key: cord-343528-5283jsnu
authors: Zhang, Zhao; Shen, Libing; Gu, Xun
title: Evolutionary Dynamics of MERS-CoV: Potential Recombination, Positive Selection and Transmission
date: 2016-05-04
journal: Sci Rep
DOI: 10.1038/srep25049
sha: 
doc_id: 343528
cord_uid: 5283jsnu

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) belongs to beta group of coronavirus and was first discovered in 2012. MERS-CoV can infect multiple host species and cause severe diseases in human. We conducted a series of phylogenetic and bioinformatic analyses to study the evolution dynamics of MERS-CoV among different host species with genomic data. Our analyses show: 1) 28 potential recombinant sequences were detected and they can be classified into seven potential recombinant types; 2) The spike (S) protein of MERS-CoV was under strong positive selection when MERS-CoV transmitted from their natural host to human; 3) Six out of nine positive selection sites detected in spike (S) protein are located in its receptor-binding domain which is in direct contact with host cells; 4) MERS-CoV frequently transmitted back and forth between human and camel after it had acquired the human-camel infection capability. Together, these results suggest that potential recombination events might have happened frequently during MERS-CoV’s evolutionary history and the positive selection sites in MERS-CoV’s S protein might enable it to infect human.

acid substitutions in its S protein receptor binding domain along with its switching host from civet to human 20 . Moreover, two amino acid substitutions in the S protein's C-terminal of HKU4, a bat beta-coronavirus, enable its entry to human cells and the same amino acid substitutions are also found in MARS-CoV 21 . Furthermore, heptad repeat regions in C-terminal of MERS-CoV and related coronaviruses also play important roles in viral adaptive evolution 22 . In summary, those studies introduced above suggested that S protein plays a vital role in MERS-CoV's cross-species transmissibility. However, the evolutionary mechanism of how MERS-CoV's S and other proteins facilitated the cross-species transmission of MERS-CoV remains to be investigated.

Here, we performed a series of phylogenetic and bioinformatic analyses for MERS-CoVs. We systematically investigated the recombination events in MERS-CoVs, the potential transmission route of MERS-CoVs in five different host species and the evolutionary pressure of each MERS-CoV's protein during cross-species transmission. Our study might offer some insight in explaining the possible mechanism in MERS-CoV's adaptive evolution.

Epidemic description and phylogenetic analysis of MERS-CoV. By far, the largest MERS-CoV outbreak is in Saudi Arabia and almost all human cases have a direct or indirect link to Arabian Peninsula. In this study, we collected 74 human MERS-CoV whole genome sequences from 9 countries (supplementary Table 1 ). The geographic distribution of these samples is shown in supplementary Fig. 1a . The majority of them are from the countries in Arabian Peninsula (78.4%, 58/74) and more than half of them are from Saudi Arabia (64.9%, 48/74) (supplementary Fig. 1a) . The peak season for MERS is between April (26.5%) and may (25.0%) (supplementary Fig. 1b) .

Based on the whole-genome alignment of our collected sequences (supplementary Table 1 ), we performed the phylogenetic analysis for these sequences with two SRAS-CoVs serving as the outgroup. Our phylogenetic tree shows that all camel and human MERS-CoVs are clustered together. The bat and hedgehog MERS-CoVs formed a basal paraphyletic group to all camel and human MERS-CoV clade (Fig. 1a) . A single camel MERS-CoV isolated in Egypt (GI: 589588051) forms a single basal clade to human and the other camel MERS-CoVs (Fig. 1b) . The human-camel MERS-CoV cluster can be further divided into two clades-clade A and clade B, as previously reported 16 . Clade A contains four human strains isolated in Jordan and Saudi Arabia while 70 human and 17 camel MERS-CoVs are mixed in clade B. There are five groups in clade B and we named them as group I to group V as the previous study 15 . There are 25, 17, 14, 2 and 29 MERS-CoV sequences in group I to group V, respectively (Fig. 1b) .

We performed the recombination analysis on the collected full-length MERS-CoV sequences. We find that there are 28 of them experienced potential recombination events (30.4%, 28/92), including three camel MERS-CoVs and 25 human MERS-CoVs (supplementary Table 1 ). We divided 28 potential recombinant sequences into seven different types and named them as type 1 to type 7 ( Fig. 1b- Table 1 ). Type 1 means the recombination happened between group II and group V, which includes 3 sequences and is about 11% of total recombinant sequences. Type 2 means the recombination happened between group III and group V, which includes 6 sequences (22%). Interestingly, the MERS-CoVs newly found in 2015 in South Korea and China are type 2 recombinants 15, 23 . Type 3 means the recombination happened between group I and group III, which includes 2 sequences (7%). Type 4, 5 and 6 are the recombination happened between different genomic regions of group IV and group V, which include 7, 4 and 4 sequences (25%, 14% and 14%), respectively. Type 7 is the recombination happened among three groups (group I, IV and V), which includes 2 sequences (7%). Our phylogenetic analysis showed type 1 belongs to phylogenetic group II while type 2 and 3 belong to phylogenetic group III, and type 4 to 7 belong to phylogenetic group V. There is no recombination found in phylogenetic group I and group IV (Fig. 1b) . We also reconstructed the phylogenetic tree using non-recombinant sequences only and found that its topology is consistent with the tree based on all sequences (supplementary Fig. 2) . We also performed the SNP (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) analyses for each recombinant types and found the large recombination segments in type 2, 4, 6, 7 are conspicuous but in type 1, 3, 5 are obscure (supplementary Fig. 3 ).

In order to explore the selection pressure on the MERS-CoV proteins when it transmitted from animal host to human, we performed the adaptive evolution analyses for all MERS-CoV protein in absence of recombinant strains. Firstly, we set camel and human MERS-CoVs as the foreground branch and bat and hedgehog MERS-CoVs as the background branch to preform branch-site test in CODEML of PAML program (see Fig. 1a ). The strong positive selection is detected in spike (S) glycoprotein between these two branches (p < 0.001), while there is no significant positive selection in the other MERS-CoV genes ( Table 1) . We find nine positive selection sites in MERS-CoV spike (S) glycoprotein and eight of them are statistically significant (Table 1) . Six significant positive selection sites are located in the receptor binding domain of S protein (Fig. 2a) . We utilized a published crystal structure (PDB ID 4L72 in RCSB Protein Data Bank), the receptor binding domain (RBD, aa 367-606, Fig. 2b ) of MERS-CoV spike glycoprotein complexed with the human receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DDP4), to demonstrate their locations in a 3D environment (Fig. 2b) . The receptor binding domain of MERS-CoV S protein can be further divided into a receptor-binding sub-domain and a core sub-domain. Two significant positive selection sites, K511R and G521N, are in the receptor-binding sub-domain and K511R is in direct contact with human receptor DDP4. Q419S, G436N, D472S and R479L are in the core sub-domain. Moreover, we also detected a positive selection site in S protein's c-terminal, L775S. Secondly, we screened the positive selection sites among human-camel MERS-CoVs (Table 2 ). Five significant (Table 3 ). The genome-wide average nucleotide substitution rate of camel and human MERS-CoVs was 4.81 × 10 −4 substitutions per site per year. Open reading frame 3 (ORF3) has the fastest substitution rate while ORF5 has the slowest substitution rate. The ORF4b, nucleocapsid (N) glycoprotein, and spike (S) glycoprotein, have a similar substitution rate which is faster than the whole-genome substitution rate.

In order to study the temporal and spatial pattern of MERS-CoV transmission, a maximum clade credibility (MCC) tree was constructed using MERS-CoV whole genome sequences without recombinant strains (Fig. 3c) . The ancestral host state with time reference was estimated for each tree node and marked with different colors. We named six important nodes in MERS-CoV divergence on MCC tree for node A to F (Fig. 3c ). The possible transmission time for each node and its 95% highest posterior density (HPD) are shown in Fig. 3b . We found that the origin time of human-camel MERS-CoV is relatively late (node D). Furthermore, the tMRCA for clade B is in ~2012 (Fig. 3b , node F) and clade A and clade B are divergent in ~2011 (Fig. 3b , node E). Interestingly, the MCC tree shows that there are six cross-species transmission events with high posterior probabilities in clade B. Five of them are human-to-camel transmission events and one of them are camel-to-human transmission events (Fig. 3c ). Additionally, with the MERS-CoV of human/camel and bat/hedgehog MERS-CoV together, we inferred the ancient MERS-CoV exists for decades of years (Fig. 3b,c) . The tMRCA of the MERS-CoVs for Vespertilio superans, Neoromicia capensis or Erinaceus europaeus can be traced back to 2006 (node C), 2003 (node B) and 1996 (node A), respectively. Before the emergence of human-camel MERS-CoV, the estimated tMRCA for all MERS-CoVs appeared in ~1996 (Fig. 2c , node A). We also preformed root-to-tip analysis using the consistent dataset (Fig. 3a) , and the result shows that the origin time of tMRCA is in ~1995 with high statistical supports (R 2 = 0.874, p value < 0.001). Together these results suggest that the ancient MERS-CoV should have existed for decades in animal host and got the ability to infect human or camel recently.

MERS-CoV belongs to coronavirus, beta-coronavirus, lineage C. Since it was discovered in 2012, MERS-CoV has attracted extensive attention due to its human-to-human infection capability and high mortality rate. Recombination events have been confirmed in human MERS-CoV 23 . The fact that MERS-CoV can be found in multiple species proposes its cross-species transmissibility [4] [5] [6] [7] 11 . By far, the evolutionary details of how MERS-CoV transmitted to human are still unknown. Based on the most comprehensive collection of MERS-CoV genome sequences so far, we tried to elucidate the evolution and transmission of MERS-CoV among different species.

MERS-CoV has been reported in five species including European hedgehog, two species of bats, dromedary camel, and human. We used the ML method to reconstruct the whole-genome phylogenetic tree of MERS-CoVs isolated from these species. The ML tree shows that the hedgehog MERS-CoVs are basal to all the other MERS-CoVs and two bat MERS-CoVs are basal to camel and human MERS-CoVs. This result suggests that the ancestor of camel and human MERS-CoVs may be from other animal host, such as the hedgehog or bat. We also reconstructed the phylogenetic tree of MERS-CoV using NJ method or based on each MERS-CoV protein. These trees show a consistent topology, which proposes that the phylogenetic relationship estimated in our study is credible (supplementary Fig. 5) .

We divided clade B into five groups as pervious study to detect the recombination of MERS-CoV 15 . Because the evolutionary distances among MERS-CoVs are close (Table 3) , no large segment recombination could be detected among them. Thus, according to discontinuous recombination segments, we defined potential recombination events in MERS-CoVs. This method has been used in the previous study to label potential recombination 24 . In our study, we found 28 strains form seven recombinant types, which took more than 30% of all isolated MERS-CoVs in human and camel. Among them, we found 26 strains in six recombinant types (type 1 to type 6) between two phylogenetic groups and two strains in one type (type 7) among three phylogenetic groups. For now, the recombination of MERS-CoV was confirmed in previous study, but no report about the recombination among more than two groups of MERS-CoV. Interestingly, most recombinant types (type 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7) are related to group V and they make up 92.9% of total recombinant strains (26/28). The result suggests that recombination events might happen frequently and the recombinant types involving group V might happen broadly. Additionally, multiple recombination events indicate that double infection and super infection likely existed during the transmission history of MERS-CoV. We failed to detect possible large recombination segments in type Table 3 . Evolutionary distance, nucleotide substitution rate and coefficient of variation of substitution rate for human and camel MERS-CoV proteins. 1, 3 and 5. By comparing the SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) of reference sequences with recombinant sequences, we reckoned that specific nucleotide mutation might influence the results of recombination analysis. This problem can be solved by discovering more MERS-CoV sequences or developing more detailed genotype classification for MERS-CoVs in the future. We also performed phylogenetic analyses for potential recombinant region and got similar results (supplementary Fig. 3) . Interestingly, the East Asian MERS-CoV strains (China and South Korea) belong to type 2 recombinant and the previous study show that their tMRCA might be a result of potential recombination event 23 , which indicates the recombinant strains have transmitted broadly. Moreover, one recombinant MERS-CoV lineage has led to the large-scale outbreak in both camel and human 26 . It proposes that recombinant MERS-CoVs have experienced cross-species infection. Additionally, our study reveals that the number of recombinant strains is large and the potential recombinant types are abundant. Together these findings highlight that we should take more attention to recombinant MERS-CoV transmission.

Although how the MERS-CoV transmitted from its natural host to human is still unknown, it is confirmed the MERS-CoV have been found in many animal hosts, such as bats and hedgehog. To study the evolutionary pressure on each MERS-CoV's protein during its potential cross-species transmission, we conducted a comprehensive scan for positive selection sites in MERS-CoV's proteins. Recombinant strains were excluded in this analysis. We set camel-human MERS-CoVs as the foreground branch and hedgehog-bat MERS-CoV as the background branch and estimated the relative evolutionary pressure on the foreground branch compared to the background branch. We only found that MERS-CoV's S protein underwent strong positive selection and there are nine significant positive selection sites in S protein. It suggests that S protein was under strong evolutionary pressure during the transmission from its natural host to human. Among significant positive selection sites, six of them are located in S protein's receptor binding domain (RBD). RBD is crucial for virus to enter host cells and it comprises of one binding region and one core region. Based on the RBD's 3D model, we find that two sites are located in the binding region of RBD, which suggests that these amino acid substitutions might change MERS-CoV's binding capability to host cells and thus facilitate its cross-species transmission. The other four sites are located in the core region of RBD. These amino acid substitutions might change the structure of core region and indirectly influence MERS-CoV's cross-species capability. In order to eliminate the sample bias between human/camel group and bat/hedgehog group, we also did random sampling for the 68 non-recombinant human and camel sequences. We tried 10, 20 and 50 random sampling, respectively. Using random sampled sequences together with bat and hedgehog MERS-CoV sequences, we performed branch-site analyses and got the same results as our aforementioned (data not show).

We also estimated the nucleotide substitution rates of camel-human MERS-CoVs to investigate its evolutionary dynamics after it infected camel and human. Our estimated nucleotide substitution rate for MERS-CoV's whole genome is 4.81 × 10 −4 , which is slower than the previous estimation 9 . One explanation for the phenomenon is that we used a larger dataset than the previous study, which includes all available MERS-CoV whole genome sequences. Our estimated confidence interval of the substitution rate of MERS-CoV genome is largely overlapped with the result from another study 16 . The estimated nucleotide substitution rates show that four proteins experienced the accelerated evolution.

Through evolutionary pressure analysis, we found camel-human MERS-CoV's four proteins underwent positive selection and detected five significant positive selection sites. One of them is located in M proteins. There is evidence that M proteins are powerful interferon antagonist 26 , which proposes that the evolutionary pressure on M proteins are from host's immune system. Two out of five significant sites are found in N protein which is fundamental for MERS-CoV self-assembly. Coronavirus N protein is able to bind to different host cell proteins and demonstrated to have various functions, one of which is also counteracting host interferon as shown in SARS-CoV [27] [28] [29] [30] . It is reasonable to speculate that MERS-CoV N protein under intensive selection because its functions were similar to those of SARS-CoV N protein. The results above suggest that the arm race between MERS-CoV proteins and host's immune system might be the main evolutionary driving force behind MERS-CoV's adaptive evolution after it began to infect camel and human. MERS-CoV spike (S) glycoprotein evolves slightly faster than the genome-wide average rate, which indicates that the nucleotide substitution rate of MERS-CoV S protein still maintains a fast speed even after it crossed the species boundary. The positive selection site we found in MERS-CoV S protein with site-specific test is identical to the previous study's result 3 . This site is located in heptad repeats 1 which is a key component in membrane fusion architecture and required for MERS-CoV entering host cells 31 .

In absence of recombinant strains, we performed the MCC analysis using MERS-CoV whole-genome sequences in order to infer the time and source species when MERS-CoV crossed the species boundary. The topology of the MCC tree is highly congruent with that of the whole-genome phylogenetic tree. We defined six nodes (A-F) to explain transmission. The posterior probability for the ancestral sate of node A, B or C is not very high in our MCC analysis and the 95% highest posterior density (HPD) of the divergence time for these three nodes is quite long. So these results are weak for demonstrating the exact origin time or ancestor state of MERS-CoV. However, these estimations still provided the evidence that the ancestor MERS-CoV should have been infected a number of animal hosts, such as bat or hedgehog, for decades of years (supplementary Fig. 4) . The x-intercept (tMRCA) in root-to-tip is ~1995 with high statistical supports, which is close to the estimated time of tMRCA in MCC analysis. This hypothesis is in agreement with the result of serological studies 2,3 . The appearance of the common ancestor of human-camel MERS-CoV is in 2010 and the appearance of the tMRCA of clade A and B is in 2011, which are exactly the same as the previous report 16 . In clade B, we detected five possible human-to-camel transmission events and one camel-to-human transmission event. It suggests that MERS-CoV frequently transmitted back and forth between human and camel after it acquired the capability of infecting both hosts. Actually, there is at least one confirmed case of camel-to-human MERS-CoV transmission 32 .

Scientific RepoRts | 6:25049 | DOI: 10.1038/srep25049

In conclusion, we found that potential recombination events are common in MERS-CoV's evolutionary history and potential recombinant MERS-CoVs can be divided into seven types. The amino acid sites under positive selection in MERS-CoV S protein, especially those in its receptor binding domain, might have facilitated its cross-species transmission from animal host to human. We detected the strong positive selection in four proteins of camel-human MERS-CoVs, which indicates that they probably experienced strong adaptive evolutionary pressure from host's immune system. Additionally, we also found six possible cross-species transmission cases between human and camel. Our study investigated the evolutionary dynamics of MERS-CoV, which shall provide a basis for MERS-CoV control and treatment.

Sequence data. The complete genomic nucleotide sequences of 91 MERS-CoVs and two SARS-CoVs were downloaded from NCBI nucleotide database. Among 91 MERS-CoV genomic sequences, 68 of them are from human, 18 of them are from dromedary came, two of them from two bat species Neoromicia capensis and Vespertilio superans, and 3 of them are from European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus. Two SARS-CoV genomic sequences are from human and bat Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, respectively. We used sequences 453061240 as reference to extract open reading frames from each MERS-CoV genome in this study.

Genomic sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Total 93 collected genomic sequences were aligned using the MUSCLE software with default parameters 33 . ClustalW and MAFFT used to validate the MUSCLE result 34, 35 . Alignments were refined manually in Bioedit (http://www.mbio.ncsu.edu/BioEdit/ BioEdit.html). Only unambiguously aligned positions were used for subsequent phylogenetic analyses (supplementary files). We used the JmodelTest 3.1 to estimate the best nucleotide substitution model for our alignment 36 , which is GTR+ I+ G. We used the PHYML 3.1 to perform the phylogenetic analysis for 93 collected genomic sequences based on their genomic sequence alignment 37 . The branch support values were calculated with Shimodaira-Hasegawa test integrated in PHYML.

In clade B, we estimated the consensus sequences for every phylogenetic group using cons tool in EMBOSS explorer (http://bioinfo.nhri.org.tw/cgi-bin/emboss/cons). Five consensus sequences were set as reference and every sequence in clade B was used as the query to detect the possible recombination using Simplot software 25 . The window is set to 200 bp and the step is set to 20 bp.

Positive selection analysis. We extracted the coding region of each MERS-CoV protein using MERS-CoV 453061240 strain as a reference template. The CODEML program implemented in PAML 4.7 package was used to detect the positive selection in the codon alignment of each MERS-CoV protein set 38 . In the branch-site model, the group of human-camel MERS-CoVs was set to be foreground, the group of bat-hedgehog MERS-CoVs was set to be background, and model A with estimated ω value was compared with the null model (model A') with fixed ω value. To reduce the bias from sample size, we performed random sampling on 68 human and camel MERS-CoVs (clade A and B) which are all non-recombinant sequences. We used 10, 20 and 50 as the random sample size with and without replacement. The random sampled sequences together with bat and hedgehog MERS-CoVs were used to generate the datasets for branch-site model analysis as aforementioned method (script see supplementary files). Moreover, for each random sample size, we repeatedly drew five times in order to make results robust.

We also used the site-specific model to detect positive selection in the human-camel clade. The site-specific model was performed by comparing the models M2a (positive selection) and M8 (beta & ω ) vs. the null models

The crystal structure of the receptor binding domain (RBD) of MERS-CoV spike (S) glycoprotein in complex with the human receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DDP4) was displayed using Jmol (Jmol: an open-source Java viewer for chemical structures in 3D

We estimated the transmission of MERS-CoV among different hosts or geographic areas. The sampling time and host/geographic location of each sequence were also used in analysis. The nucleotide substitution rates and the origin time of most recent common ancestor (MRCA) on various nodes of MCC tree were also estimated using the BEAST package. A relaxed molecular clock with an uncorrelated log-normal distribution, and a constant population size model were used in Bayesian coalescence analysis. According to the outcome of JmodelTest3.1, the GTR+ Gamma+ I model of nucleotide substitution was employed in MCC analysis. Statistical uncertainty in parameter estimations was reflected by the 95% highest posterior density (HPD) values. MCMC analysis was run for 500/100 million generations for hosts/geographic transmission with sampling every 50,000/10,000 generations to achieve parameter convergence and adequate effective sample sizes (ESS > 200). We summarized the trees using TreeAnnotator implemented in the BEAST v1.8.2 package. The initial 25% samples were discarded as burn-in, leaving 75% trees per run to produce the consensus tree

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Antibodies against MERS coronavirus in dromedary camels

MERS coronavirus in dromedary camel herd, Saudi Arabia

Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat

MERS-related betacoronavirus in Vespertilio superans bats

Characterization of a novel betacoronavirus related to middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in European hedgehogs

Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia

Spread, circulation, and evolution of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia

Hospital-associated outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: a serologic, epidemiologic, and clinical description

Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus

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Isolation and characterization of a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup A coronavirus, rabbit coronavirus HKU14, from domestic rabbits

Origin and Possible Genetic Recombination of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus from the First Imported Case in China: Phylogenetics and Coalescence Analysis

Transmission and evolution of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in Saudi Arabia: a descriptive genomic study

Role of the spike glycoprotein of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in virus entry and syncytia formation

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC

Structure of MERS-CoV spike receptor-binding domain complexed with human receptor DPP4

Recombination, reservoirs, and the modular spike: mechanisms of coronavirus cross-species transmission

Two Mutations were Critical for Bat-to-Human Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus

The heptad repeat region is a major selection target in MERS-CoV and related coronaviruses

The recent ancestry of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in Korea has been shaped by recombination

Full-length human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genomes from subtype C-infected seroconverters in India, with evidence of intersubtype recombination

Co-circulation of three camel coronavirus species and recombination of MERS-CoVs in Saudi Arabia

The structural and accessory proteins M, ORF 4a, ORF 4b, and ORF 5 of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) are potent interferon antagonists

Nucleocapsid protein of SARS coronavirus tightly binds to human cyclophilin A

The nucleocapsid protein of SARS coronavirus has a high binding affinity to the human cellular heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1

SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein binds to hUbc9, a ubiquitin conjugating enzyme of the sumoylation system

SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein antagonizes IFN-beta response by targeting initial step of IFN-beta induction pathway, and its C-terminal region is critical for the antagonism

Structure of the fusion core and inhibition of fusion by a heptad repeat peptide derived from the S protein of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus

MUSCLE: multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput

CLUSTAL W: improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice

MAFFT: a novel method for rapid multiple sequence alignment based on fast Fourier transform

jModelTest: phylogenetic model averaging

New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3.0

PAML 4: phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood

MEGA6: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 6.0

Bayesian phylogenetics with BEAUti and the BEAST 1.7

This work was supported by the grant from the National Science Foundation of China (31571355). We thank the anonymous reviewers.

Z.Z., L.S. and X.G. designed the experiments; Z.Z. and L.S. collected viral sequences, performed phylogenetic analyses, adaptive evolutionary analyses and transmission analyses. Z.Z., L.S. and X.G. wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at http://www.nature.com/srep