Wine Economics and Policy 12(1): 23-35, 2023 Firenze University Press www.fupress.com/wep ISSN 2212-9774 (online) | ISSN 2213-3968 (print) | DOI: 10.36253/wep-12890 Wine Economics and Policy Citation: Eva Parga Dans, Riccardo Vecchio, Azzurra Annunziata, Pablo Alonso González, Raimundo Otero Enríquez (2023). A certifi cation for natural wine? A comparative analysis of con- sumer drivers in Italy and Spain. Wine Economics and Policy 12(1): 23-35. doi: 10.36253/wep-12890 Copyright: © 2023 Eva Parga Dans, Ric- cardo Vecchio, Azzurra Annunziata, Pablo Alonso González, Raimundo Otero Enríquez. This is an open access, peer-reviewed article pub- lished by Firenze University Press (http://www.fupress.com/wep) and dis- tributed under the terms of the Crea- tive Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distri- bution, and reproduction in any medi- um, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability Statement: All rel- evant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information fi les. Competing Interests: The Author(s) declare(s) no confl ict of interest. A certifi cation for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain Eva Parga Dans1,*, Riccardo Vecchio2, Azzurra Annunziata3, Pablo Alonso González4, Raimundo Otero Enríquez5 1 Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología (IPNA-CSIC), Avda. Astrofísico Fran- cisco Sánchez, 3, 38206, La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain 2 Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II (Italy), Via Uni- versità, 100, 80055 Portici – Naples, Italy 3 Department of Economic and Legal Studies, University of Naples “Parthenope”, Via Par- isi, 13, 80133 Naples, Italy 4 Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología (IPNA-CSIC), Avda. Astrofísico Fran- cisco Sánchez, 3, 38206, La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain 5 Departament of Sociology and Communication, University of A Coruña, Rúa da Maes- tranza 9, 15001 A Coruña, Spain E-mail: eva.parga.dans@ipna.csic.es; riccardo.vecchio@unina.it; azzurra.annunziata@ uniparthenope.it; pablo.alonso.gonzalez@ipna.csic.es; raimundo.otero@udc.es *Corresponding author. Abstract. Th e 2020 certifi cation of natural wine (NW) in France has unleashed a heated debate in Europe. However, knowledge about NW consumer profi les and pref- erences in a comparative perspective remains scarce in the academic literature. Th is study aims to defi ne the perceptions, preferences and profi les of wine consumers who support a NW label. For this purpose, we employed analysis of variance, aprioristic factor analysis and multiple regression analysis to examine data from a direct survey performed in Italy and Spain in 2020. Findings reveal that NW consumers in both countries deem it necessary to establish a certifi cation for NW. However, we found sig- nifi cant diff erences regarding consumers’ profi les, as well as purchasing preferences. In Spain, demand for NW certifi cation is linked to eco-healthy and proximity-craft attrib- utes of wine, and is considered more important by non-professional consumers and those with lower educational level. In Italy, information on the label and the purchase experience are the most important factors to aid in recognizing NW, while women show a signifi cant interest in the NW certifi cation. Th ese fi ndings may help policy- makers to establish homogeneous parameters to diff erentiate and certify NW. Keywords: natural wine, food labeling, consumer preferences, food certifi cation, eco- labels. 24 Eva Parga Dans et al. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research context On March 25, 2020, natural wine (NW) obtained legal recognition for the first time in France under the designation Vin Méthode Nature, opening the way for similar initiatives worldwide. This recognition results from a long struggle led by the Syndicat de Défense des Vins Naturels before the French Government. The Euro- pean Commission (EC) decided not to allow the use of the term NW because there is no definition of the term “natural” in the EU regulations associated with wine. Therefore, the combination of the two words can be mis- leading for the consumer, and damaging to the image of other wines [1]. Debate on the approval of the certi- fication Vin Méthode Nature is ongoing at the Europe- an level. Disagreements emerge among EU states about the possibility of allowing it at their national level. The French authorities thus decided to create a new appella- tion associated with the method of production of these wines, based on fulfilling a series of requirements that include certification of organic viticulture, use of indig- enous yeasts, prohibition of stabilization or filtration, and absence of any additives except low sulfite doses (up to 30 mg/liter). This opens up both a new horizon for a whole sector that can now certify wine with the recently approved French label and a legislative path for other countries to follow suit. Until now, NW was considered a social movement involving consumers, producers and other actors in the wine value chain, who advocated naturalness and minimal intervention in wine rather than a regulated or defined form of winemaking [2, 3]. This movement spread throughout the 20th century from France to the whole of Europe as a reaction to modern viticulture and enological techniques. This includes intervention in the vineyard with synthetic chemicals and in the cel- lar with the more than 50 additives and processing aids that can be added to wine without a labeling require- ment [4]. Several associations have emerged in Europe in defense of NW, such as L’Association des Vins Naturels or Sans Aucun Intrant ni Sulfite in France, Triple AAA, Viniveri, Vinnatur or VAN in Italy, and the Asociación de Productores de Vino Natural in Spain. This has add- ed to the proliferation of different national standards [5, 6]. Although there is no agreed definition for NW, these associations advocate a winemaking process under parameters of minimum intervention and the greatest respect for nature. Wine is a canonical example of credence and expe- rience goods because its quality is difficult to assess from its labeling [7]. Unlike any other food product, wine carries no information about its nutritional val- ues, ingredients or expiration date, despite the fact that it can contain dozens of additives, generating confusion for consumers [8]. The European Commission intends to address this issue and revise the labeling requirements of alcoholic drinks. It has even published a roadmap to update the regulation on the provision of food infor- mation to consumers (EU 1169/2011 FIC). Since 2017, the EC has launched a series of reports and forced the wine industry to present a self-regulatory proposal in 2018. Specifically, the proposal of the Comité Européen des Enterprises Vins (CEEV), as the representative insti- tution of wine industries in Europe, is to offer some nutritional and ingredient information through a quick response (QR) code but not labeling the information on the bottle. However, through its Beating Cancer plan, the EC proposes a mandatory nutritional declaration and list of ingredients in alcohol labeling and is current- ly preparing an impact assessment that will culminate in a legislative proposal in 2022 [9]. Controversy between countries is also on the rise, given the emergence of new alcohol regulations such as the Irish Public Health Act from 2018, requiring alcoholic beverages to provide health warning claims on their labels similar to the ones displayed on tobacco [10]. These initiatives can be interpreted as a reaction to the current situation of the wine sector. In the light of this debate, this manuscript sets out to answer two key research questions. First, is there a specific consumer profile that demands the differentiation of NW in the market? Second, what are the preferences and percep- tions of wine consumers who consider a certification to identify NW important? Answering these questions is a prerequisite for the development of a EU-wide certifica- tion and to better address both producers and consum- ers’ needs and expectations, thus helping NW producers to create new marketing communication strategies or adapt their existing ones to new and emerging market niches. 1.2 Information asymmetries in the wine market Wine constitutes a seminal example of information asymmetries in the market [11]. In this context, produc- ers know about the elaboration process whereas con- sumers cannot, or it is difficult and time-consuming for them to obtain such information. These asymmetries make wine a complex product, about which specific knowledge is needed to make rational purchasing choic- es [12]. Consumers lack incentives to optimize their pur- chasing decisions and producers lack mechanisms to dif- ferentiate themselves in the market. This creates a poten- 25A certification for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain tial adverse selection problem. Since it is not possible to differentiate the quality of the product, there are no incentives to compete and produce above average qual- ity, eventually threatening its survival in the market [13]. In the case of NW, consumers still do not have a clear notion of what it is, how it differs from other wines, and where to buy it [6, 14]. In fact, the lack of NW certifications and the uncertainty associated with its attributes have generated a very unstable market for this product in traditionally wine-producing countries such as Spain, where consumer research about NW is scarce [15, 16]. Recent research has shown growing con- sumer interest in products with environmental attrib- utes, such as organic, healthy, sustainable, responsible and “proximity” wines [17, 18]. It is accompanied by a surge in new certifications that aim to convey trust and inform about wine’s intrinsic and extrinsic qualities [19]. Previous research has shown that consumers are will- ing to pay a premium for organic wines in the belief that they are healthier, tastier, and of higher quality [3, 20]. However, the differences between organic, biody- namic, or sulfite-free wines remain confusing for many in the face of the proliferation of information associated with the naturalness of these wines [21-24]. Fewer stud- ies have been conducted about NW specifically, although the literature on the topic is rapidly growing. Such cov- erage focuses on the different productive models in the natural wine field [15, 25, 26] and on the policy contro- versies arising from the recent French certification of natural wine “vin mèthode nature” [27]. Studies focusing on consumer interest in NW show that a predisposition to pay more for NW by Italian consumers was associated with drinking frequency and occasion, organic produc- tion, sulphite content, income, and attitudes towards healthy eating and the environment [28, 29]. Other studies have explored consumer perception of NW in the Italian wine industry [14], the construction of taste in the NW market [30], and marketing strategies in the NW sector [2, 25]. There is a research gap regarding comparative studies between countries, in that we must better understand consumer behavior and specific socio- economic profiles, given the current dominant focus on Italy in the literature. This study therefore enriches the growing literature on sustainable food consumption atti- tudes. A further research gap lies in the lack of studies on consumer interest in NW certification, a timely issue with normative implications because the certification developed by the French government has changed the field of play. Owing to these present academic gaps in knowledge, this manuscript sets out to answer two key research questions. First, is there a specific consumer profile that demands the differentiation of NW in the market? Second, what are the preferences and percep- tions of wine consumers who deem a certification to identify NW important? Answering these questions is a prerequisite for the development of a EU-wide certifica- tion and to better address both producers and consum- ers’ needs and expectations, and help NW producers to create new marketing communication strategies. Owing to the present academic gap in knowledge to date, this paper deals with consumer profiles in relation to NW label interest and their preferences regarding a NW cer- tification. For this purpose, data were collected through a direct survey delivered in Italy and Spain. Both are traditional producing and consuming wine countries leading in terms of vineyard surface area, production volume and export value rankings worldwide, only after France [31]. Ultimately, the paper offers an original con- tribution to a rather unexplored but emerging topic. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Data collection Data were collected using a questionnaire survey aimed at a convenience sample of Spanish and Italian wine consumers aged between 18 and 70 . The ques- tionnaire was administered by online survey manage- ment software, with a filling time of approximately 11 minutes. The survey consisted of a total of 30 questions structured from multiple-choice answer possibilities based on previous research into NW consumption [5, 6, 14], divided into four interrelated sections: (1) wine con- sumption habits and occasions; (2) wine labeling infor- mation and eco-label perceptions; (3) NW consumption habits, perceptions and occasions; (4) socio-demographic factors. Before beginning the survey, all participants provided informed consent. This included the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of participation, num- ber of questions, approximate response time, and the possibility of leaving the survey at any time. Both survey procedure and questionnaire were favorably evaluated by the Ethics Committee of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC, approval number 136/2020). As mentioned, a convenience sampling procedure was applied in the absence of a regular wine consumer population census. Eligibility was based on the defini- tion of regular wine drinkers by Wine Intelligence [32], i.e., individuals consuming wine at least once a month. This description has been previously used in simi- lar wine consumer studies [33-35], The questionnaire was launched through specialized sector agents in both Spain and Italy. Producers’ associations, distributors, wine critics, sommeliers, wine observatories, etc., publi- 26 Eva Parga Dans et al. cized the initiative through their websites. They request- ed the participation of their users, clients and followers, to improve the response rate among wine consumers in both countries. Through this system, a total of 527 fully completed surveys by wine consumers were collected in Spain and 501 in Italy during the two months from mid- September to mid-November 2020. 2.2. Data analysis Data analysis consisted of two phases in order to understand the drivers inf luencing demand for NW labeling. Consumer demand for a NW label was our dependent variable and was assessed by asking “To what extent do you consider labeling important to iden- tify NW?”. Respondents answered this question using a five-point scale (from 1 “not at all” to 5 “a lot”). The first phase of the analysis responds to our research question regarding profiles of consumers that expressed a need for NW certification. It consisted of a sample descrip- tion and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) aimed at distinguishing which socio-demographic and consumer profiles most accurately describe wine drinkers likely to support certification of NW in the two countries. Based on the F value and the associated significance level (p<0.01), a relationship of statistical dependence or inde- pendence was established between the factors and the DV, in line with recent research related to NW consum- er preferences [5, 36]. The assumption of normality is used especially when any of the factor categories has less than 50 cases. It was tested through Kolmogorov-Smirnov or Shapiro- Wilk statistics and was not fulfilled in several ANO- VAs. Therefore, rejection of the hypothesis of equality of means was replicated by default through a Kruskal- Wallis test. For the case of the independent dichotomous variables (gender and NW consumption), means were compared by evaluating the level of significance associ- ated with the F value [37]. The purpose of the second phase was to answer our second research question, about the preferences and perceptions of wine consumers who consider labels important as a means to identify NW. First, it included r Pearson correlations (p<0.01), in order to discriminate between independent and quantitative variables (IV) in wine labeling information, and on purchasing occasions that best correlated with the DV for each country [38]. It also established a ranking order and a comparison between the two. All the 85 IV in the questionnaire were used to prepare this ranking. The aim of this bivariate exploratory statistical analysis is to identify the best IVs that explain the DV in Spain and Italy. This also sheds light on the differences between the two countries. The exploratory bivariate analysis was followed by an apri- oristic factor analysis to group the best IVs from each country under common latent dimensions. This strat- egy permits such exploratory factor analysis and makes it more efficient, thanks to avoiding the rubbish in, rub- bish out phenomenon described by [38], which can result from factoring in an indiscriminate number of variables. The factor extraction method is based on principal component analysis using a Varimax rotation. In all cas- es, Bartlett’s test of sphericity rejected the null hypoth- esis that the observed correlation matrix is an identity matrix (p<0.01), which legitimizes aprioristic factoriza- tions [38]. The eigenvalues obtained for each of the fac- tors created are always greater than the unit. The scores obtained in differential format for each factor are calcu- lated using the regression estimation method. Finally, the factors are used as IVs in a multiple regression mod- el aimed at explaining the largest percentage of variance in the DV and establishing an explanatory or predictive model for each context. Use of the factors in the explan- atory model was supported by a corresponding sig- nificant F value (p<0.01) [39]. In the multiple regression models, we checked the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity of the residuals, as well as the linear- ity of the IVs with respect to the DV. It was also verified that the Durbin-Watson statistic was between 1.5 and 2.5 in the models, so the residuals were mutually inde- pendent. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Socio-demographic profiles & NW certification This section responds to our question about wheth- er there is a specific consumer profile correlated with demand for the differentiation of NW in the market. Table 1 shows the sample description from both coun- tries. The Spanish sample was composed of 527 wine consumers, 69% men and 31% women, with a mean age of 45 years. More than 50% of the Spanish respondents had a net monthly income of between 1,001 and 2,000 € and university or master studies (79.4%). In addition, 36.2% of the population surveyed considered themselves to be wine professionals. Regarding wine consump- tion habits, 44.2% of respondents drank wine several times a week, 78.0% consumed NW (33.3% at least once a month), and considered that a certification for NW is necessary (3.95 out of 5). The Italian sample was made up of 501 wine con- sumers, 55% of whom were men and 45% women, with an average age of 38. Almost 50% of the Italian respond- ents had a net monthly income between 1,001 and 2,000 € and university or master studies (55.5%). Finally, 19.6% 27A certification for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain of respondents defined themselves as wine professionals. Regarding wine consumption habits, 36.7% drank wine several times a week, 68.7% consumed natural wine (32.3% at least once a month) and considered a NW cer- tification necessary (3.90 on average out of 5). The significant sociodemographic profiles or IV associated with the desire for a NW label in each coun- try are detailed in Table 2. Results show that in both countries NW consumers are more likely to ask for a certification, to be able to identify it in the market. How- ever, ANOVA shows significant differences between con- sumer profiles from Spain and Italy. In Spain it was the non-professional consumers and those without university or higher education who most expressed a need for NW certification. In Italy, on the other hand, (female) gender was the variable that discriminated the importance of such certification. All these variables showed significant differences (Sig. F<0.05), but there were also descriptive differences to consider in both samples. For example, Spanish consum- ers with lower purchasing power most valued the need to certify NW. This difference in means would be signif- icant by the F test, not by KW. In Italy, younger consum- ers thought it more important to certify NW, whereas in Spain the over-50s showed the greatest interest in this, although not with statistical significance. 3.2 Wine purchasing preferences, perceptions & NW certi- fication This section responds to our question about the preferences and perceptions of wine consumers who deem a NW certification desirable. In order to under- stand the underlying data structure, Table 3 shows the r Pearson correlations (p<0.01) that best explain the DV for the cases of Spain and Italy, establishing a compara- tive ranking between them. In the Spanish case, ranking results show that con- sidering NW healthier than other wines was the main motivation for its consumption among those who would prefer it had a certification. Secondly, the fact that NW wines are organic and sustainable is the next motivation Table 1. Socio-demographics and wine habits of the surveyed population. Spain (n=527) Italy (n=501) Gender (%) Female 30.9 45.3 Male 69.1 54.6 Age Mean (S.D.) 44.90 (10.27) 37.50 (14.49) Income (%) Less than €1,000 9.1 25.4 €1,001 – €2,000 50.6 48.7 €2,001 – €3,000 25.8 15.4 More than €3,000 14.9 10.5 Level of education (%) No studies 0.6 0.0 Secondary 2.5 5.5 Vocational training 17.6 38.9 University/master 79.4 55.5 NW consumption (%) Yes 78.0 68.7 No 22.0 31.3 Wine consumption frequency (%) At least once a month 6.1 15.2 Several times a month 9.3 13.6 Once a week 17.5 21.8 Several times a week 44.2 36.7 Everyday 23.0 12.8 NW consumption frequency (%) At least once a year 35.2 21.5 At least once a month 33.3 32.3 At least once a week 14.8 22.7 2-3 times a week 11.2 15.7 Daily 5.6 7.8 I am a… (%) Wine professional 36.2 19.6 Wine consumer 63.8 80.4 NW label importance Mean (S.D.) in a scale from 1 to 5 3.95 (1.33) 3.90 (1.10) 28 Eva Parga Dans et al. Table 2. ANOVA – Kruskal-Wallis test / DV (“Do you consider labeling important to identify NW?”) * IV. IV- NW consumption (VI) No Yes F Sig.       SPAIN n 116 412 8.144 .004 Mean 3.65 4.04 ITALY n 157 344 8.272 .004 Mean 3.69 4.00       IV- I am a… Wine Professional Wine Consumer F Sig.       SPAIN n 191 337 5.884 .016 Mean 3.77 4.06 ITALY n 98 403 .122 .727 Mean 3.87 3.91       IV- Wine consumption frequency At least once a month Several times a month Once a week Several times a week Every day F Sig. SPAIN n 32 50 92 233 121 .528 .715 Mean 4.16 4.12 3.99 3.90 3.92 ITALY n 76 68 109 184 64 1.581 .178 Mean 3.93 4.13 3.72 3.88 3.98 IV- NW consumption frequency At least once a year At least once a month At least once a week 2-3 times a week Daily F Sig. SPAIN n 145 137 61 46 23 1.020 .397 Mean 4.01 4.08 4.23 3.76 4.04 ITALY n 74 111 78 54 27 .471 .757 Mean 3.96 4.02 3.91 4.15 3.96 IV- Income Less than €1000 €1001-2000 €2001-3000 More than €3000 F Sig.   SPAIN n 48 267 136 77 2.782 .040(**) Mean 4.02 4.06 3.94 3.57 ITALY n 94 180 57 39 .525 .666 Mean 3.98 3.83 3.77 3.92   IV- Education Level Primary School Secondary School University or Master F Sig.     SPAIN n 13 93 419 7.672 .000 Mean 4.54 4.38 3.84 ITALY n 27 191 272 2.237 .108 Mean 3.48 3.91 3.95     IV- Age in large groups 18-34 35-49 +50 F Sig. SPAIN n 78 280 169 .444 .642 Mean 3.97 3.90 4.02 ITALY n 270 108 122 2.516 .082 Mean 4.00 3.79 3.78 IV- Gender Woman Man F Sig.       SPAIN n 162 362 .947 .331 Mean 4.03 3.91 ITALY n 227 274 6.971 .009 Mean 4.04 3.78       ** Kruskal-Wallis test (Sig.>.05). 29A certification for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain for their consumption. Third, wineries are the preferred place for NW purchase. Subsequently, the winery name or brand when choosing a bottle of wine appears fourth in the ranking. Following this in fifth place, the fact that NW is handmade is a motivation for its consumption and demand for certification. Finally, the region and country of origin is in sixth position, while wine shops as the preferred place of NW purchase follow this as seventh. This means that for Spaniards who consider a NW certification necessary, it is important to character- ize attributes such as healthy, sustainable, ecological and artisanal, which are the main motivations for its con- sumption. In comparison, these attributes rank 20th, 13th and 30th in Italy). In the Italian case, those wishing for a NW certi- fication prioritize the place of purchase over the spe- cific attributes of NW. In other words, in first place they prefer to go to tastings to identify and buy it. In second place, Italians prefer to go to wine shops (sev- enth in Spain) and, in third place, they rely on books, guides or specialized magazines to identify NW. Biody- namic certification (e.g., Demeter) is important for Ital- ians, appearing fourth in the ranking. It is noteworthy that for Italians who would prefer NW certification, the internet and social networks are important spaces for identifying NW, with fifth position in the ranking. The information present on the label and the organic certi- fication occupy positions number six and seven, respec- tively. Thus, in addition to purchase (tastings, wine shops, book or guides), aspects related to labeling (bio- dynamic and organic certifications or brand) are also relevant factors among those requesting NW certifica- tion. These results are in stark contrast with the Spanish case, where purchase places occupy the 43rd, 7th and 19th positions in ranking and labeling considerations appear in 46th, 17th and 9th positions. These variables were subsequent ly organized through an aprioristic factor analysis to identify clusters of explanatory variables of the DV. These factors have a higher Pearson’s r than the IV variables that comprise them (see Table 4), so their predictive capacity will be greater for the DV. In the Spanish case, the first explanatory factor associated with demand for a NW certificate clusters the variables expressing NW attributes that characterize it as healthier, more sustainable and ecological than other wines. This factor was defined as eco-healthy (F1). A sec- ond explanatory factor emerges for the Spanish context that combines the perception of NW as artisanal and the preference to buy directly from the winery. We named this factor proximity-craft (F2). A third factor combines the importance of the brand or product name with the region and country of origin when a person supporting NW certification chooses a wine. We called this factor origin-brand (F3). In the Italian case, a factor identified as wine experience (F4) groups together tasting and wine shops as means to identify and buy NW. Another factor defined as on-label-info (F5) groups the importance of organic and biodynamic certifications with brand infor- mation, in order to recognize NW. Finally, we defined a sixth factor extra-label-info (F6) as the importance of information widely retrieved in the media to recognize Table 3. Comparison of Pearson correlations (r) / DV (“To what extent do you consider labeling important to identify NW?”) * IV. Highest r for Spain Highest r for Italy SPAIN ITALY Ranking r Ranking r Healthy (Motivation NW consumption) 1 .377** Tasting (NW identification) 1 .344** Sustainable and organic (Motivation NW consumption) 2 .357** Wine shop (Place NW purchase) 2 .311** Winery (Place NW purchase) 3 .323** Books, guides and/or specialized magazines (NW identification) 3 .297** Brand (Importance label information) 4 .318** Biodynamic certification (Importance label information) 4 .288** Artisanal (Motivation NW consumption) 5 .309** Internet and/or social networks (NW identification) 5 .277** Region and/or country (Importance label information) 6 .290** Brand (Importance label information) 6 .274** Wine shop (Place NW purchase) 7 .289** Organic certification (Importance label information) 7 .270** ** Sig.<.01. 30 Eva Parga Dans et al. NW, including books, social networks, specialized mag- azines and similar outlets. Finally, these factors were used as IV in a multiple regression analysis in order to establish an explanatory or predictor model for each country. Table 5 shows the factors that explain a higher percentage of variance for both cases in a combined rather than independent form. This provides robustness to these combinations when explaining the DV (see Table 5 and estimated coefficients in Table A1). In the case of Spain, the combination of F1 and F2 in the same model explains a significant percentage (18.9%) of the variance (Sig. F change<0.01), that is, the perception that NW is both eco-healthy and proximity- craft. In contrast, the factor associated with origin-brand (F3) was left out of the model as it does not contribute a significant percentage of variance to explanation of the DV (Sig. F change<0.05). This defines a model for the demand for a NW certificate in Spain that could be taken into account when developing legislation and labe- ling policies. In the case of Italy, both factors (F4 and F5) entered into the explanatory regression model of the DV, i.e. the combination of experience (F4) and on-label-info (F5) explains the need for a NW certificate. The factor associated with extra-label-info (F6) was left out of the final model because it does not contribute a significant percentage of variance to the explanation of the DV (Sig. F change>0.05). 4. DISCUSSION Our results in Spain and Italy show that NW con- sumers are more likely to demand a certification that identifies NW in the market. However, there are differ- ences between the socio-demographic profiles of con- sumers and the drivers of NW consumption between countries. In Spain, the socio-demographic profile of consumers who support NW certification includes non- professional consumers and people with no university or higher education, whereas in Italy, as a group women do. These results converge with recent research by [40], which found that women pay more attention to wine labeling and are more likely to pay for NW in the Ital- ian market. In the Spanish case, there is no previous research on consumer profiles and NW, so further work is required in this area. Table 4. Pearson correlations (r) / DV (“To what extent do you consider labeling important to identify NW?)” * Factors. SPAIN r F1_ECO-HEALTHY (IV- Healthy + IV- Sustainable and organic) .406** F2_PROXIMITY CRAFT (IV- Winery + IV- Artisanal) .374** F3_ORIGIN-BRAND (IV- Brand + IV- Region and/or country) .337** ITALY r F4_WINE EXPERIENCE (IV- Tasting + IV-Winery) .405** F5_ ON-LABEL-INFO (IV- Biodynamic certification + IV- Brand + IV- Organic certification) .351** F6 _EXTRA-LABEL-INFO (IV- Books, guides and/or specialized magazines + IV- Internet and/or social networks .312** **Sig.<.01. Table 5. Regression model summaries. Model r r2 Adjusted r2 Std. error of estimate Change Statistics Durbin- Watsonr2 change F change df1 df2 Sig. F change SPAIN 1 .409a .167 .166 1.208 .167 104.202 1 518 .000 1.933 2 .438b .192 .189 1.191 .025 15.782 1 517 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant). F1_ECO-HEALTHY b. Predictors: (Constant). F1_ECO-HEALTHY. F2_PROXIMITY CRAFT c. DV- “To what extent do you consider labeling important to identify NW?” ITALY 1 .405a .164 .162 .924 .164 73.170 1 373 .000 1.912 2 .441b .194 .190 .908 .030 13.916 1 372 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant). F4_WINE EXPERIENCE b. Predictors: (Constant). F4_WINE EXPERIENCE. F5_ ON-LABEL-INFO c. DV- “To what extent do you consider labeling important to identify NW?” 31A certification for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain Several studies have noted the relationship of the symbolic prestige of wine consumption with the pur- chasing power and high education levels of certain social classes [41], even suggesting that wine is a food that establishes hierarchies [42]. Already Bourdieu’s studies [43] analyzed the taste for wine as an element of bourgeois social distinction, which allows classify- ing the social and educational origin of the individual. However, our results show that in Spain the need felt to certify NW is associated with wine consumption among social strata with lower purchasing power and educa- tional qualifications. These results are in line with other research showing that the lower classes can challenge the bourgeoisie regarding food and wine enjoyment, making a statement of sociability and generosity that contrasts with the formality and rigidity of the middle and upper classes [44]. Traditionally, in many mostly southern parts of Europe, wine was an everyday food staple [45]. However, with the globalization of wine and the proliferation of brands and quality labels, the choice to purchase wine has made the debate about which consumers choose which wine more complex. Thus, our results for the Italian sample differ profoundly from the Spanish con- text, where women and young people are more likely to be interested in a NW label. In short, the socio-demo- graphic characterization of wine consumers remains a complex scientific debate and therefore deserves special attention, especially in relation to emerging consumer trends such as NW. In fact, it remains unclear why cer- tain sociodemographic factors are associated with great- er interest in NW as a function of each specific society or culture. The factors resulting from this study are in line with recent research on NW. Concerning the eco-healthy fac- tor or F1, previous studies have shown that the percep- tion of a wine’s naturalness through labeling informa- tion associated with health consciousness, sustainability and ecological winemaking are becoming determinant drivers of purchasing choices [22, 46]. They are posi- tively associated with a higher willingness to pay [47]. Moreover, these studies show that not only the percep- tion but also the labeling of these attributes has become important, in line with F5, the on-label-info factor, for the Italian consumer sample. For both the Spanish and Italian samples eco-healthy (F1) attributes are impor- tant. However, Italian consumers prefer to obtain this information on-label (F5), through organic and biody- namic certifications. This shows the complexity of the current wine certification system, the multiple associ- ated seals and the confusion it entails for the consumer, which ultimately emphasizes the absence of ingredient labeling of this product. In fact, organic certification has undergone a significant market breakthrough and has managed to build trust among consumers [48]. Cur- rent confusion about the differences between organic, biodynamic and NW for consumers, who tend to think that they are all similar, has contributed to this loss of confidence in labels [3, 20, 21]. Certainly, organic, bio- dynamic and NW are all based on organic agriculture, but they have different ways of working in the vineyard and winery [6]. Seufert et al. [49] show that the percep- tion of organic agriculture as chemical-free is the result of a limited and partial approach to organic certifica- tions, engendering a huge confusion between environ- mental, sustainable or health-related principles. This would explain why in the Italian sample the need to certify NW is associated with the importance of seek- ing extra-label information (F6) to identify it. Thus, our results suggest that in the absence of more information, a certification system combining eco-healthy (F1) and on-label-info (F5) could satisfy different NW consumer profiles in various countries. What these results ultimately show is that the qual- ity conventions associated with origin, brand or reputa- tion of wine have changed radically, in turn transform- ing traditional systems of marketing and labeling [50]. Our results regarding F3, the origin-brand factor, indeed suggest this, since its attributes are important for those desiring NW certification in Spain, whereas in Italy it is also relevant but in combination with organic and bio- dynamic certification (F5 on-label-info). It would appear that the certification based on protected designations of origin (PDO) played a very important role during the 1990s, when the globalized wine market developed [51]. In this scenario, traditional producer or Old World countries competed with New World countries by rely- ing on a system based on PDO, brand names and prizes from international competitions that generated positive attitudes among consumers [30, 52]. However, in the contemporary globalized market, varied certifications associated with eco-friendly, sustainable or health char- acteristics have emerged, generating alternatives to con- ventional wines [53, 54]. Our results suggest that tradi- tional aspects of the wine quality certification system are still important when certifying NW. Therefore, a certifi- cation system for NW should respect traditional quality conventions in the wine labeling system and combine it with other emerging aspects valued by the contemporary consumer such as F1 (eco-healthy), F2 (proximity craft) or F5 (on-label-info). Furthermore, aspects related to proximity-craft (F2) are important for Spaniards supporting a NW certifi- cate. Previous research highlights the association con- 32 Eva Parga Dans et al. sumers make between the perception of craft, tradition- al, small-scale or proximity winemaking with sustaina- ble, organic and natural winemaking [5, 55, 56]; in other words, wines that deviate from standard and industrial production methods [57]. Not surprisingly, the French certification body Vin Méthode Nature is currently debating whether to charge wine companies producing over 25,000 bottles per year more, to prevent appropria- tion of the label by industry. Therefore, aspects related to proximity-craft should also be taken into account when certifying NW. Finally, there is the experiential factor (F4) among those wanting a NW certification in Italy. In general terms, wine has been considered as a unique product and different from any other food whose singularity makes it an experiential product [58]. Wine is ceasing to be a traditional food in rural societies and is becom- ing more and more a product associated with hedonic or luxury consumption, especially in non-wine producing regions [36]. The recent review on consumer behavior by Deroover et al. [59] highlights that wine is perceived as an expression of traditions and culture. These attributes have greater influence on purchasing and consumption choices than for any other food or beverage [60]. Our results show that the lived-experience of identifying and buying a NW in specialized wine shops and wine tast- ings is also part of this consumption pattern. Therefore, a NW certificate should incorporate aspects that differ- entiate these wines with regard to the unique experience that can take place through NW consumption. 5. CONCLUSION This study has furthered demographic and socio- cultural knowledge of the consumer profiles and drivers of demand for a NW certification, distinguishing as an example between Spanish and Italian wine drinkers. To answer the initial research question as to whether there is a specific consumer profile that considers a NW label necessary, results show that those who already consume NW are the most likely to demand a certificate to dif- ferentiate NW in the market, both in Italy and Spain. However, there are significant differences between these profiles. In Spain, non-professional consumers and those with lower educational levels support a NW certificate to a greater extent, while in Italy it is women who show a greater interest. Concerning our second research question about the preferences and perceptions of wine consumers who consider NW certification important, results show four main explanatory factors in the final multiple regres- sion models, two for each country. The eco-healthy and proximity-craft factors explain the demand for a NW certificate in Spain to a greater extent, while in Italy it is the on-label-info and experiential factors. Both samples converge in showing a predisposition among those who consume NW to prefer a distinctive label and that the explanatory factors for such a certificate are not mutu- ally exclusive. Therefore, these results suggest that the stakeholders could indeed set homogeneous standards to reduce uncertainty and information asymmetries con- cerning NW. This constitutes an important contribution to the debate on the need to establish a common regu- latory framework leading to a consensual EU-wide crea- tion of a distinctive NW label. This would help assuage the polemics among countries, as reflected in complaints by several Members of the European Parliament against the French certification initiative Vin Méthode Nature. It could also satisfy NW producers who demand some sort of differentiation in the wine market given the lack of ingredient labeling in wine. In parallel, it could also respond to consumer interests in more transparent and sustainable food products, given that the new regula- tions for labeling alcoholic beverages are still being debated, with no clear outcome [9]. Certainly, a rise in the minimum standard requirements for ingredient labeling in the wine sector would make NW produc- ers less interested in having their own certification [61], but this scenario is still unclear. Given that the promo- tion and growth of NW would be positive in terms of environmental sustainability and a cleaner food chain in Europe and beyond, a NW certification is in line with new EU-wide strategies such as From Farm to Fork and the European Green Deal. A pro-labeling policy for NW would be therefore fundamental to reconcile sus- tainability aims with consumer and producer interests alike, thus reducing the currently prevailing information asymmetry in the wine market. We are aware that the lack of a probabilistic sam- ple is a core shortcoming of this study, which limits the potential to extrapolate the results to the whole wine consumer population in Spain and Italy at large. Fur- thermore, the explained variance in the regression mod- els is low, which implies that there may be more driv- ers influencing demand for a NW certificate. Future research should explore the perspectives of other actors in the wine sector on NW labeling, such as winemakers or traders, to further optimize NW communication and marketing. Similarly, more cross-national and compara- tive studies are needed to better delve into the profile of the NW consumers and the perceptions associated with them, in order to more effectively deliver a Europe-wide certification. 33A certification for natural wine? A comparative analysis of consumer drivers in Italy and Spain ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by the Spanish Inno- vation, Technical and Scientific Research Plan 2017– 2020 – Ramón & Cajal Ref. RYC2018-024025-I and PID2021-126272OA-100. 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