green roofs in sustainable landscape design. new york: w.w. norton & company. 2008. dunnett, n. & n. kingsbury. planting green roofs and living walls. portland, cambridge: timber press. 2008. greenroofs. greenroofs 101. 2010. http://www.greenroofs.com/ 12/11/2015 kwok, a. g., w. t. gronkzik. the green studio handbook: environmental strategies for schematic design. amsterdam: elsevier architectural press. 2007. lawlor, g. b.a. currie, h. doshi, and i. wieditz. green roofs: a resource manual for municipal policy makers. ottawa: cmhc. 2006. liveroofs. prevegetated hybrid green roof systems. green roof basics and leed. http://www.liveroof.com/?parent=green_roof_basics 12/11/2015 mauritius ecobuilding. a business division of alive2green. roofs. 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20101003123718/http://www.ecobuilding.mu/design/1072-roofs.html 12/11/2015 optigreen roof greening. green roof “pitched roof” sedum 5-15°. n.d. http://www.optigreen.com/system-solutions/pitched-roof/5-15/ 12/11/2015 peck, s., m kuhn. cmhc design guidelines for green roofs. 2008. https://www.aaa.ab.ca/aaa/cmdownload.aspx?contentkey=08a3fb5e-5b32-4742-8c78-a4341e51c4b4&contentitemkey=746a48d381e2-4072-83cd-5324d5aee611 12/11/2015 portland online. eco roofs. https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bes/44422 12/11/2015 sassi, p. strategies for sustainable architecture. abingdon and new york: taylor and francis. 2006. !" biwa canal in okazaki. © olimpia niglio 2015 !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; !# $%&'($)' !"#$%&'$%()*$+,&-.&/0$1$02&2%&34-5!"#$%#&'(#)"#*+,'(*-#.*'/0*123 +'4-&51&62'789**"'*:';1$&0'&05'<0=#-*0$206&"'7615#2>,'?@*6*'a0#=2->#6@ 3'!62$*0'4&.1#0'a0#=2->#6@,'!>&.& kyoto has been the capital of japan from 794 until when the capital has moved in 1868 to tokyo with the end of tokugawa shoguns and the beginning of the meiji restoration. the loss of the seat of government was a shock to citizens of kyoto as the city had been the imperial and cultural center of the nation for over 1.000 years. the combination of the court and the great temples had enlivened and enriched the life of the city. at the beginning of the founding of the capital, in the heian period (794 1185) to east of kyoto, was built a noble and religious place. t1his area is okazaki. here the emperor kammu (736-805) had created the city of heian-kyo (kyoto) in 794. this area was full of temples and shrines. only in the edo period (1603-1867) okazaki area assumed the role of suburban agricultural zone which provided the food production to the urban habitants. but after the meiji restoration (18681912), the role of okazaki area changes completely. in 1885, kyoto prefecture started the great public canalization project as the water supply between kyoto and otsu of shiga prefecture. kyoto prefecture also planed the industrial district construction in okazaki area. from the late nineteenth century okazaki area became a symbol of the modernization of kyoto city. this contribution intends to analyze the urban landscape composed of the different styles of architecture especially constructed after the meiji period (1868-1912). tangible and intangible signs remained as modern gardens, significant museums and cultural institutions among the ancient temples provide opportunities to reflect on the important role of suburban area of the historic city. these studies are supported by archival documents and by current measures and policies for landscape conservation by kyoto municipality. *+,-.(/& kyoto, okazaki, urban landscape, urban regeneration, historical heritage, modernization http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4472 !0 !12 3.'+&2$%.4'2'5+2).3&+(6$'7.32 8.97),2.:2;$8$3 at the end of the 19th century, the drastic transformation of the urban landscape in japan has encouraged the planning system to direct to the conservation. this section introduces the history of the conservation policy for natural and urban landscapes. yukio nishimura divides the history of the conservation policy into five periods in his essay “toshi hozen keikaku” (nishimura 2004, 西村幸 夫2004). the first period (18681-18972) is that of the national construction. in this period the government of emperor meiji had enhanced new industry, destroying the historic monuments of previous eras. the government expropriated temples and shrines owned forest, leaving only inside areas. many temples were converted into urban parks in western style. the home ministry promulgated the rule for the protection of the urban environment composed by temples and shrines in 1880. in the second period (18971945) the development of legal systems for the conservation of landscapes was promoted. the law of protection of historical sites, archeological sites and scenic beauty was established in 19193. in the same year the city planning act was promulgated which has introduced two tools for conservation of urban landscapes: protection of fine sight area (bikan ciku4) and protection of landscape area (fuchi ciku5). in 1931 the law of nature parks was approved for the protection of natural and agricultural landscapes. the third period (1947-1975) corresponds to a very important period in which two laws were established: the law for the protection of cultural properties (1950) and the special law for the conservation of fudo (climate and environment) of the old city (1966).yukio nishimura considers this period a milestone in the history of the conservation policy especially for historic cities as nara and kyoto. in the fourth period (19751995) the participation of citizens was favored in the conservation policy. the machizukuri6 based on the architectural conservation movement of traditional wooden buildings (machiya7) in kyoto (hein and pelletier 2006: 139) intensified in this period. the movement made the first reform of the law for the protection of cultural properties add a new tool for conservation dedicated to “groups of traditional buildings.” finally, the fifth period (after 1995) promotes the conservation of territory and local identity. yukio nishimura emphasizes the innovative aspects introduced in the last period: a. the establishment of citizen participation in the planning process; b. the positive promotion of the valorization and the reutilization in the existing buildings; c. the administrative reform for the implementation of a sustainable society; d. the priority of the environmental rehabilitation. the new city planning act of 1992 adopted the comprehensive instrument of the master plan for all municipalities, by which the public authorities could formulate an integrated policy not only on the economic development but also on the conservation of cultural and natural heritage situated in their territories. in 2004 the first law of the landscape was approved, for which the landscape plan was introduced in the conservation policy that isbased on the rules established by the ministry of land, infrastructure and transport, the ministry of agriculture and the ministry of environment. the landscape plan is controlled by the local authorities. also in 2004 the ministry of culture added the "important cultural landscape" into the cultural properties of national level. it is defined in the local landscape plan but designated by the ministry of culture. the purpose of the 2004 law is not only !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; !< the conservation but also the regeneration and construction of landscapes. while declaring that a "good landscape" is the result of the interaction between nature, history and culture, the law appears as instrument exclusively for the control of new buildings through the provisions about the materials and the colors, but it is not aimed at the protection of all values of the landscapes involved. the article n.2 of the law affirms: […] article 2 (basic philosophy) (1) in view of the fact that good landscapes are essential for building a beautiful and dignified land and creating an attractive and comfortable living environment, every effort shall be made to create and conserve good landscapes so that the present and future generations of people can enjoy the benefits of landscapes as the common property of the people of japan. (2)in view of the fact that a good landscape of an area is produced by her harmony between the nature, history and culture of the area and people’s lifestyle and economic and other activities effort shall be made to create and conserve good landscapes so as to promote land uses that help achieve such harmony under proper restraints.(3) in view of the fact that good landscape of an area is closely related to peculiar characteristics of the area, effort shall be made to develop diverse landscapes so that the personality and characteristics of each area enhanced, taking into consideration the opinions of the local residents.(4) in view of the fact that good landscapes play a significant role in promoting tourism and other interregional exchange, a concerted effort shall be made by local governments, business and local residents to enhance regional vitality. (5) effort to develop good landscapes shall be made with the aim of not only conserving existing good landscapes but also creating good landscapes. the 2004 law promotes the formation of specific local administrative authorities called "landscape administrative organization". in 2010 496 administrative authorities were organized. the landscape plan must adhere to national urban projects. when the "landscape administrative organizations" will modify their own landscape plan, they must seek advice to public entities and municipal and provincial planning commission. the "landscape administrative organizations" can define entire area of city in the landscape plan (landscape planning area) or can select an important part of the territory for the conservation of the landscape. in order to improve the landscape, "landscape administrative organizations" can monitor the activities of construction, reconstruction, addition, moving, recovery, change the facades of buildings as indicated in article 16 of the law. […] article 16 (notification, recommendation, etc) (i) any person who intends to commit any of the following acts in a landscape planning area shall in advance notify the head of the landscape administrative organization concerned of the type of act, place, design or construction method, the schedule date of commencement, and other matters specified in an ordinance of the ministry of land, infrastructure and transport pursuant to an ordinance of infrastructure and transport (or, in the case of any of the acts listed (iv) , an ordinance of a landscape administrative organization; the same shall apply hereafter in this article). (i) the construction, addition, reconstruction or relocation of a building, repair or remodeling that alters the appearance of a building, or color alteration (hereinafter referred to as “building, etc.”) (ii) the construction, addition, reconstruction or relocation of a structure, repair != or remodeling that alters the appearance of a structure, or color alteration(hereinafter referred to as “construction, etc.”) (iii) any of the acts of development referred to in article 4 paragraph 12 of the city planning act and other acts specified in a cabinet order. (iv) any of the acts other than those listed in the three proceeding items that are specified in an ordinance of a landscape administrative organization in accordance with a landscape plan as acts that could adversely affect the development of a good landscape. “important cultural landscape” is the landscape property composed of the interrelationship between nature and community activities. it must be defined in the area controlled by the landscape plan (landscape planning area) and its value must be confirmed by academic investigation. these cultural landscapes are protected by provincial or municipal ordinances as provided in article 3 of the law of the landscape. currently in japan forty-four areas have been designated as “important cultural landscape”. now the ministry of culture has designated only two urban landscapes as “important cultural landscape” in this decade. in the specific case of kyoto’s city and in particular the area of okazaki, the area is protected by the landscape plan. and the municipality is now preparing the document for the ministry of culture to be candidacy okazaki as “important cultural landscape”. the following paragraphs describe the characteristics of the area of okazaki in kyoto. >12 .*$?$*72:(.@2!>'52)+3'4(,2'.2 !='52)+3'4(, kyoto is the ancient capital of japan in the heian period (794-1185). the origin of the city structure had the grid-plan. the present street pattern of kyoto city is still strictly accordance with this old form (takahashi, yoshida, miyamoto, ito 1999). okazaki area as the subject of this study is located in the eastern hill district of kyoto city. at the end of the hian period the emperor shirakawa ordered the construction of an important buddhism temple called hossho-ji in okazaki area. recently the kyoto city archeological institutions discovered a part of the building foundation which seemed to be that kyoto is the ancient capital of japan in the heian period (794-1185). the origin of the city structure had the grid-plan. the present street pattern of kyoto city is still strictly accordance with this old form (takahashi, yoshida, miyamoto, ito 1999). okazaki area as the subject of this study is located in the eastern hill district of kyoto city. at the end of the hian period the emperor shirakawa ordered the construction of an important buddhism temple called hosshoji in okazaki area. recently the kyoto city archeological institutions discovered a part of the building foundation which seemed to be that of the nine story pagoda in the portion of the site of zoological garden (kyoto city archeological research institute incorporation 2010). because of the earthquake in 1185, the built environment in okazaki area was destroyed. we can now only find some remains of villages through excavation in the layer after that. we can suppose that the landscape of okazaki area in the end of the 16th century could be composed of settlements with farm lands, enclosed by fossa, which is very similar to what rakuchu rakugai-zu represents today. in the edo period (1603-1867), okazaki area assumed the role of suburban agricultural zone which provided the food production to the urban habitants (mizumoto 2002). it also could be the place of scenic beauty in which the intellectuals commonly lived. we can imagine !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; !a the cultural circumstances of okazaki area based on the historic documents (fig.1). b12 '5+2 @./+(37?$'7.32 .:2 *,.'.2 $3/2'5+27@8.('$3'2(.9+2.:2.*$?$*72 $(+$ okazaki area always used to be at the limit between the urban and the rural area of kyoto city. however, after the meiji restoration, the role of okazaki area completely changed. in the meiji period (1868-1912), the same situation as in other countries occurred which was the modernization of japan. kyoto city had been the capital of japan during the centuries and preserved its political and religious value, but, in the mid-nineteenth century, a process of renovation began, which was the underlying factor for the industrialization of the city. in this period a first important project for the city was initiated: the construction of the figure 1. old map of kyoto (okazaki area), edo period (17th century). © kyoto prefectural library and archives. lake biwa canal (mizumoto 2002, japan railway construction public corporation, investigation committees of civil engineering heritage 1997). in 1885, kyoto prefecture as an outpost agency of the central government undertook a work program on the great public canalization project between kyoto and otsu, the present capital city of shiga prefecture where the lake biwa is located. the canals arrived in okazaki area from the lake biwa and flowed in another canal connected to the city center. in other words, okazaki area became the crucial junction of the canal system. the prefecture expected the industrial development of okazaki area harnessing the water engine more efficiently. therefore they promoted another project of the construction of the first hydroelectric power station for business use of kyoto. the waterwheels were ready for the industrial activities in some parts along the canals. as a result, at the southwest part of okazaki stared to become an industrial district. under the policy of increasing wealth and military >c power, in 1895 the meiji central government and the kyoto prefecture realized the 4th inner national exhibition in okazaki area and many pavilions were constructed. also the first tram system of japan using the electricity supplied from the plant started. and they carried though with the big national project of the construction of heian-jing! shrine as the symbol of the millennial anniversary of the foundation of heiankyo (the capital city of the heian period). it was the typical modern project of japan related to the nationalism movement (nishi k. y hozumi k. 2012, young and kimura 2004). we can confirm the topological transformation of okazaki area comparing two historical maps (fig. 2 and fig. 3). the prefecture decided to reuse the vacant lot and buildings which the exhibition pavilions used to be as the facilities of the cultural park. they planned and realized cultural public constructions in the park; zoological garden, library, museum and civic hall. they also forwarded the resort villa developing projects in the eastern part of the cultural park around nanzen-ji temple. the famous planner ogawa jihee proposed the villa design plan in which he realized the garden water network system on the basis of the water from the canal (amasaki 2013; kyoto university of art and design research centre of historical heritage 2012). many politicians and businessmen ordered their own villas and gardens under his direction. he arranged the gardens in an east-west axis. owing to this composition, the owners of the the wooden architectural style with the wide and polished garden can be called modern “sukiya style” in japan with which the most famous example of in the 17th century style is the villa katsura. the owner of the villas organized tea ceremonies for political and business purpose. the repeated events concerning the tea culture gave okazaki area the creative and high cultural image (cheshire 2009). the kyoto municipality as the local public body was established in 1898 and the first mayor expressed the conservation policy in the city council. and between 1930 and 1932, kyoto municipality designated almost 8000 hectares of scenic zone in the urban planning, which was the largest preservation area indicated in the japanese plans instituted in those days (nishimura 2004) okazaki area was included in that zone. figure 2. old map of okazaki area by fukutomi seisui (1876) © kyoto prefectural library and archives !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; >! the same period tanabe sakuro, an engineer of the academy of tokyo who studied civil engineering in america, was engaged as the chief civil engineer. in april 1890 the construction of the lake biwa canal was officially completed and also in the same year, at nanzen-ji temple (its origin dates back to the 1200s) the construction of the first aqueduct bridge was constructed. it was planned by tanabe sakuro and designed by masutomo ohara (fig.4). tanabe used a reference of the neoclassical culture that became prevalent in america in the late 19th century. in fact tanabe had relocated the american experiences to japan. today the aqueduct bridge is an important symbol of the cultural movement in the meiji period. owing to the project which changed the urban configuration of okazaki area (fiévé 2008), kyoto began to prosper once more. the characteristic waterway that flows among the museums, temples and shrines represent the specific character of okazaki area (fig.5). "12 '5+23+-2$()57'+)'4(+2.:2*$?$*72 732*,.'. in 1881 the third governor of kyoto precture, kitagaki kunimichi, was worry about the city’s decline after the transfer of the capital to tokyo in 1868. hoping to inject new life into the city he commissioned the construction of the lake biwa canal. as a transport artery this waterway would bring new wealth into the city and the waterpower would stimulate new industries. in figure 3. map of kyoto and okazaki area (1913). © kyoto prefectural library and archives figure 4. nanzen-ji temple in kyoto. the first aqueduct bridge designed by masutomo ohara. © olimpia niglio 2013 >> in 1895, an imaginative reproduction of the heian palace for the 1100th anniversary of the establishment of heian-ky", the actual heianjing! shrine was built in okazaki area by the japanese architect it" ch!ta (1867–1954). today the construction of this shrine allows us to feel the cultural atmosphere and the stylistic elegance of the heian period (794-1185) and also to recognize the rebirth of ancient tradition based on the establishment of cultural identity in the 19th century (shimizu 2013, 清水重敦 2013). nationalism was a key concept in europe in particular in france, after the french revolution (1789). it is relevant to mention a reflection of madame de stael (1766-1817) who in the book de l’allemagne wrote: […] aucun édifice ne peut être aussi patriotique qu’un temple; c’est le seul dans lequel toutes les classes de la nation se réunissent, le seul qui rappelle non seulement les événements publics, mais les pensées secrètes, les affections intimes que les chefs et les citoyens ont apportées dans son enceinte. le temple de la divinité semble présent comme elle aux siècle écoulés (madame de stael 1968)8. figure 5. biwa canal in okazaki. © olimpia niglio 2015 in europe the heritage was conceived as the widest panorama of human intellect; here the architecture and arts of the past centuries, especially of the middle ages used to have clearly an important position. however, in the nationalism of the 19th century, the strong links with the academic tradition of classicism was dominant. in this context it is important to note that the architect it" did not select the stylistic restoration but utilized the ancient methods based on the japanese architectural culture applied for centuries (locher 2010). and also in japan, the classical style and method of construction was selected to represent the cultural identity. at the early 20th century in okazaki area we can find a strong western architectural influence in two building: kyoto prefectural library (fig. 6), a building designed by the architect takeda goichi (1872-1938) and kyoto municipal museum of art (fig. 7) designed by the architect maeda kenjiro (1892-1975). in particular in the latter, the classicism is observed clearly in the structural symmetry, in the colonnade, in the internal disposition and for the morphological solution of the facades, where the design recalls a grecian temple figure 6. kyoto (okazaki area). kyoto prefectural library © olimpia niglio 2015 !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; >b (columns and architrave with metopes and triglyphs). today, in a contrasting situation with kyoto prefectural library, the original form of the museum is preserved perfectly and it matches the landscape of okazaki area. on the other hand, the kyoto prefectural library was designed in 1909 by takeda goichi, the founder of the department of architecture at kyoto university; he had studied in europe and was influenced by the art nouveau and secession movements. this european influence is very evident in the original library where the symmetry, the architectonic style and the solution of the large windows recall the architectural distinctions of central europe. the renovation and extension project started in 1998, and the actual new prefectural library was completed in 2000. it preserves the ancient building form and establishes a dialogue between old and new aspects. in fact, the simple form of the new added part encourages the ancient building value. in the second half of the 20th century the stylistic plurality of architecture in okazaki area was strengthened by the construction figure 7. kyoto (okazaki area). kyoto municipal museum of art © olimpia niglio 2013. of two important buildings. one is the kyoto kaikan, designed by kunio maekawa (19051986) who worked at the corbusier office. and another is national museum of modern art (fig.8 and fig. 9) which was designed and completed in 1986 by the architect fumihiko maki (1928) who studied at harvard university in the middle of 20th century and worked in the som and sert jackson & associates office. the buildings are two different architectural styles but they have the ability to create a positive relationship with western culture; so the forms of national museum of modern art expresse the elaborate collaboration with the classic styles in contemporary concept; differently kyoto kaikan introduces the modernity that shows the continuity with traditional architecture. it is important to mention here that since 2013 the kyoto municipality has started the conservation and renovation project of kyoto kaikan which needed to deal with the new functions. hisao koyama, a famous japanese architect, came up with the plan associating with maekawa associates founded by kunio figure 8. national museum of modern art designed by fumihiko maki. © olimpia niglio 2015. >" mayekawa. the project was also controlled by an advisory committee composed of architects and specialists of different fields (municipality of kyoto 2012). for all that, the citizens made a strong opposition to the project. recognizing the significance of public opinion, since 2002 kyoto municipality has made the decision to allow citizens to be involved in the implementation of the project. the coproduction applied actively in kyoto becomes a fundamental experience. the resident participation in public works enhances the information sharing and further understanding about the heritage value. in fact the conservation and renovation project of kyoto kaikan opens up the opportunity in which they get more understanding about the modern architectural variety of okazaki area and also the project will be an important reference for promoting the development of ideas and theories about the restoration of modern heritage in japan. the historical and intellectual knowledge and the practical experience accumulated in okazaki area could help the development of methods and criteria for the conservation of japanese cultural heritage that belong to ancient, modern and present days. the authentic characteristics of the buildings with green open spaces in the urban historical context compose the urban landscape of okazaki area as we know today. figure 9. kyoto, okazaki. the urban park between the national museum of modern art and the kyoto municipal museum of art © olimpia niglio 2015. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; ># (+:+(+3)+&2 aa.vv. reconstruction project of canal keage as civil engineering heritage of japan, japan railway construction public corporation, investigation committees of civil engineering heritage, tokyo 1997. aa.vv. study for the archeological sites of hosho-ji temple, kyoto city archeological research institute incorporation, kyoto 2010. aa.vv., study for the gardens in nanzenji-temple district in okazaki area, kyoto university of art and design research centre of historical heritage, kyoto 2012. http://www.kyoto-arc.or.jp/news/gensetsu/182zoo.pdf amasaki h., the formation of the groups of gardens in nanzenji-temple district in okazaki area. in: study for the cultural landscape research of okazaki area, kyoto municipality 2013, pp. 27-31. carola h. and pelletier p., cities, autonomy, and decentralization in japan, routledge, london 2006. cheshire c.. a practical guide to japanese gardening: an inspirational and practical guide to creating the japanese garden style, from design options and materials to planting techniques and decorative features, anness publishing, leicester 2009. fiévé n., atlas historique de kyoto: analyse spatiale des systèmes de mémoire d’une ville, de son architecture et de son paysage urbain, les éditions de l’amateur, paris 2008. locher m., traditional japanese architecture, tuttle publishing, tokyo 2010. madame de stael (editor simone balayé, 1968), de l’allemagne, gf flammarion, paris mizumoto k., kyoto and kyoto way, yoshikawa kobunkan, kyoto 2002. municipality of kyoto, landscape of kyoto, kyoto 2012 nishi k. y hozumi k., what is japanese architecture?, kodansha usa, new york 2012 nishimura y., urban conservation plan (toshi hozen keikaku), university of tokyo 2004. young d. and kimura m., introduction to japanese architecture, periplus edition, singapore 2004. shimizu s., the construction of shrines and modern kyoto. in: the historic cities in the modern japan, shibunkaku, 2013, pp. 57-61. takahashi y., yoshida n., miyamoto m., ito t. illustrated history of japanese cities, university of tokyo, 1993. $)*3.-9+/d@+3'& special thanks for the collaboration to prof. iguchi kazuki, advisor general at the kyoto prefectural library and archives and professor emeritus at kyoto prefectural university. 3.'+& 1. 1868-1912 meiji period 2. 1897 international exhibition of vienna. 3. shiseki meisho tennenkinenbutsu hgoho. 4. bikan-chiku. 5. fuchi-chiku. 6. “in local communities throughout japan today, machizukuri, or community-building, is prevalent. literally, machi means “community” and zukuri, “building”, or “making” and this term is used to apply to a wide variety of activities” in watanabe shuni-ichi j. (2006) “machizukuri in japan a historical perspective on participatory community-building initiatives”, cities, autonomy, and decentralization in japan edited by carola hein and philippe pelletier, routledge, p.128. 7. machiya. 8. madame de stael (1968). english translation: […] no building can be as patriotic as a shrine; it is the only one which brings to mind not only the public events but also the secret thoughts and intimate feelings which leaders and citizens have shared within its walls. matera, modification: cut sustainability message by samuel mann, 01.05.2017, used under cc by 2.0, modfication: cut, source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/21218849@n03/3293795938/ vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 13 abstract we can observe that in the last few years companies and organizations of any nature have begun to show an increasing interest in establishing sustainable relationships with the environment by bridging those groups that are impacted or that impact on their activities, . in this context, the social responsibility report emerges as a management tool that allows companies to be accountable to society and its groups and measure, their environmental, financial and social actions. the triple bottom line, triple accountability or triple counting of results, should be understood as the methodology to measure and report the performance of organizations contrasted with environmental, economic and social parameters. in addition, it allows companies to surpass accountability solely for their economic value as it used to be in the past, and also to consider the social and environmental value they add or destroy. concern about these social and environmental issues generates a demand for information, which, in turn, leads to the need to have a document that collects the information demanded by society and that should be offered by the companies, what is known as social responsibility. it is the american companies that originally, already in the late sixties and early seventies, found themselves in need of having to offer information regarding their social responsibility. this information was collected in what, we might conclude, is the first social balances, which were addressed mainly to groups outside the company itself, especially to consumers, since in the united states it was this collective that showed a greater concern about the issue. keywords sustainability, environment, social responsibility, social and environmental value sustainability as an object of corporate social responsibility 1 escuela de empresarios, edem, valencia jesús marí farinós1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7649 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7649 14 1. csr and the good government good corporate governance requires professional competence and ethical behavior on the part of managers, always impelling to seek the good of the company in the long term above its own interests in the short term, that is, overcoming the pure result, which often obviates a long-term vision and, therefore, organizational sustainability itself. in spain, large companies have developed important initiatives in recent years. in fact, the initiatives of corporate social responsibility have been based on two basic pillars: the codes of good government and the ethical codes. with the former we want to strengthen the trust of investors and with the latter the workers, clients and society in general. according to the "report on the management of sustainability in spanish enterprise" (fundación entorno, 2006), within the framework of the european union (eu), csr is being promoted, as will be discussed later, for having considered to be one of the factors that can contribute to the achievement of the objective set at the lisbon summit in 2001, which is to "make the eu the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of growing economically in a sustainable way with more and better jobs and with greater social cohesion1 (com 2002)". therefore, all these data lead us to affirm that good governance (chuliá, 2012)2, on the one hand, is configured as the set of rules or systems established to direct or manage the business of a company and, on the other, its principles should be based on the responsibility of the different governing bodies of societies and how they properly operate. 2. the intangibility of csr the concept of company has changed considerably in recent years. from being an organization of production-or exploitation, according to the author who considers himself isolated -robinsonianly speakingand in competition, has come to be conceptualized as a shared project and as an additional citizen of society. "the company is an organization, that is, it has a type of entity that extends past, present and future and that is not reduced to the sum of its members; that entity must fulfill certain functions and assume clear social responsibilities, that is, it must take moral decisions. social responsibilities that go beyond the achievement of benefits, to encompass from a psychological perspective a self-recognition (moreno, 2002)3 within and in interrelation with the social group, and have a certain vision of the future, with a solidary and sustained character. in this global and transcendental way, one can even confront the periodic crises of the system and guarantee its own sustainability as a company / organization and as a citizen of society (castells, 2003)4. today, it is considered that meeting the demands of stakeholders and taking initiatives in the protection of the environment or the eradication of social marginalization are authentic requirements that the company must address if it wants to behave as a responsible citizen. 3. corporate governance indicators in sustainability reports the relationship between corporate governance and corporate social responsibility is very close. in this way, there cannot be a socially responsible company that does not exercise good corporate governance and, in the opposite sense, the application of csr generates good governance guidelines. thus, more and more often csr principles appear in codes of corporate governance, such as the king iii report in south africa5, and recommendations made by multilateral organizations such as the oecd. in spain we find that business communication on csr grows year after year, using different models (the global reporting initiative, the global compact, etc.). logically, some of the indicators proposed in this model are social indicators and good governance. the global reporting initiative (gri) is undoubtedly the most widely used model in our latitudes to disseminate information about csr management vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 15 in the company. within the three large groups of performance indicators of the gri memory model (economic, environmental and social) corporate governance indicators would be inserted in the last group, divided between the sections of labor practices and decent work, human rights and society. on the other hand, in the global compact report model, corporate governance indicators would be embedded in the principles of labor standards and anti-corruption. 4. ecological communication policy ecological communication must seek a dual objective: a) to educate all interested parties in an environmentally sound manner; and b) contribute to the creation of an image of environmental responsibility that can directly or indirectly have a positive impact on sales. ecological communication is not just commercial communication, since the recipients of ecological messages are not only the market but all the interest groups of the company: public administrations, investors, financial institutions and insurers, environmental associations, consumer associations, and, in general, the whole society. there are some specific communication tools for ecological messages, such as eco-labels or eco-labels, environmental management systems certification (iso14001), environmental reports or sustainability reports. sustainability reports are receiving an important diffusion, but their effect on consumers’ desire to buy is still unknown. 4.1 concept and scope of csr it can be said that the term social responsibility began to be used in the late fifties and early sixties of the twentieth century, in the united states although it is difficult to locate its exact origin -, where, in that in addition to the production of goods and services, private companies are also responsible for the health risks of their workers, the generation of pollution by the processes employed, and so on. concern about these social and environmental issues generates a demand for information, which, in turn, leads to the need to have a document that collects the information demanded by society and that should be offered by the companies, what is known as social responsibility. it is the american companies that originally, already in the late sixties and early seventies, found themselves in need of having to offer information regarding their social responsibility. this information was collected in what, we might conclude, is the first social balances, which were addressed mainly to groups outside the company itself, especially to consumers, since in the united states it was this group that showed a greater concern about the issue. the information offered by the companies about social responsibility did not follow in principle any specific scheme. it was not until the 1990s, when a resurgence of the concern for social responsibility was experienced, and the search for a homogeneous model to be used by all the companies that allowed both to be a source of information as a comparison between them began. it is in this decade of the 90's , when the term “sustainability”, which includes both economic, environmental and social concepts, began to be used. the publication in 2001 by the european commission of the green paper on promoting a european framework for corporate social responsibility following the mandate given by the lisbon european council in march 2000 aimed to initiate a broad debate on how the european union could promote corporate social responsibility at european and international level. the european union, as indicated in the abovementioned green paper, is interested in corporate social responsibility insofar as it can contribute positively to the strategic objective established in lisbon, which is “to become the most knowledge-based economy. competitive and dynamic world economy capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion “. 16 more and more companies are more openly recognizing their social responsibility and considering it as part of their identity (buonocore,2004) 6. 4.2 csr sustainability reports we can observe, therefore, that in the last years the companies and in general the organizations of any nature have begun to show an increasing interest in establishing sustainable relations with the environment bridging with those groups that are impacted or that impact in their activities,iits stakeholders7. in this context, the social responsibility report emerges as a management tool that allows companies to measure and be accountable to society and its groups, their environmental, financial and social actions. the triple bottom line, triple accountability or triple counting of results, should be understood as the methodology to measure and report the performance of organizations contrasted with environmental, economic and social parameters. in addition, it allows companies to surpass accountability solely for their economic value as it used to be in the past, and also to consider the social and environmental value they add or destroy. the need to know the possible repercussions of business operations in society and the environment, translates into the appearance of a document, which may well be called sustainability report or social balance, which will be drawn from a series of social indicators, these being the instruments in charge of reflecting the value of the actions carried out by the company in the social and environmental fields. according to bañegil (bañegil et al., 2011), sustainability reports can be defined as “documents produced by the company’s management that collectively, periodically and objectively collect the relevant (positive and negative) effects of the company’s activity (processes and products) in the sustainable development of their environment, understanding as such that economic development that does not generate intra and intergenerational injustices, that is, that is not alien to the conservation of the natural environment and social development. 5. csr in business in spain the voluntary inclusion by companies of social and environmental concerns in all their activities has significantly boosted the development of csr in spain, where it is becoming common for companies to have a department specialized in matter. with the booming internationalization of spanish companies, the concern for the fulfillment of these responsibilities beyond the national borders has been increasing, which has resulted in the appearance of specialized departments. as noted by the director of the ie business school senior management program, juan alfaro: “the management of corporate social responsibility has become in recent years a key issue to ensure the sustainability of the company in the future (huges, 2005)8”. the publication of the eu green paper in 2001 and the white paper of the congress of deputies in 2006 are clear examples of the commitment of public institutions to csr. the eu green paper is a document in which the european commission outlines its proposal for a strategy to promote csr in each of its aspects, in order to promote a european framework for social business. the law on dependency, the equality law, the concilia plan, the incorporation of social clauses in public contracts, the code of good governance for the government of spain and the code of transparency of mercantile companies prepared by the national market commission of values, are clear examples of the importance that this concept is taking also in the institutional scope. corporate social responsibility is still taking its first steps in spain, but it is already a fact that few companies currently listed on the stock market have not started a csr initiative, especially considering the obligation, already legal , to annually prepare the corporate governance report, included in article 61bis of the securities market law. as already outlined above, the european commission, in its 2001 green paper on promoting a european framework for corporate social responsibility (com, 2001), defines this concept as: “voluntary integration by companies, social and vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 17 environmental concerns in their operations and their relations with their partners ... corporate social responsibility is essentially a concept under which companies voluntarily decide to contribute to the achievement of a better society and a cleaner environment (...) » this definition leads us implicitly to distinguish three fundamental aspects, namely: economic responsibility, social responsibility and environmental responsibility, which are necessary in themselves to make the company a socially legitimized and lasting project in time. a) economic responsibility: companies have as fundamental and intrinsic obligation to generate wealth in the environment in which they are located. obtaining benefits and minimizing costs of any kind (economic, environmental, social, etc.) is a fundamental task of the socially responsible company. b) social responsibility: companies to be socially legitimized institutions must respond to society’s demands from the prism of values and patterns of behavior that the society in which it is located indicates. c) environmental responsibility: as a complement to the above responsibilities, and not least, it is understood that the company expresses its social responsibility also through the care of its physical environment, since the care and the respect of the environment are a key issues towards sustainable development. corporate social responsibility9 also states that: “corporate social responsibility revolves around the essential conduct of companies and the responsibility for their total impact on the societies in which they operate. corporate social responsibility does not constitute an additional option nor an act of philanthropy. a socially responsible company is one that carries out a profitable business, taking into account all the environmental, social and economic effects positive and negative that it generates in society “. in summary, we can conclude that the management of corporate social responsibility is part of the “hard core” of the company, its own definition and, therefore, is something transverse and consubstantial to it. in addition, it is of the utmost importance that the company communicates the management of its social responsibility, both internally (to its workers, owners or shareholders, suppliers, etc.), and externally (its clients, administrations and society in general) the policies, challenges and advances that have been made in this area, making available credible and proven information of the way in which it is managed. originally the companies only showed their economic results, but nowadays the requirement of customers, workers and society as a whole is increasing on the “information” that the company shows. in this way, it is advisable to add information on social and environmental aspects to companies’ usual economic reports. this is what is known as “triple counting of results (embid iruko, 2004)10“: economic, social and environmental, using in this respect some of the international standards accepted to make such reports. 5.1 legal nature of csr the legal nature of csr has a threefold aspect: moral, inherent in all human action; social, derived from an action or omission; and legal, limited because laws cannot cover all possible situations, and go behind the facts and, therefore, are reactive. the nature of csr is difficult to study because it is not demanded by administrations or courts, but only by society and, if at all, by the market. however, this is not incompatible with requiring companies to comply strictly with labor, business and environmental standards, which are the normative substratum on which csr policies and practices of companies must be based. csr as a legal obligation can be subject to external scrutiny and control or monitoring of strict compliance with economic, labor and environmental standards by public administrations and courts. this obligation implies duties of information, transparency and 18 accountability on what has been done (past) or what is going to be done (future) and especially on the means or resources used in business actions (social and environmental impact). from this perspective, it is the normative, labor and environmental framework that is demanded by third parties, since the social responsibility in elevating the normative standards is a free and voluntary decision of the companies and an extreme expression of the freedom of enterprise and of the market economy and, therefore, only demandable by the society through the reputation and corporative image, or the decisions of purchase of the consumers. the relationship between csr and legislation is, therefore, subsidiarity because csr policies and practices necessarily have to raise the “legal minimums”. from another perspective, strict compliance with legal obligations constitutes for companies a necessary but not sufficient condition for the management of their corporate social responsibility. csr as a moral obligation is directly related to its internal dimension and to the moral principle that implies the incorporation of ethics in business management, so that social and environmental concerns of society are integrated into the business operations of companies by conviction not by legal imperative. this approach requires the link between ethics and business and in this way social responsibility is strongly linked to the ethics of company managers, which incorporate in decision making not only criteria of short-term economic efficiency but criteria of long term sustainability. csr as a moral obligation would mean that it is not enough for the company to comply with the law, but its decisions must be ethical, responsible, sustainable and lasting, and in the same sense the actions and behaviors of managers, who, in parallel with corporate social responsibility -which assumes the organization as an entity-, would have to internalize in the personal and apply in the business such an ethical social commitment (grönros, 1997)11. csr as a citizen obligation links its management with the relations of interdependence and dialogue of the company with the ever-increasing interest groups investors, unions, workers, customers, consumers, suppliers, local communities, ngos, etc. .and that demand that the company operates in the markets with the parameters or values of a good corporate citizen. of course, these stakeholders will be vigilant that the company fulfills its legal obligations but also demands something more: a company that responds satisfactorily to the expectations that its operations have on its stakeholders and is responsible for its consequences and the impacts that derive from their actions (dowling, 2001)12. as a result, companies increasingly incorporate practices related to the anglo-saxon concept of citizenship, or “corporate citizenship”, which entails the formal incorporation of csr into the company’s mission and values and the inclusion and annual progress of both quantitative and qualitative indicators associated with social responsibility in a new business management system includes, among others, areas such as equal opportunities, reconciliation, integration of the disabled, zero tolerance for work accidents, efficiency in the use of natural resources, biodiversity, co2 reduction, use of renewable energies, good corporate governance, etc. meanwhile, the economic mission of the company remains unchanged: the production of goods and services and their commercialization in the market. the social mission does not mean that the company's governance has to be shared with interest groups other than those of property-shareholders, but for reasons of strategy, culture and survival sustainability companies freely decide to open dialogue and develop an intelligent management of the same with more interlocutors. in short, the management of corporate social responsibility, or this in itself considered, does not form apart of the rest of the business management, but must be harmonously integrated within it. the commitment and social action that it entails, in a vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 19 broad sense, cannot and should not imply a double management structure, but an integrated aspect of business action, without demerit of the main economic objective of obtaining a profitability to the activity that deploys, according to with the principles of that corporate social responsibility (zadek, 2001)13. 6. the object of csr is sustainability14 csr should be defined by combining the concepts of voluntary and obligatory (rodero, 2010): "csr is, in addition to strict compliance with current legal obligations, the voluntary integration into its governance and management, in its strategy, policies and procedures, of social, labor, environmental and respect for human rights that arise from the transparent relationship and dialogue with its stakeholders, thus taking responsibility for the consequences and impacts that derive from their actions. a company is socially responsible when it responds satisfactorily to the expectations that the different interested parties have about operations. csr refers to how companies are governed in the interests of their workers, customers, suppliers, shareholders and their ecological and social impact on society in general have about its operations. the number of sustainability reports published by companies is one of the most revealing indicators of the remarkable pace of development of csr in spain in recent years. 6.1 environmental aspect the social responsibility of organizations (rso) should be understood as immersed in the global challenge of overcoming a way of doing things that can not be sustained within existing resources on the planet and that generates impacts with serious social and environmental consequences. the most developed area at this time in the company is environmental management. 7 out of 10 companies say they have environmental management plans. the opinion of the continuous growth and application of environmental sustainability policies in all categories of companies in spain is unanimous. we must not overlook the strong increase in environmental requirements imposed by state and regional legislation when analyzing also the considerable development in the environmental area by companies in our country. 6.2 social aspects there is also a high degree of concern on the part of companies in the context of their international responsibilities and their social policies and actions in developing countries15. the spanish business fabric and its stakeholders evolve towards a consolidation both in knowledge and in practice and management of the concept of csr and sustainability. the growing interest among companies to show their socially, economically and environmentally responsible behavior in order to differentiate themselves in the market has led to the creation of innumerable tools for the management of sustainability. the proliferation of tools to facilitate the adoption of sustainable management policies has risen sharply in recent years. and these instruments are not only voluntary application by those companies that choose to use them16. in another order of things, spain is not a country that has stood out for the use of responsible investment. 20 notes 1. comunicación de la comisión relativa a la responsabilidad social de las empresas: una contribución empresarial al desarrollo sostenible. bruselas, 2.7.2002 com(2002) 347 final: http://www.observatoriorsc.org/images/documentos/ politicas_publicas/ue/comunicacion_ce_2002.pdf: "in europe, there is a long tradition of socially responsible business initiatives. the attempt to manage the rcs strategically and to develop instruments suitable for thus currently distinguishes the concept of csr, placing the expectations of interested parties along with the principle of continuous development and innovation in the core of the business strategy". 2. on the definition of “good governance” you can see in particular the definition of vicent chuliá, f., introducción al derecho mercantil, 23ª ed., valencia, 2012, pag. 349, in which he says that a “good governance” is the answer necessary to face the new economic risks (globalization, deregulation, investment in new technologies), legal risks (increase of corporate legal responsibilities due to multiple social interests protection) and ethical risks (moral values business crisis that has shown the weakness of the institutions: company law, accounting auditing and the stock market) and caused a lack of confidence in the system. the good governance can be defined as the set of mechanisms by which a company is directed and controlled (oecd principles of corporate governance, july 1999/january 2004). 3. moreno j.á. entre el fragor y el descocierto, madrid, minerva, 2000. this idea is developed in chapters 2 and 5, in which it is descried that with respect to the awareness of the company it has been argued that only the company that is known is able to survive long-term in the global jungle. 4. m. castells, “más allá de la caridad”, in a. cortina, construir confianza, madrid, trotta, 2003, pag. 69. “if there is no confidence in what it is and where it will be, if everything depends on the success in terms of consumption and market valuation, then it is impossible to resist the systemic volatility. this only resist if we know what we are, where we are going and where we are”. 5. september 1, 2009, the institute of directors in southern africa in the 6th annual business update conference presented the 2009 edition (the third) of what could be called "code conthe south african": the “king code of governance principles" and the “king report on governance for south africa 2009 ", known as"king iii", which owes its name to mervyn e. king, former president of south african supreme court and president of the committee namesake, the review and periodic updating in the southern country of the code on corporate governance. 6.3 tools for the management of the sustainability in our country the public administrations following european guidelines and recommendations have chosen to promote the sustainability of a mixed model. that is to say, in addition to encouraging the companies’ willingness to adopt sustainable management policies and criteria, the legislator also contributes with the obligation of the law to adopt certain socially responsible behaviors adopted by companies among other interested parties. all the regulations both european, state, regional and local with references on sustainability, represents a tool for our companies when implementing their management policies. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 21 6. at this point, should not ignore causes of marketing, image or corporate reputation, when a company incorporates areas of social responsibility. in this sense, we quote buonocore, v., etica degli affari e impresa etic, giur. comm, 31.2 (2004), p. 196. for this author, the perception of the business or corporate social responsibility despite its progressive implementation, it still oscillates between a mere cosmetic business operation and fully inserted into the current business paradigm company strategy. 7. this attitude of openness of organizations is a necessary and indispensable key, if the ultimate goal is the global sustainable development. 8. moreover, this concern is also extended in the field of the family business. in this respect we quote alexander huges e instituto de la empresa familiar, estudio sobre la profesionalización de la empresa familiar, 2005. precisely, in the studies conducted for alexander hugues and the institute of family business, among thirty leading family-run companieswe can be seen a concern relevant to the purpose of socially responsible policies. 9. csr europe: organization nonprofit that promotes the social responsibility of the enterprises. 10. a respecto embid irujo, j. m., «la responsabilidad social corporativa ante el derecho mercantil», cuadernos de derecho y comercio, núm. 42, consejo general del notariado, diciembre 2004, p. 20, postulates the possibility of monitoring the realization of the concrete program of rsc through the socalled "ethical audit". 11. grönros, c., “from marketing mix to relationship marketingtowards a paradigma shift in marketing”, management decision, 1997. in relation to the institutional principle advocated by word (vide word, d.j., corporate social performance revisited, academy of management review 16, no. 4, 1991), it has been said that managers are the only ones who are able to commit to changing the business model incorporating social commitment 12. dowling, g., creating corporate reputations: identity, image and perfomance, oxford university press, oxford, 2001. the incorporation in the organization of the principles of rsc finally gives to the interest groups more than a service or a asset without preventing that the company ceases to constitute a profitable business. 13. zadek, s., the civil coporation. the new economy of corporate citizenship. earthscan, london, 2001. in relation to the organizing principle and, after having defined the limits of social action and of the commitments that have been made, it is necessary to incorporate to the organization of the company the criteria of social performance unless it will lead to a dual structure as the business continues to be one. 14. hurtado rodero, r.: “la sostenibilidad. un nuevo paradigma económico, social y empresarial”, 2004. in saavedra rodeiro, i., “introducción a la sostenibilidad y la rsc”, oleiros (la coruña) 2010. an initial overview of the sustainable performance of the company, at this point, can be found in the work, when it points out that the boundaries that confine the space in that it can move the company to proceed so that their contribution to the sustainability of our society to be effective are that determine their sustainable performance. 15. it is showed by the warm welcome in spain of the global compact initiative proposed by kofi annan, general secretary of united nations. an initiative that is certainly positive, as it is the need that the companies recognize and much more respect the criteria established by the fundamental conventions of the oit and the guidelines of the ocde for multinational companies. 16. the spain has opted for a mixed model. this means that the public administrations also include in its regulations mandatory tools to guide the management of our businesses towards sustainability. 22 references bañegil palacios t., chamorro mera a., las memorias de sostenibilidad como reflejo de la responsabilidad medioambiental de las empresas, in revista interdisciplinar de gestión ambiental, núm. 35 , 2001. buonocore v., etica degli affari e impresa etic, giur. comm, 31.2 2004, pág. 196. castells m., “más allá de la caridad”, en a. cortina, construir confianza, madrid, trotta, 2003, pág. 69. comunicación del la comisión relativa a la responsabilidad social de las empresas: una contribución empresarial al desarrollo sostenible. bruselas, 2.7.2002 com(2002) 347 http://www.observatoriorsc.org/images/documentos/politicas_ publicas/ue/comunicacion_ce_2002.pdf dowling g., creating corporate reputations: identity, image and perfomance, oxford university press, oxford, 2001. embid irujo j. m., la responsabilidad social corporativa ante el derecho mercantil, in cuadernos de derecho y comercio, núm. 42, consejo general del notariado, diciembre 2004, pág. 20 grönros c., from marketing mix to relationship marketing-towards a paradigma shift in marketing in management decision, 1997. huges a. instituto de la empresa familiar, estudio sobre la profesionalización de la empresa familiar, 2005. hurtado rodero r., la sostenibilidad. un nuevo paradigma económico, social y empresarial, 2004. in saavedra rodeiro i., introducción a la sostenibilidad y la rsc, oleiros (la coruña) 2010. iso 14001, emas libro verde: fomentar un marco europeo para la responsabilidad social de las empresas (bruselas, 18.7.2001 com(2001) 366 h t t p : / / e u r l e x . e u r o p a . e u / l e x u r i s e r v / s i t e / e s / c o m / 2 0 0 1 / com2001_0366es01.pdf moreno j.á. entre el fragor y el descocierto, madrid, minerva, 2000. vicent chuliá, f., introducción al derecho mercantil, 23ª ed., valencia, 2012, pág. 349, zadek s., the civil coporation. the new economy of corporate citizenship. earthscan, londres, 2001. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 23 44 dia27:sed by angel arcones, 19/11/2008, used under cc by 2.0, modification: cut, source:https://www.flickr.com/photos/freddyclick-boy/3043533273/in/album-72157608339140317/ vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 45 abstract sustainability of earth building materials – environmental product declarations as an instrument of competition in building material industry horst schroeder1, manfred lemke1 1dachverband lehm e.v. dvl, weimar, germany the evaluation of the building process in terms of their environmental impact in all life cycle phases of a building leads to the key principle of sustainable building: the analysis of the life cycle of the materials used in a building. the goal of this analysis is to reduce waste and keep the environmental impact as low as possible by “closing” the cycle. during an inventory, the entire life cycle is assessed. this includes the sourcing and extracting of the raw material, the use of the raw material to produce building products, elements and structures, the use in finished buildings including emission of pollutants, decay and maintenance, and, finally, the demolition of the building and the recycling of the demolition materials. transportation between the individual phases as well as production-related material and energy flows are also included in this evaluation. several european and national norms and regulations define core rules and a special instrument for the evaluation of the sustainable quality of a building product based on a quantitative analysis of the life cycle of the materials used in a building: the environmental product declaration epd. these documents are voluntary standards, commitments or guarantees for building products. they are provided by producers, organizations and quality assurance associations in order to establish the “environmental performance” of buildings in the form of a certificate. such declarations must fully include all phases of the life cycle of a product by describing the environmental impact during production and use as well as possible health hazards for the users. until now, epds for earth building products do not exist. this paper will give current information about a project for developing epds for earth mortars and earth blocks started by the german dachverband lehm e.v. (dvl). keywords sustainability, environmental impact, building material industry http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4474 http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4474 46 1. sustainable building in the brundtland commission report to the united nations world commission on environment and development entitled “our common future” (1987) the term “sustainability” was first used to describe a lasting development of humankind. sustainable development ensures that it “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs“ (uno, 1987). the building process always has a more or less severe impact on natural resources and cycles. to apply the term “sustainability” to construction means that in all phases of the life of a building, and with respect to the users' requirements, the use of existing resources and the environmental impact need to be minimized. traditionally, during the construction process, the main assessment focused on function and design, structural engineering, material technology and building practice. today, the building process is increasingly seen as an optimization task where user demands and environmental requirements by the legislature need to be in harmony. therefore, the term “sustainable development” comprises three aspects which must be considered as equals over an appropriated period of time (bmvbs, 2011): functional quality / health). additionally, all buildings constructed according to the requirements of sustainable building must meet predefined technical parameters and corresponding quality levels in terms of planning and construction for each of the three aspects. ecological and economic aspects are better defined as user demands. several current eufunded research projects are focused on the use stage of building materials. they intend to improve functional qualities and the impact on health of building materials, elements and structures by improved moisture buffering properties with clay as component in prefabricated elements (thomson et al. 2015), reduced voc (volatile organic compounds) emission and higher energy savings in use at lower costs [www.eco-see.eu, www.h-houseproject.eu, www.isobioproject.eu. in germany, the general requirements placed on building materials and building elements with regard to their technical quality are regulated by the model building code for the states of the federal republic of germany (musterbauordnung für die länder der bundesrepublik deutschland – mbo). according to the mbo, building products, materials, elements and systems are produced for permanent installation in structures. “building products are only to be used if the structures they are used in, along with proper maintenance over a time period which is proportionate to its purpose, meet the requirements of this law or are suitable for their intended use based on this law” (mbo, §3.2). the mbo lists the following aspects as the main requirements for the building materials' and building elements' suitability for use: protection, the regulation of the european parliament and of the council for “laying down harmonized vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 47 conditions for the marketing of construction products” published in march 2011 (europäisches parlament; rat der europäischen union, 2011) introduces an additional requirement: the sustainable use of natural resources. according to the regulation, buildings must be designed, built and demolished after their use in a manner which facilitates the sustainable use of natural resources and guarantees the following: building elements need to be recyclable after demolition. secondary building materials must be used in the construction of the building. this regulation also requires the national governments of the eu to apply principles of sustainable development to building activities in their respective countries. in order to establish sustainable development it is necessary to explicitly formulate protection objectives regarding the environment, economy and the users’ interests. examples of general protection objectives are the avoidance of harmful substances, a reduction in the use of energy as well as land and resources, and the prevention of waste through material recovery. based on the knowledge of cause and effect relationships, action strategies need to be derived from the protection objectives. these strategies should target three levels: raw and building materials, building construction, and surroundings (glücklich, 2005). the effects caused by the building process on these levels need to be described through indicators and by defining assessment standards. standards for the assessment of the sustainability of buildings in terms of their environmental, social and economic qualities are specified in the din en 15643 group of standards. whereas the iso 21929-1 international standard defines a framework for the development of indicators and for the compilation of core indicators for buildings, iso 15392 formulates general principles for sustainable building. 2. the life cycle and material cycle of a building the evaluation of the action strategies described above in terms of their environmental impact in all life cycle phases of a building leads to the key principle of sustainable building: the analysis of the life cycle of the materials used in a building. the goal of this analysis is to reduce waste and keep the environmental impact as low as possible by “closing” the cycle. during an inventory, the entire life cycle is assessed. this includes the sourcing and extracting of the raw material, the use of the material to produce building products, elements and structures, the use in the finished building including its indoor environmental properties, the life span with maintenance, and, finally, the demolition of the building and the recycling of the demolition materials. transportation between the individual phases as well as production-related material and energy flows are also included in this evaluation. when passing through each phase of the life cycle the building material needs to meet the requirements of sustainable building defined in chapter 1. these requirements are described with the help of relevant parameters which are determined through standardized testing procedures. for example, a building material needs to have adequate compressive strength to be suitable for load-bearing construction or proof low voc (volatile organic compounds) 48 emission in use according to en iso 16000 et.al. meeting the test criteria ensures that the required qualities for a certain life cycle phase have been attained after completing this stage. only then is the building material or building element suitable for use. figure 1 shows the life cycle model for earth as a building material (dachverband lehm e.v., 2004) (schroeder, 2016). after passing through each life cycle phase, the earthen material attains a new quality: raw soil becomes soil for construction; construction soil is processed into earth building materials etc. by reusing recycled earthen materials the life cycle becomes selfsustaining. 3. environmental management and life cycle assessment environmental management is part of the management system of an organization. it develops action strategies for environmental protection at the company level as well as the official authority level in order to ensure the environmental compatibility of the products and processes developed by the company and its staff performance. the term life cycle assessment describes the systematic, quantitative analysis of the environmental impact of products throughout their lives in the form of ecological assessment results. here, “environmental impact” refers to the use of resources as well as the environmental effects of emissions at every phase in a product's lifetime. the results of the analysis make it possible to find measures for reducing the environmental impact or for comparing different products. the life cycle assessment has become a generally accepted methodological approach for the quantitative evaluation of the sustainability of building materials and building products. on a european level, the following standards for conducting a life cycle assessment are currently available: din en iso 14040:2009-11 environmental management life cycle assessment principles figure 1. life cycle of earth as a building material (dachverband lehm e.v., 2004) (schroeder, 2016) vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 49 and framework, din en iso 14044:2006-10 environmental management life cycle assessment requirements and guidelines. according to din en iso 14040 the life cycle assessment consists of four phases. these phases correspond to each other and cannot be viewed separately: 3.1 defining goal and scope a determination of the goal and scope must define the use and function of a product and its general life cycle from raw material sourcing to disposal. figure 1 shows this cycle for earthen materials. in terms of building materials and building products, this phase is used to select and define different material and construction options. to facilitate this process, so-called functional units are determined to serve as a reference (such as a quantity unit of a building material or a sample building as a product-specific size). the results of the analysis of the environmental impact can then refer to these functional units. product units which are to be compared need to match exactly in terms of their functions. for example, render and plaster should be compared as kg per m! coverage and insulation material as m" needed per w/m2k. at the beginning, the system boundaries need to be determined by deciding which indicators to include in the analysis and which to leave out. “from cradle to factory gate” and “from cradle to grave” are typical examples of system boundaries. the selection of these indicators can influence the result of the life cycle assessment. 3.2 life cycle inventory analysis during the life cycle inventory analysis phase the defined material and construction variations within the determined system boundaries are established for the relevant material and energy flows. the life cycle inventory analysis contains information on all relevant consumption of raw materials and energy, the kind and quantity of emissions and harmful substances and, if applicable, all quantities of waste generated throughout the entire lifetime of the materials and buildings. this initial information needs to be obtained from the manufacturer. the determined material quantities are linked with their environmental impact during the impact assessment phase. the life cycle inventory analysis itself does not include an evaluation. collection of the required data can be very timeconsuming unless existing databases can be used. primary energy intensity. the energy expenditure needed for the production of building materials including the production and transportation of the source materials is an important indicator for the selection of “ecological” building materials. this energy expenditure is called the “primary energy intensity” (pei) and is mainly related to the system boundary “from cradle to factory gate”. when it comes to meeting energy needs, the available energy includes renewable (e.g. biomass), inexhaustible (e.g. sun) and nonrenewable (e.g. fossil fuels) sources. the supply of non-renewable energy sources is limited and they should, therefore, be used sparingly. when determining the pei, the amount of non50 renewable energy sources is identified. this also makes the pei a measurement for the environmental impact “use of energy resources” category. applied to traditional earth building, the manual processing of suitable excavation material into earth building materials and structures on the building site was and still is the ideal situation as far as the pei is concerned. particularly the fact that no transportation of the earth building material was required resulted in a pei of practically zero. modern earth building, however, is largely mechanized and characterized by the physical separation of building material production and product use on the building site. this automatically leads to energy consumption and transportation. long-distance transportation and the resulting high specific energy consumption have a negative impact on an ecological assessment of building materials, e.g. in the case of artificial drying. tab. 1 shows the pei for common modes of transport according to (glücklich,2005): mode of transport pei [kwh/tkm] rail 0.43 passenger car western europe 1.43 truck 40 metric tons 0.72 truck 28 metric tons 1.00 truck 16 metric tons 1.45 van < 3.5 metric tons 3.10 cargo ship overseas 0.04 cargo ship inland waterways 0.27 table 1. energy use of common modes of transport in terms of their pei, earth building materials are still unrivaled compared to the main conventional building materials. this is even true when additives with a high embodied energy are used. a selection can be seen in tab. 2 (umweltbundesamt et al., 1982): building material pei [kwh/m3] earth 0 – 30 straw panels 5 wood, domestic 300 derived timber products 800 – 1,500 fired bricks 500 900 cement 1,700 standard concrete 450 500 sand-lime bricks 350 sheet glass 15,000 steel 63,000 aluminum 195,000 polyethylene pe 7,600 – 13,100 pvc 13,000 table 2. primary energy intensity for selected building materials cumulative energy demand. the cumulative energy demand encompasses the energy demand of a building over its entire lifetime (system boundary “from cradle to grave”). according to vdi guideline 4600: 2012-01 it is estimated with the help of specific assumptions and scenarios. the corresponding environmental impacts are compared to this energy demand. frequently, the pei of a building material or a building technique is only used for a comparative evaluation. a realistic assessment, however, needs to take all phases in the life of a building into consideration because the actual production of a building material and the construction of a vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 51 building represent relatively short time periods. therefore, the advantage of a “low pei” of an earth building material might come at the expense of the durability of the structure or a higher maintenance requirement. insulating materials with a higher pei can offset this “disadvantage” by reducing the required energy for heating, thereby lowering emissions for the entire lifetime of the building. in addition to the positive environmental impact, these materials can therefore also offer financial advantages to the owner. as a result, the determination of how long a building will be in use becomes an additional important system boundary which has an effect on the number of required maintenance cycles for the building element or material layers. 3.3 impact assessment in this phase, the material and energy flows collected during the life cycle inventory analysis are evaluated in terms of their environmental impact on the basis of selected indicators and defined system boundaries: the causes are compared to the impacts. currently, a number of computer programs containing databases of relevant values can be used for calculating the impact assessment. the data analysis must be carried out according to defined standards. the programs gabi (www. gabi-software.com), ecoinvent (www.ecoinvent. ch, approx. 4,500 data files) and wecobis (www. wecobis.de of the german federal ministry for the environment, nature conservation, building and nuclear safety) are examples of commonly used environmental databases. the latter has been available since january 2015. it is structured based on the criteria of din en 15804 and currently contains approx. 1,300 data files which also cover earth plaster, earth blocks and rammed earth. 3.4 interpretation depending on the specific situation, the final interpretation of the calculated results can be carried out in different ways, such as: (preferred variation), environmental pollution. today, life cycle assessments are indispensable for environmental decision making, for example when trying to determine binding regulations for orders of magnitude for decreasing co 2 emissions in relevant documents on an international level. environmental goals can only be achieved if they are defined as guidelines in appropriate standards and regulations. this also includes product standards in the field of building materials. the technical information sheets “technische merkblätter 02 – 04” (dachverband lehm e.v, tm 02, 2011), (dachverband lehm e.v, tm 03, 2011) (dachverband lehm e.v, tm 04, 2011) published in 2011 by the german association for building with earth include a procedure for determining the co 2 -equivalent value on the basis of din en iso 14040. appropriate procedures have been included in din standards for earth blocks and earth mortars (din 18945 – 47) as optional tests (appendix a). a life cycle assessment requires a significant effort during the planning stage as well as the willingness to add sustainable building concepts to conventional planning operations. often, a lack of sufficient data poses a problem. although the indicators mentioned above allow for a very detailed description of ecological impact categories, there are still harmful environmental effects which are generally known but, so far, have 52 not been able to be measured quantitatively. the reference accuracy of correlations for indicators which have already been defined also remains questionable. finally, the reliability of the life cycle inventory data collected in the available environmental databases must be examined. this more or less limits the validity of each result. on the other hand, life cycle assessments are already a suitable tool for checking if seemingly feasible, ecologically founded arguments can hold up in reality. however, the necessary fundamentals and instruments need to be improved further. 3.5 environmental product declarations and certification of buildings the life cycle analysis according to din en iso 14040 provides systematic and standardized data for recording energy demands and environmental consumption as well as their environmental impacts over the total life cycle of a building. in addition, the environmental performance of a building according to the principles of sustainable building comprises its technical quality, functional aspects, socio-cultural criteria as well as location, e.g. transportation infrastructure. finally, costs are an important consideration for the client. these aspects exceed a “pure” life cycle analysis. two instruments have been developed for analyzing the environmental performance of a building product: declarations for manufacturers of building products, owners/clients. environmental product declarations. currently, three categories of environmental labeling are available to manufacturers of building products: din en iso 14024 consists of symbols or logos which have been awarded by external bodies for outstanding environmental performance. the eco-labels “blue angel” and “natureplus” are typical examples. several earth building products carry the latter (nature plus, e. w.). din en iso 14021 consists of environmental declarations by the producers themselves. this means that the producers are responsible for their own declarations which they can have verified by external bodies. to din en iso 14025 consists of voluntary standards, commitments or guarantees for building products. they are provided by producers, organizations and quality assurance associations in order to establish the “environmental performance” of buildings in the form of a certificate awarded by external bodies. this type of label is known as an environmental product declaration (epd). the following standards currently exist for the development of epds for building products: din en 15804 sustainability of construction works – environmental product declarations – core rules for the product category of construction products, din en 15942 sustainability of construction works – environmental product declarations – communication format business-to-business din en iso 14025 environmental labels and declarations – type iii environmental declarations – principles and procedures, iso 21930 sustainability in building construction vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 53 – environmental declaration of building products. such declarations must include all phases of the life cycle of a product by describing the environmental impact during production and use as well as possible health hazards for the users. in order to meet these requirements, a standardized assessment diagram has been developed. it consists of the four life cycle phases (stages) which need to be declared as well as column d which records benefits and loads (consumption) (din en 15804) (tab. 3). epds have become instruments for the selection of products with regard to the environment. they stimulate the use of environmentally friendly products through competition and help to protect the safety and health of consumers by keeping unsafe products off the market. earth building materials are inherently environmentally friendly because they do not pose any health risks and have a low pei compared to other building materials (tab. 2). currently, producers of mineral building materials with higher peis are providing certified epds according to din iso en 14025 for building materials containing lime, gypsum and cement based on requirements product stage construction process stage use stage end-of-life stage benefits and loads a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 c1 c2 c3 c4 d pr o d u ct io n o f ra w m at e ri al s tr an sp o rt pr o d u ct io n tr an sp o rt c o n st ru ct io n / in st al la ti o n u se m ai n te n an ce r e p ai r r e p la ce m e n t r e b u ild in g / r e n o va ti o n c o m p an y – re la te d e n e rg y co n su m p ti o n c o m p an y re la te d w at e r co n su m p ti o n d e m o lit io n tr an sp o rt w as te m an ag e m e n t d is p o sa l r e -u si n g , r e co ve ri n g a n d , re cy cl in g p o te n ti al table 3. assessment diagram for epd life cycle phases according to din en 15804 by their respective industry organizations. when assessing the emissions of greenhouse gases, described by the co 2 -equivalent (gwp), producers take advantage of the trade-off, for example by “consuming” co 2 during the carbonation of lime or by “recovering energy” from waste instead of using fossil fuels. in this manner, producers can reduce the “sustainability gap” between their conventional materials and earth building materials. this emphasizes how environmental product declarations are increasingly assuming the role of a competitive tool on the building material market. there are now life cycle assessments for industrially produced, naturally moist earth mortars which, with regard to their manufacturing process (from raw material to delivery ex works), have an energy balance value that is 5 to 10 times lower than that of building materials made of lime and gypsum (lemke, 2012). 54 certification of buildings. nowadays, home owners must account for the environmental performance of their houses during the use phase with regard to energy consumption. the energy conservation regulation enev 2014 (4. zweite verordnung zur änderung der energieeinsparverordnung (enev 2009) v. 18.11.2013.). requires owners to present an energy pass to anyone interested in renting or purchasing. however, energy consumption only represents a partial aspect of the environmental performance of a building. currently, the following standards can be applied in a comprehensive quantitative assessment of the environmental performance of buildings: din en 15978 sustainability of construction works – assessment of environmental performance – calculation method, din en 16309 sustainability of construction works – assessment of social performance – calculation methodology, din en 16627 sustainability of construction works – assessment of economical performance – calculation method. these standards use the assessment diagram for epds according to din en 15804 (tab. 3). a number of organizations and associations have developed systems for the certification of the environmental performance of buildings based on criteria catalogs which are more extensive than those found in din en 15804. an example is the certification of buildings issued by the german sustainable building council (dgnb deutschen gesellschaft für nachhaltiges bauen) (deutsche gesellschaft für nachhaltiges bauen, 2012). this system uses a core catalog of six quality categories with additional weighted partial criteria: ecology, economy, sociocultural and functional aspects, and technical criteria (amounting to 22.5 % each), as well as process quality (amounting to 10 % of the total assessment). the category “location” is included in the total assessment indirectly. for compliance with each quality category, external auditors award combined points leading to the quality seals “bronze”, “silver” and “gold”. the german government has decided to make it mandatory to apply the principles of sustainable building to all future federal building projects by using a rating system called “sustainable building for federal buildings” (nachhaltiges bauen für bundesgebäude – bnb), published by the federal ministry of transport, building and urban development (bundesministerium für verkehr, bau und stadtentwicklung, 2010) (bundesministerium für verkehr, bau und stadtentwicklung, 2011). federal buildings are thereby intended to serve as role models. conclusion until now, certified epds for earth building products do not exist. producers of industrially manufactured earth building materials have to become aware of the fact that the given environmental credibility of earth products will not suffice in the future. to remain successful in an increasingly competitive market, appropriate epds for earth building materials need to be drawn up. the german dachverband lehm e.v. (dvl) has, therefore, initiated a project for developing epds for earth mortars and earth blocks. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 55 references bundesministerium für verkehr, bau und stadtentwicklung (bmvbs) (2010). bekanntmachung über die nutzung und die anerkennung von bewertungssystemen für das nachhaltige bauen. bundesanzeiger nr. 70, p. 1642 v. 07. mai 2010 bundesministerium für verkehr, bau und stadtentwicklung (bmvbs) (hrsg.)(2011). leitfaden nachhaltiges bauen. berlin: bmvbs. dachverband lehm e.v. (hrsg.)(2004). lehmbau verbraucherinformation. weimar: dachverband lehm e.v. dachverband lehm e.v. (hrsg.)(2011). lehmsteine – begriffe, baustoffe, anforderungen, prüfverfahren. technische merkblätter lehmbau, tm 02, dachverband lehm e. v., weimar. dachverband lehm e. v. (hrsg.)(2011). lehm-mauermörtel – begriffe, baustoffe, anforderungen, prüfverfahren. technische merkblätter lehmbau, tm 03, dachverband lehm e. v., weimar. dachverband lehm e.v. (hrsg.) (2011). lehm-putzmörtel – begriffe, baustoffe, anforderungen, prüfverfahren. technische merkblätter lehmbau, tm 04, dachverband lehm e. v., weimar. deutsche gesellschaft für nachhaltiges bauen (hrsg.) (2012). ausgezeichnet. nachhaltig bauen mit system. dgnb systembroschüre. stuttgart. europäisches parlament; rat der europäischen union (2011). verordnung nr. 305/2011 vom 9.märz 2011 zur festlegung harmonisierter bedingungen für die vermarktung von bauprodukten und zur aufhebung der richtlinie 89/106/ewg des rates. brüssel: amtsblatt der europäischen union l 88/5 v. 04.04.2011. glücklich, d. (hrsg.) (2005). ökologisches bauen – von grundlagen zu gesamtkonzepten. deutsche verlags-anstalt, münchen. lemke, m.(2012). nachhaltigkeit von lehmbaustoffen – umweltproduktdeklarationen als wettbewerbsinstrument. in: lehm 2012 weimar, beiträge zur 6. int. fachtagung für lehmbau, pp. 220229, dachverband lehm e. v., weimar. natureplus e.v. (hrsg.). richtlinien zur vergabe des qualitätszeichens „natureplus“. rl 0607 lehmanstriche und lehmdünnlagenbeschichtungen (september 2010) rl 0803 lehmputzmörtel (september 2010) rl 0804 stabilisierte lehmputzmörtel (proposed) rl 1006 lehmbauplatten (september 2010) rl 1101 lehmsteine (proposed) rl 0000 basiskriterien (may 2011) neckargemünd: 2010 schroeder, h. (2016). sustainable building with earth. springer international publishing, cham heidelberg new york london. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19491-2 thomson, a.; maskell, d.; walker, p.; lemke, m.; shea, a., and lawrence, m. (2015). improving the hygrothermal properties of clay plasters. nocmat paper; winnipeg umweltbundesamt (hrsg.): krusche, p. u. m.; althaus, d.; gabriel, i. (1982) ökologisches bauen. bauverlag, wiesbaden. zweite verordnung zur änderung der energieeinsparverordnung (enev 2009) v. 18.11.2013. bundesgesetzblatt i, nr. 61, berlin 2013. united nations organization (uno) (1987). report of the world commission on environment and development: our common future (brundtland report). new york: uno. www.eco-see.eu. safe and energy efficient wall panels and materials for a healthier indoor environment, funded by the eu’s 7th framework programme under grant agreement no. 609234; www.h-house-project.eu. ‘healthier life with eco-innovative components for housing constructions’, funded by the eu’s 7th framework programme under grant agreement no. 608893; www.isobioproject.eu development and demonstration of highly insulating, construction materials from bio-derived aggregates, this project has received funding from the european union’s horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement n° 636835 ] x zero-energy test building in tallinn, estonia. tallinn university of technology, 30.10.2013, robert treier, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:liginullenergiamaja_1.jpg, used under cc by-sa3.0, modification: cut vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 1 abstract 1 universitat politècnica de valència, departamento de construcciones arquitectónicas 2 universitat politècnica de valència, i.u.i. ingeniería energética 3 chief of operations, atersa s.a., valencia construction activities that include renovation work and energy retrofits add almost twice as much value as the construction of new buildings, and small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) contribute more than 70% of the value added in the eu building sector. this article analyses the legislation associated to nearly zero energy buildings (nzeb) in spain in order to identify the factors that will leverage their massive implementation. the paper is organized in three main sections: first one, it describes the geographical and social context of nzeb in spain, then legislative requirements and policies are analysed; and finally, it identifies the training market penetration for nzeb. keywords nzeb, energy efficiency, sustainable building, renewable energy legal challenges in the implementation of nearly zero energy building (nzeb) in spain javier cárcel-carrasco1, elisa peñalvo-lópez 2, isolda morcillo3 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7404 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7404 2 1. introduction the construction sector generates about 9% of european gross domestic product (gdp) and accounts for 18 million direct jobs. construction activities that include renovation work and energy retrofits add almost twice as much value as the construction of new buildings, and smes contribute more than 70% of the value added in the eu building sector (jcr,2015). based on this, on 30 november 2016, the european commission published the ‘clean energy for all europeans’ documents (eurlex, 2016), setting targets for (a) energy policy, (b) use of renewable resources (bonomo et al., 2015), (c) energy efficiency measures and targets, and d) market design initiatives. the released package includes the proposal on the revised energy performance building directive (epbd) and relevant articles of the energy efficiency directive (eed) (article 4 is moved to epbd). epbd proposal sets renovation targets and minimum performance requirements for existing and new buildings (eur-lex, 2010). in this context, it has defined the nearly zero energy buildings (nzeb) concept, which corresponds to buildings with minimum demand requirements and integration of renewable energies to cover their energy needs (smd, 2014). the european union set in 2009 the 20-20-20 targets regarding the reduction of co2 emissions, the increase in the use of renewables and the increase in the energy efficiency (de gregorio, 2016). one of the main implementation strategies in the construction sector refers to the nzeb concept, which is defined as: “nzeb is a building that has very high energy performance, determined in accordance with annex 1 of the epbd. the nearly zero or very low energy required should be covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources, produced on site or near-by”. the eu directive establishes the necessity of each member state to define a plan that includes the definition of nzeb, detailing the national, regional or local conditions and introducing a numerical factor to measure the building use of energy, in kwh/m2 per year. in order to comply with this target, spain shall adopt an energy efficiency obligation scheme based on a standardized negotiable energy savings certificate approach, which should be flexible and straightforward enough to ensure that there is a high administrative burden for neither the obligated parties nor the regulatory body. this programme is planned in two phases: approving the basic procedure to certify the energy efficiency of buildings with the incorporation of the basic procedure for certifying the energy efficiency of existing buildings, also taking into consideration the experience of applying this law over the past five years. the royal decree sets out the obligation to provide the buyers or users of buildings with an energy efficiency certificate that must include objective information about the energy efficiency of a building and reference values such as minimum energy efficiency requirements or co2 emission. the royal decree sets out the obligation to provide the buyers or users of buildings with an energy efficiency certificate that must include objective information about the energy behaviour of a building and reference values such as minimum energy efficiency requirements, so that the owners or tenants of the building can compare and evaluate its energy efficiency. in addition, the decree includes the obligation for all buildings constructed after the 31st december 2020 to be nzeb, this date is advanced to the year 2018 for the case of public buildings. by 2016-2017 so it could be applied, in a voluntary way, even before the normative is enforced both for public buildings (year 2018) and private ones (year 2020). on february 2016, the royal decree 56/2016 (mi, 2016) goes into force transposing eu directive 2012/27/eu of the european parliament and council of 25 of october 2012, on energy efficiency in terms of energy audits, accreditation of service suppliers and energy auditors. this recently approved decree presents the nzeb concept as it is stated in the eu directive 2010/31/ue, with no further details for its implementation or concrete requirement targets. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 3 2. geographical and social context spain is located in the westpart of europe with a total area of 504.645 km2 with most of it concentrated in the iberian peninsula but also including two archipelagos: balearic islands, in the mediterranean sea, and canary island, in the atlantic ocean near the west african coast. total spanish population reaches 46.439.8664 inhabitants (nis, 2015). 2.1 climate spain continental area lies between latitudes 36º 00' to 43º 47' n and longitudes 9º 18'w to 3º 19' e and presents 12 different climates zones for energy certification based on limiting energy demand. winter division is designated by letters (a, b, c, d, e), while summer identification uses numbers (1, 2, 3, 4) (fig.1). in general terms, the central part of the country has a continental climate, while the coastal areas have a more moderated climate, warmer in the case of mediterranean coast. also, extension and rain fall level varies in these areas as it has been analysed in the period from 1997 to 2007 (tab. 1). the atlantic area has mild temperatures: between 12º and 15ºc in the winter and 20-25ºc in the summer period and the annual rain fall is above 1000 mm. the mediterranean area has irregular rainfalls, between 400 and 700 mm per year and concentrated in the spring and fall, in the last period with a torrential behaviour. winters are short and mild, while summers are long and hot. average annual temperature is in the range 15º-18ºc. finally, the continental area has extreme temperatures: between 25º and -13ºc. winters are long and cold with average minimum temperatures up to -5ºc, while in the summer temperatures exceed the 35ºc, and even 40ºc sometimes. rainfall in continental zone is low, about 400 mm, in part in the form of storms during july and august (vvaa, 2011). figure 1. climate areas in spain. table 1. historic rainfall level. area climate type surface fraction rain fall north atlantic 10% high (>1000 mm) central continental 70% low (500 mm) south and east mediterranean 20% low but torrential (400 mm) 4 2.2 housing stock there are a total of 25.2 million dwellings in spain, distributed, according to the 2011 census, as follows: 71.5% main dwellings (17,528,518 ones), 14.8% secondary dwellings (3,616,695) and 13.8% as empty and other dwellings (3,374,291) (idae, 2011). in general dwellings are categorized based on usage, with 68.6% of dwellings regarded as multifamily (17,250,759 dwellings) and 31.4% as singlefamily (7,709,272 dwellings). moreover, multi-family dwellings have greater weight among main dwellings (71.8% compared to 28.2% of single-family dwellings), while the opposite occurs in the secondary dwelling stock (where single-family dwellings total 46.9% compared to 53.1% of multi-family dwellings). in the case of empty dwellings, the distribution is practically similar to the distribution for the total (68.4% multifamily and 31.6% single-family dwellings). out of 18 million spanish main dwellings, nearly half fall between 61 m2 and 90 m2 in size; 29.6% (5,354,920 dwellings) are between 76 m2 and 90 m2 and 18.6% (3,360,925) are between 61 m2 and 75 m2 (eia, 2002). registered information of exploited land in 2013 (md, 2014) makes it possible to differentiate the following dwelling types based on the use of the dwelling: shared (multi-family) in a block or open building, which accounts for 24.1% of the total national dwellings, shared (multi-family) in perimeter blocks, which accounts for 46.3% and, within single-family dwellings, detached and semi-detached homes, accounting for 10% of the total stock. finally, terraced single-family dwellings or dwellings in a perimeter block (in a traditional urban area or a recent lowdensity development) reach to 19.6% of the total. within a total 25.2 million existing dwellings in spain, nearly half (47.6%: 11,987,675) are in urban municipalities with over 50.000 inhabitants, with the remaining half distributed as follows: 15.7% table 2. categorization of buildings uses and construction decade. source: md, 2014 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 5 in municipalities with 20.001–50.000 inhabitants (3,969,298 dwellings), 20% in municipalities with between 5.001–20.000 inhabitants (5,029,342 dwellings) and another 16.7% in municipalities with fewer than 5.000 inhabitants (4,222,297 dwellings). according to the data from the 2011 census (nis, 2014), among main dwellings, over three-quarters (78.9%) are owned, while just 13.5% (2,438,575) are rented and 7.6% are made available free of charge. addressing the characterization of the non-residential sector of the building stock, it is considered one last differentiation as key vis-à-vis the dwelling stock: energy use largely depends on the activities accommodated by these buildings, and since the types of activities are so variable, it is impossible to assume that there is a common benchmark pattern as there may be in residential buildings – in spite of the undeniable variety that exists among dwellings. therefore it is considered decisive to form the segmentation of the non-residential buildings based on a differentiation by types of use. non-residential buildings can be also considered to check the relative importance of each group on the search for nearly zero energy buildings. the number of properties by uses and construction decade according to the land categories are shown at the following table. it may be deduced that more than 66% of buildings are residential (tab.2). final energy consumption in spain for residential and non-residential buildings in year 2011 shows the penetration of renewable sources in this sector, together with the gas (tab.3). residential homes are responsible for almost 18% of the total final energy consumption. using iea data (iea, 2017) it is possible to follow up the evolution of the energy consumption of the residential sector. it table 3. final energy consumption in spain according to sectors (2011). source: idae, 2011 figure 2. energy consumption in residential sector. final energy consumption (ktoe) coal petroleum gas renewable energy sources electric power total industry 1717 4356 7697 1256 6317 21344 transport 0 33696 83 1721 388 35889 mixed use 198 5779 6220 2838 14237 29272 agricolture 0 1518 466 70 359 2404 fishing activities 0 0 0 0 0 business, services and pubblic 0 1355 1755 104 6992 10206 residencial 122 2906 3411 2647 6545 15631 other unspecified 76 0 587 17 351 1031 final energy consuption 1915 48832 14001 5815 20942 86505 6 table 4. final energy consumption in the residential sector in spain according to types of use (2011). source: idae, 2011 table 5. distribution of consumption according to final energy fuels in heating by sec-spahousec climatic zones and dwelling type (single family/multi-family). source: idae, 2011. type of use coal petroleum products gas renovables electric power total lpg liquid fuels total biomass solar geothermal total ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe ktoe heating 12 388 2 033 2 421 1 695 2 368 10 6 2 384 380 6 892 dwh 1 459 183 642 1 566 50 129 3 182 385 2 776 cooking 2 185 185 399 26 26 479 1091 lighting 606 606 air conditioning 3 3 120 123 electrical household 3 188 3 188 total 15 1 032 2 216 3 248 3 660 2 444 139 12 2 595 5 158 14 676 distribution according to final energy fuel in heating dwelling type single family multi family north atlantic zone mwh mwh total petroleum product heating 2 145 662 862 921 total gas heating 291 781 1 595 117 total renowables heating 2 526 742 2 835 total electricity heating 137 152 539 250 total 5 101 336 3 000 123 continental zone mwh mwh total petroleum product heating 8 145 127 8 950 298 total gas heating 2 601 256 7 221 319 total ronowables heating 10 806 596 4 427 total electricity heating 480 435 1 181 465 total 22 033 413 17 357 508 mediterranean zone mwh mwh total petroleum product heating 5 977 658 1 480 953 total gas geating 2 099 425 5 491 210 total renowables heating 13 627 833 1 847 total electricity heating 594 419 1 392 030 total 22 299 335 8 366 040 total 49 434 085 28 723 671 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 7 has not decreased during the last years of economic crisis (fig.2). in the case of residential homes, the types of use for the same year 2011 enables to consider energy consumption for heating as the key for establishing energy consumption in climate control, since energy consumption for cooling is marginal (accounts for less than 2% of energy consumption for climate control) (tab.4). the distribution of consumption according to final energy fuel in heating for the different climatic zones and dwelling type (single family/multi-family) is described in the table 5. energy use corresponding to residential sector in spain accounted for 15.5 mtoe in 2012 (iea, 2017) . this represents 18% of the total final energy use of the country. taking into account the number of households, the average annual energy use for each household is approximately 10,604 kwh, and assuming that average spain household size is 90 m2, the numerical indicator for the typical energy use of the average spanish household is 117,8 kwh/ m2 per year. 3. legislative framework this section will described current policies related to nzeb as well as building standards defined for energy efficiency. 3.1 current policies in order to comply with the target in article 7 of directive 27/2012/eu and in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this article, spain is adopting the energy saving and efficiency action plan 2011-2020 (iea, 2017) based on the standardised energy certification system. regarding to renewable projects, it has defined a special regime (i) royal decree 661/2007, regulating electrical energy production under the special regime, (ii) royal decree 1578/2008, on the compensation of electrical energy production using photovoltaic solar technology, and (iii) article 4 and section 2 of the fifth transitory disposition of royal decree law 6/2009, for the adoption of certain measures in the energy sector and the approval of the social bond ("rdl 6/2009"). nevertheless, due to the crisis, some provisions have repealed, especially the pre-assignment mechanism. this mechanism was currently in suspension pursuant to provisions of article 1.b) of royal decree law 1/2012, which had suspended the compensation preassignment procedures and suppressed the economic incentives for new renewable, cogeneration, and waste-to-energy plants. this unfavourable economic framework lead to other design approaches in nzeb (forlani, 2015; giordano, 2016). actual policies on nzeb are basically based on the abovementioned royal decree 235/2013 and the royal decree 238/2013, both published the same day, amending certain articles and technical instructions in the regulations on building heating installations (rite) of 20 july 2007 to set out stricter requirements concerning the energy performance of heating and cooling equipment, as well as equipment used to move and transport fluids. this amendment arises from the need to transpose directive 2010/31/eu of the european parliament and of the council of 19 may 2010 on the energy performance of buildings into the spanish legal system and the requirement set out in the second final provision of the abovementioned royal decree 1027/2007 to carry out a periodic review at intervals not exceeding five years to keep it in line with the progress of technology and community legislation. the second decree regulates the energy efficiency and safety requirements that must be met by heating installations in buildings in order to address the requirements of personal well-being and hygiene. this law sets out requirements related to general energy efficiency, correct installation and sizing, appropriate control and adjustment of the installations that are present in existing buildings. moreover, it establishes the inspections that must be carried out periodically on the accessible parts of climate control installations throughout their useful lives, in order to verify compliance with the energy efficiency requirement. 8 3.2 energy efficiency building standards the spanish report on energy efficiency and savings policy measures (ese, 2013) breaks down final energy consumption in three sectors (industry, transport and residential, services and other). it uses ktoe units to measure and compare energy savings in 2010, 2011 and 2012, and contrasting their average with the savings targets set on final energy. total savings target for the period 2014–2020 for spain – excluding the transport sector– reaches the 21.305 ktoe and for the residential, services and other sector is 12.432 ktoe. in accordance with the possibility set out in article 7(2) and (3) of the directive, the cumulative savings target is reduced from 21.305 ktoe to 15 979 ktoe for the entire period between 1 january 2014 to 31 december 2020. three different final energy consumption savings scenarios have been established for residential buildings (md, 2014): a.1) scenario 1. high residential: savings on the cumulative final energy consumption for thermal uses (heating, cooling and dhw) for the period 2014–2020 equal to 32% of the average total final energy consumption for the years 2010– 2012. a.2) scenario 2. average residential: savings on the cumulative final energy consumption for thermal uses (heating, cooling and dhw) for the period 2014–2020 equal to 26% of the average total final energy consumption for the years 2010– 2012. a.3) scenario 3. basic residential: savings on the cumulative final energy consumption for thermal uses (heating, cooling and dhw) for the period 2014–2020 equal to 7% of the average total final energy consumption for the years 2010– 2012. this last scenario for the residential sector would arise from extending, between 2014 and 2020, approximately, the direct subsidies already committed for improving energy efficiency in the building sector in the various plans and programmes already in force. in addition, it considers the application of an estimated percentage of new european funds 2014– 2020 for subsidies for energy efficiency in the building sector (tab.6). however, in order to work with the reduction targets in the way to nzeb, it is necessary to recognize the functional logic in the factors that determine climate control energy consumption in buildings. the factors that determine climate control consumption in a building are: the use and management of the building and of its elements and systems; the energy demand, considering the energy losses due to transmission and the energy losses due to ventilation separately, if desired; the efficiency of the climate installations that satisfy the comfort demand; the source of the energy that is supplied to the building. table 6. energy efficiency scenarios for residential buildings. source: smd, 2014. residential building final energy consumption (ktoe) cumulative savings 2014-2020 2010 2011 2012 average ktoe % scenario 1. high residential 16 924 15 648 15 512 16 028 5 077 32 scenario 2. average residential 4 088 26 scenario 3. basic residential 1 044 7 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 9 the rational order of intervention in case of separate actions over time is precisely the order in which they have been presented in the list. normalized codes for these applications are not yet approved in spain. 3.3 actual instruments to promote nzeb currently in spain there are no schemes promoting nzeb. nevertheless, there are various schemes regarding the retrofit of domestic buildings towards energy efficiency. ico (official credit institute) line for the ‘renovation of dwellings and buildings’ (web 1). the line provides funding aimed at the selfemployed, businesses and public and private entities, both spanish and foreign, that make productive investments within spain. the portion associated with renovation is aimed at addressing the funding requirements of individuals and homeowners associations, in order to undertake renovation or refurbishment projects on their homes and buildings, common elements and homes. the transactions are processed directly through the credit institutions. institute for energy diversification and saving (idae) pareer programme (web 2). the idae’s pareer programme came about in order to encourage the implementation of integral energy efficiency saving and improvement actions, as well as the use of renewable energy sources, such as the renovation of windows, façades, roofs, boilers, air conditioning equipment, the incorporation of equipment to individually measure heating and domestic hot water consumption, replacing conventional energy with biomass or geothermal energy, etc. (web 3). 4. training market given there is still no specific legislation in spain referring to nzeb, no procedure is defined for the definition and accreditation of nzeb experts. however, several indicatives are in progress at the european level: mens (web 4) and prof/tract eu (web 5) projects, which are developing open training platforms and qualification framework for professionals dealing with nearly zero energy buildings. in addition, national strategies have been defined offering particular opportunities for growth and generation of employment in the construction sector. these strategies include a series of measures that need to be undertaken in the short term aimed to: raise awareness and create a pro-renovation culture to create a positive impression of the energy renovation of the building stock. any basic scenario could noticeably improve if the public were aware of renovation’s potential in the improvement of their homes and dwellings, their quality of life, the energy bills they pay and in the revaluation of properties for their owners. at present, the current lines of public aid are not providing the right response, largely due to this lack of awareness and culture, which does already exist in other european countries. develop business strategies with particular focus on the needs of homeowners associations. this would mean facilitating the restructuring of development/construction companies with a view to a new role as integral managers of renovation processes and changing the model of energy suppliers by influencing new emerging values. define administrative measures logically associated with improving coordination between the three levels of public administration: state, regional and municipal. they are all involved in these policies and in the processes to implement the same, in different ways, but the objectives are shared. the coordination must prevent, as far as possible, any duplications or contradictions that could arise. 10 5. conclusions spanish housing stock represents an opportunity to increase energy savings and equivalent co2 emissions in the residential sector based on their large savings potential. despite the fact that national legislation has included directives regarding minimum energy demand and integration of renewable energy sources in buildings, it is necessary to go a step further. nearly zero energy buildings (nzeb) concept should be implemented in new public building by 2018, while in the rest of building constructions will be mandatory by 2020. nevertheless, specific targets and requirements for nzeb are still to be concreted. it is necessary to define a national nzeb roadmap to identify the final goal and intermediate steps in order to achieve a massive implementation of nzeb in spain. acknowledgments this work was completed by the institute for energy engineering located at the universitat politècnica de valència in the framework of mens’s project (ref. 649773). the authors deeply thanks the universitat politècnica de valencia and all the organizations involved in this projects for their support and, specially, to the european commission for their funding support. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 11 references bonomo p., chatzipanagi a., frontini f., overview and analysis of current bipv products: new criteria for supporting the technological transfer in the building sector. vitruvio international journal of architectural technology and sustainability. 2015. (1):67-85. doi:10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4476. de gregorio s., from kyoto to paris: searching the sustainability. vitruvio international journal of architectural technology and sustainability. 2016. 1(1). doi:10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2016.5799. energy information administration (eia). “impacts of a 10-percent renewable portfolio standard”. u.s. department of energy; 2002 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/rps/pdf/ sroiaf%282002%2903.pdf , accessed march 2017. energy saving and efficiency action plan 2011-2020.http:// e c . e u r o p a . e u / e n e r g y / e f f i c i e n c y / e e d / d o c / r e p o r t i n g / 2 0 1 3 / es_2013report_es.pdf , accessed march 2017. eur-lex. “communication from the commission to the european parliament, the council, the european economic and social committee, the committee of the regions and the european investment bank clean energy for all europeans”, com/2016/0860 final. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ txt/?uri=com:2016:860:fin, 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doi:10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2016.6795. institute for the diversification and saving of energy (idae) “sechspahousec project: analysis of the energy consumption in the spanish residential sector”, idae, julio 2011. jrc science and policy reports. “energy renovation: the trump card for the new start for europe”, eu-jrc institute for energy and transport. 2015. isbn 978-92-79-43603-(pdf). ministry of presidency “royal decree 235/2013, of april 5th, approving the basic procedure for energy efficiency certification in buildings”. boe-a-2013-3904. 2013.http://www.boe.es/buscar/act. php?id=boe-a-2013-3904, accessed march 2017. ministry of industry, energy and tourism “royal decree 56/2016, of february 2017, transposing the directive 2012/27/eu from the european parliament and of the council of 25 october 2012 on energy efficiency in terms of energy audits, accreditation of service suppliers and energy auditors”. boe-a-2016-1460. 2016. https:// www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=boe-a-2016-1460, accessed march 2017. ministry of development “long-term strategy for energy renovation in the building sector in spain pursuant to article 4 of directive 2012/27/ue”. ministerio de formento spain, june 2014. national institute of statistics “spain in figures”. issn 2255-0410, ine. 2015. http://www.ine.es/ss/satellite?l=es_es&c=inepublica cion_c&cid=1259924856416&p=1254735110672&pagename=p roductosyservicios%2fpyslayout&param1=pysdetalle gratuitas, accessed march 2017. spanish ministry of development “long-term strategy for energy renovation in the building sector in spain pursuant to article 4 of directive 2012/27/ue”. ministerio de formento spain, june 2014. vv.aa. climate national agency, ed. “iberian climate atlas” (pdf). 2011. isbn 978-84-7837-079-5. web1-institute for the diversification and saving of energy (idae). http://www.ico.es/web/ico/ico-empresas-y-emprendedores/-/ lineasico/view?tab=general , accessed march 2017. web2-institute for the diversification and saving of energy (idae). http://www.idae.es/index.php/idpag.23/relcategoria.1030/ relmenu.344/mod.pags/mem.detalle, accessed march 2017. web3-ministry of agriculture and phishing, food and environment. clima projects. http://www.magrama.gob.es/en/cambio-climatico/ temas/proyectos-clima/que-es-un-proyecto-clima/default.aspx , accessed march 2017. web4-mens eu project. funded under the h2020 construction skills topic. http// http://www.mens-nzeb.eu/en/, accessed march 2017. web5-prof/tract eu project. funded under the h2020 construction skills topic. http// http://proftrac.eu/open-trainingplatform-for-nzeb-professionals.html , accessed march 2017. 58 facade of the factory la ceramo. source: agendacomunistavalencia.blogspot.com vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 59 abstract 1 department of planning, urbanism and environment, universidade estadual paulista (unesp) the objective of this paper was to characterize historical coating mortars taken from the la ceramo factory, in valencia, by means of historical, in situ and sample collection at various points in the building, for subsequent laboratory tests. the physical-mechanical characteristics studied were: compressive strength, water content, granulometry by sieving method, identification of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, surface hardness, water absorption, apparent porosity and bulk density. the results showed that the mortars composed of cement and lime collected did not present very positive characteristics in the aspects analyzed in this study, resulting in material with low quality, both in its initial composition and in function of the external influences suffered over time. regarding the other areas of lime mortar, these presented better results, although less resistant than those of cement, were shown to have good quality. it can also be observed that lime mortars, even having a similar composition in their origin, when applied at different points of the factory acquired uneven characteristics over time, directly related to the local conditions of the coated walls. finally, the need for preventive conservation in buildings of historical interest makes this paper of investigative and scientific nature, since the knowledge of the original materials is the initial step to a good intervention and not to accelerate the process of degradation of historical constructions. keywords characterization, coating mortars, degradation, historical building characterization of historical coating mortars of la ceramo factory in valencia marcela luana sutti1, maiara oliveira silva de aguiar1, cesar fabiano fioriti1, maria paula hêngling christófani1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2019.11485 60 1. introduction the characterization of old mortars, at the level of execution techniques, of the constitution and evaluation of its conservation status, are an indispensable tool in the approach of a conservation intervention in these elements, allowing to define the compatibility characteristics required of replacement mortars. besides, they can provide important information about the history of buildings, namely about the time and the context of its construction, and also regarding possible repairs already made (santos, 2003). the complexity of ancient materials, in the case of mortars, requires more than one type of technique for the characterization of the samples, which many must be used together, contributing to more realistic results, although there are characteristics left in the years of its existence that will not be reproduced, mainly in organic mortars (rodrigues, 2013). the most important aspect in the characterization of old mortars is the knowledge about the nature of the binder used. old lime and sand mortars were usually performed in an approximate proportion, in volume, from three parts of sand to one part of lime. used to join masonry stones or bricks or as a coating of exterior and interior walls, the old mortars functioned as both a structuring element and a protection of existing masonry. in other cases they had a decorative function, imitating materials such as marble or tiles (falcão, 2010). according to velosa (2006), the behavior of the mortar can be altered due to the climatic changes that occur over the years. therefore, it becomes even more relevant to study mortars at the level of their physical, chemical and mechanical properties. through the survey of several research works, can be observed the existence of several techniques for the characterization of old mortars (chemical, mineralogical, thermal or microstructural nature) such as wet chemical analysis, thermogravimetry, granulometric analysis, among others. these methods of analysis help to know the constitution of old mortars, to distinguish its function, by differences in its composition and, if necessary, to determine the nature of chemical interactions between its constituents. in view of the foregoing, this study had as objective to characterize historic coating mortars removed from the la ceramo factory, of valencia, spain, by means of historical study, in situ and sample collection at various points in the building, for further laboratory tests. 2. historical context and description of the la ceramo factory the la ceramo factory is located in the city of valencia, spain. it was founded in 1889 by josep ros furió and his wife salvadora ferrer carbonell, together with partner julian urgell, in the benicalap neighborhood and has been closed since 1992. the factory continued to function as a family property of the founding couple until the late nineteenth century, its penultimate owner was the architect pilar ros blanco. at the beginning of 1900 it represented an important point of reference for the production of ceramics in the city and in the whole country. in particular, it became famous for having spread in spain the 'golden porcelain' or 'metallic reflections', a kind of enamel decoration with brilliant effects produced by metallic oxides, originally arab. one of the singularities of la ceramo, is that inside it were produced all the necessary products from the raw material, the pigments were made (all formulas), only the basis for the manufacturing was bought and this craft process was passed from parents to children (calia, 2017). la ceramo was a great contribution for modernist and post-modernist architecture of valence, so the production focused on the execution of elements for architectural application, not only in valencia, but in barcelona and other cities. it began a great source of resources in architectural ceramics, with specific designs for buildings. according to calia (2017) the factory plan had an industrial type, with single corridor building aggregates around a courtyard. the self-sufficiency vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 61 figure 1. sketch of the location for the built blocks and the open courtyards of la ceramo and rigor of the terracotta bricks present in the structure are interrupted by frequent decorative elements of oriental origin, such as inscriptions, arches, columns, low reliefs and muslim iconography. until 1992, la ceramo had its entire structure still conserved as it was in the production phase and the factory operation, but today, more than 20 years later, this is no longer your reality. the la ceramo factory is basically formed by four built blocks and open courtyards. the building main entrance gives direct access to the activity courtyard and the owning family residence block. from this central patio it is possible to access the first factory built block, the ovens and the cooking place; the second open patio, the decantation one; the block of ceramic production workshops; and the block connected to the ovens; preparation and painting processes, all presented in the sketch of figure 1. the first block main facade consists of an entrance with an arc of evident arab influence, supported by two columns which the right-hand column was lost over time and the column on the left is all smooth containing capital, while the upper part consists of an abacus with interlaced decorations. the arc is also included within a large rectangular decorated frame, consisting an iconic rhombic pattern, also with 62 obvious arab origin. finally an effigy above the arch, which also shows the city of valencia’s shield and the name of the factory, as shown in figure 2 [a]. the main access door is run down, made of wood and painted in green color, leads to the main patio of the factory. to the right of the entrance door there is another side entrance leading directly to the building where the ceramic production processes were present. other openings, containing arabic-style frames, are also present on the facade, now protected by safety nets (pagliuca, 2017). the facade observed in figure 2 [b] does not contain many of the original coatings, existing vestiges of an older mortar in the walls, but what prevails is a coating of ordinary mortar, regularizing what was before collapsing. the central body, which only the head of the original building still remains, has been affected in recent times by the collapse of the roof, probably due to pathological factors (rot) of the wood elements. these factors, therefore, compromised in the static of the trellis (polonceau type), which is composed by wood and metal pieces that constituted the roof closing. from the constructive point of view, the factory’s body has similar morphological characteristics for both foundation systems and basic closing and supporting structures (masonry and brick pillars). the roof closing consists in a double slope with a simple plywood, (warped wood) structure characterized by the figure 2. images of the la ceramo factory presence of sharp arcs arranged in gaps (capable of ensuring a solid support of the ridge). the substantial difference between the two blocks (residential and production) consists of the intermediate wood lining, made with the traditional in cannuccia to technique and finished with painted plaster in blue color, in other words, wanting to evoke the bright colors of the ceramics and beautify the environments used for the exhibition of ceramic products made with the metallic reflection technique in the first block. the second block also has a buried environment that was used as a clay deposit, the attic made of an iron-trachea support structure and a double row of bricks (pagliuca, 2017). a total of four circular ovens are found in the factory (figure 2 [c]), two larger and two smaller ones, which depended on the use and amount of clay that was produced during cooking. the closing system consists of an overlap of masonry, seated in constipated floor, in which the structural system is composed of saccotype masonry (rough stone wall and clay band made with the regular use of bricks arranged in line. the roof closing, on the other hand, consists of a system with a built-in dome (also made of bricks) in which the symmetrically orifices ensure that the air is pulled upwards. in order to improve the mass behavior of the oven, very visible containers were made. the access to the roof was guaranteed by a circular tower, where inside a helicoidal staircase allowed the ascent. aentry details bfacade coatings cfactory ovens vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 63 3. removal of the samples the removal of mortar coatings samples for study in this work was carried out inside the la ceramo factory. all the pieces were taken from inside the factory masonry, because, as the building description shows, the outside part was not able to remove the cover layer, while inside the building, the chosen areas presented better conditions for this practice. sample removal areas are marked in figure 3 and numbered from 1 to 4, as they will be displayed from this point of work. for the selection of the study areas, a critical analysis of the entire la ceramo factory space was carried out, in order to make a conscious sampling, which would not affect the good condition of the installations, however, these were only the most recent coatings, used for repairs. the coatings studied already had large detachments of the surfaces of the walls, being in precarious conditions. it is not known exactly whether they are the original jackets of the construction, but all samples are from old mortars. the block connected to the ovens, of the ceramics preparation and painting, was the last one to be built and was executed of exposed bricks, so there were no coatings to analyze, and the residence block was covered with painted plaster, thus, the kitchen blocks and ovens and the production of ceramics were chosen for the study of the coatings. there are two study areas in each of the blocks chosen, the samples of areas 1 and 2 were in the oven block, and 3 and 4 in the production block. samples from area 1 were removed from a wall of the oven itself (figure 4 [a]), which has a sacco-type masonry structure. the coating was already very aggravated and compromised, with a large area with erosion, detachment and disintegration of the mortar, and there were practically no significant cracks amid lack of coating in the area. dirt has also been figure 3. sample extraction areas 64 observed, but there are no manifestations of moisture spots, efflorescences or biological colonization. samples from area 2 were removed from what in their original state was an entire wall (unlike figure 4 [b], which shows the state in which it was found in situ surveys), the region was also originally covered. the area shows loss of mortar at the lower part of the wall, being possible the visualization of different layers of mortar, the external one already totally unobstructed, and the second with some remaining parts. there are few cracks, some dirt and a large region where there was loss of coating adhesion. samples from area 3 were removed from a fully covered room with few openings, only the window can be seen in figure 4 [c] and a door that leads to a room also covered, meaning that the wall did not receive direct sunlight. the wall, one of the exteriors of the building, is built of stone. the coating of the area is in serious condition, with the lower part fully compromised as the coating does not exist in this room anymore. it is possible to differentiate three different layers of coating in this area: the upper, still preserved, one in the middle, approximately 1.20 m from the ground, which presented some desolate areas on the surface, observed to the hollow sound resulting from a inspection with rubber hammer in the coating, and a third layer almost nonexistent, further down the wall. the removal sample has only two of the three layers observed. samples from area 4 (figure 4 [d]) were removed from a wall which, even in a covered environment, had large openings. the remaining coating of this area showed some cracks, dirt and moisture spots, there were large areas with loss of adhesion and erosion of the coating. 4. sample preparation to perform the characterization techniques that will be presented in the next item of this work, two samples were collected from each areas, and these samples were grouped in two groups to perform different tests. group a was used in the tests to determine the absorption of water by immersion, determination of the apparent porosity and soil density, water content figure 4. areas where samples were taken from the la ceramo factory aarea 1 barea 2 carea 3 darea 4 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 65 sample shape substrat mass (g) layers porosity color presence of fibers 1a solid bricks 95,2 1 low porosity, easily dissolves in the hands earthy tone animal 2a solid bricks 71,4 2 slightly porous gray no 3a stones 163,5 2 low porosity gray no 4a stones 96,6 2 too much porosity gray no 1b solid bricks 177,7 1 low porosity, easily dissolves in the hands earthy tone animal 2b solid bricks 122,8 2 slightly porous gray no 3b stones 182,3 2 low porosity gray no 4b stones 147,8 2 too much porosity gray no table 1. characteristics of the coating samples used 66 by gravimetric method and grain size. group b was used for the calcium carbonate identification tests with hydrochloric acid, determination of the compressive strength and surface hardness. table 1 was created to provide a clear view to the characteristics of the samples used in the tests carried out, containing its nomenclature (number of samples / belonging groups), sample forms images, the type of substrate where it was, its mass, the number of sample layers, porosity, color, and whether or not animal or vegetable fibers have been found. 5 characterization techniques and special analysis this part of the paper contains the presentation of the applied methodology by means of characterization techniques, which can be visualized in table 2, together with the references which the tests were based upon. it is also presented an analysis of the data obtained from the tests. it should be mentioned that the experimental program tests were carried out in the laboratory, belonging to universidad politécnica de valencia, in spain, with support from the escuela técnica superior – ingeniería de edificación. tests references identification of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid surface hardness determination une en 13279-2 (2014) compressive strength determination válek e veiga (2005) water content (gravimetric method) lanzinha (1998) determination of water absorption by immersion santos (1989); abnt nbr 9778 (2009) apparent porosity determination santos (1989); abnt nbr 9778 (2009) apparent density determination santos (1989); abnt nbr 9778 (2009) granulometry une en 933-1 (2012) these techniques were selected based on the paper done by different researchers. although in this paper the objective is not to reconstitute a new mortar, however, there is a basis for this, and it is important to organize more complex records about the old mortars composition so that traces of traditional technologies are not lost. 5.1 identification of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid by adding hydrochloric acid (hcl) to any surface containing calcium carbonate (caco3), the reaction is marked by the formation of a gas, carbon dioxide (co2) instantaneously according to the formula: caco3 (s) + 2 hcl (aq) = h2o (l) + co2 (g) + cacl2 (aq). therefore, when hydrochloric acid was applied to samples from group b (figure 5), it was possible to identify whether or not there is cement in its table 2. testing techniques for characterization of old samples figure 5. test with application of hydrochloric acid in some of the samples effervescence reaction to hydrochloric acid sample 1b yes sample 2b no sample 3b no sample 4b no table 3. results of the hydrochloric acid test vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 67 composition. the data found are shown in table 3. it can be observed from the results obtained in figure 5 that only the sample from area 1 presents cement in its composition, the other mortars were constituted without this component, probably containing only limestone, mineral aggregates and water. 5.2 surface hardness determination the objective was to determine the hardness depending on the application of a certain force on the surface of the sample. first, the thicknesses of the four samples of group b were measured using a pachymeter, as shown in table 4. identification measures (mm) average (mm) sample 1b 28 14 17 10 17 17,2 sample 2b 18 11 24 11 10 14,8 sample 3b 12 26 20 18 18 18,8 sample 4b 16 27 24 18 22 21,4 surface hardness (shore c) sample 1b 75 sample 2b 70 sample 3b 85 sample 4b 75 table 6. surface hardness data measured in the laboratory with shore c durometer table 4. measurements of sample thickness the values obtained in situ in the areas of sample removal using the shore d durometer are shown in table 5. an eight-point mesh was made in each area and a measure of hardness was collected for each point, as well as its mean surface hardness value. in the laboratory a new measurement was made using the shore c durometer, this time in the own samples of group b, the mean values obtained for each sample are presented in table 6. then, the samples whose composition did not contain cement, that is, lime mortars, passed the une en 13279-2 (2014) hardness test. in them, a steel sphere of diameter equal to 10 mm was placed at a fixed point on the surface, and a force of 200 n was applied, as shown in figure 6. area 1 (shore d) average 1 17,5 39,5 42 57,5 51,94 61 30 54,5 59,5 area 2 (shore d) average 2 52,5 52 47 50 55,5 59,5 49 74 60 area 3 (shore d) average 3 32 31 44,5 44,5 36,87 31,5 42,5 32 37 area 4 (shore d) average 4 60 53 52,5 48,5 56,06 62 37 71 64,5 table 5. surface hardness data measuredin situ with shore d durometer figure 6. hardness test in laboratory the hardness formula: h = f / (!.d.t) was applied, where t refers to the depth of the mark that the sphere leaves on the surface after the test. therefore, the hardness found in lime mortars is shown in table 7. 68 hardness h in mpa sample 2b 20,69 sample 3b 20,02 sample 4b 20,07 table 7. hardness according to the test with the steel ball according to the graph of figure 7, the results point to hardness values between 70 and 85 shore c, so its water to gypsum ratio is approximately 0,7. according to the measurement conversions data of the used durometers, the measurements made with shore c between 70 and 77 correspond to measurements performed with shore d between 46 and 58, so measurements taken in situ and in the laboratory coincide. in situ hardness measurements showed much lower values for the area 3 sample, while in laboratory tests this value was contradicted, with the sample having a higher surface hardness. due to the conditions found in situ, it is possible to consider that the detachment of the coating on the wall, and the hollow part that was cited as found in the sample removal area, influenced the in situ results of this sample. the tests performed on lime mortars presented very similar results in all samples, with values around 20 mpa. figure 7. shore c hardness graph. source: pastor e agórriz (2009) 5.3 granulometry the aggregates granulometry directly influences the composition of the new mortar, in the texture, color, compactness and in the main properties of the mechanical resistances, besides the workability and water retention. the granulometry test was performed only on a sample of area 1 (cement and lime mortar), that mass was 45.2 g. the sample went through the disaggregation process with the rubber stopper (figure 8 [a]), to be able to pass the grains through the sieves, as shown in figure 8 [b]. the sieves used have their retention in mm of 12.5; 10; 8; 6.3; 4; 2; 1; 0.5; 0.125; 0.063. in each sieve, the retained material was weighed. the result of the process can be seen in the graph of figure 8 [c] which the different types of dimensions obtained in the sieving can be observed. the granulometry presented boulders larger than 8 mm, which could already be considered too large for the composition of the mortar, and are not currently used. the aggregate used is considered well graded, with varying dimensions. when analyzing the coefficient of uniformity cu = d60/def, it was obtained the value 31.7, greater than 15, referring to a non-uniform material. the coefficient of curvature obtained by the formula cc = (d30)"/d60xd10 was 0.12; being fewer than 1, and refers to an open degree. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 69 5.4 compressive strength the method consisted of performing the compression test on irregular samples collected in situ with confined mortars of superior resistance to those to be tested and using the conventional press for compression tests of prismatic gypsum samples. it was made wood molds of 4x4 cm to the confection of the confining mortar (composition of cement and sand in the 1:3 dash by mass) more resistant than the mortars studied, in order to regularize the surfaces of the samples and make it possible to carry out the compression test on a homogeneous basis, there are no specific accusations that will disqualify the judgment. to obtain a smooth surface, after 15 days drying of the confinement mortar, plates of sulfur were molded on them, as shown in figure 9. then the compression tests were performed on the four samples (1b, 2b, 3b and 4b), which had their lateral dimensions decreased, as shown in the figures in figure 9 [a]. the results are shown in the graphs in figure10. the speed of application charging with sample 1b (0.2 kn/s) was higher than the others (0.1 kn/s), because it is a mortar constituted with cement. the curvature of the graphs showed that the first two samples (1b figure 8. realization process of granulometry test. asample disaggregation process bsample separated by the set of used sieves csample granulometric curve and 2b) are composed with more aggregates than the others (3b and 4b), because they presented a more curved graph, while the last ones, especially sample 3b, have the line formed by the graph more straight than the others, meaning a reduced amount of aggregates in their composition. it was observed, through the values obtained in the tests, that sample 1b (cement mortar) did not present resistance to high compression, losing in mechanical resistance even for the other samples (composed only with lime), since the composite samples of lime (2b, 3b and 4b) presented slightly higher values of compressive strength. it should be mentioned that sample 2b could lead to a positive result in terms of compressive strength, due to the very reduced thickness of the samples in this area of study when compared to the others, but this fact cannot be considered conclusive, since the amount of regularization mortar that needed to be used was higher than the other samples, which may have influenced its final result. the high compression result of the sample 3b, however, can be taken into account, since the sample had enough thickness for a more conclusive test. figure 11 shows the final appearance of the samples after the compressive strength tests, and as an example, one of the samples was used to show the 70 figure 9. test bodies and positioning in the compression test press afinal appearance of the tests bodies btest body positioned in the press figure 10. individual results of the compressive strength tests of the samples vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 71 vectors of forces acting on the test body during the test. the red vectors represent the compression suffered and the black ones the reaction of the part. in this way, as the upper ends were connected to another containment surface, tend to have vectors smaller than the center of the sample. 5.5 determination of water absorption, porosity and density table 8 presents the results of water absorption, porosity and density of the samples. sample 1a, composed of cement,had the lowest water absorption when compared to lime mortars, which presented slightly higher values. the sample with the highest porosity was 2a, followed by 4a, which were also the most porous for the in situvisual analysis. the porosity is also related to the water absorption of the samples, the most porousedbeing the one that absorbed the most amount of water, except for sample 1a, which in this test had higher porosity than sample 3b,and in the immersion absorption test it was the one with the lowest value. in relation to the apparent density, the highest value figure 11. mortar samples after the compressive strength test was the one presented by sample 1a, probably due to the composition with the presence of larger area, which already present high density by themselves, and also by the low porosity of this sample. the sample of lower density (2a) is the same one of greater apparent porosity and greater absorption. 5.6 water content (gravimetric method) the material water content was calculated by means of the mass difference according to the sample in the initial state and after drying. the results were expressed, therefore, in percentage of mass, referring to the mass in the dry state. from this technique it is possible to indicate if the origin of the humidity is related to the capillary elevation, when it is detected, for example, the existence of coating areas with high levels of water, both in dry (summer) and wet (winter) weather conditions, and there are no other causes of permanent water supply (e.g. broken or leaking pipes). the extraction of the samples was carried out preserving the humidity present in the mortar found in situ, for this they were stored in sealed and identified plastic bags, until the moment of the first 72 weighing, called wet in the natural state. the data of wet weighing, sample weighing after oven drying and water content are shown in table 9. sample 3a presented a percentage of water much higher than the other samples, which was collected in an environment without sunlight, different from the others, probably with a high concentration of humidity, which may have contributed to the water content found in the test. sample 4a also belonged to a covered environment, but with a little more ventilation and sunlight, which contributes to the result of the water content also being higher than the others. the lower value of water content was obtained with sample 2a, which had the highest absorption, higher porosity and lower apparent density. it should be mentioned that this sample did not present high humidity in its natural state in situ at the time of identification drymass, ms (g) saturated mass, msat (g) saturated, submerged mass, mi (g) absorption (%) porosity (%) dry apparent density (g/cm!) saturated apparent density (g/cm!) sample 1a 94,72 104,86 55,83 10,70 20,68 1,93 2,14 sample 2a 71,29 83,23 32,26 16,75 23,42 1,40 1,63 sample 3a 154,71 174,27 68,60 12,64 18,51 1,46 1,65 sample 4a 95,64 109,50 44,52 14,50 21,33 1,47 1,68 identification wet mass in the natural state, mu (g) dry pasta in greenhouse, ms (g) water content (%) sample 1a 95,2 94,72 0,507 sample 2a 71,4 71,29 0,154 sample 3a 163,5 154,71 5,681 sample 4a 96,6 95,64 1,004 table 8. results of water absorption by immersion, apparent porosity and apparent density table 9. results of the water content in the samples collection, probably due to its position in relation to the sun, but is disposed to great absorption, which can generate pathological manifestations in the coating. 6. final considerations with the withdrawal and the study of samples of four distinct points of the buildings that constitute the factory la ceramo, of valencia, similarities and differences were observed between mortars of great importance for their characterization as elements of old coating. most of the factory's mortar coating are composed of water, lime and varying amounts of aggregates, but in the factory's main and oldest points, in this case the ovens where the ceramics are burned, the coatings found are cement and lime mortars, differing from the other samples collected in composition and characteristics. with the results obtained through the characterization techniques performed in the laboratory and from the in situ observations, it was found that the mortars made of cement and lime found did not present very positive characteristics in the aspects analyzed in this work, resulting in material with low quality, both in its initial composition and in function of external influences suffered over time. this way, in the other areas of coating with mortars, in the case with lime, it was presented better results when compared to ovens mortars, as well as for samples of lime mortars produced in the laboratory for the purpose vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 73 of comparative analysis. the samples of lime mortar, generally less resistant than those of cement, showed good quality. it can also be verified that lime mortars, even having a similar composition in their origin, when applied at different points of the factory acquired uneven characteristics over time, directly related to the local conditions of the coated walls. that is, each place within the walls of la ceramo, due to its different characteristics, also have old mortars that have been distinguished over time. acknowledgments to fapesp – fundação de amparo a pesquisa do estado de são paulo, for the granting of scholarships in the bepe – internship research internship grant the first two authors. references asociación española de normalización – une (2012). en 93311: ensayos para determinar las propriedades geométricas de los áridos, españa. asociación española de normalización – une (2014). en 13279-2: yesos de construcción y conglomerantes a base de yeso para la construcción, españa. associação brasileira de normas técnicas – abnt (2009). nbr 9778: argamassa e concreto endurecidos – determinação da absorção de água, índice de vazios e massa específica, brasil. calia, m. (2017). crev – universitat politècnica de valencia, españa. falcão, s. (2010). caracterização das argamassas antigas da igreja do colégio de portimão. dissertação (mestrado) – faculdade de ciências da universidade de lisboa, lisboa, portugal. lanzinha, j. c. g. (1998). propriedades higrotérmicas de materiais de construção. dissertação (mestrado) – faculdade de ciências e tecnologia da universidade de coimbra, coimbra, portugal. pastor, r. c.; agórriz, e. a. (2009). apuntes de conglomerantes y materiales componentes de morteros y hormigones – universidad politecnica de valencia – departamento de constucciones arquitectónicas, valencia, españa. pagliuca, a. (2017). crev – conoscenza recupero valorizzazione – università degli studi dela basilicat, potenza, italy. rodrigues, p. n. (2013). caracterização das argamassas históricas da ruína de são miguel arcanjo/rs. dissertação (mestrado) – universidade federal de santa maria – centro de tecnologia, santa maria, brasil. santos, p. s. (1989). ciência e tecnologia de argilas, vol. 1, edgard blucher ltda., são paulo, brasil. santos, a. s. (2003). nova abordagem na caracterização de argamassas antigas. atas do 3º encore – encontro sobre conservação e reabilitação de edifícios, lnec, lisboa, portugal. válek, j.; veiga, r. (2005). characterization of mechanical properties of historic mortars – testing of irregular samples. proceedings of 9th international conference on structural studies, repairs and maintenance of heritage architecture (stremah 2005), university of malta, malta. velosa, a. (2006). argamassas de cal com pozolanas para revestimento de paredes antigas. tese (doutorado) – universidade de aveiro, aveiro, portugal !" biwa canal in okazaki. © olimpia niglio 2015 la riqualificazione degli scenari notturni nel borgo di fontecchio (aq), by di giorgio s., munzi c., paglione m., sciandra. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; !# $%&'($)' !"#$%$&'"()$&*$+,-./01$2302)/3"4+*"5+%$/6+73+24&"5+,$+33/$+,"89:#5..;'"<+$%3/=$2>"6?"@a.b)$&4'" @a.b)$&4'":24&> in the last decades, the topic of lighting of the historical minor centres is taking a prominent role in the cultural debate on the urban recovery interventions, because of the development of a greater awareness of the regenerative potential role that a careful planning system of urban lighting can take in this context. the latter, which had a purely functional role in the past, has recently taken a figurative and emotional role, associated with the vision of the urban light scene during the night and its valorization. the study of light, therefore, has inevitably turned into an instrument of knowledge and critical interpretation of the urban spaces, aimed both to functional recovery of the lighting network technology, and the regeneration of the urban image and its night scenes. the needs that this sector should satisfy are multiple and, sometimes, conflicting: the need for road safety, the reduction of light pollution, the need for energy and cost savings. the research aims to define an operative methodology to deal with the light planning in complex contexts as the minor historical centers, in which the concept of transformation of the urban scene clashes directly with the concept of preserving the identity features of the places and its constructive values and materials. among the goals, there is therefore the aim of highlighting the main gaps in the network, due both to plant engineering reasons and to the obsolescence of the existing lighting fixtures. we operatively work in the urban voids system field, as spaces that characterize the urban scene. through the knowledge of their dominant features it is possible to preserve their identity and, at the same time, enhance their singularity, with a suitable lighting project, which requires the study of materials, colors and consumption. the purpose is to promote an urban development, able to produce positive economic, social and cultural effects, oriented to improve the quality of life, as well as to value the architectural and environmental heritage giving importance to energy and economic saving. *+,-.(/& urban lighting, minor historical centres, night scenes regeneration, compatibility !"#$%&'()$*+,"-+),$+)$-"#$&#"('+*+-(-+.)$./$-"#$0+).&$"+1-.&+2(*$2#)-&#$ !"#$3#1+,)$12#)(&+.1$/.&$-"#$(&2"+-#2-%&(*$4(*.&+1(-+.)$()3$-"#$#)#&,5$ #//+2+#)25$+06&.4#0#)-$./$-"#$%&'()$#)4+&.)0#)c$3/&)$,$"93"(3/4/*$+$=!'"#1$4/4"d4/01$6++$'"@)$=4"#4e4++6&6!' !0 123 45'(./6)'4.573 '8+3 84&'.(4)$93 )+5'(+&3$5/3'8+394:8'3;(.%9+< the urban fabric of the minor historical centres that characterize the italian apennine mountains, as well as the abruzzo region, can be defined as an architecture without architects (may et al 2010). it is characterized by a sober language, which has preserved its character of unity over the centuries, result of the handing down of a practical knowledge from generation to generation. the basic building of the historical buildings has generally a quite poor shape, characterized by the use of local natural materials, manufactured in an elementary way and set in place using simple constructive techniques (ortolani 1961). the set of building fabric and open spaces constitutes a single network of historical, environmental, landscape and material culture values with the surroundings: they are the expression of the environmental value of the whole (zordan et al 2002) architecture that integrates perfectly with nature and a spontaneous perfection that produces an organic and harmonious system, unique case by case. among the less investigated aspects within the minor historical centres there is the supply, the distribution and the consequent energy and services management and the way of integration of the plant elements in an urban landscape that, originally, was not created to host them. those that are usually identified as immaterial networks (pazzaglini 2004) are now clearly and strongly recognizable within the minor historical centers, often giving rise to forms of architectural and figurative degradation, as well as inefficient plant engineering. among them, the electrical grid has contributed much more than the other to determine the transformation of the landscape and the urban areas. the advent of electricity, in fact, has led to the rise of deep incompatibilities between its associated grid and the historical fabric of the minor building, born and developed in preindustrial times. in particular, the system of public lighting has contributed for decades to modify the perception of open spaces and urban scenarios (schivelbusch 1994), as well as to create incompatibility with the historical fabric, bearer of values. the historical built doesn't preserve its inheritance of contents related to the artificial lighting: initially it didn't represent a component within the construction rules, but it responded to an essentially pragmatic approach. artificial lighting has been introduced for purely functional reasons and with very limited possibilities, allowed by use of torches or flame devices. in this field there isn't an inheritance to preserve and protect: the new elements don't have, therefore, a past to refer and it can simply overlap proposing new contents to improve and value the existing buildings, giving new quality. the failure of an exhaustive know-how development on the role of light in the definition of nocturnal identity of the historical centres, therefore, has given for a long time to the lighting the only function of visibility and road safety, neglecting the intrinsic potentialities of light to improve the perceptive quality of the built environment (gugliermetti et al 2011). it is necessary to differentiate between the concept of urban lighting and public lighting. the first is intended as a multidisciplinary issue that requires both a study of light on a subjective, psychological and emotional level, and a study of urban places on an objective level. the second one means the mere functional lighting of !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; != outdoor spaces, responding only with regulatory requirements and its parameters (bisegna et al 2010). just because of the multidisciplinary nature of the theme of urban lighting, the topic is not yet well detailed and not exhaustively defined: it ranges, in fact, from the rehabilitation and recomposition of urban spaces, the historical and aesthetic valorisation of the places, to the efficiency and energy saving problem, which leads to confer to urban lighting the role of sustainable development promoter. !23 $3 <+'8./.9.:,3 >.(3 '8+3 (+8$%494'$'4.53.>394:8'45:3&)+5+&73 .%?+)'4@+&3$5/35++/& this study aims to assign a fundamental role to light even in small contexts but rich in value, thanks to its ability to enhance the architectural singularity, emotionally characterizing the places, recreating the original spatial hierarchies, uniformity or differentiation, giving social relevance to the spaces . artificially lighting up means, in fact, taking into account also another vision of the historical built. the masonry texture, the plastic effects of facade elements, the characteristics of materials which have been used, are products of the incidence of light on the matter and of the variation of intensity and color temperature. this makes the landscape that is fixed in the genius loci (norberg-schulz, 1979) where we can recognize the places and our belonging to them. artificial lighting, therefore, cannot have content of uniform standardization, able to remove the difference and identity to historical heritage. our aim for the elaboration of a design methodology of small centres lighting is, other than the reduction of the economic, energy and environmental impact of the intervention, the integration of the lighting system in the identity context. the ancient contexts, rich in architectural and environmental values, don’t bear invasive and standardised operations. they show, however, complex problems and offer an articulate range of solutions that operating in synergy give rise to the most suitable intervention. a brave recovery of meaning and importance of the project is required: it is the "only instrument able to respond to the heterogeneity and the specificity of the different contextual situations" (zordan l. et al 2006), of the ability to act with different graduality on urban fabric, on open spaces and on built emergencies, highlighting the significant elements. therefore working on different levels at the same time is necessary: firstly providing a security lighting to ensure visibility within the urban fabric, by modulating the level of light intensity at the moment of maximum natural visibility. secondly, allowing the punctual visibility of the buildings with original solutions of illuminance at the level of color temperature and orientation, so as to emphasize the formal and spatial contents of the object (bianchi f. 1991). today there is a complete lack of balance of the nocturnal landscape of small historical centres, characterized by a discontinuous lighting, uneven lighting installations and architectural emergencies totally out of the surrounding context. the aim is to develop an aware design methodology, that takes into account the following different approaches, both the technical and functional, and the figurative and emotional, linked by the compatibility of necessary interventions and of compliant solutions with the specific context of investigation. ab the methodology considers every historic towns as one and indivisible, whose parts must be recognizable, but at the same time linked by a global vision. at the base of this approach there is the identification of the key elements and the logic of cohesion existing between them and the context (bisegna et al 2010). besides respecting the existing regulations, the aim is to develop a project of urban lighting that creates a new nocturnal urban identity, not discontinuous, which can enhance key aspects of the built landscape without altering the perceptible forms during the day. further impetus to the design is given by the current need to obtain an efficient illumination, able to guarantee the same performances with a lower energy consumption, thanks to the recent development of innovative technologies. the developed operative methodology is therefore based on the following phases: regulations (national, regional and municipal), in order to identify the compliant solutions with the objectives proposed : the light scenarios enhancement, energy saving, safety. centre, specifically about the functional, morphological and figurative analysis of urban spaces, the identification of the architectural space and the main categories, the analysis of the lighting network and its installations. situations concerning categories of space and lighting system examined, with determination of homogeneous areas of intervention. process between the intervention context and the compliant solutions that leads to the development of design scenarios and the resulting final design. !2123 '8+3 (+:69$'.(,3 >($<+-.(*3 $5/3 '8+3 ).5'(.93;$($<+'+(&3>.(36(%$5394:8'45: from the legislative point of view, the urban lighting is not currently regulated according to common guidelines at national or international level, except for the part concerning the reduction of light pollution. about this latter, in fact, in italy there are standards and recommendations dedicated since the nineties, both about the features of the constituent elements (sources and devices), and about the functionality and safety of the electrical design. recently the regions have developed some directives concerning instructions for the reduction of light pollution and energy saving, lacking in any case in terms of quality of the design phase. in particular, the abruzzo region adopted regional law n. 12 of 3 march 2005 about urgent measures for the containment of light pollution and energy saving , which regulates the technical requirements and the methods of use of outdoor lighting systems, both public and private. the rule requires the choice of systems able to reduce the energy consumption and the realization of electrical plants not dispersing light in the sky, both to reduce the energy waste and to safeguard the darkness of the night sky, according to the guidelines of international astronomical union1. the result of this lack of regulation, especially in the historical field, is a general situation of decay and technological disorder and the existence of planning errors due to the poor knowledge of the usable technologies. until now, therefore, for the urban lighting design, we have considered the main rules governing public street lighting at international and national levels2. in italy, in fact, the municipal lighting plan, introduced by the italian association of !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; a1 lighting is a basic tool for urban lighting design3. being a not mandatory planning instrument, most of italian municipalities has not yet proceeded to its adoption, although it represents an important support in the design phase. it coordinates, in fact, different needs: the accuracy and functionality of urban lighting; the valorisation of open spaces and architectural emergences; the reduction of light pollution; the revamping of outdated equipment with the possible conservation of historical equipment; the energy saving. it is, therefore, a tool that allows to avoid errors in the realization of single lighting interventions, establishing a knowledge base to promote the integration of interventions in the context. regarding the aims of the urban lighting design, also in the case of minor centres, the main are the security, the containment of light pollution and the energy and cost saving, achievable through improvement measures of the energy grid. security is the parameter that arised the need of introducing the urban lighting. in this case the term security takes on a double meaning: road safety for drivers, as it is necessary to avoid the dazzling phenomena that ensure an adequate visibility of any obstacles; and public security, that is the physical and psychological safety of people and places in nightscapes, whose usability must be the same as the diurnal urban environments one (gugliermetti 2011). at night, in fact, it is necessary to avoid the risk of criminal activities and vandalism at people or things, ensuring the visibility and the recognition of people and thus an appropriate level of luminance in the environment4. light pollution, instead, is a parameter which indicates the alteration of lighting levels in the nocturnal environment because of the introduction of artificial light. this phenomenon takes place when the light is scattered outside of the areas where its function is required, as for example the light emitted by external lighting fixtures dispersed upwards, towards the the sky. it causes environmental damages, being a disturbing element for astronomical observations, and economic ones, because of the dispersion of light towards areas that do not need it. it is therefore an energy and economic waste, sign of inadequate urban lighting. the national standard reference5 sets the maximum intensity allowed in the upper hemisphere, depending on the territorial zone, and the higher average emission as evaluation parameters of light pollution. therefore, the respect of these parameters is a good rule in the planning phase, in order to limit the phenomenon, following expedients such as the reduction of the luminous flux towards the sky and the maintenance of lighting within the geometric shapes of the buildings, whereby the intervention concerns the lighting of vertical facades. from the energy point of view, the field of public lighting is one of the most energivorous, because it is characterized by high power consumption and excessive waste. these are mainly caused by the generalized use of obsolete technologies with low efficiency, by inadequate or absent network control and by poor maintenance and retrofit interventions practically unimplemented. however, the reduction of costs and consumptions is possible, implementing initiatives for the replacement of old lighting fixtures with new led lighting technology and through the introduction of intelligent management and control of public lighting system, which automatically regulate and turns off the lighting fixtures, according to the intended use of the illuminated areas and to any set time. these systems allow to achieve a high energy and cost saving, at the expense of higher costs of intervention, for which an a! amortization plans should be defined. !2!3 '8+3.;+53&;$)+&3$5/3'8+4(3>+$'6(+& in the dense urban system of small towns, the open spaces are the social and connective system of the built fabric, of which are complementary. the conformation of the open spaces varies from centre to centre, depending on the prevalent form: the geometric structure of the internal road network may accompany the urban margins with a linear profile, according to the prevailing soil arrangement, a curvilinear or orthogonal profile. the transverse paths with respect to the main axes, however, adapt themselves to the performance of the ground profile taking the form of ramps or stairways (rolli 2004). in the centres of abruzzo region can be considered relevant open spaces not only confined spaces, generally understood as squares or places of relationship, but also urban spaces connecting various areas, the empty spaces arose after the earthquake of 2009, the margin space, meaning any kind of area outside figure 1. the map of open spaces in the minor centre of fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., paglione m., sciandra s. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; aa the historical built. after defining the investigation field, a number of small towns included in the seismic crater of the in the province of l’aquila6, it was possible to proceed with a classification of these spaces through an in situ season of surveys and an extensive photographic documentation. in order to understand and examine the types of spaces, firstly we considered the morphological and functional features. the morphology identifies the physical-space of the settlement, which relates the size and the shape of spaces, particularly significant in the compact built of minor centres. the functional survey identifies, however, the uses of spaces and the relationships between them, distinguishing between public and private urban open spaces. the morphological and functional analysis allowed to define the kinds of prevalent space: the relationship spaces, such as squares and public spaces, which are spaces of varying sizes for collective use and for social grouping. the morphology and development of the connecting spaces, which release the function of connective tissue of the urban system, is influenced by the settlement site characteristics and by the logic of buildings aggregation: covered ways, discovered ways or staircases. finally the adjacent spaces and the empty spaces: the first, in most cases are private, such as courts, indoor gardens and vegetable garden; the second formed after the collapses and alterations due to the earthquake (fig.1). bearing in mind the specificity of the topic, it is also carried out the perceptive analysis of space, depending on the characteristics of ways and sequence of the points of view as well as the landscapes partial views. the recognition of spatial characteristics is aligned with the study of lighting network. this analysis allows us to identify the type of equipment and light sources existing, their photometric characteristics, the maintenance status of the plant network and the level of correct lighting parameters. all the previous analyses lead to the identification of the existing critical issues both at an illuminating engeneering and installation level, as well as the formal incompatibilities with the built. in the municipality of fontecchio (fig.2), in the province of l'aquila, it has been detected the distribution of the electrical grid and the spots lighting indicating the progressive number, the height and the watt power. rough set data analysis has highlighted that the electrical distribution grid is mainly transmitted through overhead cables, apart from a little way in the ancient village. in this little way the electrical grid is underground, in accordance with good engineering practice, in order to protect the safety and the longevity of the grid. the evaluation of the electricity supply lines has highlighted a general state of obsolescence of the network and the luminous bodies, that request an upgrade according to the current legislation. in general, it was noticed an insufficient level of lighting of many internal roads and open spaces; in san nicola square ,in the ancient village, there is an excess of electric cables, both overhead and on the facades, which provokes an evident decay of the public space. the devices installed near the covered ways don't guarantee an adequate level of lighting, with regard to both safety of people and characterization of the elements themselves. dazzling phenomena, instead, occur close to the architectural emergency of the fourteenthcentury fountain, where noumerous illuminating bodies have been installed without a suitable ac planning. in the whole village the cables of the conductors and the steel wire ropes joints are often roughly hooked on the facades of the buildings, with a consequent figurative damage. as regards the luminous sources, they are all sodium-vapour sources, mostly 70 watts of power, except some spotlights used on some buildings of value ( the church of santa maria della pace, the abandoned church of s. nicola and porta castello), that have a wattage that goes from 250w to 400w. the temperature of the colour is indistinct and on warm tones on all the present devices. the final effect is an accurate and irregular lighting, with little illuminated areas and an inadequate color rendering. regarding the architectural emergencies identified, in fact, only public lighting allows a minimum nocturnal perception of their qualities, with an insufficient color rendering of the illuminated buildings. numerous road illumination devices don't have a glass closing, condition that provokes a reduction of the source life continually exposed figure 2. the map of the existing electrical network in the village of fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., paglione m., sciandra s. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; ad to temperature leaps and a premature decrease of the device efficiency, up to 70% less, losses due to the dirt stratified on the lamp. some areas, therefore, are not sufficiently reached by the flux produced by the system, with the consequent decrease of the homogeneity of illumination. the analysis of the spaces and the critical issues of the illumination system (fig.3) leads to the identification of minimum unities of intervention, homogeneous areas associated by the same spatial and functional characteristics. for each one the needs are defined and the objectives of the various phases of the productive process are rationalised (scheduling, planning, implementation, management and figure 3. analysis of lighting network critical of fontecchio (aq). design by marchionni c. maintenance), always taking into account the hierarchy and the connection between the parts. !2a23'8+3/+&4:53.>394:8'45:3&)+5$(4.& after the identification of critical issues and needs of the different spatial categories, the recognition of project actions is based on the choice of solutions that conform with the context of investigation, among the compliant solutions resulting from the state of the art. for every type a" of scenery there are both statutory requirements, resulting from the rules or from specific classes of needs, and voluntary requirements, which define an additional level of quality in addition to the bare minimum level, dictated by statutory requirements. these are for example the need to improve the comfort, the quality of life, the balance between natural and human systems, the energy saving. the design approach developed is based on the assumption that the center has its own nocturnal image so, in order to respect both the nocturnal and diurnal identity of the places, it is necessary to define a system of hierarchies and differences between all the elements that compose it. for each spatial category identified in the knowledge phase, open spaces of relationship, connecting spaces, urban voids, margin spaces, as well as historical systems, historical and architectural buildings and monuments, corresponds the definition of a concept, and thus of a luminous scenario that respects the mentioned requirements concerning lighting (fig. 4). it is essential, in defining these scenarios, to consider lighting as a cultural factor, even before a technical one and to evaluate the effective diurnal and nocturnal environmental impact through the light intensity, the color rendering in relation to building materials, the effects of shadow, the visual impact of the elements and their integration in the context. in the theme of urban lighting, the primary requirement is to illuminate open spaces, individual facades of historical and architectural buildings, emphasizing the lighting on some elements, in order to create visual hierarchies and connections, also on the basis of scenographic reasons. in the historical centres, however, the use of chromatic effects or impactful lighting fixtures should be avoided, because it can alter the perception of the different architectural elements of relief. in addition, in every identified field, particular attention needs to be paid in the design phase to the features of the devices and the light sources to adopt, on the basis of features such as color temperature and color rendering. in the first stage of defining the scenarios, methodology figure 4. identification of critical situations and strategies of the open spaces of fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., paglione m., sciandra s. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; a# a0 takes into account the distinction between the intervention context of the internal historic core and the margin context. in both fields, dealing with the lighting of pedestrian and vehicular paths, the focus is primarily on the safety factor, ensuring adequate levels of illumination and uniformity on the ground, and accentuating perspective views and directions through the right amount of illumination. in this case, the color rendering is not essential, but it is however appropriate not to create excessive visual contrast, also with a view to the contemporary visual perception of any other elements in the urban scene. the scenery may change according to the type and level of importance attributed to the different roads in the hierarchy defined in the analysis phase. the main roads will thus be characterized by a greater emphasis than the minor roads that merge with them. figure 5. lighting concept on the redevelopment of the church of s. nicola in fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., paglione m., sciandra s. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; a= the lighting of pedestrian areas and streets, in this case, goes beyond the simple functional requirements, that refer to the values of horizontal and vertical illuminance, becoming the characterization tool of the type of scene and ensuring a correct identification of the ground path. in the case of green spaces lighting, it is important to underline the characterizing and constituent elements (arboreal species, water spaces, etc.) and the geometric signs on the ground, in order to create suggestive nocturnal images, giving a safe perception of the paths. regarding the facades of the buildings inside the historical centre, with their function of urban scenes, the project scenario proposes an illumination that enhances the singularities of the buildings themselves, rather than a uniform illumination of the whole external facade. however, the architectural features of the buildings should not be distorted, by placing incorrectly the light sources or exceeding with the light intensity, and the relationship between the elements should be maintained, emphasizing any remarks or openings on the surfaces. the placement of lamps on poles, on the ground, or on the surrounding buildings depends on the existing installation possibility and the compatibility with the built. in the particular case of historical and architectural emergencies, the methodological approach involves the creation of a hierarchy of formal, figurative and volumetric values, with the consequent introduction of some contrasts that create different levels of reading, based on the choice of points and directions of observation that must be emphasized (gugliermetti et al 2011). in this case the legislation is a support for the indication of the illuminance levels to ensure, depending on the type of material that is illuminated. in the case of architectural elements or monuments is also important the consideration of the shadows: in fact,in order to avoid the creation of unwanted shadow zones in the initial design, it is often necessary to introduce corrective lights (fig. 5). finally, the wall margin scenes of the historical centres, designed as the edges of the building development of the town, often characterized by the presence of wall houses, deserve a separate mention. though these elements are considered as interruptions of continuity, actively participate in the visual urban organization, because they hold together all the internal parts of the village. they will have a diffused and uniform light, able to allow a long-distance perception of the historical centre (fig. 6). during the design phase, it is necessary to control all the light parameters, and the correctness of the results achieved both from the technical-functional point of view, assessing their compliance to the previously described rules, and the perceptual and emotional one, also using specific modeling and lighting control software (initial fig. and fig. 7). a23 ).5)96&4.5& this study shows how essential it is to deal with the lighting of the historic village through a consistent rehabilitation of the urban context, considering it as a single organism, in which the problem lies in the subtle relationships that interconnect the parts and each part with the whole. through the culture of design and the application of the proposed methodology, it is then possible to predict compatible and non-invasive interventions, able to enhance cb the existing cultural contents, both specific contents of the object and those arising from its relationship with the context. the aim is to offer new emotional and suggestive contents without disturbing or altering the existing values. at the same time, it is important to model the light and make it flexible, in order to adjust the luminous flux, overcoming the rigidity and fixity of the uniform and predefined contributions; proposing, instead, the introduction of some components able to change their content and the specific values of intensity, color temperature, directional flow, etc.. administrations and local communities are interested and involved in the valorisation of the figure 6. concept and realistic view of the margins spaces of fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., m. paglione, sciandra. built environment through the night lighting, in an attempt to give new dignity to the environment through a more accurate reading of its assets throughout the whole day. the tasks of the administrations is to control the phase of maintenance of the asset, which should be easily manageable by unskilled personnel, and to control the management stage that, for a better efficiency of the whole, should provide sectors with variable operation, with motion detectors able to activate illumination levels mutable as a function of time, in different hours of the night. figure 7. lighting control of s. nicholas square in fontecchio (aq). design by di giorgio s., munzi c., m. paglione, sciandra s. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; c1 figure 6. c! figure 7. !"#$%&"' ()#*$)+#"')+,-.'%$)+,'/-0$12"#*1#%$*3*12)','45-+)67%8#+")+9","#5 !',%:*-; ca (+>+(+5)+&3 aa. vv., guida per il piano regolatore comunale dell’illuminazione pubblica, aidi, milano 1998 aa. vv., raccomandazioni per l’illuminazione pubblica, aidi, milano 1993 bianchi f., l’architettura della luce, edizioni kappa, roma 1991 bisegna f., gugliermetti f., barbalace m., monti l., metodologie di progettazione e valutazione di sistemi di illuminazione pubblica, report enea 2010, report rds/2010/239, p. 3 gugliermetti f., bisegna f., monti l., illuminazione urbana e scenari di progettazione, enea report rds/2011/195, 2011 may j., reid a., architettura senza architetti, rizzoli, bologna 2010 norberg-schulz c., genius loci. paesaggio, ambiente, architettura, (traduzione it) electa, milano 1979 ortolani m., la casa rurale negli abruzzi, leo s. olschki editore, firenze 1961 pazzaglini m., architetture e paesaggi della città telematica, mancosu editore, roma 2004 rolli g. l., conoscenza, rappresentazione, recupero urbanistico dei centri storici minori, alinea, firenze 2004, p. 18 schivelbusch w., luce, storia dell’illuminazione artificiale nel secolo xix, nuova pratiche editrice, parma 1994 zordan l., bellicoso a., de berardinis p., di giovanni g., morganti r., le tradizioni del costruire della casa in pietra: materiali, tecniche, modelli e sperimentazioni, gruppo tipografico editoriale, l’aquila 2002, p. 7 zordan l., de berardinis p., di giovanni g., bellicoso a., morganti r., dalla conoscenza al progetto. tutela e valorizzazione dell’edilizia di base nei contesti storici dell’abruzzo, in atti del convegno intervenire sul patrimonio edilizio: cultura e tecnica”, torino 2006 $)*5.-9+/:<+5'& the project of lighting regeneration of open spaces of minor centre of fontecchio (aq) was developed by students sabrina di giorgio, chiara munzi, paglione marina, sciandra silvano, within the course of techniques of production and preservation of building materials, professor p. de berardinis, a.a. 2013-2014. 5.'+& 1. civil protection and environment direction. policies for sustainable development service, regional investigate on the implementation of lr march 3, 2005 n. 12 “urgent measures on light pollution and energy saving”. 2. at european level, in order to develop and public the standards, the european commission established the european committee for standardization (cen) that in case of international standards is limited to the implementation of the same. in italy there is the technical commission uni light and lighting, which takes part in the italian and european law, translating into italian the standards issued by cen and devising new ones. 3. the aidi (italian lighting association) publishes guides in order to make available the requirements and specify the methods of implementation. among the objectives of the documents prepared by aidi there is the definition of a general methodology for urban lighting, with the contribution of land regulation in the lighting field (pric), is one of the aim of the documents prepared by the aidi. 4. the illuminance values are regulated by standard en 13201. 5. uni 10816 outdoor lighting installations. requirements for the limitation of the upward dispersion of the luminous flux. 6. the earthquake that struck the abruzzo region in april 6, 2009 has only aggravated an already difficult situation: the area defined as seismic crater occupies a portion of land of approximately 3000 square kilometers, comprising 57 municipalities, divided between the provinces of l’aquila, pescara and teramo. 6 vitruvio: i libri di gené. by franco dal molin, 18/06/2013, used under cc by 2.0, modification: cut, source:https://www.flickr.com/ photos/orsorama/9114436079/in/photolist-7gewhr-aj8uww-7emad-etpsid-y3unxv-ygovh-4p8r3w vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 1 abstract dipartimento di architettura, università degli studi “g. d’annunzio” di chieti-pescara vitruvius wrote the first treatise of architecture and in it we find the fundamental recommendations for a good design. in the past 50 years it seems, instead, that each of these directions had been lost and there is today the need of promoting a new design paradigm that is attentive to nowadays criticalities and directed to sustainable development. the term sustainability starts to configure the quality of human actions since the 80’s following reflections on the resources limit (raw materials and fossil fuels) and the environment capacity limit of absorbing emissions and waste. the concept of sustainable development was elaborated in 1987 in the brundtland report according to the need of distinguishing it from the concept of growth, that is to say with the goal of tending simultaneously toward the quality verification of programs in the environmental, social and economic dimensions. all that invited the whole society to reconsider its "lifestyle" that, in the specific field of architecture, meant finding a new design approach geared to a lower consumption and greater caution and responsibility in the choices. the configuration of a new design paradigm can trace their roots in the study of history and can proceed to evaluate the actions in a broad context of skills to ensure the quality of the products. keywords project culture; sustainability; evaluation the architectural design in time of crisis a research of "roots" to support the development maria cristina forlani http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4471 2 1. short analysis of the crisis the architectural design in this era of 'crisis' needs a deep reflection that encompasses from the origins of the reasons of the project to those of the current crisis and is able to announce a 'recap' of the fundamental principles, underlying the 'choices', not only for technicians but also for the formation of future designers. (raiteri, 2014) it is evident the accelerated transformation of the studies and practice of making architecture in conjunction of structural and technological innovations: to free themselves from the weight of the structures, towards more "dematerialized" and light systems and at the same time ignoring the problems of the cold or the heat in homes, because they are entrusted to a technical plant design always more sophisticated and efficient, it released the designer by a series of "strings" of the project, this meant the illusion of an extreme freedom in the definition of a "drawing" only subject to laws of formal composition. for these reasons materials and systems deemed to be obsolete and/or not economic convenient were abandoned: they have been using no more massive structures but lighter skeletons able to guarantee structural efficiency with minimal material consumption and wide availability in the management of empty space in walls and plants. the offer of new technical plants, also, contributed to the possibility to minimize the thickness and to assume total openings. the challenges relating to the objectives of minimizing the structures and maximizing the comfort can not be the only reference parameters; for example, the overall quantity of energy required for configuration of indoor comfort must be evaluated; not only that directly used to cool the environments but also that needed to get structural materials more advanced which must be added a further consumption for the numerous transportationalways more considerable as it related to a centralized production that do not consider the relations with the territory. the energetic issues and the environmental emergency shall not be dealt separately because they placed/are putting in crisis even the current development model. at the origins of 'crisis' there are complex reasons and choices aimed at rapid improvements of 'wellbeing', poorly evaluated in outcomes over the long term. (carson, 1962) for italy, it is unnecessary to remember the link between the mid-century energy policy (abandonment of researches on renewable energies which also had a role in the 30’s) and petrochemical development; the economic boom and the growth of manufacturing industry; the displacement of populations from the countryside to the city with the change of agricultural work/mechanized and connected to the chemical production of fertilizers and pesticides. (bevilacqua, 1996). we are referring to about fifty years, in which the new culture was consolidated (disposable) focused on the boundless trust in the progress of science and technology, able to solve problems and create an artificial reality hypothesized better than the natural. it is configured a crisis of development model woven with ecological-environmental crisis now very advanced and certainly caused and aggravated by the type of development. (bevilacqua, 2006). many responsibility are also found in the field of architectural design; indeed, the architect activity has consequences on the environment and on the energy consumption right from the approach to the project and the resulting modalities of execution of works. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 3 it would suffice to consider that over 35% of energy consumption is found in the civil sector (for building 100 square meters are used about 100 ton of waste materials; the 40% of waste is to imply to construction and demolition operations; about the 20% of emissions come from the construction industry). the construction sector, therefore, is strongly responsible for both soil consumption, energy and materials and production of waste as well as of emissions, at all stages of the process. the 'data', which can be determined by the sites of ministerial and official bodies responsible, highlight therefore a growing shortage of resources (the 80% of the used energy is still of fossil origin; the energy prices in the last 15 years have quintupled), a conspicuous use of materials (raised of 80% over the last 10 years with a rise in prices that have tripled), excessive land use (which continues without being stopped) and a still uncontrolled emission of co 2 (falling with consequent climate change). all that promises extremely critical situations of water stress, famine, climate migrations, epidemics, poverty, and determines the need of developing 'new challenges' for the overall governance of the territory and to meet additional needs in specific projects. 2. methodology and project checklist the notes below summarize the way towards the development of a more appropriate methodology underlying the sustainable and environmentally conscious project; in other words, we want to highlight a project approach innovated in the field of technological design that emphasizes, methodological and quality issues. for the “technological design of architecture” the general methodological dimension refers to the ‘systemic logic’ understood as a corpus of concepts, principles and applications according to interactive and interdisciplinary modalities. the pursuit of quality and the introduction of the concept of evaluation of the project-process, before of the architecture-product come from a need-performance setting and return, more markedly, to the project act responsibility. an ethics recall of making architecture regains importance that today knows more serious implications than all previous eras. i recall the problems that generally have been invested, since the industrial revolution, the ‘making architecture’ and mainly the events which, starting from the last three decades of the ‘900, gave new responsibility to the architect: the energy crisis (from the 70’s) and thereafter the environmental crisis (from the 80’s) showed consistent problems – raised by the consciousness of resource limitations (materials and energy) closely related to questions of construction-which never had emerged with so much weight and did not fit in the concerns of the designer for too long. at the end of the 60’s many intellectuals took a critical attitude toward that technology that was identified in the construction of the contemporary city where the skyscraper took on the value of symbol of economic power. the “dispute” was manifested with countercultural communities, which resulted as real laboratories of alternative research; it contributed to alternative technologies, based primarily on the research on renewable energies as opposed 4 to conventional fossil materials, such as solar and wind. the research informed of local peculiarities and the rediscoveryof local cultures led then to deal with the problems of the third world, has always been considered the natural market and the expansion field of building production that appeared in those years, even more foreign to the culture of the dwelling of places, to climate and local resources. so “poor” or “intermediate” technologies were proposed to improve the quality of the actions in the d.c.; these technologies were used for interventions in areas unrelated to western culture, capable of enhancing the characters of the traditions of the places, considered cultural heritage representative of the specific identity as opposed to the processes of cultural and environmental flattening. (norberg-schultz, 1979). the philosophy behind this different way of understanding the technology, attentive to the needs of users, in other words, but even more aware of the environmental criticality, local resources and renewable energy, in the 80’s, led to the theory of appropriate technology that also today are intervening instrument useful to retain the identity of european world, characterized by historical presence, landscape values and environmental resources of particular richness and complexity. appropriate technologies began to confront the tradition and take on the task of promoting and enhancing urban pre-existences, preserving the identity of existing geographical areas that have great landscape value. currently they include also highly innovative instruments provided that the solutions appear congruent with the demands of high quality and limited transformation. the tasks are essentially the management and the coordination. the path of technology, since the contestation and rebellion to the enslavement of the technique and its use as a means of headless representation of power, arrived finally to identify two ways of understanding the possibilities of technology and science: a) an scout attitude, identifying the research always more aimed towards new goals of science and technology, which sets no limits to the exploration of knowledge and tools whose innovative content can also be destructive for the habitat; the technological challenge is configured, in this way, tense to produce large and sophisticated techniques, structures with high-cost of construction and management, buildings in which the offer of comfort is increasingly mechanized and artificial; b) an attitude characterized by a long and patient revision work of the equipment of the industrial era that configure technologies considered means of environmental quality control, operating within individual reality and expressing themselves through “intelligent” management of resources, in order to propose environmental systems not serial and strongly identifiable. the latter aims to build a liveable and environmentally controlled habitat and are often called to repair faults produced by uncontrolled innovations. (gangemi, 1985). vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 5 re-reading the treatises and these buildings handed down by tradition with a specific attention to comprehensive process of designconstruction become a first step to reconnect the roots of knowledge and of practices for the solutions of actual critical issue. (emery, 2007). reflections, in particular, on rereading the “treatise” by vitruvius, identify significant contact points with the present problems in the current cultural debate. i mean the crisis of building culture: the criticism that diffusely is directed to some ‘attitudes’ in architectural design, extremely oriented to formal wills, overlooking the actual answers to the needs which determine; the need to govern a complex and interdisciplinary framework that often escapes, or is subject to uncritical proxies; the urgency to reconsider context problems too long ignored on account of a possible relocation of ‘products’. 3. since the formation of architect vitruvius maybe was the first architect who felt the need to write a «systematic treatment on architecture»; it is for technicians, but also collects information for the professional architect (book i, i), an issue closely connected to and projected towards the future; a first part of the training considers that it must be necessarily broad and interdisciplinary. «in the forming of the preparation of the architect contribute cultural contributions of many sciences and the experience of other arts. there is, indeed, a practice and a theory of the architecture. the practice involves continual exercise of a manual activity in respect of any material, to form it into shape. the theory is, however, that technical and methodological capacity that concrete itself in the design of the work. [… ] he should be competent in the field of literature and especially of history, skilled in design and good mathematician; he should be cure his philosophical and musical preparation; he shouldn’t ignore the medicine, he should know the law and the rules governing the motions of the heavenly bodies. » p. 8-9 the preparation in letters, history and philosophy means as fundamental to the ‘cultured’ configuration of the project that, with the drawing, make it transmissible, able to be transcribed and outcome of ‘knowledge’, of “thinking”, of the buildings handed down from history; but it must not fail math, under the double aspect of geometry and arithmetic: the first as a work tool, the second as practice for the economic management of the project; still highlighted the medical science, comparable to the knowledge of the ‘environmental’ issues (the picture is completed by the knowledge of the movement of the stars) and jurisprudence; for these latest is subsequently clarified the aim for the determination of healthiness of places and the capacity to proceed in accordance with the laws and regulations. «in order to know the elements that may be helpful or harmful to the health of man: the influences of climate, the characteristics of the air in the place, of water. disregarding these factors we can not build any healthy house. legal knowledge to control disputes, the astronomy for their clear laws relating to orientation and weather» p. 11 the reference to the interdisciplinary preparation is therefore more timely than ever; even more urgent it is the need to configure the discipline 6 of ‘project’ from “information for building” to “consultation between the protagonists of the same” is determinate, where the protagonists are the leaders of all the considered skills. it is promoting a careful and responsible planning where an important feature, often not disclosed, outcome of a long and laborious research, of a punctual knowledge of the technical solution and of handed down story, is highlighted; on the contrary it often leaves too much space to ‘creative’, understood as spontaneous and sudden inspiration. it is reported the story of dinocrate that proposes suitable projects to glorify alessandro when he came to power; the architect dinocrate had «conceived the design of carve monte athos in the figure of a man, with his left hand holding the broad perimeter of the walls of a big city and with the right hand a so large patera to catch the water of all the rivers that came down from the mountain and then pass them into the sea. the project appealed to alessandro who immediately asked if around the city were fairly extensive campaigns to provide wheat needs of the inhabitants. when he was told that for the supply it would have been necessary to use the import by sea, he said: “dinocrate, i admire your artwork and i welcome this, but i think that the foundation of a colony in that place is a project to disapprove. as an infant can not feed themselves and grow without milk of the mercy, so a city can not arise if it is not surrounded by fields that provide their products, and can not have a large population without a wide availability of food to sustain it.» book ii, preface p. 30-31 � � � % 8 ) ' % . # ) % 3 � 0 % 2 & / 2 ø . # %� methodology together with an interdisciplinary work the systemicperformance approach must be evaluated, as a guarantor of the weight and balance control posts at stake by the choices of the project compared to the quality of the product and the protection of the environment. (spadolini, 1974). the consideration of the basic needs (security, well-being, usability, appearance, management, environment protection) can become the reference, the guide to design consciously taking into account, in a balanced manner, and by testing, compared to every need, the choices more appropriate and sustainable. the so recommended sustainability becomes the responsibility of the architect-builder for realizing the project. (the) « buildings must have strength requirements, utilities and beauty. they will have strength when the foundation, built with carefully chosen materials and without greed, will deeply and firmly on the ground below; utilities when deployment of interior space of each building of any kind will be corrected and practice for use; beauty finally when the aspect of opera will be nice thanks to harmonious proportion of the parts that is achieved with the shrewd calculation of symmetries.» book i, iii, parts of architecture p. 17-18 but if the sustainability must bring together all projects, the knowledge of local peculiarities (material and immaterial) is the effective implementation of this recommendation and it is, therefore, from the knowledge of historical experiences and tradition that can start a fruitful cultural mending operation between past and future. (davey, 1965). vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 7 (men have the chance) [... ] «to handle easily with fingers any object, began [... ] to build huts covered with branches, who dig caverns beneath the mountains, who, also, to build with mud and branches of the shelters under which shelters, imitating the construction technique of the nests of swallows. [… ] when therefore with the daily activities, the men increased their manual ability in fabricate [...] and when they noticed many materials offered by nature [... ] through their work were able to do more pleasant and comfortable life, which the art made more refined. i will talk so about these materials useful for the fabrication, describing features and advantages. » book ii, i, the origins of construction art p. 32-34 5. the ‘environmental’ question «for a proper positioning of the buildings, first of all, we must consider in which areas and under what latitude should be built. we can't indeed assume that a single architectural model is suitable for all regions [... ].it is necessary to remedy with art to the drawbacks of nature. also in other regions it is necessary to try to improve environmental conditions, using appropriate criteria according to the different latitudes. [… ] because, therefore, different climatic conditions characterise various regions [... ] i didn't hesitate to indicate a different type of buildings according to various characteristics [ ... ]. » book vi, influences of climate on the architecture p. 109-111 «now i say in which orientation should have each environment to be functional. the winter triclinia and bathrooms look inwards west winter, perch need to be exposed to the light of afternoon [... ]. the bedrooms and the libraries are instead directed to the east, as it is for them more than useful a morning lighting. [… ] spring and autumn triclinia have to see in the east: the direct exposure to the sun, which rises from the east in the sky to seek west, will mitigate the temperature in those hours of the day when it is usually used. the summer ones have instead to face the north, because this region is not in the days more hot of the summer like the others; […] always in the north picture galleries, workshops for weaving and embroidering of tissues and studies of painters must also arise, for these is needed a constant lighting, it maintains unchanged the hue colours during processing the work. » book vi, iv, orientation of the house 115-116 p. i want to propose a way of tackling the project aware of cultural roots, attentive to environmental issues, needs of users and able to provide a "sustainable" development in the full sense of the term. (tiezzi, 1992). the design must therefore pay close attention to all stages of the process to the implications of each of them on the environment; in short, we must strive to realize the "project" in the difficult balance between the choices that involve the entire 'package of needs' without indulging in favouring one aspect (structural, aesthetic, functional, ...) at the expense of others. the systemic approach and the requirementsperformance assessment -attentive to environmental impact-in the configuration of the design choices thus becomes a "way" that can guarantee the best results in any activity of transformation. to exit from actual economic and environmental crisis, we must review the cultural paradigm of development and, in particular, of dwelling. (iiiich, 1973). we must have the perception of the natural limits of growth and rethink the territory and 8 exploitation of local resources (tangible and intangible). (ruzzenenti, 2011). to think, then, on the new complexity coming from the paradigm of sustainability (consumption, emissions, waste) and the introduction of further study relation (declination of environmental protection); the need, in essence, to switch from a linear to a cyclical method in which the concept of "evaluation" emerges as a reference. (donolo, 2007). the setting of the project in terms of life cycle requires a special attention to the choice of materials, and, as consequence of the building systems, to climatic and resource usage for the comfort quality; these "attentions" impose a constant reference to the local situation, knowledge of "place", the most extensive and thorough as possible, like introduced by "appropriate technologies" and today recalled and updated as a strategy to meet the demands of sustainability. the methodology of work is based on interdisciplinary collaboration for the development of excellence available locally (cultural and productive level); this is to provide adequate support for commissioning to qualify the question and make it compliant with 'real needs' by spreading and sharing the culture of sustainability, new forms of economy and of living necessarily flexible and adaptable to new requests. the goal is the innovation of the 'model' according to the parameters of ecology: cycles closing by the reclamation, the regeneration and the renewal of the existing, material and spatial, heritage. 6. new challenges old parameters the new challenges are: air, climate protection, water and food; without those elements there is chance to enjoy anything else. we are in a situation already at risk in different parts of the world. (friedman, 1978). it seems necessary, therefore, to move from these elements to rethink the project in a holistic approach, so as to ensure at least the survival of the human species: the question of mobility to rethink along with appropriate means and energy production, at the same time should be posed the problem of reduction of mobility increasing the possibility of virtual communication (a system of interconnected cycles, of actions and involvement of different sectors is determinate, where is fundamental the trans-disciplinarily and a plan together); use of energy, from savings to change of resource at its management; the goal should be aimed not so much at the new buildings, but especially at the historical heritage and in a recent optical of renewalregeneration connected to the ‘zero land use’ objective; in this sense it is necessary not only re-designed the buildings but also the cities and the territories (to produce effects of mitigation and reduction of demand); setting up a holistic design process that moves from use of materials (procurement and production), connects to the problems of the construction and its management up to configure end-oflife scenarios (even in this case there are many crucial policy choices to favour skills and virtuous paths); (butera, 2007). vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 9 connected to the land use and become a discriminating factor in the management and the project of plants at the building, neighbourhood and territory scale (also the water may contribute to climate change mitigation as well the production of food); to the ground, as the vegetation and biodiversity; for it is necessary to plan a productive symbiotic integration. (bocchi, 2015). « pythagoras [... ] claimed that four key elements are: air, fire, earth, water; their association arise the various aspects of nature and the different property which distinguish species of beings. we can, yet, observe that these elements not only give rise to all living beings, but that without these principles, they could not even eat, grow, be preserved. indeed the bodies could not live without breathing air, [...] if a body was missing right quantity of the heat, would lose the vital spirit [...]. similarly, if the limbs do not feed with the foods of the earth, the body would lose that force that is conferred by the presence in its composition of this element. all animated beings that were finally deprived of the presence of water, bled and sucked dry of liquid element, withered.[… ] the power of the sun and the fire are ready to provide heat to make life safer. the earth, for its part, feeds and nourishes the living, sating them always with the huge quantity of fruits which provides them as food. even the water is a great gift for the man, as it not only satisfies his need, including the drinking, but also offers numerous conveniences to his life. » book viii, preface p. 148-149 there are therefore old challenges and each of them involves a political choice, clear communication and a share by inhabitants, a trans-disciplinary project that can have a director in the skills of 'technologists', which has always formed on a need-performance systems approach. (sinopoli, 1997). the project and planning (of regeneration), therefore, should include: 1. the control of air, starting from the detecting of the pollution sources (specifically territorial system) to intervene in mitigate/eliminate emissions 1.1 to check the industrial production and to assess possible remedial action; 1.2 to promote traffic reduction and the change of the vehicles types; 2. a control of the used energy able to go towards the consumption reduction and the change of sources 2.1 to analyse the data and program the actions starting from public buildings as autonomous and efficient; 2.2 to assess local resources and to design the innovation and the self-sufficiency; 3. the management of water and fluids to reduce waste input level (drinking water) and outputs (waste) 3.1 to analyse the data and program interventions at neighbourhood level, urban and territorial; 3.2 to innovate the role also in terms of energy (active and passive); 4. the primary sector and food production (the specific characteristics of the territory) as an integrated system 4.1 the management of survival food 4.2 the symbiotic management of water and wastewater systems (for irrigation and fertilizing), energy production and industrial waste (in particular construction). 10 evaluation methods scope/scale of application definitions and objectives e c o l o g i c a l footprint (w. rees; m. wackernagel) territory, city to evaluate the impact that a population exerts on the 'environment; the total area of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems needed to provide all the resources and to absorb all emissions is calculated, whereas sustainable modalities. energetic eanalysis (h.t. odum) territory, city, services to assess the sustainability and the environmental impact of various systems, ensuring in the long term, a project/plan of sustainable use of resources; all streams, input and output, are aligned to the common denominator defined by solar energy. the energetic analysis, through the environmental impact report, allows to configure ‘maps’ of territorial sustainability. co2 budget ( c o m m i s s i o n ipcc) t e r r i t o r i e s , industries, air pollution to evaluate, with respect to the absorption capacity of environment, the quantity of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases of a place; to track and to summarize, in the full year, co2 emission sources (direct and indirect) and “tanks”(structures able to absorb and store co2) available. life cycle assessment (setac society of environmental toxicology and chemistry) material, product, process lca is a process that allows to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity through the identification and quantification of material and energy consumption and emissions in the environment and the identification and assessment of opportunity to decrease these impacts. the analysis concerns the entire life cycle of the product (“from cradle to grave”): from extracting and processing of raw materials, production, transport and distribution of the product, its use, reuse and maintenance, until final placement product recycling and after the use. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 11 7. from 'recapitulation' to innovation: actions assessment it is to foreshadow a scenario of common development, to know its operation and provide methods of evaluation of different actions/ programs that must rotate; crux is the rules transfer to different situations that constitute the peculiarities of our territory, at natural and human level. in the construction industry, the need of addressing sustainable development issues in scientific terms and aiming to set up balanced situations of sustainability, without sending them back in time and space (referring to 'remedies' as the buying and selling of shares of sustainability: emissions trading) leads to a methodology that moves from the knowledge of the level of local sustainability to indicate strategies in the construction industry. near the refinement increasingly sophisticated of bio-climatic systems and the attention for the energetic and ecological efficiency of buildings that-rightly-have affected the researches in our field, we have to faceamong the fields of interest of researchthe control of the materials choice (from sourcing, processing, and recycling) in relation to the performance requirements (environmental, structural and technical) and territorial resources. we must tend to guide activities, affecting a specific territory, toward a best use of the resources, trying, at the same time, to maintain or improve the "health" of the system. the necessary tools to understand and evaluate those domains are complex and multiple such as the concept of sustainability. therefore it is necessary to resort to interdisciplinary scholars. the attitude of 'balance' in the draft of the construction-architecture, which seems to be discounted and entrusted to a natural common sense, is instead characterized by a particular complexity when it is unavoidable that it figures in a rich system of interactions where economic, social and cultural factors retain considerable influence. so the need to hire a new behaviour emerges, it is the same as that outlined in 'to make sustainable' (starting from vitruvius). the sustainability calls therefore questioned the special aspects of recently "architecture" and therefore even the current indications for the project: the knowledge of the history of the building and its theories can constitute then an interpretation and a tool to operate in a substantial 'continuity' which can take, at the same time, the significance of sustainable action. 12 references bevilacqua, p. (1996), ambiente, economia, risorse in italia, donzelli, roma bevilacqua, p. (2006), la terra è finita, breve storia dell’ambiente, editori laterza, bari bocchi, s. (2015), zolle, raffaello cortina editore, milano butera f. (2007), dalla caverna alla casa ecologica, edizioni ambiente, milano carson, r. (1962), silent spring, houghton mifflin, boston davey, n. (1965), storia del materiale da costruzione, il saggiatore, milano donolo, c. (2007), sostenere lo sviluppo, ragioni e speranze oltre la crescita, mondadori, milano emery, n. (2007), l’architettura difficile, filosofia del costruire, christian marinotti edizioni, milano florian, g. (1978), (interpretazione a cura di) vitruvio pollione dell’architettura, giardini editori e stampatori, pisa forlani, m. c. (2001), costruzione e uso della terra, maggioli editore, rimini forlani m.c. (2010), cultura tecnologica e progetto sostenibile, alinea editrice, firenze forlani m.c. (2012), un laboratorio smart per la riqualificazione degli insediamenti a.t.e.r. de l’aquila in technè journal of technology for architecture and environment, sitda, n°4firenze university press forlani m.c. (2013), questione ambientale e sviluppo nei piani di ricostruzione in technè journal of technology for architecture and environment, sitda, n°5firenze university press forlani m.c., mastrolonardo, l. (2014), edilizia sostenibile e risorse locali in technè journal of technology for architecture and environment, sitda, n°7firenze university press friedman y. (1978), l’architecture de survie, casterman, tournai gangemi v. (1985), architettura e tecnologia appropriata, franco angeli, milano hopkins r. (2009), the transition handbook, green books ltd, totnes, devon illich i. (1973), tools for conviviality, seuil, paris norberg-schulz, c. (1979), genius loci, gruppo editoriale electa, milano odum, e. p. (1983), basic ecology, saunders, philadelphia raiteri r. (2014), progettare progettisti, un paradigma della formazione contemporanea, quodlibet, macerata ruzzenenti m. (2011), l’autarchia verde, jaca book, milano sinopoli, n. (1997), la tecnologia invisibile. il processo di produzione dell’architettura e le sue regie, franco angeli, milano spadolini, p. (1974), design e progettazione, edizioni luigi parma, bologna tiezzi, e. (1992), tempi storici, tempi biologici, garzanti, milano 72 vaults with guiding arches. sant cristòfol in culla. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 73 abstract 1 departamento ennginyeria de sistemes industrials i dissey, universitat jaume i the efficient recovery of historic buildings is only possible through a deep knowledge of traditional construction systems. this article focuses on the study and analysis of the vaults of a group of temples located in the spanish levante region, the valencian hall churches, inspired by the european architectural model known as “hallenkirche”. erected during the second half of the 18th century, to the north of the valencian community, they make up a constructive group limited in space and time, likely to constitute an ideal entity for investigation. the peculiarity of this type of churches lies in its vaults, which spring from a common height. the main contribution of this research is its graphically schematized constructive classification, as well as the unveiling of their composition and the verification of the use of various counterfort systems. this study concludes with the analysis of the aforementioned vaults pathologies, derived from possible structural movements and expressed in the form of fissures, providing the classification thereof based on their location, and quantifying and assessing them. in order to achieve the stated objectives, it has been necessary to carry out technical inspections of the vaults, both from their intrados and extrados, obtaining data through its direct intake and through deduction methods. keywords brick-vault, hall-church, graphical-representation, construction, pathology bricked vaults of the 18th century valencian hall churches: graphical representation, constructive and pathological analysis beatriz sáez riquelme1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2018.10091 74 1. introduction 1.1 historical context the hallenkirche model is etymologically german, and spread from the teutonic country to the rest of europe, especially during the 14th century. the first spanish hall church with naves at the same height is the colegiata de berlanga de duero (1526), (martínez 1980: 358-371), which was then followed by a large number of cathedrals and minor temples, some of which should be specifically pointed out, due to their influence on the valencian ones, like those built in the city of zaragoza, and more specifically, the cathedralbasilica of our lady of the pillar. the master builders of the neighbouring kingdom of aragon, who in the mid-eighteenth century embarked on a migratory exodus to the north of the kingdom of valencia, fostered the dissemination of the model and its construction techniques in this area. unlike the previous ones, which were gothic, these churches fall within a style of transition, influenced by the lines of the late baroque and early neoclassicism. between 1742 and 1799, seventeen temples were built in the kingdom of valencia (bautista 2002: 3141). although this model is characterized by real spatial grandeur, it was applied to different types of temples, and thus adapted to very different sizes. from the latter on, these type of churches continued to be internationally influenced. firstly, at the beginning of the 19th century, master builders and construction friars began to find it difficult to continue working as figure 1. vaults of the archpriestal church of vila-real vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 75 figure 2. mapped dispersion table 1. 18th valencian hall churches code town / village temple’s noum date bg benifairó de les valls church san gil (parish) 1773-1790 cc culla hermitage san cristóbal ¿?-1781 cp cinctorres church san pedro apóstol (parish) 1763-1782 cs càlig sanctuary madre de dios del socorro ¿1776?-1785 la les coves de vinromá church asunción de nuestra señora (parish) 1774?-1793(+) ma montán curch santa ana (ex-monastery servita la madre de dios de los dolores) 17811787 pa portell de morella church asunción de nuestra señora (parish) 1742-1750 qm quart de les valls church san miguel (parish) (ex-monastery servita del pie de la cruz y del santo sepulcro 1776-1780 rc ribesalbes church san cristóbal (parish) 1766-1777/81 sa suera church asunción de nuestra señora (parish) 1773-1797? vb vilafranca del maestrat hermitage santa bárbara 1773-1794 ve vallat church san juan evangelista (parish) (-) 1763-¿? vg vinaròs hermitage san gregorio 1780-1799 vj vila-real archpriestal church san jaime apóstol (parish) (planos 1752) 1752-1779 vl vilar de canes church san lorenzo mártir (parish) 1781?-1786 vv san vicente de pedrahita church san vicente ferrer (parish) (ex-monastery dominico) 1770-1781 76 architects so they were forced to move towards the principality of catalonia and the new world (south america). it was at the end of the century that this model broke into north america, reaching again its zenith at the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the civil work of guastavino, descendant of one of those aragonese master builders who, in the 18th century, helped spread the model in valencian lands (vegas 2012: 133-156). 1.2 formal configuration of the temples these are temples with three naves, where the central one is wider than the lateral ones or aisles, and the transept of which is flush with the lateral façade walls, constituting rectangular floor plans consisting on various numbers of bays. the key feature of this model, its diaphaneity, is the result, on the one hand, of the use of pillars as backbone elements of the space, guiding each of the sections and, on the other hand, of the use of a unified height level, with vaults springing at the same height, which is defined by the plinths located on the running knot cornice (sáez 2017: 38-47). 2. morphological analysis of the vaults 2.1 methodology the strategy of the research conducted was based on graphic data acquisition by means of the combination of manual and mechanical methods (sáez and pitarch 2015: 12-19). we used a total station for the measurement of xyz coordinates, which were then verified by an electronic distance measurement (edm) instrument, in order to obtain general dimensions, and flexometers in some specific circumstances. the analysis of their constructive composition was carried out through their organoleptic inspection, paying special attention to aspects like thicknesses, breaks, fissures and flaking, and then engaging in deduction and generalization methods. in addition, we also resorted to performing a bibliographical research in scientific publications, architectural execution projects and original plans. 2.2 types of vaults types of vaults according to their location in the temples in the central nave, the most commonly used vaults were found to be barrel vaults with straight lunettes (70.6%), which were also sometimes curved (17.6%), and, to a lesser extent, sail vaults (11.8%). as for the lateral naves, these spaces were generally covered by groined vaults (76.5%), although it is also worth pointing out the use of barrel vaults with straight (5.85%) and curved (5.85%) lunettes, as well as sail vaults (11.8%). in the aligned transept, the type of vaults used was generally the same as in the central nave, that is, barrel vaults with straight (58.9%) and curved (17.6%) lunettes and sail vaults (5.85%). there were only three cases in which the vaults of the transept differed from those of the naves, using unique vaults such as the five-panel lunette vault (11.8%) and the double groined vault (5.85%). on their part, the crossings enjoyed a great variety of cupola. they could be classified in inner and outer cupola, where 41% were hidden under the roof and featured the following characteristics. first of all, it was noted that 65% of these vaults lacked a drum or tambour, resorting to sail vaults (29.4%), semicircular domes (29.4%), and a segmental domes (5.85%). for their part, 35% of these vaults did rest on a tambour, using in this case stilted domes (23.55%), and semicircular domes, both on an octagonal tambour (11.8%). most of them projected outwards (59%). the most commonly used domes were the stilted ones (29.4%), followed by semicircular domes (17.6%), both resting on octagonal tambours. being the segmental dome on octagonal tower tambour (5.85%), and the segmental dome on octagonal tambour with blind lantern (5.85%) unique cases. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 77 table 2. type of vaults code cn ln at p cr (inner) cr (outer) completion decade 50-60 – influence king of aragon pa bl a bl qs with l+r g cl g a bl bl g ve bl a bl b sc over ot sc over ot completion decade 70-80 cc bl a aa aa g rc bl a bl qs st over ot st over ot vv bl a bl bl sc cp bl a l l sg over otl sg over od cs bl a bl bl + qs sc st over ot vb bl a bl bl g vl bl a bl qs g completion decade 90 – influence of academy bg bl g bl l sc sg over otl ma bl a / bl bl bl sc qm bcl bcl bcl qs sc sc over ct la bcl g bcl bcl sc over ot sc over ot sa bcl a bcl b st over ot st over otl vj bl a l l st over ot st over ot vg g a g qs over s sg st over ot legend parts of a church// at: aligned transept, cn: central nave, cr: crossing, ln: lateral nave, p: presbytery vaults// a: arris, aa: double arris, b: burrel, bl: burrel with straight lunettes, bcl: burrel with curved lunnettes, g: groined, l: of lunettes, qs: quarter sphere cupola/dome// g: goined, sc:semicircular, sg: segmental, st: stilted s: over scallops, l: over lunnettes, r: ribs tambour/drum// ct: cylindrical, od: octogonal dome, ot: octogonal, otl: octogonal tambour with lantern 78 influences and y periods the analysis of the formal configuration of the vaults allowed us to define clear periods, directly linked to the influences received. aragonese influence (17.6%). the greatest impact of the aragonese model concerning the vaults occurred during the first stage of dissemination of the model in valencian lands, which ended between the 1750s and 1760s. the aragonese stereotype was inspired by the church of santa maría la mayor de alcañiz (thomson : 2006), which featured barrel vaults with straight lunettes in the central nave and in the aligned transept, groined vaults on the lateral naves, and a face brick lantern tower dome in the crossing. influence of the saint charles royal academy of fine arts of valencia (41%). it was especially significant in the late eighteenth century, taking control of the architectural production and its dissemination, both through the drawings of the academy (bérchez-correl 1981), and the construction works, especially by vicente gascó and antonio gilabert, directors thereof during the reporting period (bérchez 1987: 7). the academic architecture distinguished itself by the influence of the classical architecture. its drawings were marked by the use of semicircular domes, which, together with segmental domes projecting outwards, were gascó’s favourite models, as confirmed by the semicircular dome of the communion chapel in the archpriestal church of vila-real or by the dome on drum of the church of our lady of the nativity, in villahermosa del río (pitarch and sáez: 2009: 10711080). on the contrary, gilabert, who also used to draw those same idealized domes, already in his first academic work, culminated the crossing of the church of the nativity of turís (valencia), with a two-third-diameter stilted dome, following the indications of fornés and gurrea (1841: 36-37, 40), on an octagonal drum with lantern. he also introduced the use of curved lunettes in the parish churches of gastalgar (1780), callosa de en sarriá (1765-1786) and in the project of the church for paterna (1782) (bérchez 1987: 133-134, 192), to which gascó also resorted for the renovation of the cathedral of segorbe (1791-1795). transition period (41%). it was also possible for us to establish an eclectic period between the aragonese and the academic influence stages. this period was characterised by its adherence to some of the guidelines of the previous period, such as the use of barrel vaults with straight lunettes in the central nave and groined vaults in the lateral ones. but, above all, by experimenting with new types of vaults: double groined vaults and lunette vaults in the aligned transepts and the presbytery; quarter sphere and lunette vaults in the presbytery; and segmented and stilted domes on the crossing. 3. constructive analysis of the vaults vaults being the nerve centre of this article, this section focuses purely on them but, because they should be understood within a complete constructive context, at the end of this section there is a brief summary on the constructive-structural elements linked to them through their loads. 3.1 materials the data collection and its comparison allowed us to generalize that these were bricked vaults, which featured large format bricks, usually on both sides, and mortars of slightly variable thickness. although the aforementioned format of the bricks used is not standard, it can be established, with little margin of deviation, that they used bricks of about 30x15.5cm and around 3 and 5cm thick. the number of brick rowlocks on them was also variable. for example, the vaults of vilar de canes (3cm) and castell de cabres (5, 7cm) featured just one rowlock; those of castell de cabres and suera (9cm), san vicente de piedrahita, benifairó de les valls and quart de les valls (10cm), as well as the dome on the crossing of vila-real (soler and soler 2012) featured two rowlocks; and the vaults of culla (11, 12cm) featured 3. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 79 however, our research revealed some exceptions regarding the materials used, such as the use of a final layer of slab covering in culla, or the simple hollow bricks in the reconstructed vaults of vilar de canes (más 2008: 152). as for the rest of the elements with a direct or semidirect structural relationship with the vaults, the following constructive aspects should be pointed out: the arches on which they rest were formed by bricks or slabs of stone arranged in rowlocks and bound together with mortar. most walls were made of ordinary masonry, which, in some cases, was chained in the corners by ashlars and, to a lesser extent, of horizontally coursed masonry, reinforced by small pilasters, and ashlar masonry. there is less data on the composition of the pillars, although we found that there were bases formed by large-scale ashlars, as well as masonry and solid brick reinforced pillars. likewise, the constructive knowledge of other contemporary hall temples built in the neighbouring kingdoms, such as the servite convent of cuevas de cañart or the church of corbera d'ebre allowed us to guess they were made of both brick and masonry (sáez-pitarch 2012). 3.2 constructive process previous works at the moment of erecting the vaults, their perimeter (walls/arches) had to be perfectly delimited, since the order of the constructive sequence in this type of temples was continuous in horizontal levels. the figure 3. rowlock 1the vaults of vilar de canes 2the vaults of castell de cabres 3the vaults of vila-real 4the vaults of culla thickness of the perimeter walls varied between 0.55 and 1.34m. on their part, the square/starred-section pillars oscillated between 60cm and 1m, except in vila-real that was twice that size. for the execution of the bricked vaults, they had to use work platforms allowing both their layout and the placement of the bricks, as shown by the putlog holes found at the base of the domes of san vicente de piedrahita and san francisco de alcañiz, which are also hall temples. whilst, for the execution of the arches the use of wooden centres was highly necessary, it was not needed for the erection of the bricked vaults, which, in turn, resorted to ingenious and simple contraptions that allowed to secure their geometry. the simplest one of these contraptions consisted on a string or line, which was fixed at one end, the other end being the one that indicated the exact position of each of the rowlocks (ricci 2004: 101-118). this system greatly simplified and cheapened the construction of vaults. the methods that used both strings and construction levels were already known and commonly used, as stated in the treaty of friar lorenzo de san nicolás (1663). it is highly probable that, in order to secure the geometry of the vaults in vilar de canes and cinctorres in the 1940s, they resorted to the use of metal or wood elements, that is, more modern tools, to define the geometry of these bricked vaults. bricking of the vaults the bricking of the vaults began by making chases all around their perimeter, the depth of which could be established around 16cm (thunnissen 2012: 236), as shown by the space located in the first floor of the gospel side in quart de les valls. once the cleaning of the chases in which the vaults were to be embedded was completed, the bricks were moisten and then put in place. they were arranged flat, so that their bed could be seen from inside the temple. for its part, and as suggested by treatise writers and experience, the binder used had to be plaster, prepared in small quantities in order to allow its application, at least for the first rowlock. this is was spread on the header and stretcher faces of 80 the bricks, which were then quickly fixed and pressed in their position for a few seconds, in order for the plaster to set. 3.3 vault bricking schemes the careful and direct observation of the intrados and/or extrados of some of the vaults of the studied temples, allowed us to determine their schematic graphic definition, being even able, in some cases, to establish their rowlocks’ sequences. sail vault sail vaults were bricked starting from the vertex of the spaces that delimited them and following concentric rowlocks until reaching the crown. false groined vault this vault’s formal appearance from its intrados was that of a double groined vault. however, the careful analysis of its extrados revealed that its execution corresponded to that of a sail vault, bricked by concentric rowlocks arranged from its perimeter to the crown. this led to change its initial morphological definition and call it false groined vault, since the edges or groins that can be seen in their underside, which lent them their name, were the result of an ingenious work of plastering. groined vaults with double guiding arches it was the most sophisticated type of vault bricking, reminiscent of the gothic vaulting, and based on the execution of the main nerves or ribs and the subsequent filling of the timbrel. it consisted on the use of guiding arches that ran diagonally, as well as from the middle of the faces to the opposite ones, with rowlocks of bricks arranged parallel to their perimeters. their construction started by bricking such guiding arches with a row of solid bricks joined by their stretcher faces, the diagonal arches first, and then those perpendicular to their perimeters. these last ones were bricked as from the crown of the discharging arches, which were made of solid bricks with stretcher bond. then, the figure 4. brick disposition on sail vaults: choir of ribesalbes, organ room of suera and dome of vilar de canes figure 5. brick disposition on double groined vaults: presbytery of the hermitage of culla figure 6. brick disposition on groined vaults with guiding arches and rowlocks parallel to their perimeter: roof of the communion chapel of vila-real vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 81 proper vault bricking started from the corners, over the guiding arches, allowing the latter to protrude on the underside. this type of vaults featured different panels joint by groins, the depth of which depended on the discharge arches. groined vaults with diagonal guiding arches it was a more rudimentary type of construction, but still somehow reminiscent of gothic structures. the construction of this type of vaults began by bricking the guiding arches with solid bricks bound on their header face and arranged according to the diagonals of the surfaces to be covered. the vault was then completed by contiguous rowlocks of bricks arranged parallel to the guiding arches. groined vaults with guiding arches from face to face just as in the previous examples, the guiding arches were bricked first, with solid bricks bound on their header faces. however, in this case, they ran from one face to the opposite. the vault was then completed with parallel rowlocks of bricks, flush to the guiding arches, being especially circumspect that the joints of their header faces were not aligned. groined vault with rowlocks perpendicular to the sides and no guiding arches these vaults consisted on solid brick rowlocks bound to each other on their header faces and arranged parallel to the sides that determined the area to be covered, meeting in the groins. this system, which might seem relatively simple, in practice, however, presented problems of precision, which ought to be dealt with by means of irregularly arranged pieces on the vaults’ groins. rowlocks parallel to the sides and no guiding arches this type of vaults were bricked with correlative rowlocks parallel to their perimeter. the first rows to be bricked were those located next to the perimeter, then placing the following ones by means of hollow bricks perforated on their header figure 7. brick disposition on groined vaults with guiding arches and brick rowlocks parallel to them: vaults on the lateral naves of culla figure 8. brick disposition on groined vaults with guiding arches and brick rowlocks perpendicular to the perimeter: lateral naves of culla figure 9. brick disposition on groined vaults with header work bricks: organ hall of castell de cabres 82 faces. based on its morphology and chronology, it is safe to say that this model might have been highly influenced by the treatise of choisy 1883: figure 118. barrel vaults with double guiding arches the suggested constructive process was similar to that of the groined vaults. first of all, the diagonal guiding arches were built by means of solid bricks joined on their header faces, followed by the guiding arrches that ran from one arch crown to the opposite one. finally, the vaults panels were completed with rowlocks of bricks arranged parallel to the sides, and bound on their header faces, right above the guiding arches. the smaller sides of these vaults were lightened by stretcher-bond arches, the thickness of which determined the separation of the vault’s upstand brickwork, which was separated from the downstand one by means of load bearing partitions. barrel vaults with rowlocks of bricks parallel to their largest sides this constructive process consisted on the arrangement of rowlocks of solid bricks, bound on their header faces, parallel to their largest sides. these rowlocks were simultaneously built from both sides, meeting at the crown, which was then bricked with irregularly arranged ceramic pieces. this type of constructive process was normally used for small vaults. barrel vaults with lunettes and rowlocks parallel to their perimeter the construction of these vaults started by bricking their perimeter and continued with rowlocks of bricks parallel to them, with the additional complexity of having to take into account the double curvature corresponding to the two cylinders that intersected (the one of the nave vault and the one of the lunettes). probably influenced by the treaty of choisy (1883): figure 119. figure 10. brick disposition on groined vaults with correlative rowlocks of bricks parallel to their perimeter: reconstructed vaults of the lateral naves of vilar de canes figure 11. brick disposition on barrel vaults with guiding arches: vila-real’s roof figure 12. brick disposition on barrel vaults with horizontal rowlocks: apse of benifairó de les valls vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 83 domes essentially, the bricks that made up the domes were arranged just like in sail vaults, that is, in concentric rowlocks. however, we established three characteristics that differentiated them from each other: whether they were inner or outer domes. inner domes were not visible from the outside, they were sheltered under the roof and work independently from it. on the contrary, outer domes were visible from the outside and considered structural roof elements. the treatment of their extrados, depended on whether they projected or not to the outside. inner domes were covered with plaster mortar, while outer domes were treated just like the roof, with the exterior surface finish generally being a layer of glazed blue curved tiles. its greater or lesser cant (raise to span ratio) this feature allowed for their classification in semicircular, slightly stilted, and two-thirds stilted domes. their number of brick layers it could be assumed that inner domes consisted of just one layer of bricks, however, this statement was found not to be so assertive with regards to outer domes, since they could have one or two. the only outer dome of which there was evidence of its constructive composition is that of the vila-real crossing. it consisted of an upstand and a downstand made of rowlocks of solid bricks bound on both sides. these two layers were linked by on-edge solid brick load bearing partitions, with a separation of about 30 cm (vila et al., 2016). on the outside, it was finished with blue-glazed tiles. 3.4 abutment elements abutment elements were pivotal for the stability of the vaults. although it was necessary to establish a direct relationship between the types of vaults and their abutment systems, the research carried out in situ on the intrados of the vaults of the 18th century valencian hall churches, highlighted the different solutions provided by their master builders. figure 13. brick disposition on barrel vaults with lunettes: rebuilt vaults of the central nave in vilar de canes the analysis of the abutment systems used in the different cases studied suggested the greater or lesser formation of their master builders. whilst there was only reliable evidence of the knowledge of the treaty of friar lorenzo de san nicolás by juan josé nadal, the architect of the archpriestal church of vilareal (gil 2004: 334), in view of the results obtained in other construction areas, it was possible to assume their knowledge of other treaties dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (huerta 2004: 250-251). thanks to the inspection of the extrados of the vaulted areas, we were able to establish the use of the following abutment systems: spring filling in all the temples, vault haunches used compact fillers, capable of carrying the imposed loads. in general, the thickness of the spring’s filling could be estimated around 1/3 of the vaults’ height. stiffeners a wide range of materials were used for the construction of these elements, on the one hand attending to the means available and to the surrounding materials and, on the other hand, to the master builders’ know-how. in this sense, we observed: partitions of up to approximately 2/3 the height of the vaults in cinctorres and vila-real. round wood logs acting as braces in vilar de canes and culla. likewise, the load bearing 84 partitions supporting the roofs of les coves de vinromà, suera, san vicente de piedrahita and vilareal could also be considered counterfort elements. filling of the domes’ spring the spring of the vaulted domes of the temples of benifairó de les valls, cinctorres, culla, san vicente de piedrahita, montán and vilar de canes were extended, the last two of which were also reinforced along their perimeter by a wall, arranged from pillar to pillar, which, in some occasions, like in montán, was also filled. point load on the pillars all the pillars of the temples with roofs formed by wooden frameworks, as well as with the extensions needed to support the roof slab, carried the weight of the roofs in the form of punctual loads, which produced a centring effect resulting from the thrusts of the vaults. the abutment systems used complied with the advice given by friar lorenzo de san nicolás in his treatise: filling of the springings, use of stiffeners and staggered alignment of the spherical domes (huerta 1999: 88, 250-251). the use of point charges to centre the results of the stresses, although not included in the aforementioned treaty, was already done in gothic architecture. it should also be noted that estimations performed for the analysis of the stability of these vaults showed their importance in this regard (sáez 2013: 549-5552). 4. vault pathology analysis the damages subject of this chapter are the result of direct observation and bibliographic research, the latter also allowing us to verify their degree of stability in those cases in which a recent restoration prevented their appreciation. 4.1 types of damages the vaults studied featured, basically, two types of damages: fissures and humidity. almost all the vaults researched suffered or had suffered the consequences of water entering through the roof, however, since this could be consider an indirect cause and a result of their conservation condition, this type of damage was not further developed, thus focusing the study on the damages inherent to vaults and domes: the fissures. 4.2 fissures on vaults the fissures present in the vaults were observed both in the timbrel, following the axis of the main nave (40%) and, depending on the beds, to one third of the imposts (17.65%), and on the transverse (64.7%) and longitudinal (11.76%) arches of the central nave. we also found fissures around the lunettes (11.76%), as well as around elements that carried specific loads such as pillars or jambs (23.53%), and contour fissures (47%). the most serious fissures found were those on the arches of the central nave in suera (5.8%), around the lunettes in san vicente de piedrahita, and the contour fissures found in culla and vilar de canes. 4.3 fissures on domes and sail vaults this type of vaulting was characterized by fissures on its meridians and parallels, as well as on its toral arches, transverse and longitudinal. the fissures found on the domes’ webs were usually radial, located around their meridians (23.5%), and around their parallels to a lesser extent (11.75%) and, in some cases, even intersecting in both directions (29.4%) with regards to the arches, practically all the transverse arches featured fissures on their crown (82.35%), while they were found on longitudinal arches to a much lesser extent (29.4%). it is worth mentioning that the previous types of fissures were never found simultaneously. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 85 4.4 assessment of the vaults condition areas of fissure concentration on the whole, the most fissured areas were found to be the central naves, being more pronounced in the vicinity of the crossings, although in castell de cabres, suera or san vicente de piedrahita we found fissures all over the temple, and in culla and vilar de canes they were concentrated in the perimeter. the severity of some fissures, like the contour ones in the hermitage of culla and in the archpriestal church of vila-real, as well as in the arches between the main nave and the lateral ones in the parish church of suera, and of those surrounding the lunettes in san vicente de piedrahita should be stressed. 17.65% of the temples did not show any fissures during the data collection period, while 82.35% showed some type of cracking. furthermore, 17.65% of the temples featured at least one of the aforementioned fissures, one that could be considered minor and another one considered serious. 23.53% of the temples featured two types of fissures, 11.76% three, 23.53% four and 5.88% five. causes generally speaking, the fissures found in the vaults were the result of the descending movement of their support points. although the study of each case would provide more specific data, it was not the subject of this investigation, so we opted for providing some brief information on the matter, in order to shed light on the main causes. in castell de cabres, part of the vault covering the organ hall had collapsed, allowing us to verify the coarseness of its construction, which could be considered the cause thereof. on the other hand, the use of a different kind of vaulting from the other temples in the central nave could be the reason for the type of fissures observed in the lateral naves. at this point, mention should be made of the similarity between the type of fissures and the condition of this temple and that of the hermitage of san marcos de table 3. fissures fissure bg cc cl cp cs la ma pa qm rc sa vb ve vg vj vl vv vault a-cn (x) x (x) x x x x x 1/3p-cn x x x ta-cn x x x x x x x x x x x la-cn xx x l x xx pi x x x x o x xx x (x) x x xx (x) cuppole, goined mm x x x x pp x x ta x x x x x x x x x x x x x x la x x x x x x legend a: axis, cn: central nave, l: lunettes, la: longitudinal arch, o: outline, p: panel, pi: pillars, ta: transverse arch, mm: meridian, pp: parallel xx (muy afectadas), x (afectadas), (x) (poco afectadas) 86 olocau del rey, which is not a hall church, but the vaults of which were the work of the same builder, fernando molinos. the source of the fissures found in the churches of suera and san vicente de piedrahita could be attributed to the load bearing partitions in their roofs, carrying huge direct loads, which, although very distributed, would cause great deformation of the vaults and arches. furthermore, the fissures found around specific constructive elements could be indicative of their descent, either because of the removal of the adjacent building (benifairó de les valls), due to the land slope or as a result of the excessive weight of the tower (ribesalbes). 5. conclusion 5.1 morphology this research allowed us to verify the use of specific types of vaults depending on the area of the temple to be covered, concluding that the most common type of vaulting in these churches were barrel vaults with straight lunettes in the central naves and in the aligned transepts; groined vaults on the lateral naves and sail vaults and semicircular inner domes and stilted outer domes on octagonal drum. moreover, we were able to classify the vaults of the hall churches in three phases: those finished between 1750 and 1760, under the influence of aragon; those completed between the 1770s and 1780s, which represented an aesthetically undefined period, and those built during the 1790s, marked by the academic influence. 5.2 construction and materials they were bricked vaults, bound by grout and finished with plaster, arranged in 1, 2 and 3 rowlocks. there was a generalized use of 2-rowlock-vaults during the second half of the 18th century, evolving towards a one-rowlock type of vaulting in the midtwentieth century. the studied vaults made up a huge array of vault bricking technique examples. we observed an evolution of the vaulting systems that went from the coarseness of the organ hall vault of castell de cabres, to the impeccable execution of those of vila-real, or the more recent perfection of the reconstructed vaults of vilar de canes. the application of the recommendations of friar lorenzo de san nicolás, with respect to the abutment systems, seemed unanimous in terms of the filling of spring of vaults and domes. 5.3 pathology: fissures the type of fissures affecting the vaults of the temples studied the most were those running through the naves axis and beds, on the arches and around the lunettes or elements carrying point loads, as well as their outline. the most fissured areas were located in the transverse arches of the main naves and crossings. the level of damage was quantified in minor, moderate and severe fissures, the most serious being detected in the naves (on the longitudinal arches and around the lunettes and vaults). although the percentage of vaults with no fissures was much lower than that with fissures, we established that this type of damages were not to be understood as an imminent threat to the vaults stability, since in most cases they were stable fissures. however, we do feel it would be necessary to monitor and take preventive measures on some of them. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 3 is 1 87 acknowledgements thank you to all the bishoprics, parish priests and individual who facilitated our research by providing us access to the temples subject of this study. references bautista i garcía, j. d. (2002). esglésies-saló del segle xviii a les comarques valencianes. fundación dávalos-fletcher, castellón. bérchez gómez, j. (1987). los comienzos de la arquitectura académica en valencia: antonio gilabert. federico doménech, s.a. valencia. bérchez gómez, j. y corell farinos, v. (1981). catálogo de diseños de arquitectura de la real academia de bb.aa. de san carlos de valencia. 1768-1846. colegio oficial de arquitectos de valencia y murcia, valencia. choisy, a. (1883). l’art de batir chez les byzantins, in calvo lópez, j. (2012) cantería y albañilería en los tratados de arquitectura y la práctica constructiva, seminario albañilería frente a cantería. materiales, técnica y mecánica estructural. 23-24 marzo 2012, universidad politécnica de valencia, valencia. gil saura, y. (2004). arquitectura barroca en castellón. diputación de castellón, castellón. fornés y gurrea, m. 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(2017). formal features of 18th century valencian hall churches. ega. revista de expresión gráfica arquitectónica (29). doi: 10.4995/ega.2017.1463 sáez riquelme, b. y pitarch roig, a.m. (2012). algunas lesiones comunes de las iglesias salón: san pedro en cinctorres, san jaime en vila-real, san martín en callosa de segura. in 4º congreso internacional de patología y rehabilitación de edificios. patorreb sáez riquelme, b. y pitarch roig, a.m. (2015). combination of technologies for architectural planning. parish church of portell. revista de expresión gráfica arquitectónica, 9. issn: 1888-8143 soler verdú, r. y soler estrela, a. (2012). navegando por el trasdós de las bóvedas tabicadas: tipos constructivos y noticia de artefactos construidos. in construyendo bóvedas tabicadas, actas del simposio sobre bóvedas tabicadas. universidad politécnica de valencia, valencia. thomson llisterri, t. (2006). iglesia de santa maría la mayor de alcañiz. centro de estudios bajoaragoneses, alcañiz. thunnissen, h. (2012). bóvedas: su construcción y empleo en la construcción. instituto juan herrera, madrid. vegas lopez, f. & mileto, c. (2012). guastavino y el eslabón perdido, in construyendo bóvedas tabicadas, simposio sobre bóvedas tabicadas. universidad politécnica de valencia, valencia. vila estébez, d.; soler estrela, a; sáez riquelme b. (2016). los planos originales de la iglesia arciprestal de vila-real. interpretación constructiva de la cúpula dibujada. in dibujar, construir, soñar. tirant lo blanc, valencia. chimney at edrington, 2013 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 27 abstract 1 school of architecture and the built environment, university of lincoln previously colonized by both holland and britain, south africans have always borrowed; many taking aesthetic clues from memories of ‘home’. applied seemingly irrelevantly, these ‘clues’ often border on the pastiche. pre and post union in 1910, the british-controlled colonies of natal and the cape absorbed imported architectural influences which not only introduced an arts and crafts layer to victorian gothic and classical revivals, but introduced vital new ideas, namely art deco and modernism. somehow this polemic embraced another revival: a melange of tudor and elizabethan focusing on detail, craftsmanship and nostalgia. the ‘tudorbethan’ revival occurred at a vital point in the inter-war era, and it is contended that this style demonstrated a calculated resistance to the hybrid ‘union period’ architecture and its political role in forging a common diasporic identity and culture in the 1930s, rather than a mere application of fashion. this paper situates the tudorbethan revival within contemporary architectural themes in durban, south africa, and contextualises the socio-political production of buildings between the wars before examining the works of architects who conceived this well-crafted, nostalgic and irrelevant architecture. it concludes by comparing this complex aesthetic with the contemporary architectural thread of ‘gwelo’ goodman’s cape dutch revival suggesting the degree to which domestic architecture is able to support political positions in contested societies. keywords tudorbethan, revivals, south africa, alan woodrow, gwelo goodman snippets from the north: architects in durban and their response to identity, common culture and resistance in the 1930s debbie whelan 1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2019.11774 28 1. introduction south africa is well-known for its highly contested recent history, most particularly around race and ethnicity, and the infamous series of legislations that underpinned the exclusionary practice of apartheid in the 20th century. contestation is not however, limited to disagreement with respect to race and the debates around black and white, aboriginal and settler. long standing acrimony between dutch and british settlers has also left indelible marks on the social, cultural and physical landscapes of the former colonial territories that make up the contemporary democratic republic of south africa. whilst today the contemporary republic consists of nine provinces of which kwazulu-natal is one, in 1910 the territory was declared as a union and consisted of the cape of good hope and natal, both colonies of the british crown, and the orange free state and the zuid afrikaansche republiek, territories under dutch settler (boer) control. the dutchcontrolled cape of good hope was subject to a hostile british takeover in 1806, whereas the colony of natal was a territory acquired through annexation by the british in 1843, effectively ending the fledgling dutch rule on the east coast. further ideological clashes around land and colonization resulted in the wellpublicized anglo-boer war (now known as the south african war) between 1899 and 1901. this conflict involved imported colonial troops, resident colonists, and loyalist native forces fighting farmers of dutch origin (boers) and their conscripted allies. critically, this war was positioned at a point of technological change which allowed for the spread of news and propaganda through press, visual transcription through photography and rapid innovation in the machinery of war and the means by which wars in the modern era began to be fought. these issues are vital in understanding the political and social positions in which the four territories of natal, the cape of good hope, the zuid afrikaansche republiek and the orange free state found themselves in 1910, at the time of a strategic and economically necessary union. 2. the act of union and the architecture of union natal colony did not enter into union lightly: given its strong british ancestry it resisted, and was forced to join through circumstance rather than choice. financially cash strapped after the participation in the south african war, together with a number of subsequent social and political calamities, its necessary association with the other territories was critical. thus, whilst the political act of union itself was considered a vital point at which to create a new, national identity embracing the settler cultures of the four different territories, this act did not ameliorate the fractured society of white settlers entering into union. rather, it manifested in a strongly articulated need to reinforce individual identity; for the residents of the former colony of natal, the allegiance to its crown necessitated a bleeding of influence from the motherland. this included borrowed architectural influences that allowed for the construction of a little england on the shores of natal, characterized at the time by late victorian ideas reflecting the society and its requirements for strongly articulated spatial hierarchies and their associated spatial separations. fundamentally, these building forms borrowed technology from europe; generally of masonry or stone construction, most structures until world war ii were detailed with cavity walls, bonded brickwork of various configurations, hardwood timber windows which were prepared using imported techniques and doors similarly crafted. these buildings had steeply-pitched roofs, in hipped, gambrel and other derivative forms, which moved quickly towards adopting verandas as part of a distinctive vernacular. these verandas themselves created a specific aesthetic responding to climate and giving buildings depth (kearney 1984). many veranda-style buildings adopted the use of corrugated iron sheeting as roofing, which intensified visual textures reinforcing rhythmic patterns formed by veranda posts. decoration and embellishment was embraced as a marker of wealth and status, a practice that continued through the short-lived edwardian era. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 29 the south african war brought with it a new british immigrant population, and one which directly imported up-to-date aesthetics and materials used in england. frederick ing arrived from england and, together with more established architects such as e. probyn wells implemented the restrained embellishments of the victorian era, and embraced the palatable proportioning of edwardian architecture. ing and wells’ work was largely in this style, a classical revival employing local brick, locally available hardwood timber and extensive use of concretes and cement, the latter made possible by the increased availability of imported portland cement. both durban club (durban, 1902) and natal university college (pietermaritzburg, 1910) are good examples of this remnant colonial-era architecture, reflecting the possibility of the new materials but still firmly rooted in british society. unlike the british colonies which relied on imported ideas, the dutch political partners in the south african union relied on a more substantial architectural identity. this had been formed over more than two centuries in their settlement and rule over, the cape of good hope between 1652 and 1795, and then for a short spell between 1803 and 1806. the architecture was originally derivative of their stepgabled dutch urban building roots. however, over time it developed to allow for different material and climatic conditions and famously, a soft mutation of the gabled form through the plastering techniques of malay plasterers creating the familiar ‘cape dutch gable’. the vernacular developed with specifically generated floor plans and aesthetic toolkits which became quintessentially associated with the architecture of the cape. the architects of ‘union’ thus fused the reference points of these disparate locally-driven (in the case of cape dutch) and imported vernaculars (in the case of the british architectures). this fusion intended to achieve the aim of creating a nationally-sanctioned architectural style that was representative of all the white settlers within the union. this was characterized by clear forms, often gabled facades, hardwood windows and shutters reminiscent of the original cape dutch vernacular and restrained elaborations derived from the edwardian period and its elements of classical revival. buildings were often symmetrical, typical of architecture of the time. further, acclaimed architect sir herbert baker (1862-1946) was partly responsible for creating the template for the new union period architecture. his symbolic union buildings (pretoria, 1909-1913) were intended to act as the spiritual focus of the new union of south africa. not long into the period of union, south africa joined the first world war, supporting britain. this participation was not well supported, and it rendered the position of prime minister jan smuts, ebden scholar and friend of king george vi, politically fragile. smuts was an afrikaner who sought to engage with the commonwealth idea, thus fragmenting the ideals of a new, united south africa. whilst afrikaner resistance made itself felt in protest action in the early 1920s, for british south africans an entrenchment in the english idyll prevailed. 3. common architectural themes in durban in the inter-war years in order to contextualize the extent to which architects in the former colonies referred to the motherland for inspiration, it is important to understand the trends in which architecture was moving in britain. doreen yarwood describes the rebuilding in the inter-war years, producing an architecturally bland landscape: she records that ‘in england, the vast majority of such building, and especially that for civic purposes, was in the classical / gothic tradition. however, it was not a straightforward imitation of the work of earlier ages. there was a marked and increasing trend towards simplification, larger plain wall areas, less decoration and less sculptural ornament’. yarwood describes that this was exacerbated in the period between the great depression and the outbreak of world war ii, and that ‘…the buildings of this period are extremely dull. an emptiness, a vacuous plainness had replaced the victorian and edwardian fondness for overdecoration’ (yarwood 1963: 515). the architecture produced in durban in this interwar period certainly does not reflect this spare aesthetic: whilst practitioners such as rex martienssen and helmut stauch began working in the pareddown aesthetic paradigms of modernism through 30 the architecture school at the university of the witwatersrand, these experiments manifested in and around johannesburg, and there was little with which to compare in a rather provincial natal. instead, the latter flourished with the general trend embracing the politicized hybridity of the union period, an extensive experimentation with art deco and its associated forms, spanish revival, a continued reliance on the principles of arts and crafts and the hybrid revival forms of ‘tudorbethan’. with the union period style of architecture as official discourse, architects in durban remained slavishly rooted in the late victorian / edwardian paradigm, with domestic architecture featuring elements typical of the period, a proliferation of hipped, pitched and gambrel corrugated sheeting roofs with verandas, doors and windows in vertical proportions, high ceilings, and suspended timber floors. large public buildings constructed after the war erred on the side of the conservative, such as the domed and colonnaded howard college (1931). designed by william hirst, this is a mixture of neo-classical flourish and union period conservatism. at the same time, as radford notes, it has ‘many details of a more art deco nature’ (radford, 2002:34). hirst’s tentative inclusion of art deco references as detail in his considerably more sober building is a mere glimpse into a general practice within the style, evidenced in other buildings in the city with more flair such as the colonial mutual life building (hennessy & hennessy and elsworth, 1933). art deco, style moderne and what kearney calls a ‘…flirtation with sub-tropical deco’ responded to the notion of the city as sea-port, and thus subscribed to international perceptions of modernity through the production of a recognisable 1920s application of material and aesthetic: ‘certainly the atmosphere of hollywood and miami and their images of fantasy seemed reasonable for the hot, sunny holiday city of durban’ (kearney 1984:15). other localised unique forms took hold; particularly significant is a highly decorated local vernacular known as ‘berea style’, characterized by symmetrical, elaborate facades, twisted pillars, and clay roman roof tiles, responding to local climatic conditions and displaying a whimsy implicit in an internationally connected seaside town. kearney suggests that this ‘sunny spanish baroque’ alludes to an engagement with architecture of other hot, sunny climates, but he also concedes that the city architect in durban at the time, william murray-jones, had worked in spain and brazil (kearney 1984: 13). a good example of ‘berea style’ is quadrant house (ritchie-mckinley, 1934), reinforcing the influence of the american west coast phenomenon, as well as what radford refers to as a ‘milder’ version in princes theatre (now forming part of the kwazulu-natal playhouse) completed by wh mason in 1926 (radford 2002). the reference points of the spanish colonial style were not isolated to merely being woven into the berea style: a more directly referenced form also prevailed such as priestley’s spanish baroque st anthony’s church (1936) which is directly evocative of the adobe type of architectures of the american south-west. at a domestic level, roman tiles, thickly applied plaster, and hardwood doors and windows typical of a southwestern united states spanish revival was deployed often as an architectural template for houses in newly constructed residential areas. the decorative notions of the berea style and the spanish revival were enhanced, or perhaps complicated by a significantly popular architecture in the region in the 1920s and the 1930s. the tradition of the decorated victorian was not ready for the slimmed down modernism that was emerging in johannesburg. instead, a fixation with the european prevailed: given the history of victorian architecture, in its neo-gothic, and classical revival styles which led into the 20th century even in britain (yarwood 1963:515), the harking back to the 19th century decorative thread of the arts and crafts movement is not surprising. however the most bizarre resurrection of a nostalgic view of england was perhaps the ‘tudorbethan’ revival, which took firm hold in the 1930s and corresponded with the expansion of the suburbs of the major cities. this style is characterized by a half-timbered, black and white aesthetic, embraces much of the cottage style of the arts and crafts movement, and is manifested in leadlight fenestration, substantial timber members in the form of heavy doors and exposed beams, as well as painstakingly laid brickwork. ‘tudorbethan’ as a genre is explained as a type of jacobean revival, scathingly referred to by sir john betjemen and his rejection of a ‘merrie england’(betjemen 1933:41). vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 31 figure 1. original sketch designs for edrington, dated 1939 (chick, bartholomew and poole) plans in author’s possession) however, the revival of the tudor/elizabethan/ jacobean architecture is not a pastiche application of decorative traditions without consideration. a common thread in the story is the relationship between sir herbert baker, one of south africa’s foremost architects, and sir edwin lutyens. perhaps one of the most noted british architects of the modern period, lutyens worked for the architects ernest george and harold peto at the same time as baker. he was a man of the timea firm protagonist of the arts and crafts. he worked in the mould of the ‘country house tradition’ producing a number of revivalist buildings such as the deanery gardens (1896) in sonning (yarwood 1963:521). trained in the same tradition, herbert baker was to later design the union buildings in pretoria in addition to a number of other buildings, some of which have revivalist threads. baker’s influence in south africa was significant, and whilst the point at which he and woodrow, a prolific ‘tudorbethan’ practitioner is not clear, the ground was set for a strong, imported influence on a new nation battling to craft its social, thus architectural identity. 4. tudorbethan revival as an identity alan clement carr woodrow was the archetypal protegee to the hollis family, for whom he recorded a prolific 28 separate projects at clairwood turf club over a period of three decades and most likely completed a number of others not recorded in his project register. woodrow was a committed catholic, and much of his work was ecclesiastical; a substantial number of projects were completed for st. joseph’s church in durban over the decades. his project registers located in the killie campbell collections of the university of kwazulu-natal record a variety of work of different scales, industrial, residential and religious. he was an active practitioner in durban, serving as the president of the natal provincial institute for architecture for three sessions. in his biography entry on woodrow, walter peters notes that he was born in king williamstown, in what was then the cape colony at the end of the 19th 32 century. he studied architecture both at the university of the witwatersrand and abroad, before settling in durban in the late 1920s. his studies in london must have been highly influential in his practice as a revivalist architect, given the significant number of tudor and gothic revival works completed in the early stages of his career. peters notes that he was apprenticed to the public works department in pretoria early in his adult life, and worked on the union buildings; however this experience would not have intersected with working with baker on the original building (peters 1981:898). woodrow initially registered with the south african institute of architects in 1928 and received his first large commission in 1932 (peters 1981:898). his association with clairwood turf club appears to have commenced with the design of the now demolished stewards dining hall, in a restrained but neo-tudor style. brian kearney notes that woodrow 'became the chief local architectural protagonist of the tudor revival during (this) period 1930's-1940's in durban' (kearney 1984:16). woodrow was not alone: a number of architects in durban were tudorbethan practitioners, notably rogers cooke and wolsey spicer in the playhouse (now the kwazulu-natal playhouse) completed in1931 (radford 2002:15), and the house edrington by malcolm poole of chick, bartholomew and poole, located in kloof (1940) which has significant resemblance to lutyens’ country house, the deanery gardens (1896). what makes woodrow so significant is the extent to which he engaged with a total revivalism of an ‘old world’ england, the philosophy of which will be discussed later in this paper. it is perhaps not surprising then that the clairwood turf club (now demolished) became the canvas for woodrow’s aspirations as a revivalist practitioner. it was a racecourse to the south of durban, famously known as the ‘garden course’, being surrounded by greenery in the midst of mobeni, what was considered a ‘garden industrial estate’ (scott 1994: 262). clairwood turf club opened in 1921, and catered to a lower-middle class/working class clientele; as such, its fantastical built environment added to the spirit of escape for its clients. significantly, this race course actively catered for all race groups, with the native grandstand being completed in 1953. during the second world war, woodrow saw active duty in which he achieved the rank of second lieutenant. after the war, much of his work at clairwood involved large scale extension, such as the construction of new grandstands and towers. photographs in his papers show similar structures in australia, suggesting that he cast far afield for precedent for these large concrete and significantly, modern structures. certainly, the totalisater, constructed in 1953 and demonstrating a distinctive move towards a slimmed down modernism is telling. between the mid-1950s and the mid-1960s he entered into partnership with austin collingwood. whilst woodrow turned his hand towards more sober architectures towards the end of his career, a number of surviving buildings by woodrow exist, most notably the tudor revival dwelling house sandys, what is today thomas more college situated in kloof. it was originally constructed for edwin sandys in 1940, and is a substantial dwelling in the ‘country house style’ that commands a sweeping view of the inland regions of the coast around durban. significantly, it is in direct reference to this particular building that we gain a greater insight into the mind of woodrow, and his intentions in his embracing of a romanticist, ‘merrie england’ idyll: in an undated speech at the thomas more school (which opened figure 2. clairwood turf club coat of arms most likely by woodrow (photo: author 2012) vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 33 figure 3. entrance gate to clairwood turf club ca 1950s, now demolished (photo: author 2012) on the premises in 1962), woodrow described his meeting with sandys, telling the assembly that ‘…i designed a large and expensive house and its costly outbuilding both of which comprise of your school buildings…his name was edwin sandys. he was a direct descendent of the english prelate, edwin sandys, who lived during the reign of queen elizabeth i of england, and therefore at the same time as did sir thomas more, chancellor of england.’ he continued by implying that sandys would have known of more, but critically offers the following lines on ancestry, ‘it is therefore reasonable i think to assume that through such ancestry there would be a connection, even though it would be a remote one, between the original owner of these buildings and the very great nobleman after whom this good and respected school is named.’ more critically, his fascination for the medieval is borne out in his passion for heraldry: his papers at the killie campbell collections bear this out, with sketches and drawings for myriad coats of arms for towns around kwazulu-natal; given this, although the evidence is not readily available, he is highly likely to have designed the coat of arms of clairwood turf club, pictured above. indeed, in the same speech quoted above, woodrow declared that sir thomas more’s coat of arms formed a substantial template for that of the thomas more school (as it was known at the time), with the inclusion of the three morecocks, as well as a ‘small gold cross superimposed upon the chevron’. he stressed from this that ‘the cross has been included because it is the most venerated of all christian symbols. it is a mark indeed it is the mark of christianity – christianity from which our western culture emerges bringing with it that most admirable and outstandingly successful 34 system of education based upon christian ethics, christian principles, precepts and laws’. further included in the coat of arms was the symbol of the unicorn, of which woodrow noted there were ‘many instances in the form of carvings and paintings in the cathedrals of europe, in the cathedrals of britain and in those of america’ (woodrow in undated speech: kcc mswoo). in order to understand woodrow’s position, it is important to consider that ‘any account of the past must be understood as being in part a “social portrait”, expressing ideas and sentiments concerning identity, morality and cosmology’ (bohlin citing tonkin 2001:274); this was directly expressed in the creation of the heraldry and its disparate references. further, woodrow’s professional dexterity of working beyond the field of the building itself was mentioned in an accolade awarded by the then natal provincial institute for his presidency in 1950, 1951 and 1960, as well as specifically mentioning his contribution to the field of heraldry. notably, ‘the institute is proud to know that its blazon, it’s president’s chain and medallions were designed by you and that they form part of the heritage of the institute which returns the deep affection which you have always shown it and its members’ (letter to alan woodrow, october 1967 from president ke gow, kcc mswoo). woodrow’s lutyens-esque stance in the production of a whimsical inter-war built environment in natal was most likely reinforced by his client base which allowed for production of the fantastical and the nostalgic. ‘old’ settler money, the church (which had a tradition of such decoration), and the inverted and suspended space of fantasy offered to the punters at the clairwood turf club, meant that his architectural designs could be carried out in a nostalgic, revivalist manner. as an architect, woodrow’s project register (kcc mswoo) reflects his position as an artist with a number of loyal benefactors demonstrating continuity and identity, particularly in the inter-war period. the inter-war polemic was complemented by the contemporaneous work of robert ‘gwelo’ goodman, an artist who for a short period crafted a new, constructed architectural identity which was to have a prevailing impact. 5. gwelo’ goodman and cape dutch revival: south african response and creation of identity at the same time that woodrow was re-contriving an old, tudor-era landscape, other architects were toeing the union period line, and working within the ideals of a localized, south african architecture. at its extreme, this manifested in a cape dutch revival, harking back to the lyrical forms of the gabled buildings constructed in the cape by the dutch settlers. a significant contributor to this architectural style in natal was robert ‘gwelo’ goodman, an artist, who worked predominantly for the sugar baron douglas saunders at tongaat, until his death in 1939. despite his presence in natal being rather short-lived, in this brief period and in part with noted sculptor ivan mitford-barberton, his creative input at the end of the 1930s was to leave an indelible imprint on the architectural landscape in the province. coming from the cape, goodman’s reconsideration of the qualities of the cape dutch style was purely in terms of its aesthetic rendering of form, surface and space. his primary commission was the reconsideration of douglas mackeurtan’s home, woodley, situated at the top of montpelier road in durban. this house was ‘transformed into a neoclassical mansion’ and served as the standard for the approach to amanzimnyama’. his adaptation of 18th century cape dutch architecture onto what was a reasonably pedestrian large suburban dwelling was reinforced by goodman’s consideration as to the ‘implicit quality of life and behaviour patterns that were linked to improving living conditions’ and that ‘beauty is a power for good’ (saunders 2007:4-29). robert watson notes that ‘gwelo’s first commission in tongaat was to redesign the main facades and some of the gardens of the house, amanzimyama.’ he deployed the elements of cape dutch architecture, by the ‘use of unplastered brickwork, bagged and limewashed, merely suggesting the mouldings on his gables, pilasters and parapets’ (watson 1960:162). apart from the initial work on amanzimnyama, goodman’s primary focus however, was the devitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 35 velopment of hambanati village: a company labour housing initiative. this aggressively championed social sustainable housing provided an architectural tool kit of simple, clean, well-constructed lines, considered proportions allowing for an architecture of intense light and deep shadow, thus extending, in his view, the access to beauty and proportion which he considered was the right of every man. christopher saunders recorded that ‘gwelo goodman died in march, 1939... in the short space of a few years he had imposed upon douglas (saunders) and the tongaat management the importance of beauty and the necessity for maintaining standards of excellence. gwelo goodman gave to tongaat the knowledge and understanding of the importance of beauty. until he was invited to commence architectural work in the community, the general rule was that no care or thought was given to the external appearance of buildings’. watson noted of him that ‘he had a highly developed social conscience, giving the same meticulous attention to roof tiles and waterborne sanitation as to the strong and delicate colour mixes in his palette’ (saunders 2007: 4129). certainly the bulk of the buildings that were constructed or modified after 1940 were thus not actively carried out by goodman, but rather carried out by others in a style loosely referred to as ‘gwelo colonial’ (watson 1960:184). goodman’s legacy of adherence to a specific architectural theme and a commitment to good design regardless of the intention of the building is commendable. further, goodman’s aesthetic considerations have prevailed for the last six decades, essentially branding the tongaat sugar company (now tongaat hulett (pty.) ltd) and deeply influencing the architecture of the kwazulu-natal north coast. figure 3. part of the main elevation of amanzimnyama, near tongaat (photo: author 2015) 36 both woodrow and goodman were working within a white society which itself was contested, with different aspirations, legacies and politics. both worked strongly within the perpetuation of a myth, whether it was the glory days of ‘merrie england’ or an importation of an architecture indigenous to other parts of the country, but forming part of the union period aesthetic tool-kit and therefore, to some degree, politically palatable. 6. contested white society and the architecture of the myth the architectures practiced in natal in the inter-war years pointed firmly towards an attempt at localization of identity; an engagement with a strongly british heritage whether perceived or contrived, and a movement towards the modern, obliquely manifested in the proliferation of art deco in durban. however, durban and natal province remained staunchly british, with the reference points located in a distant place and time: a crisis of memory. a similar ‘memory crisis’ in france prior to the turn of the 20th century was explained by anthropologist michael rowlands (citing richard terdiman) as it ‘… was not post-french revolutionary nostalgia but a product of coming to terms with urbanization, industrialization, and demographic expansion. as memory became envisaged as a representation of the past, not its repetition, it became amenable to nostalgic desires provoked by socio-historical change’ (terdiman in rowlands {1993} 2007:130). for residents of the formerly british colonies, the rupture of time and the shift in power to the union of south africa perhaps reinforced the focus of nostalgia and its connection to the motherland. for the ‘other’ whites, those from the previous boer republics of the orange free state and the zuid afrikaansche republiek, the ‘pioneering spirit’ of the 1838 ‘great trek’, the origins of which were centred on conflict with the british crown, was politicized and employed in order to create nationalism around a common origin. a british idyll and a hardened pioneer thus formed the pasts that were used to create links to legitimate the present or to mask change by stressing continuity (bender 1998:67). thus for the afrikaner, the schism created by the union of south africa’s participation in what was seen as england’s war after 1918 ‘… revived dutch racial pride and promoted a peasant culture outside the rich english heritage’ (thompson 1999:30). thus, for those residents of a strongly anglicized natal, the reverse was possible, embracing an exclusionary architectural language to reinforce those notions of belonging, albeit obliquely, to an england which was stable and pure. woodrow actively engaged with these ideas: in his afore-quoted speech to the scholars at the thomas more school, woodrow emphasized the value of purity; ‘purity is the state of being pure…we speak about pure gold, pure water, pure air. and so do we refer to the purity of one’s relationship with other people.’ the connection between purity and nostalgia is no accident: item kcm 31574, referenced simply as ‘this article appeared in one of the south african newspapers’ describes woodrow’s house constructed for himself, in glowing, archaic terms. dated march 1966, the author refers to the building as “the three kings” since the house was constructed during the reigns of all three kings, king george v, edward viii and king george vi. the article notes, ‘affectionately known as ‘the monastery’, the house manifests an exterior decorated with interesting wrought-iron work which includes a weather vane and light-fittings, while the creeper trailing over the walls nestles against windows and the portcullis-like garage doors give a moatlike effect reminiscient (sic) of a castle draw-bridge’. all the references throughout the article are to europe, things european and historical references such as etchings from ‘great expectations’ (kcc mswoo). all references, even at the end of the 1960s and in the context of the african sub-continent, are disconnected and irrelevant. shaw and chase (1989) interrogate such imagined history and nostalgia, quoting ‘of all the ways of using history, nostalgia is the most general, looks the most innocent, and is perhaps the most dangerous’ (shaw & chase 1989:1). nostalgia alludes to the romanticization of elements of the past, embraced in a manner which forgets the personal, economic, vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 4 is 1 37 social and political challenges faced at the time. ‘the sick man of europe had taken to his bed, dreaming of a childhood that he had never had, regressing into a series of fictitious and cloudless infantile summers’ (shaw & chase 1989:1). the authors suggest a cultural phenomenon that chooses to represent the present through ‘falsification of the past.’ dorothea schultz reinforces this notion, discussing jeli singers in mali. she notes, after pierre nora (1989), that ‘in a situation in which people are both aware of and bemoan a rupture with the past, both collective memory and individual memory are made by creating distant symbols of the past’ (schultz 2007:194). goodman, on the other hand, was essentially an artist (in fact the only buildings that he ever built were located in kwazulu-natal), and as such, he promoted a world view essentially located in the aesthetic polemics of the 19th century which had little to do with a contemporary environment located in alternative social political, and environmental, landscapes. 7. conclusions woodrow’s presentation to the schoolboys at the thomas more school demonstrates an overt excitement at the connection between his client edwin sandys (1940) and his ancestor edwin sandys (15611659). the latter had served in the english parliament, and ironically was one of the original partners in the virginia company of london, effectively an emigration scheme. christopher shaw and malcolm chase explain that the intrinsic connection with the past is one in which ‘one had to be connected to the object of scrutiny, perhaps through kinship or through a broader feeling of identity such as class affiliation. ‘these were in some way my people and my present therefore was bound up in their past’ (shaw & chase 1989:2). sandys of the past, and sandys of the present were inextricably tied in the production of the ‘tudorbethan’. keith thomas, cited in roy judge’s work on may day festivals, noted that ‘the attributes of merry england were constant: a contented, revelling peasantry and a hierarchical order in which each one happily accepted his place and where the feast in the baronial hall symbolized the ideal social relationship’ (judge 1991:131). whilst alan woodrow played an active part in world war ii, (indeed his notebooks reflect considered thinking about camouflage and bomb removal), perhaps increasing his ties to ‘merry england’, other evidence of his life exists dealing with the everyday in southern africa. besides his obsession with the church and his passion for heraldry, woodrow was an avid adventurer; certainly he appears to have been part of the development of the first lodge across the border in lesotho, at the top of sani pass which was a notorious climb (kcc mswoo). similarly, ‘gwelo’ goodman was a well-travelled and acclaimed artist who found a highly influential architectural career in in tongaat. his development of ‘gwelo colonial’ in the production of a pastiche, well-considered cape dutch revival went beyond the ambit of housing for the sugar barons, to include labour housing for the workers. perhaps the famed mid-20th century poet john betjemen, who coined the phrase ‘jacobethan’ from which the conflated term tudorbethan is derived, had a point. betjemen’s cynical note on his shortening of the term is simply ‘to save the time of those who do not wish to distinguish between these periods of architectural uncertainty, i will henceforward use the term "jacobethan" (betjemen 1933:41). understanding the complexities of architecture by limiting them to digestible, definable category ignores their context, and their social, political and economic content. understanding architectures in any polemic needs a broader and more considered approach: on the other hand, whilst ‘union period’ exists to some degree as a portmanteau term, it ignores the more subversive tensions existing on the ground in a period of highly charged social and political contestation in white society alone 38 references bender, b. (1998) stonehengemaking space. oxford: berg publishers betjeman,j. (1933) ghastly good taste. london: chapman and hall bohlin,a. (2001) places of longing and belonging. memories of the group area proclamation of a south african fishing village. in contested landscapes: movement, exile and place, edited by b.bender & m.winer. oxford: berg publishers judge, r. (1991) may day and merrie england. in folklore vol 102:ii pp131-148. lowenthal, d. (1989) nostalgia tells it like it wasn’t. in the imagined past: history and nostalgia, edited by c.shaw & m.chase. manchester: manchester university press. kearney, b. (1984) a revised listing of the important places and buildings in durban. durban: city council of durban newton-thompson, joyce. (1951) .gwelo goodman: south african artist. cape town: allen & unwin peters, w. (1981) alan woodrow. in human sciences research council. dictionary of south african biography. durban : butterworth press radford, d. (2002) a guide to the architecture of durban and pietermaritzburg. cape town: david philip publishers rowlands m, (2007) entangled memories and parallel heritages in mali. in reclaiming heritagealternative imaginaries of memory in west africa, edited by f.de jong & m.rowlands. walnut creek. west coast press saunders: c. (2007) the history of the tongaat and hulett sugar companies. durban: tongaat hulett pty.ltd. shaw,c. & chase,m. (1989) the imagined past: history and nostalgia. manchester: manchester university press. scott, d. (1994) communal space construction: the rise and fall of clairwood and district. university of natal: unpublished phd dissertation. thompson,p. (1999) the british civic culture of natal south africa 1902-1961. howick: brevitas press. watson, r. (1960) tongaati: an african experiment. london: hutchinson woodrow, a. collected papers, killie campbell collections, durban mswoo yarwood, d. (1963) the architecture of england from prehistoric times to the present day. london: batsford kerce, red (benjamin l.), 1911-1964. vine covered column ruins of verdura plantation tallahassee, florida. 19--. black & white photoprint. state archives of florida, florida memory. https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/44417 vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 59 abstract the concept of plantation conjures an image that identifies the north florida / south georgia region of the u. s. leon county attracted many cotton planters from georgia, virginia, maryland, north and south carolina in the 1820’s to the 1850’s. up to the beginning of the civil war, leon county was the 5th largest producer of cotton counting all counties from florida and georgia. the civil war brought the plantation culture to a standstill. the plantations transformed the environment based on their need for open fields in which to cultivate different crops, or raise a variety of animals with the help of slaves. from the 1900’s many plantations abandoned their land to nature producing a deep change in the local landscape. today plantations are not used as much for planting crops but more for hunting or as tree farms. the hunting plantations do not grow crops but provide good conditions for the hunting of animals and birds. other plantations were torn apart, sold and now are part of the tallahassee urban fabric. in other words, they disappeared. the transformation of the plantations has been slow and steady, and has become the image of the area, even the region. the paper shows five plantations that represent five different evolutions of these traditional landscapes. the landscapes have evolved to accommodate the very local but fluid definition of place. it is this transformation, this evolving identity which helped preserve some of the traditional landscapes and the traditional architecture on them. the most prominent feature of the plantation is the “big house” or plantation house. the house embodies all aspects of the plantation life style. the construction materials and methods reflected the times, the technologies and the available resources. the research has been done mainly in the archives of the tallahassee trust for historic preservation. the results, still pending, explain the land typology as it evolved from the golden decades of the plantation culture to the present day land use. keywords plantation, culture, traditional, landscapes, construction 1 florida a&m university, school of architecture and engineeringtechnology plantation houses of north florida eduardo robles 1 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7520 https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2017.7520 60 1. introduction plantations conjure a strong image that is deeply rooted in the culture of the north florida/south georgia region of the united states. it is an image that defines and describes a particular and peculiar sense of place; the image that still identifies this area, and is different from other plantation based regions of the country. the study area is basically defined by the agricultural land located between tallahassee in florida and thomasville in georgia. as part of the deep south as a region it is defined by culture, not by state lines. florida became the 27th state of the union in 1845 and grew significantly until 1860. historically wealth was related to the plantations, and the plantations in florida were concentrated mainly in the north of the state. in florida the plantation golden age or period goes from 1763 to 1865. at that time in leon county there were numerous plantations that attracted many cotton planters from other states (georgia, virginia, maryland, and the carolinas). many upper south white settlers moved to leon county and similar areas in north florida and the golf coast, promoting this way of growth in the city of tallahassee and in leon county. wilderness was transformed into an agrarian landscape that responded to the socio-economic reality of the south at that time. large tracks of land were owned by a few people that needed easy access to the land, and a large number of cheap-labor to exploit it. this unplanned growth was informed and modified as it slowly opened the forest, avoiding swamps, following the rolling hills, and made it suitable for planting crops. the florida soil is fertile and the growing season is long, allowing at times for more than one harvest. while the area grew vast amounts of cotton it also produced corn, beans, sugar cane, potatoes, tobacco, benne (sesame), etc. the united states acquired the territory of florida from spain through the adams-onís treaty (also known as the transcontinental treaty, the florida purchase treaty or the florida treaty) which was signed in 1819 and took effect in 1821. the treaty established a clear border between the viceroyalty of new spain and the u.s. this also gave the country the gulf areas of alabama, mississippi and western louisiana. on march 3, east and west florida become territories of the united states. a few weeks later, on march 30 east and west florida merged into a single florida territory, the future state of florida. once the territory was acquired the next step was to deal with the natives. the treaty of moultrie creek of 1823 and by the treaty of payne’s landing of 1832 between the us government and the chiefs of several native groups of florida (collectively known as the seminoles and commonly called creek indians) forced these groups to give up all claims to land in exchange for a 4,000,000-acre reservation in the center of the state. the treaties produced a lot of conflict and unhappiness amongst the native americans, and later on in disregard for all the accords, the seminoles were forcefully moved west. the seminole wars or the florida wars were the longest and most expensive conflicts between the native americans and the us army. the first seminole war was from circa 1816 to 1819, the second seminole war was from 1835 to 1842, and the third seminole war from 1855 until 1858. on march 3, 1845 florida becomes the 27th state of the united states. florida was admitted as a “slave state”, or a state where the practice of slavery was legal. that year the capitol was completed, partially using bricks manufactured by the chaires brothers in their plantation. in 1861 florida declared its secession from the union, becoming one of the founding members of the confederate states. the battle of natural bridge just south of tallahassee on march 6, 1863 is one of the last fights of the war before robert e. lee surrenders to ulysses s. grant at appomattox courthouse in richmond, va on april 9, 1865 ending the civil war. the american civil war brought the plantation culture to a standstill. after the civil war, in the 1870’s-80’s the plantation economy changes to sharecropping and tenant farming. in order to better understand the evolution of the plantations we have selected a few typical examples that show the present conditions of these large country estates. for that we have selected the following plantations: bannerman, bellevue, chaires, goodwood, and tall timbers. each plantation represents a different path from their glory days to the present. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 61 2. bannerman plantation the bannerman plantation (also known as the lamonia plantation) began in 1827 when charles bannerman purchased his first parcel of land. charles, a white settler from new hanover county in north carolina, sought to build a cotton plantation and find his fortune. at its peak in the 1860s, the plantation covered 1,549.6 acres and 75 slaves worked it. charles continued to improve the agricultural output by implementing new methods such as fertilizing with guano and planting new crops, including tobacco which was introduced in 1858. in addition to cotton and tobacco, the bannerman plantation also produced corn, sweet potatoes, peas, peanuts, turnips, sugar cane, collards and melons as well as hogs, cattle, and other livestock. this agricultural diversity was fairly standard for plantations of this size. in 1875, nine years after charles’s death, the plantation was divided amongst his children. while the plantation property was sold off piecemeal, the portion where the plantation house stands remained in the family until it was sold by terry bannerman zeigler in 1991. at 141 years, the bannerman plantation was the longest family-owned plantation. the bannerman plantation house, built between 1851 and 1852, represents a two-story frame vernacular approach to the main plantation house typical of charles’s native north carolina; representative of the architectural styles and ideals that the settler from the upper south brought to the new country. the house was originally a four-room vernacular i-house (two rooms on top and two on bottom) with a later addition of two shed roof rooms on the rear, gable roof, greek revival and federal details; compatible twentieth century additions do not affect integrity of 1852 dwelling; rural cultural landscape (florida master site file, historical structure form, 1959). behind the house there was a pantry and a detached kitchen originally placed a few feet away just in case of a fire. the kitchen, like other parts of the house represented an evolution in construction and in culture. in 1852 the dwelling had a detached kitchen to the back and to the left of the house; in the 1920’s the kitchen was moved to the pantry and enlarged; in 1961 the kitchen was removed and placed behind the house, once again separated from the main body of the dwelling, and included a bathroom and a sunroom; and in 1972 the kitchen becomes the laundry room, and it is moved to the location of the 1920’s. the house is a good example of a mid-size planter antebellum architecture of its type and clearly illustrates the environment in which southern plantation life prospered. charles built this house to accommodate his large family in comfort not in grandeur. the house is organized as a georgian plan using a central passage with adjoining parlors. georgian plans are characterized for their simplicity, proportion, and balance. although georgian was the dominant style for domestic architecture in the 18th c. it continued being used in the south throughout the 19th c. the style developed multiple variations on the simple symmetrical, generally two-story house with a central entrance, and two-rooms deep. while the central hall retains its nineteenth century integrity, the north and west wings were added in the twentieth century. the house is georgian in organization, with vernacular influences, and greek revival dominant decorative elements. the architectural ornamentation of the house is influenced by the greek revival style, popular at the time of the house construction and the dominant style until about 1860 in the south. it is seen in the large, squarish six-over-six windows, front doors framed by sidelights and a transom, and classicallyderived square columns. on the interior, the centralhall plan is also typical of a mid-century greek revival house. applied symmetrical greek revival moldings figure 1. charles bannerman plantation home tallahassee, florida. 1976. black & white photoprint. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/ show/36336 62 and plain corner blocks trim the five-paneled doors and surround the windows in the six original rooms and the halls. the parlor door and window moldings feature a greek revival pedimented crown in addition to the moldings, and recessed panels beneath the parlor windows (mcalester, 1986). a second style which contributes to the appearance of the vernacular dwelling is the earlier federal style, which had been the dominant style until the 1820s. it is shown in the five-bay facade with its smooth siding and the lightness and delicacy of the balustraded veranda (national register of historic places, registration form). the front façade of the house has a two-story front porch with six square columns and a doubletiered veranda. the five bay organization and the delicate details that emphasize the symmetrical order and the straight forward repetition are the federal style most expressive influence. the foundations consist of masonry piers that elevate the house in order to provide natural ventilation to the underside, a typical solution in pre air conditioned days. the piers as well as the chimneys were made of bricks fabricated in the plantation, which was a common practice in the south. the bannerman journal records the process of construction of the house beginning with making brick or “burning brick” in a locally made kiln (wladorf). the infill is pierced brick (a screen) for ventilation. bricks were mainly used for foundations and for chimneys which were the first steps in the construction of the house. this explains large accounts of leftover pieces buried around the big house and around the slave quarters. there is also archeological evidence of brick walls and wells next to the house. the house is a wood frame structure using primary local, abundant and cheap varieties of pine. the timber was cut and milled nearby. the original section of the house is supported by sills measuring from 9” x 10.25” to 11” x 12” (national register of historic places, registration form). sills under the house are longleaf pine. these large pieces of timber were cut by hand and pegged together. studs and braces are a full 2” x 4” yellow pine. around doors and windows, the members are a full 4” x 6”. the corner studs or frame columns are a full 8” x 8” with one quarter cut out to make the corner (the current, january 1962). the front façade is faced with flush siding boards 9” to 11” wide. aside from the large timbers that were pegged together, all other wood related materials were attached with nails. the nails represent three historic stages: hand wrought nails (17th, 18th, and 19th c.), machine cut nails (late 18th c. to present) and wire nails (1855 to present but became the dominant nail form after 1890). of course, as expected, nail concentrations are significantly higher around the big house were machine cut nails predominate. the bannerman house is one of the few remaining antebellum residences in leon county. 3. bellevue plantation bellevue plantation began in 1826 when hector mcneill purchased eighty acres of land from the united states government approximately two miles west of the young town of tallahassee. the plantation continued to expand through the 1840’s as numerous owners acquired adjacent land. the most recognizable feature of the plantation, the bellevue plantation house, was constructed during this period. around 1835, samuel h. duval, a first cousin of governor william pope duval, had the house built for ellen attaway willis. ellen was a younger sister of the notable princess catherine murat (born catherine daingerfield willis gray, daughter of colonel byrd c. and mary willis née lewis, granddaughter of fielding lewis, george washington’s brother-in-law, and great-grandniece of george washington). in 1842, duval went bankrupt and the property passed through two more owners before being acquired by princess murat in 1854. princess murat named the property and house after a hotel in brussels where she and her husband, prince achille murat, spent time. achille charles louis napoléon murat was the eldest son of joachim, “the dandy king” (napoleonic king of naples during the first french empire) and maria annunziata carolina or caroline (napoleon’s youngest sister). murat was born january 21, 1801. he emigrated to the us in 1821 and settled in st. augustine in 1824. in 1825 murat and col. james gadsden bought the land murat would call lipona plantation 15 miles east of tallahassee from the marquis de lafayette (lafayette land grant). prince murat had an active political life, was elected alderman of tallahasse and later become mayor of the city. the plantation never grew very large; the 1860 census recorded 520 acres, 24 slaves, and the plantation’s worth as $10,000. after catherine’s death in 1867, the property was eventually sold to william d. bloxham at $10 per acre to pay off debt acquired by the murats. the land continued to change hands through the next vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 63 100 years. the plantation grew smaller and smaller as subsequent owners sectioned the larger property into smaller parcels for sale. the plantation eventually became the small scale residential neighborhood it is today, and the plantation land disappeared under the urban expansion of tallahassee. prince achille and princess catherine murat were well known in the tallahassee area as being related to two prominent individuals. prince murat, adventurous in his ventures and expenditures, left catherine with numerous debts at the time of his death in 1847. however, in the 1850s, napoléon iii of france declared her a princess of france and gifted her a sum of money and access to the royal livery. with her new found money catherine purchased bellevue plantation and the house in 1854. she spent the remainder of her life living in the plantation house, improving the production of her landholdings, and as the vice regent of florida for the mount vernon ladies association worked to preserve george washington’s first home. princess murat died in 1867. the murats were buried in the st. john’s episcopal cemetery in tallahassee. the bellevue plantation house is representative of the vernacular architecture of the gulf coast. this type of house was brought to florida via the gulf, and it is frequently seen throughout the rural areas of the panhandle. the residential building is representative of environmentally responsive architecture along the gulf coast and the southeast of the country. the symmetrical and simple house is a fine example of the transition from creole cottage to simple classical detailing (j.r little). the construction date is not known but henry edwards and queen anne browning got married in 1850 and shortly after that they moved to their new house. it is a simple one-and-a-half story, mortise-and-tenon frame house clad in shiplap siding. the main story of the original house was built in the pattern of a double log house or dog-trot house. two large rooms with exposed end chimneys are symmetrically organized around a large central hall. on the front, an incised or cut-in porch runs the full front of the house. the second floor follows the organization of the first but without proper “rooms”, more like partitions to indicate and separate spaces. sometimes they used portions of the upstairs to spread the harvested cotton to dry (this house). the kitchen was located in the back, separated from the house and connected with a covered walkway. the central hall is a specific response to the hot and humid weather of the south. this response is expressed in the form of an open “dog-trot” or as a figure 2. bellevue plantation house tallahassee, florida. black & white photoprint. tallahassee trust for historic preservation. source: https://www.taltrust@comcast.net relative large central hall. in the case of a central hall, large windows and/or doors are placed at both ends to allow when open for the sight breeze to move the air and make the interior spaces more comfortable. other architectural moves to increase the comfort level in the house are elevated brick piers, high ceilings, and large windows throughout. the house was moved in 1967. the front façade currently faces east. that is a response to the museum’s needs not its original solar orientation. originally it faced south which explains the deep front porch. six solid square columns are equally spaced across the front porch. the chamfered edges and general appearance are victorian (inspection report). there is evidence of a possible matching back porch but it was closed-in in a very early date and converted into two single story rooms of unequal size but this is inconclusive (waldorf, bellevue). this vernacular house was built of wood and lifted on brick piers, with an external brick chimney and a gable roof covered in wooden shingles. this represents a typical cottage construction of this place and time. the construction of the house is post and beam with large sills joined by mortise and tenon, double-wooden-peg joints. all sills and beams were mortised for posts. all exterior wall studs and diagonal braces were rough 64 cut heart pine attached by cut or wrought nails. the lumber was heart pine, hand-dressed and cut off the local trees. the roof shingles were hand-riven. the original floor which has been replaced during restoration were from hand-dressed lumber 1 ! inches thick and varied from 8 to 10 inches wide (this house). the complete original stair remained in place (waldorf, g. bellevue). the current house displays slave quarters and kitchen outbuildings that may not be original. after princess murat’s death the house had various owners. the murat house association, tallahassee heritage foundation, and junior league of tallahassee acquired the home and in 1967 relocated it to the tallahassee museum of history and natural science, where it still stands exemplifying tallahassee’s rich history. the house was restored in the 1960’s by herschel e. shepherd, aia, of jacksonville, florida. it is considered as one of the finest and most accurate restorations in florida. 4. chaires plantation (verdura) verdura plantation was one of the largest and most successful plantations in leon county. benjamin chaires, an influential florida and leon county transplant and one of florida’s most successful land speculators, began purchasing land east of tallahassee in the mid-1820s. the plantation rapidly grew as he acquired more land, raising it to 9,440 acres at the time of his death in 1838. benjamin’s business interests included real estate ventures, construction contracts, building of railroads, banking, brick manufacturing, buying and selling of cotton and slaves, and other commodities. benjamin chaires was highly influential and successful during the end of the florida territorial period and its early statehood. it is even suggested that he was florida’s first millionaire. although born in onslow county, nc, his legacy began after moving to st. augustine. before moving to tallahassee and establishing verdura, benjamin helped plan the development of jacksonville in the 1820s as one of its three city commissioners. he donated the land used for the duval county courthouse. he even became the first county judge of duval in 1822. around 1830, benjamin moved to tallahassee and began purchasing the land which would become verdura. before verdura, he purchased land north of tallahassee and built the columns. the columns, also known as the william “money” williams mansion was an important plantation whose main house was built around 1830 is now located next to the governor’s mansion. the house and surrounding gardens have been recently renovated as a museum. in 1832 he sold the columns and bought a 500-acre tract east of tallahassee. that year verdura was built. benjamin was primarily a cotton producer but his continued business endeavors helped create the st. joseph railroad and canal company as well as the union bank of florida. benjamin was instrumental in the growth of northern florida during the state’s infancy. prior to his death on october 4, 1838, benjamin deeded part of verdura to his daughter sarah jane chaires and her husband col. george t. ward as part of her dowry. this portion became the southwood figure 3. drawing of the verdura plantation mansion tallahassee, florida. 18--. black & white photoprint. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/ items/show/25979. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 65 plantation for which the current residential development southeast of tallahassee is named. st. joe submitted an application for development to leon county in 1988 which included land from southwood and from verdura. southwood was developed into a form of new urbanism but verdura is still on hold. the plantation, although subdivided after benjamin’s death, continued to be owned and operated by his brothers and heirs. it remained in the family through 1948 when the st. joe paper company bought the land from george l. henderson, one of his descendants. all that remains of the prosperous plantation are the ruins of the plantation house. the verdura plantation house was once a sight to behold. around 1832, chaires built what was considered by many to be the preeminent plantation house overlooking the fields. the 3 story brick, 15 room greek revival mansion embodied benjamin’s fortune. the house was vast and opulent, clearly signaling to any and all visitors that he was a rich and important person. the mansion was one of the best examples of the elite planter culture of the area. upon approaching the house, one was struck by the unique placement and size of the ten tuscan columns that framed the house. curiously enough the massive columns were at the sides and not by the entrance, framing the house instead of facing and perhaps confronting the arrival. at the front there was a large, grand stair that rose to an entry portico elevating the visitor to the principal floor of the large house. underneath was an aboveground basement. the interior matched the exterior’s grandeur with spacious rooms designed to host wellattended and well-dressed galas. the rooms had high ceilings, and each room had a fireplace. there were no privies in the house. the chaires family used chamber pots or slop buckets which once used were taken to a wagon fitted with a tank. this job was first done by slaves and later by servants (heiland: 55). fire destroyed the house in 1885, leaving only its ten colossal columns and piles of rubble. the debris, created by thousands of bricks that covered the site, provided a seal and “the potential for archeological data of unusual quality and quantity, heretofore lacking in other antebellum plantation sites in the county…” (heiland:3) today, the once mighty massive columns stand amidst rubble, overgrown vegetation, and subdivided hunting tracts as ghostly echoes of a distant life. the remaining columns, five facing east and five facing west sit on square pedestals that were placed 80 feet apart. both columns and pedestals were built of brick made by slaves on the plantation. the bricks would be made from clay pitted on the property and sun dried or fired in a small kiln. some bricks were molded with a curved surface to create the diminishing curve of the columns. this was common practice in the south. the quantity of brick left in verdura plus the brick business ventured by the brothers’ state that there was some understanding of handmade brick making in the plantation (heiland: 8). benjamin developed a small business of brick making. he and his brothers green and thomas contracted to provide bricks for the federal arsenal in chattahoochee. with jesse willis he made bricks for the second capitol building in 1838. they also provided bricks for the columns, the presbyterian church, and supplied other builders (heiland: 34). if one assumes that verdura was similar in status and nature to other plantations, a large number of out buildings would be expected to dot the immediate landscape. according to an advertisement placed in the tallahassee floridian and journal in october 2, 1858, the outhouses were made of brick and built in the most substantial manner. unfortunately, nothing remains and the land has been plowed and planted on many occasions, and converted into a tree farm since the 1960’s by the st, joe corporation after purchasing it in 1948. in a plantation of this size and prominence one would expect to find several structures that support its daily activities, such as barns for different purposes, stables, saw mills, grinding mills, carpenter shops, blacksmith shops, cooperages, tanneries, cotton gins, dairy houses, spring houses, smokehouses, nurseries, wells, and/or many others, standing alone or attached according to local use and custom. to this day there is no evidence left of the existence and location of any out-buildings in this plantation. 66 figure 4. goodwood, before remodeling tallahassee, florida. ca 1917. black & white photonegative. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/ show/10568 5. goodwood plantation goodwood plantation, originally called newstead, first began when the croom family started purchasing land from the lafayette land grant in the 1820’s. this land was part of a township granted to general lafayette in appreciation of his assistance to the country during the american war of independence. hardy croom, a north carolina native, bought the first 640 acres in 1833 following in his father’s steps. over the next four years, he continued amassing land in the area. in 1837 hardy, his wife frances, and their three children met a tragic fate when their ship the ss home sank near cape hatteras in a tropical hurricane known as racer’s storm. hardy’s brother bryan inherited and took over the operations of the property and completed the plantation home. he also commissioned a monument in memory of his brother and family which was erected in st. john’s episcopal church in tallahassee. in 1839, henrietta smith, the maternal grandmother of hardy’s children, and elizabeth armistead, the children’s maternal aunt, sued bryan for ownership of the property. after nearly twenty years, the case was settled in favor of smith and armistead in 1857, who assumed control of two-eighths of the estate, which included goodwood. in 1858 the plantation was sold to arvah hopkins. the 1860 census reported goodwood was 1,675 acres (1050 acres of improved land and 625 acres of unimproved land) and eventually it grew to 2,400 acres. the plantation produced 2,500 bushels of corn and 150 bales of cotton, and had an unknown number of slaves. after passing through several owners, senator william c. hodges bought the remaining property in 1925. he died in 1940, leaving goodwood to his wife margaret. margaret remarried thomas hood in 1948. after her death thomas established the margaret e. wilson foundation in her memory and created plans for goodwood’s restoration as a museum and public park. upon hood’s death in 1990 the wilson foundation and goodwood museum and gardens assumed stewardship for goodwood, ensuring its continued existence as an example of a way of life long past. goodwood plantation was similar in size and status to figure 5. goodwood mansion tallahassee, florida. not before 1911. black & white photoprint. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/ show/28058. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 67 verdura. the mansion designed by architect george anderson was begun in 1834 for bryan h. croom, and supposedly completed in 1839. the house was slightly smaller than verdura. goodwood had a footprint of about 55 feet square (about 7,588 square feet) while verdura was 50’ x 80’, both were built out of brick, had high ceilings, large windows, columns and a large verandah (heiland:12). the mansion was simple in conception and details but massive and monumental. the design was based on a georgian symmetrical square plan with a center hall. the georgia style lingered on in america until the 1820’s. goodwood is a late example of this style. for most of the construction slave labor was used but artisans, painters, decorators and landscape designers were also contracted to work on the house (croom mansion – msfile) the body of the house was organized in two floor plans over a basement with an attic on top crowned by a square lantern or small cupula, a replica of the one in mt. vernon. the main house employed a variety of elements to reflect the wealth and status of the croom family and of mrs. tiers, who later extensively renovated the property. the house was reconstructed and remodeled in 1912-13 and suffered several alterations that provided it with its present look which removed the iron grille work and now includes round columns and an octagonal lantern. the building has a brick superstructure finished with stucco. the stucco was scored to emulate stone block construction in order to elevate the status of the house. the thick exterior load bearing walls vary from two to three feet thick. the brick for the house was shipped from new york, as were doors, windows and other fittings. all the interior walls, floors and roof are constructed of hand hewn timber. the interior is organized as a central hall four square plan. two load bearing partitions define the 50-foot-long central hall which in turn defines circulation at all levels of the house. the second floor consists of 5 bedrooms and bathrooms that were added later. in the colonies, after about 1760 the central hall was free of stairs, which were placed to the side, as it is the case here. the u-shaped staircase connects the main floor to the attic. supposedly it was built by an english craftsman and has both straight and curved runs which was popular during the revolutionary war period and is associated with the federal style (msfile). the hip roof of the house has a low pitch popular in the years after the independence. the ridge is cut-off at the top, provided with a deck and balustrade, and crowned by the present octagonal lantern. the house was added to the u.s. national register of historic places in 1972, and is now a historic house museum known as goodwood museum and gardens. the house is now decorated to reflect the years around world war i, decorated with original family furniture, textiles, ceramics, art, and personal effects. the current grounds cover 16 acres. it is important to notice that the house is now structurally different from its original conception. the modifications were done in a very skillful manner with good taste, and have not changed the character of the building (msfile). the plantation was conceived as a self-sustaining compound. although many structures were built by the crooms, only four still stand. the guest house, old kitchen, gray cottage (or spring house), and main house were built by bryan croom. the guest house was the original home of the crooms. soon after its construction, bryan had the three-story, italianate main house built. the plantation house was surrounded by numerous out-buildings. the plantation buildings were surrounded by extensive gardens that included a private race track, formal english gardens, bridal paths and many winding carriage drives. hardy croom is also remembered as a serious amateur botanist. he actually published several papers in the american journal of science and discovered several new species of plants including the torreya tree. around 1832 hardy leased land part of which become designated in 1976 as torreya state park, u.s. national natural landmark and historic site. there he explored a series of unique ecosystems that are now protected. 68 6. tall timbers plantation tall timbers plantation (also known as woodlawn, g. w. holland, and hickory hill) has one of the more widely varied histories of the leon county plantations. the first pieces of land were bought in 1826 by john phinzy and samuel bryan but it truly began its life as woodlawn plantation when griffin w. holland, a doctor from virginia, purchased land north of lake iamonia in 1834. throughout the mid-1800s holland developed his land into a cotton plantation. by 1860, 1,200 of its 2,600 acres produced 225 bales of cotton, 7,000 bushels of corn, and various livestock using the labor of 95 slaves. it was one of the large plantations of leon county. after the civil war holland was unable to maintain the plantation’s production, so he eventually sold it to alexander mosely in 1871. mosely later sold the land to eugene h. smith in 1880 who renamed it hickory hill. during this time, the slave-based farming system was replaced by the tenant farming system. this agricultural production system continued on the property until the 1940s. the current incarnation began when edward beadel, an independently wealthy architect from new york, purchased the land in 1895. like many wealthy northerners beadel sought to establish a hunting plantation. beadel bought the land from the owners of the live oak plantation and named his estate tall timbers. he, along with his nephew henry l. figure 6. tall timbers plantation: tallahassee, florida. ca 1895. black & white photonegative. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/7189. vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 69 beadel the second owner of the plantation, created a wildlife preserve and its legacy as a wildlife habitat management and research station began. this was and still is unique. most hunting plantations simply remain as hunting grounds, nothing more. upon his death in 1958, henry beadel donated the entire tall timbers estate to be used as an ecological research station. the tall timbers research station and land conservancy, operated by the tall timbers research foundation, was established in 1958 and now covers 4,000 acres with conservation land easements of almost 130,000 acres. the foundation seeks to conserve land management practices in north florida and south georgia through the study of fire ecology, game bird management, vertebrate ecology and forestry. as a research station, tall timbers is recognized for the study of fire ecology, and for the advocacy of land management through the use of prescribed burning. as a land conservancy, tall timbers is one of the country’s leading land trusts protecting traditional land uses in the region. the mission of tall timbers research station & land conservancy is to foster exemplary land stewardship through research, conservation and education. tall timbers plantation was designated florida’s first cultural landscape in 1989 by the national register of historic places. the two story frame vernacular, clapboard siding, lifted on piers, and under a gable roof plantation house probably designed by edward beadel was built around 1895-96. the house was built facing lake iamonia, lifted on brick piers with cinder-block infill. the original two story portion of the house is a rectangle. the plan is a typical four rooms per floor divided by a central hall with a u-shaped staircase on the rear. henry visited every year until 1919, when he purchased the plantation from his uncle. in 1921 henry and wife genevieve added a one story, five bay wing to the east of the existing building. the addition retained the vernacular feel of the original house, and was painted to match. the linking of the two buildings was done with an eighty-six-foot porch supported by square posts with wooden balustrade and a wisteria trellis. henry also added a three-bay dormer to the original house to increase bedroom space. figure 7. ned and genevieve on the porch of the main house. 1913. black & white photonegative. state archives of florida, florida memory. https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/146417. figure 8. ned and genevieve on the porch of the main house. 1913. beadel house at the tall timbers research station tallahassee, florida. 1978. black & white photoprint. state archives of florida, florida memory. source: https://www.floridamemory.com/ items/show/43976. 70 in addition to the beadel house, many architectural remnants of the tenant culture can be found in the plantation. there are two tenant dwellings (tenant dwelling no.1 and tenant dwelling no.2) built between 1895 and 1919. these are typical examples of rural wood frame construction. the buildings are good examples of local materials, construction techniques, and workmanship for this type of housing. the jones family tenant farm has been restored in order to preserve and exhibit the often ignored history and cultural legacy of the african american tenant farming communities. the restoration included the tenant house and the adjacent corncrib. the restored buildings provide an opportunity to experience the important role in the local agriculture that the black tenants played in the region. the remaining outbuildings are the cook’s house, the pump house, the hay barn, the corn crib and the dairy barn. these outbuildings span from circa 1895 to the 1940’s. some have suffered additions, others have been renovated to accommodate current usage, and sealed to provide air conditioning. various buildings were built after 1950 as part of the research station. 7. conclusions the fate of the plantations was determined by several factors. it was not just one factor that changed the plantations but a combination that produced different results depending when and where impacted. the american civil war had a profound influence on the plantation culture. the political situation after the war put in disarray the principles that held the plantation values together. the plantation economy disintegrated further as the slave population was not able to support it any longer. the slave culture gave way to the tenant farmer culture. many former slaves become “sharecroppers” by renting land from the plantation and paying a percentage of the yearly crops to the landowner. unfortunately, this created a culture of perpetual debt that lasted until mid-20th century. before the war the south was supplying the textile mills of england with tons of cotton fueled by the development of the cotton gin, a machine that could separate seed from lint by the turning of a crank. this increased the output per slave and in consequence the output of marketable cotton, the income of the plantation, and the need for additional slaves in order to produce more cotton and increase revenue. the added income compelled the south to develop its agriculture disproportionally to the development of its industry. as the national economy shifted from agriculture to industry many plantations not able to keep up were simply left behind. the decline did produce some diversification. after the civil war land owners in the area began planting pecan trees, cash crops such as tobacco, and herding livestock. the reduction of productivity contributed to the slow disintegration of the plantation culture. this was exacerbated by the simple fact that most plantations subdivided as generations passed, reducing this way even further their profitability. at the same time the city of tallahassee grew and exercised pressure on the immediate adjacent rural lands. the result was either to sell what was left to a single buyer or piecemeal it to several buyers. this way several plantations were slowly transformed and absorbed by the urban fabric and the needs of the growing city of tallahassee. proximity to the urban center of tallahassee certainly promoted the subdivision of land and their gradual conversion to mainly residential neighborhoods. today some of the plantations are only remembered by the name they gave to the neighborhoods, such is the case of betton, waverly, and southwood. others have disappeared to the point that no one remembers them at all, such is the case of bellvue. one can still find remnants of the old plantations like the old betton plantation cemetery now located in the middle of a well-established residential neighborhood called betton hills. for most people there is no relation between the cemetery and the old plantation. one can also find at the intersections of two or more plantations the small scale residential zone of the people that worked in and around the plantations. some of these african american residential pockets survived under the shadow or behind commercial developments. the original population have been slowly replaced vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 2 is 1 71 by wealthier white residents; a gradual process of gentrification. these are a few remains of the past that surface here and there as a reminder of what it used to be. other plantations sold most of their land but kept their house and the immediate surrounding land as a residence. such is the case of bannerman plantation which now holds on to about 120 acres of land, a large track if seen from the point of view of the city. aside from the tree farm or similar agricultural activity for tax purposes, these properties are no longer agricultural enterprises. they have become private residences of wealthy citizens that attempt to associate themselves with the plantation lifestyle. a plantation such as goodwood was able to hold on to its lands for a while. what was left represents a small fraction of what it was during its golden years. never-the-less the house and surrounding land was protected thanks to becoming a house museum, and as such it offered an alternative solution for the preservation of the plantation. the future of the plantation house is secure, and in the middle of an urban setting, is able to provide a glimpse of the life that it represented. it is important to understand that plantation houses such as these are no longer supported by traditional agriculture but by a contemporary and urban foundation style system. finally, we have the case of tall timbers. the end of the war brought profound changes but it also brought new roads and railroads, and wealthy northern families found it easier to move south for the winter months. large tracks of land were purchased and converted into hunting plantations. northern florida and south georgia became well known for quail hunting. many plantations continue to exist today as hunting plantations, generally owned by well-to-do northerners for recreation, mostly and originally for private hunting but later expanded to commercial hunting tourism. the lands are groomed for hunting mainly quail. tall timbers stood aside when it became a research station. this is a unique transformation due to the vision of edward and henry beadel. tall timbers research station & land conservancy stands apart from the regular hunting plantations because of their dedication to research and land stewardship; striving to conserve indigenous forests. acknowledgments research assistance from clay worthington and travis carver, proof reading by ghita heidt. references fisher, broward, shepard & coons, a.i.a. architects. inspection report restoration of princess murat house. jacksonville. 1969. florida master site file, historical structure form, 1959 glassie, henry. pattern in the material folk culture of the eastern united states. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, 1968. heiland, sharyn. the verdura place: a historical overview and preliminary archeological survey. unpublished thesis, florida state university department of anthropology. 2001. linley, john. the georgia catalog. historic american building survey. athens, georgia: the university of georgia press, 1982. little, j rodney. bellevue plantation report. division of archives, history and record management, department of state. tallahassee, florida. mcalester, virginia and lee. a field guide to american houses. new york: alfred a. knopf, 1986 national register of historic places. registration form. bannerman, charles, plantation. 1992 national register of historic places. inventory – nomination form. bellevue. 1969. national register of historic places. inventory – nomination form. goodwood. no date (probably 1971). schwadron, margo j. verdura. historic preservation board. unpublished document. tallahassee. 1993. swaim, doug, ed. towards preservation of place: in celebration of the north carolina vernacular landscape. student publication of the school of design, volume 26: north carolina state university, 1978. this house. henry and queen anne edwards house. waldorf, gwendolyn b. the old place: the charles bannerman plantation. historic tallahassee preservation board. 1992. waldorf, gwendolyn b. bellevue and its people: 1854-1867. tallahassee museum, of history and natural science. tallahassee, florida 1995. 66 supsi, f.frontini vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 67 abstract overview and analysis of current bipv products: new criteria for supporting the technological transfer in the building sector pierluigi bonomo1, anatoli chatzipanagi1, francesco frontini1 1 university of applied sciences and arts of southern switzerland institute for applied sustainability to the built environment (supsi-isaac), campus trevano, canobbio-lugano, switzerland the growing demand for nearly-zero energy buildings is rapidly contributing to change the building skin from being a passive barrier towards a sensitive and active interface. building integrated photovoltaics (bipv) is a unique solution for delivering clean, safe, affordable and decentralized electricity to people transforming the building surfaces in active solar collectors. despite photovoltaic (pv) technology and their basic usage are today known to everybody, the particular requirements for building integration have brought to the surface some issues over the years so that bipv is still a niche market. starting from this observation, the paper presents the results of an investigation on the current market of bipv products for roofs and façade. the analysis aimed to identify the relevant possibilities the products today offer and the level of information that the producers make available within the technical description of bipv systems. after disclosing the actual lack of information in comparison to conventional building products, the authors propose to implement a new “building-based” approach that could support the bipv market by including a more comprehensive description of the product’s quality (today mainly comprising electrical and basic physical features). such a “building-technology” perspective, also considering the recent normative framework in bipv field, is expected to encourage the technological transfer of pv in the building sector by facilitating the daily work of architects, installers and the whole value chain. keywords bipv, bipv market, bipv products, technological transfer, nzeb http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4476 http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2015.4476 68 1. introduction and motivation the growing demand for nearly-zero energy buildings (nzeb), as introduced by the european performance building directive (directive 2010/31/eu, 2010), the directive on energy efficiency (directive 2012/27/eu, 2012) along with the contemporary paradigm of sustainability, is rapidly contributing to change the building skin from being a passive barrier towards an increasingly sensitive and active interface. building is a key-sector for current policies on energy efficiency since it is responsible for approximately the 40% of the final energy consumption in europe (web link 1). energy saving and the production of renewable energies are today essential strategies for reducing the primary energy needs of constructions (boie, 2014). photovoltaics (pv) is considered an essential technology for the future energy production and building integrated photovoltaics (bipv) is a unique solution for delivering clean, safe, affordable and decentralized electricity to people transforming the building surfaces in active solar collectors (moosavian, 2013). “the enormous potential of pv and its benefits for society are more obvious than ever. pv is becoming a mainstream player within the power system increasingly delivering clean, safe, affordable and decentralized electricity to people” (web link 2). in 2011 the swiss federal council developed a long-term energy policy (“energy strategy 2050”) based on profound changes in energy perspectives (web link3, web link 4). in the recent years the pv field has encountered many changes in terms of technological evolution, production, installed capacity as well as application methods (loferski, 1993, green, 2005, hosenuzzaman, 2015) so that nowadays the basic usage of pv technology is known to everybody. some years ago, pv technologies were still considered a breakthrough innovation that could be applied in strict cases and with high cost. they started being used for space applications and thanks to the progress in new materials, manufacturing methods and better understanding of their behaviour and performance, pv started becoming more and more popular and accepted as an alternative energy production system for terrestrial applications (strobl, 2009). bipv has enabled the implementation of pv, not only as a technical device but also as a building material, part of the building envelope and its expressiveness in contemporary architecture. the bipv market had to wait long time to gain credibility in comparison to the conventional pv market. despite manufacturers today can provide the building sector with a variety of interesting products and customization levels, ready to be used by architects and planners, the adoption and application of bipv by the building sector is relatively slow. it is expected that the european bipv market will experience a rapid growth in the years to come, thanks to some drivers such as the european directive promoting the nearly-zero energy buildings (web link 5, frontini, 2014). but, apart the positive role of these leading drivers, other aspects, still obstructing the bipv growth, will have to be recognized and overcome in the near future. the first aspect in our perspective is still cultural. in the case of bipv, differently from a conventional pv installation (building added photovoltaic, bapv), a diverse concept of “integrability” is required from the early design phase (edp), according to a synergic approach that bridges building and energy knowledge. the difficulty to undertake a really integrative approach from the first stages of design, merging energy, pv and building requirements, remains one of the vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 69 strongest barriers to bipv market proliferation (web link 6, web link 7, web link 8). also the difficulties to consider and compare bipv with other building cladding materials rather than with conventional pv, is often the main cause leading to the issue of unaffordable cost of bipv. moreover the success of creating new bipv markets depends on the capability to overcome other practical barriers as identified also by the iea shc task 41 (web link 9): a good market availability ensuring a good customizability and convincing aesthetics, governmental and local incentives (hosenuzzaman, 2015, azadian, 2013, sarasa-maestro, 2013) for ensuring costeffectiveness, the development of specific standards and reference codes for supporting the building practice, and, more in general, a concerted effort by players in the supply chain to work together towards an integrated design. in this direction, the pioneering references figure 1. bipv opaque façade. crystalline and thin-film technologies have been used as cladding material. re-cladding in the refurbishment of palazzo positivo, chiasso, switzerland. (as in example fig.1) developed by architects and façade makers play an important role as a market driver showing the quality, the beauty and the possibilities in architecture. moreover the absence of clear standards and reference normative for bipv system’s qualification is another issue: only a very few industries make available today, along with the electrotechnical certification, the building certifications complying with construct products regulation 305/2011 (web link 10): this means that the so acclaimed multifunctionality of bipv is not always translated in clear building requirements so that the ce-marking of a bipv system, as a building product, is often unavailable. if, on the one hand, industry demonstrated that bipv technology is feasible, reliable and in some cases even affordable, on the other hand the information about these systems is still not enough and bipv has not yet fully entered the building sector (and its stakeholders such as architects, building engineers, building industry, contractors, etc.) in terms of language, lexicon, requirements and approach. an example, as following reported, is the fact that until now the documentation available for bipv products is often strictly limited to elementary datasheets directly imported by conventional pv panels and collecting only basic (mainly electrical) performance and features (e.g. dimensions, weight) (frontini, 2014, petter jellea, 2012, bizzarri, 2011, cerón, 2013, verbene, 2014). as a consequence building requirements and proper analysis of construction interfaces with the building skin, compatibility with building layers and materials, technical details for integration in building technical elements, maintenance instructions, etc. are often missing. therefore only fragmented and partial information are available during the design process thus today the problem is not the use of pv itself but the use 70 of pv as active building material (frontini, 2013). lessons learned from the history of “technology in architecture” teach us that the transfer of new technologies in building field has always had a recurring and complex process. the “new” is initially used within the traditional process, anchored to past archetypes and to the techniques of tradition, without originally introducing a link between technological innovation and innovation in building and architecture. the old legacies are only progressively and slowly overcome, moving from permanence (use of “new” according to traditional/old processes) towards innovation of architecture when the new technology became an evolving factor of the whole building concept (bonomo, 2015). in this framework, we expect that a deeper information concerning bipv in terms of building qualities and requirements will become a crucial driver in order to overcome the last barriers and to push bipv as a valid alternative to conventional building solutions both from a constructional and architectural perspective. 2. methodology in the conceptual framework described above, the documentation and the analysis of the state-of-art and already occurring evolution, both in terms of available technologies and reference examples provides the status of the “technological transfer” and a record of how far technology has come. the paper, starting from the categorization of pv systems to be used in buildings, will investigate the contents and the nature of products’ information today available by producers. as a result, after identifying the scarcity of available information, a new approach for a more accurate description of bipv elements will be proposed. following the premises and the motivation already explained, the methodological layout consists in: 1. definition of a reference categorization for bipv products according to a “buildingtechnology” approach; 2. analysis of the main technological alternatives existing on the market and identification of information provided by manufacturers for describing technical features of bipv products; 3. identification of missing information/data in comparison to the building sector and proposal of possible improvements with the goal to support a more effective technological transfer of pv products in the building sector (as results). 2.1 reference categorization of bipv systems the categorization has the goal of organizing the product analysis according to a reference grouping clearly linked to the building skin. many attempts on categorizing bipv products have been documented along the way. the iea (web link 11), bbc research (web link 12), nrel (web link 13), wip munich through the sunrise project (web link 14), seac (web link 15), supsi (web link 16) have all expressed a definition of bipv. moreover, plenty of other definitions of “building integration”, more or less coherent, have been related to national and local regulations for incentives (e.g. feed-intariffs and other supporting measures). in the framework of this paper a new classification was performed, by means of the reference regulatory of the performance-based building design (uni 8290, 1981) in the direction of a common language between pv and building sector. thus, vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 71 the analysis was based on a scheme considering (see fig. 4 as example): unitized curtain wall, structural sealant glazing ssg, point-fixed façade, etc.); such as watertight/open joint, etc.). 2.2 product’s data analysis the product’s analysis and data acquisition was mainly performed through the re-elaboration of technical and scientific input derived from the wide databases available on the website www. bipv.ch (web link 17), prepared by supsi in collaboration with energieschweiz (es) and the figure 2. the web database published on the website www.bipv. ch. it collects more than 100 products representing the main building skin elements, and for each product a technical datasheet is available (source: supsi). swiss federal office of energy (sfoe). the list of bipv products is the core of the website (fig. 2) together with the examples of buildings. further information and data have been collected through a research on manufacturer’s websites and technical datasheets, the attendance to national and international exhibitions and symposiums as well as the direct contact/ collaboration with manufacturers, architects and other stakeholders interested in solar energy. this allowed obtaining realistic information as well as a more comprehensive perspective. general aspects technological aspects product name technology producer power [w] country specific power [w/m2] category front glass sub-category composition of pv module custom-made possibilities structural aspects warranties & certifications module dimensions [mm x mm x mm] product warranty [yrs] module area [m2] power warranty [yrs] cell number certifications cell dimensions [mm x mm] cell area [m2] weigh [kg] minimum inclination [°] frame table 1. data collection for the product analysis. main data available from the manufactures. 72 the investigation carried out involved not only electrical characteristics but also all the other features available from datasheets such as the composition of the pv module (cells, layers, frames, etc.) and the mounting/integration system, the data on dimensions, weight, material layering, the certifications and its warranties as declared by the manufacturer. in tab. 1, a list of all the main information gathered is presented. the table is divided into four main categories: general, technological, structural and warranties & certifications. even though more than 100 products are published on www.bipv.ch, 47 systems were chosen for a more detailed analysis -including both roof and façade applications since they were considered representative of the current market for the purposes of this investigation. the analysis was performed through the figure 3. analysis of interfaces between the bipv cladding and the building skin (source: supsi). collection of relevant data in synthetic tables for each product (that, for brevity, have not been included in the paper but can be requested to the authors), including both building applied pv (bapv) and bipv systems, giving a detailed overview of all the main features described in products’ datasheets and reported in tab. 1. also an effort aimed to understand how bipv products were correlated with the building skin in terms of construction technology, was carried out for the main technological solutions (fig. 3). 2.3 proposition of a new informative approach for bipv the last part of this paper presents the authors’ proposition for a new set of information useful to better support an effective technological transfer of bipv in the building sector. by analysing the websites of building manufacturers that produce façade/roof systems (claddings, windows, figure 4. example of bipv systems as elements of the building technological system vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 73 curtain-walls,…) the investigation focused on the type and contents of the technical documentation available on the current market. this allowed to define the level of information actually supporting the design phase in the building sector and to compare it with the current bipv industry, finding also suggestions and references. 3. analysis of market information for building added pv (bapv) products in this category enter all products that are used as an added/overlapped element to the building envelope, usually through the installation of a special mounting system. these products do not always replace a building layer as a whole. for this paper the two main categories representing the technological units will be analysed: roof and façade products. 3.1 roof bapv products in this sub-category, thirteen products have been evaluated. the fastening system plays the primary role in these products (since the system usually consists in a mounting/anchoring kit for fixing solar panels) and both compatible and specifically produced pv modules can be used. in the case of fastening systems that incorporate specific modules, the description of the module’s electrical characteristics is available. for the majority of the products, the manufacturer gives a description of the fastening system along with a separate installation manual reporting the whole kit of components (profiles, framing, hooks, clamps, etc.), the installation phases and the mounting procedures. when investigating the dimensions of the product, it is usually not clarified whether they are referring to the installed system or only the modules. as far as the weight of the fastening system is concerned, the situation gets more complicated since producers consider different references in datasheets. some producers state that the weight is referring to the module alone,other consider only the weight of the mounting system, other provide the weight including the whole system. almost half of the systems investigated require framed modules because the products are basically consisting of rails and clamps that incorporate the module along with its frame. a few declare no frame and some give no information on the subject. the availability of custom-made bapv products (fastening systems) for roofs is rather limited in comparison to that of bipv products since these systems are conceived as standardized kit universally produced. referring to the fastening system itself and not to the pv modules used along with it, the typical customization possibilities are the dimensions of the system, the system version, the edge cover colour and the profile type and colour. even though these applications are quite conventional and almost exclusively for roofs, the possible interferences of frames, hooks, ballasting and fixings with the building layering (water tightness, mechanical stability, safety, etc.) or the potential low effectiveness of this systems in special contexts (e.g. very snowy or windy areas with high loads) are some examples regarding to which the importance of a proper information assisting the design process appears crucial. the warranties provided by the producers were found to be significantly unclear to what they were referring to. the same problem occurs also for the certifications of the products. most products have only electro-technical certifications for the pv modules and not for building requirements. 74 3.2 facade bapv products eight products have been analyzed in this sub-category. half of them are stated to be compatible with any pv module available in the market. the description of the system by the producer generally includes details on materials, profiles, components and catalogues of elements available. also the installation manual is provided for the majority of the products but with the limitation above mentioned in terms of interaction with the building envelope. in addition, producers stating the compatibility of their fastening system with specific pv modules provide information concerning the panel. limited information was found concerning both the module and system dimensions. scarcity of information was identified concerning need of frame for the modules to be used in the fastening system. few manufacturers provide custommade possibilities. one in terms of color for the aluminum profiles and retainers, one provides customized modules (dimensions, color). in one case the possibility of different materials used and the color variety for a complementary part of the system (a reflector) was declared. again, a lack of warranties for product is identified and when declared, they are referring mainly to the pv panel and not to the fastening system. very few are the products for which building certifications (such as the din 18516, din 180083) are declared. 4. analysis of market information for building integrated (bipv) products this category contains all products that may be used in the building envelope by replacing the traditional construction material. again, also in this case, only two main categories will be analyzed: roof and façade. 4.1 roof bipv products in this section seventeen products have been analyzed. despite the attractiveness of thin film technology products (appearance discretion, surroundings harmonization, etc.) all the identified products are crystalline. in the past a big selection of thin film modules for building integration purposes was offered by producers but in the last few years very well-known manufacturers have ceased production. on the other hand, innovative systems have emerged trying to join aesthetic, multi-functionality and cost effectiveness so that they are expected to drive the bipv industry in the following years. in this case, bipv modules have evolved from low power to more powerful modules reaching figure 5. example of a bipv roof system consisting in a unitized and pre-assembled elements easy to install on roof structure, ensuring water resistance, thermal insulation and production of electric energy thanks to the integrated pv (source: designergy sa) vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 75 delivering levels equal to standard pv. the products investigated in this sub-category replace the external cladding part of the roof (e.g. roof tiles, in-roof systems, etc.). only a few of them are complete systems substituting the entire roof such as skylights or prefabricated unitized roof panels (such as the one in fig. 5). for such products a more complete description in terms of building integration is usually provided, sometimes along with an installation manual. in other cases, producers mostly focus on the composition of the pv module rather than that of the system. the weight of the modules depends strongly on their dimensions as well as their composition. in case of customized modules (e.g. glass-glass large modules that weight up to 100kg) testing and certifications for building application are very important. basic custommade possibilities are numerous and most of the manufacturers offer tailored modules in terms of dimensions, cell type, backsheets, frame and materials. moreover in case of glazed modules produced by some industries coming from the construction world, the possibility to customize the cell type/arrangement as well as the module shape and layering (front/back glasses, encapsulants, etc.) is available. as far as warranties are concerned, it is more usual to find the power warranty than the whole product warranty in the datasheet. last but not least, certifications were found to be adequate for the electrical properties rather than construction standards. 4.2 facade bipv products in this sub-category nine representative products have been analysed. in general, almost all products evaluated are being offered without a frame (provided separately) for façade. the mounting system to be used is not clearly mentioned in most cases and as a result, the separation with the building envelope is still evident since the technological solution is missing (mounting structures, joints, constructional systems, etc.). only a few producers are referring directly or indirectly to the anchoring system. it is clear that this lack of information together with the absence of clear performance certification for building requirements is still a barrier in some application fields. concerning weight, there have been found cases for bipv façade weighting up to 110kg due to the large size and the particular layering. as custom-made services, most of the manufacturers offer the possibility to produce modules of various power output (this is mainly the case of semi-transparent element like in fig. 6), form, glass serigraphy/printing and colours as well as to change the cell arrangement and the glass surface (clear glass, prism, enamelled) with different properties (i.e. glare reduction) and finishing. other products available on the market allow a completely hidden perception of rear cells thanks to special coloured filters applied just behind the front glass, with consequent decrease of energy production in favour of better aesthetics. for only a few products the warranties offered in terms of product as well as power were mentioned. as in most of the bipv products, manufacturers provide the certification of modules for the electrical part but few specify those for building application. an exception is represented by some manufacturers of glazed modules, coming from the construction sector, concerning the security of the glass that is certified according to the building standards (en12543-4, uni en 12600, uni en 356, etc.). this lack of information for most products is today considered a challenge for the industry and the research field. 76 figure 6. bipv facade of the csem research center in switzerland, city of neuchâtel, viteos and csem (photo: supsi) 5. discussion on results as seen in fig. 7, the majority of products (66%) embed crystalline cells while only 4% are of thin film technologies. the one fifth (1/5) of them was declared to use any type of technology and a 9% of the producers did not state the cell’s technology used for their products. tab. 2 depicts the values ranges of the most important characteristics of the products under investigation as these are included in datasheets. more in particular, the average value of power for bapv products was found to be 170w (±90w) for roof applications and approximately 108w (±27.5w) for façade applications. on the contrary the average value of power for the roof integrated bipv products was established at approximately 238w (±117.5w) and for the façade integrated bipv products at 225w (±125w). it can be observed that, apart from the figure 7. technology used for the products under investigation, as declared by the producers. bapv roof bapv façade bipv roof bipv façade power range [w] 80-260 80-135 120-355 100-350 weight [kg] 6.5-21.5 12.5-25.0 10.0-30.0 15.0-50.0 width range [mm] 805-1574 600-1205 7 0 1 * 2 0 2 8 (2440**) 5 8 0 2 4 0 0 (2440**) length range [mm] 792-1705 600-1520 8 7 0 * 2 5 0 0 (5100**) 5 9 0 3 8 0 0 (5100**) specific power [w/m2] 120-187 111-125 86-153 80-165 table 2. value ranges of products under investigation as declared by the producers. * for tiles ** custom-made (max.) vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 77 higher power, the bipv products have a wider range of power values. simply said, more and higher possibilities can be found as far as the integrated products are concerned. when it comes to the weight, a general observation is that the bapv products weigh less than the bipv products. however, as observed in the previous paragraphs, there is not a reference standard for calculating the data. the bapv-roof products exhibited a weight range between 6.5 and 21.5kg, (average: 14kg), whereas the bapv-façade products exhibited a weight range between 12.5 and 25.1kg, (average: 18.8kg). in the case bipv-roof products the average value was found to be 20kg (±10kg) and when integrated on the façade the average value is 32.5kg (±17.5kg). these results, although not considering specially customized products, display that the weight usually ranges between 15 and 25 kg/m2. when looking into the dimensions, producers offer a vast range of lengths and widths. the biggest average dimensions correspond to the figure 8. minimum inclination bapv and bipv products (for roof application/integration) as declared by the producers. bipv products for facade with an average area of 3.3m2 (2195mmx1490mm), followed by the bipv products for roof with average dimensions of 1685mmx1365mm and average area of 2.3m2. bapv products for roof have an average area value of 1.5m2 (1250mmx1190mm). the smallest average dimensions are those of the bapv for façade products, with average dimensions of 1060x900mm and an average area of 0.95m2. as seen in fig. 8, the minimum inclination of integration/application can be grouped in four main categories; lower than 6º, at 10º, between 15º and 20º and not defined (n.d.).when looking into the case of bipv-roof products, it can be seen that almost half of them (47%) did not include a minimum inclination possible for integration. approximately 70% of them lay between 15º and 20º, the 23% can be applied on a roof at 10º and a small percentage for less than 6º with an appropriate substructure. a special case is the declaration of possible application and/or integration for inclinations less than 6º. in such situations, a careful investigation of the substructure needed is essential and producers should give all the necessary details. in synthesis we can summarize the current situation stating that information available on the building features/requirements for bapv and bipv products is rather limited and based on a prescriptive approach, as the following: do not concern specific building details and requirements to comply with, so that physical and constructive interactions and interferences with the building skin layers are not clarified. to structural requirements for mechanical stability/safety (e.g. static loads, snow, wind, etc.) is not reported in most cases so that it is not clear which are the normative references (eurocodes, 78 building codes, standards for metallic structures, etc.) and actions to consider for the analysis. is not clear in most cases which is the driving requirement for this declared parameters (stability, water tightness, wind resistance, etc.) so that the tendency is to apply a prescriptive approach to comply with rather than a clear performance-based target. as a consequence, due to the absence of a clear set of requirements, the actual information is heterogeneous and often missing basic aspects for building. in the following chapters, the authors are proposing possible insights and suggestions for improving the actual information level in the bipv product sector. 6. towards a new information &/2�")06�ø##/2$).'�4/�ø�"5),$).'� based approach as resulted from the analysis, all data provided by manufacturers in bipv products’ datasheets are related to the electrical properties (power, temperature coefficients, current, voltage, etc.) and to basic dimensional or physical data of the pv module or sub-structure (dimensions, weight, size). information on the building features/requirements (e.g. the compliance with building standards, the description of material performance for each layering, etc.) is rather limited and often not included in the technical documentation. thus, the majority of the current datasheets contain most of the information listed in tab. 1. just taking a look to the current market of building products, it is common to observe that the building industry provides, along with general brochures similar to bipv datasheets, a more detailed documentation including, in example, technical catalogues (safety, maintenance, use, installation, applications, handling and installation, workability, fixing, joints and connections, transportation and storage, method of delivery), testing reports and certificates, (reference standards and contract specifications, declarations of performance), system’s components libraries (caad and bim objects, user-friendly tools help configuring the system), etc.. the product’s benefits and features are usually highlighted through reference projects including details of real case-studies so that also recommendations on energy and environmental design, life-cycle costing and smart design are offered to users. it’s quite evident the lack of useful data in comparison with a conventional product for the building skin. consequently architects, building engineers and contractors do not have at their disposal an effective informative support since the early design stage with the result to not consider bipv as a design option. however, as the “photovoltaic architecture” is emerging rapidly, more information on bipv components is needed in order to enable architects and planners to perform a proper design and an effective (technological and processual) integration of pv technology since the early design phase. in this perspective the authors propose some key-questions to be addressed by the manufacturer or system provider in order to overcome this barrier and provide further technical information. three topics have been identifies: vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 79 6.1 what is the constructional integration of the bipv system in the building skin? since bipv is part of the building skin (e.g. as roof, façade, shading element), its constructional role as well as its physical, geometrical and functional correlation with other layers of the envelope should be clear. how? technical details (at least drawings in scale 1:10 as proposed in fig. 9) showing materials, correlations and interferences of bipv component/system with all the other building components/layers would help to understand the technical solution. a catalogue of all the installation possibilities would be helpful (e.g. considering the different building skin structures and technologies). figure 9. screenshots of some bipv solutions analysed on different building skin technologies. solar cold façade on a concrete brick wall, on the left (a); solar cold façade on a load-bearing reinforced concrete wall, in the middle (b); solar system on a massive roof, on the right (c) (source: supsiuniversity of l’aquila) 6.2 which basic building functions and performance does the system have? this question is aimed to clarify the role of pv “as building element” in terms of building requirements. from a functional side a bipv product is able to fully replace a building component so that a coordinated performance approach among pv and building skin is necessary. it is important in this perspective to understand the role of bipv in satisfying the basic requirements for construction works set out in annex i of cpr, so levels of aesthetical customizability for bipv cell level module level material/technology module layering (e.g. materials for front cover, encapsulant, back cover) texture, variation of grain, crystallography size, form and morphology color/printing/treatment of materials shape and size density of cell’s assembly, cell’s pattern electrical contacts semi-transparency color light reflection, glare transparency flexibility building level frame mimicry or invisible building parts: fixings/ jointslow-recognizable evident/distinguishable electrical parts: junction box, cable systems, micro-inverters, power optimizers, etc. variable pv language (e.g. patterned surfaces) interactive envelopes (e.g. media) other multifunctional components table 3. levels of aesthetical customizability for bipv products that can be made available by producers. 80 that a proper assessment should be an important part of the product’s information provided by manufacturers with the goal to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of the bipv system for its building use. 6.3 which manufacturing parameters can an architect use for customizing the architectural language? this is another very important aspect since bipv concept involves, along with these constructional aspects, the architectural quality of integration. as international examples have already shown (van berkel, 2014 within the european project constructpv www.constructpv.eu), an interesting aesthetical customization is possible (tab. 3, fig. 10), ranging from cell to module design. since a wide range of opportunities are generally available, it should be clear, in the product’s description, what are the main features that can be customized, which are the ranges of parameters figure 10. design innovation from pvmodule to building envelope: architectural layering and non apparent repetition, unstudio, netherlands (source: van berkel, et.al. 29th eupvsec 2014). available for the product’s design and which are the implication in terms of technology, energy performance and costs. 6.4 new approach and new information as emerged, detailed information by producers aiming to clarify the product’s quality in terms of architectural customizability, building function and performance is necessary in the current market to better clarify the potentials and the limits of bipv. a basic list of possible communication tools, covering the informative gap from the design phase to the installation and operation, could include: papers, safety datasheets reporting building properties (mechanical features, hygrothermal, acoustical, fire class, etc.); structural analysis, energy saving, acoustics, sustainability, leed certification, epd, etc.), declarations of performance and ce marking, nbs clauses, catalogues of reference standards and contract specifications, system’s components libraries, caad details and bim objects; safety, instructions for use, maintenance advices, documentation for applications, handling and installation, workability, fixing, joints and connection, transportation and storage, method of delivery, etc.; showrooms, and apps for configuring the system, check the main building requirements, choose the adequate product for the construction and work out the quantities within an interoperable building process; vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 81 figure 11. technical features that could be included in a new format of datasheet for bipv products in a building-based approach. on thematic topics such as thermal efficiency, fire safety, durability, environmental impact, acoustics and health providing. in this direction, that is expected to involve all the value chain in a significant effort and with a certain time duration, a gradual enhancement of information could be a right approach. the revision of the datasheets from the actual format into more useful and complete technical documents could be a first action taken, in the perspective to prepare, step by step, a richer offer in terms of practical tools. supsi already started some investigations by analyzing some archetypal solutions for different constructional systems (roofs and façade, high and low energy efficiency targets, “dry” system or massive ones, etc.), with the scope to assess the role of pv within the whole envelope solution (bonomo p. et al., 2014) . by considering the whole building skin as a unitary technological element, the final results have been collected in data-sheets (a screenshot is reported in fig. 11) reporting, along with the conventional electrical data of pv, also information concerning the energy performance of the building skin (u value, parameters of thermal inertia, etc.), the building requirements, the environmental (embodied energy) and economic information (costs and benefits). this approach, focused on a multi-criteria analysis, demonstrated the need for project developers (architects, installers, etc.) to consider the several interacting aspects of bipv and the potentials to compare it, through common parameters, with conventional building products. results also confirm that a multi-criteria perspective is necessary for evaluating the added values and benefits of bipv as an integrated part of the building skin. the role of producers, as one of the key-players, is recognized important in covering the gap between pv and building sector. it is expected that, by introducing all the experience and complexity of the “building world”, it will be possible to cover a first step and to motivate the “building direction” of pv. in this framework a change of perspective is encouraged and, as summarized in tab. 4, starting from datasheets and technical information this new approach should be tangibly taken into account. 82 table 4. overview of possible information that could be considered in datasheets and technical documents for bipv products with the purpose to enhance the pv transfer in the building sector. general aspects pv technological aspects aesthetical aspects product information and details pv technology information customizability at cell scale (color, size, etc.) clear identification of the pv role in the building envelope. (class of technical element, technical solution, etc.) electrical data (power, temperature coefficients, etc.) customizability at module scale (layering, size, shape, color, etc.) identification of building construction typologies (e.g. lightweight, massive, etc.) electrical aspects: solutions to integrate cabling systems, junction box, micro-inverters, batteries, etc. customizability at building scale (mounting system possibilities, assemblage options, etc.). clear drawing: e.g. exploded axonometric view, details, etc. indications on basic electrical installing procedures correlation of customizability with energetic, technological and economic aspects cost (investment cost, lcc) operation and maintenance strategies catalogue of possible configurations digital component available (e.g. cad, bim objects) reference examples for each products physical and performance aspects construction aspects standards warranties dimensional and physical aspects (size, weight, etc.) details for each layer of the bipv panel (materials, performance, etc.) electrical standards (low voltage directive) thermal and hygrometric aspects (u value, transparency, g value, thermal inertia data, airtightness, thermal bridge data, moisture control data) building requirements to be satisfied for the specific building skin application building standards to be respected for each class of requirements (safety, weather protection, energy efficiency, environmental impact, etc.) (cpr 305/2011) energetic data (e.g. pv energy potential in reference location) graphical analysis of technical details for the integrated solution with analysis of all the main nodes and joints, and the identification of interferences, best practice solutions bipv special standards environmental features of products (e.g. embodied energy, recyclability, etc.) indications on building installation stages/procedures (e.g. installation guide) product and power warranty indication of maintenance strategies during the life-cycle (e.g. use and maintenance booklet) certifications, declaration of performances, labels vitruvio international journal of architecture technology and sustainability volume 0 83 conclusions despite the fact that bipv is already an acknowledged and affirmed sector where a lot of topics have been investigated or are under examination, it is still a niche market and reserved mainly for a restricted group of expert, with still a low awareness within the majority of the building and construction stakeholders. goal of this paper, starting from the examination of the products’ market, is to propose a building-based approach to disclose innovative perspectives for bipv systems, with a specific focus on information regarding manufacturers and system providers. based on a large database of bipv products, collected by the authors through many years of activities and listed on the web-site www.bipv.ch, it has been proven that the current state of information and documentation is not yet adequate. in the pv sector information is mainly provided by datasheets that, when referring to bipv products, are not sufficient for informing the stakeholders on the building performance, potentials and limits of the product if compared with conventional or alternative building materials or systems. therefore the main aspects that should be available for planners, architects and/or owners of a bipv project, have been identified, also presenting some possible suggestions for overcoming the actual lack of information. in 2016 the new international standard for bipv initiated by cenelec tc82 (fpren50583: photovoltaics in building) will come in force, officially introducing the procedures for bipv products to have a ce-marking according to the construct product regulation. in this direction some of the most important industries manufacturing bipv glasses, thanks to the combination of extensive glass know-how with pv technology, already develop and test their products according to ce-marking for laminated safety glasses beyond the normal electro-technical function of pv modules. therefore the need to comply with building requirements will become compulsory very soon for bipv so that a proper building-based approach will gain importance more and more. in this framework the paper aims to contribute towards an interdisciplinary effort to connect pv and building sector, so far restricted in decoupled process chains that have resulted from years of specialization and diversification in the respective fields. thanks to this integrated approach -bridging architecture, building technology and energy knowledgethe research is expected to provide the fundamentals for a new methodological path common to the architecture/building engineering field and the pv sector. practical results are expected to create a positive impact in the real value-chain as well as realistic opportunities for starting up new and concrete ways of collaboration between research and industry. 84 petter jellea b. et 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sustainability 57v sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe1, 2 1 faculty of urban planning and environment management (fupem), department of environment, polis university, rr. bylis, autostrada tiranë-durrës, km 5, kashar 1051, tiranë, albania. 2 build green group, rr. “ibrahim kodra”, nd. 8, h. 7, ap. 10, tiranë 1001, albania. email: franceska_korance@universitetipolis.edu.al abstract: the built environment is important not only for its users and owners, but also for the community and society as a hole, and yet, construction is one of the most energy consuming, destructive, and moreover material consuming industries. deficiencies with adaptability to meet changing needs in terms of sustainability in architecture can eventually cause needless costs, environmental pressure and dissatisfaction. the aim of this study is to explore whether the circular construction and sustainability of built environments is not only a matter of reducing environmental impacts and limiting the use of non-renewable resources, but it can be successfully used to enhance of environmental protection, social equity, and economic development of a facility. furthermore, the study tries to understand whether we can use circularity principles not only for the building to be more sustainable and in line with circular economy principles, but also be used to enhance user performance, in this specific case the performance of student and academic staff. the study was applied to polis university and its premises. two survey formats were specifically designed to collect data on overall functionality and comfort of polis university facilities, as well as data on academic staff and student self assessment performance. the study emphasizes the importance of the elements of sustainable built environment, and the care that designers and builders need to achieve what is called optimal comfort and functionality of each element, keeping in mind not only end users but also environmental, social and economical aspects as a fully accomplished sustainable architecture design. keywords: built environment, circularity, sustainability, university, performance, functionality, comfort, assessment. cite as: korançe, f. 2021. ‘sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university’. vitruvio international journal of architectural technology and sustainability, 6(1), pp. 56-71. https://doi.org/10.4995/vitruvio-ijats.2021.15009 sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 58 v 1. introduction the built environment is important not only for its users and owners, but also for the community around it. deficiencies with adapting to meet changing needs in sustainability can eventually cause needless costs, environmental, economical and societal pressure. in many cases the desired performance nor the foreseen impact performance of the sustainable build environment is not explicitly expressed and recorded in the design brief and in design documentation of a specific building. (huovila and leinonen, 2001) circular economy or circular architecture is not a new concept. even before the concept of the circular economy existed, the concept of circular construction was introduced, and there had been major and radical changes and transformations in the construction sector. but, the concept of circularity is being limited to only waste minimization and recycling maximization, or environmentally related benefits. this of course, does not make the buildings sustainable, because sustainability requires o lot of effort and a variety of disciplines (ogunmakinde et al., 2017). but, in a broader and generalized definition, concept of sustainability and specifically circularity in construction, means trying to adapt them to the constantly changing world of today. campus (or university facilities) design is a perfect example on how important it is today’s word to apply circular architecture consciously, and to thoughtfully use it not only for building sustainability but also for increased user performance. performance at university level is of a particular importance, given the fact that it educates and enhances future generations, the future workforce who contributes in this sense to the overall performance of a city or state. increasing the capacities of the students and academic staff of a university in particular, should receive an important focus in the environment where these generations grow and form. but circularity does not come easy in construction. there have been a few manuals addressing the need of a unified design protocol in this front. the design protocol for dynamic and circular structures, generally is created to inform designers and leaders about the transformation limit and reusability potential of the design and the effects of design arrangements during the conceptual design stage. it intends to help the design of reversible building structures and more explicitly workplaces, apartments and public structures with high transformation limit and reusability potential. few of the design elements that we need to keep in mind when we think of circularity, relates to the building structure, in its core, which is an unpredictable framework and is planned by enhancing three major subsystems, functional, technical and aesthetic subsystems. reversible design configuration for example, and one of the most effective, adds extra intricacy to the design process by incorporating the time factor in the design process which requires numerous utilization scenarios for building space and the needed materials. the reversible building structure design and configuration process intends to bring about the meaning of a transformation model with characterized limits and boundaries, which educates the owner as the user of what the planned structure can do and its ability to change is (durmisevic, 2019). reversible design is very efficient, since it can be applied to already existing building as well as to new ones. it is important for engineers and architects to become familiar with these factors in their design and implementation of the build environment. moreover, and more importantly circularity and sustainability principles need to be constantly used to achieve the required level of comfort for users. it is also important that designers of different categories benefit from the research results and recommendations to create new innovative ways to enhance employee productivity and performance across all types of work, all in line with the new need and demand for circular economy in architecture and construction. in this regard, the aim of this study is to explore on whether the circular construction principles and sustainability of built environments, is not only a matter of reducing environmental impacts and limiting the use of non-renewable resources, but it can be successfully used to enhance of environmental protection, social equity, and economic development of a facility. moreover, they can be a very important factor on not only for the building to be more sustainable and in line with circular economy principles, but in can also be used to enhance user performance, in this specific case the performance of student and academic staff, in university facilities. the study was applied to polis university located in tirana, albania. the study aimed at recognizing and analysing the factors that influence and enhance the performance of both students and academic staff, together with analysing design elements in line with circular construction inside the university facility. one of the main questions in this study, is whether principles of circular architecture are designed only to meet environmental paradigms or can it benefits end user as well? “good design is subjective and can’t necessarily be measured.” (dieter rams 1970s). but if we were to measure it, performance of its end user in a facility design for them, can be a strong indicator. 1.2. methodology the study uses primary sources. the study’s selected methodology for collecting primary data was quantitative. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 59v primary data were collected through a survey from academic staff and students of polis university, specifically, the 2 lecturers and 13 students of the transport policy and traffic management course, taking place on thursday in a3university hall. the study used dependent and independent variables. dependent variable was employee performance, while workplace design element (sustainable design elements) were the independent variables. observation method was also used during the study by the researcher, through interaction, and images taken at the university during the lecture. observation methodology was also used to collect data on the flow and direction of movement. 1.2.1. instrument two main surveys were adapted for the study, one for lecturers and one for students. the survey consisted on three main parts (most of questions in both surveys were the same). • the first section had demographic questions on both instruments, such as age, gender, work experience/ educational level, or profile of studies. in the first sections, some questions were also integrated regarding respondents’ level of access to nature and green areas and the type of outdoor green area access. • the second section of the instrument was designed by the researcher to measure the level of comfort and functionality of the room, the section consisted of 17 statements which could be ranked with a likert scale of 1 to 5. the questionnaires gathered data on staff and students’ perceptions on the university build environment and sustainability elements of design. • the third section contained respondent performance-related questions; the questions included in this section were adapted from a questionnaire designed by koopmans et al., (“improving individual performance at work using rasch analysis”). (koopmans et al., 2014) the questions in this section aimed to evaluate overall performance, (optimal and effective work planning, goals achievement etc.), contextual performance (taking on extra responsibilities, continuous selfimprovement, questioning etc.) and the level of counter-productivity (complaining, exaggeration of workload etc.). the same section coded performance, which was divided into 3 subsections namely self-perceived performance, contextual performance and counterproductive behaviour. likert scale was also used for this section, from 1 minimum to 5 maximum. (koopmans et al., 2014) 1.2.2. procedure surveys were distributed manually from the researcher to the respondents during the course setting. the researcher explained the content of the survey before the distribution of the study. before starting to fill the survey, the respondents were asked to sign an individual authorization letter. the average time required to complete the survey was on average from 10 to 15 minutes. providing sufficient time to complete the survey contributed in providing accurate and valid answers from respondents. prior to distribution, the survey was tested in a pilot phase in order for the researcher to confirm the clarity of the questions and whether the questions’ message was fully understood by the respondents, so that the answers were accurate and valid. the pilot phase was performed with only two subjects. there was no need for any further corrections to the questionnaire and therefore the researcher continued with the distribution. 1.2.3. validation and reliability an important factor regarding the quality of the study is the study reliability, consistency and reliability. surveillance of authenticity to ensure reliability is essential for qualitative study. in order to distinguish between an excellent or poor study, it is necessary that validity, reliability, quality and rigor, be assessed and enhanced throughout the study. johansson et al., in their study has shown that the term “quality achievement” has a link to the following research elements: “design quality and interpretive rigor”. (johansson et al., 2010) 1.3. hypothesis the main hypothesis in this study is as follows: there is a statistically significant correlation between built environment design and circularity principle applied to the facility and the performance of students and academic staff of the university. figure 1 | hypothesis diagram. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 60 v 2. literature review the literature will address a few concepts. first, the concept of circular architecture and the sustainability of the build environment. secondly, it will address some functional and aesthetic elements of the facility which will be further used to make the polis university analysis case. the concept of circular building is mainly based on the concept of circular economy. in both cases, the main aim is to go from a linear to a circular form of functioning. this relatively new concept is based on a few principles, such as: • the power of the inner circle – which refers to the minimization of material usage. this means that, the tighter the circle is, the less material or product is used, so less of it has to be reused. this helps to save material, energy and labour to get the process going. • the power of circling longer – which means that the maximization of the number of cycles done can have a positive impact on quantity of materials used overall. this can be achieved by reuse, re-manufacturing as well as recycling. • the power of cascaded use – which is based on the diversification of reuse in all value chain. • the power of pure circles – which refers to the increased efficiency that comes from gathering materials on uncontaminated sources. (durmisevic, 2019) to support the effectiveness of a facility circular construction, we have to analyse its elements, their effects and the overall impact. starting with one of the most important constituents, spatial reversibility, this is related to the transformation element. transformation is very important in the build environment, because it is linked with the ability of a building structure to change its function. the analysis regarding the spatial reversibility and transformation capacity of the building structure is based on the general capacity of the space and the structure itself to accommodate the changing of functions, without needing to cause major demolition, reconstruction or material loss. the transformation capacity is evaluated during the feasibility and preliminary design phase of the building process. this determines the effort needed to transform a building. there are three major transformational options: mono functional, trans-functional and multidimensional functional transformation options, which integrates the two first ones with other elements such as exchangeability and relocation. the two main parameters of spatial reversibility and transformation ability of a building structure are the core of the structure itself and the facilitation of energy based on the climate of the new potential location. the core of the structure is needed to provide the whole stability of the structure; meanwhile the facilitator of energy is needed to make the building compatible with the relocation. the parameters of the spatial reversibility regarding the design aspects, relies on the chosen transformation model. the transformation model is the one who determines the level that the spatial reversibility can reach. the parameters that determine the transformation model, on the other hand, are the volume dimensions, the positioning of the core elements, the potential of disassembly of the main structure. the core design is an integrated base element, and is needed to provide stability for different use scenarios of the buildings, while trying to do so without demolition or creation of waste. furthermore, we need to analyse more important definition in this study, relating to build design environment and performance. to understand the impact of the build environment, we need to consider that this is the environment where people spend the most active part of their day. this is why it is important to first recognize the impact that this environment has on the physical and mental well-being of these people, which in turn directly affects their productivity and performance. learning environment, such as universities, are a place when we spent a lot our younger life, and mostly shapes our adult life. researchers have looked at factors that may affect people’s productivity, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being (sangar, 2008). there is a special branch of study called environmental psychology, which studies and seeks to find the impact and the ways in which this influence is distributed, between the work environment and the individuals who occupy it. according to environmental psychologists, there is a close relationship between the physical environment and performance, emotional, health and social status, stress levels in the work or study environment, and efforts and plans for the life after work. researchers have denied the potential possibility that changes in the physical environment have a measurable or relevant impact on staff or students working in that environment (largo-wighta et al., 2010). a study from environmental psychology has concluded that there are five key elements that need to be taken very seriously in designing the work environment, in order for this environment to have a more positive impact on productivity and performance. these elements are natural light, greenery, noise level, aesthetic appearance and finally the colors chosen to paint and decorate the environment, where light ones seem to bring the best results (the global impact of biophilic design in the workplace, 2015, p. 16). sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 61v there are a few (among many more) very important elements which can address both sustainability of the facility and its circular principles application, as well as can give very important indications on user comfort and functionality. starting from the first element, natural light, we need to take into account that from the perspective of the individual who is studying, lack of light, poor lighting or the presence of only artificial lighting, creates eye strain and a bad state of health, tiredness, fatigue, headache, stress, errors, incidents as well as lack of attention. on the other hand, it should be taken into account that it is important to maintain a balance between light, as a large amount of light causes health and safety related problems as well, such as headaches due to staying for a long time exposed to direct sunlight, as well as stress. both scenarios, the one with too much light, and the one with insufficient light lead to reduced productivity, errors and incidents, poor quality of work, and general discomfort. the most optimal solution is the strategic use of natural light. this means that the building should have as many open facades as possible from which light can enter freely, but in specific places where staff or students work and study, the light should illuminate the work environment, but not fall directly into it. this can be controlled the specific direction of the building. the light can fall directly on the premises of the building used for recreation or other various activities. beyond the positive impact that natural light has on the health and productivity of staff and students, natural light also serves to give more life to the environment, making it look more spacious and more welcoming, inviting people and boosting their productivity. also, lighting is one of the elements considered in terms of the sustainability of the buildings. maximum and strategic use of natural light, serves to achieve the overall energy efficiency of the building, having less needs for the use of electricity, at least for the period of the day that may have natural light. the second element that highly affects teaching staff and student performance is greenery. the term greenery can be applied to inside and outside plants. not only does greenery help to purify the air of the work environment, as they reduce the levels of the accumulated co2, but they also help reduce heat in and around the building during the hotter months, thus minimizing the need for air-conditioning. this not only helps the people utilizing the workspace, since having the ac on all the time makes the air relatively heavy, and makes it hard to breathe, but it also is a good indicator of sustainability, since it saves a lot of the energy that would otherwise be used (shannaq, et al, 2012). the application of greenery may include green roofs or facades, green dividing walls, etc. moreover, numerous studies show that greenery reduces stress, and also increases the level of concentration. both of these elements directly affect the productivity and performance of individuals who utilize these spaces. an alternative to the circular economy is the green economy. green economy on the other hand, may involve the use of plants to build the interior parting walls of the building. this affects two aspects, firstly in sustainability of the building, and secondly in reversibility and transformation, due to the possibility for easy disassembly and reassembly, as well as minimization of inert and building materials. another important factor is noise, which is one of the strongest environmental stressors; especially in industrial environments it causes hearing loss. it is assumed that the impact of noise on employee performance at work depends on the combination of individual employee characteristics, job type, and noise type, but is not true for all cases, as miller (1974) has concluded that in the circumstances certain noise boosts performance. noise is a problem both inside and outside environment, and it violates privacy, damages interpersonal relationships, causes physiological damage such as hearing loss and worsening cardiovascular problems. (largo-wighta et al., 2010). furthermore climate / temperature is another environmental factor that influences the behaviour and performance of people in the workplace, it is measured through effective temperature, which includes humidity and movement of air masses. temperature effects are usually controlled through clothing and are reported in part as a result of temperature and clothing values, degree of acclimatization, and knowledge of coping strategies, motivation, and type of work (gifford, 2007, p. 385). engineers have described comfort zones, but environmental psychologists have found that comfort depends on perception, actual effective temperature, and optimal performance can be achieved even outside the comfort zone. stress occurs when templates vary significantly from the comfort zone, but many people may adjust after long-term exposure to these extreme temperatures. some air components, including carbon monoxide, air ions, and bad smells that can affect performance at work, but their effects are not exceptional under normal conditions. on the other hand, the presence of chemical residues or pathogenic organisms and a lack of air pollution control can seriously impair health, work engagement and, in some circumstances, impair social interaction between employees (largo-wighta et al., 2010). we live in a world of colour (huchendorf, 2007, p. 1). based on various studies, the colours that surround us in our daily life, especially in the active part of the day, have a substantial effect on the way we feel, behave and act. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 62 v starting from the interior space, landscape, and also the relationship of colours with light, colours can affect our behaviours from confusion to intelligence, from fear and anxiety to self-confidence. so, colour is used strategically to level strong emotions and create different moods. these elements affect the way staff and students work within the premises of the university building. 3. analysis of sustainability and the built environment elements in polis university 3.1. brief history of the university polis university is the result of an era of change in albania after the fall of communism since in 1990. the origin is the establishment of co-plan as a professional institute and civil movement for participation in urban planning and good governance. in the early 2000s, co-plan established the “training centre”. in 2006, this centre was transformed into the concept of “polis university, international school of architecture and urban development policy”. the study program in architecture started in 2006 and the study program in urban planning & management started in 2007. the school has been accredited both institutionally and in programs since 2009. new study programs opened in art design (2010) and environmental studies (2011). there are also 6 international study programs. in 2012 it increased the status to “university” and was granted the right to offer doctoral studies. in 2013, new branches were opened: b.sc. in construction engineering and a few vocational schools. the mba master’s program was further established in collaboration with ipag business school in paris, opened in october 2014. finally, the university has also added computer science study programs in 2019. as can be seen from the chronological analysis above, polis university is increasing its performance year after year. 3.2. circularity principles applied 3.2.1. infrastructure, an important element of spatial reversibility and transformation potential the focus in this section relies on analysing elements such as space, height, movement/flow in inside the university facility, and more importantly circularity principles applied regarding the reversibility of the facility. the university premises have ample space and height suitable for all functions for which they are intended to function and more. the design of the premises serves the function entirely from the point of view of the academic staff as well as the students as his end users. in general, the interior spaces of the university provide ample comfort to all its users in every infrastructure and architectural element. floor to ceiling height is an important element, which impacts the natural light, flexibility, acoustics, and construction methods point of view. in addition to floor to ceiling height, a dimension of floor slab is added as well as the space for installations. when changing function of space, number of installations need to be modified. this means that distribution network of installations needs to be accessible and therefore separated from the floor or integrated in the floor structure in a way that modifications will not cause damages to the floor. if solid floor is applied than additional space is added on top of the floor thickness to allow for easy distribution of installations. this is a principle which for the university is fully met. figure 2 | polis university, view from the outside. source: http://www.universitetipolis.edu.al/ figure 3 | the left figure shows the approximate layout of hall a3, while the second figure on the right shows the schematic of the student movement in the hall during the course. http://www.universitetipolis.edu.al/ sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 63v controversy lies in the functionality of outdoor spaces and parking due to insufficient spaces for all. let’s analyse room a3. in the figure above, a picture is presented which gives a rough layout and to the right is a schematic of the movement of the teaching staff and students, along with the layout of their classrooms. the class, being too large for a class with very few students, normally groups and divides. the pictures shows that the two classes that attend the lectures are grouped in both classes (sign and territoriality in environmental psychology, where large spaces make people seek their sense of personal privacy in an actually a great controversy for the design of so-called open spaces. inter-classroom collaboration becomes even more difficult with rigid classroom design formats that do not allow for the accomplishment of workshops or collaboration between each other. in conclusion, the design of the room is made for open lectures, or different lectures, which do not last more than 2 hours. but in this case the room is not a comfortable place to take a class of 4 or 5 classes. in contrast to the academic staff, the room environment is quite comfortable, easy to move around freely, offers a wide range of didactic materials needed, such as laptops, projectors, computers, etc. furthermore, regarding the spatial reversibility and transformation capacity of the room, and not only, the building structure is based on the general capacity of the space and the structure itself to accommodate the changing of functions, without needing to cause major demolition, reconstruction or material loss. we must emphasise that halt of the construction of this facility is steel, with removable parts, very adaptable and with no need for demolition. regarding the three transformational options: mono-functional, trans-functional and multidimensional functional transformation options, the facility offers a multidimensional functionality, which integrates the two first ones with other elements such as exchangeability and relocation. 3.2.2. community integration the most unimposing way to support the sustainable architecture as well as apply circular architecture principles in a building, is to conserve for as much as we possibly can existing structures. in fact, we can well say that if we manage to make a structure last longer, you’ve actually achieved to make the material more sustainable, and perfectly applied the first principle or circular architecture (lammert, 2018). we should increase the usage percentage of existing buildings to curb the efects of the sustainability crisis (arponen et al, 2014). for example, the utilization rate of offices in finland is only about 40% (herlevi, 2015). this means that a significant part of the built environment is lying in a partially or even fully unused state, while new space is simultaneously being created ever more rapidly. in a better and more connected society, sharing could become more important if the information about unused and shared spaces would be available comprehensively and in real time (raunio et al, 2016). architects, engineers and designers must work hard together to achieve results where the building does not just serve as an empty structure made up of exterior walls. the building should be an environment where the teaching staff and students are able to learn every day, work together, communicate and be in harmony. the building should serve as a mediator of interactive relationships. the concept of community integration includes increasing the participation of all in various learning activities or extracurricular ones. one benefit of community integration is the school / community partnerships formation. providing strong, authentic community interactions where families, community groups and businesses can get together to support learning can only be beneficial in the long run. one of the biggest reasons to integrate our local community into our universities is the majority of these spaces remain underutilized and empty during the summer season as well as evenings. to better utilize the space year-round and throughout the evening, the university facilities various spaces are opened up for shared use throughout the community. this would do not only help to maximise the space utilization, but it aids in additional funds to the university to offset the costs already incurred to maintain the building at all times. today’s system integration includes all of the control systems in a building, but also encompasses facility management systems, and business systems, and eventually will extend to utility grids. moreover, in the case of polis university, we can say with conviction that this goal has been achieved. the university is open for use 24 hours a day, at any time of the year. it serves a variety of activities in addition to those related to university itself. a mentioned above, it hosts trainings, conferences, workshops, as well as entertainment activities such as parties, karaoke, talent shows, book clubs or barbecues. this brings the community closer together, and makes them more supportive of each other. when this happens, the university facility becomes a welcoming environment where people study and work cheerfully and willingly, so the positive results in their productivity and performance are clearly visible. the facility is also currently shared as an office space for three different organizations, continuing sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 64 v multidimensional space for students and academic staff to continue lessons, and is used as a space for different activities. 3.3. design elements analysis 3.3.1. colour colours play a very important role in trying to create a good relationship between people and the environment. they define the “visual climate” of the environment (elgner, 2006). colour theory also includes the idea of how influences one’s thinking emotions in a given environment. red pigmented colours such as orange, reddish brown and yellow are supposedly warm colours because they are associated with sunlight and the warmth of fire. wood colour is considered as a cozy colour and reprensents stability. blue colours are perceived as cool and cold colours because they are associated with water and ice in the human brain. harmony colour is a nice combination of colours and the amount of these colours in a design; but it can also be a visually pleasing combination of colours that enhances the style and character of a design, and that promotes social functioning between people and their performance. (gibbs, 1995). in designing and implementing an environment it is very important to achieve a balanced voltage that supports either concentration or communication depending on the function of the room. and in case of polis university, both of the above mentioned. moreover, literature shows that colours that manage to positively affect the performance, both of the teaching staff and the students are warm colours. in order to ensure that the colours have the desired beneficial effect, the colours and spaces should also be used in the proper proportion. this is largely determined by the functions and proportions of the halls. in rooms, which are always full, the colour should only be used as an accent; as more colours is required in communication areas or recreation areas (elgner, 2006). looking back at the case of polis university, and more specifically of the a3 hall room, there is a disproportion between space and colours, being a relatively large hall, the cool colours incorporated in the design make this hall even bigger than it could actually, and cooler, thus reducing interactivity and social functioning among students or lecture attendees. although the woodcoloured flooring somewhat seeks to warm the room, the space-colour disproportionate, leaves no room for optimal stability and comfort in the room. finally, we can conclude that this specific environment is not particularly inviting or positive when it comes to performance and productivity. 3.3.2. light lighting is a functional component of the environment because it is essential for good vision. however, it is also an element of design, creating a sense of volume and form. but on the other hand, it has the potential to create excitement, motivation and pleasure in an environment. light affects not only the aesthetics of the environment but also the motivation of staff or students. for these reasons, the efficient design and installation of high quality, energy efficient lighting systems are an advantage in an environment (rayfield, 1997). the light design is related primarily with two aspects of human sensory behaviour, the visual task of spatial orientation, which requires the designer to be interested in the effect of light on the designation of space and structural closure or activity, without introduced irrelevant patterns or visual confusion. detailed vision of the central tasks, which requires the designer to be focused in the effect of light on the designation of important information centers and on helping to accurately communicate the visual details required for the acceptable performance of normal activities. balanced manipulation of these visual conditions should ensure that the viewer needs to judge distances and recognize relevant objects, materials, colours and shapes. at the same time, this environmental equilibrium must reflect the occupier by the bright glow and the senseless visual cues that the patterns of light structure our sense of space, our impressions, and consequently our actions in that environment. therefore, the designer must become sensitive to the uses of silhouette, focal accent, colouring and other forms of spatial light (flynn, segil & steffy, 1988). in today’s environment, a successful lighting model must support the desired function and atmosphere of each space, maximize the use of daylight, support employee productivity and morale, while also maximize energy efficiency (gibbs, 1995). having good quality natural light is an important aspect for comfort and other basic qualities of a building. this is why light plays an important role in the designing of the reversible structure. one example is having a glass façade with the height of 2.5 m, which reflects light into the inside space 2 times the length of the glass surfaces. during the conceptual phase of the designing process, this height can be taken as e reference, on creating a reversible building volume which supports natural light. this also means that all the inside areas that are usually populated or used by people, need to be within the range of 5m from the façade. the issue of lighting is also categorized according to the light source. the presence of natural light is an extremely positive element, and if it is at a controlled level, it is proved to have a very positive effect on comfort, health, productivity, and of course performance. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 65v in this context, polis university seems to have met these lighting design standards mainly at the university entrance (see figure 4), where the use of natural light is maximized. considering that during the literature review numerous studies claimed that the higher presence of light is less necessary in the work environment itself, but much needed in environments that serve for leisure or other various activities. in this case, the presence of natural light in large quantities in a common environment such as the front entrance and corridors, as well as the dining hall, is a very positive element. but in the case of one of the halls (a3 hall, see figure 6), it seems that this concept has not been preserved. in fact, the use of natural light in school premises (for classrooms) varies from floor to floor; the ground floor generally does not use natural light due to the height of the floor and windows. also, natural light is often not used due to the need for pedagogical staff to use projectors throughout the lesson. while the top floor of the school, where the school dinner is located, has a great deal of natural light efficiency, it often makes for a very desirable environment even though there is often overcrowding during long vacations. figure 4 | polis university, view of indoor spaces, main entrance. figure 5 | polis university, view of indoor spaces, university hall. figure 6 | lighting, room a3, the room under artificial lighting. figure 7 | lighting, room a3, the room under natural lighting. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 66 v classes use artificial and natural light, which is white, and for a long period of time creates eye fatigue. this is because people are mostly comfortable with the yellow light which resembles natural daylight. the study room, however, uses more of the artificial white colour than the natural one. this affects the health of the individuals in a temporary way, and also the overall comfort, productivity and performance. in terms of energy efficiency in lighting however, the university has achieved full functionally with highly sustainable resources in energy. 3.3.3. temperature, air as noted in the literature review, air quality, with all its constituent elements, affects the behaviour and comfort of the individual. as for polis university, the air temperature is usually optimal (between 20-22°c). however, taking into consideration that often the temperature and air quality is a factor that can be changed very quickly and easily in this faculty depending on the need, it is an element of comfort in the university and not the other way around. other elements related to air quality, such as heavy smells, chemical elements or pathogens, it can be said that they are not considered problematic in the indoor environment of the building. this is due to the large spaces and relatively large windows, with which a very adequate distribution and circulation of air can occur, not allowing the concentration of these elements. much attention is given to the energy use of a building during its use also in the temperature and air, emphasing that the building is very energy efficient. 3.3.4. noise acoustics is the science of sound production, control, transmission, reception and effects. the need for acoustic excellence is certainly very important when the acoustic objective is to support a comfortable and productive workplace. this objective is achieved by applying the basic principles of natural acoustics as well as minimizing noise which can affect well-being and performance (myerson, 2006). sound is transmitted through barriers such as floors, partitions, ceilings, and doors. as sound waves travel through a barrier, some of the sound is absorbed by the materials. the amount of sound absorption or sound wave reflection is a function of the thickness, density and porosity of the materials. in general, materials that are full, porous and soft absorb more sound. the sound is also reflected from the surfaces just as light is reflected and returned by the glass (gibbs, 1995). in the case of polis university, noise is a comfort element, as there are no noises that may disturb the neither teaching nor learning process. polis also has areas where you can find tranquillity for study, for both staff and students such as the library. noises are generated by student movement only during breaks, which creates no discomfort or concern for either staff or students. the same is true of a3 hall, where there is no noise over the norm throughout the learning process. the lack of distractions is a positive element which does not interrupt the process of thinking, working or teaching, increasing the efficiency of the work and study processes, thus positively affecting performance. 3.3.5. greenery another very important element to consider is greenery. as mentioned in the literature above, greenery is one of figure 8 | greenery and infrastructure elements. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 67v the primary and most important elements in the design of environments which enhances comfort and, most importantly, enhances performance. at polis university, greenery is sporadic, not well thought out, and is found only in the lobby of the premises. on the other hand, the lounge environments of the where the lesson takes place, the greenery is almost absent in the environment. this missing element is one less factor in increasing the comfort and performance of the academic staff and students at this university. also, the concept of using greenery to build diving walls or other structures of that sort is absent. this was one of the main concepts that promoted not only more green spaces indoors, but also saved space by installing them vertically, and also minimised building materials that would otherwise be used to divide the spaces, by adding up to the reversibility criteria as well. 4. sustainability of the built environment and its impact on the performance 4.1. analysis of demographic data the study participants were 87% students (no. 13) and 13% academic staff (no. 2, and 15 in total). the age of the respondents ranged from 18-25 years old, which constituted 73% of the respondents, followed by 20% with the age of 26-36%. 53% of the respondents were female and 47% were male. some of the respondents were studying bachelor level, 7% of doctoral studies and most of the respondents belonged to scientific master’s level of education (73%). three were the study profiles of student respondents, urban environmental management, which made up almost half of respondents, urban planning and management, and one respondent who attended architecture studies. regarding the academic experience 50% had an experience of 0-5 years, and the other half of more than 20 years of experience. 4.2. analysis of the build environment elements according to the respondents’ perception respondents were asked about their access to greenery. as can be seen in the graphs below, respondents indicated that they had moderate (53.3%) or little (40%) access, only 6.7% of them indicated that they did not have much access. this type of access to greenery was mostly direct 66.7%, indirect 26.7% and no form 6.7%. referring to the above analysis regarding the lack of greenery in school environments, these results correspond to the fact that the university has a lot of greenery incorporated into indoor and outdoor spaces, and that greenery that is located is largely sporadic in the university lobby. another question related on whether respondents think the university-designed spaces are appropriate and facilitate their movement to the university and access to the various facilities they need. respondents responded positively by 87%, spaces were designed to facilitate their mobility. only 13% of the respondents didn’t think so, and that this element needs to be further improved (see the figure 11). figure 9 | access to green areas. figure 10 | type of access in green areas. figure 11 | do you think university settings are designed to facilitate your movement? sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 68 v next, the questionnaire had a dedicated section on the comfort and functionality of the room, incorporating all the elements also analysed in the literature. the results of this section are presented cumulatively through the minimum, maximum and average of the result achieved. the section on the comfort and functionality of the room as a whole consisted of 17 questions in total, with a score of 17 points minimum (indicating a very low level of comfort and functionality), and 85 points maximum, (indicating an optimal level of comfort and high functionality of the build environment). the graph above shows the results of our respondents. respondents scored a minimum of 35 points and a maximum of 65 points, with an overall average of 51.13 points. from the results can clearly see that the respondents perceive that the comfort and functionality of the a3 hall the build environment is above average. 4.3. analysis of respondents’ perceived performance the figure 12 shows the results regarding respondents’ self-perceived performance. self-perceived performance was divided into three main subsections throughout the survey. correspondingly, self-perceived overall performance, contextual performance, and counter-productive performance. using the same calculation logic for the analysis of the built environment, the 3 performance subsections were calculated. from the figure 13, we see that the overall self-perceived performance of the respondents ranges between 19 points minimum and 29 points maximum with an average of 25.6 points. on the other hand, contextual performance ranges between a minimum of 17 points and a maximum of 35 points with an average of 26.06 points. meanwhile, counter-productivity performance ranges between 5 points minimum and 15 points maximum, with an average of 9 points. in general, the standard deviations in the responses are high, so there are significant differences in the responses among the respondents. regarding the average values, however, we find that respondents present a perceived above-average overall and contextual performance as well as low counter-productivity. it is important to highlight the difference between contextual performance and overall performance. overall performance is usually related to the results achieved based on the objectives one has, scheduling time and delivering results, separating key tasks from secondary ones, achieving high results, managing time to achieve objectives etc. on the other hand, contextual performance is related to other indicators. if overall performance only indicates whether a person is capable, whether a person succeeds in completing the tasks assigned to them, and succeeds in completing them with the best possible results, the contextual performance goes beyond this. contextual performance includes elements such as taking on extra responsibilities beyond what the person currently has, taking on challenging and difficult tasks, not being satisfied only with taking what university knowledge gives but needing to seek further. so, there is a constant growing need for personal and professional growth. contextual performance also relates to people who are very innovative and looking for new personal and professional challenges. it’s the people who always have one more question to ask in the auditorium and question everything they see and hear. as we can see there is a difference between overall performance and contextual performance. as for counterproductive performance, it relates mainly to non-productive behaviours, such as complaints to colleagues, for example complaints about workload etc. overall, our respondents showed low counterproductive behaviour, from both academic staff and student perspectives. figure 12 | summary descriptive analysis regarding the comfort and functionality of the build environment at polis university according to respondents’ perception. fugure 13 | performance. sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 69v 4.4. discussion the study case findings showed that polis university built environment is designed with a balancing voltage that supports either concentration or communication depending on the function of the room, and furthermore is design to be spatially reversible altogether with a strong sense of community integration. polis university has met the sustainability and circular principles requirements, such as the lighting design standards, because it uses the natural light in school premises or artificial light in evenings. high quality, energy efficient lighting systems are an advantage in an environment (rayfield, 1997). they must support the desired function and atmosphere of each space, maximize the use of daylight, support employee productivity and morale, and maximize energy efficiency (gibbs, 1995). the university premises have ample space and height suitable for all functions for which they are intended to function. space is designed to facilitate mobility and density at the university. in general, the respondents perceived that the comfort and functionality of the build environment is above average. as a result, they perceived themselves as productive. the hypothesis raised by the study suggested that there is a statistically significant correlation between built environment design and circularity principle applied to the facility and the performance of students and academic staff of the university. below is the table which shows the results from the correlations analysis of the study variables. the table 1 shows that there is a statistically significant correlation between sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance, specifically the contextual performance of our respondents. the correlation is statistically significant at the value of r =0.944**. in addition, the correlation is positive, which means that the two variables are positively correlated to one another. the more sustainable the build environment, and the more the circular architecture principles are applied to the building, the higher the contextual performance of the students is. the study hypothesis is fully validated, which means that elements of sustainability and the built environment, and implementation of circular architecture principles, have a direct impact on the performance of people who use that space, and in the specific case of pedagogical staff and students at polis university. these study findings are in line with other studies that correlate the build environment settings with performance (largo-wighta et al., 2010). it should also be noted that there was also a statistical correlation between mobility adaptability of the build environment and contextual performance, counterproductive performance at work, also with level of comfort and functionality of the environment, however the correlation was not very strong therefore and statistically significant, also due to the fact that movement adaptability was not analysed in some particular elements so that the respondents were able to analyse and perceive the importance of the element in more detail. therefore it’s recommended to be further studied in detail in another research. table 1 | correlation analysis. sustainability of the build environment self-perceived overall performance contextual performance counterproductive performance sustainability of the build environment pearson correlation 1 sig. (2-tailed) n 15 self-perceived overall performance pearson correlation 0.234 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.400 n 15 15 contextual performance pearson correlation 0.944** 0.260 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.349 n 15 15 15 counterproductive performance pearson correlation 0.255 -0.320 0.279 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.359 0.246 0.315 n 15 15 15 15 *correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). sustainability of the build environment and its impact on user performance. case study polis university françeska korançe vitruvio 6 | 1 (2021) international journal of architecture technology and sustainability 70 v 5. conclusions the purpose of this study was to investigate whether sustainability of the build environment and implementation of circular architecture principles has an impact on user performance. more specifically, to better understand and evaluate if principles of circular architecture are designed only to meet environmental paradigms or can also directly benefit end user as well. the current study focused on analysis the impact of build environment sustainability on performance in academic staff and student performance at polis university, situated in tirana, albania. the study raised the hypothesis that the sustainability of the built environment has a significant impact on performance. the study analysis focused on some key elements of circularity in construction and the built environment, such as spatial reversibility, community integrations, light, noise, climate/temperature, infrastructure, etc. all very important elements not only of comfort and functionality of the built environment but as well as in circular economy and in construction principles. at polis university, the sustainability of the build environment and the circular architecture principles applied were found to be strongly linked, correlated with contextual performance, more specifically with an academic staff and students take on additional responsibilities beyond the person currently duties, taking on challenging and difficult tasks, not meeting only with university demands only also needing to search and discover even further, with an enhanced need for personal and professional growth. furthermore, the rising contextual performance shows innovative stamina and need for new challenges and the need to question everything. clearly, the study shows that the university facilities, through sustainable design, and implementation or circular architecture principles such as spatial reversibility, energy efficiency system, community integration design, comfort and functionality of its spaces, brings in innovative individuals who are able to take on new challenges that require constant personal and professional growth. in this regards, university facilities can take maximum advantage on implementing full sustainable and circularity in architecture principles. as we saw from polis university built environment, a facility can be designed with a balancing energy efficiency principles, spaces that supports either concentration or communication depending on the function of the room, and furthermore is designed to be spatially reversible altogether with a strong sense of community integration, and still enhance fully the performance not only of the designated users but also of the community surrounding it. furthermore, the study findings emphasizes the importance of the elements of sustainable built environment, and the care that designers and builders need to achieve what is called optimal comfort and functionality of each element, keeping in mind not only end users but also environmental, social and economical aspects as a fully accomplished facility. this research contribution would not only help designers and builders, but managers, business executives who want to increase the productivity of the performance of their employees and businesses, and ultimately help the individuals themselves as part of this built environment in performance, psychological, physical well-being and higher performance, but it can also help them to implement sustainable construction practices to bring better social, economic and environmental benefits. however, the study also faces its limitations. the study sampling was small; 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