transcriber's note the punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully preserved. forests of mount rainier national park [illustration] department of the interior office of the secretary 1916 for sale by the superintendent of documents, government printing office, washington, d.c. price, 20 cents. publications on mount rainier national park sold by the superintendent of documents. remittances for these publications should be by money order, payable to the superintendent of documents, government printing office, washington, d.c., or in cash. checks and postage stamps can not be accepted. features of the flora of mount rainier national park, by j.b. flett. 1916. 48 pages, including 40 illustrations. 25 cents. contains descriptions of the flowering trees and shrubs in the park. mount rainier and its glaciers, by f.e. matthes. 1914. 48 pages, including 26 illustrations. 15 cents. contains a general account of the glaciers of mount rainier and of the development of the valleys and basins surrounding the peak. panoramic view of mount rainier national park, 20 by 19 inches, scale 1 mile to the inch. 25 cents. the forests of mount rainier national park. by g.f. allen, _united states forest service_. general statement. the remarkable development of the forests about the base of mount rainier results from climatic conditions peculiarly favorable to tree growth. the winters are mild and short. the ocean winds that pass through the gaps of the coast range are laden with moisture which falls in the form of rain or snow on the west slope of the cascades. the trees are nourished by this moisture through a long season of annual growth, and form an evergreen forest which is, in some respects, the most remarkable in the world. this forest, distinguished by the extraordinary size and beauty of the trees and by the density of the stand, extends into the deep valleys of the rivers which have their sources in the glaciers. on the dividing ridges and in the upper stream basins the composition and character of the forest change with the increasing severity of the climate. the distribution of the different species of trees according to the intervals of altitude at which they occur separate the forests of the mount rainier national park into different types. the lines of separation are to some extent also determined by complex conditions of slope, exposure, and moisture. the successive forest belts are uniform in the composition of their central areas, but blend and overlap where they come together. the low valleys of the main and west forks of white river, of the carbon, the mowich, the nisqually, and the ohanopecosh are covered with a dense and somber forest of fir, hemlock, and cedar. the trees, pushing upward for light, are very tall and free from limbs for more than half their height. their tops form a continuous cover which the sunshine rarely penetrates, and on which the light snows of early winter fall and melt, without reaching the ground. even in midsummer the light is soft and shaded, and the air cool and humid. in the wintertime the young growth is sheltered from wind and the severity of the cold is tempered by the protecting mountain ranges. saved from fire by the uniform dampness of the air the trees grow until they decay and fall from old age. they are succeeded by the suppressed younger trees. the forest remains mature, not uniformly sound and vigorous, yet not decreasing as a whole in size and volume. individuals perish, but the character of the forest is constant. the deep alluvial soil covered with moss and decayed vegetation nourishes a luxuriant tangled undergrowth of vine maple, willow, and devil's-club. the forest floor is covered with a deep layer of decayed vegetation and is encumbered with fallen and mossy logs and upturned stumps. the explorer who leaves the trails must be a strong and active man if he can carry his pack 6 or 8 miles in a long summer day. ascending from the river bottoms to the lower slopes of the dividing ridges the forest becomes more open and the trees are smaller. salal, oregon grape, and huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller undergrowth of the valleys. up to 3,000 feet the douglas fir and the hemlock still are the dominant species. above this altitude new species are found intermingled with the trees typical of the lowland, but forming a distinct forest type. the noble and amabilis fir appear, sometimes growing in pure stands, but more often associated with the douglas fir and western hemlock at the lower limits of the type, and with alpine fir and mountain hemlock at the upper limit. nearly all the trees of this type have deep and wide-spreading roots which serve to hold in place the surface deposit of volcanic pumice which covers the slopes of the mountain. evidence afforded by the after effects of forest fires in other parts of the cascades indicates that the destruction of the forest on the mountain sides is followed by erosion. heavy rains and the melting of the upper snow banks by warm chinook winds combine to produce a surface run-off that denudes the steeper declivities down to the underlying bedrock. at elevations above 4,500 feet the lowland trees have disappeared entirely. subalpine species adapted to withstand the burden of deep snow take their place. mountain hemlock, alpine fir, and engelmann spruce grow singly and in scattered groups or form open groves alternating with grassy parks and rocky ridges. the symmetrical outline of the slender pyramidal crowns and rapidly tapering trunks of the spruce and alpine fir trees that stand singly on the greensward of the open parks bring to mind the closely trimmed cultivated evergreens that adorn city parks and lawns. their lower branches reach the ground and the tops terminate in slender upright spires. as timber line is approached tree growth is confined to dwarfed and flattened mountain hemlocks, alpine firs, and the white-bark pines firmly rooted among the crevices of the rocks. the extreme limit of tree growth on mount rainier is 7,600 feet above sea level. there is no well-defined timber line. scattered clumps of low stunted trees occur up to 7,000 feet. a few very small and flattened mountain hemlocks grow above this elevation. a very large part of the area above 4,500 feet consists of glaciers, talus slopes, barren rocky peaks, and open parks. basins at the heads of canyons in the high mountains are usually treeless, on account of the great depth of snow which accumulates in them during the winter. on the steep, smooth upper inclines the snow banks frequently slip and form slides which acquire momentum as they rush down the mountain side and break and carry away large trees. repeated snowslides in the same place keep the slopes nonforested, and their track is marked by light green strips of brush and herbage. the transition of the forest from its lowland to its extreme alpine type is one of the most interesting features of a visit to the mountain. entering the park at the western boundary close to the nisqually river the road skirts the base of the lightly timbered spurs and passes into a forest of large and old douglas fir and western hemlock. red cedars grow along the streams that cross the road. little yew trees and vine maples mingle with the young conifers that form the undergrowth; the gloom of the forest is occasionally relieved by the white bark of alders and the smooth gray stems of the cottonwoods that grow on the sandy bank of the nisqually. after the road crosses the rainier fork, noble fir and amabilis fir appear, but the douglas fir and western hemlock are still the prevailing species. above longmire springs the noble and amabilis fir, mixed with western hemlock, become the dominant type. the trees are shorter and the branches heavier. mountain ash and yellow cypress grow on the margin of the mountain streams. huckleberry bushes take the place of the taller undergrowth of the valley. above narada falls the forest is more open, and the trees are still smaller. mountain hemlock and alpine fir succeed the trees of the lower slope. little glades and mountain meadows are seen. they become larger and more numerous and the traveler soon enters the open park of paradise valley, in which are but scattered groves of trees. the same successive altitudinal types are met in ascending to moraine and grand parks by way of the carbon valley, and in following the mowich watershed, crater lake, and spray park routes. approaching the park from the east the routes pass through open western yellow pine forests and western larch stands. since mount rainier is west of and apart from the summit line, these species which are peculiar to the eastern slope are not found within the limits of the park. effects of fire. [illustration: fig. 1.--whitened spectral monuments of a former forest which was swept by a severe forest fire in 1885. taken along the road to camp of the clouds at an altitude of 5,500 feet. photograph by a.h. barnes.] notwithstanding the shortness of the summer season at high altitudes, the subalpine forests in some parts of the park have suffered severely from fire (fig. 1). the bare white trunks of fire-killed amabilis and alpine firs bear witness to numerous fires which occurred from time to time before the regulations governing the park went into effect. the little resin pockets in the bark of these trees blaze fiercely for a short time and the heat separates the bark from the trunk. in this way the tree is killed, although the naked trunk is left untouched by fire. the destruction of the alpine forest in this way is often erroneously attributed to disease or to the depredations of insects. there has been little apparent change in the alpine burns within the last 30 years. reforestation at high altitudes is extremely slow. the seed production is rather scanty and the ground conditions are not favorable for its reproduction. it will take more than one century for nature to replace the beautiful groves which have been destroyed by the carelessness of the first visitors to the mountain. at low elevations the forest recovers more rapidly from the effects of fire. between the subalpine areas and the river valleys there are several large ancient burns which are partly reforested. the most extensive of these tracts is the muddy fork burn. it is crossed by the stevens canyon trail from reflection lakes through the ohanopecosh hot springs. this burn includes an area of 20 square miles in the park and extends north nearly to the glaciers and south for several miles beyond the park boundary nearly to the main cowlitz river. the open sunlit spaces and wide outlooks afforded by reforested tracts of this character present a strong contrast to the deep shades and dim vistas of the primitive forest. on the whole they have a cheerful and pleasing appearance, very different from the sad, desolate aspect of the alpine burns which less kindly conditions of climate and exposure have kept from reforestation. the original forest was fire killed many years before the coming of the white man. a few naked and weather beaten stubs are still standing. only the larger of the fallen trunks remain, and these are rotten except for a few seasoned and weatherworn shells. the second growth is of all ages, from seedlings to trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter. vine maple, willow, and mountain ash have sprung up along the streams and the hillsides are covered with huckleberry bushes and a variety of grasses and flowering plants. similar old burns are found on the ridge between huckleberry creek and white river, in the northeastern part of the park, and on the ridge between tahoma creek and kautz creek below henrys hunting ground. the old burns in the middle altitudes of the park occupy regions once frequented by the klickitat indians. every summer parties of hunters and berry pickers from the sagebrush plains crossed the cascades with their horses. they followed the high divides and open summits of the secondary ridges until they came around to the open parks about mount rainier where they turned their horses out to graze and made their summer camp. the woman picked huckleberries and the men hunted deer and goats. they made great fires to dry their berries and kindled smudges to protect their horses from flies. it was also their custom to systematically set out fires as they returned. burning made the country better for the indians. the fires kept down the brush and made it more accessible. deer could be more easily seen and tracked and the huckleberry patches spread more widely over the hills. no considerable part of the lower forests of the park has been burned. the principal danger is from lightning. however, few of the trees struck are ignited and these fires are usually extinguished by the rain. on account of the coolness of the air and its greater humidity the fire danger in the forests on the lower slopes of mount rainier seems much less than it is in corresponding situations in the main range of the cascades. age and dimensions of trees. trees grow more rapidly at low altitudes than at higher and cooler elevations. under similar conditions some species increase in size faster than others, but the rate of growth depends principally upon environment. the average increase at the stump in valley land is about 1 inch in 6 years. a douglas fir growing along the stage road between the park boundary and longmire's, at the age of 90 to 120 years may have a breast diameter of 20 inches and yield 700 feet of saw timber. but many of the trees of this size may be much older on account of having grown in the shade or under other adverse conditions. the trees between 200 and 300 years of age are often 40 to 50 inches in diameter and may yield an average of from 2,700 to 5,500 board feet. the largest douglas firs are sometimes over 400 years old and 60 to 70 inches in diameter. such trees when sound will produce over 8,000 feet of lumber. the western red cedar has a shorter and more tapering trunk and its volume in board feet is proportionally smaller. a tree 50 inches in diameter and 175 feet high contains about 3,400 board feet. the size of the trees decreases rapidly at higher elevations. in the subalpine forest the annual growth is very small. at elevations of 6,000 feet the white-bark pine requires 200 years to attain a diameter of 10 or 12 inches. the annual rings are so close together that they can not be distinguished without a magnifying glass. descriptions of species. douglas fir (pseudotsuga taxifolia). the douglas fir (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) is the best known and the most important timber tree of western north america. it is found from british columbia southward to northern mexico. the finest forests occur in oregon and washington at low elevations. the douglas fir is common in the park up to 3,500 feet, sometimes in nearly pure stands, but more often mixed with other species. it grows in all situations. in the higher mountains it prefers warm southern exposures and is seldom found on wind-swept ridges. it seeds annually, but most profusely at intervals three or four years apart. the red squirrels gather and store large quantities of the cones in order to provide a supply of the seeds for their winter rations. the growth of the young tree is very rapid. as the tree becomes older the rate of growth varies with the situation and the character of the soil so that the size does not closely determine the age of the tree. [illustration: fig. 2.--douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] the douglas fir is a long-lived tree, and specimens are occasionally found 250 to 270 feet high and over 8 feet in diameter and between 400 and 500 years in age. it reaches its greatest height and most perfect proportions in mature even-age stands growing on fairly moist well-drained bench lands. under these conditions it is a very tall and beautiful tree. the trunk is straight, round, and free from branches for two-thirds of its height and tapers gently to the crown. the dark-brown deep-furrowed bark is 5 to 10 inches thick at the base of the tree. the douglas fir ranks first among the trees of the pacific slope in importance for the production of lumber. it is often sold under the name of oregon pine. lumber dealers class the coarse-grained reddish wood produced by the young growth in open forests as "red fir." the older growth produced when the forest is more dense is a finer grained and more valuable wood, sold under the name of "yellow fir." [illustration: fig. 3.--douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] the douglas fir is used for nearly all purposes where durability, strength, and hardness are desirable. it is made into dimension timbers, lumber, flooring, and is particularly adapted for masts and spars. the lumber is shipped by rail to the middle western states. the foreign cargo shipments are made to all parts of the world. the greatest amount goes to australia, the west and east coasts of south america, china, the united kingdom, and europe, japan, and the south sea islands. coastwise shipments are made to california, alaska, and panama. large quantities of the seed of this tree are sent to europe, where the douglas fir is grown for timber and for ornament. western red cedar (thuja plicata.)[1] [illustration: fig. 4.--douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_).] the western red cedar (title page and fig. 5) ranges from south-eastern alaska to northern california. it is a common tree in the park. it occurs in patches along the river bottoms where the flat scalelike foliage is conspicuous among the needle-shaped leaves of the hemlock and fir. the bark is fibrous in appearance and may be readily separated into long strips. the trunks of the older trees are swelled and irregularly fluted at the base. the leaves are fragrant and the wood has a pleasing aromatic odor. nearly all the large trees are hollow at the butt. the roots spread laterally to a great distance, but extend only for a short distance below the surface of the ground. the tree is easily overthrown by the wind and usually grows in sheltered localities. on account of the thinness of the bark it is easily killed by fire. [illustration: fig. 5.--two big douglas firs and a western red cedar (on the left) along the road up the nisqually valley, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. denman.] the red cedar flourishes on fertile and well-watered soils near sea level, where it grows to an enormous size. in the park it is a smaller tree, 150 to 170 feet high and rarely more than 4 or 5 feet through above the swollen butt. it grows occasionally up to an altitude of 4,000 feet, but is a small and insignificant tree in the high mountains. in the sapling stage the red cedar grows rapidly. the mature tree increases very slowly in size. it exceeds all other trees in the cascades in longevity. individuals more than 500 years old are not uncommon and there is a well-authenticated instance where the annual rings indicated a growth of more than 1,100 years. while the red cedar forms no great proportion of the forest of the pacific northwest, it is peculiarly valuable to the pioneer on account of the durability of the wood and the ease with which it can be split into boards, shakes, and planking. the early settlers used cedar split by hand as a substitute for sawn lumber in flooring and finishing their cabins and for the tables and shelves with which they were furnished. the indians hollowed the great trunks with fire and made them into canoes, some of which were large and seaworthy enough to be used on the sound and in making voyages along the coast. they wove the fibrous roots into baskets that carried water and plaited the bark into matting. the wood of the red cedar is reddish brown in color. it is soft, light, and very brittle, but very durable. it is extensively used for shingles, the manufacture of which forms one of the important industries of the state. the clear logs are sawed into lumber used for siding, interior and exterior finish, moldings, tank stock, and similar purposes. common logs are utilized for shingles. in many localities the entire tree is cut into 52-inch bolts, which are hauled to the mills or floated to them down the streams. the western red cedar makes excellent posts and rails for farm fences. the young trees are used for telegraph and telephone poles. western hemlock (tsuga heterophylla). next to the douglas fir the western hemlock is the most abundant tree in the forests of oregon and washington. it occurs from alaska southward to northern california. about mount rainier it is found up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. in the river valleys in moist situations it is a large tree, sometimes reaching a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 5 feet. on the high ridges it is stunted. it grows best on moist deep soils in dense forests, but thrives under almost all conditions of soil and exposure if provided with plenty of moisture. western hemlock (figs. 6 and 7) is usually associated with douglas fir and red cedar, but sometimes forms a forest of nearly pure growth. the hemlock produces abundant seed each year, although it is more prolific at irregular intervals. the seeds germinate readily on decayed moss and rotten wood as well as upon the mineral soil. seedlings frequently grow on fallen logs and extend their vigorous roots around the side until they reach the ground and become firmly anchored in it. young hemlocks thrive in the shade. on logged-off areas which have not been burned over and which are partially shaded by uncut trees, the reproduction of hemlock springs up, to the exclusion of the more valuable douglas fir. [illustration: fig. 6.--the lower slope forest, near longmire springs, altitude 3,000 feet, here composed largely of western hemlock (_tsuga heterophylla_); the tree on the extreme left is a douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_). photograph by a.h. barnes.] the hemlock is long lived and grows slowly. the largest trees are from 200 to 500 years old and are usually hollow-hearted. the bark is thin and the tree very easily killed by ground fire. the wood of the hemlock is tough, light, and straight grained. it is not as durable as the douglas fir and decays rapidly when exposed to the weather. the clear lumber is suitable for interior finish. the wood is also used for flooring, joists, lath, and paper pulp. the common and rough lumber does not find a ready market, except for the limited amount used in temporary construction. the western hemlock is, however, superior to the eastern hemlock, and its value will probably be recognized as its usefulness for many purposes becomes better known. western white pine (pinus monticola). [illustration: fig. 7.--a forest of douglas fir, with an understory of western hemlock, on the lower slopes of the hills, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. denman.] the western white pine (fig. 8) is found from southern alaska to northern california. in the park it occurs occasionally up to 4,000 feet. it usually grows on level benches and gentle slopes associated with douglas fir, western hemlock, and noble and amabilis fir. it reaches its best development at elevations of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet, where it attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 40 inches. the shaft is straight, cylindrical, and clear of limbs. it bears a small, narrow crown of drooping branches. in open areas, where it is exposed to sunlight, its mode of growth is wholly different. the trunk is short, rapidly tapering, and bears wide-spreading branches nearly to the ground. at high elevations the western white pine is very short and stunted. [illustration: fig. 8.--western white pine (_pinus monticola_). diameter 24 inches, height 50 feet.] although the western white pine is not a common tree in the park, it is often noticed on account of its abundance of slender, pendant cones, 6 to 10 inches long. they mature every two years and shed their seed early in september. the seed are provided with long wings and are often carried by the wind for a great distance from the parent tree. the wood is light, soft, free from pitch, and the most valuable of any of the pines of the cascades. it is used for interior finish, pattern making, and other purposes. the supply of this tree is so limited that it is not of great commercial importance in the mount rainier region. amabilis fir (abies amabilis).[2] amabilis fir (figs. 9 and 10) ranges from southern alaska to oregon. it is abundant in the park at elevations from 2,500 to 5,000 feet on level bench lands, and gentle slopes with a northern exposure. it is rarely found in unmixed stands, but is usually associated with western hemlock, douglas fir, and noble fir. the largest trees are 150 to 180 feet high and 3 to 5 feet in diameter. in dense forests the stem is free from branches for 50 to 100 feet. [illustration: fig. 9.--amabilis fir (_abies amabilis_).] at altitudes over 4,000 feet, small amabilis firs often occur in clusters and open groves. the trunk is covered with branches which grow to the ground, turning downward and outward in long graceful curves, admirably adapted to withstand the pressure of the frozen snow. the foliage is a deep and brilliant green, forming a strong contrast to the dark-purple cones. the seeds ripen each year early in october. like the seed of the other alpine species of trees that grow in the cold and humid climate of the high cascades, they soon lose their vitality when stored in dry places. the amabilis fir is grown in europe as an ornamental tree. under cultivation it loses much of the natural grace and beauty which it acquired in adapting itself to the deep snows and long winters of its native environment. [illustration: fig. 10.--the forests of western hemlock, amabilis fir, and other species, on the middle slopes of the mountains, along the crater lake trail, mount rainier national park. photograph by geo. o. ceasar.] the bark is thin and the tree is easily killed by fire. the wood is straw colored, compact, and straight grained. it is not strong and splits easily. it is sold to some extent under the name of larch or mixed with inferior grades of fir and hemlock. the lumber is of little value commercially. noble fir (abies nobilis). the noble fir (figs. 11 and 12) is a common mountain tree in the western parts of washington and oregon. like amabilis fir, it is usually called larch by lumbermen. about mount rainier it grows at elevations of from 3,500 to 5,000 feet in dense stands associated with amabilis fir, western hemlock, and douglas fir. the noble fir avoids steep side hills and exposed situations. in moist soils on flats and gentle slopes it often reaches a height of from 150 to 200 feet. the tall and upright trunk supports a rounded crown of bluish green foliage, which is very noticeable among the purer green leaves of its associates. the branches are short, thick, and crowded with stiff, flattened leaves, which turn upward and outward. the light-green bract-covered cones are sometimes 6 inches long and nearly 3 inches thick. they ripen early in september. seed is borne every year, although in some seasons it is much more abundant than in others. [illustration: fig. 11.--noble fir (_abies nobilis_).] [illustration: fig. 12.--noble fir (_abies nobilis_), 6 feet in diameter.] the wood is strong, close grained, and elastic. it is used for lumber and particularly for inside finishing. the noble fir is a slow-growing and long-lived tree. old trees in mixed forests are easily distinguished from the associated species by the ashy-brown outer bark broken into large irregular plates. alpine fir (abies lasiocarpa).[3] [illustration: fig. 13.--a cluster of alpine firs (_abies lasiocarpa_), whose spire-shaped crowns are characteristic, at 5,500 feet altitude, in cowlitz park, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. barnes.] the alpine fir (fig. 13) ranges from alaska to new mexico. it is a common tree in the park at elevations above 4,500 feet. it is a tree of the high mountains and with the white bark pine and the mountain hemlock, is found up to the limit of arborescent life. it demands moisture and is generally restricted to regions of deep snowfall. the alpine fir occurs in unmixed stands, but is often associated with the mountain hemlock. at the lower levels of its range it is a fair-sized tree 50 or 60 feet high. the crown of deep-green foliage is broad at the base and tapers to the top, where it terminates in a slender, pointed tip. at its upper limit it becomes a stunted shrub, with wide extended branches resting on the ground. the alpine fir bears upright clusters of deep-purple cones. it seeds sparingly each year. the seasons of heavy seed production occur at intervals of three or four years. the wood is soft and splits easily. it is of no commercial value. the tree is easily killed by fire, which blisters the thin bark and frequently springs into the drooping lower branches. grand fir (abies grandis.)[4] the grand fir (fig. 14), like several other species, is generally given the name of white fir on account of its smooth, light-colored bark. it is a common tree in the river bottoms from british columbia south to northern california. in the mount rainier national park it occurs up to 4,000 feet. the grand fir is a moisture-loving tree and is usually found firmly rooted in deep alluvial bottom lands along the banks of streams. with the douglas fir, hemlock, and red cedar it forms the dense forest characteristic of the lower mountain valleys. in favorable conditions the grand fir grows to a height of from 100 to 200 feet and is a noble and stately tree. the trunk tapers rapidly and bears a rounded pyramidal crown. in dense forests the trunk is clear for half its height, but where the trees stand in the open it carries its branches nearly to the ground. the leaves are a bright and shining green. the large light-green cones mature early in the fall. the wood is soft and very heavy before it is seasoned. it rots in a very short time when laid on the ground. when dry it is white, coarse-grained, light, and odorous. it is used for interior finish and for crates and packing boxes, but is of little value commercially. engelmann spruce (picea engelmanni). the engelmann spruce (fig. 15) is a mountain tree ranging from british columbia to arizona and new mexico. it is common along the summit and on the east side of the cascade range and occurs on the northeastern and eastern slopes of mount rainier at elevations of from 3,500 to 6,000 feet. this tree requires a moist soil and prefers cool northern exposures. up to 5,000 feet it commonly grows in sheltered basins at the head of canyons and in stream valleys. at its upper limits it is common on flats and depressions and about lakes on level summits. it avoids steep mountain sides and exposed situations. [illustration: fig. 14.--grand fir (_abies grandis_).] the engelmann spruce is easily distinguished from its associates by its stiff, bluish-green pointed leaves, which prick the hand when they are grasped. in the mountain parks it is a handsome tree 50 to 60 feet high. when it stands apart from other trees the lower branches are thick and long and extend to the ground. the crown is very broad at the base, but narrow and spirelike at the top. the engelmann spruce reaches its best development at low elevations, where it often grows in dense, pure stands. under these conditions it reaches a height of 100 feet. the bole is straight and free from limbs and the top is short and compact. [illustration: fig. 15.--engelmann spruce (_picea engelmanni_).] the young cones are massed in upright green and purple clusters at the tips of the upper branches. they are notable for the purity and brilliance of their coloring. as they mature they become pendant and fade to a light brown. the seed is produced in abundance nearly every year, although small and seedling trees are not usually numerous. the wood is soft, white, compact, and even grained. it is free from pitch and odor. it is valuable for boxing, cooperage, and certain kinds of finish. it is also an excellent material for the tops of violins and other stringed instruments. the engelmann spruce is, however, of little importance as a timber tree on account of its scarcity and the scattered stands in which it grows. it is a long-lived tree unless attacked by fire, to which it is very vulnerable. [illustration: fig. 16.--a group of yellow cypresses (_chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) on the high slopes of mount rainier national park, altitude about 6,000 feet. photograph by a.h. barnes.] yellow cypress (chamaecyparis nootkatensis). yellow cypress (fig. 16) ranges from the seacoast of southern alaska south to the mountains of washington and oregon. it occurs in the park up to the elevation of 7,000 feet. it is common on northern exposures, along streams, and in basins at the head of canyons. it also grows on crests and ridges, where the frequent showers and fogs supply the moisture which it demands. in sheltered localities it grows to a height of 75 or 80 feet, but it is commonly a small tree with, a bent and twisted stem, which, with its pendulous branches, presents a somewhat scrubby appearance. the foliage is green, sometimes with a bluish tinge. it resembles that of the common western red cedar, but the leaves are sharper, more pointed, and rougher to handle. the small, rounded, inconspicuous cones are produced somewhat sparingly. the bark of the young tree is red. on the mature tree it becomes gray and fibrous. the wood is yellow, close grained, and aromatic. unlike that of the western red cedar, the trunk is usually sound to the center. the wood is used for boat building and cabinetwork. it is very durable. the yellow cypress grows very slowly, particularly at high elevations. the number of annual rings on trees 15 to 20 inches in diameter indicate that they are over 200 years old. lodgepole pine (pinus contorta). lodgepole pine (fig. 17) is widely distributed from alaska to lower california and eastward through the rockies to dakota and colorado. it occurs sparingly in the park up to 5,000 feet above sea level. it adapts itself easily to the different conditions of soil, moisture, and exposure. [illustration: fig. 17.--lodgepole pine (_pinus contorta_), 60 inches in diameter.] this tree varies greatly in the different regions where it is found. about mount rainier it does not often exceed 20 to 40 feet in height and is often a much smaller tree. it produces cones at the age of 5 to 7 years. the foliage is a yellowish green. at high elevations the leaves have a peculiar whorled appearance which gives it a different aspect from that of the other pines. the short, heavily limbed trunk bears no resemblance to the tall and slender shaft of the lodgepole pine of the rocky mountains. the root system is shallow and the tree is easily fire killed. the wood of the variety which grows in the park is of no commercial value. [illustration: fig. 18.--the feathery foliage of mountain hemlock (_tsuga mertensiana_), grand park, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. denman.] mountain hemlock (tsuga mertensiana). the mountain hemlock (figs. 18, 19, and 20) is found on the pacific coast from the sierras of california to the northern part of alaska where it grows at sea level. on mount rainier it occurs at altitudes of from 3,500 to 7,500 feet. it forms dense forests under 4,500 feet, where it is often a fair-sized tree 50 to 90 feet high. with the ascent of the mountain it diminishes in height and the branches become gnarled and twisted. near timber line the trunk is dwarfed and bent at the base and the crown becomes a flattened mass of branches lying close to the ground (fig. 20). [illustration: fig. 19.--two solitary mountain hemlocks (_tsuga mertensiana_), spray park, mount rainier national park. photograph by geo. o. ceasar.] the mountain hemlock is abundant on high, rocky ridges, but the best stands are on cool, moist soil at the heads of ravines, on flats, and on gentle slopes with a northern exposure. this tree seeds every year. in good seed years the upper branches are laden with a profusion of beautiful, deep-purple cones, often in such abundance as to bend down the branchlets with their weight. the reproduction is slow. in the high mountains the trees are buried in snow from october to late in june, and the growing season is very short. white-bark pine (pinus albicaulis). [illustration: fig. 20.--a gnarled, wind-swept mountain hemlock (_tsuga mertensiana_), near the upper limits of tree growth, spray park, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. denman.] the white-bark pine (fig. 21) grows close to timber line in the mountains of the pacific coast from british columbia to southern california. in the canadian rockies it extends north to the fifty-third parallel. it is the most alpine of all the pines. its lower limit on mount rainier is about 5,000 feet above sea level. in sheltered places where the soil is deep the trees are sometimes 30 to 40 feet high and 20 inches in diameter. the trunks are free from limbs for 8 or 10 feet. the outer bark, from which the tree derives its name, consists of thin, light-gray scales. as the white-bark pine advances up the mountain its habit changes rapidly. the stem shortens and becomes gnarled and twisted. the tough, flexible branches reach the ground and spread over it to a great distance from the tree. on rocky summits and the bleak crests of wind-swept ridges the twisted trunk and branches are quite prostrate and the crown is a dense flattened mass of foliage. the roots of the tree are deep, long, and tenacious. they spread wide and deep and cling so firmly to the rocks that the tree is rarely overthrown by the violent winds that sweep over the mountain. [illustration: fig. 21.--a white-bark pine (_pinus albicaulis_) in its characteristic mountain habitat, mount rainier national park. photograph by a.h. denman.] the thick, purple cones require two years to mature. they ripen early in september and produce chocolate-brown seeds a little larger than a grain of corn. they are much relished by the klickitat indians, who go to considerable pains to secure them. the wood is close grained and resinous. it makes excellent fuel for the camp fires of sheep herders and mountain travelers. western yew (taxus brevifolia).[5] the western yew is found from southern alaska to northern california. it occurs in the park up to 4,000 feet, growing in rich, gravelly soil on moist flats and benches and in deep ravines. it is a small branching tree, rarely over 20 feet high. the bark is purple or reddish brown. the branches extend almost to the ground. it bears a small, bright, amber-red berry. the dark-brown or red heartwood is very tough, hard and heavy. it takes a fine polish and is used for fancy cabinetwork. the indians use it for spear handles, bows, and fishhooks. [illustration: fig. 22.--broadleaf maple (_acer macrophyllum_).] deciduous trees. the silva of the western cascades is rich in evergreens remarkable for their size and beauty. the deciduous trees are few and insignificant. the forests of the park are almost wholly coniferous. vine maple and willow are found as undergrowth. on the margins of rivers there are occasional groves of alders and cottonwoods. the lighter hues of the branching trunks and the changing tints of the foliage in these patches of broad-leaved woodland present a pleasing diversity to the evergreen forest. broadleaf maple (_acer macrophyllum_) (fig. 22), the largest of the pacific coast maples, ranges from alaska to southern california. near sea level it often attains a height of 50 or 60 feet. in the park it is a short-stemmed, branching tree, occasionally found on the borders of streams. it grows at elevations under 3,000 feet. [illustration: fig. 23.--vine maple (_acer circinatum_).] vine maple (_acer circinatum_) (fig. 23) is abundant from british columbia to northern california. on rich river bottoms it is sometimes 15 to 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter. in the park it is usually a bush or low shrub with a bent and curiously crooked stem, growing along streams and as undergrowth in the forest. it is very common up to 3,000 feet. in autumn the leaves are a bright scarlet. the wood is tough and elastic and makes a hot and lasting fire. [illustration: fig. 24.--red alder (_alnus oregona_).] [illustration: fig. 25.--black cottonwood (_populus trichocarpa_).] red alder (_alnus oregona_) (fig. 24) occurs from alaska to southern california. it is common about mount rainier, in river bottoms, on the banks of large streams, and in swampy places. it usually grows to a height of 30 or 40 feet. the bark varies from nearly white to light gray. it is the most abundant of all the deciduous trees in the park. black cottonwood (_populus trichocarpa_) (fig. 25) is common from alaska to southern california. it is occasionally found in the park up to 4,000 feet. it grows along streams and on sandy river bottoms often associated with the alder. the leaves are almost always in motion, very gentle winds being sufficient to make them twinkle and turn. the wood is soft, but tough and compact. it is used for staves, woodenware, wood pulp, trunks, barrels, and for drawer bottoms. footnotes [1] this species is known as arbor vit㦠in glacier park. [2] this species is known as silver fir in crater lake park. [3] this species is known as balsam in glacier and yellowstone parks. [4] this species is known as silver fir in yellowstone and glacier parks. [5] this species is known as oregon yew in crater lake national park and as yew in yellowstone and glacier parks. index to species described. [roman numerals indicate pages containing descriptions; italic numerals indicate pages containing illustrations.] _abies amabilis_ 15-16, _15_, _16_ _grandis_ 20, _21_ _lasiocarpa_ 19-20, _19_ _nobilis_ 17-19, _17_, _18_ _acer circinatum_ 30, _30_ _macrophyllum_ 29, _29_ alder, red (_alnus oregona_) 30, _31_ _alnus oregona_ 30, _31_ alpine fir (_abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_ amabilis fir (_abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_ arbor vitã¦. _see_ western red cedar. balsam. _see_ alpine fir. black cottonwood (_populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_ broadleaf maple (_acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_ cedar, western red (_thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ _chamaecyparis nootkatensis_ 23-24, _23_ cottonwood, black (_populus trichocarpa_) 30-32, _31_ cypress, yellow (_chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_ douglas fir (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_ engelmann spruce (_picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_ fir, alpine (_abies lasiocarpa_) 19-20, _19_ amabilis (_abies amabilis_) 15-16, _15_, _16_ douglas (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_) 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_ grand (_abies grandis_) 20, _21_ noble (_abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_ silver. _see_ fir, amabilis; fir, grand. grand fir (_abies grandis_) 20, _21_ hemlock, mountain (_tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ western (_tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ larch. _see_ noble fir; amabilis fir. lodgepole pine (_pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_ maple, broadleaf (_acer macrophyllum_) 29, _29_ vine (_acer circinatum_) 30, _30_ mountain hemlock (_tsuga mertensiana_) 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ noble fir (_abies nobilis_) 17-19, _17_, _18_ oregon yew. _see_ western yew. _picea engelmanni_ 20-23, _22_ pine, lodgepole (_pinus contorta_) 24-25, _24_ western white (_pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ white-bark (_pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_ _pinus albicaulis_ 27-28, _28_ _contorta_ 24-25, _24_ _monticola_ 13-15, _14_ _populus trichocarpa_ 30-32, _31_ _pseudotsuga taxifolia_ 6-8, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, _12_, _13_ red alder (_alnus oregona_) 30, _31_ cedar, western (_thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ silver fir. _see_ amabilis fir; grand fir. spruce, engelmann (_picea engelmanni_) 20-23, _22_ _taxus brevifolia_ 28-29 _thuja plicata_ 9-11, _10_ _tsuga heterophylla_ 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ _mertensiana_ 25-27, _25_, _26_, _27_ vine maple (_acer circinatum_) 30, _30_ western hemlock (_tsuga heterophylla_) 11-13, _12_, _13_, _16_ red cedar (_thuja plicata_) 9-11, _10_ white pine (_pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ yew (_taxus brevifolia_) 28-29 white-bark pine (_pinus albicaulis_) 27-28, _28_ white pine, western (_pinus monticola_) 13-15, _14_ yellow cypress (_chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) 23-24, _23_ yew, oregon. _see_ yew, western. western (_taxus brevifolia_) 28-29 file was produced from images produced by core historical literature in agriculture (chla), cornell university) the training of a forester [illustration: a forest ranger looking for fire from a national forest lookout station _page 32_] the training of a forester by gifford pinchot with eight illustrations [illustration] philadelphia & london j. b. lippincott company 1914 copyright, 1914, by j. b. lippincott company published february, 1914 printed by j. b. lippincott company at the washington square press philadelphia, u. s. a. to overton w. price friend and fellow worker to whom is due, more than to any other man, the high efficiency of the united states forest service preface at one time or another, the largest question before every young man is, "what shall i do with my life?" among the possible openings, which best suits his ambition, his tastes, and his capacities? along what line shall he undertake to make a successful career? the search for a life work and the choice of one is surely as important business as can occupy a boy verging into manhood. it is to help in the decision of those who are considering forestry as a profession that this little book has been written. to the young man who is attracted to forestry and begins to consider it as a possible profession, certain questions present themselves. what is forestry? if he takes it up, what will his work be, and where? does it in fact offer the satisfying type of outdoor life which it appears to offer? what chance does it present for a successful career, for a career of genuine usefulness, and what is the chance to make a living? is he fitted for it in character, mind, and body? if so, what training does he need? these questions deserve an answer. to the men whom it really suits, forestry offers a career more attractive, it may be said in all fairness, than any other career whatsoever. i doubt if any other profession can show a membership so uniformly and enthusiastically in love with the work. the men who have taken it up, practised it, and left it for other work are few. but to the man not fully adapted for it, forestry must be punishment, pure and simple. those who have begun the study of forestry, and then have learned that it was not for them, have doubtless been more in number than those who have followed it through. i urge no man to make forestry his profession, but rather to keep away from it if he can. in forestry a man is either altogether at home or very much out of place. unless he has a compelling love for the forester's life and the forester's work, let him keep out of it. g. p. contents page what is a forest? 13 the forester's knowledge 18 the forest and the nation 19 the forester's point of view 23 the establishment of forestry 27 the work of a forester 30 the forest service 30 the forest supervisor 46 the trained forester 50 personal equipment 63 state forest work 84 the forest service in washington 89 private forestry 106 forest schools 114 the opportunity 116 training 123 illustrations page a forest ranger looking for fire from a national forest lookout station _frontispiece_ stringing a forest telephone line 32 forest rangers scaling timber 43 western yellow pine seed collected by the forest service for planting up denuded lands 47 a forest examiner running a compass line 59 brush piling in a national forest timber sale 95 forest rangers getting instruction in methods of work from a district forest officer 105 forest service men making fresh measurements in the missouri swamps 136 the training of a forester what is a forest? first, what is forestry? forestry is the knowledge of the forest. in particular, it is the art of handling the forest so that it will render whatever service is required of it without being impoverished or destroyed. for example, a forest may be handled so as to produce saw logs, telegraph poles, barrel hoops, firewood, tan bark, or turpentine. the main purpose of its treatment may be to prevent the washing of soil, to regulate the flow of streams, to support cattle or sheep, or it may be handled so as to supply a wide range and combination of uses. forestry is the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man. before we can understand forestry, certain facts about the forest itself must be kept in mind. a forest is not a mere collection of individual trees, just as a city is not a mere collection of unrelated men and women, or a nation like ours merely a certain number of independent racial groups. a forest, like a city, is a complex community with a life of its own. it has a soil and an atmosphere of its own, chemically and physically different from any other, with plants and shrubs as well as trees which are peculiar to it. it has a resident population of insects and higher animals entirely distinct from that outside. most important of all, from the forester's point of view, the members of the forest live in an exact and intricate system of competition and mutual assistance, of help or harm, which extends to all the inhabitants of this complicated city of trees. the trees in a forest are all helped by mutually protecting each other against high winds, and by producing a richer and moister soil than would be possible if the trees stood singly and apart. they compete among themselves by their roots for moisture in the soil, and for light and space by the growth of their crowns in height and breadth. perhaps the strongest weapon which trees have against each other is growth in height. in certain species intolerant of shade, the tree which is overtopped has lost the race for good. the number of young trees which destroy each other in this fierce struggle for existence is prodigious, so that often a few score per acre are all that survive to middle or old age out of many tens of thousands of seedlings which entered the race of life on approximately even terms. not only has a forest a character of its own, which arises from the fact that it is a community of trees, but each species of tree has peculiar characteristics and habits also. just as in new york city, for example, the french, the germans, the italians, the hungarians, and the chinese each have quarters of their own, and in those quarters live in accordance with habits which distinguish each race from all the others, so the different species of pines and hemlocks, oaks and maples prefer and are found in certain definite types of locality, and live in accordance with definite racial habits which are as general and unfailing as the racial characteristics which distinguish, for example, the italians from the germans, or the swedes from the chinese. the most important of these characteristics of race or species are those which are concerned with the relation of each to light, heat, and moisture. thus, a river birch will die if it has only as much water as will suffice to keep a post oak in the best condition, and the warm climate in which the balsam fir would perish is just suited to the requirements of a long leaf pine or a magnolia. the tolerance of a tree for shade may vary greatly at different times of its life, but a white pine always requires more light than a hemlock, and a beech throughout its life will flourish with less sunshine or reflected light than, for example, an oak or a tulip tree. trees are limited in their distribution also by their adaptability, in which they vary greatly. thus a bald cypress will grow both in wetter and in dryer land than an oak; a red cedar will flourish from florida to the canadian line, while other species, like the eastern larch, the western mountain hemlock, or the big trees of california, are confined in their native localities within extremely narrow limits. the forester's knowledge the trained forester must know the forest as a doctor knows the human machine. first of all, he must be able to distinguish the different trees of which the forest is composed, for that is like learning to read. he must know the way they are made and the way they grow; but far more important than all else, he must base his knowledge upon that part of forestry which is called silvics, the knowledge of the relation of trees to light, heat, and moisture, to the soil, and to each other. the well-trained forester must also know the forest shrubs and at least the more important smaller forest plants, something of the insect and animal life of his domain, and the birds and fish. he must have a good working knowledge of rocks, soils, and streams, and of the methods of making roads, trails, and bridges. he should be an expert in woodcraft, able to travel the forest safely and surely by day or by night. it is essential that he should have a knowledge of the theory and the practice of lumbering, and he should know something about lumber markets and the value of lumber, about surveying and map making, and many other matters which are considered more at length in the chapter on training. there are as yet in america comparatively few men who have acquired even fairly well the more important knowledge which should be included in the training of a forester. the forest and the nation the position of the forest in the housekeeping of any nation is unlike that of any other great natural resource, for the forest not only furnishes wood, without which civilization as we know it would be impossible, but serves also to protect or make valuable many of the other things without which we could not get on. thus the forest cover protects the soil from the effects of wind, and holds it in place. for lack of it hundreds of thousands of square miles have been converted by the winds from moderately fertile, productive land to arid drifting sands. narrow strips of forest planted as windbreaks make agriculture possible in certain regions by preventing destruction of crops by moisture-stealing dry winds which so afflict the central portions of our country. without the forests the great bulk of our mining for coal, metals, and the precious minerals would be either impossible or vastly more expensive than it is at present, because the galleries of mines are propped with wood, and so protected against caving in. so far, no satisfactory substitute for the wooden railroad tie has been devised; and our whole system of land transportation is directly dependent for its existence upon the forest, which supplies more than one hundred and twenty million new railroad ties every year in the united states alone. the forest regulates and protects the flow of streams. its effect is to reduce the height of floods and to moderate extremes of low water. the official measurements of the united states geological survey have finally settled this long-disputed question. by protecting mountain slopes against excessive soil wash, it protects also the lowlands upon which this wash would otherwise be deposited and the rivers whose channels it would clog. it is well within the truth to say that the utility of any system of rivers for transportation, for irrigation, for waterpower, and for domestic supply depends in great part upon the protection which forests offer to the headwaters of the streams, and that without such protection none of these uses can be expected long to endure. of the two basic materials of our civilization, iron and wood, the forest supplies one. the dominant place of the forest in our national economy is well illustrated by the fact that no article whatsoever, whether of use or ornament, whether it be for food, shelter, clothing, convenience, protection, or decoration, can be produced and delivered to the user, as industry is now organized, without the help of the forest in supplying wood. an examination of the history of any article, including the production of the raw material, and its manufacture, transportation, and distribution, will at once make this point clear. the forest is a national necessity. without the material, the protection, and the assistance it supplies, no nation can long succeed. many regions of the old world, such as palestine, greece, northern africa, and central india, offer in themselves the most impressive object lessons of the effect upon national prosperity and national character of the neglect of the forest and its consequent destruction. the forester's point of view the central idea of the forester, in handling the forest, is to promote and perpetuate its greatest use to men. his purpose is to make it serve the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. before the members of any other profession dealing with natural resources, the foresters acquired the long look ahead. this was only natural, because in forestry it is seldom that a man lives to harvest the crop which he helped to sow. the forester must look forward, because the natural resource with which he deals matures so slowly, and because, if steps are to be taken to insure for succeeding generations a supply of the things the forest yields, they must be taken long in advance. the idea of using the forest first for the greatest good of the present generation, and then for the greatest good of succeeding generations through the long future of the nation and the race--that is the forester's point of view. the use of foresight to insure the existence of the forest in the future, and, so far as practicable, the continued or increasing abundance of its service to men, naturally suggested the use of foresight in the same way as to other natural resources as well. thus it was the forester's point of view, applied not only to the forest but to the lands, the minerals, and the streams, which produced the conservation policy. the idea of applying foresight and common-sense to the other natural resources as well as to the forest was natural and inevitable. it works out, equally as a matter of course, into the conception of a planned and orderly development of all that the earth contains for the uses of men. this leads in turn to the application of the same principle to other questions and resources. it was foreseen from the beginning by those who were responsible for inaugurating the conservation movement that its natural development would in time work out into a planned and orderly scheme for national efficiency, based on the elimination of waste, and directed toward the best use of all we have for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. it is easy to see that this principle (the forester's principle, first brought to public attention by foresters) is the key to national success. forestry, then, is seen to be peculiarly essential to the national prosperity, both now and hereafter. national degradation and decay have uniformly followed the excessive destruction of forests by other nations, and will inevitably become our portion if we continue to destroy our forests three times faster than they are produced, as we are doing now. the principles of forestry, therefore, must occupy a commanding place in determining the future prosperity or failure of our nation, and this commanding position in the field of ideas is naturally and properly reflected in the dignity and high standing which the profession of forestry, young as it is, has already acquired in the united states. this position it must be the first care of every member of the profession to maintain and increase. in the long run, no profession rises higher than the degree of public consideration which marks its members. the profession of forestry is in many ways a peculiarly responsible profession, but in nothing more so than in its vital connection with the whole future welfare of our country and in the obligation which lies upon its members to see that its reputation and standing, which are the measures of its capacity for usefulness, are kept strong and clear. the establishment of forestry in the united states, forestry is passing out of the pioneer phase of agitation and the education of public opinion, and into the permanent phase of the practice of the profession. the first steps in forestry in this country, as in any other where the development and destruction of natural resources has been rapid, were necessarily directed mainly to informing the public mind upon the importance of forestry, and to building up national and state laws and organizations for the protection of timberlands set aside for the public benefit. the right to be heard with respect by the men who were already in control of the larger part of our total forest wealth had to be won, and has been won. what is more, in the teeth of the bitterest opposition of private special interests, the right of the public to first consideration in the protection and development of the forest and of all the resources it contains had to be asserted and established. that has now been done. in the united states these steps in the movement for the wise use of the forest have been taken mainly in the last dozen or fifteen years, during which the federal forest organization has grown from an insignificant division of less than a dozen men to the present united states forest service, of more than three thousand members. during this period, also, forestry, both as a profession and as a public necessity, has won enduring public recognition, and at the same time more public timberland has been set aside for the public use and to remain in the public hands than during all the rest of our history put together. to-day the national forests are reasonably safe in the protection of public opinion, not against all attack, it is true, but against any successful attempt to dismember and turn them over to the special interests who already control the bulk and the best of our forests. the public has accepted forestry as necessary to the public welfare, both in the present and in the future; state forest organizations are springing up; forestry has won the right to be heard in the business offices as well as in the conventions of the private owners of forest land; and the time for the practice of the profession has fully come. the work of a forester what does a forester do? i will try to answer this question, first, with reference to the united states forest service, and later as to the numerous other fields of activity which are opening or have already opened to the trained forester in the united states. the forest service the united states forest service is responsible both for the general progress of forestry, so far as the united states government is concerned, and for the protection and use of the national forests. these national forests now cover an area of one hundred and eighty-seven million acres, or as much land as is included in all the new england states, with new york, pennsylvania, new jersey, delaware, maryland, virginia and west virginia. the head of the service, whose official title is "forester," is charged with the great task of protecting this vast area against fire, theft, and other depredations, and of making all its resources, the wood, water, and grass, the minerals, and the soil, available and useful to the people of the united states under regulations which will secure development and prevent destruction or waste. the united states forest service consists, first, of a protective force of forest guards and forest rangers, who spend practically the whole of their time in the forest; second, of an executive staff of forest supervisors and their assistants, who have immediate charge of the handling of the national forests; and third, of an administrative staff divided between headquarters in washington and the six local administrative offices in the west, where the national forests mainly lie. the work of a forest ranger is, first of all, to protect the district committed to his charge against fire. that comes before all else. for that purpose, the ranger patrols his district during the seasons when fires are dangerous, or watches for signs of fire from certain high points, called fire-lookouts, or both. he keeps the trails and fire lines clear and the telephone in working order, and sees to it that the fire fighting tools, such as spades, axes, and rakes, are in good condition and ready for service. if he is wise, he establishes such relations with the people who live in his neighborhood that they become his volunteer assistants in watching for forest fires, in taking precautions against them, and in notifying him of them when they do take place. [illustration: stringing a forest telephone line] fighting a forest fire in some respects is like fighting a fire in a city. in both, the first and most necessary thing is to get men and apparatus to the site of the fire at the first practicable moment. for this purpose, fire-engines and men are always ready in the city, while in the forest the telephones, trails, and bridges must be kept in condition, and the forest officers must be ready to move instantly day or night. it is far better to prevent a forest fire from starting than to have to put it out after it has started; but in spite of all the care that can be exercised with the means at hand, many fires start. each year the forest service men extinguish not less than three thousand fires, nearly all of them while they are still small. at times, however, when the woods are very dry and the wind blows hard, in spite of all that can be done, a fire will grow large enough to be dangerous not only to the forest but to human life. thus in the summer of 1910, the driest ever known in certain parts of the west, high winds drove the forest fires clear beyond the control of the fire fighters, many of whom were compelled to fight for their own lives. the worst of these fires were in montana and idaho, where the whole power of the forest service was used against them. the forest rangers, under the orders of their supervisors, immediately organized or took charge of small companies of fire fighters, and began the work of getting them under control. but so fierce was the wind and so terrible the heat of the fires and the speed with which they moved, that in many places it became a question of saving the lives of the fire fighters rather than of putting out the fires. as a matter of fact, nearly a hundred of the men temporarily employed to help the government fire fighters lost their lives, and many more would have died but for the courage, resource, and knowledge of the woods of the forest rangers. take, for example, the case of ranger edward c. pulaski, of the coeur d'alene national forest, stationed at wallace, idaho. pulaski had charge of forty italians and poles. he had been at work with them for many hours, when the flames grew to be so threatening that it became a question of whether he could save his men. the fire was travelling faster than the men could make their way through the dense forest, and the only hope was to find some place into which the fire could not come. accordingly pulaski guided his party at a run through the blinding smoke to an abandoned mine he knew of in the neighborhood. when they reached it, he sent the men into the workings ahead of him, hung a wet blanket across the mouth of the tunnel, and himself stood there on guard. the fierce heat, the stifling air, and their deadly fear drove some of the foreigners temporarily insane, and a number of them tried to break out. with drawn revolver pulaski held them back. one man did get by him and was burned to death. many fainted in the tunnel. the ranger himself, more exposed than any of his men, was terribly burned. he stood at his post, however, for five hours, until the fire had passed, and brought his party through without losing a single man except that one who got out of the tunnel, although his own injuries were so severe that he was in the hospital for two months as a result of them. the record of the forest service in these terrible fires is one of which every forester may well be proud. the ranger must protect his district, not only against fire but against the theft of timber and the incessant efforts of land grabbers to steal government lands. to prevent the theft of timber is usually not difficult, but it is far harder to prevent fake homesteaders, fraudulent mining men, and other dishonest claimants from seizing upon land to which they have no right, and so preventing honest men from using these claims to make a living. in the past, this problem has presented the most serious difficulties, and still occasionally does so. there is no louder shouter for "justice" than a balked habitual land thief with political influence behind him. to illustrate the kind of attack upon the forest service to which fraudulent land claims have constantly given rise, i may cite the statements made during one of the annual attempts in the senate to break down the service. one of the senators asserted that in his state the forest service was overbearing and tyrannical, and that in a particular case it had driven out of his home a citizen known to the senator, and had left him and his family to wander houseless upon the hillside, and that for no good reason whatsoever. this statement, if it had been true, would at once have destroyed the standing of the service in the minds of many of its friends, and would have led to immediate defeat in the fight then going on. fortunately, the records of the service were so complete, and the knowledge of field conditions on the part of the men in washington was so thorough, that the mere mention of the general locality of the supposed outrage by the senator made it easy to identify the individual case. the man in question, instead of being an honest settler with a wife and family, was the keeper of a disreputable saloon and dance hall, a well-known law-breaker whom the local authorities had tried time and again to dispossess and drive away. but by means of his fraudulent claim the man had always defeated the local officers. when, however, the officers of the forest service took the case in hand, the situation changed and things moved quickly. the disreputable saloon was promptly removed from the fraudulent land claim by means of which the keeper of it had held on, and this thoroughly undesirable citizen either went out of business or removed his abominable trade to some locality outside the national forest. the actual facts were fully brought out in the debate next day, remained uncontradicted, and saved the fight for the forest service. the whole incident may be found at length in the congressional record. the forest ranger is charged with overseeing and regulating the free use of timber by settlers and others who live in or near the national forests. last year (1912) the forest service gave away without charge more than $196,000 worth of saw timber, house logs, fencing, fuel, and other material to men and women who needed it for their own use. usually it is the ranger's work to issue the permits for this free use, and to designate the timber that may be cut. for this purpose, he must be well acquainted with the kinds and the uses of the trees in his district, and it is most important that he should know something of how their reproduction can best be secured, in order that the free use may be permitted without injury to the future welfare of the forest. a ranger oversees the use of his district for the grazing of cattle, sheep, and other domestic animals. he must acquaint himself with the brands and marks of the various owners, and should be well posted in the essentials of the business of raising cattle, sheep, and horses. the allotment of grazing areas is one of the most difficult problems to adjust, because the demand is almost always for much more range than is available and the division of what range there is among the local owners of stock often presents serious difficulties, in which the ranger's local knowledge and advice is constantly sought by his superior officer. there is a wise law, passed at the request of the forest service, under which land in the national forests which is shown to be agricultural may be entered under the homestead law, and used for the making of homes. this law is peculiarly hard to carry out because the ceaseless efforts of land grabbers to misuse it demand great vigilance on the part of the forest officers. in many cases it is the ranger who makes the report upon which the decision as to the agricultural or non-agricultural character of the land is based, although in other cases the examinations to determine whether the land is really agricultural in character are made by examiners especially trained for this duty. serious controversies into which politics enter are often caused by the efforts of speculators and others, under pretext of this law, to get possession of lands chiefly valuable for their timber. the building and maintenance of trails, telephone lines, roads, bridges, and fences in his district is under the charge of the ranger, and in many cases rangers and forest guards are appointed by the state as wardens to see to it that the game and fish laws are properly enforced. next to the protection of his district from fire, the most important duty of the ranger has to do with the sale of timber and the marking of the individual trees which are to be cut. the reproduction of the forest depends directly on what trees are kept for seed, or on how the existing young growth is protected and preserved in felling and swamping the trees which have been marked for cutting, and in skidding the logs. the disposal of the slash must be looked after, for it has much to do with forest reproduction, and with promoting safety from fire. then, the scaling of the logs determines the amount of the payment the government receives for its timber, and there are often regulations governing the transportation of the scaled logs whose enforcement is of great consequence to the future forest. [illustration: forest rangers scaling timber] nearly all of these duties the ranger may perform in certain cases without supervision, if his judgment and training are sufficient, but the marking especially is often done under the eye or in accordance with the directions of the technical forester, whose duty it is to see that the future of the forest is protected by enforcing the conditions of sale. these are but a part of the duties of the ranger, for he is concerned with all the uses which his district may serve. the streams, for example, may be important for city water supply, irrigation, or for waterpower, and their use for these purposes must be under his eye. hotels and saw-mills on sites leased from the government may dot his district here and there. the land within national forests may be put to a thousand other uses, from a bee ranch on the cleveland forest in southern california to a whaling station on the tongass forest in alaska, all of which means work for him. the result of all this is that the ranger comes in contact with city dwellers, irrigators, cattlemen, sheepmen, and horsemen, ranchers, storekeepers, hotel men, hunters, miners, and lumbermen, and above all with the settlers who live in or near his district. with all these it is his duty to keep on good terms, for well he knows that one man at certain times can set more fires than a regiment can extinguish, and that the best protection for his district comes from the friendly interest of the men who live in it or near it. a forest guard is in effect an assistant to the ranger, and may be called upon to carry out most of the duties which fall upon a ranger. the foregoing short statement will make it clear that preliminary experience as a ranger may be of the utmost value to the man who proposes later on to perform in the government service the duties of a trained forester. it is becoming more and more common, and fortunately so, for graduates of forest schools to begin their work in the united states forest service as rangers or forest guards. the man who has done well a ranger's work, like the graduate of an engineering school who, after graduation, has entered a machine shop as a hand, has acquired a body of practical information and experience which will be invaluable to him in the later practice of his profession, and which is far beyond the reach of any man who has not been trained in the actual execution of this work on the ground and in actual daily contact with the multifarious uses and users of the forest. the forest supervisor [illustration: western yellow pine seed collected by the forest service for planting up denuded lands] the supervisor is the general manager of a national forest. the responsibility for the protection, care, and use of it falls upon him, under the direction of the district forester. the supervisor is responsible for making the use of his forest as valuable and as convenient as possible for the people in and around the area of which he has charge. he deals with the organizations of forest users, such as local stock associations, and issues permits for grazing live stock in the forest. permits for cutting small amounts of timber are granted by him, and he advertises in the papers the sale of larger amounts and receives bids from prospective purchasers; keeps the accounts of his forest; and makes regular reports on a variety of important subjects, such as the personnel of his forest force, the permanent improvements made or to be made, the permits issued for regular and special uses of the forest and for free use of timber and forage, the number and kinds of predatory animals killed, the amount of forest planting accomplished, and the expense and losses from forest fires. he has general oversight of the roads, trails, and other improvements on his forest; and prepares plans for the extension of them. in particular, he directs, controls, and inspects the work of the ranger and guards, and in general, he attends to the thousand and one matters which go to adjusting the use of the forest to the needs of the men who use it, and on which depends whether the forest is well or badly thought of among the people whose coã¶peration or opposition have so much to do with making its management successful or otherwise. the supervisor spends about half his time in the office and half in the field, inspecting the work of his men and consulting with them, meeting local residents or associations of local residents who have propositions to submit for improving the service of the forest to them, or for correcting mistakes, or who wish to lay before the supervisor some one of the numberless matters in which the forest affects their welfare. the usefulness of the supervisor depends as much upon his good judgment, his ability to meet men and do business with them, and his knowledge of local needs and local affairs, as it does upon his knowledge of the forest itself. as in the case of every superior officer, his attitude toward his work, his energy, his good sense, and his good will are or should be reflected in the men under him, so that his position is one of the greatest importance in determining the success or failure of each national forest, and hence of the forest service as a whole. more and more of the trained foresters in the service are seeking and securing appointments as forest supervisors because of the interest and satisfaction they find in the work. such men handle both the professional and business sides of forest management. many of their duties, therefore, are described in the succeeding chapter. the position of supervisor is in many respects the most desirable a trained forester can occupy in the forest service, and the most responsible of the field positions. the trained forester to each forest where timber cutting has become important there are assigned one or more forest assistants or forest examiners. these are professionally trained foresters. they are subordinate upon each forest to the supervisor as manager, but it is their work which has most to do with deciding whether the forest service in general is to be successful or is to fail in the great task of preserving the forest by wise use. the forest assistant secures his position with the service by passing an examination devised to test his technical knowledge and his ability. after he has served two years as forest assistant the quality and quantity of his work will have determined his fitness to continue in the employ of the government. if he is unfit he may be dropped, for there are many young and ambitious men ready to step into his place. if he makes good he is promoted to the grade of forest examiner and is put definitely in charge of certain lines of professional work; always, of course, under the direction of the supervisor, of whom he becomes the adviser on all problems involving technical forestry. the most important tasks of the trained forester on a national forest are the preparation of working plans for the use of the forest by methods which will protect and perpetuate it as well, and the carrying out of the plans when made. this is forestry in the technical sense of the word. it involves a thorough study of the kinds of timber, their amount and location, their rate of growth, their value, the ease or difficulty of their reproduction, and the methods by which the timber can be cut at a profit and at the same time the reproduction of the forest can be safely secured. a working plan usually includes a considerable number of maps, which often have to be drawn in the first place from actual surveys on the ground by the forest examiner. these maps contain the information secured by working-plan studies, and are of the first necessity for the wise and skilful handling of the forest. they often constitute, also, most important documents in the history of its condition and use. on many of the national forests the need for immediate use of the timber is so urgent and so just that there is no time to prepare elaborate working plans. timber sales must be made, and made at once; but they must be made, nevertheless, in a way that will fully protect the future welfare of the forest. whether working plans can be prepared or not, a most important duty of the technical forester is to work out the conditions under which a given body of timber can be cut with safety to the forest, especially with safety to its reproduction and future growth. the principal study for a timber sale will usually include an examination of the general features and condition of the forest, and the determination of the diameter down to which it is advisable to cut the standing trees, a diameter which must be fixed at such a size as will protect the forest and make the lumbering pay. it will include also an investigation, more or less thorough and complete, as the conditions warrant, of the silvical habits of one or more of the species of trees in that forest. the areas which form natural units for the logging and transportation of the timber must be worked out and laid off, and careful estimates, or measurements, of the amount of standing timber and of its value on the stump must be made, as well as of the cost of moving it to the mill or to the railroad. the forest examiner must also consider, in many cases, the building of logging roads or railroads, timber slides, etc., and must make a careful study of the material into which the trees to be cut can best be worked up, and of the value of such material in the market. most of all, however, he must study, think over, and decide what he will recommend as to the conditions which are to govern the logging conditions by which the protection of the forest is to be insured. these conditions, fixed by his superiors upon the report of the forest examiner, determine whether an individual timber sale is forestry or forest destruction. this is the central question in the administration of the national forests from the national point of view. the principal objects of the conditions laid down for a timber sale are always the reproduction of the forest and its safety against fire. natural reproduction from self-sown seed is almost invariably the result desired; and so the question of the seed trees to be left, and how they are to be located or spaced, is fundamental, unless there is ample young growth already on the ground. in the latter case this young growth must not be smashed or bent by throwing the older trees on top of it, or against it, and the young saplings bent down by the felled tops must be promptly released. in order to avoid danger to the young growth already present or to be secured, as well as to protect the older trees from fires, the slash produced in lumbering, the tops lopped from the trees up to and beyond the highest point to which the lumbermen are required to take the logs, must be satisfactorily disposed of--either by scattering it thinly over the ground, by piling and burning, or often by piling alone. these and many other conditions of sale must be studied out in a form adapted to each particular case, and must be discussed with the men who propose to buy, who often have wise and practical suggestions to make. similar questions on a less important scale present themselves and must be answered in the matter of small timber sales, and of timber given without charge under free-use permits to settlers and others. when the terms of a contract of sale have been worked out and accepted and the timber has been sold, then the forest assistant has charge of the extremely interesting task of marking the trees that are to be cut, in accordance with these terms. usually this is done by marking all the trees which are to be felled, but sometimes by marking only the trees which are to remain. the marking is usually done by blazing each tree and stamping the letters "u. s." upon the blaze with a government marking axe or hatchet. it must be done in such a way that the loggers will have no excuse either for cutting an unmarked tree or leaving a marked tree uncut, or _vice versa_, as the case may be. the marking may be carried out by the rangers and forest guards under supervision of the forest assistant, or in difficult situations he may mark or direct the marking of each tree himself. marking is fascinating work. later, while the logging is under way, the forest examiner will often inspect it to see that the terms of the sale are complied with, that the trees cut are thrown in places where they will not unduly damage either young growth or the larger trees which are to remain, and that the other conditions laid down for the logging in the contract of sale are observed. the scaling of the logs to determine the amount of payment to the government will many times be under his supervision, although in the larger sales this work, as well as the routine inspection of the logging, is usually carried out by a special body of expert lumbermen, who often bring to it a much wider knowledge of the woods than the men in actual charge of the lumbering. in nearly every national forest there are areas upon which the trees have been destroyed by fire. many of these are so large or so remote from seed-bearing trees that natural reproduction will not suffice to replace the forest. in such localities planting is needed, and for that purpose the forest examiner must establish and conduct a forest nursery. the decision on the kind of trees to plant and on the methods of raising and planting them, the collection of the seed, the care and transplanting of the young trees until they are set out on the site of the future forest, forms a task of absorbing interest. such work often requires a high degree of technical skill. it is likely to occupy a larger and larger share of the time and attention of the trained men of the forest service. [illustration: a forest examiner running a compass line] the forest assistant's or examiner's knowledge of surveying makes it natural for him to take an important part in the laying out of new roads and trails in the forest, or in correcting the lines of old ones, and there is little work more immediately useful. the forest can be safeguarded effectively just in proportion to the ease with which all parts of it can be reached. forest protection may be less technically interesting than other parts of the forester's work, but nothing that he does is more important or pays larger dividends in future results. in addition to his studies of the habits and reproduction of the different trees for working plans or timber sales, or simply to increase his knowledge of the forest, the forest examiner is often called upon to lay out sample plots for ascertaining the exact relation of each species to light, heat, and moisture, or for studying its rate of growth. he may find it necessary to determine the effect of the grazing of cattle or sheep on young growth of various species and of various ages, or to ascertain their relative resistance to fire. in general, what time he can spare from more pressing duties is very fully occupied with adding to his silvical knowledge by observation, with studies of injurious insects or fungi, of the reasons for the increase or decrease of valuable or worthless species of trees in the forest, the innumerable secondary effects of forest fires, the causes of the local distribution of trees, or with some other of the thousand questions which give a never-failing interest to work in the woods. the protection of a valuable kind of tree often depends upon the ability to find a use for, and therefore to remove, a less-valuable species which is crowding it out, for as yet the american forester can do very little cutting or thinning that does not pay. just so, the protection of a given tract against fire may depend upon the ability to use, and therefore to remove, a part or the whole of the dead and down timber which now makes it a fire trap. for such reasons as these, the uses of wood and the markets for its disposal form exceedingly important branches of study for the forest examiner, who will usually find that his duties require him to be thoroughly familiar with them. it is more and more common to find each forest officer--ranger, forest examiner, or supervisor--combining in himself the qualities and the knowledge required to fill any or all of the other positions. the professionally trained man who develops marked executive ability is likely to become a supervisor, just as a ranger, with the necessary training and experience, who may wish to devote himself to silvical investigations may be transferred to that work. the point is that each man has individual opportunity to establish and occupy the place for which he is best fitted. the success of the technical forester, like that of the ranger, and indeed of nearly every government forest officer, in whatever position or line of work, will very frequently depend on his good judgment and practical sense, the chief ingredient of which will always be his knowledge of local needs and conditions, and his sympathetic understanding of the local point of view. this does not mean that the local point of view is always to control. on the contrary, the forest officer must often decide against it in the interest of the welfare of the larger public. but the desires and demands of the users of the forest should always be given the fullest hearing and the most careful consideration. to this rule there is no exception whatsoever. personal equipment forestry differs from most professions in this, that it requires as much vigor of body as it does vigor of mind. the sort of man to which it appeals, and which it seeks, is the man with high powers of observation, who does not shrink from responsibility, and whose mental vigor is balanced by physical strength and hardiness. the man who takes up forestry should be little interested in his own personal comfort, and should have and conserve endurance enough to stand severe physical work accompanied by mental labor equally exhausting. foresters are still few in numbers, and the point of view which they represent, while it is making immense strides in public acceptance, is still far from general application. therefore, foresters are still missionaries in a very real sense, and since they are so few, it is of the utmost importance that they should stand closely together. differences of opinion there must always be in all professions, but there is no other profession in which it is more important to keep these differences from working out into animosities or separations of any kind. we are fortunate above all in this, that american foresters are united as probably the members of no other profession. this _esprit de corps_ has given them their greatest power of achievement, and any man who proposes to enter the profession should do so with this fact clearly in mind. the high standard which the profession of forestry, new in the united states, has already reached, its great power for usefulness to the nation, now and hereafter, and the large responsibilities which fall so quickly on the men who are trained to accept it--all these things give to the profession a position and dignity which it should be the first care of every man who enters it to maintain or increase. to stand well at graduation is or ought to be far less the object of a forester's training than to stand well ten or twenty years after graduation. it is of the first importance that the training should be thorough and complete. a friend of mine, john muir, says that the best advice he can give young men is: "take time to get rich." his idea of getting rich is to fill his mind and spirit full with observations of the nature he so deeply loves and so well understands; so that in his mind it is not money which makes riches, but life in the open and the seeing eye. next to those basic traits of personal character, without which no man is worth his salt, the forester's most important quality is the power of observation, the power to note and understand, or seek to understand, what he sees in the forest. it is just as essential a part of the forester's equipment to be able to see what is wrong with a piece of forest, and what is required for its improvement, as it is necessary for a physician to be able to diagnose a disease and to prescribe the remedy. silvics, which may be said to be the knowledge of how trees behave in health and disease toward each other, and toward light, heat, moisture, and the soil, is the foundation of forestry and the forester's first task is to bring himself to a high point of efficiency in observing and interpreting these facts of the forest, and to keep himself there. it should be as hard work to walk through the forest, and see what is there to be seen, as to wrestle with the most difficult problem of mathematics. no man can be a good forester without that quality of observation and understanding which the french call "the forester's eye." it is not the only quality required for success in forestry, but it is unquestionably the first. perhaps the second among the qualities necessary for the forester is common sense, which most often simply means a sympathetic understanding of the circumstances among which a man finds himself. the american forester must know the united states and understand its people. nothing which affects the welfare of his country should be indifferent to him. forestry is a form of practical statesmanship which touches the national life at so many points that no forester can safely allow himself to remain ignorant of the needs and purposes of his fellow citizens, or to be out of touch with the current questions of the day. the best citizen makes the best forester, and no man can make a good forester unless he is a good citizen also. the forester can not succeed unless he understands the problems and point of view of his country, and that is the reason why foresters from other lands were not brought into the united states in the early stages of the forest movement. at that time practically no american foresters had yet been trained, and the great need of the situation was for men to do the immediately pressing work. foresters from germany, france, switzerland, and other countries could have been obtained in abundant numbers and at reasonable salaries. they were not invited to come because, however well trained in technical forestry, they could not have understood the habits of thought of our people. therefore, in too many cases, they would have failed to establish the kind of practical understanding which a forester must have with the men who use, or work in, his forest, if he is to succeed. it was wiser to wait until americans could be trained, for the practising forester must handle men as well as trees. one of the most difficult things to do in any profession which involves drudgery (and i take it that no profession which does not involve drudgery is worth the attention of a man) is to look beyond the daily routine to the things which that routine is intended to assist in accomplishing. this is peculiarly true of forestry, in which, perhaps more than in any other profession, the long-distance, far-sighted attitude of mind is essential to success. the trees a forester plants he himself will seldom live to harvest. much of his thought about his forest must be in terms of centuries. the great object for which he is striving of necessity can not be fully accomplished during his lifetime. he must, therefore, accustom himself to look ahead, and to reap his personal satisfaction from the planned and orderly development of a scheme the perfect fruit of which he can never hope to see. this is one of the strongest reasons why the forester, whether in public or private employment, must always look upon himself as a public servant. it is of the first importance that he should accustom himself to think of the results of his work as affecting, not primarily himself, but others, always including the general public. it is essential for a forester to form the habit of looking far ahead, out of which grows a sound perspective and persistence in body and mind. one of the greatest football players of our time makes the distinction between a player who is "quick" and a player who is "soon." in his description, the "quick" player is the man who waits until the last moment and then moves with nervous and desperate haste in the little time he has left. the man who is "soon," however, almost invariably arrives ahead of the man who is "quick," because he has thought out in advance exactly where he is going and how to get there, and when the moment comes he does not delay his start, makes no false motions, and thereby makes and keeps himself efficient. forestry is preã«minently a profession for the "soon" man, for it is the steady preparation long in advance, the well-thoughtout plan well stuck to, which in forestry brings success. in my experience, men differ comparatively little in mere ability, in the quality of the mental machine, through which the spirit works. nine times out of ten, it is not ability which brings success, but persistence and enthusiasm, which are usually, but not always, the same as vision and will. we all have ability enough to do the things which lie before us, but the man with the will to keep everlastingly at it, and the vision to realize the meaning and value of the results for which he is striving, is the man who wins in nearly every case. this is true in all human affairs, but it is peculiarly true of the forester and his task, the end of which lies so far ahead. in a class below me at phillips-exeter academy was a boy who had just entered the school. his great ambition was to play football, and he came to the practise day after day. his abilities, however, were apparently not on the same plane with his ambitions, and his work was so ridiculously poor that he became the laughing stock of the whole school. that, however, troubled him not at all. what held his mind was football. undiscouraged and undismayed, he kept on playing football until in his last year he became captain of the exeter football team. every man of experience has known many similar cases. it is clear, i think, that the master qualities in achievement are neither luck nor mere ability, but rather enthusiasm and persistence, or vision and will. in a peculiar sense the forester depends upon public opinion and public support for the means of carrying on his work, and for its final success. but the attention which the public gives or can give to any particular subject varies, and of necessity must vary, from time to time. under these circumstances, it is inevitable that the forester must meet discouragements, checks, and delays, as well as periods of smooth sailing. he should expect them, and should be prepared to discount them when they come. when they do come, i know of no better way of reducing their bad effects than for a man to make allowance for his own state of mind. he who can stand off and look at himself impartially, realizing that he will not feel to-morrow as he feels to-day, has a powerful weapon against the temporary discouragements which are necessarily met in any work that is really worth while. progress is always in spirals, and there is always a good time coming. there is nothing so fatal to good work as that flabby spirit under which some weak men try to hide their inefficiency--the spirit of "what's the use?" it has been the experience of every forester, as he goes about the country, to be told that a certain mountain is impassable, that a certain trail can not be travelled, that a certain stream can not be crossed, and to find that mountain, trail, and stream can all be passed with little serious difficulty by a man who is willing to try. most things said to be impossible are so only in the mind of the man whose timidity or inertness keeps him from making the attempt. the whole story of the establishment and growth of the united states forest service is a story of the doing of things which the men who did them were warned in advance would be impossible. usually the thing which "can't be done" is well worth trying. perhaps i ought to add that i am not urging the young forester to disregard local public opinion without the best of reasons, or to rush his horse blindly into the ford of a swollen stream. good sense is the first condition of success. i am merely saying that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, when a thing ought to be done it can be done, if the effort is made with that idea in mind. all this is but one way of saying that the forester should be his own severest taskmaster. the forester must keep himself up to his own work. in no other profession, to my knowledge, is a man thrown so completely on his own responsibility. the forester often leads an isolated life for weeks or months at a time, seeing the men under whom he works only at distant intervals. because he is so much his own master, the responsibility which rests upon him is peculiarly his own, and must be met out of the resources within himself. the training of a forester should lead him to be practical in the right sense of that word, which emphatically is not the sense of abandoning standards of work or conduct in order to get immediate results. the "practical" men with whom the forester must do his work--lumbermen, cattlemen, sheepmen, settlers, forest users of all kinds--are often by very much his superiors in usable knowledge of the details of their work. their opinions are entitled to the most complete hearing and respect. there is no other class of men from whose advice the forester can so greatly profit if he chooses to do so. he is superior to them, if at all, only in his technical knowledge, and in the broader point of view he has derived from his professional training. it is of the first importance that the young forester should know these men, should learn to like and respect them, and that he should get all the help he can from their knowledge and practical experience. the willingness to use the information and assistance which such men were ready to give has more than once meant the difference between failure and success. the young forester, like other young men, is likely to be impatient. i do not blame him for it. rightly directed, his impatience may become one of his best assets. but it will do no harm to remember, also, that the human race has reached its present degree of civilization and advancement only step by step, and that it seems likely to proceed in very much the same way hereafter. as a general rule, results slowly and painfully accomplished are lasting. the results to be achieved in forestry must be lasting if they are to be valuable. in general, the men with whom the forester deals can adopt, and in many cases, ought to adopt, a new point of view but slowly. to fall in love at first sight with theories or policies is as rare as the same experience is between persons. as a rule, an intellectual conviction, however well founded, must be followed by a period of incubation and growth before it can blossom into a definite principle of action, before the man who holds it is ready to work or fight in order to carry it out. there is a rate in the adoption of new ideas beyond which only the most unusual circumstances will induce men's minds to move. forestry has gone ahead in the united states faster than it ever did in any other land. if it proceeds a little less rapidly, now that so much of the field has been won, there will be no reason for discouragement in that. as a subordinate officer necessarily the young forester will begin as a subordinate. how soon he will come to give orders of his own will depend on how well he executes the orders of his superior. in particular, it will depend on whether he requires to be coddled in doing his work, or whether he is willing and able to stand on his own feet. the man for whom every employer of men is searching, everywhere and always, is the man who will accept the responsibility for the work he has to do--who will not lean at every point upon his superior for additional instructions, advice, or encouragement. there is no more valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give a piece of work and then forget about it, in the confident expectation that the next time it is brought to your attention it will come in the form of a report that the thing has been done. when this master quality is joined to executive power, loyalty, and common sense, the result is a man whom you can trust. on the other hand, there is no greater nuisance to a man heavily burdened with the direction of affairs than the weak-backed assistant who is continually trying to get his chief to do his work for him, on the feeble plea that he thought the chief would like to decide this or that himself. the man to whom an executive is most grateful, the man whom he will work hardest and value most, is the man who accepts responsibility willingly, and is not continually under his feet. as a superior officer the principles of effective administrative work have never, so far as i know, been adequately classified and defined. when they come to be stated one of the most important will be found to be the exact assignment of responsibility, so that whatever goes wrong the administrative head will know clearly and at once upon whom the responsibility falls. this is one of the reasons why, as a rule, boards and commissions are far less effective in getting things done than single men with clear-cut authority and equally clear-cut responsibility. another principle, so well known that it has almost become a proverb, is to delegate everything you can, to do nothing that you can get someone else to do for you. but the wisdom of letting a good man alone is less commonly understood. it is sometimes as important for the superior officer not to worry his subordinate with useless orders as it is for the subordinate not to harass his superior with useless questions. let a good man alone. give him his head. nothing will hold him so rigidly to his work as the feeling that he is trusted. lead your men in their work, and above all make of your organization not a monarchy, limited or unlimited, but a democracy, in which the responsibility of each man for a particular piece of work shall not only be defined but recognized, in which the credit for each man's work, so far as possible, shall be attached to his own name, in which the opinions and advice of your subordinates are often sought before decisions are made; in a word, a democracy in which each man feels a personal responsibility for the success of the whole enterprise. the young forester may be years removed from the chance to apply these principles in practice, but since no superior officer can put them into fruitful effect without the coã¶peration of his subordinates, it is well that they should be known at both ends of the line. a public servant i repeat that whether a forester is engaged in private work or in public work, whether he is employed by a lumberman, an association of lumbermen, a fishing and shooting club, the owner of a great estate, or whether he is an officer of a state or of the nation, by virtue of his profession he is a public servant. because he deals with the forest, he has his hand upon the future welfare of his country. his point of view is that which must control its future welfare. he represents the planned and orderly development of its resources. he is the representative also of the forest school from which he graduates, and of his profession. upon the standards which he helps to establish and maintain, the welfare of these, too, directly depends. state forest work the work of the states in forestry is still in the pioneer stage, and the work of a state forester must still bear largely on the creation of a right public sentiment in forest matters. in state forestry the need for agitation has by no means passed. it is often the duty of the state forester to prepare or endeavor to secure the passage of good state forest laws, or to interpose against the enactment of bad laws. in particular, much of his time is likely to be given to legislation upon the subjects of forest fires and forest taxation. upon the latter there is as yet no sound and effective public opinion in many parts of the united states, and legislatures and people still do not understand how powerful bad methods of forest taxation have been and still are in forcing the destructive cutting of timber by making it impossible to wait for the better methods of lumbering which accompany a better market. i have known the taxes on standing timber to equal six per cent. a year on the reasonable value of the stumpage. thirteen states have state forests with a total area altogether of 3,400,000 acres. of these new york has the largest area. its state forests cover 1,645,000 acres, partly in the adirondacks and partly in the catskills; pennsylvania comes next with nine hundred and eighty-four thousand acres; and wisconsin third, with about four hundred thousand acres. twenty-nine states make appropriations for forest work. excluding special appropriations for courses in forestry at universities, colleges, and schools, the total amount spent for this purpose is about $1,340,000. pennsylvania has the largest appropriation,--three hundred and twenty-eight thousand dollars, in addition to which a special appropriation of two hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars has been devoted to checking the chestnut blight. minnesota comes second with two hundred and thirty-three thousand dollars; new york third with about one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and wisconsin next with ninety-five thousand dollars. thirty-three states have state forest officers, of whom fifteen are state foresters by title, while the majority of the remainder perform duties of a very similar nature. eleven states are receiving assistance from the federal government under the weeks law, which authorizes coã¶peration for fire protection, provided the state will furnish a sum equal to that allotted to it from the national fund, with a limit of ten thousand dollars to a single state. for purposes of reforestation, ten states maintain forest nurseries. during the year 1912 they produced in round numbers twenty million young trees, of which fourteen million were distributed to the citizens of these ten states. in some states the waterpower question falls within the sphere of the state forester, as well as other similar conservation matters, while it has usually been made his duty to assist private timberland owners in the handling of their holdings, whether these be the larger holdings of lumber companies or the farmers' woodlots. in many states the state forester is made responsible for the enforcement of the state forest fire laws, and for the control and management of a body of state fire wardens, who may or may not be permanently employed in that work. the enforcement of laws which exempt timberlands or lands planted to timber from taxation, or limit the taxation upon them, are also usually under his supervision. the work of forestry in the various states being on the whole much less advanced than it is in the nation, the state forester must still occupy himself largely with those preliminary phases of the work of forestry through which the national forest service has already passed. much progress, however, is being made, and we may fairly count not only that state forest organizations will ultimately exist in every state, but that the state foresters will exert a steadily increasing influence on forest perpetuation in the united states. the forest service in washington a description of what a forester has to do which did not include the work of the government foresters at the national capital would necessarily be incomplete. the following outline may, therefore, help to round out the picture. the washington headquarters of the forest service are directly in charge of the forester and his immediate assistants. the forester has general supervision of the whole service. it is he who, with the approval of the secretary of agriculture, determines the general policy which is to govern the service in the very various and numerous matters with which it has to deal. he keeps his hand upon the whole machinery of the service, holds it up to its work, and in general is responsible for supplying it with the right spirit and point of view, without which any kind of efficiency is impossible. the forester prepares the estimates, or annual budget, for the expenditures of the service, and appears before committees of congress to explain the need for money, and otherwise to set forth or defend the work upon which the service is engaged. his immediate subordinates spend a large part of their time in the field inspecting the work of the service and keeping its tone high. their reports to the forester keep him thoroughly advised as to the situation on all the national forests, so that he may wisely meet each question as it comes up, and adjust the regulations and routine business methods of the service to the constantly changing needs of the people with whom it deals. being responsible for the personnel of the forest service, the forester recommends to the secretary of agriculture, by whom the actual papers are issued, all appointments to it, as well as promotions, reductions, and dismissals. under his immediate eye also is the very important and necessary work of making public the information collected by the service for the use of the people. since 1900, 370 publications of the service have been issued, with a total circulation of 11,198,000 copies. the publications of the united states forest service include by far the most and the best information upon the forests of this country which has until now been assembled and printed. hence, the prospective student of forestry can do nothing better than to write to the forester, washington, d. c. (which is the correct address), for the annotated catalogue of these publications which is sent free to all applicants, and then to secure and study such of the bulletins and circulars as best meet his individual needs. if he looks forward to entering the united states forest service, he should not fail to get also the use book, the volume of directions and regulations in accordance with which the national forests are protected, developed, and made available and useful to the people of the regions in which they lie. the dendrological work of the service, which has to do with forest distribution, the identification of tree species and other forest botanical work, is also under the immediate supervision of the forester, and the chief lumberman reports directly to him. in addition to the work which falls immediately under the eye of the forester, and which used to, but does not now, include the legal work necessary to support and promote the operations of the service, there are seven principal parts, or branches, in the work of the washington headquarters. the first of these is the branch of accounts, whose work i need not describe further than to say that the service has always owed a very large part of its safety against the bitter attacks of its enemies to the accuracy, completeness, and general high quality of its accounting system. the second branch, that of operation, has charge of the business administration both of the national forests and of the other work of the forest service. here the business methods which are necessary to keep the organization at a high state of efficiency are formulated, put in practice, and constantly revised, for it is only by such revision that they can be kept, as they are kept, at a level with the very best practice of the best modern business. there are very few government bureaus of which this can be said. the branch of operation is responsible for the adoption and enforcement of labor-saving devices in correspondence, in handling requisitions, and in the filing and care of papers generally, and for the supply of stationery, tools, and instruments, and the renting of quarters,--in a word, for the whole of the more or less routine transaction of business which is essential to keep so large an organization at the highest point of efficiency. [illustration: brush piling in a national forest timber sale] the office work needed in the mapping of the national forests, with all their resources, boundaries, and interior holdings, is in charge of the branch of operation. so is the immense amount of drafting which is necessary in the other work of the service, and the photographic laboratory in which maps are reproduced and where permanent photographic records of the condition of the forest are made. the third branch, that of silviculture, is the most important of all. it has oversight of the practice of forestry on all the national forests, and of all scientific forest studies in the national forests and outside. it is here that the conditions in the contracts under which the larger timber sales are made are finally examined and approved, and here are found the inspectors whose duty it is not only to see that the work is well done, but to labor constantly for improvements in methods as well as in results. here centres the preparation of forest working plans, and the knowledge of lumber and the lumber markets. the branch of silviculture has charge also of national coã¶peration for the advancement of forestry with the several states, and in particular for fire protection under the weeks law. this form of coã¶peration has made the knowledge and equipment of the forest service available for the study of state forest resources and forest problems, and much of the progress in forestry made by the states is directly due to it. under the branch of silviculture, the office of forest investigations brings together all that is known of the nature and growth of trees in this country, and to some extent in other countries also, conducts independent studies of the greatest value in developing better methods of securing the reproduction of important forest trees, and computes the enormous number of forest measurements dealing with the stand and the rate of growth of trees and forests that are turned in by the parties engaged in forest investigation in the field. under the office of forest investigations, studies in forest distribution and in the structure of wood are carried on, and it includes the library of the forest service, by far the most complete and effective forest library in the united states. the fourth branch, that of grazing, supervises the use of the national forests for pasture. over the greater part of the west, this was the first use to which the forests were put, and an idea of its magnitude may be gathered from the fact that every year the national forests supply feed for about a million and a half cattle and horses, and more than fourteen million sheep. it is no easy task to permit all this live stock to utilize the forage which the national forests produce, and yet do little or no harm to the young growth on which the future of the forest depends. to exclude the grazing animals altogether is impossible and undesirable, for to do so would ruin the leading industry in many portions of the west. consequently, many of the most difficult and perplexing questions in the practical administration of the national forests have occurred in the work of the branch of grazing, and have there been solved, and many of the most bitter attacks upon it have there been met. the fifth branch, that of lands, has to do with the questions which arise from the use of the land in the national forests for farming or ranching, mining, and a very wide variety of other purposes, and with the exceedingly numerous and intricate questions which arise because there are about 21,100,000 acres of land within the boundaries of the national forests whose title has already passed from the government. the boundaries of the national forests also are constantly being examined to determine whether they include all the land, and only the land, to be contained within them, and whether they should be extended or reduced. the first permits for the use of waterpower sites on government land were issued by the forest service, and the policy which is just being adopted by the interior department and other government organizations in their handling of waterpower questions was there first developed. these permits are prepared in the branch of lands. the first steps toward deterring men who attempt in defiance of the law to get possession of lands claimed to be agricultural or mineral within the national forests are taken here, but the final decision on these points rests with the department of the interior. the examination of lands to determine whether they are agricultural in character, and therefore should be opened to settlement, is directed from this branch. the uses to which national forest lands are put are almost unbelievably various. barns, borrow pits, botanical gardens, cemeteries and churches, dairies and dipping vats, fox ranches and fish hatcheries, hotels, pastures, pipe lines, power sites, residences, sanitaria and school-houses, stores and tunnels, these and many others make up, with grazing and timber sales, the uses of the national forests, for which already more than half a million permits have been issued. this work also falls to the branch of lands. the sixth branch, that of forest products, is concerned with the whole question of the uses of wood and other materials produced by the forest. its principal work is conducted through the forest products laboratory, in coã¶peration with the university of wisconsin at madison. here timber is tested to ascertain its strength, the products of wood distillation are investigated, wood pulp and paper studies of large reach are carried on, the methods of wood preservation and the results of applying them are in constant course of being examined, and the diseases of trees and of wood are studied in coã¶peration with the bureau of plant industry of the united states department of agriculture. the consumption of wood, and the production of lumber and forest products, are also the subject of continuous investigation, and various necessary special studies are undertaken from time to time. at the moment, an effort is under way to find new uses and new markets for wood killed by the chestnut blight in the northeastern united states. the seventh branch has to do with the study, selection, and acquisition of lands under the weeks law, in accordance with which eight million dollars was appropriated for the purchase of forest lands valuable for stream protection, with particular reference to the southern appalachians and the white mountains of new england. the examination of the amount of merchantable timber on lands under consideration for purchase, the study of the character of the land and the forest, and the survey of the land keep a numerous body of young men very fully occupied. their task is to see that none but the right land is recommended for acquisition by the government, that the nature and value of the lands selected shall be most thoroughly known, and that the constant effort to make the government pay unreasonable prices or purchase under unfavorable conditions shall as constantly be defeated. the same branch takes charge of the lands as soon as they have been acquired. the foregoing description of the work which is done in washington by the forest service may help to make clear the great variety of tasks to which a forester may be required to set his hand, and emphasizes the need of a broad training not strictly confined to purely technical lines. it would be defective as a description, however, and would fail to show the spirit in which the work is done, if no mention were made of the service meeting, at which the responsible heads of each branch and of the work of the forester's office meet once a week to discuss every problem which confronts the service and every phase of its work. this meeting is the centre where all parts of the work of the service come together and arrange their mutual coã¶peration, and it is also the spring from which the essential democracy of the organization takes its rise. the service meeting is the best thing in the forest service, and that is saying a great deal. it must not be imagined that the maintenance of forest service headquarters in washington indicates that the actual business of handling the national forests is carried on at long range. in order to avoid any such possibility the six district offices were organized in 1908. these are situated at missoula, denver, albuquerque, portland, ogden, and san francisco. each of the district offices is in charge of a district forester, who directs the practical carrying out of the policies finally determined upon in washington, after consultation with the men in the field. the execution of all the work, the larger features of which the washington office decides and directs (and the details of which it inspects), is the task of the district forester. the district forester's office is necessarily organized much on the same general lines as the washington headquarters. thus, the subjects of accounts, operation, silviculture, grazing, lands, and forest products are all represented in the district offices. in addition, a legal officer is necessarily attached to each district office, and each district forester has in his district one or more forest experiment stations, employed mainly in studying questions of growth and reproduction; and three forest insect field stations, maintained in coã¶peration with the bureau of entomology, are divided among the six districts. [illustration: forest rangers getting instruction in methods of work from a district forest officer] while the work of the washington office is mainly that of guiding the work of the national forests along broad general lines, through instructions to the district foresters, the office of each district forester deals directly with the forest supervisors, and so with the handling of the national forests. a multitude of questions which the supervisors can not answer are decided in the district office instead, as was formerly the case, of being forwarded to washington for disposal there, with the consequent aggravating and needless delay. the establishment of the district offices has made the handling of the national forests far less complicated and far more prompt, and has brought it far closer than ever before to the actual users,--that is, has made it far more quickly and accurately responsive to their needs. private forestry as yet, the practice of forestry by private owners, except for fire protection, has made but little progress in the united states, although without doubt it will be widely extended during the next ten or fifteen years. the concentration of timberland ownership in the united states has put a few men in control of vast areas of forest. many of them are anxious to prevent forest destruction, so far as that may be practicable without interfering with their profits, and for that purpose foresters are beginning to be employed. until now the principal tasks of foresters employed by lumbermen have been the measurement of the amount of lumber in the standing crop of trees, and the protection of forest lands from fire. here and there the practice of a certain amount of forestry has been added, but this part of the work of the private forester employed by lumbermen has not been important. it is likely, however, to increase with some rapidity before long. in the meantime, the private forester must usually be willing to accept a good many limitations on the technical side of his work. it is essential for the forester thus employed to have or promptly to acquire a knowledge of practical lumbering, that is, of logging, milling, and markets, and for the forest student who expects to enter this work to give special attention to these subjects. already about 170 graduates of forest schools are in private employ, a considerable proportion of which number are employed by large lumbermen. the time is undoubtedly coming, and i hope it may come soon, when forest destruction will be legally recognized as hostile to the public welfare, and when lumbermen will be compelled by law to handle their forests so as to insure the reproduction of them under reasonable conditions and within a reasonable time. the idea is neither tyrannical nor new. in democratic switzerland, private owners of timberland are restrained by law from destroying the forests upon which the welfare of that mountain region so largely depends, and if they disobey, their forest lands are replanted by the government at the owners' expense. another opening for foresters in the employ of lumbermen is through the forest fire protective associations. of these, two stand out most conspicuously at the present time, one the northwestern conservation and forestry association, the other the oregon forest fire association. each has as its executive officer a trained forester whose knowledge of the woods not only makes him exceedingly useful to his employers, but also, when combined with the forester's point of view, enables him to be of great value in protecting the general interest in the forest. the object and methods of one of the associations is described by its secretary as follows: "a field hitherto narrow but continually broadening, and offering much opportunity for those with peculiar qualifications, is the management of the coã¶perative forest work carried on by timber owners in many localities, often jointly with state and government. this movement originated in the pacific northwest, where it still has the highest development, but is extending to the lake states, new england, and canada. "as a rule the primary object of these coã¶perative associations is fire prevention and their local managers must have demonstrated ability to organize effective patrol systems, build telephone lines, apply every ingenuity to supplying and equipping their forces, and, above all, to handle men in emergencies. but in most cases the association of forest owners to this end has led also to progress in many other matters inseparable from improvement, such as study of reforestation possibilities, forest legislation, educating lumberman and public in forest preservation, and the extension of coã¶peration in all these as well as in fire prevention from private to state and federal agencies. "the development of such activities is already employing several highly paid men who can command the confidence, not only of forest owners, but also of the public and of public officials. advisers in legislative as well as technical forestry matters and particularly proficient in all that pertains to forest protection, their usefulness lies as much outside their own association as within them, and to be successful they must be skilful organizers and campaigners. it is these men who have developed to its highest extent the adaptation to forestry propaganda of modern publicity and advertising methods. "as a rule, however, these may be described as graduate positions, filled by men of experience and acquaintance with the several agencies involved, rather than by newly fledged foresters. a practical knowledge of protection problems is essential." forestry associations offer a different, but often a most fascinating field, of work for the trained forester. there are at present 39 such associations. the work which they offer has much in common with the duties of a state forester. fish and game associations are beginning to employ foresters, realizing that the wise handling of the forests may well go hand in hand with the care of the game and fish which the forest shelters and protects. eventually nearly all such associations which control any considerable body of land in timbered regions may be expected to utilize the services of trained foresters of their own. in addition to the work for lumbermen and for associations of various kinds, land owners in considerable variety have begun to employ foresters. among these are coal and coke companies, iron companies, wood pulp and paper companies which are beginning to look after their supply of timber; powder, arms, and ammunition companies, hydraulic and water companies; a great corporation engaged in the manufacture of matches; and a number of railroads, including the delaware and hudson, the illinois central, and the pennsylvania. in addition to the need for cross ties, railroads are among the largest consumers of lumber. the foresters who work for them are largely occupied with growing the wood supplies which the railroads need, and nursery practice often occupies a very large share of their attention. forest schools since the first one was founded in 1898, the number of forest schools in the united states has increased so rapidly as to create a demand for forest instructors which it has been exceedingly difficult to fill. indeed, the increase in secondary forest schools, or schools not of the first grade, has doubtless been more rapid than the welfare of the profession or the sound practice of forestry required, and the brisk demand for teachers has led some men to take up the task of instruction who were not well fitted for it. there are in this country to-day 23 forest schools which prepare men for the practice of forestry as a profession, and 51 schools which devote themselves to general instruction in forestry or to courses for forest rangers and forest guards. the approximate number of teachers in all forest schools is at present 110, and this number will doubtless be still further increased by the addition of new forest schools or the expansion of old ones, while a certain number of places will be made vacant by the retirement of men who find themselves better fitted for other lines of work. the teaching staff at three of the principal forest schools of the country is as follows: at school a, 5 men give their whole time to forest instruction, and 14 give courses in the forest school. schools b and c have each 4 men who give their whole time to the work; and 4 and 20 respectively who give lectures or individual courses. in addition to the work for lumbermen, associations, railroads, and others just mentioned, an increasing number of foresters are required to care for the forests on large landed estates in different parts of the country. work of this kind is at present restricted almost entirely to the east, and especially to new england, where several firms of consulting foresters give to it the larger portion of their time. some of the men thus employed are as fully occupied with the tasks of the professional forester as any of the men in the government service, while others give a part of their attention to the general management of the property, or to the protection and propagation of game and fish. the opportunity government service there is no more useful profession than forestry. the opportunity to make himself count in affairs of public importance comes earlier and more certainly to the forester than to the member of any other profession. the first and most valuable, therefore, of the incentives which lead the forester to his choice is the chance to make himself of use to his country and to his generation. but if this is the first matter to be considered in deciding upon a profession, it is by no means the last, and the practical considerations of a fair return for good work, bread and butter for a man and his family, the certainty or uncertainty of employment,--such questions as these must have their full share of attention. there are in the united states forest service 1059 forest guards, 1247 forest rangers, 233 supervisors, and deputy supervisors, and 115 forest assistants and 177 forest examiners who, as already explained, are the technical men in charge of practical forestry on the national forests. the six district offices together include in their membership about 50 professional foresters, and about 65 more are attached to the headquarters at washington, so that allowing for duplications there are about 335 trained foresters in the united states forest service. the number of new appointments to the forest service in the different permanent grades varies from year to year but may be said to be approximately as follows: rangers, 240 new appointments; forest assistants, 35; other technical positions, 10. all appointments as supervisor are by promotion from the lists of forest rangers or forest examiners. the yearly pay of the forest guard, who, like the ranger, must be a citizen of the state in which his work lies, is from $420 to $900. forest rangers, who enter the service through civil service examination, receive from $1100 to $1500 per annum. forest supervisors, practically all of whom are men of long experience in forest work, receive from $1600 to $2700 per annum. forest assistants enter the forest service through civil service examination at a salary of $1200 per annum, and are promoted to a maximum salary of $2500 per annum, as forest examiners. professional foresters at work in the district offices are recruited mainly from among the forest assistants and examiners. they receive from $1100 to $3200 yearly. the technical men in charge at washington get from $1100 to $5000 per annum, which last is the pay of the forester, at the head of the service. state service the pay of the state foresters, or other trained foresters in charge of state work, ranges from $1800 to $4000, and that of their technical assistants from $1000 to $2500. out of the total number, only 2 are directly in charge of their own work, responsible only to the governor and the legislature, while 19 act as subordinates for state forest commissions or commissioners, who in the majority of cases are political appointees. in striking contrast with the united states forest service, politics has so far been a dangerous, if not a dominating, influence in the forest work of most of the states which have undertaken it. like the national forests, the state forests already in existence will create an increasing demand for the service of technical foresters. indeed, as similar forests are acquired by most of the states which are now without them, as undoubtedly they will be, the extent of the opportunity for professionally trained foresters in state work is certain to grow. private work at present, the demand for foresters in private work is far less pressing and the opening is far less attractive than it will be in the not distant future. the number of men that will be required for this work will depend on the development of legislation as well as upon the desire of the private owners, lumbermen and others, to protect and improve their property. the time is coming, and coming before long, when all private owners of forests in the mountains, or on steep slopes elsewhere, will be required by law to provide for their protection and reproduction. when that time arrives, the demand for foresters in private work will increase to very large dimensions, and will probably do so far more rapidly than foresters can be trained to supply it. the pay of foresters in private work, whether in the employ of lumbermen, railroads, shooting and fishing clubs, the proprietors of large private estates, or other forest owners, has so far been somewhat better than that for similar services in government employ. this money difference in favor of private employment is, in my judgment, likely to continue, and eventually the pay of consulting foresters of established reputation employed in passing upon the value of forests offered as security for investments, or in estimating the standing timber for purchasers or sellers, or in other professional work of large business importance, will certainly reach very satisfactory figures. teaching approximately 110 foresters are engaged in teaching in the united states to-day. their pay varies from about $1000 to about $3000, and is likely to increase rather more rapidly than that of other professional teachers, since less of them are available. it is not likely, however, that the number of openings in teaching forestry will be large within the next ten years. training the length of time which his training is to take and the particular courses of instruction which he shall pursue are to the young man contemplating the study of forestry matters of the first importance. the first thing to insist on in that connection is that the training must be thorough. it is natural that a young man should be eager to begin his life work and therefore somewhat impatient of the long grind of a thorough schooling. but however natural, it is not the part of wisdom to cut short the time of preparation. when the serious work of the trained forester begins later on, there will be little or no time to fill the gaps left at school, and the earnest desire of the young forester will be that he had spent more time in his preparation rather than less. in this matter i speak as one who has gathered a conviction from personal experience, and believes he knows. it would be useless to attempt to strike an average of the work prescribed and the courses given at the various forest schools. i shall describe, therefore, not an average system of instruction but one which, in the judgment of men entitled to an opinion, and in my own judgment, is sound, practical, and effective. forest schools may roughly be divided between those which do not prepare men for professional work in forestry, and those which do. the latter may be divided again into undergraduate schools and graduate schools. most of the former offer a four-year undergraduate course, and their students receive their degrees at the same time as other members of the university who entered at the same time with them. the graduate schools require a college degree, or its equivalent in certain subjects, before they will receive a student. the men who have completed their courses have usually, therefore, pursued more extensive and more advanced studies in forestry, are better trained, and are themselves older and more ready to accept the responsibilities which forestry brings upon them. for these reasons, the graduate school training is by far the more desirable, in my opinion. the subjects required for entrance to a graduate forest school should include at least one full year in college botany, covering the general morphology, histology, and physiology of plants, one course each in geology, physics, inorganic chemistry, zoã¶logy, and economics, with mathematics through trigonometry, and a reading knowledge of french or german. some acquaintance with mechanical drawing is also desirable but not absolutely necessary. other courses which are extremely desirable, if not altogether essential, are mineralogy, meteorology, mechanics, physical geography, organic chemistry, and possibly calculus, which may be of use in timber physics. one or two forest schools begin their course of training for the first year in july instead of in october, in order to give their students some acquaintance with the woods from the forester's standpoint before the more formal courses begin. the result of this plan is to give increased vividness and reality to all the courses which follow the work in the woods, to make clear the application of what is taught, and so to add greatly to the efficiency of the teaching. in addition to this preliminary touch with the woods, any wise plan of teaching will include many forest excursions and much practical field work as vitally important parts of the instruction. this outdoor work should occur throughout the whole course, winter and summer, and in addition, the last term of the senior year may well be spent wholly in the woods, where the students can be trained in the management of logging operations and milling, and can get their final practice work in surveying and map-making, in preparing forest working plans, estimating timber, laying out roads and trails, making plans for lumber operations, and other similar practical work. several of the best forest schools have adopted this plan. the regular courses of a graduate forest school usually cover a period of two years. they should fit a student for nearly every phase of professional work in forestry, and should give him a sound preparation not merely for practical work in the woods, but also for the broader work of forest organization in the government service in the united states and in the philippines, and in the service of the states; for handling large tracts of private forest lands; for expert work in the employ of lumbermen and other forest owners; for public speaking and writing; for teaching; and for scientific research. every well equipped forest school will have a working library of books, pamphlets, and lumber journals published here and abroad, an herbarium at least of native trees and shrubs and of the more important forest herbs, together with a collection of forest tree fruits and seeds, and specimens of domestic and foreign timbers. exhibits showing the uses of woods and the various forms of tools used in lumbering, as well as the apparatus for laboratory work and surveying, and forest instruments for work in the field, are often of great value to the student. what should a young man learn at a forest school? doubtless there will be some variation of opinion as to the exact course of study which will best fit him for the work of a forester in the united states. the following list expresses the best judgment on the subject i have been able to form: dendrology: the first step in forestry is to become acquainted with the various kinds of trees. the coming forester must learn to identify the woody plants of the united states, both in summer and in winter. he must understand their shapes and outward structures, and where they are found, and he must begin his knowledge of the individual habits of growth and life which distinguish the trees which are important in forestry. forest physiography: trees grow in the soil. it is important to know something of the origin of soils and their properties and values, and of the principal soil types, with special reference to their effect upon plant distribution and welfare. the origin, nature, value, and conservation of humus, that most essential ingredient of the forest floor; the field methods of mapping soil types; the rock types most important in their relation to soils, how they are made up, how they make soil, and where they occur--something should be learned of all this. finally, under this head, the student ought to get a usable knowledge of the physiographic regions of the united states, their boundaries, geologic structure, topography, drainage, and soils,--all this naturally with special reference to the relation between these basic facts and the forest. silviculture: silviculture is the art of caring for forests, and therefore the backbone of forestry. it is based upon silvics, which is the knowledge of the habits or behavior of trees in their relations to light, heat, and moisture, to the air and soil, and to each other. it is the facts embraced in silvics which explain the composition, character, and form of the forest; the success or failure of tree species in competition with each other; the distribution of trees and of forests; the development of each tree in height, diameter, and volume; its form and length of life; the methods of its reproduction; and the effect of all these upon the nature and the evolution of the city of trees, and upon forest types and their life histories. this is knowledge the forester can not do without. silvics is the foundation of his professional capacity, and as a student he can better afford to scamp any part of his training rather than this. a man may be a poor forester who knows silvics, but no man can be a good forester who does not. the practice of silviculture has to do with the treatment of woodlands. the forest student must learn the different methods of reproducing forests by different methods of cutting them down, and the application of these methods in different american forest regions. there are also many methods of cutting for the improvement of the character and growth of forests, as well as for utilizing material that otherwise would go to waste, before the final reproduction cuttings can be made. the ways in which forests need protection are equally numerous, and of these by far the most important in our country have to do with methods of preventing or extinguishing forest fires. well managed forests are handled under working plans based on the silvical character and silvicultural needs of the forest, as well as upon the purpose set by the owner as the object of management, which is often closely related to questions of forest finance. the student should ground himself thoroughly in the making of silvicultural working plans, and the more practice in making them he can get, the better. so, too, with the marking of trees in reproduction and improvement cuttings under as many different kinds of forest conditions as may be possible. the artificial reproduction of forests is likely to occupy far more of the forester's attention in the future than it has in the past. hence the collection of tree seeds, their fertility and vitality as affecting their handling, the best methods of seeding and planting, and the lessons of past failures and successes, with the whole subject of nursery work and the care of young plantations, must by no means be overlooked. much incidental information on the subject of forest protection will come to the student in the course of his studies, but special attention should be given to learning which of the species of forest insects are most injurious to forest vegetation, how their attacks are made, how they may be discovered, and the best ways by which such attacks can be mitigated or controlled. so also the diseases of timber trees will repay hard study. the principal fungi which causes such diseases should be known, how they attack the trees, and what are the remedies, as well as (although this is far less important) the way to treat tree wounds and the correct methods of pruning. forest economics: forest economics is a large subject. it deals with the productive value of forests to their owners, and with the larger question of their place in the economy of the nation. it considers their use as conservers of the soil and the streams; their effect on climate, locally, as in the case of windbreakers, and on a larger scale; and their contribution to the public welfare as recreation grounds and game refuges. it includes a knowledge of wastes from which the forests suffer, and the consequent loss to industry and to the public, and in this it does not omit the effects of forest fires. statistics of forest consumption; the relation of the forest to railroads, mines, and other wood-using industries; its effect upon agriculture, stock raising, and manufacturing industries; and its effect upon the use of the streams for navigation, power, irrigation, and domestic water supply; all these are important. the student should consider also the forest resources of the united states, their present condition, and the needs they must be fitted to supply. forest engineering: forest engineering is steadily becoming more and more necessary to the forester. he must have a working knowledge of the use of surveying instruments; the making of topographic surveys; the office work required of an engineer; the making of topographic maps; the location of trails, roads, and railroads; and the construction of bridges, telephone lines, cabins, and fences, together with logging railroads, slides, dams, and flumes. forest mensuration: [illustration: forest service men making fresh measurements in the missouri swamps] forest mensuration, the art of measuring the contents and growth of trees and forest stands, is of fundamental importance. the principles and methods of timber estimating, the actual measurement of standing timber, log rules, the making of stem analyses to show the increase of a tree in diameter, height, and volume, the construction of tables of current and mean annual growth per acre and per tree, and the methods of using the information thus formulated,--all these are necessarily of keen interest to the man who later on will have to apply his knowledge in the practical management of woods. forest management: forest management is concerned with the principles involved in planning the handling of forests. questions of the valuation of forests form a most essential part of it,--such questions as the cost of growing timber crops, the value of land for that purpose, the value of young timber, the valuation of damage to the forest, and the legal status of the damage and the remedy. business principles are as necessary in the management of forests as in the management of mills or farms. these business principles work out in different forms of forest policy adapted to the needs of different kinds of owners, such as lumbermen and the government. what the young forester has learned about growth and yield, about timber estimates and forest statistics, and many other matters, all finds its application in forest management. he must also consider the methods and principles for regulating the cut of timber, or for securing sustained annual yields. all this forms the basis for the preparation of working plans for the utilization of forests under american economic and silvicultural conditions, not only without injury, but with benefit, to their continued productiveness. the subjects of forest surveying and working plans are intimately related. maps are indispensable in the practical work of making a forest working plan. topographic mapping, timber estimating, forest description, and the location of logging roads, trails, and fire lines, together with silvics and a knowledge of growth and yield--these and many other subjects enter into the making of a practical working plan to harvest a forest crop and secure a second growth of timber. the student should get all the practice he can in marking timber for cutting under such a plan. the young forester must make himself familiar with the administration of the national forests. he must know how the business of the forest is handled, how it is protected against fire, how the timber is sold, how claims and entries are dealt with under the public land laws, how land in the national forests is used to make homes, how trespass is controlled, how the livestock industry on the national forests is fostered and regulated, and how the extremely valuable watersheds they contain are safeguarded and improved. the practice of forestry: the practice of forestry is necessarily different in different kinds of forests and under different economic conditions. all that the forester knows must here be applied, and applied in workable fashion, not only to the forest, but to the men who use the forest. this is peculiarly true of the practice of forestry in national and state forests everywhere. forest products: under this general subject, the forest student must acquaint himself, through the microscope, with the minute anatomy of the woody stem of coniferous and broadleaf trees, and the occurrence, form, structure, and variability of the elements which make it up. he should become familiar with the methods of classifying the economic woods of the united states, both under the microscope and with the unassisted eye, and for this purpose should know something of their color, gloss, grain, density, odor, and resonance both as aids to identification and as to their importance in giving value to the wood; the defects of timber; its moisture content, density, shrinking, checking, warping; and the effect of all these upon its uses. the chemical composition of wood and of minor forest products, such as tannins and dye stuffs, is important; the properties governing the fuel value and the other values of wood must be studied, as well as the methods of using these properties in the making of charcoal and wood pulp, in wood distillation, the turpentine industry, in tanning and dyeing, and in other industries. a field of great importance is the relation between the physical structure and the mechanical properties of wood. a student should inform himself concerning the standard methods of testing the properties of structural timber, by bending, compression, shearing, torsion, impact, and the hardness and tension tests, with their relation to heat and moisture, and the methods of seasoning, the use of preservatives, and the effect of the rate of application of the load. woods vary as to their durability. it is important, therefore, to know about the causes of decay, the decay-resisting power of various woods, the relation of moisture content to durability, why the seasoning of wood is effective, the theory and the commercial methods of wood preservation, and its relation to the timber supply. lumbering: lumbering the forester should know more than a little about, as how to organize lumber operations, the equipment and management of logging and milling in various forest regions, the manufacture, seasoning, and grading of the rough and finished lumber, cost keeping in a lumber business, methods of sale, market requirements at home and abroad, prices, the relation of the lumber tariff to forestry, lumber associations, timber bonds, and insurance. the practical construction of logging equipment, such as aerial tramways, log slides, dams, and flumes, is of peculiar importance, and so are the conditions and changes of the lumber market. experience on the land of some operating lumber company is of great value. it should include a study of logging methods, log scaling, waste in logging, the equipment and handling of the mill, the sawing and care of rough and finished lumber, its grading, and so far as possible an acquaintance with wood working plants of various kinds, and with the operations of turpentine orcharding. studies along these lines may with advantage be almost indefinitely extended to include, for example the utilization of steam machinery for logging, the improvement of streams for driving logs, and other similar questions. forest law: the forester must have at least a slight acquaintance with forest law, both state and national. it is important to know something of the general principles of classifying the public lands, of state laws for fire protection, the development of forest policies in the various states as legally expressed, and the important laws which govern the creation and management of state forest reserves. forest taxation, state and local, which has, when excessive, so much to do with hastening forest destruction, is one of the most important questions which can engage the attention of the forester. under the subject of federal forest law, it is not sufficient for the student to acquaint himself with those laws alone which govern the forests. he must also have some knowledge of the creation of a forest policy out of the public land policy of the united states, some acquaintance with the public land laws. a good working knowledge of the laws and regulations governing the national forests is indispensable, and the student should at least know where to find the more important court decisions by which they are interpreted. forest history: the history of forestry in europe has a certain importance in throwing light on our own forest history and its probable development, and this is especially true of the history of the administration of government forest lands and of education in forestry. the history of forestry in the united states, however, is far more important. the forester must know the story of the growth and change of national forest organizations, the forest officers and their duties, the cost, size, and effectiveness of the government forest service at different times, the civil service regulations under which it is recruited, and other similar matters. it is important likewise for him to become thoroughly saturated with an intimate knowledge of the development of forestry in public opinion in the united states, its extension to the other natural resources through the conservation policy, and the relation of the forester's point of view thus expressed to the present welfare and future success of the nation. it is not always possible for the forest student to become a woodsman before entering his profession, but it is most desirable. a forester must be able to travel the forest alone by day and by night, he should be a good fisherman and a good hunter (which is far more important than to be a good shot), and deeply interested in both fish and game. the better horseman he is the better forester he will be, and especially if he can pack and handle pack horses in the woods. so that whether the young forester begins with a practical knowledge of woodcraft or not, he must not fail to acquire or improve it, for without it he will endanger the whole success of his career. some knowledge of first aid to the injured is likely to be of great and sudden value to a man so much of whose life must be spent in the woods, at a distance from medical aid. the time spent in getting information on this subject will be anything but wasted. english: the ability to write and to speak good, plain, understandable english is a prime requisite in the forester's training. it is a part of education frequently neglected, especially by those in engineering or scientific pursuits; yet its importance for the forester is very large. as already pointed out, the forester is on the firing line of the conservation movement; he is pioneering in a new profession. for this reason he will often need to explain his stand and convert others to his beliefs. in addition, he must make available to others the results he secures from the study of new facts. a usable command of his own language will stand him in good stead, whether he needs to talk face to face with another man, or from a platform to a concourse of people, or to put into readable printed form the results of his observations or his thinking. when the young forester has completed the courses of his school training in america, the question may be raised whether he should supplement his training by study abroad. i am strongly of opinion that he should do so if he can. study abroad is not indispensable for the american forester, but it can do him nothing but good to see in practical operation the methods of forestry which have resulted from the long experience of other lands, and especially to become familiar with the effect of sound forestry on the forest. +-----------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | page 135 windbrakes changed to windbreaks | +-----------------------------------------------+ transcriber note: text emphasis denoted as _italics_. u. s. department of agriculture. --------- farmers' bulletin no. 67. --------- forestry for farmers. by b. e. fernow, _chief of the division of forestry._ --------- [reprinted from the yearbooks of the u. s. department of agriculture for 1894 and 1895.] [illustration] washington: government printing office. 1898. --------- letter of transmittal. u. s. department of agriculture, division of forestry, _washington, d. c., december 4, 1897._ sir: i have the honor to recommend that the two articles contributed by me to the yearbooks for 1894 and for 1895 on forestry for farmers be reprinted as a farmers' bulletin. the articles contain information in popular form regarding the growth of trees, the planting of a forest, treatment of the wood lot, the cultivation of the wood crop, influence of trees, etc. a wider distribution of this information, for which there is still considerable demand, would, i believe, result in acquainting farmers with a subject the importance of which has not always been duly recognized. very respectfully, b. e. fernow, _chief_. approved: james wilson, _secretary_. -------------- contents. --------- page. how trees grow 3 food materials and conditions of growth 3 soil conditions 4 light conditions 6 physiology of tree growth 9 "sap up and sap down" 10 progress of development 11 growth in length and ramification 11 growth in thickness 14 form development 17 rate of growth 19 reproduction 21 how to plant a forest 22 what trees to plant 23 methods of planting 26 how to treat the wood lot 28 improvement cuttings 29 methods of reproducing the wood crop 31 size of openings 34 wind mantle 34 coppice 35 plan of management 37 how to cultivate the wood crop 37 effect of light on wood production 38 number of trees per acre 38 weeding and cleaning the crop 40 methods of thinning 40 what trees to remove 41 the relation of forests to farms 42 the forest waters the farm 44 the forest tempers the farm 45 the forest protects the farm 45 the forest supplies the farm with useful material 46 forestry for farmers. the following five chapters have been written with the view of aiding farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant some part of their land to forest. this country varies so greatly in soil, climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits assigned for the present discussion, to outline general principles everywhere applicable. nevertheless, wherever suggestions have approximated the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had mainly in mind the conditions prevalent in our northeastern states. moreover, for the reason already referred to, limitation of space, it has not been possible to give more than a comprehensive view, without much detail. the succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are more or less interdependent. the first treats of the behavior of a forest plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the planter in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural forest crop should be produced; the fourth points out how the crop should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in quantity and quality of material; while the fifth chapter is devoted to a consideration of the relation of forests to farms. 1. how trees grow. trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food material from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and other compounds, from which all their parts are formed. they rely, like other plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the functions of growth. yet there are some peculiarities in their behavior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the part of a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly discuss. food materials and conditions of growth. trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and in part from the soil. the solid part of their bodies is made up of cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its weight), with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in water. the carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, and water, is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is retained and combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots, making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots. this process of food preparation, called "assimilation," can be carried on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to light and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the more foliage and the better developed it is, and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the tree grow. in general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood. soil conditions. from the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in part to be given up to the air by transpiration. in a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will contain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and the tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of its dry weight in water mechanically or "hygroscopically" held. this last, when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. the weight of a green tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of about 30 per cent of carbon and 70 per cent or water, either chemically or hygroscopically held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water. the largest part of the water which passes through the tree is transpired--i. e., given off to the air in vapor. the amounts thus transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, its age, the amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the climatic conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the season. these amounts are, however, very large when compared with the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest may store in its trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral substances, and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired--taken up from, the soil and returned to the air--from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops). mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, and nitrogen. these are carried in solution to the leaves, where they are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a part of the water, in food preparation. the main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus. hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil; as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals, provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground. for this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as far as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed to deteriorate from other causes. as the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity is dependent upon the condition of the soil. if the soil is compact, so that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and runs off superficially, or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the water supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and moderately deep (depth being the distance from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil, rock, or ground water) the water not only can penetrate but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots. the moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation and most advantageous distribution through the soil. no trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situations. a moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough or fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and become available to the roots--that is the soil on which all trees grow most thriftily. the agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and wind. the forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are either too expensive or entirely impracticable. he may, indeed, plow for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first operation will be lost. he must, therefore, attain his object in another manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. the shading is done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the shade well throughout the period of growth. this shade is maintained, if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush. the mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. this protective cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best condition for conducting water, and at the same time preventing evaporation at the surface. the soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. wet soils, although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. hence they must be drained and their water level sunk below the depth of the root system. irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt may warrant the expense. attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to plant closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to leave the litter on the ground as a mulch. different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees of soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with reference to its adaptation to available moisture supplies. while, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, especially pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as the bald cypress, honey locust, some oaks, etc. the climate, however, must also be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeeding well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate on the same soil. in the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice. light conditions. to insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight is needed. but as light is almost always accompanied by heat and relative dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump too hard, as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. the conifers belong to this class. in later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of growth. the art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth, without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form development. as we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture. now, while young trees of all kinds, during the "brush" stage of development, have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they vary in habit, especially when growing in the forest. some, like the beech, the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown have a much less dense foliage; anally, there are some which do not keep up a dense shade for any length of time, like the black and honey locust, with their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered bunches of needles. so we can establish a comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continuously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various gradations. if we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil would never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out, or permit a growth of grass or weeds, which is worse, because those transpire still larger quantities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would transpire. of course, a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one, and therefore makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil. another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter then decomposes slowly, but into a desirable humus, which acts favorably upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, partly decomposed "raw" humus is apt to be formed. favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth is increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and light-needing species, is resorted to. as the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they require for their development different degrees of light. the dense foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior of the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. the scanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade of the former, while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. very favorable soil conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic conditions also modify their relative position in the scale. all trees ultimately thrive best--i. e., grow most vigorously--in the full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral branches soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the shaft and the height growth is stimulated. the denser shade of the shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the relative requirements for light of the various species.[1] [1] this relation of the different species to varying light conditions; their comparative shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester. european foresters have done this, but since they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were more or less identical. with our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary and profitable to be more exact in the classification. the forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form development, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid growth produce wood of different character. there are some species which, although light-foliaged and giving comparatively little shade, are yet shade-enduring--i. e., can subsist, although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples of this kind. others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endurance; but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates that it is light-needing, though a good shader for the first period of its life. others, again, like the catalpa, which is shady and shade-enduring, as the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. black locust and honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior shading quality. that soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown development and shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in our country this influence is of much more importance on account of the great variation in those conditions. thus the box elder, an excellent shader in certain portions of the west, is a failure as soil cover in others where it nevertheless will grow. we see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as the shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with reference to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the character of foliage and its length of season must be considered. physiology of tree growth. as we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the tree. the trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food materials up and down between root and foliage. a large part of the roots, too, aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and minerals from the soil. these fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are therefore the essential portion of the root system. a tree may have a fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do--some kinds more so than others--thereby losing their power to take up water, such a tree is apt to die. under very favorable moisture and temperature conditions, however, the old roots may throw out now sprouts and replace the fibrous roots. some species, like the willows, poplars, locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. all trees that "transplant easily" probably possess this capacity of renewing the fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. but it may be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been curtailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were really dead before being set. conifers--pines, spruces, etc.--are especially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples will, in this respect, stand a good deal of abuse. hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest, grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper protection of its root fibers against drying out. the water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must be closely packed with the soil. it is conveyed mostly through the outer, which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches to the leaves. here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and heat it is in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as food materials. these travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood all the way, new buds, which lengthen into shoots, leaves, and flowers, and also new rootlets. to live and grow, therefore, the roots need the food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up from the roots. hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be kept in proportion when transplanting. at least, the root system must be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown. "sap up and sap down." the growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in through the roots and conveyed to the crown. this movement takes place even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by evaporation from the branches. in the growing season it is so active as to become noticeable; hence the saying that the sap is "up," or "rising," and when, toward the end of the season, the movement becomes less, the sap is said to be "down." but this movement of water is always upward; hence the notion that there is a stream upward at one season and in one part of the tree, and a stream downward at another season and perhaps in another part of the tree, is erroneous. the downward movement is of food materials, and the two movements of water upward and food downward take place simultaneously, and depend, in part at least, one upon the other, the food being carried to the young parts, wherever required, by a process of diffusion from cell to cell known as "osmosis." [illustration: fig. 1.--physiological importance of different parts of the tree; pathways of water and food materials. (schematic.)] these food materials are, by the life processes of the active cells, changed in chemical composition as need be, from sugar, which is soluble, into starch, which is insoluble, and back into sugar, and combined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, protoplasm (fig. 1). in the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simultaneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on its voyage. the exact manner in which this movement of water upward and food materials downward takes place, and the forces at work, are not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts of the tree in which the movement takes place. it appears, however, that while all the so-called "sapwood" is capable of conducting water (the heartwood is probably not), the most active movement of both water and food materials takes place in the cambium (the growing cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of the bark. the deductions from these processes important to the planter are: that injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplanting can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the movement begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of the difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the roots protected against frost. all things considered, spring planting, before activity in the tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at other times. progress of development. like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. tree seeds, however, differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germination easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not be kept for any length of time. the first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other plants, weeds, etc. the little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, the protecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also protection against weeds. the amount of light or shade given requires careful regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, and so will too much shade. this accounts for the failure of many seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest. the planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery. [illustration: fig. 2.--bud development of beech. _b_, as it would be if all formed buds were to live; _a_, as it is, many buds failing to develop.] growth in length and ramification. while the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. the growth in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of cell tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well as make leaves. these buds are formed during summer, and when winter begins contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under the protecting cover of scales (fig. 3). when spring stimulates the young plant to new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, distend their cells, increasing their number by subdivision, and thus the leaves expand, and the bud lengthens into a shoot and twig. during the season new buds are formed, and the whole process repeats itself from year to year, giving rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree. the end buds being mostly stronger and better developed, the main axis of tree or branch increases more rapidly than the rest. all these buds originate from the youngest, central part of the shoot, the pith, and hence when the tree grows in thickness, enveloping the base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always be traced. this is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, so-called "adventitious" buds maybe formed from the young living wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. such buds are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is cut; also those which give rise to what are known as "water sprouts." many buds, although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and perhaps not at all, especially as the tree grows older; these either die or remain "dormant," often for a hundred years, to spring into life when necessary (fig. 4). [illustration: fig. 3.--buds of maple. _a_, longitudinal section through tip of a maple twig; _g_, end bud; _s_, lateral buds; _l_, scars of leaves of last season. _b_, cross-section through end bud, showing folded leaves in center and scales surrounding them.] the fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches first formed must be soon removed, either by the knife or by proper shading, which kills the branches and thus "clears" the shaft. [illustration: fig. 4.--dormant bud, _k_, on a 12-year old branch of beech. the bud is still capable of development and is connected with the pith, _mm_, of the stem by a line trace of pith, _s_.] [illustration: fig. 5.--section through a 12-year old stem of beech, showing manner of bud and limb formation, _a_, dormant buds; _b_, their trace of pith extending to the pith of the stem; _c_, a limb which started two years ago from a dormant bud; _d_, normal limb; _e_, a limb dead for four years; _f_, adventitious buds.] the planter has it also in his power to influence the form development of the tree by removing some of the buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. this pruning of buds is, where practicable, often better practice than the pruning of limbs. since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evident that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk. if a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, therefore, only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to grow to considerable age, the base of the limb is encased by the wood of the stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. the longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the timber knotty and the thicker is the knot. if the limb remained alive, the knot is "sound," closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. if the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. in pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and durable; separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a "loose" knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole. in broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of healing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the growth of fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig. 6). in parks and orchards, pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the decay. in well-managed forests and dense woods in general, the light is cut off, the limb is killed when young and breaks away, the shaft "clears itself," and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material. the difference in development of the branch system, whether in full enjoyment of light, in open stand, or with the side light cut off, in dense position, is shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 7). [illustration: fig. 6.--section through partly decayed knot in oak wood. _a_, wood of knot; _b_ and _c_, wood callus of the stem covering the wound; shaded portion, decayed wood, black part, a cavity remaining.] both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the other loses them gradually, the stubs being in time overgrown; finally the second has a clear shaft, with a crown concentrated at the top, while the first is beset with branches and branch stubs for its whole length (fig. 8). when ripped open lengthwise, the interior exhibits the condition shown in figure 9, the dead parts of the knot being indicated in heavier shading. since the brandies grow in more or less regular whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches through the entire stem. hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber. growth in thickness. the young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the whole covered with a thin skin or epidermis. each strand or bundle of fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure on the outer side. between these two sets of fibers, the bast and the wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. the cambium cells are actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the interior and bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side-wise, until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast portions increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium layer, the wood cells, and the bast cells of all the bundles (scattered at the beginning) join at the sides to form a complete ring, or rather hollow cylinder, around the central pith. only here and there the pith cells remain, interrupting the wood cylinder and giving rise to the system of cells known as medullary rays. the cross-section now shows a comparatively small amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body of strong wood fibers. the new shoot at the end, to be sure, has the same appearance and arrangement as the young plantlet had, the pith preponderating, and the continuous cylinder of cambium, bast, and wood being separated into strands or bundles. [illustration: fig. 7.--development in and out of the forest. _a_, young tree alike. in both cases; _b_ and _c_, successive stages of tree grown in the open; _bâ´_ and _câ´_, corresponding stages of the tree grown in the forest. numbers refer to annual growth in height.] during the season, through the activity of the cambial part of the bundles, the same changes take place in the new shoot as did the previous year in the young seedling, while at the same time the cambium in the yearling part also actively subdivides, forming new wood and bast cells, and thus a second ring, or rather cylinder, is formed. the cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before, and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so that at the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of the wood, between wood proper and bark. it is here, therefore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree. [illustration: fig. 8.--tree in and out of the forest. _d_, tree grown in the open; _dâ´_, tree grown in the forest.] the first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are usually or always of a more open structure, thin-walled, and with a large opening or "lumen," comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in fact, sometimes, is the "lumen" that the width of the cells can be seen on a cross-section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, elm, the so-called "pores" are this open wood formed in spring. the cells, which are formed later in summer, have mostly thick walls, are closely crowded and compressed, and show a very small opening or "lumen," being comparable, perhaps, to a very thick wooden box. they appear in the cross-section not only denser but of a deeper color, on account of their crowded, compressed condition and thicker walls. since at the beginning of the next season again thin-walled cells with wide openings or lumina are formed, this difference in the appearance of "spring wood" and "summer wood" enables us to distinguish the layer of wood formed each year. this "annual ring" is more conspicuous in some kinds than in others. in the so-called "ring porous" woods, like oak, ash, elm, the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers, especially pines, by the dark-colored summer wood; while in maple, birch, tulip, etc., only a thin line of flattened, hence darker and regularly aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable, distinguishes the rings from each other. cutting through a tree, therefore, we can not only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross-section, but also determine how much wood is formed each year (fig. 10). we can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissitudes through which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth. to ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year's little plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took the tree to reach that height. [illustration: fig. 9.--sections of logs showing the relative development of knots. _e_, from tree grown in the open; _eâ´_, from tree grown in a dense forest; _a_ and _c_, whorls of knots; _b_, dead limb; _sk_, "sound knot;" _dk_, "dead knot."] this annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of growth. only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its growth throughout its whole length on account of loss of foliage or other causes; and occasionally, when its growth has been disturbed during the season, a "secondary" ring, resembling the annual ring, and distinguishable only by the expert, may appear and mar the record. to the forest planter this chapter on ring growth is of great importance, because not only does this feature of tree life afford the means of watching the progress of his crop, calculating the amount of wood formed, and therefrom determining when it is most profitable for him to harvest (namely, when the annual or periodic wood growth falls below a certain amount), but since the proportion of summer wood and spring wood determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he has it in his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop. form development. if a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, and makes a low and spreading crown. in order to lengthen its shaft and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its growing space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions. when the side shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break off under the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms over the scars and we get a clean shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the reach of shade from neighbors. [illustration: fig. 10.--scheme to illustrate the arrangement of annual growth. 1, 2, 3, etc., represent the parts of the stem grown during the first, second, third, etc., twenty years of the life of the tree, _k_, knots; the shaded part of each is the "dead knot" of lumber.] the branches being prevented from spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow upward, and hence, when crowded by others, trees become taller and more cylindrical in form, while in the open, where they can spread, they remain lower and more conical in form (figs. 11, 12). there are, to be sure, different natural types of development, some, like the walnuts, oaks, beeches, and the broad-leaved trees generally, having greater tendency to spread than others, like spruces, firs, and conifers in general, which lengthen their shaft in preference to spreading, even in the open. this tendency to spreading is also influenced by soil conditions and climate, as well as by the age of the tree. when the trees cease to grow in height, their crowns broaden, and this takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep, moist ones; but the tendency can be checked and all can be made to develop the shaft at the expense of the branches by proper shading from the sides. it follows that the forest planter, who desires to produce long and clean shafts and best working quality of timber, must secure and maintain side shade by a close stand, while the landscape gardener, who desires characteristic form, must maintain an open stand and full enjoyment of light for his trees. now, as we have seen, different species afford different amounts of shade, and in proportion to the shade which they afford can they endure shade. the beech or sugar maple or spruce, which maintain a large amount of foliage under the dense shade of their own crown, show that their leaves can live and functionate with a small amount of light. they are shade-enduring trees. on the other hand, the black walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the larch show by the manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being confined to the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more light--they are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to measure their shade endurance. in making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and overtop the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the former or must be quicker growers. [illustration: fig. 11.--oak tree grown in the open.] [illustration: fig. 12.--maple tree grown in the forest.] rate of growth. not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth during different periods of life, and a difference in the persistence of growth. it stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils and situations, and hence we can not compare different species with respect to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions. thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash on a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter, colder, and shallower soil. given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year), but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early. others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they appear to grow at all, their energy all going into root growth. then comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time at that rate; in later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not cease altogether for centuries. as a rule, the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start, while the shade-enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers. this fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light-needing, and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that fire or storm has made. it is also important with reference to the management of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light-needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species as are slower growers than themselves. the diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, of course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light conditions, as the height growth. in the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing and 20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows comparatively little, all energy being directed to height growth and root growth. when the crown has been definitely formed, more food material is available for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable situations, the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years; in the poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate continues for some time. then comes a period of slower rate, which finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero. but neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. the outer rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. the statements of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in knowing how much wood is forming. accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. the growth in volume or mass accretion is quite small in young trees, so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than proportionate to the number of years may be obtained. only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to make much wood. its volume growth progresses then at a uniform rate, and continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a century or more. on poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase, while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached. of course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total wood formation is less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. just so the dominant trees in a forest--i. e., those which have their crowns above all others--show, of course, the advantage they have over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors. finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest produces at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the number of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. some of them are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth of spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year to 280. hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what the acre of forest will do. tims, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre. from the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil conditions, to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the following deductions of interest to the forest planter: in order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, the forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of light-needing and shade-enduring kinds. the light-needing ones should be of quicker growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. for the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and good growth in height; then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns can not close up again in two or three years; the thinning is to be repeated again and again, always favoring the best developed trees. reproduction. all trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. man can secure their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree has been cut. this latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and the shoots of those that do sprout soon die (sequoia or california redwood seems to be an exception). sprouts of broad-leaved trees develop differently from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also shorter lived. with age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. to secure best results, the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should be made which will not sever the bark from the trunk. not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. the periods differ with species, climate, and season. not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of germination when kept a few hours, like the willows. others, if kept till they have become dry, will "lie over" in the soil a year or more before germinating. the same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions. in order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. the preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply these conditions in most favorable combination. in the natural forest millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees. man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, cannot afford to be as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature's methods, making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the young self-grown crop better chances for life and development. 2. how to plant a forest. forest planting and tree planting are two different things. the orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects in view different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use their plant material differently. they deal with single individual trees, each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. the forester, on the other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not with the single seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the individual tree has value to him only as apart of the whole. it may come to harvest for its timber, or it may not come to harvest, and yet have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground, or acting as nurse or "forwarder" as long as it was necessary. his object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or in many, and his methods must be directed to that end. as far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is concerned, the same general principles and the same care in manipulation are applicable as in any other planting, except as the coat of operating on so large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gardener or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the gardener, the surer the success. the principles underlying such methods have been discussed in the chapter "how trees grow;" in the present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special considerations which should guide the forest planter in particular. what trees to plant. _adaptability to climate_ is the first requisite in the species to be planted. it is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is known to be adapted to it. with regard to species not native, the reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the requirements of the kinds proposed for trial. adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric humidity and requirements of transpiration. many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence of climatic adaptation. if such are to be used, it is important to secure seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in which it occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. for instance, the douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered pacific slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry and frigid slopes of the rockies. lack of attention to this requisite accounts for many failures. it must also be kept in mind that, while a species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in its native habitat. _adaptability to soil_ must be studied less with reference to mineral constituents than to physical condition. depth and moisture conditions, and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of water in it, are the most important elements. while all trees thrive best in a moist to "fresh" soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) and granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, shallow, and compact soils. fissures in rocks into which the roots can penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining favorable moisture conditions. in soils of great depth (i. e., from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots. soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity of atmosphere is added. trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils. _adaptability to site._--while a species may be well adapted to the general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular "site," under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, local climate, and soil. the general climatic conditions are locally influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and the surroundings. thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. hollows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations in soil moisture, etc. hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species which can best withstand such local dangers. _the use value, or utility_, of the species is next to be considered. this must be done with reference to the commercial and domestic demand, and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. the greater variety of purposes a wood may serve--i. e., the greater its general utility--and the sooner it attains its use value the better. white pine for the northeastern states as a wood is like the apple among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities per acre in short time. tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic range, is almost as valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard woods in the market. other woods are of limited application. thus the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only a limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon furnishes valuable hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is attained only by old trees. the black cherry, used for similar purposes, attains its value much sooner. by planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be secured and the certainty of a market increased. _the forest value_ of the species is only in part expressed by its use value. as has been shown in another place, the composition of the crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil conditions, as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. some species, although of high use value, like ash, oak, etc, are poor preservers of soil conditions, allowing grass and weeds to enter the plantation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. others, like beech, sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of great forest value as soil improvers. again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these qualities. some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread rather than lengthen. if planted in close companionship with others, they are forced by these "nurses or forwarders" to make better growths and clean their shafts of branches. furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a "big cropper," and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest "forest value." hence, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in the selection of materials for forest planting. _mutual relationship of different species_, with reference especially to their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, must be considered in starting a mixed plantation. mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advantages over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should be preferred, except for very particular reasons. mixed plantations are capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied material, preserve soil conditions hotter, are less liable to damage from winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced. the following general rules should guide in making up the composition of a mixed plantation: _a._ shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of the plantation, except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which case those may even be planted by themselves. _b._ the light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have the necessary light and be forced by side shade to straight growth. _c._ shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each other when their rate of height growth is about equal, or when the slower-growing kind can be protected against the quicker-growing (for instance, by planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or by cutting back the latter). _d._ the more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former. where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black walnut, for instance), it can be greatly improved by "under-planting" densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation. the selection and proper combination of species with reference to this mutual relationship to each other and to the soil are the most important elements of success. _availability_ of the species also still needs consideration in this country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to the purpose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices. while the beech is one of the best species for shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity. western conifers, although promising good material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for general use. some eastern trees can be secured readily--either their seed or seedlings--from the native woods; others must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field. _whether to procure seeds or plants_, and if the latter, what kind, depends upon a number of considerations. the main crop, that which is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well-developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 years old. the secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used. in some localities--for instance, the western plains--the germinating of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of seeds in the field can not be recommended. in such locations careful selection and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships which it must encounter can alone insure success. seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. the planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in transplanting. methods of planting. _preparation of soil_ is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the climate is hot too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the young crop from establishing itself. thousands of acres in germany are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine seedlings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. this absence of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that encountered in the sand-hills of nebraska, which may, if disturbed, be blown out and shifted. in other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to, or else furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them. in land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start. for special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, special methods are required. the best methods for planting in the semiarid regions of the far west have not yet been developed. thorough cultivation, as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is successful, but expensive. a plan which might be tried would consist in breaking the raw prairie in june and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening furrows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed, so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a mulch between the rows. _the time for planting_ depends on climatic and soil conditions and the convenience of the planter. spring planting is preferable except in southern latitudes, especially in the west, where the winters are severe and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition for planting. the time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring planting, before or just when life begins anew. in order to be ready in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants in the fall and "heel them in" over winter (covering them, closely packed, in a dry trench of soil). conifers can be planted later in spring and earlier in fall than broad-leaved trees. _the density_ of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. the advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form development of the crop. these advantages must be balanced against the increased cost of close planting. the closer the planting, the sooner will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success. if planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most desirable on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success. the following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting at distances as indicated: 1â½ by 1â½ feet 19,360 | 2 by 4 feet 6,445 1â½ by 2 feet 14,520 | 3 by 3 feet 4,840 2 by 2 foot 10,890 | 3 by 4 feet 3,630 2 by 3 feet 7,260 | 4 by 4 feet 2,722 to decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species. these should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely surrounded by the nurse crop. it is, of course, understood that not all trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or else timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre. _after-culture_ is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. shallow cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 feet apart, the time varying also with the species. it is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting as soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few years by the neighboring growth. when the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist of judicious thinning. 3. how to treat the wood lot. in the northeastern states it is the custom to have connected with the farm apiece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. its object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence material, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for repairs on buildings, wagons, etc. as a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well fitted for agricultural crops. as a rule, it is treated as it ought not to be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is cut and culled without regard to its reproduction. as far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. the careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires, and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could be used for better purposes or not. when it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select the best trees of the best kind for the purpose. this looks at first sight like the natural, most practical way of doing. it is the method which the lumberman pursues when he "culls" the forest, and is, from his point of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure at once what is most profitable in the forest. but for the farmer, who proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detrimental to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a better crop. our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are mixed woods. some of the species are valuable for some special purposes, others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that use they may not be of the best. among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention the white pine--king of all--the white ash, white and chestnut oak, hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three being now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, poplars, and sycamore. now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds--the weeds among trees, if one may call them such--and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless. it does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the constant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible. it would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; the farm has by so much lost in value. in other words, instead of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed. this is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration and secure reproduction. improvement cuttings. the first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. this weeding must not, however, be done all sit once, as it could be in a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value, even the weed trees, as soil cover. the great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. in forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are resorted to. the principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch. a combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. under such conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not compact the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, be that more moisture remains for the use of the trees. when the shade of the crowns overhead (the so-called "crown cover," or "canopy,") is perfect, but little undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. if this is composed of young trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and especially grass, it is a misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity. some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but little light reaches the soil. when they appear it is a sign to the forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any more. when the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already deteriorated. if this state continues, the heavy drain which the transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still further. the overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to penetrate. hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. and for the same reason, in the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more numerous than the light-needing. the forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, the "crown cover;" for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light conditions. the changes of the soil cover teach him more often when "to let alone" than when to go on with his operations of thinning out; that is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favorable. hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution and only very gradually, so that no deterioration of the soil conditions be invited. we have repeated this injunction again and again, because all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions. as the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their reappearance in subsequent crops, it maybe advisable to cut such kinds as sprout readily from the stump in summer time--june or july--when the stumps are, likely to die without sprouting. it may take several years' cutting to bring the composition of the main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us. methods of reproducing the wood crop. then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. as we propose to keep the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view to that reproduction. there are various methods pursued for this purpose in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas, especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts of timber, and these little by little as required. it is possible, to be sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. there are three methods practicable. we may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighboring growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop--"the strip method;" or we can take out single trees here and there, relying again on an after growth from seed shed by the surrounding trees--the "selection method;" or, finally, instead of single trees, we may cut entire groups of trees hero and there in the same manner, the gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the "group method." in _the strip method_, in order to secure sufficient seeding of the cleared strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighboring growth can not be carried over it by the wind. in order to get the best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds. oaks, beech, hickory, and nut trees in general with heavy seeds will not seed over any considerable breadth of strip, while with maple and ash the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, or birch and elm, maybe able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4 and even 8 times their height. but such broad strips are hazardous, since with insufficient seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate. it is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than just the height of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better chance of covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more protection from the mother crop. in hilly country the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash out soil and seed. every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and "regenerated." but if the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily, the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing. accordingly, this method should be used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly and successfully. [illustration: fig. 13.--showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1, 2, 3, 4, successive groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; _a_, wind mantle, specially managed to secure protection.] the other two methods have greater chances of success in that they preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides. _the selection method_, by which single trees are taken out all over the forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young crop. millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but perish from the excessive shade of the mother trees. if we wish to be successful in establishing a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the time and give light as needed by the young crop. the openings made by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its development, because it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax. the best method, therefore, in all respects, is the "_group method_" which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires loss careful attention, or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to local conditions (fig. 13). it is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for each species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group demand more or less shade. further, when different species are ripe for regeneration at different times, this plan makes it possible to take them in hand as needed. again, we can begin with one group or we can take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and practicable. we start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we choose a place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regenerated, the soil is likely to deteriorate further. the choice is affected further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. in short, we begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the least artificial aid. of course, advantage should betaken of the occurrence of seed years, which come at different intervals with different species. if we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when no longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the young growth. when the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily, and the young growth has come to require more light (which may take several years), we remove another band around it, and thus the regeneration progresses. where no young growth already exists, of course the first opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the enlargement follows as occasion requires. size of openings. the size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which is to 'be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. it is difficult to give any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so manifold, requiring observation and judgment. caution in not opening too much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands. in general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber. the time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood seasons best after felling and is also most readily moved. since it is expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, all wood should, of course, be removed from the seed ground. the first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impracticable to put it in such condition by artificial means--hoeing or plowing. it is, of course, quite practicable--nay, sometimes very desirable--to prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. where undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may find favorable conditions. to let pigs do the plowing and the covering of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad. it is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the surrounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as were or were not in the composition of the original crop. it may require ten, twenty, or forty years or more to secure the reproduction of a wood lot in this way. a new growth, denser and better than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. the progress of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. if we should make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally represented, would be like figure 14, the old growth on the outside, the youngest new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height toward the center of the group. wind mantle. on the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding the entire plat (fig. 13, _a_), representing a strip of timber which should surround the farmer's wood lot, and which he should keep as dense as possible, especially favoring undergrowth. this part, if practicable, should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, i. e., by taking out trees hero and there. when gaps are made, they should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds, which, like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the foot for a long time. this mantle is intended to protect the interior against the drying influence of winds, which are bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. the smaller the lot, the more necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or wind-break. [illustration: fig. 14.--appearance of regeneration by group method.] coppice. besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the stump. this, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leaved species, since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. when a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking place by such sprouts we call coppice. most wooded areas in the eastern states have been so cut that reproduction from seed could not take place, and hence we have large areas of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. as we have seen in the chapter on "how trees grow," the sprouts do not develop into as good trees as the seedlings. they grow faster, to be sure, in the beginning, but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived. for the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice management may suffice, but not for dimension timber. and even to keep the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after repeated cutting, tail to sprout and die out. soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily deteriorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump. some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. in the coppice, as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable composition must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement cuttings, as described in a previous section. the best trees for coppice in the northeastern states are the chestnut, various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, which are all good sprouters. when cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the main care. the best results are probably obtained, both financially and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut between the twentieth and thirtieth years. all cutting must be done in early spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. cutting in summer kills the stump, as a rule. the cut should be made slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of moisture on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible to the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots. fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. this can be readily done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) from the end. the sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (fig. 15). for the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. this kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees intermixed, if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the wood lot, leads to a management called "standard coppice." in this it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. the former object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown without sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade. plan of management. in order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvicultural point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies, the cutting must follow some systematic plan. the improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. both the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. according to the amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same time. it is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot. [illustration: fig. 15.--method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood.] 4. how to cultivate the wood crop. where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure that it covers the ground completely. nevertheless, even in such a crop, which is usually managed as coppice,[2] some of the operations described in this chapter may prove advantageous. where, however, not only quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, the development of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees. [2] see page 35 for description of coppice. it may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development. effect of light on wood production. dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making it available for wood production. but a close stand also cuts off side light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand thus secures desirable form and quality. yet, since the quality of wood production or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foliage, an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion on each tree. on the other hand, a tree grown in the open, besides producing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at the base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the dense forest both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more cylindrical form. while, then, the total amount of wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one (within limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller number of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the crop. and since the size of a tree or log is important in determining its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual trees reach useful size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the whole crop. number of trees per acre. the care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. he tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of single trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open stand. the solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for every species or combination of species and conditions these rules must be modified. in a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded naturally.[3] left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to crowd each other. at first this crowding results only in increasing the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive sufficient light finally die and break off--the shaft "clears itself." then a distinct development of definite crowns takes place, and after some years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes marked. not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them according to height and development of crown, the superior or "dominating" ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or "dominated" trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. this natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages continuing through the entire life of the crop, so that, while only 4,000 trees per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover or normally close stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 would suffice to make the same dense cover, in the eightieth year 350 would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, according to soil and species, more or less. as we can discern three stages in the development of a single tree--the juvenile, adolescent, and mature--so, in the development of a forest growth, we may distinguish three corresponding stages, namely, the "thicket" or brushwood, the "pole-wood" or sapling, and the "timber" stage. during the thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy appearance, allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most rapid. this period may last, according to conditions and species, from 5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years--longer on poor soils and with shade-enduring species, shorter with light-needing species on good soils--and, while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the close stand, which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which at a later period the wood that makes valuable, clear timber, may accumulate. form development is now most important. the lower branches are to die and break off before they become too large. (see illustrations of the progress of "clearing," on pp. 15 and 16.) with light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with conifers. the spruces and even the white pine require very dense shading to "clear" the shaft. during this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, such as trees infested by insect and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of their better neighbors. in short, our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the composition of the crop. [3] if the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be well established and should be filled out by planting. weeding and cleaning the crop. this weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is from 3 to 5 years old. later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees with a knife or hatchet maybe practiced. in well-made artificial plantations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth year. but in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual trees. the stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out later. in such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more rapid development of the rest of the crop. this can be done most cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and us far apart through the crop, leaving strips standing. the outer trees of the strip, at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. these weeding or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the summer months, or in august and september, when it is easy to judge what should be taken out. methods of thinning. during the "thicket" stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and condition. when the "pole-wood" stage is reached, most of the saplings being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet in height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more marked. some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear shaft and a definite crown. the trees can be more or less readily classified into height and size classes. the rate at which the height growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. this is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase their diameter in direct proportion. these thinnings must, however, be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood is too much stimulated. so varying are the conditions to be considered, according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to lay down rules for the proper procedure. in addition the opinions of authorities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings. for the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following general method may perhaps be most useful: first determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or "final harvest" crop. for this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be distributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. these, then--or as many as may live till the final harvest--are destined to grow into timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. they may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be readily distinguished by their superior development the rest, which we will call the "subordinate" crop, is then to serve merely as filler, nurse, and soil cover. what trees to remove. it is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of each of the "final harvest" crop trees, or "superiors," as we may call them, to determine what trees of the "subordinate" crop trees, or "inferiors," must be removed. all nurse trees that threaten to overtop the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped, if that is practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and spreading of side branches on the superiors. as soon as the latter have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to the drying influence of the sun. gradually, as the crowns of inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded. meanwhile thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to secure also the most material from this part of the crop. this is done by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors. in this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material, only good for firewood, lessened. it is evident that trees which in the struggle for existence have fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by their removal, influence the remaining growth. they are removed only in order to utilize their wood before it decays. it may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on the contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions. its existence, however, shows in most cases that the crown cover is not as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically disadvantageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open. the answer to the three questions, when to begin the thinnings, how severely to thin, and how often to repeat the operation, must always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the necessities in each case. the first necessity for interference may arise with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. the necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat interdependent. it is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil conditions. especially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every 6 to 10 years. the condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs the ax. as soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has arrived to thin again. in mixed growths it must not be overlooked that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier neighbors. shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vigorously when more light is given, while light-needing species, like the pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to recover. particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather denser "wind mantle" all around small groves. in this part of the grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low down, thus increasing their value as wind-breaks. the thinnings, then, while giving to the "final harvest" crop all the advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into serviceable timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. at 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and only the originally selected "superiors" remain on the ground, or as many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, ready for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding chapter. 5.--the relation of forests to farms. that all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent is a common saying, a fact doubted by nobody, yet often forgotten or neglected in practical life. the reason is partly indifference and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; hence we suffer, deservedly or not. the farmer's business, more than any other, perhaps, depends for its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this inter-relation, he adapts his crop to the nature of the soil, the manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether he shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each other and adapts himself to them. soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly related and utilized, combine to produce his crops. in some directions he can control these factors more or less readily; in others they are withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly helpless. he can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring, by proper rotation of crops, and by deep culture; he can remove surplus moisture by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, bring water to his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation, thereby rendering more water available to the crop; but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the seasons. recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the greatest follies and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed during this age. nevertheless, by indirect means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than he has attempted hitherto. he can prevent or reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes; he can increase the available water supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall; he can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and avoid the harm which they are able to inflict. before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice, we should study how to secure the best use of that which falls, as it comes within reach of human agencies and becomes available by natural causes. how poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced yearly by destructive freshets and floods, with the accompanying washing of soil, followed by droughts, low waters, and deterioration of agricultural lands. it is claimed that annually in the united states about 200 square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks and rivers, a loss of soil capital which can not be repaired for centuries. at the same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in the river and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers, and many thousands of dollars' worth of crops and other property are destroyed by floods and overflows; not to count the large loss from droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other, and which, undoubtedly, could be largely avoided, if we knew how to manage the available water supplies. the regulation, proper distribution, and utilization of the rain waters in humid as well as in arid regions--water management--is to be the great problem of successful-agriculture in the future. one of the most powerful means for such water management lies in the proper distribution and maintenance of forest areas. nay, we can say that the most successful water management is not possible without forest management. the forest waters the farm. whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near their limits is still an open question, although there are indications that under certain conditions large, dense forest areas may have such an effect. at any rate, the water transpired by the foliage is certain, in some degree, to increase the relative humidity near the forest, and thereby increase directly or indirectly the water supplies in its neighborhood. this much we can assert, also, that while extended plains and fields, heated by the sun, and hence giving rise to warm currents of air, have the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing moisture-bearing currents, forest areas, with their cooler, moister air strata, do not have such a tendency, and local showers may therefore become more frequent in their neighborhood. but, though no increase in the amount of rainfall may be secured by forest areas, the availability of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-kept and properly located forest growth. the foliage, twigs, and branches break the fall of the raindrops, and so does the litter of the forest floor, hence the soil under this cover is not compacted as in the open field, but kept loose and granular, so that the water can readily penetrate and percolate; the water thus reaches the ground more slowly, dripping gradually from the leaves, branches, and trunks, and allowing more time for it to sink into the soil. this percolation is also made easier by the channels along the many roots. similarly, on account of the open structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under a forest cover in spring, where it lies a fortnight to a month longer than in exposed positions and melts with less waste from evaporation, the snow waters more fully penetrate the ground. again, more snow is caught and preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept fields and prairies. all these conditions operate together, with the result that larger amounts of the water sink into the forest soil and to greater depths than in open fields. this moisture is conserved because of the reduced evaporation in the cool and still forest air, being protected from the two great moisture-dissipating agents, sun and wind. by these conditions alone the water supplies available in the soil are increased from 50 to 60 per cent over those available on the open field. owing to those two causes, then--increased percolation and decreased evaporation--larger amounts of moisture become available to feed the springs and subsoil waters, and these become finally available to the farm, if the forest is located at a higher elevation than the field. the great importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence of forest areas upon it has so far received too little attention and appreciation. it is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying the needed moisture in times of drought. the forest tempers the farm. another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of moisture lies in its wind-breaking capacity, by which both velocity and temperature of winds are modified and evaporation from the fields to the leeward is reduced. on the prairie, wind-swept every day and every hour, the farmer has learned to plant a wind-break around his buildings and orchards, often only a single-row of trees, and finds even that a desirable shelter, tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter. the fields he usually leaves unprotected; yet a wind-break around his crops to the windward would bring him increased yield, and a timber belt would act still more effectively. says a farmer from illinois: my experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected by timber belts yield full crops, while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost, and every year we had a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. at that time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away. not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over and through the shaded and cooler spaces of protecting timber bolts disposed toward the windward and alternating with the fields, but their velocity is broken and moderated, and since with reduced velocity the evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced, so more water is left available for crops. every foot in height of a forest growth will protect 1 rod in distance, and several bolts in succession would probably greatly increase the effective distance. by preventing deep freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged, and the frequent fogs and mists that hover near forest areas prevent many frosts. that stock will thrive better where it can find protection from the cold blasts of winter and from the heat of the sun in summer is a well-established fact. the forest protects the farm. on the sandy plains, where the winds are apt to blow the sand, shifting it hither and thither, a forest belt to the windward is the only means to keep the farm protected. in the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from heavy rains washing away the soil. where the tops and slopes are bared of their forest cover, the litter of the forest floor burnt up, the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the raindrops, the water can not penetrate the soil readily, but is earned off superficially, especially when the soil is of, day and naturally compact. as a result the waters, rushing over the surface down the hill, run together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as to be able to move loose particles and even stones; the ground becomes furrowed with gullies and runs; the fertile soil is washed away; the fields below are covered with silt; the roads are damaged; the water courses tear their banks, and later run dry because the waters that should feed them by subterranean channels have been carried away in the flood. the forest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not fit for cultivation prevents this erosive action of the waters by the same influence by which it increases available water supplies. the important effects of a forest cover, then, are retention of larger quantities of water and carrying them off under ground and giving them up gradually, thus extending the time of their usefulness and preventing their destructive action. in order to be thoroughly effective, the forest growth must be dense, and, especially, the forest floor must not be robbed of its accumulations of foliage, surface mulch and litter, or its underbrush by fire, nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle. on the gentler slopes, which are devoted to cultivation, methods of underdraining, such as horizontal ditches partly filled with stones and covered with soil, terracing, and contour plowing, deep cultivation, sodding, and proper rotation of crops, must be employed to prevent damage from surface waters. the forest supplies the farm with useful material. all the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest bolts upon water conditions can be had without losing any of the useful material that the forest produces. the forest grows to be cut and to be utilized; it is a crop to be harvested. it is a crop which, if properly managed, does not need to be replanted; it reproduces itself. when once established, the ax, if properly guided by skillful hands, is the only tool necessary to cultivate it and to reproduce it. there is no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been mismanaged. the wood lot, then, if properly managed, is not only the guardian of the farm, but it is the savings bank from which fair interest can be annually drawn, utilizing for the purpose the poorest part of the farm. nor does the wood lot require much attention; it is to the farm what the workbasket is to the good housewife--a means with which improve the odds and ends of time, especially during the winter, when other farm business is at a standstill. it may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the wood lot, besides the other advantages recited above, is of far greater importance and value than is generally admitted. on a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more of fencing and with its wood fires in range and stove, at least 25 cords of wood are required annually, besides material for repair of buildings, or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres of well-stocked forest is needed. the product may represent, according to location, an actual stumpage value of from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble and work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. it is questionable whether such net results could be secured with the same steadiness from any other crop. nor must it be overlooked that the work in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done. wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they require ready cash, and often the distance of haulage makes them rather expensive. presently, too, when the virgin woods have been still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has preserved a sufficiently large and well-tended wood lot will be able to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market with wood of various kinds and sizes. the german state forests, with their complicated administrations, which eat up 4 per cent of the gross income, yield, with prices of wood about the same as in our country, an annual net revenue of from $1 to $4 and more per acre. why should not the farmer, who does not pay salaries to managers, overseers, and forest guards, make at least as much money out of this crop when he is within reach of a market? with varying conditions the methods would of course vary. in a general way, if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods, the first care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by cutting out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the poorly grown trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors. the wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and, even if he could not use it at all, and had to burn it up, the operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop. then he may use the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, but he must take care that the openings are not made too large, so that they can readily fill out with young growth from the seed of the remaining trees, and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth, giving it light as needed. thus without ever resorting to planting he may harvest the old timber and have a now crop taking its place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use of the same. farmers' bulletins. these bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application to the secretary of agriculture. washington, d. c. only the following are available for distribution: no. 15. some destructive potato diseases: what they are and how to prevent thorn. pp. 8. no. 16. leguminous plants for green manuring and for feeding. pp. 24. no. 18. forage plants for the south. pp. 30. no. 19. important insecticides: directions for their preparation and use. pp. 20. no. 21. barnyard manure. pp. 32. no. 22. feeding farm animals. pp. 32. no. 23. foods: nutritive value and cost. pp. 32. no. 24. hog cholera and swine plague. pp. 16. no. 25. peanuts: culture and uses. pp. 24. no. 26. sweet potatoes: culture and uses. pp. 30. no. 27. flax for seed and fiber. pp. 16. no. 28. weeds; and how to kill them. pp. 30. no. 29. souring of milk, and other changes in milk products. pp. 28. no. 30. grape diseases on the pacific coast. pp. 16. no. 31. alfalfa, or lucern. pp. 23. no. 32. silos and silage. pp. 31. no. 33. peach growing for market. pp. 24. no. 34. meats: composition and cooking. pp. 29. no. 35. potato culture. pp. 23. no. 36. cotton seed and its products. pp. 10. no. 37. katir corn: characteristics, culture, and uses. pp. 12. no. 38. spraying for fruit diseases. pp. 12. no. 39. onion culture. pp. 31. no. 40. farm drainage. pp. 24. no. 41. fowls: care and feeding. pp. 24. no. 42. facts about milk. pp. 29. no. 43. sewage disposal on the farm. pp. 22. no. 44. commercial fertilizers. pp. 24. no. 45. some insects injurious to stored grain. pp. 32. no. 46. irrigation in humid climates. pp. 27. no. 47. insects affecting the cotton plant. pp. 32. no. 48. the manuring of cotton. pp. 10. no. 49. sheep feeding. pp. 24. no. 50. sorghum as a forage crop. pp. 24. no. 51. standard varieties of chickens. pp. 48. no. 52. the sugar beet. pp. 48. no. 53. how to grow mushrooms. pp. 20. no. 54. some common birds in their relation to agriculture. pp. 40. no. 55. the dairy herd: its formation and management. pp. 24. no. 56. experiment station work--i. pp. 30. no. 57. butter making on the farm. pp. 15. no. 58. the soy bean as a forage crop. pp. 24. no. 59. bee keeping. pp. 32. no. 60. methods of curing tobacco. pp. 10. no. 61. asparagus culture. pp. 40. no. 62. marketing farm produce. pp. 28. no. 63. care of milk on the farm. pp. 40. no. 64. ducks and geese. pp. 48. no. 65. experiment station work--ii. pp. 32. no. 66. meadows and pastures. pp. 24. no. 67. forestry for farmers. pp. 48. no. 68. the black rot of the cabbage. pp. 22. no. 69. experiment station work--iii. pp. 32. no. 70. the principal insect enemies of the grape. pp. 24. no. 71. some essentials of beef production. pp. 24. no. 72. cattle ranges of the southwest. pp. 32. no. 73. experiment station work--iv. pp. 32. no. 74. milk as food. pp. 39. no. 75. the grain smuts. pp. 20. no. 76. tomato growing. pp. 30. no. 77. the liming of soils. pp. 19. no. 78. experiment station work--v. pp. 32. no. 79. experiment station work--vi. pp. 28. no. 80. the peach twig-borer--an important enemy of stone fruits. pp. 10. no. 81. corn culture in the south. pp. 24. no. 82. the culture of tobacco. pp. 23. no. 83. tobacco soils. pp. 23. no. 84. experiment station work--vii. pp. 82. no. 85. fish as food. pp. 30. no. 86. thirty poisonous plants. pp. 32. no. 87. experiment station work--viii. (in press.) no. 88. alkali lands. pp. 23. no. 89. cowpeas. (in press.) * * * * * transcriber note illustrations were move so a to prevent splitting paragraphs. minor typos corrected. illustrations were obtained from the the internet archive and the university of north texas' usda farmers' bulletins digital library. file was produced from images generously made available by the library of congress) [illustration: vol·i· no·1· garden and forest ·a·journal·of·horticulture· ·landscape·art·and·forestry· ·february·29, 1888.] price ten cents.] copyright, 1888, by the garden and forest publishing company, limited. [$4.00 a year, in advance.] important new books. i. by william dean howells. april hopes. a novel. by william dean howells. 12mo, cloth, $1 50. _mr. howells never wrote a more bewitching book. it is useless to deny the rarity and worth of the skill that can report so perfectly and with such exquisite humor the manifold emotions of the modern maiden and her lover._--philadelphia press. modern italian poets. essays and versions. by william dean howells. author of "april hopes," &c. with portraits. 12mo, half cloth, uncut edges and gilt tops, $2 00. _a portfolio of delightsome studies.... no acute and penetrating critic surpasses mr. howells in true insight, in polished irony, in effective and yet graceful treatment of his theme, in that light and indescribable touch that fixes your eye on the true heart and soul of the theme._--critic, _n. y._ ii. conclusion of kinglake's crimean war. kinglake's crimean war. the invasion of the crimea: its origin, and an account of its progress down to the death of lord raglan. by alexander william kinglake. with maps and plans. five volumes now ready. 12mo, cloth, $2 00 per vol. vol. v. from the morrow of inkerman to the fall of canrobert; _just published_.--vol. vi. from the rise of pelissier to the death of lord raglan--completing the work--_nearly ready_. _the charm of mr. kinglake's style, the wonderful beauty of his pictures, the subtle irony of his reflections, have made him so long a favorite and companion, that it is with unfeigned regret we read the word "farewell" with which these volumes close._--pall mall gazette, _london._ iii. t. adolphus trollope's autobiography. what i remember. by t. adolphus trollope. with portrait. 12mo, cloth, $1 75. _the most delightful pot-pourri that we could desire of the time just anterior to our own.... mr. trollope preserves for us delightful, racy stories of his youth and the youth of his century, and gives us glimpses of loved or worshipped faces banished before our time. hence the success of these written remembrances._--academy, _london._ iv. by the author of "self-help." life and labor; or, characteristics of men of industry, culture, and genius. by samuel smiles, ll.d., author of "self-help," &c. 12mo, cloth, $1 00. _commends itself to the entire confidence of readers. dr. smiles writes nothing that is not fresh, strong, and magnetically bracing. he is one of the most helpful authors of the victorian era.... this is just the book for young men._--n. y. journal of commerce. v. thomas w. higginson's new book. women and men. by thomas w. higginson, author of "a larger history of the united states," &c. 16mo, cloth, $1 00. _these essays are replete with common-sense ideas, expressed in well-chosen language, and reflect on every page the humor, wit, wisdom of the author._--n. y. sun. vi. plain, sensible, sturdy advice.--chicago news. big wages, and how to earn them. by a foreman. 16mo, cloth, 75 cents. _the views of an intelligent observer upon some of the foremost social topics of the day. the style is simple, the logic cogent, and the tone moderate and sensible._--n. y. commercial advertiser. vii. the standard authority upon the inquisition.--philadelphia ledger. history of the inquisition of the middle ages. by henry charles lea. to be completed in three volumes. 8vo, cloth, uncut edges and gilt tops, $3 00 per volume. vols. i. and ii. _now ready_. vol. iii. _nearly ready_. _characterized by the same astounding reach of historical scholarship as made mr. lea's "sacerdotal celibacy" the wonder of european scholars. but it seems even to surpass his former works in judicial repose and in the mastery of materials.... of mr. lea's predecessors no one is so like him as gibbon._--sunday-school times, _philadelphia_. viii. the navies of the united states and of europe. modern ships of war. by sir edward j. reed, m.p., late chief constructor of the british navy, and edward simpson, rear-admiral u.s.n., late president of the u.s. naval advisory board. with supplementary chapters and notes by j. d. jerrold kelley, lieutenant u.s.n. illustrated. square 8vo, cloth, ornamental, $2 50. _this is the most valuable contribution yet made to the popular literature of modern navies.... the whole country is indebted to the authors and to the publishers for a book on men-of-war that both in matter and make-up is without an equal._--n. y. herald. ix. full, from beginning to end, with good stories.--saturday review, london. my autobiography and reminiscences. by w. p. frith, r.a. portrait. 12mo, cloth, $1 50. _the whole round of english autobiography does not comprise a work more full of character, more rich in anecdote, or more fruitful in entertainment for the general reader. a delightful volume._--london daily news. x. negro troops in the rebellion. history of the negro troops in the war of the rebellion. 1861-1865. by g. w. williams, ll.d. portrait. 8vo, cloth, ornamental, $1 75. _mr. williams has written an excellent book. he was one of the gallant men whose patriotic deeds he commemorates, and he has made a careful study of all the best accessible records of their achievements. his people may well be proud of the showing._--n. y. tribune. xi. $500 a year for a family. family living on $500 a year. a daily reference book for young and inexperienced housewives. by juliet corson. 16mo, cloth, extra, $1 25. _miss corson has rendered a valuable service by this book, in which she shows conclusively how for five hundred dollars a plentiful, appetizing and varied diet can be furnished throughout the year to a family._--n. y. sun. xii. some recent fiction. captain macdonald's daughter. by archibald campbell. 16mo, cloth, $1 00. narka, the nihilist. by kathleen o'meara. 16mo, cloth, extra, $1 00. mr. absalom billingslea, and other georgian folk. by r. m. johnston. illustrated. 16mo, cloth, extra, $1 25. a magnificent plebeian. by julia magruder. 16mo, cloth, extra, $1 00. a prince of the blood. by james payn. 16mo, cloth, 75 cents. _the above works are for sale by all booksellers, or will be sent by_ harper & brothers, _postpaid, to any part of the united states and canada on receipt of price. catalogue sent on receipt of ten cents in postage stamps._ published by harper & brothers, new york. garden and forest: an illustrated weekly journal of horticulture, landscape art and forestry. garden and forest will be devoted to horticulture in all its branches, garden botany, dendrology and landscape gardening, and will discuss plant diseases and insects injurious to vegetation. professor c. s. sargent, of harvard college, will have general editorial control of garden and forest. professor wm. g. farlow, of harvard college, will have editorial charge of the department of cryptogamic botany and plant diseases. professor a. s. packard, of brown university, will have editorial charge of the department of entomology. mr. wm. a. stiles will be the managing editor. garden and forest will record all noteworthy discoveries and all progress in science and practice within its field at home and abroad. it will place scientific information clearly and simply before the public, and make available for the instruction of all persons interested in garden plants the conclusions reached by the most trustworthy investigators. arrangements have been made to figure and describe new and little-known plants (especially north american) of horticultural promise. a department will be devoted to the history and description of ornamental trees and shrubs. new florists' flowers, fruits and vegetables will be made known, and experienced gardeners will describe practical methods of cultivation. garden and forest will report the proceedings of the principal horticultural societies of the united states and the condition of the horticultural trade in the chief commercial centres of the country. garden and forest, in view of the growing taste for rural life, and of the multiplication of country residences in all parts of the united states, especially in the vicinity of the cities and of the larger towns, will make a special feature of discussing the planning and planting of private gardens and grounds, small and large, and will endeavor to assist all who desire to make their home surroundings attractive and artistic. it will be a medium of instruction for all persons interested in preserving and developing the beauty of natural scenery. it will co-operate with village improvement societies and every other organized effort to secure the proper ordering and maintenance of parks and squares, cemeteries, railroad stations, school grounds and roadsides. it will treat of landscape gardening in all its phases; reviewing its history and discussing its connection with architecture. garden and forest will give special attention to scientific and practical forestry in their various departments, including forest conservation and economic tree planting, and to all the important questions which grow out of the intimate relation of the forests of the country to its climate, soil, water supply and material development. original information on all these subjects will be furnished by numerous american and foreign correspondents. among those who have promised contributions to garden and forest are: mr. sereno watson, curator of the herbarium, harvard college. prof. geo. l. goodale, harvard college. " wolcott gibbs, " " wm. h. brewer, yale college. " d. g. eaton, " " wm. j. beal, agricultural college of michigan. " l. h. bailey, jr., " " j. l. budd, agricultural college of iowa. " b. d. halsted, " " " " e. w. hilgard, university of california. " j. t. rothrock, university of pennsylvania. " chas. e. bessey, university of nebraska. " wm. trelease, shaw school of botany, st. louis. " t. j. burrill, university of illinois. " w. w. bailey, brown university. " e. a. popenoe, agricultural college, kansas. " raphael pumpelly. united states geological survey. " james h. gardiner, director new york state survey. " wm. r. lazenby, director of the ohio agricultural experiment station. " w. w. tracy, detroit, mich. " c. v. riley, washington, d. c. mr. donald g. mitchell, new haven, conn. " frank j. scott, toledo, o. hon. adolphe leué, secretary of the ohio forestry bureau. " b. g. northrop, clinton, conn. mr. g. w. hotchkiss, secretary of the lumber manufacturers' association. dr. c. l. anderson, santa cruz, cal. mr. frederick law olmsted, brookline, mass. " francis parkman, boston. dr. c. c. parry, san francisco. mr. prosper j. berckmans, president of the american pomological society. " charles a. dana, new york. " burnet landreth, philadelphia. " robert ridgeway, washington, d. c. " calvert vaux, new york. " j. b. harrison, franklin falls, n. h. dr. henry p. walcott, president of the massachusetts horticultural society. mr. c. g. pringle, charlotte, vt. " robert douglas, waukegan, ill. " h. w. s. cleveland, minneapolis, minn. " chas. w. garfield, secretary of the american pomological society. " c. r. orcutt, san diego, cal. " b. e. fernow, chief of the forestry division, washington, d. c. " john birkenbine, secretary of the pennsylvania forestry association. " josiah hoopes, west chester, pa. " peter henderson, new york. " wm. falconer, glen cove, n. y. " jackson dawson, jamaica plain, mass. " wm. h. hall, state engineer, sacramento, cal. " c. c. crozier, department of agriculture, washington, d. c. the rev. e. p. roe, cornwall, n. y. dr. c. c. abbott, trenton, n. j. mrs. schuyler van rensselaer, new york. " mary treat, vineland, n. j. dr. karl mohr, mobile, ala. hon. j. b. walker, forest commissioner of new hampshire. mr. wm. hamilton gibson, brooklyn, n. y. " edgar t. ensign, forest commissioner of colorado. " e. s. carman, editor of the _rural new yorker_. " wm. m. canby. wilmington, del. " john robinson, salem, mass. " j. d. lyman, exeter, n. h. " samuel parsons, jr., superintendent of central park, n. y. " wm. mcmillan, superintendent of parks, buffalo. n. y. " sylvester baxter, boston. " charles eliot, boston. " john thorpe, secretary of the new york horticultural society. " edwin lonsdale, secretary of the philadelphia horticultural society. " robert craig, president of the philadelphia florists' club. " samuel b. parsons, flushing, n. y. " george ellwanger, rochester. " p. h. barry, rochester. " w. j. stewart, boston, mass. " w. a. manda, botanic gardens, cambridge, mass. " david allan, mount vernon, mass. " wm. robinson, north easton, mass. " a. h. fewkes, newton highlands, mass. " f. goldring, kenwood, n. y. " c. m. atkinson, brookline, mass. * * * * * dr. maxwell t. masters, editor of the gardener's chronicle. mr. geo. nicholson, curator of the royal gardens, kew. " w. b. hemsley, herbarium, royal gardens, kew. " wm. goldring, london. mr. max leichtlin, baden baden. m. edouard andré, editor of the revue horticole, paris, france. dr. g. m. dawson, geological survey of canada. prof. john macoun, " " " m. charles naudin, director of the gardens of the villa thuret, antibes. dr. chas. bolle, berlin. m. j. allard, angers, maine & loire, france. dr. h. maye, university of tokio, japan. prof. d. p. penhallow, director of the botanical gardens, montreal. mr. wm. saunders, director of the agricultural experiment station, ontario. " wm. little, montreal. single numbers, 10 cents. subscription price, four dollars a year, in advance. the garden and forest publishing co., limited, d. a. munro, _manager_. tribune building, new york garden and forest. published weekly by the garden and forest publishing co. [limited.] office: tribune building, new york. conducted by professor c. s. sargent. entered as second-class matter at the post office at new york, n. y. new york, wednesday, february 29, 1888. table of contents. page. editorial articles:--asa gray. the gardener's monthly. the white pine in europe 1 the forests of the white mountain _francis parkman._ 2 landscape gardening.--a definition _mrs. schuyler van rensselaer._ 2 floriculture in the united states _peter henderson._ 2 how to make a lawn _professor w. j. beal._ 3 letter from london _w. goldring._ 4 a new departure in chrysanthemums _a. h. fewkes._ 5 new plants from afghanistan _max leichtlin._ 6 iris tenuis, with figure _sereno watson._ 6 hardy shrubs for forcing _wm. falconer._ 6 plant notes _c. c. pringle; professor w. trelease._ 7 wire netting for tree guards _a. a. crozier._ 7 artificial water, with illustration 8 some new roses _edwin lonsdale._ 8 two ferns and their treatment _f. goldring._ 9 timely hints about bulbs _john thorpe._ 9 entomology: arsenical poisons in the orchard _professor a. s. packard._ 9 the forest: the white pine in europe _professor h. mayr._ 10 european larch in massachusetts 11 thinning pine plantations _b. e. fernow._ 11 book reviews: gray's elements of botany _professor g. l. goodale._ 11 kansas forest trees _professor g. l. goodale._ 12 public works:--the falls of minnehaha--a park for wilmington 12 flower markets:--new york--philadelphia--boston 12 * * * * * asa gray. the whole civilized world is mourning the death of asa gray with a depth of feeling and appreciation perhaps never accorded before to a scholar and man of science. to the editors of this journal the loss at the very outset of their labors is serious indeed. they lose a wise and sympathetic adviser of great experience and mature judgment to whom they could always have turned with entire freedom and in perfect confidence; and they lose a contributor whose vast stores of knowledge and graceful pen might, it was reasonable to hope, have long enriched their columns. the career of asa gray is interesting from many points of view. it is the story of the life of a man born in humble circumstances, without the advantages of early education, without inherited genius--for there is no trace in his yeoman ancestry of any germ of intellectual greatness--who succeeded in gaining through native intelligence, industry and force of character, a position in the very front rank of the scientific men of his age. among the naturalists who, since linnæus, have devoted their lives to the description and classification of plants, four or five stand out prominently in the character and importance of their work. in this little group asa gray has fairly won for himself a lasting position. but he was something more than a mere systematist. he showed himself capable of drawing broad philosophical conclusions from the dry facts he collected and elaborated with such untiring industry and zeal. this power of comprehensive generalization he showed in his paper upon the "characters of certain new species of plants collected in japan" by charles wright, published nearly thirty years ago. here he first pointed out the extraordinary similarity between the floras of eastern north america and japan, and then explained the peculiar distribution of plants through the northern hemisphere by tracing their direct descent through geological eras from ancestors which flourished in the arctic regions down to the latest tertiary period. this paper was professor gray's most remarkable and interesting contribution to science. it at once raised him to high rank among philosophical naturalists and drew the attention of the whole scientific world to the cambridge botanist. asa gray did not devote himself to abstract science alone; he wrote as successfully for the student as for the professional naturalist. his long list of educational works have no equals in accuracy and in beauty and compactness of expression. they have had a remarkable influence upon the study of botany in this country during the half century which has elapsed since the first of the series appeared. botany, moreover, did not satisfy that wonderful intellect, which hard work only stimulated but did not weary, and one of asa gray's chief claims to distinction is the prominent and commanding position he took in the great intellectual and scientific struggle of modern times, in which, almost alone and single handed he bore in america the brunt of the disbelief in the darwinian theory shared by most of the leading naturalists of the time. but the crowning labor of asa gray's life was the preparation of a descriptive work upon the plants of north america. this great undertaking occupied his attention and much of his time during the last forty years of his life. less fortunate than his greatest botanical contemporary, george bentham, who turned from the last page of corrected proof of his work upon the genera of plants to the bed from which he was never to rise again, asa gray's great work is left unfinished. the two volumes of the "synoptical flora of north america" will keep his memory green, however, as long as the human race is interested in the study of plants. but his botanical writings and his scientific fame are not the most valuable legacy which asa gray has left to the american people. more precious to us is the example of his life in this age of grasping materialism. it is a life that teaches how industry and unselfish devotion to learning can attain to the highest distinction and the most enduring fame. great as were his intellectual gifts, asa gray was greatest in the simplicity of his character and in the beauty of his pure and stainless life. * * * * * it is with genuine regret that we read the announcement of the discontinuance of the _gardener's monthly_. it is like reading of the death of an old friend. ever since we have been interested in the cultivation of flowers we have looked to the _monthly_ for inspiration and advice, and its pages have rarely been turned without finding the assistance we stood in need of. but, fortunately, the _gardener's monthly_, and its modest and accomplished editor, mr. thomas meehan, were one and the same thing. it is mr. meehan's long editorial experience, high character, great learning and varied practical knowledge, which made the _gardener's monthly_ what it was. these, we are happy to know, are not to be lost to us, as mr. meehan will, in a somewhat different field and with new associates, continue to delight and instruct the horticultural public. americans who visit europe cannot fail to remark that in the parks and pleasure grounds of the continent no coniferous tree is more graceful when young or more dignified at maturity than our white pine. the notes of dr. mayr, of the bavarian forest academy, in another column, testify that it holds a position of equal importance as a forest tree for economic planting. it thrives from northern germany to lombardy, corresponding with a range of climate in this country from new england to northern georgia. it needs bright sunshine, however, and perhaps it is for lack of this that so few good specimens are seen in england. it was among the first of our trees to be introduced there, but it has been universally pronounced an indifferent grower. the forests of the white mountains. new hampshire is not a peculiarly wealthy state, but it has some resources scarcely equaled by those of any of its sisters. the white mountains, though worth little to the farmer, are a piece of real estate which yields a sure and abundant income by attracting tourists and their money; and this revenue is certain to increase, unless blind mismanagement interposes. the white mountains are at present unique objects of attraction; but they may easily be spoiled, and the yearly tide of tourists will thus be turned towards other points of interest whose owners have had more sense and foresight. these mountains owe three-fourths of their charms to the primeval forest that still covers them. speculators have their eyes on it, and if they are permitted to work their will the state will find a most productive piece of property sadly fallen in value. if the mountains are robbed of their forests they will become like some parts of the pyrenees, which, though much higher, are without interest, because they have been stripped bare. the forests of the white mountains have a considerable commercial value, and this value need not be sacrificed. when lumber speculators get possession of forests they generally cut down all the trees and strip the land at once, with an eye to immediate profit. the more conservative, and, in the end, the more profitable management, consists in selecting and cutting out the valuable timber when it has matured, leaving the younger growth for future use. this process is not very harmful to the landscape. it is practiced extensively in maine, where the art of managing forests with a view to profit is better understood than elsewhere in this country. a fair amount of good timber may thus be drawn from the white mountains, without impairing their value as the permanent source of a vastly greater income from the attraction they will offer to an increasing influx of tourists. at the same time the streams flowing from them, and especially the pemigewasset, a main source of the merrimac, will be saved from the alternate droughts and freshets to which all streams are exposed that take their rise in mountains denuded of forests. the subject is one of the last importance to the mill owners along these rivers. _f. parkman._ landscape gardening.--a definition. some of the fine arts appeal to the ear, others to the eye. the latter are the arts of design, and they are usually named as three--architecture, sculpture and painting. a man who practices one of these in any of its branches is an artist; other men who work with forms and colors are at the best but artisans. this is the popular belief. but in fact there is a fourth art which has a right to be rated with the others, which is as fine as the finest, and which demands as much of its professors in the way of creative power and executive skill as the most difficult. this is the art whose purpose it is to create beautiful compositions upon the surface of the ground. the mere statement of its purpose is sufficient to establish its rank. it is the effort to produce organic beauty--to compose a beautiful whole with a number of related parts--which makes a man an artist; neither the production of a merely useful organism nor of a single beautiful detail suffices. a clearly told story or a single beautiful word is not a work of art--only a story told in beautifully connected words. a solidly and conveniently built house, if it is nothing more, is not a work of architecture, nor is an isolated stone, however lovely in shape and surface. a delightful tint, a graceful line, does not make a picture; and though the painter may reproduce ugly models he must put some kind of beauty into the reproduction if it is to be esteemed above any other manufactured article--if not beauty of form, then beauty of color or of meaning or at least of execution. similarly, when a man disposes the surface of the soil with an eye to crops alone he is an agriculturist; when he grows plants for their beauty as isolated objects he is a horticulturist; but when he disposes ground and plants together to produce organic beauty of effect, he is an artist with the best. yet though all the fine arts are thus akin in general purpose they differ each from each in many ways. and in the radical differences which exist between the landscape-gardener's and all the others we find some reasons why its affinity with them is so commonly ignored. one difference is that it uses the same materials as nature herself. in what is called "natural" gardening it uses them to produce effects which under fortunate conditions nature might produce without man's aid. then, the better the result, the less likely it is to be recognized as an artificial--artistic--result. the more perfectly the artist attains his aim, the more likely we are to forget that he has been at work. in "formal" gardening, on the other hand, nature's materials are disposed and treated in frankly unnatural ways; and then--as a more or less intelligent love for natural beauty is very common to-day, and an intelligent eye for art is rare--the artist's work is apt to be resented as an impertinence, denied its right to its name, called a mere contorting and disfiguring of his materials. again, the landscape-gardener's art differs from all others in the unstable character of its productions. when surfaces are modeled and plants arranged, nature and the artist must work a long time together before the true result appears; and when once it has revealed itself, day to day attention will be forever needed to preserve it from the deforming effects of time. it is easy to see how often neglect or interference must work havoc with the best intentions, how often the passage of years must travesty or destroy the best results, how rare must be the cases in which a work of landscape art really does justice to its creator. still another thing which affects popular recognition of the art as such is our lack of clearly understood terms by which to speak of it and of those who practice it. "gardens" once meant pleasure-grounds of every kind and "gardener" then had an adequately artistic sound. but as the significance of the one term has been gradually specialized, so the other has gradually come to denote a mere grower of plants. "landscape gardener" was a title first used by the artists of the eighteenth century to mark the new tendency which they represented--the search for "natural" as opposed to "formal" beauty; and it seemed to them to need an apology as savoring, perhaps, of grandiloquence or conceit. but as taste declined in england it was assumed by men who had not the slightest right, judged either by their aims or by their results, to be considered artists; and to-day it is fallen into such disesteem that it is often replaced by "landscape architect." this title has french usage to support it and is in many respects a good one. but its correlative--"landscape architecture"--is unsatisfactory; and so, on the other hand, is "landscape artist," though "landscape art" is an excellent generic term. perhaps the best we can do is to keep to "landscape gardener," and try to remember that it ought always to mean an artist and an artist only. _m. g. van rensselaer._ floriculture in the united states. at the beginning of the present century, it is not probable that there were 100 florists in the united states, and their combined green-house structures could not have exceeded 50,000 square feet of glass. there are now more than 10,000 florists distributed through every state and territory in the union and estimating 5,000 square feet of glass to each, the total area would be 50,000,000 feet, or about 1,000 acres of green-houses. the value of the bare structures, with heating apparatus, at 60 cents per square foot would be $30,000,000, while the stock of plants grown in them would not be less than twice that sum. the present rate of growth in the business is about 25% per annum, which proves that it is keeping well abreast of our most flourishing industries. the business, too, is conducted by a better class of men. no longer than thirty years ago it was rare to find any other than a foreigner engaged in commercial floriculture. these men had usually been private gardeners, who were mostly uneducated, and without business habits. but to-day, the men of this calling compare favorably in intelligence and business capacity with any mercantile class. floriculture has attained such importance that it has taken its place as a regular branch of study in some of our agricultural colleges. of late years, too, scores of young men in all parts of the country have been apprenticing themselves to the large establishments near the cities, and already some of these have achieved a high standing; for the training so received by a lad from sixteen to twenty, better fits him for the business here than ten years of european experience, because much of what is learned there would prove worse than useless here. the english or german florist has here to contend with unfamiliar conditions of climate and a manner of doing business that is novel to him. again he has been trained to more deliberate methods of working, and when i told the story a few years ago of a workman who had potted 10,000 cuttings in two inch pots in ten consecutive hours, it was stigmatized in nearly every horticultural magazine in europe as a piece of american bragging. as a matter of fact this same workman two years later, potted 11,500 plants in ten hours, and since then several other workmen have potted plants at the rate of a thousand per hour all day long. old world conservatism is slow to adopt improvements. the practice of heating by low pressure steam will save in labor, coal and construction one-fifth of the expense by old methods, and nearly all the large green-house establishments in this country, whether private or commercial, have been for some years furnished with the best apparatus. but when visiting london, edinburgh and paris in 1885, i neither saw nor heard of a single case where steam had been used for green-house heating. the stress of competition here has developed enterprise, encouraged invention and driven us to rapid and prudent practice, so that while labor costs at least twice as much as it does in europe, our prices both at wholesale and retail, are lower. and yet i am not aware that american florists complain that their profits compare unfavorably with those of their brethren over the sea. commercial floriculture includes two distinct branches, one for the production of flowers and the other for the production of plants. during the past twenty years the growth in the flower department of the business has outstripped the growth of the plant department. the increase in the sale of rosebuds in winter is especially noteworthy. at the present time it is safe to say that one-third of the entire glass structures in the united states are used for this purpose; many large growers having from two to three acres in houses devoted to roses alone, such erections costing from $50,000 to $100,000 each, according to the style in which they are built. more cut flowers are used for decoration in the united states than in any other country, and it is probable that there are more flowers sold in new york than in london with a population four times as great. in london and paris, however, nearly every door-yard and window of city and suburb show the householder's love for plants, while with us, particularly in the vicinity of new york (philadelphia and boston are better), the use of living plants for home decoration is far less general. there are fashions in flowers, and they continually change. thirty years ago thousands of camellia flowers were retailed in the holiday season for $1 each, while rosebuds would not bring a dime. now, many of the fancy roses sell at $1 each, while camellia flowers go begging at ten cents. the chrysanthemum is now rivaling the rose, as well it may, and no doubt every decade will see the rise and fall of some floral favorite. but beneath these flitting fancies is the substantial and unchanging love of flowers that seems to be an original instinct in man, and one that grows in strength with growing refinement. fashion may now and again condemn one flower or another, but the fashion of neglecting flowers altogether will never prevail, and we may safely look forward in the expectation of an ever increasing interest and demand, steady improvement in methods of cultivation, and to new and attractive developments in form, color and fragrance. _peter henderson._ how to make a lawn. "a smooth, closely shaven surface of grass is by far the most essential element of beauty on the grounds of a suburban home." this is the language of mr. f. j. scott, and it is equally true of other than suburban grounds. a good lawn then is worth working for, and if it have a substantial foundation, it will endure for generations, and improve with age. we take it for granted that the drainage is thorough, for no one would build a dwelling on water soaked land. no labor should be spared in making the soil deep, rich and fine in the full import of the words, as this is the stock from which future dividends of joy and satisfaction are to be drawn. before grading, one should read that chapter of downing's on "the beauty in ground." this will warn against terracing or leveling the whole surface, and insure a contour with "gentle curves and undulations," which is essential to the best effects. if the novice has read much of the conflicting advice in books and catalogues, he is probably in a state of bewilderment as to the kind of seed to sow. and when that point is settled it is really a difficult task to secure pure and living seeds of just such species as one orders. rarely does either seller or buyer know the grasses called for, especially the finer and rarer sorts; and more rarely still does either know their seeds. the only safe way is to have the seeds tested by an expert. mr. j. b. olcott, in a racy article in the "report of the connecticut board of agriculture for 1886," says, "fifteen years ago nice people were often sowing timothy, red top and clover for door-yards, and failing wretchedly with lawn-making, while seedsmen and gardeners even disputed the identity of our june grass and kentucky blue-grass." we have passed beyond that stage of ignorance, however; and to the question what shall we sow, mr. olcott replies: "rhode island bent and kentucky blue-grass are their foolish trade names, for they belong no more to kentucky or rhode island than to other northern states. two sorts of fine _agrostis_ are honestly sold under the trade name of rhode island bent, and, as trade goes, we may consider ourselves lucky if we get even the coarser one. the finest--a little the finest--_agrostis canina_--is a rather rare, valuable, and elegant grass, which should be much better known by grass farmers, as well as gardeners, than it is. these are both good lawn as well as pasture grasses." the grass usually sold as rhode island bent is _agrostis vulgaris_, the smaller red top of the east and of europe. this makes an excellent lawn. _agrostis canina_ has a short, slender, projecting awn from one of the glumes; _agrostis vulgaris_ lacks this projecting awn. in neither case have we in mind what michigan and new york people call red top. this is a tall, coarse native grass often quite abundant on low lands, botanically _agrostis alba_. sow small red top or rhode island bent, and june grass (kentucky blue grass, if you prefer that name), _poa pratensis_. if in the chaff, sow in any proportion you fancy, and in any quantity up to four bushels per acre. if evenly sown, less will answer, but the thicker it is sown the sooner the ground will be covered with fine green grass. we can add nothing else that will improve this mixture, and either alone is about as good as both. a little white clover or sweet vernal grass or sheep's fescue may be added, if you fancy them, but they will not improve the appearance of the lawn. roll the ground after seeding. sow the seeds in september or in march or april, and under no circumstance yield to the advice to sow a little oats or rye to "protect the young grass." instead of protecting, they will rob the slender grasses of what they most need. now wait a little. do not be discouraged if some ugly weeds get the start of the numerous green hairs which slowly follow. as soon as there is any thing to be cut, of weeds or grass, mow closely, and mow often, so that nothing need be raked from the ground. as olcott puts it, "leave one crop where it belongs for home consumption. the rains will wash the soluble substance of the wilted grass into the earth to feed the growing roots." during succeeding summers as the years roll on, the lawn should be perpetually enriched by the leaching of the short leaves as they are often mown. neither leave a very short growth nor a very heavy growth for winter. experience alone must guide the owner. if cut too closely, some of it may be killed or start too late in spring; if left too high during winter, the dead long grass will be hard to cut in spring and leave the stubble unsightly. after passing through one winter the annual weeds will have perished and leave the grass to take the lead. perennial weeds should be faithfully dug out or destroyed in some way. every year, add a top dressing of some commercial fertilizer or a little finely pulverized compost which may be brushed in. no one will disfigure his front yard with coarse manure spread on the lawn for five months of the year. if well made, a lawn will be a perpetual delight as long as the proprietor lives, but if the soil is thin and poor, or if the coarser grasses and clovers are sown instead of those named, he will be much perplexed, and will very likely try some expensive experiments, and at last plow up, properly fit the land and begin over again. this will make the cost and annoyance much greater than at first, because the trees and shrubs have already filled many portions of the soil. a small piece, well made and well kept, will give more satisfaction than a larger plot of inferior turf. _w. j. beal._ horticultural exhibitions in london. at a late meeting of the floral committee of the royal horticultural society at south kensington among many novelties was a group of seedling bulbous calanthes from the garden of sir trevor lawrence, who has devoted much attention to these plants and has raised some interesting hybrids. about twenty kinds were shown, ranging in color from pure white to deep crimson. the only one selected for a first-class certificate was _c. sanguinaria_, with flowers similar in size and shape to those of _c. veitchii_, but of an intensely deep crimson. it is the finest yet raised, surpassing _c. sedeni_, hitherto unequaled for richness of color. the pick of all these seedlings would be _c. sanguinaria_, _c. veitchii splendens_, _c. lactea_, _c. nivea_, and _c. porphyrea_. the adjectives well describe the different tints of each, and they will be universally popular when once they find their way into commerce. cypripedium leeanum maculatum, also shown by sir trevor lawrence, is a novelty of sterling merit. the original _c. leeanum_, which is a cross between _c. spicerianum_ and _c. insigne maulei_, is very handsome, but this variety eclipses it, the dorsal sepal of the flower being quite two and one-half inches broad, almost entirely white, heavily and copiously spotted with purple. it surpasses also _c. leeanum superbum_, which commands such high prices. i saw a small plant sold at auction lately for fifteen guineas and the nursery price is much higher. lælia anceps schr[oe]deræ, is the latest addition to the now very numerous list of varieties of the popular _l. anceps_. this new form, to which the committee with one accord gave a first class certificate, surpasses in my opinion all the colored varieties, with the possible exception of the true old barkeri. the flowers are of the average size and ordinary form. the sepals are rose pink, the broad sepals very light, almost white in fact, while the labellum is of the deepest and richest velvety crimson imaginable. the golden tipped crest is a veritable beauty spot, and the pale petals act like a foil to show off the splendor of the lip. two new ferns of much promise received first class certificates. one named _pteris claphamensis_ is a chance seedling and was found growing among a lot of other sporelings in the garden of a london amateur. as it partakes of the characters of both _p. tremula_ and _p. serrulata_, old and well known ferns, it is supposed to be a natural cross between these. the new plant is of tufted growth, with a dense mass of fronds about six inches long, elegantly cut and gracefully recurved on all sides of the pot. it is looked upon by specialists as just the sort of plant that will take in the market. the other certificated fern, _adiantum reginæ_, is a good deal like _a. victoriæ_ and is supposed to be a sport from it. but _a. reginæ_, while it has broad pinnæ of a rich emerald green like _a. victoriæ_, has fronds from nine to twelve inches long, giving it a lighter and more elegant appearance. i don't know that the victoria maidenhair is grown in america yet, but i am sure those who do floral decorating will welcome it as well as the newer _a. reginæ_. a third maidenhair of a similar character is _a. rhodophyllum_ and these form a trio that will become the standard kinds for decorating. the young fronds of all three are of a beautiful coppery red tint, the contrast of which with the emerald green of the mature fronds is quite charming. they are warm green-house ferns and of easy culture, and are supposed to be hybrid forms of the old _a. scutum_. _nerine mansellii_, a new variety of the guernsey lily, was one of the loveliest flowers at the show. from the common guernsey lily it differs only in color of the flowers. these have crimpled-edged petals of clear rose tints; and the umbel of flowers is fully six inches across, borne on a stalk eighteen inches high. these guernsey lilies have of recent years come into prominence in english gardens since so many beautiful varieties have been raised, and as they flower from september onward to christmas they are found to be indispensable for the green-house, and indoor decoration. the old _n. fothergillii major_, with vivid scarlet-crimson flowers and crystalline cells in the petals which sparkle in the sunlight like myriads of tiny rubies, remains a favorite among amateurs. baron schroeder, who has the finest collection in europe, grows this one only in quantity. an entire house is filled with them, and when hundreds of spikes are in bloom at once, the display is singularly brilliant. a new vegetable, a japanese plant called choro-gi, belonging to the sage family, was exhibited. its botanical name is _stachys tuberifera_ and it was introduced first to europe by the vilmorins of paris under the name of _crosnes du japon_. the edible part of the plant is the tubers, which are produced in abundance on the tips of the wiry fibrous roots. these are one and a half inches long, pointed at both ends, and have prominent raised rings. when washed they are as white as celery and when eaten raw taste somewhat like jerusalem artichokes, but when cooked are quite soft and possess the distinct flavor of boiled chestnuts. a dish of these tubers when cooked look like a mass of large caterpillars, but the committee pronounced them excellent, and no doubt this vegetable will now receive attention from some of our enterprising seedsmen and may become a fashionable vegetable because new and unlike any common kind. the tubers were shown now for the first time in this country by sir henry thompson, the eminent surgeon. the plant is herbaceous, dying down annually leaving the tubers, which multiply very rapidly. they can be dug at any time of the year, which is an advantage. the plant is perfectly hardy here and would no doubt be so in the united states, as it remains underground in winter. [a figure of this plant with the tubers appeared in the _gardener's chronicle_, january 7th, 1888.--ed.] phalænopsis f. l. ames, a hybrid moth orchid, the result of intercrossing _p. grandiflora_ of lindley with _p. intermedia portei_ (itself a natural hybrid between the little _p. rosea_ and _p. amabilis_), was shown at a later exhibition. the new hybrid is very beautiful. it has the same purplish green leaves as _p. amabalis_, but much narrower. the flower spikes are produced in the same way as those of _p. grandiflora_, and the flowers in form and size resemble those of that species, but the coloring of the labellum is more like that of its other parent. the sepals and petals are pure white, the latter being broadest at the lips. the labellum resembles that of _p. intermedia_, being three-lobed, the lateral lobes are erect, magenta purple in color and freckled. the middle or triangular lobe is of the same color as the lateral lobes, but pencilled with longitudinal lines of crimson, flushed with orange, and with the terminal cirrhi of a clear magenta. the column is pink, and the crest is adorned with rosy speckles. the floral committee unanimously awarded a first-class certificate of merit to the plant. a new lælia named _l. gouldiana_ has had an eventful history. the representative of messrs. sander, of st. albans, the great orchid importers, while traveling in america saw it blooming in new york, in the collection of messrs. siebrecht & wadley, and noting its distinctness and beauty bought the stock of it. the same week another new lælia flowered in england and was sent up to one of the london auction rooms for sale. as it so answered the description of the american novelty which messrs. sander had just secured it was bought for the st. albans collection, and now it turns out that the english novelty and the american novelty are one and the same thing, and a comparison of dates shows that they flowered on the same day, although in different hemispheres. as, however, it was first discovered in the united states, it is intended to call it an american orchid, and that is why mr. jay gould has his name attached to it, in bulb and leaf the novelty closely resembles _l. albida_, and in flower both _l. anceps_ and _l. autumnalis_. the flowers are as large as those of an average form of _l. anceps_, the sepals are rather narrow, the petals as broad as those of _l._ _anceps dawsoni_, and both petals and sepals are of a deep rose pink, intensified at the tips as if the color had collected there and was dripping out. the tip is in form between that of _l. anceps_ and _l. autumnalis_ and has the prominent ridges of the latter, while the color is a rich purple crimson. the black viscid pubescence, always seen on the ovary of _l. autumnalis_, is present on that of _l. gouldiana_. the plants i saw in the orchid nursery at st. albans lately, bore several spikes, some having three or four flowers. those who have seen it are puzzled about its origin, some considering it a hybrid between _l. anceps_ and _l. autumnalis_, others consider it a distinct species and to the latter opinion i am inclined. whatever its origin may be, it is certain we have a charming addition to midwinter flowering orchids. _w. goldring._ london, february 1st. [illustration: fig. 1.--chrysanthemum--mrs. alpheus hardy.] a new departure in chrysanthemums. the chrysanthemum of which the figure gives a good representation is one of a collection of some thirty varieties lately sent from japan to the lady for whom it has been named, mrs. alpheus hardy of boston, by a young japanese once a protégé of hers, but now returned as a teacher to his native country. as may be seen, it is quite distinct from any variety known in this country or europe, and the japanese botanist miyabe, who saw it at cambridge, pronounces it a radical departure from any with which he is acquainted. the photograph from which the engraving was made was taken just as the petals had begun to fall back from the centre, showing to good advantage the peculiarities of the variety. the flower is of pure white, with the firm, long and broad petals strongly incurved at the extremities. upon the back or outer surface of this incurved portion will be found, in the form of quite prominent hairs, the peculiarity which makes this variety unique. [illustration: fig. 2.--hair from petal of chrysanthemum, much enlarged. _a_--resin drop. _b_--epidermis of petal with wavy cells.] these hairs upon close examination are found to be a glandular outgrowth of the epidermis of the petals, multi-cellular in structure and with a minute drop of a yellow resinous substance at the tip. the cells at first conform to the wavy character of those of the epidermis, but gradually become prismatic with straight walls, as shown in the engraving of one of the hairs, which was made from a drawing furnished by miss grace cooley, of the department of botany at wellesley college, who made a microscopic investigation of them. this is one of those surprises that occasionally make their appearance from japan. possibly it is a chance seedling; but since one or two other specimens in the collection are striking in form, and others are distinguished for depth and purity of color, it is more probable that the best of them have been developed by careful selection. this chrysanthemum was exhibited at the boston chrysanthemum show last december by edwin fewkes & son of newton highlands, mass. _a. h. fewkes._ new plants from afghanistan. arnebia cornuta.--this is a charming novelty, an annual, native of afghanistan. the little seedling with lancet-like hairy, dark green leaves, becomes presently a widely branching plant two feet in diameter and one and one-half feet high. each branch and branchlet is terminated by a lengthening raceme of flowers. these are in form somewhat like those of an autumnal phlox, of a beautiful deep golden yellow color, adorned and brightened up by five velvety black blotches. these blotches soon become coffee brown and lose more and more their color, until after three days they have entirely disappeared. during several months the plant is very showy, the fading flowers being constantly replaced by fresh expanding ones. sown in april in the open border, it needs no care but to be thinned out and kept free from weeds. it must, however, have some soil which does not contain fresh manure. delphinium zalil.--this, also, is a native of afghanistan, but its character, whether a biennial or perennial, is not yet ascertained. the afghans call it zalil and the plant or root is used for dyeing purposes. some years ago we only knew blue, white and purple larkspurs, and then california added two species with scarlet flowers. the above is of a beautiful sulphur yellow, and, all in all, it is a plant of remarkable beauty. from a rosette of much and deeply divided leaves, rises a branched flower stem to about two feet; each branch and branchlet ending in a beautiful spike of flowers each of about an inch across and the whole spike showing all its flowers open at once. it is likely to become a first rate standard plant of our gardens. to have it in flower the very first year it must be sown very early, say in january, in seed pans, and transplanted later, when it will flower from the end of may until the end of july. moreover, it can be sown during spring and summer in the open air to flower the following year. it is quite hardy here. _max leichtlin._ baden-baden. iris tenuis.[1] this pretty delicate species of iris, fig. 3, is a native of the cascade mountains of northern oregon. its long branching rootstocks are scarcely more than a line in thickness, sending up sterile leafy shoots and slender stems about a foot high. the leaves are thin and pale green, rather taller than the stems, sword-shaped and half an inch broad or more. the leaves of the stem are bract-like and distant, the upper one or two subtending slender peduncles. the spathes are short, very thin and scarious, and enclose the bases of their rather small solitary flowers, which are "white, lightly striped and blotched with yellow and purple." the sepals and petals are oblong-spatulate, from a short tube, the sepals spreading, the shorter petals erect and notched. the peculiar habitat of this species doubtless accounts in good measure for its slender habit and mode of growth. mr. l. f. henderson, of portland, oregon, who discovered it in 1881, near a branch of the clackamas river called eagle creek, about thirty miles from portland, reports it as growing in the fir forests in broad mats, its very long rootstocks running along near the surface of the ground, just covered by moss or partly decayed fir-needles, with a light addition of soil. this also would indicate the need of special care and treatment in its cultivation. in may, 1884, mr. henderson took great pains to procure roots for the botanic garden at cambridge, which were received in good order, but which did not survive the next winter. if taken up, however, later in the season or very early in the spring, it is probable that with due attention to soil and shade there would be little trouble in cultivating it successfully. the accompanying figure is from a drawing by mr. c. e. faxon. _sereno watson._ [footnote 1: tenuis. watson, _proc. amer. acad._, xvii, 380. rootstock elongated, very slender (a line thick); leaves thin, ensiform, about equaling the stems, four to eight lines broad; stems scarcely a foot high, 2 or 3-flowered, with two or three bract-like leaves two or three inches long; lateral peduncles very slender, as long as the bracts; spathes scarious, an inch long; pedicels solitary, very short; flowers small, white marked with yellow and purple; tube two or three lines long; segments oblong-spatulate, the sepals spreading, one and one-half inches long, the petals shorter and emarginate; anthers as long as the filaments; styles with narrow entire crests; capsule oblong-ovate, obtuse, nine lines long.] hardy shrubs for forcing. shrubs for forcing should consist of early blooming kinds only. the plants should be stocky, young and healthy, well-budded and well-ripened, and in order to have first-class stock they should be grown expressly for forcing. for cut flower purposes only, we can lift large plants of lilacs, snowballs, deutzias, mock oranges and the like with all the ball of roots we can get to them and plant at once in forcing-houses. but this should not be done before new year's. we should prepare for smaller plants some months ahead of forcing time. say in the preceding april or august, by lifting them and planting in small pots, tubs or boxes as can conveniently contain their roots, and we should encourage them to root well before winter sets in. keep them out of doors and plunged till after the leaves drop off; then either mulch them where they are or bring them into a pit, shed or cool cellar, where there shall be no fear of their getting dry, or of having the roots fastened in by frost. introduce them into the green-house in succession; into a cool green-house at first for a few weeks, then as they begin to start, into a warmer one. from the time they are brought into the green-house till the flowers begin to open give a sprinkling overhead twice a day with tepid water. when they have done blooming, if worth keeping over for another time, remove them to a cool house and thus gradually harden them off, then plant them out in the garden in may, and give them two years' rest. shrubs to be forced for their cut flowers only should consist of such kinds as have flowers that look well and keep well after being cut. among these are _deutzia gracilis_, common lilacs of various colors, _staphyllea colchica_, _spiræa cantonensis_ (_reevesii_) single and double, the guelder rose, the japanese snowball and _azalea mollis_. to these may be added some of the lovely double-flowering and chinese apples, whose snowy or crimson-tinted buds and leafy twigs are very pretty. the several double-flowered forms of _prunus triloba_ are also desirable, but a healthy stock is hard to get. _andromeda floribunda_ and _a. japonica_ set their flower buds the previous summer for the next year's flowers, and are, therefore, like the laurestinus, easily forced into bloom after new year's. hardy and half-hardy rhododendrons with very little forcing may be had in bloom from march. in addition to the above, for conservatory decoration we may introduce all manner of hardy shrubs. double flowering peach and cherry trees are easily forced and showy while they last. clumps of _pyrus arbutifolia_ can easily be had in bloom in march, when their abundance of deep green leaves is an additional charm to their profusion of hawthorn-like flowers. the chinese _xanthoceras_ is extremely copious and showy, but of brief duration and ill-fitted for cutting. bushes of yellow broom and double-flowering golden furze can easily be had after january. _jasminum nudiflorum_ may be had in bloom from november till april, and forsythia from january. they look well when trained up to pillars. the early-flowering clematises may be used to capital advantage in the same way, from february onward. although the mahonias flower well, their foliage at blooming time is not always comely. out-of-doors the american red-bud makes a handsomer tree than does the japanese one; but the latter is preferable for green-house work, as the flowers are bright and the smallest plants bloom. the chinese wistaria blooms as well in the green-house as it does outside; indeed, if we introduce some branches of an out-door plant into the green-house, we can have it in bloom two months ahead of the balance of the vine still left out-of-doors. hereabout we grow wistarias as standards, and they bloom magnificently. what a sight a big standard wistaria in the green-house in february would be! among other shrubs may be mentioned shadbush, african tamarix, daphne of sorts and exochorda. we have also a good many barely hardy plants that may be wintered well in a cellar or cold pit, and forced into bloom in early spring. among these are japanese privet, pittosporum, raphiolepis, hydrangeas and the like. and for conservatory decoration we can also use with excellent advantage some of our fine-leaved shrubs, for instance our lovely japanese maples and variegated box elder. _wm. falconer._ glen cove, n. y. [illustration: fig. 3.--iris tenuis.--_see page 6._] plant notes. a half-hardy begonia.--when botanizing last september upon the cordilleras of north mexico some two hundred miles south of the united states boundary, i found growing in black mould of shaded ledges--even in the thin humus of mossy rocks--at an elevation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet, a plant of striking beauty, which mr. sereno watson identifies as _begonia gracilis_, _hbk._, _var. martiana_, _a. dc_. from a small tuberous root it sends up to a height of one to two feet a single crimson-tinted stem, which terminates in a long raceme of scarlet flowers, large for the genus and long enduring. the plant is still further embellished by clusters of scarlet gemmæ in the axils of its leaves. mr. watson writes: "it was in cultivation fifty years and more ago, but has probably been long ago lost. it appears to be the most northern species of the genus, and should be the most hardy." certainly the earth freezes and snows fall in the high region, where it is at home. northern limit of the dahlia.--in the same district, and at the same elevation, i met with a purple flowered variety of _dahlia coccinea_, _cav._ it was growing in patches under oaks and pines in thin dry soil of summits of hills. in such exposed situations the roots must be subjected to some frost, as much certainly as under a light covering of leaves in a northern garden. the dahlia has not before been reported, as i believe, from a latitude nearly so high. _c. g. pringle._ ceanothus is a north american genus, represented in the eastern states by new jersey tea, and red root (_c. americanus_ and _c. ovalus_), and in the west and south-west by some thirty additional species. several of these pacific coast species are quite handsome and well worthy of cultivation where they will thrive. some of the more interesting of them are figured in different volumes of the _botanical magazine_, from plants grown at kew, and i believe that the genus is held in considerable repute by french gardeners. in a collection of plants made in southern oregon, last spring, by mr. thomas howell, several specimens of _ceanothus_ occur which are pretty clearly hybrids between _c. cuneatus_ and _c. prostratus_, two common species of the region. some have the spreading habit of the latter, their flowers are of the bright blue color characteristic of that species, and borne on slender blue pedicels, in an umbel-like cluster. but while many of their leaves have the abrupt three-toothed apex of _c. prostratus_, all gradations can be found from this form to the spatulate, toothless leaves of _c. cuneatus_. other specimens have the more rigid habit of the latter species, and their flowers are white or nearly so, on shorter pale pedicels, in usually smaller and denser clusters. on these plants the leaves are commonly those of _c. cuneatus_, but they pass into the truncated and toothed form proper to _c. prostratus_. according to focke (_pflanzenmischlinge_, 1881, p. 99), the french cross one or more of the blue-flowered pacific coast species on the hardier new jersey tea, a practice that may perhaps be worthy of trial by american gardeners. have any of the readers of garden and forest ever met with spontaneous hybrids? _w. trelease._ wire netting for tree guards.--on some of the street trees of washington heavy galvanized wire netting is used to protect the bark from injury by horses. it is the same material that is used for enclosing poultry yards. it comes in strips five or six feet wide, and may be cut to any length required by the size of the tree. the edges are held in place by bending together the cut ends of the wires, and the whole is sustained by staples over the heavy wires at the top and bottom. this guard appears to be an effective protection and is less unsightly than any other of which i know, in fact it can hardly be distinguished at the distance of a few rods. it is certainly an improvement on the plan of white-washing the trunks, which has been extensively practiced here since the old guards were removed. _a. a. crozier._ artificial water. one of the most difficult parts of a landscape gardener's work is the treatment of what our grandfathers called "pieces of water" in scenes where a purely natural effect is desired. the task is especially hard when the stream, pond or lake has been artificially formed; for then nature's processes must be simulated not only in the planting but in the shaping of the shores. our illustration partially reveals a successful effort of this sort--a pond on a country-seat near boston. it was formed by excavating a piece of swamp and damming a small stream which flowed through it. in the distance towards the right the land lies low by the water and gradually rises as it recedes. opposite us it forms little wooded promontories with grassy stretches between. where we stand it is higher, and beyond the limits of the picture to the left it forms a high, steep bank rising to the lawn, on the further side of which stands the house. the base of these elevated banks and the promontories opposite are planted with thick masses of rhododendrons, which flourish superbly in the moist, peaty soil, protected, as they are, from drying winds by the trees and high ground. near the low meadow a long stretch of shore is occupied by thickets of hardy azaleas. beautiful at all seasons, the pond is most beautiful in june, when the rhododendrons are ablaze with crimson and purple and white, and when the yellow of the azalea-beds--discreetly separated from the rhododendrons by a great clump of low-growing willows--finds delicate continuation in the buttercups which fringe the daisied meadow. the lifted banks then afford particularly fortunate points of view; for as we look down upon the rhododendrons, we see the opposite shore and the water with its rich reflected colors as over the edge of a splendid frame. no accent of artificiality disturbs the eye despite the unwonted profusion of bloom and variety of color. all the plants are suited to their place and in harmony with each other; and all the contours of the shore are gently modulated and softly connected with the water by luxuriant growths of water plants. the witness of the eye alone would persuade us that nature unassisted had achieved the whole result. but beauty of so suave and perfect a sort as this is never a natural product. nature's beauty is wilder if only because it includes traces of mutation and decay which here are carefully effaced. nature suggests the ideal beauty, and the artist realizes it by faithfully working out her suggestions. [illustration: a piece of artificial water.] some new roses. the following list comprises most of the newer roses that have been on trial to any extent in and about philadelphia during the present winter: puritan (h. t.) is one of mr. henry bennett's seedlings, and perhaps excites more interest than any other. it is a cross between mabel morrison and devoniensis, creamy white in color and a perpetual bloomer. its flowers have not opened satisfactorily this winter. the general opinion seems to be that it requires more heat than is needed for other forcing varieties. further trial will be required to establish its merit. meteor (h. t., bennett.)--some cultivators will not agree with me in classing this among hybrid teas. in its manner of growth it resembles some tea roses, but its coloring and scanty production of buds in winter are indications that there is hybrid remontant blood in it. it retains its crimson color after being cut longer than any rose we have, and rarely shows a tendency to become purple with age, as other varieties of this color are apt to do. for summer blooming under glass it will prove satisfactory. in winter its coloring is a rich velvety crimson, but as the sun gets stronger it assumes a more lively shade. mrs. john laing (h. r., bennett,) is a seedling from francois michelon, which it somewhat resembles in habit of growth and color of flower. it is a free bloomer out-of-doors in summer and forces readily in winter. blooms of it have been offered for sale in the stores here since the first week in december. it is a soft shade of pink in color, with a delicate lilac tint. it promises to become a general favorite, as in addition to the qualities referred to, it is a free autumnal bloomer outside. for forcing it will be tried extensively next winter. princess beatrice (t., bennett,) was distributed for the first time in this country last autumn, but has so far been a disappointment in this city. but some lots arrived from europe too late and misfortunes befell others, so that the trial can hardly be counted decisive, and we should not hastily condemn it. some have admired it for its resemblance, in form of flower, to a madame cuisin, but its color is not just what we need. in shade it somewhat resembles sunset, but is not so effective. it may, however, improve under cultivation, as some other roses have done; so far as i know it has not been tried out-of-doors. papa gontier (h. b., nabonnaud.)--this, though not properly a new rose, is on trial for the first time in this city. it has become a great favorite with growers, retailers and purchasers. in habit it is robust and free blooming, and in coloring, though similar to bon silene, is much deeper or darker. there seems to be a doubt in some quarters as to whether it blooms as freely as bon silene; personally, i think there is not much difference between the two. gontier is a good rose for outdoor planting. _edwin lonsdale._ two ferns and their treatment. adiantum farleyense.--this beautiful maidenhair is supposed to be a subfertile, plumose form of _a. tenerum_, which much resembles it, especially in a young state. for decorative purposes it is almost unrivaled, whether used in pots or for trimming baskets of flowers or bouquets. it prefers a warm, moist house and delights in abundant water. we find it does best when potted firmly in a compost of two parts loam to one of peat, and with a good sprinkling of sifted coal ashes. in this compost it grows very strong, the fronds attaining a deeper green and lasting longer than when grown in peat. when the pots are filled with roots give weak liquid manure occasionally. this fern is propagated by dividing the roots and potting in small pots, which should be placed in the warmest house, where they soon make fine plants. where it is grown expressly for cut fronds the best plan is to plant it out on a bench in about six inches of soil, taking care to give it plenty of water and heat, and it will grow like a weed. actiniopteris radiata.--a charming little fern standing in a genus by itself. in form it resembles a miniature fan palm, growing about six inches in height. it is generally distributed throughout the east indies. in cultivation it is generally looked upon as poor grower, but with us it grows as freely as any fern we have. we grow a lot to mix in with orchids, as they do not crowd at all. we pot in a compost of equal parts loam and peat with a few ashes to keep it open, and grow in the warmest house, giving at all times abundance of water both at root and overhead. it grows very freely from spores, and will make good specimens in less than a year. it is an excellent fern for small baskets. _f. goldring._ timely hints about bulbs. spring flowering bulbs in-doors, such as the dutch hyacinths, tulips and the many varieties of narcissus, should now be coming rapidly into bloom. some care is required to get well developed specimens. when first brought in from cold frames or wherever they have been stored to make roots, do not expose them either to direct sunlight or excessive heat. a temperature of not more than fifty-five degrees at night is warm enough for the first ten days, and afterwards, if they show signs of vigorous growth and are required for any particular occasion, they may be kept ten degrees warmer. it is more important that they be not exposed to too much light than to too much heat. half the short stemmed tulips, dumpy hyacinths and blind narcissus we see in the green-houses and windows of amateurs are the result of excessive light when first brought into warm quarters. where it is not possible to shade bulbs without interfering with other plants a simple and effective plan is to make funnels of paper large enough to stand inside each pot and six inches high. these may be left on the pots night and day from the time the plants are brought in until the flower spike has grown above the foliage; indeed, some of the very finest hyacinths cannot be had in perfection without some such treatment. bulbous plants should never suffer for water when growing rapidly, yet on the other hand, they are easily ruined if allowed to become sodden. when in flower a rather dry and cool temperature will preserve them the longest. of bulbs which flower in the summer and fall, gloxinias and tuberous rooted begonias are great favorites and easily managed. for early summer a few of each should be started at once--using sandy, friable soil. six-inch pots, well drained, are large enough for the very largest bulbs, while for smaller even three-inch pots will answer. in a green-house there is no difficulty in finding just the place to start them. it must be snug, rather shady and not too warm. they can be well cared for, however, in a hot-bed or even a window, but some experience is necessary to make a success. lilies, in pots, whether _l. candidum_ or _l. longiflorum_ that are desired to be in flower by easter, should now receive every attention--their condition should be that the flower buds can be easily felt in the leaf heads. a temperature of fifty-five to sixty-five at night should be maintained, giving abundance of air on bright sunny days to keep them stocky. green fly is very troublesome at this stage, and nothing is more certain to destroy this pest than to dip the plants in tobacco water which, to be effective, should be the color of strong tea. occasional waterings of weak liquid manure will be of considerable help if the pots are full of roots. _j. thorpe._ entomology. arsenical poisons in the orchard. as is well known, about fifty per cent. of the possible apple crop in the western states is sacrificed each year to the codling moth, except in sections where orchardists combine to apply bands of straw around the trunks. but as is equally well known this is rather a troublesome remedy. at all events, in illinois, professor forbes, in a bulletin lately issued from the office of the state entomologist of illinois, claims that the farmers of that state suffer an annual loss from the attacks of this single kind of insect of some two and three-quarters millions of dollars. as the results of two years' experiments in spraying the trees with a solution of paris green, only once or twice in early spring, before the young apples had drooped upon their stems, there was a saving of about seventy-five per cent. of the apples. the paris green mixture consisted of three-fourths of an ounce of the powder by weight, of a strength to contain 15.4 per cent. of metallic arsenic, simply stirred up in two and a half gallons of water. the tree was thoroughly sprayed with a hand force-pump, and with the deflector spray and solid jet-hose nozzle, manufactured in lowell, mass. the fluid was thrown in a fine mist-like spray, applied until the leaves began to drip. the trees were sprayed in may and early in june while the apples were still very small. it seems to be of little use to employ this remedy later in the season, when later broods of the moth appear, since the poison takes effect only in case it reaches the surface of the apple between the lobes of the calyx, and it can only reach this place when the apple is very small and stands upright on its stem, it should be added that spraying "after the apples have begun to hang downward is unquestionably dangerous," since even heavy winds and violent rains are not sufficient to remove the poison from the fruit at this season. at the new york experimental station last year a certain number of trees were sprayed three times with paris green with the result that sixty-nine per cent. of the apples were saved. it also seems that last year about half the damage that might have been done by the plum weevil or curculio was prevented by the use of paris green, which should be sprayed on the trees both early in the season, while the fruit is small, as well as later. the cost of this paris green application, when made on a large scale, with suitable apparatus, only once or twice a year, must, says mr. forbes, fall below an average of ten cents a tree. the use of solutions of paris green or of london purple in water, applied by spraying machines such as were invented and described in the reports of the national department of agriculture by the u. s. entomologist and his assistants, have effected a revolution in remedies against orchard and forest insects. we expect to see them, in careful hands, tried with equal success in shrubberies, lawns and flower gardens. _a. s. packard._ the forest. the white pine in europe. the white pine was among the very first american trees which came to europe, being planted in the year 1705 by lord weymouth on his grounds in chelsea. from that date, the tree has been cultivated in europe under the name of weymouth pine; in some mountain districts of northern bavaria, where it has become a real forest tree, it is called strobe, after the latin name _pinus strobus_. after general cultivation as an ornamental tree in parks this pine began to be used in the forests on account of its hardiness and rapid growth, and it is now not only scattered through most of the forests of europe, but covers in germany alone an area of some 300 acres in a dense, pure forest. some of these are groves 120 years old, and they yield a large proportion of the seed demanded by the increasing cultivation of the tree in europe. the white pine has proved so valuable as a forest tree that it has partly overcome the prejudices which every foreign tree has to fight against. the tree is perfectly hardy, is not injured by long and severe freezing in winter, nor by untimely frosts in spring or autumn, which sometimes do great harm to native trees in europe. on account of the softness of the leaves and the bark, it is much damaged by the nibbling of deer, but it heals quickly and throws up a new leader. the young plant can endure being partly shaded by other trees far better than any other pine tree, and even seems to enjoy being closely surrounded, a quality that makes it valuable for filling up in young forests where the native trees, on account of their slow growth, could not be brought up at all. the white pine is not so easily broken by heavy snowfall as the scotch pine, on account of the greater elasticity of its wood. the great abundance of soft needles falling from it every year better fits it for improving a worn-out soil than any european pine, therefore the tree has been tried with success as a nurse for the ground in forest plantations of oak, when the latter begin to be thinned out by nature, and grass is growing underneath them. and finally, all observations agree that the white pine is a faster growing tree than any native conifer in europe, except, perhaps, the larch. the exact facts about that point, taken from investigations on good soil in various parts of germany, are as follows: years. height. annual growth during last decade. the white pine at 20 reaches 7.5 meters. 37 centimeters " 30 " 12.5 " 50 " " 40 " 18.5 " 60 " " 50 " 22.5 " 40 " " 60 " 26.5 " 40 " " 70 " 28.5 " 20 " " 80 " 30.0 " 15 " " 90 " 32.0 " 20 " for comparison i add here the average growth on good soil, of the scotch pine, one of the most valuable and widely distributed timber trees of europe. years. height. annual growth during last decade. the scotch pine at 20 reaches 7.3 meters. 36.5 centimeters " 30 " 11.6 " 43.0 " " 40 " 15.7 " 41.0 " " 50 " 19.4 " 37.0 " " 60 " 22.1 " 27.0 " " 70 " 24.0 " 22.0 " " 80 " 26.0 " 17.0 " " 90 " 27.5 " 15.0 " " 100 " 28.5 " 10.0 " " 120 " 30.0 " 7.5 " that is, the white pine is ahead of its relative during its entire life and attains at 80 years a height which the scotch pine only reaches in 120 years. it appears then that the whole volume of wood formed within a certain period by an acre of white pine forest is greater than that yielded by a forest of scotch pine within the same period. as far as reliable researches show, a forest of white pine when seventy years old gives an annual increment of 3 cords of wood per acre. on the same area a forest of scotch pine increases every year by 2.4 cords on the best soil, 2 cords on medium soil, and 1.5 cords on poor soil. but notwithstanding the splendid qualities which distinguish the white pine as a forest tree its wood has never been looked upon with favor in europe. many of those who are cultivating the white pine for business seem to expect that they will raise a heavy and durable wood. these are the qualities prized in their own timber trees, and they seem to think that the white pine must be so highly prized at home for the same qualities, when in fact it is the lightness and softness of the wood which are considered in america. it would seem also that some european planters believe that a pine tree exists which will yield more and at the same time heavier wood than any other tree on the same area. it is a general rule that the amount of woody substance annually formed on the same soil does not vary in any great degree with the different kinds of trees. for instance, if we have good soil we may raise 2,200 lbs. per acre of woody substance every year, from almost any kind of timber tree. if we plant a tree forming a wood of low specific gravity, we get a large volume of wood, and this is the case with the white pine. if we plant on the same ground an oak tree, we will get small volume of wood, but the weight of the woody substance will be the same, that is, 2,200 pounds of absolutely dried wood per acre. it is remarkable that there is hardly any difference in the specific gravity of the wood of the white pine grown in europe and in its native country. i collected in central wisconsin wood-sections of a tall tree and compared the specific gravity with the wood of a full-grown tree of white pine from a bavarian forest. the average specific gravity of the bavarian tree was 38.3. the average specific gravity of the american tree was 38.9. in both trees the specific gravity slightly increased from the base to the top. professor sargent gives 38 as the result of his numerous and careful investigations. i was much surprised that the thickness of the sap-wood varied much in favor of the bavarian tree. the sap-wood measured in thickness: of the bavarian tree. of the american tree. at the base 2.7 centimeters 9 centimeters. in the middle .4 " 6 " within the crown .3 " 4 " i am inclined to believe that on account of the generally drier climate of america a greater amount of water, and, therefore, of water-conducting sap-wood, is necessary to keep the balance between the evaporation and transportation of the water. the wood of the white pine is certainly better fitted for many purposes than any tree with which nature has provided europe, and yet one can hardly expect it to easily overcome fixed habits and prejudices. it will devolve upon the more intelligent proprietors of wood-land in europe to begin with the plantation of the white pine on a large scale. no conifer in europe can be cultivated with so little care and risk as the white pine; the frost does not injure the young plant, and the numerous insects invading the european trees during their whole life-time inflict but little harm. subterranean parasites are thinning out the plantations to some extent, but in no dangerous way. _h. mayr._ tokio, japan. abies amabilis.--professor john macoun detected this species during the past summer upon many of the mountains of vancouver's island where with _tsuga pattoniana_ it is common above 3,000 feet over the sea level. the northern distribution of this species as well as some other british columbia trees is still a matter of conjecture. it has not been noticed north of the fraser river, but it is not improbable that _abies amabilis_ will be found to extend far to the north along some of the mountain ranges of the north-west coast. european larch in massachusetts. in 1876 the trustees of the massachusetts society for the promotion of agriculture offered a premium for the best plantations of not less than five acres of european larch. the conditions of the competition were that not less than 2,700 trees should be planted to the acre, and that only poor, worn-out land, or that unfit for agricultural purposes, be used in these plantations. the prize was to be awarded at the end of ten years. the committee appointed to award the prize were c. s. sargent and john lowell. the ten years having expired, this committee lately made the following report: mr. james lawrence, of groton, and mr. j. d. w. french, of north andover, made plantations during the spring of 1877 in competition for this prize. mr. lawrence, however, at the end of one year withdrew from the contest, and mr. french is the only competitor. your committee have visited his plantation at different times during the past ten years, and have now made their final inspection. the plantation occupies a steep slope facing the south and covered with a thin coating of gravelly loam largely mixed towards the bottom of the hill with light sand. this field in 1877 was a fair sample of much of the hillside pasture land of the eastern part of the state. it had been early cleared, no doubt, of trees, and the light surface soil practically exhausted by cultivation. it was then used as a pasture, producing nothing but the scantiest growth of native grasses and sedges with a few stunted pitch pines. land of this character has no value for tillage, and has practically little value for pasturage. upon five acres of this land mr. french planted fifteen thousand european larch. the trees were one foot high, and were set in the sod four feet apart each way, except along the boundary of the field, where the plantation was made somewhat thicker. the cost of the plantation, as furnished by mr. french, has been as follows: 15,000 larch (imported), $108 50 fencing, 20 81 surveying, 6 00 labor, 104 69 ------ total, $240 00 this, with compound interest at five per cent. for ten years, makes the entire cost to date of the plantation of five acres, $390.90. the trees for several years grew slowly and not very satisfactorily. several lost their leaders, and in various parts of the plantation small blocks failed entirely. the trees, however, have greatly improved during the last four years, and the entire surface of the ground is now, with one or two insignificant exceptions, sufficiently covered. there appear to be from 10,000 to 12,000 larch trees now growing on the five acres. the largest tree measured is 25 feet high, with a trunk 26 inches in circumference at the ground, there are several specimens of this size at least, and it is believed that all the trees, including many which have not yet commenced to grow rapidly or which have been overcrowded and stunted by their more vigorous neighbors, will average 12 feet in height, with trunks 10 to 12 inches in circumference at the ground. many individuals have increased over four feet in height during the present year. it is interesting to note as an indication of what massachusetts soil of poor quality is capable of producing, that various native trees have appeared spontaneously in the plantation since animals were excluded from this field. among these are white pines 6 to 8 feet high, pitch pines 14 feet high, a white oak 15 feet high and a gray birch 17 feet high. the trustees offered this prize in the belief that it would cause a plantation to be made capable of demonstrating that unproductive lands in this state could be cheaply covered with trees, and the result of mr. french's experiment seems to be conclusive in this respect. it has shown that the european larch can be grown rapidly and cheaply in this climate upon very poor soil, but it seems to us to have failed to show that this tree has advantages for general economic planting in this state which are not possessed in an equal degree by some of our native trees. land which will produce a crop of larch will produce in the same time at least a crop of white pine. there can be no comparison in the value of these two trees in massachusetts. the white pine is more easily transplanted than the larch, it grows with equal and perhaps greater rapidity, and it produces material for which there is an assured and increasing demand. the white pine, moreover, has so far escaped serious attacks of insects and dangerous fungoid diseases which now threaten to exterminate in different parts of europe extensive plantations of larch. your committee find that mr. french has complied with all the requirements of the competition: they recommend that the premium of one thousand dollars be paid to him. answers to correspondents. when the woods are cut clean in southern new hampshire white pine comes in very, very thickly. is it best to thin out the growth or allow the trees to crowd and shade the feebler ones slowly to death? j. d. l. it is better to thin such over-crowded seedlings early, if serviceable timber is wanted in the shortest time. the statement that close growth is needed to produce long, clean timber, needs some limitation. no plant can develop satisfactorily without sufficient light, air and feeding room. when trees are too thickly crowded the vigor of every one is impaired, and the process of establishing supremacy of individuals is prolonged, to the detriment even of those which are ultimately victorious. the length is drawn out disproportionately to the diameter, and all the trees remain weak. experience has proved that plantations where space is given for proper growth in their earlier years, yield more and better wood than do nature's dense sowings. two records are added in confirmation of this statement, and many others could be given: 1. a pine plantation of twelve acres was made, one half by sowing, the other half by planting at proper distances. in twenty-four years the first section had yielded, including the material obtained in thinnings, 1,998 cubic feet, and the latter, 3,495 cubic feet of wood. the thinnings had been made, when appearing necessary, at ten, fifteen and eighteen years in the planted section, yielding altogether ten and three-quarter cords of round firewood and seven cords of brush; and at eight, ten and twenty years in the sowed section, with a yield of only three and one-fifth cords of round firewood at the last thinning and seven and four-fifths cords of brush wood. 2. a spruce growth seeded after thirty-three years was still so dense as to be impenetrable, with scarcely any increase, and the trees were covered with lichens. it was then thinned out when thirty-five, and again when forty-two years old. the appearance greatly improved, and the accretion in seven years after thinning showed 160 per cent. increase, or more than 26 per cent. every year. the density of growth which will give the best results in all directions depends upon the kind of timber and soil conditions. --_b. e. fernow._ washington, d. c. book reviews. gray's elements of botany. fifty-one years ago, asa gray, then only twenty-six years of age, published a treatise on botany adapted to the use of schools and colleges. it was entitled "the elements of botany." its method of arrangement was so admirably adapted to its purpose, and the treatment of all the subjects so mature and thorough, that the work served as a model for a large work which soon followed,--the well-known botanical text-book, and the same general plan has been followed in all the editions of the latter treatise. about twenty-five years after the appearance of the elements, dr. gray prepared a more elementary work for the use of schools, since the text-book had become rather too advanced and exhaustive for convenient use. this work was the "lessons in botany," a book which has been a great aid throughout the country, in introducing students to a knowledge of the principles of the science. without referring to other educational works prepared by dr. gray, such as "how plants grow," etc., it suffices now to say that for two or three years, he had been convinced that there was need of a hand-book, different in essential particulars from any of its predecessors. when we remember that all of these had been very successful from an educational point of view, as well as from the more exacting one of the publishers, we can understand how strong must have been the motive which impelled the venerable but still active botanist to give a portion of his fast-flying time to the preparation of another elementary work. in answer to remonstrances from those who believed that the remnant of his days should be wholly given to the completion of the "synoptical flora," he was wont to say pleasantly, "oh, i give only my _evenings_ to the 'elements.'" and, so, after a day's work, in which he had utilized every available moment of sunlight, he would turn with the fresh alertness which has ever characterized every motion and every thought, to the preparation of what he called fondly, his "legacy" to young botanists. that precious legacy we have now before us. in form it is much like the lessons, but more compact and yet much more comprehensive. its conciseness of expression is a study in itself. to give it the highest praise, it may be said to be french in its clearness and terseness. not a word is wasted: hence, the author has been able to touch lightly and still with firmness every important line in this sketch of the principles of botany. this work, in the words of its author, "is intended to ground beginners in structural botany and the principles of vegetable life, mainly as concerns flowering or phanerogamous plants, with which botanical instruction should always begin; also to be a companion and interpreter to the manuals and floras by which the student threads his flowery way to a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation. such a book, like a grammar, must needs abound in technical words, which thus arrayed may seem formidable; nevertheless, if rightly apprehended, this treatise should teach that the study of botany is not the learning of names and terms, but the acquisition of knowledge and ideas. no effort should be made to commit technical terms to memory. any term used in describing a plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when it is wanted, and that should suffice. on the other hand, plans of structure, types, adaptations, and modifications, once understood, are not readily forgotten; and they give meaning and interest to the technical terms used in explaining them." the specific directions given for collecting plants, for preparing herbarium specimens, and for investigating the structure of plants make this treatise of great use to those who are obliged to study without a teacher. the very extensive glossary makes the work of value not only to this class of students, but to those, as well, whose pursuits are directed in our schools. the work fills, in short, the very place which dr. gray designed it should. _g. l. goodale._ _the kansas forest trees identified by leaves and fruit_, by w. a. kellerman, ph.d., and mrs. w. a. kellerman (manhattan, kansas). this octavo pamphlet of only a dozen pages contains a convenient artificial key for the rapid determination of seventy-five species of trees. by the use of obvious characters the authors have made the work of identification comparatively easy in nearly every instance, and even in the few doubtful cases, the student will not be allowed to go far astray. the little hand-book ought to be found of use even beyond the limits of the state for which it was designed. _g. l. goodale._ public works. the falls of minnehaha.--a tract of fifty acres, beautifully located on the mississippi, opposite the mouth of the minnehaha, has been acquired by the city of st. paul, and land will most probably be secured for a drive of several miles along the river. the bank here is more than 100 feet high, often precipitous, clothed with a rich growth of primeval forest, shrubbery and vines. it is hoped that minneapolis may secure the land immediately opposite, including the falls of minnehaha and the valley of the stream to the great river. in this event a great park could be made between the two cities, easily reached from the best part of both, with the mississippi flowing through it and the falls as one of its features. this, in connection with the park so beautifully situated on lake como, three miles from st. paul, and the neat parks of minneapolis and its superbly kept system of lake shore drives, would soon be an object worthy of the civic pride of these enterprising and friendly rivals. a park for wilmington, del.--after many delays and defeats the people of this city have secured a tract of more than 100 acres, mostly of fine rocky woodland, with the classic brandywine flowing through it, and all within the city limits, together with two smaller tracts, one a high wooded slope, the other lying on tide water, and both convenient to those parts of the city inhabited by workingmen and their families. a topographical survey of these park lands is now in progress as preparation for a general plan of improvement. of the "brandywine glen" mr. frederick law olmsted once wrote: "it is a passage of natural scenery which, to a larger city, would be of rare value--so rare and desirable that in a number of cities several million dollars have been willingly spent to obtain results of which the best that can said is, that they somewhat distantly approach, in character and expression, such scenery as the people of wilmington have provided for them without expense." flower market. retail prices in the flower market. new york, _february 23d._ there is a glut of flowers, particularly of tea roses of an indifferent quality. bon silene buds cost from 75 cts. to $1 a dozen, perle des jardins, niphetos, souvenir d'un ami, and papa gontiers bring $1.50 a dozen. c. mermets are very fine and from 30 to 35 cts. each. not more than one in three la france roses is perfect; they bring from 25 cts. to 50 cts. each. mde. cuisin and duke of connaught are 25 cts. each, bennets 20 cts. each and brides 25 cts. each. american beauties are $1 to $1.50 each, according to the location where they are sold. puritans cost 75 cts. each, and jacqueminots 50 cts. magna chartas are the most popular of the hybrid roses at present. they, anna de diesbach and mad. gabriel luizet bring from $1 to $1.50 each. mignonette is very plentiful, well grown and of the spiral variety; it brings 75 cts. a dozen spikes retail, very large spikes bring as high as 15 cts. each. hyacinths, lilies-of-the-valley and tulips bring $1 a dozen. lilacs cost 25 cts. for a spray of one or two tassels. violets are abundant, mostly of the marie louise variety, and bring $2 a hundred. fancy long stem red carnations cost 75 cts. a dozen; short stem carnations are 50 cts. a dozen; the dyed carnations, named "emerald," are in brisk demand and sell for 15 cts. each. daffodils are $1 a dozen; those dyed bring 20 cts. each. finely grown forget-me-not brought in small quantity to retail dealers sells for 10 cts. a spray. calla lilies bring $2 and $3 a dozen, and longiflorum lilies $4 a dozen. philadelphia, _february 23d._ heavy demands for flowers dropped off short on ash wednesday, and decreased each day until saturday, when the regular orders for loose flowers caused the trade to pick up again. the demand for orchids is steadily growing; a fair quantity is used at balls and parties, but nothing in comparison to roses, violets and lily-of-the-valley. violets have been in greater demand, so far, than for several years. large quantities of tulips have been used recently for table decorations, especially the pink varieties, the favorite color for dinners and lunches. the american beauty rose, when cut with long stems, and really first class in every other respect, has been in great demand, at the best prices. md. gabrielle luizet is scarce, the local growers not having commenced to cut in quantity; it is frequently asked for. carnation plateaus in solid colors have been used freely. lilacs are considered choice and have been in good demand. retail prices rule as follows: orchids, from 25 cts. to $1 each; la france, mermet, bride and bennet roses, $3 per dozen; jacques, $4 to $5; american beauty, $4 to $9; puritan, $4; anna de diesbach, $5 to $7.50; papa gontier, sunset, perle des jardins and mad. cuisin, $1.50; bon silene, $1.00; niphetos, $1 to $1.50. lily-of-the-valley, and roman hyacinths, bring $1 per dozen; mignonette, 50 cts., and freesia the same per dozen; heliotrope, pansies, carnations, and forget-me-nots, 35 cts. per dozen. violets bring from $1 to $1.50 per hundred; lilium harrisii, $3.00 per dozen; callas $2 per dozen, and lilacs $2 per bunch of about eight sprays. daffodils sell briskly at from $1 to $1.50 per dozen. boston, _february 23d._ the season of lent is always looked forward to by the florists with anxiety, for the rest from receptions, assemblies and balls cuts off one of the chief outlets for the choicest flowers: a few warm days are sufficient to overstock the market, and prices take a fall. buyers are learning, however, that at no period of the year can cut flowers be had in such perfection and variety as during february and march, and although not much required for party occasions they are bought for other purposes in increasing quantities every year, so that the advent of lent does not now produce utter stagnation in the flower trade. in roses there is at present a large assortment offered. from the modest bon silene, and its new competitor, papa gontier, up to the magnificent american beauty and hybrid perpetuals, may be found every gradation of color, size and fragrance. retail prices vary from 75 cts. per dozen for bon silenes and $1.50 to $2 for perles, niphetos, etc., up to $3 and $4 for the best mermets, niels and la france; hybrids and jacques of best quality bring from $6 to $9 per dozen. in bulbous flowers a large variety is shown. lily-of-the-valley sells for $1.50 per dozen sprays; narcissus of various kinds, hyacinths and tulips for $1 per dozen; violets, 50 cts. per bunch; pansies, mignonette, heliotrope, forget-me-not and calendulas, 50 cts. per doz. long stemmed carnations are to be had in great variety at 75 cts. per dozen; callas 25 cts. each, and smilax 50 cts. a string. at this season smilax is at its best, being its time of flowering, and the flowers are deliciously fragrant. publishers' note. a photogravure of mr. a. st. gaudens's bronze medallion of the late professor asa gray will be published as a supplement to the second number of garden and forest. [illustration: advertisement rare water lilies] [illustration: advertisement trees fruit and ornamental. roses] [illustration: advertisement sibley's tested seed] [illustration: advertisement barr's proven seeds] [illustration: advertisement seeds roses plants] [illustration: advertisement beautiful trees for lawn and cemetery planting. these can now be furnished in great variety, from our extensive collection, at reduced prices. we have now on hand a large supply of the following rare beeches, all of which have been recently transplanted, and are in consequence abundantly furnished with fine roots:-purple-leaved beech. from 6 to 10 feet high; elegant specimens. all were grafted from the beautiful "rivers' variety," so justly celebrated for the intense blood-red color of its foliage. weeping beech. from 6 to 10 feet high, suitable for immediate effect, and well supplied with decidedly pendulous branches. crested and fern-leaved beeches. we offer a superb stock of these, averaging in height from 5 or 6 to 10 feet, all well rooted and nicely furnished. in evergreens we have now in stock a large supply of american, siberian and golden arbor vitæs, balsam firs, hemlocks and norway spruce; good, young, healthy plants, especially desirable for screens and hedges. in shrubbery our assortment is very complete, embracing many rare and elegant species. our immense stock of some kinds enables us to accept orders at very low rates. hoopes, bro. & thomas, maple avenue nurseries, west chester, pa.] [illustration: advertisement dreer's garden calendar] [illustration: advertisement h. w. s. cleveland, landscape gardener] [illustration: advertisement charles eliott, landscape gardener] [illustration: advertisement baker's breakfast cocoa] [illustration: j. laing & sons, the nurseries, forest hill, london england. leading specialties.] tuberous begonias. awarded four gold medals. gold medal collection, quite unrivaled. _tubers in a dry state_ can be safely transmitted from england until april. prices when selection is left to us: _per doz._ a collection, named, our best collection 42s. b " " very choice selection 36s. c " " choice selection 30s. d " " very good selection 24s. e " " good selection 18s. f " " ordinary selection 12s. g " unnamed best selections to color 21s. h " " very choice selection 18s. j " " best whites, distinct 15s. k " " choice selection 12s. l " " very good, selected to color for bedding 9s. m " " good best do. per 100, 40s., 6s. double varieties. prices (our selection): p collection, named, our best collection, each 7s. 6d. and 13s. 6d. _per doz._ r " " very choice ditto 63s. s " " choice ditto 48s. t " " very good ditto 42s. w " unnamed our very choice, selected, distinct 30s. x " " choice, selected in 6 colors 24s. z " " mixed ditto 18s. begonia seed. gold medal strain from prize plants. new crop. sealed packets. choice mixed, from single varieties. 1s. and 2s. 6d. per packet; 5s. and 10s. extra large packets; double varieties, 1s., 2s. 6d. and 5s. per packet; large packets, 10s. collections--12 named varieties, single, separate, 5s. 6d.; 6 named varieties, separate, 3s. caladium roots. the finest collection in the world. best named varieties, per doz., 30s., 36s., 42s., 48s. and 60s. gloxinia roots. in dormant state till march. our unequalled collection. self colors, and spotted. best sorts to name, 12s., 18s., 24s., 30s., 36s. and 42s. per doz. unnamed, very choice, 6s., 9s. and 12s. per doz. gloxinia seed. saved from our prize plants; erect flowering, drooping, mixed and spotted, separate, per packet, 1s., 2s. 6d. and 5s. other flower seeds. the choicest strains of primula, cineraria, calceolaria, cyclamen, hollyhock, dahlia, pansies, asters, stocks, and every other sort. all kinds of plants, roses, fruit trees, etc., that can be imported from england, safely transmitted in wardian cases. --> remittances or london references must always accompany orders. flower seeds by post. orders should reach us soon as possible. --> catalogues gratis and post free. <-scribner's magazine for march contains blücher unhorsed at ligny. drawn by r. f. zogbaum. engraved by peckwell. the campaign of waterloo. by john c. ropes. with illustrations by r. f. zogbaum, and drawings made by w. t. smedley, especially commissioned by this magazine to visit the field. a strikingly original history of this greatest of military events. a concluding article, beautifully illustrated, will appear in april. beggars. the third of the series of charming essays by robert louis stevenson. the new york _tribune_ says in referring to this series: "the matter is of itself enough to interest every person in the least interested in literature, and the manner of it is such as to make us ask again of him for the hundredth time, as it was asked of macaulay, 'where did he get that style?'" a shelf of old books.--leigh hunt. by mrs. james t. fields. illustrated with drawings, portraits and fac-similes. a charming account of some of the literary treasures owned by the late james t. fields. the electric motor and its applications. by franklin leonard pope. with 14 illustrations. mr. pope describes the great advances recently made by which electricity takes the place of steam, or supplements it in so many directions. the nixie. a fantastic story. by mrs. robert louis stevenson. mendelssohn's letters to moscheles. from the mss. in the possession of felix moscheles. by william f. apthorp. ii. (_conclusion_.) with portraits, reproductions of drawings, musical scores, etc. "the letters are full of interest, especially in their frank observations on musical affairs of mendelssohn's day."--_boston saturday evening gazette._ the day of the cyclone. a stirring western story, founded on the grinnell (ia.) tornado. by octave thanet. first harvests.--chapters vii-x. by f. j. stimson. (to be continued.) natural selection--a novelette in three parts. by h. c. bunner. (_conclusion_.) with illustrations. poems. by thomas nelson page, c. p. cranch, bessie chandler, and charles edwin markham. "in its one year of life scribner's magazine has taken not only an exalted and permanent place in periodical literature but one that the world could in no sense spare."--_boston traveller._ _a year's subscription, consisting of twelve monthly numbers, gives more than 1,500 pages of the best, most interesting, and valuable literature. more than 700 illustrations from designs by famous artists, reproduced by the best methods._ price, 25 cents. $3.00 a year. charles scribner's sons, 743-745 broadway, new york. a brilliant new novel by the author of "the story of margaret kent." queen money. 1 vol., 12mo, $1.50. "this is _the strongest story that this author has yet told_. it is essentially a novel of character-painting, more even than 'margaret kent' or 'sons and daughters'. it is superior to either of these. the merits of 'queen money' are very great.... interesting and valuable and remarkably true to life. it is a book to be quoted, to be thought about, to be talked about." looking backward. 2000-1887. by edward bellamy, author of "miss ludington's sister." $1.50. "'the duchess emilia' and 'she' are not more strange than this story." under the southern cross. by m. m. ballou, author of "due north," "edge-tools of speech," etc. $1.50. a journey, in 1887, to australia, tasmania, samoa, new zealand and other south-sea islands. _for sale by all booksellers, or will be sent, post free, on receipt of price by_ ticknor & co., boston. the sun for 1888. the year 1888 promises to be a year of splendid political development, one and all redounding to the glory and triumph of a united democracy. in the front line will be found the sun, fresh from its magnificent victory over the combined foes of democracy in its own state, true to its convictions, truthful before all else, and fearless in the cause of truth and right. the sun has six, eight, twelve, and sixteen pages, as occasion requires, and is ahead of all competition in everything that makes a newspaper. daily, $6 00 daily and sunday, 7 50 sunday, 16 and 20 pages, 1 50 weekly, 1 00 address the sun, new york. the united states mutual accident association is offering the very best accident insurance at cost. $5,000 for death by accident, $25 weekly indemnity, and liberal indemnity for loss of eye or limb. costs $13 to $15 per year. membership fee, $5. 320 & 322 broadway, new york. charles b. peet, president. james r. pitcher, secretary and gen'l manager. for spring planting. rhododendrons, azaleas, japanese maples, and all other hardy ornamental trees, street trees, evergreens, shrubs, roses and vines of selected quality, in quantity, at lowest rates; also, all the best fruits. priced catalogue on application. fred. w. kelsey, 208 broadway, new york. [illustration: advertisement young and elliott's collection of choice flower seeds] some works on natural science published by henry holt & co., new york. packard's (a. s.) works. guide to the study of insects $5 00 outlines of comparative embriology 2 50 zoology--advanced course 3 00 zoology--briefer course 1 40 first lessons in zoology 1 00 bessey's (c. e.) works. botany--advanced course $2 75 essentials of botany 1 35 sedgwick (w. t.) and wilson's (e. b.) general biology--part i $2 00 arthur (j. c.) barnes (c. r.) and coulter's (j. m.) plant dissection $1 50 gray's botanical text books. at once the most complete and the best botanical series published, comprising: gray's how plants grow, gray's how plants behave, gray's lessons in botany, gray's field, forest and garden botany, gray's school and field botany, apgar's plant analysis, gray's manual of botany, gray's lessons and manual, gray's structural botany, goodale's physiological botany, gray's structural and systematic botany, coulter's manual of the rocky mountains, the same, tourist's edition, gray and coulter's manual of western botany, gray's synoptical flora--the gamopetalæ, chapman's flora of southern u.s. send for our new descriptive pamphlet of gray's botanies, containing portrait and biographical sketch of the author. books for introduction or examination furnished on very favorable terms. ivison, blakeman & co., 753-755 broadway, new york, and 149 wabash ave., chicago. a few flowers worthy of general culture. in presenting to our large and growing company of patrons this, the fifth edition of our book, our dominant feeling is one of extreme pleasure at the generous welcome given our preceding efforts. and we offer this edition in the belief and hope that it may suggest ideas that may be of use, and that may be practically carried out in the making of gardens that must be a source of delight. the wide-spread desire for better and more artistic gardening is evidenced by the articles recently published on the subject by the foremost and ablest magazines. an excellent article on "old garden plants," in harper's monthly for december, 1887, encourages us greatly in our efforts to popularize the hardy flowers so loved by our grandmothers, together with many fine plants of more recent introduction. as we were the first in this country to gather a fine collection of hardy plants from all quarters of the earth, and to offer them when there was but small demand for such, we are pleased indeed that so much attention is now being given to them, feeling that our efforts in behalf of the almost forgotten hardy plants, will tend to the creation of gardens more permanent and beautiful, and at much smaller outlay than any that can be made with tender plants. the fifth edition of our book is now ready. it is the largest and best work on hardy plants published in this country, and contains many finely illustrated articles, among which are, "a talk about roses;" "hardy plants and modes of arranging them;" "the making of the hardy border;" "some beauties in their native wilds;" "rhododendrons, kalmias and hardy azaleas;" "hardy aquatic plants;" "tropical garden effects with hardy plants;" "a garden party;" etc., etc. the book is finely printed on the best of paper, is of real merit and rare beauty, and will be sent post-paid, bound in durable flexible covers for 50 cents, or in leather for 75 cents, but the price paid will be allowed on the first order for plants, making the book really free to our customers. our descriptive catalogue, containing a complete descriptive list of the best and largest collection of hardy plants in america, sent on receipt of 10 cents in stamps. our special list of valuable, low-priced, well-grown plants mailed upon application. b. a. elliott co., no. 56 sixth street, pittsburgh, pa. new seeds, bulbs, plants, fruits,--rare tropical fruits. grand palms from seed. we are now able to offer for the first time, both seed and plants of that king of ornamental plants, the new filifera palm. stately and beautiful beyond description, it is the finest addition that can be made to any collection of plants, and can be grown in any window or garden as easy as a geranium. it is of a compact growth with elegant large leaves, from which hang long thread-like filaments, giving the plant a most odd and beautiful appearance. in fact there is nothing like it in cultivation and good specimens sell for enormous prices. plants are easily raised as the seed are large, germinate quick and grow rapidly. per packet 25cts. 5 for $1.00. year old plants 40cts. each, 3 for $1.00, 7 for $2.00 by mail post paid. will also mail 3 storm king fuchsias for 50cts., 12 excelsior pearl tuberoses for 85cts., 12 choice mixed gladiolas for 30cts. our giant excelsior pansies, best in the world, 20cts. per packet. new primrose verbena, yellow, a sterling novelty. 25cts. per packet. true pygmas aster, 50cts. per packet. our seed catalogue for 1888 is the most elegant ever issued. illustrated with 10 colored plates, stipple-litho. covers and hundreds of fine engravings. in it is offered a great variety of flower and vegetable seeds, bulbs and plants of all sorts, new fruits and rare tropical fruits suitable for pot culture, such as dwarf oranges, pine apples, bananas, figs, guavas, sugar apple, &c. this elegant and expensive catalogue will be sent for only 10cts., which is only a part of its cost to us. or if you order a packet of palm seed or anything here offered and ask for catalogue, it will be sent free. special offer. for 50 cts. we will send palm, pansy, and primrose verbena seed and catalogue. write at once as this offer may not appear again. to every order we will add an elegant seed or bulb novelty free. address, john lewis childs, floral park, queens co., n. y. [illustration: filifera palm.] chrysanthemums a specialty. our catalogue for spring of 1888, contains a select list of new and old chrysanthemums, including: "mrs. alpheus hardy," the beautiful variety figured in this paper. also a collection of fine flowering cannas. edwin fewkes & son, newton highlands, mass. a real bonanza in seeds.--being one of the largest growers of flower seeds in america, i want to induce extensive trial, and for 65cts. will send, postpaid, 32 papers choice new seeds, growth of '81, 75 to 500 seeds & mixed colors in each. _new large & fancy pansies, the finest ever offered_, (awarded _special prize by mass. hort'l society_) 60 distinct sorts and an endless variety of rich colors, all mixed; _double asters; japan pinks_, 50 vars. mixed; _large a. d. phlox; double portulaca; new godelias; new white mignonette; new nivaliana; everlastings; new giant candytuft; v. stocks; new marigolds; mottled, striped and fringed petunias; verbenas, 300 vars. mixed; new golden chrysanthemums; double larkspurs; velvet fl.; new yellow mignonette; double gaillardia; new double dwarf zinnias; double salens; new double white aster_, the finest white ever offered; _butterfly fl.; double daisies_ & 8 other choice kinds, amounting to $3.75 at regular rates, but to introduce will send the whole 32 papers for only 65 cts. this is an honest, square offer, but if you doubt it, send 15 cts. or 5 letter stamps, and i will send you 7 sample papers, my choice, but including _pansies, asters and improved prime sweet williams_, 50 vars. mixed. am sure a trial will prove all claims. new catalogue _free_. l. w. goodell, pansy park, dwight p. o. mass. the popular science monthly, edited by w. j. youmans, is filled with scientific articles by well-known writers on subjects of popular and practical interest. its range of topics, which is widening with the advance of science, comprises: domestic and social economy. political science, or the functions of government. psychology and education. relations of science and religion. conditions of health and prevention of disease. art and architecture in practical life. race development. agriculture and food-products. natural history; exploration; discovery, etc. it contains illustrated articles, portraits, biographical sketches; records the advance made in every branch of science; is not technical; and is intended for non-scientific as well as scientific readers. no magazine in the world contains papers of a more instructive and at the same time of a more interesting character. single number, 50 cents. yearly subscription, $5.00. d. appleton & co., publishers, new york. points to advertisers. nothing is sold without pushing, unless it has a monopoly. no two articles can be pushed in exactly the same way. in advertising you want to reach possible _customers_, not merely people. the best mediums for one line of goods may be the worst for another. advertising should not be visionary, it should not be attended to as a mere pastime. success means thought, the day of chance successes is nearly over. it costs no more to publish good matter than it does poor. the preparation of an advertisement is as important as the publishing. an advertiser needs an agent, as a client does a lawyer. the agent, however, asks no retainer and saves his customer money. a merchant cannot study advertising all the time--a good agent studies nothing else. the customer's interests are the agent's. if the agent is to succeed, the business done must be successful. the undersigned want business, but not badly enough to handle what is "questionable." they are honest and capable, their customers say, and they give close personal attention to their business. herbert booth king & brother, advertising agents, 202 broadway, n. y. (copyright, 1887.) send for circulars. a valuable work upon american trees, which should be in every library in the united states. fourth edition, just ready. price reduced. emerson's trees and shrubs. the trees and shrubs growing naturally in the forests of massachusetts. by george b. emerson. fourth edition. superbly illustrated with nearly 150 plates (46 beautiful heliotypes and 100 lithographs), 2 vols. 8vo. cloth. price, $10.00 net; formerly $12.00 net. the same, with 36 of the plates beautifully colored. price, $16.00 net; formerly $20.00 net. though this work nominally treats of the trees and shrubs of massachusetts, it is equally applicable to the flora of many other states; indeed all new england and a greater part of the middle states. in it is described every important tree or shrub that grows naturally in massachusetts, and in other states of the same latitude, the descriptions being the result of careful personal observation. it is, indeed, a comprehensive and convenient manual for almost every section of the union. the illustrations of these volumes constitute one of their most important and attractive features. a large number of the plates are by the eminent authority on this subject, isaac sprague. volume i. treats of the pines, oaks, beeches, chestnuts, hazels, hornbeams, walnuts, hickories, birches, alders, plane trees, poplars, and willows. volume ii. treats of the elms, ashes, locusts, maples, lindens, magnolias, liriodendrons, and the shrubs. little, brown, and company, publishers, 234 washington street, boston. houghton mifflin & co's beautiful new books. biography. memoir of ralph waldo emerson. by james elliot cabot. with a fine new steel portrait. 2 vols. 12mo, gilt top, $3.50. henry clay. vols. xv. and xvi. in series of american statesmen. by carl schurz. 2 vols. 16mo, gilt top, $2.50; half morocco, $5.00. patrick henry. vol. xvii. of american statesmen. by moses coit tyler. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. benjamin franklin. vol. x. of american men of letters. by john bach mcmaster, author of "a history of the people of the united states." with a steel portrait. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. novels and short stories. the second son. by mrs. m. o. w. oliphant and thomas bailey aldrich. 12mo, $1.50. the gates between. by elizabeth stuart phelps, author of "the gates ajar," "beyond the gates," etc. $1.25. paul patoff. by f. marion crawford, author of "a roman singer," etc. crown 8vo, $1.50. jack the fisherman. a powerful and pathetic temperance story. by elizabeth stuart phelps. 50 cents. knitters in the sun. a book of excellent short stories. by octave thanet. 16mo, $1.25. a princess of java. a novel of life, character and customs in java. by mrs. s. j. higginson, 12mo, $1.50. the story of keedon bluffs. by charles egbert craddock. a story for young folks, and older ones. $1.00. a new book by bret harte. "a phyllis of the sierras," and "a drift from redwood camp," $1.00. *.* _for sale by all booksellers. sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price by the publishers_, houghton, mifflin & co., boston. 11 east 17th street, new york. shady hill nurseries, cambridge, mass. the source of novelties in ornamentals! the new tree lilac (syringa japonica) was first grown commercially, and first sold from shady hill nurseries. the beautiful weeping lilac (syringa ligustrina pekinensis pendula), called by mr. samuel b. parsons, at the american pomological convention, at boston (where it was first exhibited and received a first-class certificate of merit from the mass. hort. society), "the most beautiful of all our small weeping trees." this also will be sent out in the autumn of this year. here also is grown, in large numbers, the lovely little flowering tree, called the "tea rose crab," the most exquisite of all our flowering trees. ten thousand of this tree have been ordered by messrs. v. h. hallock & son. here originated the hardy perennial gaillardia (g. aristata templeana of peter henderson's new catalogue), the most showy and only hardy gaillardia of this latitude. a full descriptive catalogue, of all the things grown at shady hill, will be issued in february, fully illustrated with engravings and containing four full page lithographs, in eight colors, of the four new trees, viz.: "tea rose crab," tree lilac, weeping lilac, and the fastigiate maiden hair tree. this will be sent free to all who will send address. f. l. temple, cambridge, mass. john saul's washington nurseries. our catalogue of new, rare and beautiful plants for 1888 will be ready in february. it contains list of all the most beautiful and rare green-house and hot-house plants in cultivation, as well as all novelties of merit. well grown and at very low prices. every plant lover should have a copy. orchids.--a very large stock of choice east indian, american, etc. also, catalogues of roses, orchids, seeds, trees, etc. all free. john saul, washington, d. c. western n. c. ornamental shrubs and trees. descriptive price list sent on application. detailed description of the _new_ rhododendron vaseyi, with each list. azalea arborescens is one of our specialties. correspondence solicited. kelsey bros., highlands nursery, highlands, n. c. gardeners.--thorough, practical man, wants situation to take charge of a good private place or institution; 19 years' experience in europe and u. s.; english, age 35, married, one of family; first-class reference. address j. s., care h. a. dreer, 714 chestnut st. philadelphia, pa. gold strawberry, a new berry of very fine quality, now offered for the first time. also, jewell, jessie, belmont, and other varieties. address. p. m. augur & sons, originators, middlefield, conn. new plants. our illustrated floral catalogue of new, rare and beautiful plants, orchids, palms, roses, bulbs, vines, trees, shrubs and seeds, also, all the novelties of the season, now ready. every lover of plants should have a copy. _prices low._ send for it; free _to all_. paul butz & son. new castle, pa. [illustration: vaughan's chicago parks flowers] you are about to write for a catalogue. no doubt you want the best--the truest descriptions, the clearest notes on plant culture, plainest type and most beautiful illustrations. we have put forth every effort to make ours such. those who have seen it, say it is. it tells many reasons why you can buy seeds and plants--so many of which are grown on the western prairies--better and cheaper at chicago than you can elsewhere. then why not do so? our chicago parks flowers and plants; our market vegetables and our gardening implements make up a book that tells the whole story, and is a work of art which will please you. send 15 cents and receive the catalogue and a paper of the above seeds free. j. c. vaughan, 88 state street, chicago. [illustration: japan snowball] meehan's nurseries though with the usual assortment of fruits and flowers found in all leading nurseries, we pay especial attention to ornamental trees. we have nearly fifty acres of these alone, and well on to a thousand varieties. japan maples . and . japan snowball --a specialty- send six cents in stamps for descriptive catalogue. thomas meehan & son, germantown, philadelphia, pa. orchids palms and fine tropical plants. we have the most complete collection of fine plants in the country. descriptions of specimens and a general catalogue of stock can be had on application either at 409 5th avenue, new york city, or at the rose hill nurseries, new rochelle, n. y. siebrecht & wadley. [illustration: chrysanthemums] [illustration: lawson 1838 pomona nurseries 1888] [illustration: farquhars' boston seeds] [illustration: the new model--our--latest and best mower.] tried by time practical people are well pleased with the recent development in horticultural journalism by which the young american garden absorbed the old _gardener's monthly_, which included the _horticulturist_, started by andrew jackson downing, over forty-two years ago. i told our local society just what i really think the other day, that you come the nearest my ideal of a horticultural monthly for popular circulation of any of the makers of such literature.--chas. w. garfield, _sec'y michigan horticultural society_. the magazine in now clearly the best horticultural publication in america, and soon i trust i can say the best extant.--dr. e. lewis sturtevant. as much as i regret the melting away of that old landmark, the _gardener's monthly_, of which i was a reader since 1867, as glad i feel that the transfer has been made into good hands.--r. maitre. _florist, new orleans._ i have been a subscriber to the _gardener's monthly_ from its first number. i feel sorry that the journal is going away from philadelphia, but am glad it has gone into such good hands.--chas. h. miller. _landscape gardener, fairmount park._ indispensable to the fruit growers, horticulturists, gardeners and florists (both practical and amateur) of this country.--cyrus t. fox, _state pomologist of pennsylvania._ it is a lamentable failing of horticultural educators in making the work intricate and apparently hard of execution. your new cover is in perfect accord with the contents, viz.: it expresses and teaches horticulture pure and simple.--geo. r. knapp, _rahway, n. j._ adapted to the wants of amateurs, country dwellers, practical gardeners and fruit growers, the american garden has stood the test of time, the great leveler, and receives the endorsements and support of all these classes in every section and many lands. the equal in cost and value of many $2, and $4 publications, this handsome and practical illustrated magazine of horticulture costs only $1.00 a year. in club with garden and forest for $4.50. address: e. h. libby, publisher, 751 broadway, n. y. the american florist, a semi-monthly journal for florists, and all who grow plants or flowers under glass. it prints nothing but hard common-sense matter, the experience of practical men who have been there themselves and know what they are talking about. _liberally illustrated. price, $1.00 a year of 24 numbers._ sample copy 6 cents in stamps. american florist co., 54 la salle st., chicago. [illustration: forest trees] [illustration: trees rochester commercial nurseries.] [illustration: new and rare trees and shrubs] red flowering dogwood, exochorda grandiflora, weeping dogwood, euonymus latifolius, weeping beech, berberis thunbergii, purple beech, magnolias, golden syringo, chinese cypress, new conifers, japan quince, yellow wood, hydrangeas, japan gingko japanese maples, spireas, golden - golden oak. alder. ------------------------------------------- --> new and rare trees and shrubs, <- ------------------------------------------- fruit rhododendrons yews, trees, junipers, small fruits, chinese azaleas hemlocks, tree pæonies, arbor vitæ, roses in variety, hardy azaleas retinosporas, american holly, camellias dwarf, blue, conical, herbaceous pæonies, weeping and other spruces, shade trees & hedge plants. assortment of pines. ------------------------------plans made, estimates furnished, grounds laid out, catalogues on application. parsons & sons company, limited, kissena nurseries, established 1839. flushing, n. y. seeds, seeds, seeds. to our friends who have not already received it, we are ready to mail our new catalogue of high class seeds for 1888, containing all the novelties of the season, both in vegetable, flower and tree seeds. j. m. thorburn & co., 15 john street, new york. our manual of everything for the garden is this season the grandest ever issued, containing three colored plates and superb illustrations of everything that is new, useful and rare in seeds and plants, together with plain directions of "how to grow them," by peter henderson. this manual, which is a book of 140 pages, we mail to any address on receipt of 25 cents (in stamps.) to all so remitting 25 cents for the manual, we will, at the same time, send free by mail, in addition, their choice of any one of the the following novelties, the price of either of which is 25 cents: one packet of the new green and gold watermelon or one packet of new succession cabbage, or one packet of new zebra zinnia, or one packet of butterfly pansy (see illustration), or one packet of new mammoth verbena, or one plant of the beautiful moonflower, on the distinct understanding, however, that those ordering will state in what paper they saw this advertisement. peter henderson & co 35 & 37 cortlandt st., new york. [illustration: w. w. rawson & co.] botany classes furnished with fresh plants and flowers from the southern mountains, including all the azaleas and rhododendrons found east of the rockies, i can furnish rhododendron vastyi and shortii galacifolia, and other rare plants. order shortii early, as it blooms in march and april. t. g. harbison, principal of highlands academy, highlands, n. c. * * * * * transcriber's note: missing and/or damaged punctuation has been repaired. errata: p. 3: (floriculture) 'county' probably error for 'country'. "... scores of young men in all parts of the country have..." p. 4: (lawn) 'whch' corrected to 'which' "... finely pulverized compost which may be brushed in." p. vi: (western n. c. ornamental shrubs and trees). 'rhodendron' corrected to 'rhododendron' "descriptive price list sent on application. detailed description of the _new_ rhododendron vaseyi, with each list." the school book of forestry by charles lathrop pack president of the american tree association 1922 [illustration: forest fire guard stationed in a tree top] the author gratefully acknowledges information and assistance from the writings and reports of col. w.b. greeley, u.s. forester; col. henry s. graves, former u.s. forester; gifford pinchot, former u.s. forester; dr. b.e. fernow, dr. j.w. toumey, f.w. besley, w.i. hutchinson, r.h.d. boerker, prof. nelson c. brown, prof. r.s. hosmer, e.a. sterling, r.s. kellogg, e.t. allen, s. gordon dorrance, dr. hugh p. baker, alfred gaskill, j.s. illick, and many other leaders in forestry. "the part of good citizens" a people without children would face a hopeless future; a country without trees is almost as helpless; forests which are so used that they cannot renew themselves will soon vanish, and with them all their benefits. when you help to preserve our forests or plant new ones you are acting the part of good citizens. --theodore roosevelt. introduction our forests, with their billions of trees, are the backbone of agriculture, the skeleton of lumbering, and the heart of industry. even now, in spite of their depletion, they are the cream of our natural resources. they furnish wood for the nation, pasture for thousands of cattle and sheep, and water supply for countless cities and farms. they are the dominions of wild life. millions of birds, game animals, and fish live in the forests and the forest streams. the time is coming when our forests will be the greatest playgrounds of america. it is necessary that we preserve, protect, and expand our timberlands. by so doing we shall provide for the needs of future generations. the forest is one of the most faithful friends of man. it provides him with materials to build homes. it furnishes fuel. it aids agriculture by preventing floods and storing the surplus rainfall in the soil for the use of farm crops. it supplies the foundation for all our railroads. it is the producer of fertile soils. it gives employment to millions of workmen. it is a resource which bountifully repays kind treatment. it is the best organized feature of the plant world. the forest is not merely a collection of different kinds of trees. it is a permanent asset which will yield large returns over long periods when properly managed. our forest fortune has been thoughtlessly squandered by successive generations of spendthrifts. fortunately, it is not too late to rebuild it through coöperative effort. the work has been well begun, but it is a work of years, and it is to the youth of the country that we must look for its continuous expansion and perpetuation. a part of our effort must be directed toward familiarizing them with the needs and rewards of an intelligent forestry policy. contents introduction chapter i. how trees grow and multiply ii. the forest families iii. forests and floods iv. wild life of the forest v. important forest trees and their uses vi. the greatest enemy of the forest--fire vii. insects and diseases that destroy forests viii. the growth of the forestry idea ix. our national forests x. the national forests of alaska xi. progress in state forestry xii. the playgrounds of the nation xiii. solving our forestry problems xiv. why the united states should practice forestry xv. why the lumberman should practice forestry xvi. why the farmer should practice forestry xvii. putting wood waste to work xviii. wood for the nation illustrations forest fire guard stationed in a tree top section of a virgin forest the sequoias of california a forest ranger and his forest cabin pine which yields turpentine and timber forest fires destroy millions of dollars worth of timber every year blackened ruins of a fire swept forest forest management provides for cutting mature trees seed beds in a forest nursery sowing forest seed in an effort to grow a new forest a camping ground in a national forest good forests mean good hunting and fishing young white pine seeded from adjoining pine trees what some kinds of timber cutting do to a forest on poor soil trees are more profitable than farm crops a forest crop on its way to the market [transcriber's note: "section of a virgin forest" is the seventh (not the second) illustration in the book.] chapter i how trees grow and multiply the trees of the forest grow by forming new layers of wood directly under the bark. trees are held upright in the soil by means of roots which reach to a depth of many feet where the soil is loose and porous. these roots are the supports of the tree. they hold it rigidly in position. they also supply the tree with food. through delicate hairs on the roots, they absorb soil moisture and plant food from the earth and pass them along to the tree. the body of the tree acts as a passage way through which the food and drink are conveyed to the top or crown. the crown is the place where the food is digested and the regeneration of trees effected. the leaves contain a material known as chlorophyll, which, in the presence of light and heat, changes mineral substances into plant food. chlorophyll gives the leaves their green color. the cells of the plant that are rich in chlorophyll have the power to convert carbonic-acid gas into carbon and oxygen. these cells combine the carbon and the soil water into chemical mixtures which are partially digested when they reach the crown of the tree. the water, containing salts, which is gathered by the roots is brought up to the leaves. here it combines with the carbonic-acid gas taken from the air. under the action of chlorophyll and sunlight these substances are split up, the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen being combined into plant food. it is either used immediately or stored away for future emergency. trees breathe somewhat like human beings. they take in oxygen and give off carbonic-acid gas. the air enters the tree through the leaves and small openings in the bark, which are easily seen in such trees as the cherry and birch. trees breathe constantly, but they digest and assimilate food only during the day and in the presence of light. in the process of digestion and assimilation they give off oxygen in abundance, but they retain most of the carbonic acid gas, which is a plant food, and whatever part of it is not used immediately is stored up by the tree and used for its growth and development. trees also give off their excess moisture through the leaves and bark. otherwise they would become waterlogged during periods when the water is rising rapidly from the roots. after the first year, trees grow by increasing the thickness of the older buds. increase in height and density of crown cover is due to the development of the younger twigs. new growth on the tree is spread evenly between the wood and bark over the entire body of the plant. this process of wood production resembles a factory enterprise in which three layers of material are engaged. in the first two of these delicate tissues the wood is actually made. the inner side of the middle layer produces new wood while the outer side grows bark. the third layer is responsible for the production of the tough, outer bark. year after year new layers of wood are formed around the first layers. this first layer finally develops into heartwood, which, so far as growth is concerned, is dead material. its cells are blocked up and prevent the flow of sap. it aids in supporting the tree. the living sapwood surrounds the heartwood. each year one ring of this sapwood develops. this process of growth may continue until the annual layers amount to 50 or 100, or more, according to the life of the tree. one can tell the age of a tree by counting the number of annual rings. sometimes, because of the interruption of normal growth, two false rings may be produced instead of a single true ring. however, such blemishes are easy for the trained eye to recognize. heartwood does not occur in all varieties of trees. in some cases, where both heartwood and sapwood appear, it is difficult to distinguish between them as their colors are so nearly alike. because it takes up so much moisture and plant food, sapwood rots much more quickly than heartwood. the sapwood really acts as a pipe line to carry water from the roots to the top of the tree. in some of our largest trees the moisture is raised as high as 300 feet or more through the sapwood. strange though it may seem, trees fight with each other for a place in the sunlight. sprightly trees that shoot skyward at a swift pace are the ones that develop into the monarchs of the forest. they excel their mates in growth because at all times they are exposed to plenty of light. the less fortunate trees, that are more stocky and sturdy, and less speedy in their climb toward the sky, are killed out in large numbers each year. the weaker, spindly trees of the forest, which are slow growers, often are smothered out by the more vigorous trees. some trees are able to grow in the shade. they develop near or under the large trees of the forest. when the giants of the woodland die, these smaller trees, which previously were shaded, develop rapidly as a result of their freedom from suppression. in many cases they grow almost as large and high as the huge trees that they replace. in our eastern forests the hemlock often follows the white pine in this way. spruce trees may live for many years in dense shade. then finally, when they have access to plenty of light they may develop into sturdy trees. a tree that is a pigmy in one locality may rank as a giant in another region due to different conditions of growth and climate. for example, the canoe birch at its northern limit is a runt. it never grows higher than a few feet above the ground. under the most favorable conditions in florida, where this species thrives, such trees often tower to a height of 125 feet. in sheltered regions the seeds of trees may fall, sprout and take root close to their parent trees. as a rule, the wind plays a prominent part in distributing seed in every section of the country. pine and fir seeds are equipped with wings like those of a bird or an airplane. they enable the seeds to fly long distances on the wind before they drop to the ground and are covered with leaves. maple seeds fly by means of double-winged sails which carry them far afield before they settle. ash seeds have peculiar appendages which act like a skate-sail in transporting them to distant sections. cottonwood seeds have downy wings which aid their flight, while basswood seeds are distributed over the country by means of parachute-like wings. the pods of the locust tree fall on the frozen ground or snow crust and are blown long distances from their source. on the other hand, oak, hickory, and chestnut trees produce heavy seeds which generally remain where they fall. squirrels are the most industrious foresters in the animal world. each year they bury great quantities of tree seeds in hoards or caches hidden away in hollow logs or in the moss and leaves of the forest floor. birds also scatter tree seed here, there, and everywhere over the forests and the surrounding country. running streams and rivers carry seeds uninjured for many miles and finally deposit them in places where they sprout and grow into trees. many seeds are carried by the ocean currents to distant foreign shores. the decay of leaves and woodland vegetation forms rich and fertile soils in the forests, in which conditions are favorable for the development of new tree growth. when living tree seeds are exposed to proper amounts of moisture, warmth and air in a fertile soil, they will sprout and grow. a root develops which pushes its way down into the soil, while the leaf-bud of the plant, which springs from the other end of the seed, works its way upward toward the light and air. this leafy part of the seed finally forms the stem of the tree. but trees may produce plenty of seed and yet fail to maintain their proper proportion in the forest. this results because much of the seed is unsound. even where a satisfactory supply of sound fertile seed is produced, it does not follow that the trees of that variety will be maintained in the forest, as the seed supply may be scattered in unfavorable positions for germination. millions of little seedlings, however, start to grow in the forest each year, but only a small number survive and become large trees. this is because so many of the seedlings are destroyed by forest fires, cattle and sheep grazing, unfavorable soil and weather conditions, and many other causes. beech and chestnut trees and others of the broad-leaved type reproduce by means of sprouts as well as by seed. generally, the young stumps of broad-leaved trees produce more sprouts than the stumps of older trees which have stood for some time. among the cone-bearing trees reproduction by sprouts is rare. the redwood of california is one of the few exceptions. the pitch pine of the eastern states produces many sprouts, few of which live and develop into marketable timber. when trees are grown in nurseries, the practice is to sow the seed in special beds filled with rich soil. lath screens are used as shade. they protect the young seedlings from the sun just as the parent trees would do in the forest. the seedbeds are kept well cultivated and free of weeds so that the seedlings may have the best opportunities for rapid growth. generally the seeds are sown in the spring between march and may. such seeds as the elms and soft maples, which ripen in the early summer, are sown as soon as possible after they are gathered. practical tests have shown that thick sowings of tree seeds give the best results. there is little danger of weeds smothering out the seedlings under such conditions. after the seed has germinated the beds may be thinned so that the seedlings will have more room to develop. during the fall of the same year, or in the following spring, the seedlings should be transplanted to nursery rows. thereafter it is customary to transplant the young trees at least once again during damp weather. when the trees finally are robust and vigorous and have reached the age of two to five years, they are dug up carefully and set out permanently. the usual practice is to keep the seedlings one year in the seedbed and two years in the nursery rows before they are set out. whether the transplanting should take place during the spring or fall depends largely on the climate and geography of the locality. practical experience is the best guide in such matters. some farmers and land owners are now interested in setting out hardwood forests for commercial purposes. if they do not wish to purchase their seedlings from a reliable nursery-man, they can grow them from carefully selected seed planted in well-prepared seedbeds. the popular practice is to sow the seed in drills about 2 to 3 feet apart so that horses may be used for cultivation. the seeds are sown to a depth of 2 to 3 times their thickness. they are placed close enough in the drill so that from 12 to 15 seedlings to the linear foot result. in order to hasten the sprouting of the seeds, some planters soak them in cold water for several days before sowing. in the case of such hard-coated seed as the black locust or honey locust, it is best to soak them in hot water before planting. chapter ii the forest families trees are as queer in picking out places to live and in their habits of growth as are the peoples of the various races which inhabit the world. some trees do best in the icy northland. they become weak and die when brought to warm climates. others that are accustomed to tropical weather fail to make further growth when exposed to extreme cold. the appearance of jack frost means death to most of the trees that come from near the equator. even on the opposite slopes of the same mountain the types of trees are often very different. trees that do well on the north side require plenty of moisture and cool weather. those that prosper on south exposures are equipped to resist late and early frosts as well as very hot sunshine. the moisture needs of different trees are as remarkable as their likes and dislikes for warmth and cold. some trees attain large size in a swampy country. trees of the same kind will become stunted in sections where dry weather persists. in some parts of the united states forestry experts can tell where they are by the local tree growth. for example, in the extreme northern districts the spruce and the balsam fir are native. as one travels farther south these give way to little jack pine and aspen trees. next come the stately forests of white and norway pine. sometimes a few slow-growing hemlock trees appear in the colder sections. if one continues his journey toward the equator he will next pass through forests of broad-leaved trees. they will include oak, maple, beech, chestnut, hickory, and sycamore. in kentucky, which is a centre of the broad-leaved belt, there are several hundred different varieties of trees. farther south, the cone-bearing species prevail. they are followed in the march toward the gulf of mexico by the tropical trees of southern florida. if one journeys west from the mississippi river across the great plains he finally will come to the rocky mountains, where evergreen trees predominate. if oak, maple, poplar, or other broad-leaved trees grow in that region, they occur in scattered stands. in the eastern forests the trees are close together. they form a leafy canopy overhead. in the forests of the rockies the evergreens stand some distance apart so that their tops do not touch. as a result, these western forests do not shade the ground as well as those in the east. this causes the soils of these forests to be much drier, and also increases the danger from fire. the forests of western washington and oregon, unlike most timberlands of the rocky mountain region, are as dense as any forests in the world. even at midday it is as dark as twilight in these forests. the trees are gigantic. they tower 150 to 300 feet above the ground. their trunks often are 6 feet or larger in diameter. they make the trees of the eastern forests look stunted. they are excelled in size only by the mammoth redwood trees of northern california and the giant sequoias of the southern sierras. [illustration: the sequoias of california] differences of climate have largely influenced tree growth and types in this country. the distribution of tree families is changing all the time. it shifts just as the climate and other conditions change. trees constantly strive among themselves for control of different localities. for a time one species will predominate. then other varieties will appear and displace the ones already established. the distribution of trees changes very remarkably from one century to another. for example, in some sections, the red and black oaks are replacing the white oaks. some trees are light-lovers. they require much more sunlight than others that do well under heavy shade. oak trees require plenty of light; maples or beeches thrive on little light. the seed of trees requiring little light may be scattered in a dense forest together with that of trees which need plenty of daylight in order to make normal growth. the seedlings that like shade will develop under such conditions while those that need light will pine away and die. gradually the shade-loving trees will replace the light-loving trees in such a forest stand. even the different trees of the same family often strive with one another for light and moisture. each tree differs from every other one in shape and size. trees will adapt themselves to the light and moisture conditions to which they are exposed. a tree that has access to plenty of moisture and sunlight grows evenly from the ground to its top with a bushy, wide-spreading crown. the same tree, if it grows in the shade, will reach a greater height but will have a small compact crown. trees run a race in their rapidity of growth. the winners get the desirable places in the sunlight and prosper. the losers develop into stunted trees that often die, due to lack of light exposure. a better quality of lumber results from tall straight trees than that produced by the symmetrical, branching trees. that is why every forester who sets out trees tries to provide conditions which will make them grow tall and with the smallest possible covering of branches on the lower part of the trunks. where trees are exposed to strong winds, they develop deep and strong root systems. they produce large and strong trunks that can bend and resist violent winds which sway and twist them in every direction. such trees are much stronger and sturdier than those that grow in a sheltered forest. the trees that are blown down in the forest provide space for the introduction and growth of new varieties. these activities are constantly changing the type of tree growth in the forest. our original forests which bordered the atlantic coast line when america was first settled, were dense and impenetrable. the colonists feared the forests because they sheltered the hostile indians who lurked near the white settlements. in time this fear of the forest developed into hatred of the forest. as a result, the colonists cut trees as rapidly as they could. in every way they fought back the wilderness. they and their children's children have worked so effectively that the original wealth of woodlands has been depleted. at present, cleared fields and cutover areas abound in regions that at one time were covered with magnificent stands of timber. in many sections of the country our forests are now so reduced that they are of little commercial importance. however, these areas are not yet entirely denuded. predictions have been made frequently that our woodlands would soon disappear. scientific foresters report that such statements are incorrect. there are only a few districts in the country which probably will never again support much tree growth. their denuded condition is due largely to the destruction of the neighboring mountain forests and to the activities of erosion. under ordinary conditions, natural reforestation will maintain a satisfactory tree growth on lands where a practical system of forest protection is practiced. the complete removal of the forest is now accomplished only in fertile farming regions, where the agricultural value of the land is too high to permit it to remain longer in forest cover. even in the mississippi valley and the great lakes belts there are still large areas of forest land. most of the farms have woodlots which provide fuel, fencing, and some lumber. for the most part, these farm woodlots are abused. they have not been managed correctly. fortunately, a change for the better is now evident. the farm woodlot owners are coming to appreciate the importance of protecting the trees for future use. in some cases, they are even replanting areas that have been cut over. there are large tracts of sandy, rocky and swampy land in these districts that are satisfactory for tree production. in fact, about all these fields are good for is the growing of timber. campaigns are now under way to increase tree planting and develop the production of lands adapted for forestry which previously have been idle. the united states of the future will not be a desert, tree-less country. however, immediate measures to save our remaining trees must be developed. the greater part of our virgin timber has already been felled. the aftermath forests, which succeed the virgin stand, generally are inferior. our supplies of ash, black walnut and hickory, once abundant, are now seriously limited. formerly, these mixed forests covered vast stretches of country which today support only a scant crop of young trees which will not be ready for market for many years. these second-growth stands will never approach in value or quality the original forests. over large areas, poplar, white birch, and jack pine trees now predominate on lands which formerly bore dense stands of white pine. in many places, scrubby underbrush and stunted trees occupy lands which heretofore have been heavy producers of marketable timber trees. generally speaking, farm lands should not be used for forestry purposes. on the other hand, some forest lands can be profitably cleared and used for agriculture. for example, settlers are felling trees and fighting stumps in northern wisconsin, michigan, and minnesota. some of these virgin lands are valuable for farming purposes, others are not. it is preferable that they should produce farm crops instead of tree crops if the land is best adapted to agricultural use. it is an economic necessity that all lands in this country best suited for farming purposes should be tilled. our ever-increasing population demands that every acre of land useful for growing crops should be cleared and devoted to farming. under such conditions, the settlers should reserve sufficient woodlands for their home needs, carefully distinguishing between the land that is best for agricultural purposes and the land that is best for forestry purposes, and thus doubling their resources. thoughtless lumbermen have pillaged millions of acres of our most productive forests. the early lumbermen wasted our woodland resources. they made the same mistakes as everyone else in the care and protection of our original forests. the greatest blame for the wasting of our lumber resources rests with the state and federal authorities who permitted the depletion. many of our lumbermen now appreciate the need of preserving and protecting our forests for future generations. some of them have changed their policies and are now doing all in their power to aid forest conservation. the ability of a properly managed forest to produce new crops of trees year after year promises us a future supply of wood sufficient for all our needs if only we will conserve our timberlands as they deserve. it is our duty to handle the forests in the same way that fertile farming fields are managed. that is to say, they should be so treated that they will yield a profitable money crop every year without reducing their powers of future production. private owners and farmers are coming slowly to realize the grave importance of preserving and extending our woodlands. the public, the state and the nation are now solidly behind the movement to improve our forestry and to safe-guard our forests. several of the states, including new york and pennsylvania, have purchased large areas of timberlands for state forests. these will be developed as future sources of lumber supply. chapter iii forests and floods forests are necessary at the headwaters of streams. the trees break the force of the rain drops, and the forest floor, acting as a large sponge, absorbs rainfall and prevents run-off and floods. unless there are forests at the sources of streams and rivers, floods occur. the spring uprisings of the mississippi, ohio and missouri rivers are due largely to the lack of forests at their headwaters. in the regions drained by these streams the run-off water is not absorbed as it should be. it flows unimpeded from the higher levels to the river valleys. it floods the river courses with so much water that they burst their banks and pour pell-mell over the surrounding country. many floods which occur in the united states occur because we have cut down large areas of trees which formerly protected the sources of streams and rivers. a grave danger that threatens western farming is that some time in the future the greater part of the vegetation and forest cover on the watersheds of that section may entirely disappear. such a condition would cause floods after every heavy rain. the available supplies of rainwater which are needed for the thirsty crops would be wasted as flood waters. these floods would cause great damage in the valleys through which they rushed. the freshets would be followed by periods of water famine. the streams would then be so low that they could not supply the normal demands. farmers would suffer on account of the lack of irrigation water. towns and cities that depended on the mountain streams for their water supplies would be handicapped severely. in a thousand and one ways, a deficient water supply due to forest depletion would cause hardships and suffering in the regions exposed to such misfortune. the important part which forests play in the development of our country is shown by the fact that from the streams of the national forests over 700 western cities and towns, with an aggregate population of nearly 2,500,000, obtain their domestic water supply. the forests include 1266 irrigation projects and 325 water-power plants, in addition to many other power and irrigation companies which depend on the government timberlands for water conservation and the regulation of rain water run-off and stream flow. the national forests aid greatly in conserving and making available for use the precious limited rainfall of the arid regions. that is why settlers in irrigated districts are deeply interested in the cutting of timber in the federal woodlands. destructive lumbering is never practiced in these forests. in its place has been substituted a system of management that assures the continued preservation of the forest-cover. uncle sam is paying special attention to the western water-sheds which supply reclamation and irrigation projects. he understands that the ability of the forest to regulate stream flow is of great importance. the irrigation farmers also desire a regular flow, evenly distributed, throughout the growing season. one of the chief reasons for the establishment of the national forest was to preserve the natural conditions favorable to stream flow. in a treeless country, the rise of the streams is a very accurate measure of the rainfall. in the region where forests are frequent, an ordinary rain is scarcely noticed in its effect on the stream. in a denuded district no natural obstacles impede the raindrops as they patter to the ground. the surface of the soil is usually hard. it is baked and dried out by the sun. it is not in condition to absorb or retain much of the run-off water, consequently, the rain water finds little to stop it as it swirls down the slopes. in torrents it rushes down the stream beds, like sheets of water flowing down the steep roof of a house. conditions are very different in a region where forest cover is abundant. in the forests, the tops of the trees catch much of the rain that falls. the leaves, twigs, branches and trunks of the trees also soak up considerable moisture. the amount of rainfall that directly strikes the ground is relatively small. the upper layer of the forested ground consists of a network of shrubs, and dead leaves, branches, and moss. this forest carpet acts like an enormous sponge. it soaks up the moisture which drops from the trees during a storm. it can absorb and hold for a time a rainfall of four or five inches. the water that finally reaches the ground sinks into the soil and is evaporated or runs off slowly. the portion that is absorbed by the soil is taken up by the roots of the trees and plants or goes to supply springs and watercourses. the power of the trees and forest soil to absorb water regulates the rate at which the rainfall is fed to the streams and rivers. frequently it takes weeks and even months for all the waters of a certain rain to reach these streams. this gradual supplying of water to the streams regulates their flow. it prevents floods and freshets. careful observation and measurements have shown that unforested regions will discharge rain water at least twice as fast as will forested districts. the stealing of soil by erosion occurs where run-off waters are not obstructed by forest growth. silt, sand, and every other kind of soil are swept from their natural positions and spritted away by the foaming waters as they surge down the steep slopes. the stream or river which is flooded by these rushing waters roars down its narrow channel, tearing loose and undermining the jutting banks. in some cases, it will break from its ordinary course to flood exposed fields and to carry away more soil. as the speed of the stream increases its power to steal soil and carry it off is increased. engineers report that the carrying power of a stream is increased 64 times when its rate of flow is doubled. if the flow of a river is speeded up ten times, this raging torrent will be able to carry one million times as much foreign material as it did when it was flowing at a normal rate of speed, causing inexpressible damage and destruction of life and property. the protection afforded by forests on the water-sheds of streams furnishing the domestic water supply for cities and towns is becoming more fully realized. a large number of cities and towns have purchased and are maintaining municipal or communal forests for this very reason. chapter iv wild life of the forest the forests of our country are the home and breeding grounds of hundreds of millions of birds and game animals, which the forests provide with food and shelter. if we had no forests, many of these birds and animals would soon disappear. the acorns and other nuts that the squirrels live upon are examples of the food that the forest provides for its residents. in the clear, cold streams of the forests there are many different kinds of fish. if the forests were destroyed by cutting or fire many of the brooks and rivers would either dry up or the water would become so low that thousands of fish would die. the most abundant game animals of forest regions are deer, elk, antelope and moose. partridge, grouse, quail, wild turkeys and other game birds are plentiful in some regions. the best known of all the inhabitants of the woods are the squirrels. the presence of these many birds and animals adds greatly to the attractiveness of the forest. predatory animals, such as wolves, bears, mountain lions, coyotes and bobcats also live in the forest. they kill much livestock each year in the mountain regions of the western states and they also prey on some species of bird life. the federal and some state governments now employ professional hunters to trap and shoot these marauders. each year the hunters kill thousands of predatory animals, thus saving the farmers and cattle and sheep owners many thousands of dollars. sportsmen are so numerous and hunting is so popular, that game refuges have to be provided in the forests and parks. were it not for these havens of refuge where hunting is not permitted, some of our best known wild game and birds would soon be extinct. there are more than 11,640,648 acres of forest land in the government game refuges. california has 22 game refuges in her 17 national forests. new mexico has 19, while montana, idaho, colorado, washington and oregon also have set aside areas of government forest land for that purpose. in establishing a game refuge, it is necessary to pick out a large area of land that contains enough good feed for both the summer and winter use of the animals that will inhabit it. [illustration: a forest ranger and his forest cabin] livestock is sometimes grazed on game refuges, but only in small numbers, so that plenty of grass will be left for the support of the wild game. the refuges are under the direction of the federal and the state game departments. to perpetuate game animals and game birds, it is not enough to pass game laws and forbid the shooting of certain animals and birds except at special times of the year; it is also necessary to provide good breeding grounds for the birds and animals where they will not be molested or killed. the game refuges provide such conditions. the division of the range country into small farms and the raising of all kinds of crops have, it is claimed, done more to decrease our herds of antelope, elk, deer and other big game than have the rifles of the hunters. the plow and harrow have driven the wild life back into the rougher country. the snow becomes very deep in the mountains in the winter and the wild animals could not get food were it not for the game refuges in the low country. in the yellowstone national park country great bands of elk come down from the mountains during severe winters and have to be fed on hay to keep them from starving, as there is not sufficient winter range in this region to supply food for the thousands of elk. where the elk are protected from hunters they increase rapidly. this means that some of the surplus animals have to be killed, otherwise, the elk would soon be so numerous that they would seriously interfere with the grazing of domestic livestock. in different sections of the elk country, a count is made every few years on the breeding animals in each band. whenever a surplus accumulates, the state permits hunters to shoot some of the elk. if the breeding herds get too small, no hunting is allowed. in this way, a proper balance is maintained. in many states the wild game birds and fur-bearing animals of the forests are protected by closed seasons during which hunting is not permitted. it is realized that birds and animals are not only of interest to visitors to the forests, but that they, as well as the trees, are a valuable forest product. chapter v important forest trees and their uses of our native trees, the white pine is one of the best and most valuable. it is a tall straight tree that grows to a height of 100 to 150 feet. it produces wood that is light in weight and easy to work because it is so soft. at one time there were extensive pine forests in the northeastern states. many of the trees were very large, and occasionally one may still see pine stumps that are 5 to 6 feet in diameter. white pine made fine lumber for houses and other buildings and this timber was among the first to be exhausted in the country. spruce trees have long furnished the bulk of the woodpulp used in making our supplies of paper. these trees live in the colder climates of the northern states. they like to grow in low, wet localities close to lakes or rivers. the spruces generally do not grow higher than 75-100 feet. the wood is soft like pine and even whiter in color. the aboriginal indians used the roots of the spruce trees as thread, twine and rope. the cedar trees, which are landmarks in many of our northern states, yield light, soft, durable wood that is useful in making poles, fence posts, lead pencils and cedar chests. the wood of the red cedar gives off a peculiar odor which is said to keep moths away from clothes stored in cedar chests, but it is the close construction of the chest which keeps them out. these trees are becoming scarce in all parts of the country. cedars generally are small trees that grow slowly and live a long time. the outside wood is white and the heartwood is red or yellow. cedar posts last a long time and are excellent for use in farm fences. chestnut blight, which destroys entire forests of chestnut timber, is gradually exhausting our supplies of this wood. chestnut timber has long been used for railroad ties, fence posts and in the manufacture of cheap furniture. the wood is soft and brown in color. the bark and wood are treated at special plants in such a way that an extract which is valuable for tanning leather is obtained. chestnut trees are upstanding, straight trees that tower 80 to 100 feet above the ground. the extinction of our chestnut forests threatens as no effectual control measures for checking the chestnut blight disease over large areas has yet been discovered. the yellow poplar or tulip poplar furnishes timber for the manufacture of furniture, paper, the interior of railroad cars and automobiles. the dugouts of the early settlers and indians were hewed out of poplar logs. these boats were stronger than those made of canoe birch. poplar wood is yellow in color and soft in texture. the poplar is the largest broad-leaf tree in this country and the trees are of great size and height. some specimens found in the mountains of the south have been over 200 feet high and 8 to 10 feet in diameter, while poplars 125 to 150 feet high are quite common. among our most useful and valuable trees are the white oak, and its close kin, the red oak, which produce a brown-colored, hard wood of remarkable durability. the white oak is the monarch of the forest, as it lives very long and is larger and stronger than the majority of its associates. the timber is used for railroad ties, furniture, and in general construction work where tough, durable lumber is needed. many of our wooden ships have been built of oak. the white oaks often grow as high as 100 feet and attain massive dimensions. the seeds of the white oaks are light brown acorns, which are highly relished by birds and animals. many southern farmers range their hogs in white oak forests so that the porkers can live on the acorn crop. beech wood is strong and tough and is used in making boxes and barrels and casks for the shipment of butter, sugar and other foods. it makes axles and shafts for water-wheels that will last for many years. the shoes worn by dutch children are generally made of beech. the wood is red in color. the beech tree is of medium size growing to a height of about 75 feet above the ground. there is only one common variety of beech tree in this country. hickory trees are very popular because they produce sweet, edible nuts. the hickory wood is exceedingly strong and tough and is used wherever stout material is needed. for the spokes, wheels and bodies of buggies and wagons, for agricultural implements, for automobile wheels and for handles, hickory is unexcelled. the shafts of golf clubs as well as some types of base-ball bats are made of hickory. most hickory trees are easy to identify on account of their shaggy bark. the nuts of the hickory, which ripen in the autumn, are sweet, delicious and much in demand. our native elm tree is stately, reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 5 to 6 feet or more. it is one of our best shade trees. elm wood is light brown in color and very heavy and strong. it is the best available wood for making wagon wheel hubs and is also used largely for baskets and barrels. the rims of bicycle wheels generally are made of elm. the canoe birch is a tree which was treasured by the early indians because it yielded bark for making canoes. birch wood is used in making shoe lasts and pegs because of its strength and light weight, and the millions of spools on which cotton is wound are made of birch wood. school desks and church furniture, also, are made of birch. the orange-colored inner bark of the birch tree is so fine and delicate that the early settlers could use it as they would paper. no matter whether birch wood is green or dry, it will burn readily. the birch was the most useful tree of the forest to the indians. its bark was used not only for making their canoes, but also for building their wigwams. they even dried and ground the inner bark into a flour which they used as a food. the northern sugar maple is another tree which is a favorite in all sections where it is grown. this tree yields a hard wood that is the best and toughest timber grown in some localities. the trees grow to heights of 75 to 100 feet and attain girths of 5 to 9 feet. maple lumber is stout and heavy. it makes fine flooring and is used in skating rinks and for bowling alleys. many pianos are made of maple. wooden dishes and rolling pins are usually made from maple wood. during the spring of the year when the sap is flowing, the average mature maple tree will yield from fifteen to twenty gallons of sap in a period of three to four weeks. this sap is afterwards boiled down to maple syrup and sugar. hemlock trees, despite the fact that they rank among the most beautiful trees of the forest, produce lumber which is suitable only for rough building operations. the wood is brown and soft and will not last long when exposed to the weather. it cracks and splits easily because it is so brittle. hemlock is now of considerable importance as pulpwood for making paper. for many years, a material important for tanning leather has been extracted in large amounts from the bark of hemlock trees. one of the most pleasing uses to which the balsam fir is put is as christmas trees. sometimes it is used in making paper pulp. the balsam fir seldom grows higher than 50 feet or thicker than 12 inches. the leaves of this tree have a very sweet odor and are in demand at christmas time. foresters and woodsmen often use balsam boughs to make their beds and pillows when camping in the woods. [illustration: pine which yields turpentine and timber] our native supplies of hardwoods and softwoods are used for general building purposes, for farm repairs, for railroad ties, in the furniture and veneer industry, in the handle industry, and in the vehicle and agricultural implement industries. on the average each american farmer uses about 2,000 board feet of lumber each year. new farm building decreased in the several years following the world war, due to the high price of lumber and labor. as a result of this lack of necessary building, millions of dollars worth of farm machinery stood out in the weather. livestock lacked stables in some sections. very little building was done in that period in two hundred and fifty prosperous agricultural counties in thirty-two different states. the railroads consume about 15 per cent. of our total lumber cut. they use between 100,000,000 and 125,000,000 railroad ties a year. it used to be that most of the cross-ties were of white oak cut close to the places where they were used. now douglas fir, southern pine and other woods are being used largely throughout the middle western and eastern states. the supply of white oak ties is small and the prices are high. some years ago, when white oak was abundant, the railroads that now are using other cross-ties would not have even considered such material for use in their roadbeds. the fact that other ties are now being used emphasizes the fact that we are short on oak timber in the sections where this hardwood formerly was common. the furniture industry uses hardwoods of superior grade and quality. the factories of this industry have moved from region to region as the supply of hardwoods became depleted. originally, these factories were located in the northeastern states. then, as the supplies of hardwood timber in those sections gave out, they moved westward. they remained near the corn belt until the virgin hardwood forests of the middle west were practically exhausted. the furniture industry is now largely dependent on what hardwoods are left in the remote sections of the southern appalachians and the lower mississippi valley. when these limited supplies are used up, there will be very little more old-growth timber in the country for them to use. the furniture, veneer, handle, vehicle, automobile and agricultural implement industries all are in competition for hardwood timber. the furniture industry uses 1,250,000,000 feet of high-grade hardwood lumber annually. production of timber of this type for furniture has decreased as much as 50 per cent. during the past few years. it is now difficult for the furniture factories and veneer plants to secure enough raw materials. facilities for drying the green lumber artificially are few. it used to be that the hardwood lumber was seasoned for six to nine months before being sold. furniture dealers now have to buy the material green from the sawmills. competition has become so keen that buyers pay high prices. they must have the material to keep their plants running and to supply their trade. the veneer industry provides furniture manufacturers, musical instrument factories, box makers and the automobile industry with high-grade material. the industry uses annually 780,000,000 board feet of first quality hardwood cut from virgin stands of timber. red gum and white oak are the hardwoods most in demand. in the lake states, a branch of the veneer industry which uses maple, birch and basswood is located. oak formerly was the most important wood used. now red gum has replaced the oak, as the supplies of the latter timber have dwindled. at present there is less than one-fourth of a normal supply of veneer timber in sight. even the supplies in the farmers' woodlands are being depleted. the industry is now largely dependent on the timber of the southern mississippi valley. the veneer industry requires best-grade material. clear logs are demanded that are at least 16 inches in diameter at the small end. it is getting harder every year to secure such logs. like the furniture industry, the veneer mills lack adequate supplies of good timber. no satisfactory substitutes for the hickory and ash used in the handle industry have yet been found. about the only stocks of these timbers now left are in the southern states. even in those parts the supplies are getting short and it is necessary to cut timber in the more remote sections distant from the railroad. the ash shortage is even more serious than that of hickory timber. the supplies of ash in the middle west states north of the ohio river are practically exhausted. the demand for ash and hickory handles is larger even than before the world war. the entire world depends on the united states for handles made from these woods. handle dealers are now willing to pay high prices for ash and hickory timber. some of them prepared for the shortage by buying tracts of hardwood timber. when these reserves are cut over, these dealers will be in the same position as the rest of the trade. ash and hickory are in demand also by the vehicle and agricultural implement industries. they also use considerable oak and compete with the furniture industry to secure what they need of this timber. most of these plants are located in the middle west but they draw their timber chiefly from the south. hickory is a necessary wood to the vehicle industry for use in spokes and wheels. the factories exert every effort to secure adequate supplies of timber from the farm woodlands, sawmills and logging camps. the automobile industry now uses considerable hickory in the wheels and spokes of motor cars. most of the stock used by the vehicle industry is purchased green. neither the lumber nor vehicle industry is equipped with enough kilns for curing this green material. the losses in working and manufacturing are heavy, running as high as 40 per cent. many substitutes for ash, oak and hickory have been tried but they have failed to prove satisfactory. on account of the shortage and the high prices of hickory, vehicle factories are using steel in place of hickory wherever possible. steel is more expensive but it can always be secured in quantity when needed. furthermore, it is durable and very strong. thus we see that our resources of useful soft woods and hard woods have both been so diminished that prompt reforestation of these species is an urgent necessity. chapter vi the greatest enemy of the forest--fire our forests are exposed to destruction by many enemies, the worst of which is fire. from 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 acres of forest lands annually are burned over by destructive fires. these fires are started in many different ways. they may be caused by sparks or hot ashes from a locomotive. lightning strikes in many forests every summer, particularly those of the western states, and ignites many trees. in the south people sometimes set fires in order to improve the grazing. settlers and farmers who are clearing land often start big brush fires that get out of their control. campers, tourists, hunters, and fishermen are responsible for many forest fires by neglecting to extinguish their campfires. sparks from logging engines also cause fires. cigar and cigarette stubs and burning matches carelessly thrown aside start many forest fires. occasionally fires are also maliciously set by evil-minded people. the officers of the national forests in the west have become very expert in running down the people who set incendiary fires. they collect evidence at the scene of the fire, such as pieces of letters and envelopes, matches, lost handkerchiefs and similar articles. they hunt for foot tracks and hoof marks. they study automobile tire tracks. they make plaster of paris impressions of these tracks. they follow the tracks--sometimes indian fashion. often there are peculiarities about the tracks which lead to the detection and punishment of the culprits. a horse may be shod in an unusual manner; a man may have peculiar hob nails or rubber heels on his boots or else his footprints may show some deformity. the forest rangers play the parts of detectives very well. this novel police work has greatly reduced the number of incendiary fires. [illustration: forest fires destroy millions of dollars worth of timber every year] a forest fire may destroy in a few hours trees that required hundreds of years to grow. a heavy stand of timber may be reduced to a desolate waste because some one forgot to put out a campfire. occasionally large forest fires burn farm buildings and homes and kill hundreds of people. during the dry summer season when a strong wind is blowing, the fire will run for many miles. it always leaves woe and desolation in its wake. a mammoth forest fire in wisconsin many years ago burned over an area of two thousand square miles. it killed about fourteen hundred people and destroyed many millions of dollars worth of timber and other property. a big forest fire in michigan laid waste a tract forty miles wide and one hundred and eighty miles long. more than four billion feet of lumber, worth $10,000,000, was destroyed and several hundred people lost their lives. in recent years, a destructive forest fire in minnesota caused a loss of $25,000,000 worth of timber and property. there are several different kinds of forest fires. some burn unseen two to four feet beneath the surface of the ground. where the soil contains much peat, these fires may persist for weeks or even months. sometimes, they do not give off any noticeable smoke. their fuel is the decaying wood, tree roots and similar material in the soil. these underground fires can be stopped only by flooding the area or by digging trenches down to the mineral soil. the most effectual way to fight light surface fires is to throw sand or earth on the flames. where the fire has not made much headway, the flames can sometimes be beaten out with green branches, wet gunny sacks or blankets. the leaves and debris may be raked away in a path so as to impede their advance. usually in the hardwood forests, there is not much cover, such as dry leaves, on the ground. fires in these forests destroy the seedlings and saplings, but do not usually kill the mature trees. however, they damage the base of the trees and make it easy for fungi and insects to enter. they also burn the top soil and reduce the water-absorbing powers of the forest floor. in thick, dense evergreen forests where the carpet is heavy, fires are much more serious. they frequently kill the standing trees, burning trunks and branches and even following the roots deep into the ground. dead standing trees and logs aid fires of this kind. the wind sweeps pieces of burning bark or rotten wood great distances to kindle new fires. when they fall, dead trees scatter sparks and embers over a wide belt. fires also run along the tops of the coniferous trees high above the ground. these are called "crown-fires" and are very difficult to control. the wind plays a big part in the intensity of a forest fire. if the fire can be turned so that it will run into the wind, it can be put out more easily. fires that have the wind back of them and plenty of dry fuel ahead, speed on their way of destruction at a velocity of 5 to 10 miles an hour, or more. they usually destroy everything in their course that will burn, and waste great amounts of valuable timber. wild animals, in panic, run together before the flames. settlers and farmers with their families flee. many are overtaken in the mad flight and perish. the fierce fires of this type can be stopped only by heavy rain, a change of wind, or by barriers which provide no fuel and thus choke out the flames. large fires are sometimes controlled by back-firing. a back-fire is a second fire built and so directed as to run against the wind and toward the main fire. when the two fires meet, both will go out on account of lack of fuel. when properly used by experienced persons, back-fires are very effectual. in inexperienced hands they are dangerous, as the wind may change suddenly or they may be lighted too soon. in such cases they often become as great a menace as the main fire. another practical system of fighting fires is to make fire lines around the burning area. these fire lines or lanes as they are sometimes called, are stretches of land from which all trees and shrubs have been removed. in the centre of the lines a narrow trench is dug to mineral soil or the lines are plowed or burned over so that they are bare of fuel. such lines also are of value around woods and grain fields to keep the fire out. they are commonly used along railroad tracks where locomotive sparks are a constant source of fire dangers. our forests, on account of their great size and the relatively small man force which guards them, are more exposed to fire dangers than any other woodlands in the world. the scant rainfall of many of the western states where great unbroken areas of forest are located increases the fire damages. the fact that the western country in many sections is sparsely settled favors destruction by forest fires. the prevalence of lightning in the mountains during the summer adds farther to the danger. one of the most important tasks of the rangers in the federal forests is to prevent forest fires. during the fire season, extra forest guards are kept busy hunting for signs of smoke throughout the forests. the lookouts in their high towers, which overlook large areas of forest, watch constantly for smoke, and as soon as they locate signs of fire they notify the supervisor of the forest. lookouts use special scientific instruments which enable them to locate the position of the fires from the smoke. at the supervisor's headquarters and the ranger stations scattered through the forests, equipment, horses and automobiles are kept ready for instant use when a fire is reported. telephone lines and radio sets are used to spread the news about fires that have broken out. from five thousand to six thousand forest fires occur each year in the national forests of our country. to show how efficient the forest rangers are in fighting fires, it is worthy of note that by their prompt actions, 80 per cent. of these fires are confined to areas of less than ten acres each, while only 20 per cent. spread over areas larger than ten acres. lightning causes from 25 to 30 per cent. of the fires. the remaining 70 or 75 per cent. are classed as "man-caused fires," which are set by campers, smokers, railroads, brush burners, sawmills and incendiaries. the total annual loss from forest fires in the federal forests varies from a few hundred thousands of dollars in favorable years to several million in particularly bad fire seasons. during the last few years, due to efficient fire-fighting methods, the annual losses have been steadily reduced. the best way of fighting forest fires is to prevent them. the forest officers do their best to reduce the chances for fire outbreak in the government woodlands. they give away much dead timber that either has fallen or still is standing. lumbermen who hold contracts to cut timber in the national forest are required to pile and burn all the slashings. dry grass is a serious fire menace. that is why grazing is encouraged in the forests. rangers patrol the principal automobile roads to see that careless campers and tourists have not left burning campfires. railroads are required to equip their locomotives with spark-arresters. they also are obliged to keep their rights of way free of material which burns readily. spark-arresters are required also on logging engines. the national and state forests are posted with signs and notices asking the campers and tourists to be careful with campfires, tobacco and matches. advertisements are run in newspapers, warning people to be careful so as not to set fire to the forests. exhibits are made at fairs, shows, community meetings and similar gatherings, showing the dangers from forest fires and how these destructive conflagrations may be controlled. every possible means is used to teach the public to respect and protect the forests. [illustration: blackened ruins of a fire-swept forest] for many years, the united states forest service and state forestry departments have been keeping a record of forest fires and their causes. studies have been made of the length and character of each fire season. information has been gathered concerning the parts of the forest where lightning is most likely to strike or where campfires are likely to be left by tourists. the spots or zones of greatest fire danger are located in this way and more forest guards are placed in these areas during the dangerous fire season. careful surveys of this kind are aiding greatly in reducing the number of forest fires. in trying to get all possible information about future weather conditions, the forestry departments coöperate with the united states weather bureau. when the experts predict that long periods of dry weather or dangerous storms are approaching, the forest rangers are especially watchful, as during such times, the menace to the woods is greatest. the rangers also have big fire maps which they hang in their cabins. these maps show the location of dangerous fire areas, roads, trails, lookout-posts, cities, towns and ranches, sawmills, logging camps, telephone lines, fire tool boxes and other data of value to fire fighters. all this information is so arranged as to be readily available in time of need. it shows where emergency fire fighters, tools and food supplies can be secured, and how best to attack a fire in any certain district. a detailed plan for fighting forest fires is also prepared and kept on file at every ranger station. the following are six rules which, if put in practice, will help prevent outbreaks of fires: 1. matches.--be sure your match is out. break it in two before you throw it away. 2. tobacco.--throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stubs in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before leaving them. don't throw them into the brush, leaves or needles. 3. making camp.--build a small campfire. build it in the open, not against a tree or log, or near brush. scrape away the trash from all around it. 4. leaving camp.--never leave a campfire, even for a short time, without quenching it with water or earth. be sure it is out. 5. bonfires.--never build bonfires in windy weather or where there is the slightest danger of their escaping from control. don't make them larger than you need. 6. fighting fires.--if you find a fire, try to put it out. if you can't, get word of it to the nearest united states forest ranger or state fire warden at once. remember "minutes count" in reporting forest fires. chapter vii insects and diseases that destroy forests forest insects and tree diseases occasion heavy losses each year among the standing marketable trees. insects cause a total loss of more than $100,000,000 annually to the forest products of the united states. a great number of destructive insects are constantly at work in the forests injuring or killing live trees or else attacking dead timber. forest weevils kill tree seeds and destroy the young shoots on trees. bark and timber beetles bore into and girdle trees and destroy the wood. many borers and timber worms infest logs and lumber after they are cut and before they are removed from the forest. this scattered work of the insects here, there, and everywhere throughout the forests causes great damage. different kinds of flies and moths deposit their eggs on the leaves of the trees. after the eggs hatch, the baby caterpillars feed on the tender, juicy leaves. some of the bugs destroy all the leaves and thus remove an important means which the tree has of getting food and drink. wire worms attack the roots of the tree. leaf hoppers suck on the sap supply of the leaves. leaf rollers cause the leaves to curl up and die. trees injured by fire fall easy prey before the attacks of forest insects. it takes a healthy, sturdy tree to escape injury by these pirates of the forests. there are more than five hundred insects that attack oak trees and at least two hundred and fifty different species that carry on destruction among the pines. insect pests have worked so actively that many forests have lost practically all their best trees of certain species. quantities of the largest spruce trees in the adirondacks have been killed off by bark beetles. the saw-fly worm has killed off most of the mature larches in these eastern forests. as they travel over the national and state forests, the rangers are always on the watch for signs of tree infection. whenever they notice red-brown masses of pitch and sawdust on the bark of the trees, they know that insects are busy there. where the needles of a pine or spruce turn yellow or red, the presence of bark beetles is shown. signs of pitch on the bark of coniferous trees are the first symptoms of infection. these beetles bore through the bark and into the wood. there they lay eggs. the parent beetles soon die but their children continue the work of burrowing in the wood. finally, they kill the tree by making a complete cut around the trunk through the layers of wood that act as waiters to carry the food from the roots to the trunk, branches and leaves. the next spring these young develop into full-grown beetles, and come out from the diseased tree. they then attack new trees. when the forest rangers find evidences of serious infection, they cut down the diseased trees. they strip the bark from the trunk and branches and burn it in the fall or winter when the beetles are working in the bark and can be destroyed most easily. if the infection of trees extends over a large tract, and there is a nearby market for the lumber the timber is sold as soon as possible. trap trees are also used in controlling certain species of injurious forest insects. certain trees are girdled with an ax so that they will become weakened or die, and thus provide easy means of entrance for the insects. the beetles swarm to such trees in great numbers. when the tree is full of insects, it is cut down and burned. in this way, infections which are not too severe can often be remedied. the bark-boring beetles are the most destructive insects that attack our forests. they have wasted enormous tracts of pine timber throughout the southern states. the eastern spruce beetle has destroyed countless feet of spruce. the engelmann spruce beetle has devastated many forests of the rocky mountains. the black hills beetle has killed billions of feet of marketable timber in the black hills of south dakota. the hickory bark beetle, the douglas fir beetle and the larch worm have been very destructive. forest fungi cause most of the forest tree diseases. a tree disease is any condition that prevents the tree from growing and developing in a normal, healthy manner. acid fumes from smelters, frost, sunscald, dry or extremely wet weather, all limit the growth of trees. leaf diseases lessen the food supplies of the trees. bark diseases prevent the movement of the food supplies. sapwood ailments cut off the water supply that rises from the roots. seed and flower diseases prevent the trees from producing more of their kind. most of the tree parasites can gain entrance to the trees only through knots and wounds. infection usually occurs through wounds in the tree trunk or branches caused by lightning, fire, or by men or animals. the cone-bearing trees give off pitch to cover such wounds. in this way they protect the injuries against disease infection. the hardwood trees are unable to protect their wounds as effectively as the evergreens. where the wound is large, the exposed sapwood dies, dries out, and cracks. the fungi enter these cracks and work their way to the heartwood. many of the fungi cannot live unless they reach the heartwood of the tree. fires wound the base and trunks of forest trees severely so that they are exposed to serious destruction by heartrot. foresters try to locate and dispose of all the diseased trees in the state and government forests. they strive to remove all the sources of tree disease from the woods. they can grow healthy trees if all disease germs are kept away from the timberlands. some tree diseases have become established so strongly in forest regions that it is almost impossible to drive them out. for example, chestnut blight is a fungous disease that is killing many of our most valuable chestnut trees. the fungi of this disease worm their way through the holes in the bark of the trees, and spread around the trunk. diseased patches or cankers form on the limbs or trunk of the tree. after the canker forms on the trunk, the tree soon dies. chestnut blight has killed most of the chestnut trees in new york and pennsylvania. it is now active in virginia and west virginia and is working its way down into north and south carolina. [illustration: section of a virgin forest] diseased trees are a menace to the forest. they rob the healthy trees of space, light and food. that is why it is necessary to remove them as soon as they are discovered. in the smaller and older forests of europe, tree surgery and doctoring are practised widely. wounds are treated and cured and the trees are pruned and sprayed at regular intervals. in our extensive woods such practices are too expensive. all the foresters can do is to cut down the sick trees in order to save the ones that are sound. there is a big difference between tree damages caused by forest insects and those caused by forest fungi and mistletoe. the insects are always present in the forest. however, it is only occasionally that they concentrate and work great injury and damage in any one section. at rare intervals, some very destructive insects may centre their work in one district. they will kill a large number of trees in a short time. they continue their destruction until some natural agency puts them to flight. the fungi, on the other hand, develop slowly and work over long periods. sudden outbreaks of fungous diseases are unusual. heavy snows, lightning and wind storms also lay low many of the tree giants of the forest. heavy falls of snow may weigh down the young, tall trees to such an extent that they break. lightning--it is worst in the hills and mountains of the western states--may strike and damage a number of trees in the same vicinity. if these trees are not killed outright, they are usually damaged so badly that forest insects and fungi complete their destruction. big trees are sometimes uprooted during forest storms so that they fall on younger trees and cripple and deform them. winds benefit the forests in that they blow down old trees that are no longer of much use and provide space for younger and healthier trees to grow. usually the trees that are blown down have shallow roots or else are situated in marshy, wet spots so that their root-hold in the soil is not secure. trees that have been exposed to fire are often weakened and blown down easily. where excessive livestock grazing is permitted in young forests considerable damage may result. goats, cattle and sheep injure young seedlings by browsing. they eat the tender shoots of the trees. the trampling of sheep, especially on steep hills, damages the very young trees. on mountain sides the trampling of sheep frequently breaks up the forest floor of sponge-like grass and debris and thus aids freshets and floods. in the alps of france sheep grazing destroyed the mountain forests and, later on, the grass which replaced the woods. destructive floods resulted. it has cost the french people many millions of dollars to repair the damage done by the sheep. the federal government does its best to keep foreign tree diseases out of the united states. as soon as any serious disease is discovered in foreign countries the secretary of agriculture puts in force a quarantine against that country. no seed or tree stock can be imported. furthermore, all the new species of trees, cuttings or plants introduced to this country are given thorough examination and inspection by government experts at the ports where the products are received from abroad. all diseased trees are fumigated, or if found diseased, destroyed. in this manner the government protects our country against new diseases which might come to our shores on foreign plants and tree stock. chapter viii the growth of the forestry idea our forests of the new world were so abundant when the early settlers landed on the atlantic coast that it was almost impossible to find enough cleared land in one tract to make a 40-acre farm. these thick, dense timberlands extended westward to the prairie country. it was but natural, therefore, that the forest should be considered by these pioneers as an obstacle and viewed as an enemy. farms and settlements had to be hewed out of the timberlands, and the forests seemed inexhaustible. experts say that the original, virgin forests of the united states covered approximately 822,000,000 acres. they are now shrunk to one-sixth of that area. at one time they were the richest forests in the world. today there are millions of acres which contain neither timber nor young growth. considerable can be restored if the essential measures are started on a national scale. such measures would insure an adequate lumber supply for all time to come. rules and regulations concerning the cutting of lumber and the misuse of forests were suggested as early as the seventeenth century. plymouth colony in 1626 passed an ordinance prohibiting the cutting of timber from the colony lands without official consent. this is said to be the first conservation law passed in america. william penn was one of the early champions of the "woodman, spare that tree" slogan. he ordered his colonists to leave one acre of forest for every five acres of land that were cleared. in 1799 congress set aside $200,000 for the purchase of a small forest reserve to be used as a supply source of ship timbers for the navy. about twenty-five years later, it gave the president the power to call upon the army and navy whenever necessary to protect the live oak and red cedar timber so selected in florida. in 1827, the government started its first work in forestry. it was an attempt to raise live oak in the southern states to provide ship timbers for the navy. forty years later, the wisconsin state legislature began to investigate the destruction of the forests of that state in order to protect them and prolong their life. michigan and maine, in turn, followed suit. these were some of the first steps taken to study our forests and protect them against possible extinction. the purpose of the timber culture act passed by congress in 1873 was to increase national interest in reforestation. it provided that every settler who would plant and maintain 40 acres of timber in the treeless sections should be entitled to secure patent for 160 acres of the public domain--that vast territory consisting of all the states and territories west of the mississippi, except texas, as well as ohio, indiana, illinois, michigan, wisconsin, florida, alabama and mississippi. this act, as well as several state laws, failed because the settlers did not know enough about tree planting. the laws also were not effective because they did not prevent dishonest practices. in 1876, the first special agent in forestry was appointed by the commissioner of agriculture to study the annual consumption, exportation and importation of timber and other forest products, the probable supply for future wants, and the means best adapted for forest preservation. five years later, the division of forestry was organized as a branch of the department of agriculture. it was established in order to carry on investigations about forestry and how to preserve our trees. [illustration: cutting mature trees and leaving seed trees to insure a second crop] for some nine years the division of forestry was nothing more than a department of information. it distributed technical facts and figures about the management of private woodlands and collected data concerning our forest resources. it did not manage any of the government timberlands because there were no forest reserves at that time. it was not until 1891 that the first forest reserve, the yellowstone park timberland reserve, was created by special proclamation of president harrison. later it became part of the national park reserves. although the division of forestry had no special powers to oversee and direct the management of the forest reserves, during the next six years a total of 40,000,000 acres of valuable timberland were so designated and set aside. at the request of the secretary of the interior, the national academy of sciences therefore worked out a basis for laws governing national forests. congress enacted this law in 1897. thereafter the department of the interior had active charge of the timberlands. at that time little was known scientifically about the american forests. there were no schools of forestry in this country. during the period 1898-1903, several such schools were established. president mckinley, during his term of office, increased the number of forest reserves from 28 to over 40, covering a total area of 30,000,000 acres. president roosevelt added many millions of acres to the forest reserves, bringing the net total to more than 150,000,000 acres, including 159 different forests. in 1905, the administration of the forest reserves was transferred from the department of the interior to the department of agriculture, and their name changed to national forests. no great additions to the government timberlands have been made since that time. small, valuable areas have been added. other undesirable tracts have been cut off from the original reserves. the growth of the division of forestry, now the united states forest service, has been very remarkable since 1898, when it consisted of only a few scientific workers and clerks. at present it employs more than 2,600 workers, which number is increased during the dangerous fire season to from 4,000 to 5,000 employees. the annual appropriations have been increased from $28,500 to approximately $6,500,000. the annual income from uncle sam's woodlands is also on the gain and now amounts to about $5,000,000 yearly. this income results largely from the sale of timber and the grazing of livestock on the national forests. chapter ix our national forests our national forests include 147 distinct and separate bodies of timber in twenty-seven different states and in alaska and porto rico. they cover more than 156,000,000 acres. if they could be massed together in one huge area like the state of texas, it would make easier the task of handling the forests and fighting fires. the united states forest service, which has charge of their management and protection, is one of the largest and most efficient organizations of its kind in the world. it employs expert foresters, scientists, rangers and clerks. the business of running the forest is centred in eight district offices located in different parts of the country with a general headquarters at washington, d.c. these districts are in charge of district foresters and their assistants. the district headquarters and the states that they look after are: no. 1. northern district, missoula, montana. (montana, northeastern washington, northern idaho, and northwestern south dakota.) no. 2. rocky mountain district, denver, colorado. (colorado, wyoming, the remainder of south dakota, nebraska, northern michigan, and northern minnesota.) no. 3. southwestern district, albuquerque, new mexico. (most of arizona and new mexico.) no. 4. intermountain district, ogden, utah. (utah, southern idaho, western wyoming, eastern and central nevada, and northwestern arizona.) no. 5. california district, san francisco, california. (california and southwestern nevada.) no. 6. north pacific district, portland, oregon. (washington and oregon.) no. 7. eastern district, washington, d.c. (arkansas, alabama, florida, oklahoma, north carolina, south carolina, georgia, tennessee, virginia, west virginia, new hampshire, maine, and porto rico.) no. 8. alaska district, juneau, alaska. (alaska.) each of the national forests is under the direct supervision of a forest supervisor and is split up into from 5 to 10 or more ranger districts. each ranger district is in charge of a forest ranger who has an area of from 100,000 to 200,000 acres in his charge. the national forests are, for the most part, located in the mountainous region of the west, with small scattered areas in the lake states, and the white mountains, southern appalachians and ozarks of the eastern and southern states. many of them are a wilderness of dense timber. it is a huge task to protect these forests against the ravages of fire. fire fighting takes precedence over all other work in the national forests. lookout stations are established on high points to watch for signs of fire. airplanes are used on fire patrol over great areas of forest. where railroads pass through the national forests, rangers operate motor cars and hand-cars over the tracks in their patrol work. launches are used in alaska and on some of the forests where there are large lakes, to enable the fire fighters and forest guardians to cover their beats quickly. every year the national forests are being improved and made more accessible by the building of permanent roads, trails and telephone lines. special trails are built to and in the fire protection areas of remote sections. a network of good roads is constructed in every forest to improve fire fighting activities as well as to afford better means of communication between towns, settlements and farms. the road and trail plan followed in the national forests is mapped out years in advance. in the more remote sections, trails are first constructed. later, these trails may be developed into wagon or motor roads. congress annually appropriates large sums of money for the building of roads in the national forests. over 25,000 miles of roads and 35,000 miles of trails have already been constructed in these forests. communication throughout the national forests is had by the use of the telephone and the radio or wireless telephone. signalling by means of the heliograph is practiced on bright days in regions that have no telephones. arrangements made with private telephone companies permit the forest officers to use their lines. the efficient communication systems aid in the administration of the forests and speeds the work of gathering fire fighters quickly at the points where smoke is detected. agricultural and forestry experts have surveyed the lands in the national forests. thus they have prevented the use of lands for forestry purposes which are better adapted for farming. since 1910, more than 26,500,000 acres of lands have been excluded from the forests. these lands were more useful for farming or grazing than for forestry. practically all lands within the national forests have now been examined and classified. at intervals congress has combined several areas of forest lands into single tracts. government lands outside the national forests have also been traded for state or private lands within their boundaries. thus the forests have been lined-up in more compact bodies. careful surveys are made before such trades are closed to make sure that the land given to uncle sam is valuable for timber production and the protection of stream flow, and that the government receives full value for the land that is exchanged. the national forests contain nearly five hundred billion board feet of merchantable timber. this is 23 per cent. of the remaining timber in the country. whenever the trees in the forest reach maturity they are sold and put to use. all green trees to be cut are selected by qualified forest officers and blazed and marked with a "u.s." this marking is done carefully so as to protect the forest and insure a future crop of trees on the area. timber is furnished at low rates to local farmers, settlers, and stockmen for use in making improvements. much fire wood and dead and down timber also is given away. the removal of such material lessens the fire danger in the forest. over a billion feet of timber, valued at more than $3,000,000, is sold annually from the national forests. one generally does not think of meat, leather and wool as forest crops. nevertheless, the national forests play an important part in the western livestock industry. experts report that over one-fifth of the cattle and one-half of the sheep of the western states are grazed in the national forests. these livestock are estimated to be worth nearly one-quarter billion dollars. more than 9,500,000 head of livestock are pastured annually under permit in the federal forests. in addition, some 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 calves and lambs are grazed free of charge. [illustration: seed beds in a forest nursery] the ranges suitable for stock grazing are used to pasture sheep, cattle, horses, hogs and goats. the secretary of agriculture decides what number and what kind of animals shall graze on each forest. he regulates the grazing and prevents injury to the ranges from being overstocked with too many cattle and sheep. the forest ranges are divided into grazing units. generally, the cattle and horses are grazed in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the mountain. the sheep and goats are pastured on the high mountain sides and in the grassy meadows at or above timberline. preferences to graze live stock on the forest ranges are for the most part granted to stockmen who own improved ranch property and live in or near one of the national forests. the fee for grazing on forest ranges is based on a yearlong rate of $1.20 a head of cattle, $1.50 for horses, $.90 for hogs and $.30 a head for sheep. at times it is necessary, for short periods, to prohibit grazing on the government forest ranges. for example, when mature timber has been cut from certain areas, it is essential that sheep be kept off such tracts until the young growth has made a good start in natural reforestation. camping grounds needed for recreation purposes by the public are excluded from the grazing range. if a shortage of the water supply of a neighboring town or city threatens, or if floods or erosion become serious due to fire or overgrazing of the land, the range is closed to live-stock and allowed to recuperate. where artificial planting is practiced, grazing is often forbidden until the young trees get a good start. the total receipts which uncle sam collects from the 30,000 or more stockmen who graze their cattle and sheep on the national forests amount to nearly $2,500,000 annually. as a result of the teachings of the forest service, the stockmen are now raising better livestock. improved breeding animals are kept in the herds and flocks. many of the fat stock now go directly from the range to the market. formerly, most of the animals had to be fed on corn and grain in some of the middle western states to flesh them for market. experiments have been carried on which have shown the advantages of new feeding and herding methods. the ranchers have banded together in livestock associations, which coöperate with the forest service in managing the forest ranges. it costs about $5 to sow one acre of ground to tree seed, and approximately $10 an acre to set out seedling trees. the seed is obtained from the same locality where it is to be planted. in many instances, cones are purchased from settlers who make a business of gathering them. the federal foresters dry these cones in the sun and thresh out the seed, which they then fan and clean. if it is desired to store supplies of tree seed from year to year it is kept in sacks or jars, in a cool, dry place, protected from rats and mice. where seed is sown directly on the ground, poison bait must be scattered over the area in order to destroy the gophers, mice and chipmunks which otherwise would eat the seed. sowing seed broadcast on unprepared land has usually failed unless the soil and weather conditions were just right. for the most part, setting out nursery seedlings has given better results than direct seeding. two men can set out between five hundred and one thousand trees a day. the national forests contain about one million acres of denuded forest lands. much of this was cut-over and so severely burned before the creation of the forests that it bears no tree growth. some of these lands will reseed themselves naturally while other areas have to be seeded or planted by hand. in this way the lands that will produce profitable trees are fitted to support forest cover. because the soils and climate of our national forests are different, special experiments have been carried on in different places to decide the best practices to follow. two method of reforestation are commonly practiced. in some places, the tree seed is sown directly upon the ground and, thereafter, may or may not be cultivated. this method is limited to the localities where the soil and moisture conditions are favorable for rapid growth. under the other plan, the seedlings are grown in nurseries for several years under favorable conditions. they are then moved to the field and set out in permanent plantations. chapter x the national forests of alaska there are two great national forests in alaska. they cover 20,579,740 acres or about 5-1/2 per cent. of the total area of alaska. the larger of these woodlands, the tongass national forest, is estimated to contain 70,000,000,000 board feet of timber ripe for marketing. stands of 100,000 board feet per acre are not infrequent. this is the alaskan forest that will some day be shipping large amounts of timber to the states. it has over 12,000 miles of shore line and ninety per cent. of the usable timber is within two miles of tidewater. this makes it easy to log the timber and load the lumber directly from the forests to the steamers. this forest is 1500 miles closer to the mainland markets than is the other alaskan national forest. in most of the national forests the rangers ride around their beats on horseback. the foresters in the tongass use motor boats. they travel in couples; two men to a 35-foot boat, which is provided with comfortable eating and sleeping quarters. the rangers live on the boat all the time. during the summer they work sixteen to twenty hours daily. the days are long and the nights short, and they must travel long distances between points of work. on such runs one man steers the boat and watches the forested shoreline for three or four hours at a time, while his mate reads or sleeps; then they change off. in this way, they are able to make the most efficient use of the long periods of daylight. the other big timberland in alaska is the chugach national forest. it is a smaller edition of the tongass forest. its trees are not so large and the stand of timber only about one-half as heavy as in the tongass. experts estimate that it contains 7,000,000,000 board feet of lumber. western hemlock predominates. there is also much spruce, poplar and birch. stands of 40,000 to 50,000 feet of lumber an acre are not unusual. in the future, the lumber of the chugach national forest will play an important part in the industrial life of alaska. even now, it is used by the fishing, mining, railroad and agricultural interests. on account of its great distance from the markets of the pacific northwest it will be a long time before lumber from this forest will be exported. the timber in the tongass national forest runs 60 per cent. western hemlock and 20 per cent. sitka spruce. the other 20 per cent. consists of western red cedar, yellow cypress, lodge-pole pine, cottonwood and white fir. the yellow cypress is very valuable for cabinet making. all these species except the cedar are suitable for pulp manufacture. peculiarly enough, considerable of the lumber used in alaska for box shooks in the canneries and in building work is imported from the united states. the local residents do not think their native timber is as good as that which they import. alaska will probably develop into one of the principal paper sources of the united states. our national forests in alaska contain approximately 100,000,000 cords of timber suitable for paper manufacture. experts report that these forests could produce 2,000,000 cords of pulpwood annually for centuries without depletion. about 6,000,000 tons of pulpwood annually are now required to keep us supplied with enough paper. the tongass national forest could easily supply one-third of this amount indefinitely. this forest is also rich in water power. it would take more than 250,000 horses to produce as much power as that which the streams and rivers of southern alaska supply. the western hemlock and sitka spruce are the best for paper making. the spruce trees are generally sound and of good quality. the hemlock trees are not so good, being subject to decay at the butts. this often causes fluted trunks. the butt logs from such trees usually are inferior. this defect in the hemlock reduces its market value to about one-half that of the spruce for paper making. some of the paper mills in british columbia are now using these species of pulpwood and report that they make high-grade paper. the pulp logs are floated down to the paper mill. in the mill the bark is removed from the logs. special knives remove all the knots and cut the logs into pieces twelve inches long and six inches thick. these sticks then pass into a powerful grinding machine which tears them into small chips. the chips are cooked in special steamers until they are soft. the softened chips are beaten to pieces in large vats until they form a pasty pulp. the pulp is spread over an endless belt of woven wire cloth of small mesh. the water runs off and leaves a sheet of wet pulp which then is run between a large number of heated and polished steel cylinders which press and dry the pulp into sheets of paper. finally, it is wound into large rolls ready for commercial use. if a pulp and paper industry is built up in alaska, it will be of great benefit to that northern country. it will increase the population by creating a demand for more labor. it will aid the farming operations by making a home market for their products. it will improve transportation and develop all kinds of business. altogether 420,000,000 feet of lumber have been cut and sold from the national forests of alaska in the past ten years. this material has been made into such products as piling, saw logs and shingle bolts. all this lumber has been used in alaska and none of it has been exported. much of the timber was cut so that it would fall almost into tide-water. then the logs were fastened together in rafts and towed to the sawmills. one typical raft of logs contained more than 1,500,000 feet of lumber. it is not unusual for spruce trees in alaska to attain a diameter of from six to nine feet and to contain 10,000 or 15,000 feet of lumber. southeastern alaska has many deep-water harbors which are open the year round. practically all the timber in that section is controlled by the government and is within the tongass national forest. this means that this important crop will be handled properly. no waste of material will occur. cutting will be permitted only where the good of the forest justifies such work. chapter xi progress in state forestry the rapid depletion and threatened exhaustion of the timber supply in the more thickly populated sections of the east has prompted several of the states to initiate action looking toward the conservation of their timber resources. as far back as 1880, a forestry commission was appointed in new hampshire to formulate a forest policy for the state. vermont took similar action two years later, followed within the next few years by many of the northeastern and lake states. these commissions were mainly boards of inquiry, for the purpose of gathering reliable information upon which to report, with recommendations, for the adoption of a state forest policy. as a result of the inquiries, forestry departments were established in a number of states. the report of the new york commission of 1884 resulted in forest legislation, in 1885, creating a forestry department and providing for the acquisition of state forests. liberal appropriations were made from time to time for this purpose, until now the state forests embrace nearly 2,000,000 acres, the largest of any single state. new york state forests were created, especially, for the protection of the adirondack and catskill regions as great camping and hunting grounds, and not for timber production. the people of the state were so fearful that through political manipulation this vast forest resource might fall into the hands of the timber exploiters, that a constitutional amendment was proposed and adopted, absolutely prohibiting the cutting of green timber from the state lands. thus, while new york owns large areas of state forest land, it is unproductive so far as furnishing timber supplies to the state is concerned. it is held distinctly for the recreation it affords to campers and hunters, and contains many famous summer resorts. state forestry in pennsylvania began in 1887, when a commission was appointed to study conditions, resulting in the establishment of a commission of forestry in 1895. two years later, an act was passed providing for the purchase of state forests. at the present time, pennsylvania has 1,250,000 acres of state forest land. unlike those of new york, pennsylvania forests were acquired and are managed primarily for timber production, although the recreational uses are not overlooked. the large areas of state-owned lands in the lake states suitable, mainly, for timber growing, enabled this section to create extensive state forests without the necessity of purchase as was the case in new york and pennsylvania. as a result, wisconsin has nearly 400,000 acres of state forest land, minnesota, about 330,000, and michigan, about 200,000 acres. south dakota, with a relatively small area of forest land, has set aside 80,000 acres for state forest. a number of other states have initiated a policy of acquiring state forest lands, notably, new hampshire, vermont, massachusetts, connecticut, new jersey, maryland, and indiana, each with small areas, but likely to be greatly increased within the next few years under the development of present policies. other states are falling in line with this forward movement. there are but 4,237,587 acres in state forests in the united states. this is only 1-1/2 per cent. of the cut-over and denuded land in the country which is useful only for tree production. the lack of funds prevents many states from embarking more extensively in this work. many states set aside only a few thousand a year; others, that are more progressive and realize the need of forestry extension, spend annually from one hundred thousand to five hundred thousand dollars. foresters are, generally, agreed that as much as 25 per cent. of the forest land of every state should be publicly owned for producing large sized timber, requiring seventy-five to one hundred years to grow, and which the private owner would not be interested in producing. national, state, or communal forests must supply it. all of these combined comprise a very small part of the forests of most of the states, so that much larger areas must be acquired by the states and the national government to safeguard our future timber supplies. not less than thirty-two states are actually engaged in state forestry work. many of them have well-organized forestry departments, which, in states like new york and pennsylvania, having large areas of state forests, are devoted largely to the care and protection of these lands. in other states having no state forests, the work is largely educational in character. the most notable progress in forestry has been made in fire protection. all states having forestry departments lay especial emphasis upon forest protection, since it is recognized that only by protecting the forests from fire is it possible to succeed in growing timber crops. in fact, in most cases, the prevention of fire in itself is sufficient to insure re-growth and productive forests. pennsylvania is spending $500,000 annually in protecting her forests from fire. the coöperation of the federal government, under a provision of the weeks law which appropriates small sums of money for forest protection, provided the state will appropriate an equal or greater amount, has done much to encourage the establishment of systems of forest protection in many of the states. [illustration: sowing forest seed in an effort to grow a new forest] the enormous areas of denuded, or waste land in the various states, comprising more than 80,000,000 acres, which can be made again productive only by forest planting, present another big problem in state forestry. many of the states have established state forestry nurseries for the growing of tree seedlings to plant up these lands. the trees are either given away, or sold at cost, millions being distributed each year, indicating a live interest and growing sentiment in re-foresting waste lands. the appalling waste of timber resources through excessive and reckless cutting, amounting to forest devastation, is deplorable, but we are helpless to prevent it. since the bulk of woodlands are privately owned, and there are no effective laws limiting the cutting of timber with a view to conserving the supply, the only means of bringing about regulated cutting on private lands is through coöperation with the owners. this is being done in some of the states in a limited way, through educational methods, involving investigations, reports, demonstrations, and other means of bringing improved forestry practices to the attention of existing owners and enlisting their coöperation and support in forest conservation. forestry in the state, or in the nation, seems to progress no more rapidly than the timber disappears; in fact, the individual states do not take precaution to conserve their timber supplies until exhaustion is threatened. the damage has been largely done before the remedy is considered. we are today paying a tremendous toll for our lack of foresight in these matters. as a timber producing state becomes a timber importing state, (a condition existing in most of the eastern and middle states) we begin to pay a heavy toll in the loss of home industries dependent upon wood, and also in heavy freight charges on lumber that we must import from distant points to supply our needs. in many states, the expenditure of an amount for reforestation and fire protection equal to this freight bill on imported lumber would make the state self-supporting in a decade, instead of becoming worse off each year. marked progress has been made along the lines indicated, but few of the states have begun to measure up to their full responsibility in protecting their future timber supply. chapter xii the playgrounds of the nation the public forests are steadily increasing in popularity as the playgrounds of the nation. the woodlands offer splendid opportunities for camping, hunting, fishing and outdoor life. millions of motorists now spend their vacations in the government and state forests. railroads and automobiles make the forests accessible to all. thousands of miles of improved motor highways lead into the very heart of the hills. more than 5,500,000 people annually visit the national forests. of this number, some 2,500,000 are campers, fishermen and hunters. [illustration: a camping ground in a national forest] the forests provide cheap health insurance to all who will enjoy what they offer in sport and recreation. for example, over 1,000,000 vacationists visit colorado's forests each year. if each person spent but five days in the forests, this would mean a total of 5,000,000 days or 50,000,000 hours of rest and enjoyment. recreation at the beaches and amusement parks costs at least fifty cents an hour. applying that rate to the free fun which the people get out of the forests, in colorado in one year the tourists, campers and fishermen gained $25,000,000 worth of pleasure from the forests. the national and state forests furnish summer homes for thousands of people who live in the neighboring cities and towns. regular summer home sites are laid off in many of the forests. usually these individual sites cover about one-quarter acre or less. they rent for $5 to $25 a year, depending on the location. a man can rent one of these camp grounds for a term of years. he can build a summer cottage or bungalow on it. there are no special rules about the size or cost of the houses. uncle sam requires only that the cottages be sightly and the surroundings be kept clean and sanitary. many of the cabins are built for $150 to $300. some of them are more permanent and cost from $3,000 to $5,000 or $10,000. in the angeles national forest in southern california, over sixteen hundred of these cottages are now in use and many more are being built. where there are dead or mature trees in the forest, near summer home sites, timber can be purchased at low prices for use in building cottages. even the people of small means can build cabins in the forests and enjoy living in the mountains during the heat of the summer. these camps provide fine surroundings for the rompings and summer games of the children and young people. in california a number of cities have set up municipal camps in the national forests. at very low costs, the city residents can spend their vacations at these camps. tents and cottages are provided. facilities for all kinds of games and sports furnish recreation. each family may stay at the camp for two weeks. the expenses are so low for meals and tents that the municipal camps furnish the best and cheapest vacation which the family of limited means can enjoy. these camps are very popular. wherever they have been tried, they have been successful. there are twelve municipal camps in california. they cost $150,000. fine automobile camps are maintained along many of the important national and state forest highways for the use of tourists. concrete fireplaces, tables, benches and running water are provided at these wayside camping places. the tourists who carry their camp kits like to stop at these automobile camps. they meet many other tourists and exchange information about the best trails to follow and the condition of the roads. sometimes, permanent cabins and shelters are provided for the use of the cross-country travelers. the only rules are that care be exercised in the use of fire and the camping sites be kept in clean and sanitary condition. all the forest roads are posted with many signs asking the tourists to be careful in the use of matches, tobacco and camp fires, so as not to start destructive forest fires. in the federal and state forests hundreds of man-caused fires occur annually, due to the neglect and carelessness of campers and tourists to put out their camp fires. a single match or a cigarette stub tossed from a passing automobile may start a costly fire. during the season from may to october, the western forests usually are as dry as tinder. rains are rare during that period. a fire once started runs riot unless efficient control measures are used at once. those interested in fishing and hunting usually can find plenty of chance to pursue their favorite sports in the national and state forests. there is good fishing in the forest streams and lakes, as the rangers, working in coöperation with federal and state hatcheries yearly restock important waters. fishing and hunting in the national forests are regulated by the fish and game laws of that state in which the forests are located. the killing of wild game is permitted during certain open seasons in most of the forest regions. [illustration: good forests mean good hunting and fishing] the eastern forests in the white mountains, the adirondacks, and the appalachians, are not, for the most part, as well developed as recreation grounds as are the western vacation lands. however, more interest is being taken each year in the outdoor life features of the eastern forests, and ultimately they will be used on a large scale as summer camp grounds. many hikers and campers now spend their annual vacations in these forests. throughout the white mountain forest of new hampshire, regular trails for walking parties have been made. at frequent intervals simple camps for the use of travelers have been built by mountaineering clubs. this forest, located as it is near centres of large population is visited by a half-million tourists each season. the pisgah national forest of north carolina is becoming a centre for automobile travel as it contains a fine macadam road. the superior national forest of minnesota, which covers 1,250,000 acres and contains 150,000 acres of lakes, is becoming very popular. it is called "the land of ten thousand lakes." one can travel in a canoe through this forest for a month at a time without passing over the same lake twice. other popular national forests are the angeles in southern california, the pike and colorado in colorado, and the oregon and wenatchee--the pacific northwest. visitors to these forests total more than 1,750,000 a year. the western forests are also being used for winter sports. they furnish excellent conditions for snow-shoe trips, skiing and sledding. the people who have camps on government land use their places for week-end excursions during the snow season when the roads are passable. the white mountain national forest is used more for winter sports than any other government woodland. at many of the towns of new hampshire and maine, huge carnivals are held each winter. championship contests in skiing, snowshoeing, skating, ski jumping, tobogganing and ski-joring are held. snow sport games are also annual events in the routt, leadville and pike national forests of colorado. cross country ski races and ski-joring contests are also held. in the truckee national forest of california, dog-team races over courses of 25 to 50 miles are held each winter. about eighty per cent. of the 5,500,000 people who visit the national forests are automobile tourists. the other twenty per cent. consists of sportsmen interested in hunting, fishing, canoeing, boating, mountain climbing, bathing, riding and hiking. in the pacific coast states there are a number of mountain climbing clubs whose members compete with each other in making difficult ascents. the mountaineering clubs of portland, oregon, for example, stage an interesting contest each summer in climbing mount hood, one of the highest peaks in the country. chapter xiii solving our forestry problems a system of forestry which will provide sufficient lumber for the needs of our country and keep our forest land productive must be built on the extension of our public forests. our national forests are, at present, the one bright feature of future lumbering. their tree crops will never be cut faster than they can be grown. a balance between production and consumption will always be maintained. our needs for more timber, the necessity for protecting the headwaters of streams, the demands for saving wild life, and the playground possibilities of our forests justify their extension. approximately eighty per cent of the american forests are now privately owned. the chances are that most of these wooded tracts will always remain in the hands of private owners. it is important that the production of these forests be kept up without injuring their future value. we must prepare for the lumber demands of many years from now. some method must be worked out of harnessing our idle forest lands and putting them to work growing timber. any regulations that are imposed on the private owners of woodlands must be reasonable. changes in our present methods of taxing timberlands must be made to encourage reforestation. the public must aid the private individuals in fighting forest fires, the greatest menace that modern forestry has to face. a national policy is needed which will permit the private owner to grow trees which will give him fair and reasonable profit when sold. the farmers of this country use about one-half of all the lumber consumed annually. they own approximately 191,000,000 acres of timber in their farm woodlots. if farmers would devote a little time and labor to the permanent upkeep and improvement of their timber, they would aid in decreasing the danger of a future lumber famine. if they would but keep track of the acreage production of their woodlands as closely as they do of their corn and wheat crops, american forestry would benefit greatly. between 1908 and 1913, the u.s. forest service established two forest experiment stations in california and one each in washington, idaho, colorado, and arizona. they devote the same degree of science and skill to the solution of tree growing and lumbering problems as the agricultural experiment stations give to questions of farm and crop management. despite the fact that these forestry stations did fine work for the sections that they served, recently a number of them had to close, due to lack of funds. congress does not yet realize the importance of this work. more forest experiment stations are needed throughout the country. such problems as what kinds of trees are best to grow, must be solved. of the 495 species of trees in this country, 125 are important commercially. they all differ in their histories, characteristics and requirements. research and study should be made of these trees in the sections where they grow best. our knowledge regarding tree planting and the peculiarities of the different species is, as yet, very meagre. we must discover the best methods of cutting trees and of disposing of the slash. we must investigate rates of growth, yields and other problems of forest management. we must study the effect of climate on forest fires. we must continue experiments in order to develop better systems of fire protection. we need more forest experiment stations to promote the production of more timber. twenty of our leading industries utilize lumber as their most important raw material. fifty-five different industries use specialized grades and quality of lumber in the manufacture of many products. this use of lumber includes general mill work and planing mill products, such as building crates and boxes, vehicles, railroad cars, furniture, agricultural implements and wooden ware. our manufacturers make and use more than two hundred and seventy-five different kinds of paper, including newsprint, boxboard, building papers, book papers and many kinds of specialty papers. the forest experiment stations would help solve the practical problems of these many industries. they could work out methods by which to maintain our forests and still turn out the thirty-five to forty billion board feet of lumber used each year. they are needed to determine methods of increasing our annual cut for pulp and paper. they are necessary so that we can increase our annual output of poles, pilings, cooperage and veneer. a forest experiment station is needed in the southern pine belt. the large pine forests of dixieland have been shaved down from 130,000,000 acres to 23,500,000 acres. in that region there are more than 30,000,000 acres of waste forest lands which should be reclaimed and devoted to the growing of trees. eastern and middle western manufacturing and lumbering centres are interested in the restoring of the southern pine forests. during the last score of years, they have used two-thirds of the annual output of those forests. in another ten to fifteen years home demand will use most of the pine cut in the south. the east and middle west will then have to rely mostly on the pacific coast forests for their pine lumber. the lake states need a forest experiment station to work out methods by which the white pine, hemlock, spruce, beech, birch and maple forests of that section can be renewed. the lake states are now producing only one-ninth as much white pine as they were thirty years ago. these states now cut only 3,500,000,000 feet of all kinds of lumber annually. their output is growing smaller each year. wisconsin led the united states in lumber production in 1900. now she cuts less than the second-growth yield of maine. michigan, which led in lumber production before wisconsin, now harvests a crop of white pine that is 50 per cent. smaller than that of massachusetts. experts believe that a forest experiment station in the lake states would stimulate production so that enough lumber could be produced to satisfy the local demands. not least in importance among the forest regions requiring an experiment station are the new england states and northern and eastern new york. in that section there are approximately 25,000,000 acres of forest lands. five and one-half million acres consist of waste and idle land. eight million acres grow nothing but fuel-wood. the rest of the timber tracts are not producing anywhere near their capacity. new england produces 30 per cent. and new york 50 per cent. of our newsprint. maine is the leading state in pulp production. new england imports 50 per cent. of her lumber, while new york cuts less than one-half the timber she annually consumes. another experiment station should be provided to study the forestry problems of pennsylvania, southern and western new york, ohio, maryland, new jersey and delaware. at one time this region was the most important lumber centre of the united states. pennsylvania spends $100,000,000 a year in importing lumber which should be grown at home. the denuded and waste lands at the headwaters of the allegheny river now extend over one-half million acres. new jersey is using more than twenty times as much lumber as is produced in the state. ohio is a centre for wood manufacturing industries, yet her timber-producing possibilities are neglected, as are those of other states needing wood for similar purposes. european nations have spent large sums of money in investigating forestry problems to make timber producing economically feasible, and have found that it paid. in this country, our forest experiment stations will have to deal with a timbered area twice that of all europe, exclusive of russia. that is why we shall need many of these stations to help solve the many questions of national welfare which are so dependent upon our forests. chapter xiv why the united states should practice forestry of late years the demand for lumber by the world trade has been very great. most of the countries which have extensive forests are taking steps to protect their supplies. they limit cutting and restrict exports of timber. both new zealand and switzerland have passed laws of this kind. sweden exports much lumber, but by law forbids the cutting of timber in excess of the annual growth. norway regulates private cutting. england is planning to plant 1,770,000 acres of new forest reserve. this body of timber when ready for cutting, would be sufficient to supply her home needs in time of emergency for at least three years. france is enlarging her forest nurseries and protecting her timber in every possible way. even russia, a country with huge forest tracts, is beginning to practice conservation. russia now requires that all timber cut under concession shall be replaced by plantings of trees. for many years, the united states and china were the greatest wasters of forest resources under the sun. now this country has begun to practice scientific forestry on a large scale so that china now has the worst-managed forests in the world. japan, on the other hand, handles her forests efficiently and has established a national forestry school. austria, norway, sweden and italy have devoted much time, labor and money to the development of practical systems of forestry. turkey, greece, spain and portugal, all follow sane and sensible forestry practices. even russia takes care of her national timberlands and annually draws enormous incomes from their maintenance. france and germany both have highly successful forestry systems. switzerland, australia, and new zealand are using their forests in a practical manner and saving sufficient supplies of wood for posterity. history tells us that the forests first were protected as the homes of wild game. little attention was paid to the trees in those days. the forests were places to hunt and abodes devoted to wild animals. scientific forestry was first studied and practised widely in the nineteenth century. its development and expansion have been rapid. germany still leads as one of the most prominent countries that practices efficient forestry. german forests are now said to be worth more than $5,000,000,000. france has over 2,750,000 acres of fine publicly owned forests, in addition to private forests, which yield a net income of more than $2 an acre a year to the government. the french have led in extending reforestation on denuded mountain sides. british india has well-managed forests which cover over 200,000 square miles of area. these timberlands return a net income of from $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 a year. india now protects more than 35,000 square miles of forest against fire at an annual cost of less than half a cent an acre. forest experts say that the united states, which produces more than one-half of all the sawed timber in the world, should pay more attention to the export lumber business. such trade must be built up on the basis of a permanent supply of timber. this means the practice of careful conservation and the replacement of forests that have been destroyed. we can not export timber from such meagre reserves as the pine forests of the south, which will not supply even the domestic needs of the region for much more than ten or fifteen years longer. many of our timber men desire to develop extensive export trade. our sawmills are large enough and numerous enough to cut much more timber annually than we need in this country. however, the danger is that we shall only abuse our forests the more and further deplete the timber reserves of future generations as a result of extensive export trade. if such trade is developed on a large scale, a conservative, practical national forestry policy must be worked out, endorsed and lived up to by every producing exporter. the u.s. forest service reports that before the world war, we were exporting annually 3,000,000,000 board feet of lumber and sawlogs, not including ties, staves and similar material. this material consisted of southern yellow pine, douglas fir, white oak, redwood, white pine, yellow poplar, cypress, walnut, hickory, ash, basswood and similar kinds of wood. the exports were made up of 79 per cent. softwoods and 21 per cent. hardwoods. the export trade consumed about 8-1/2 per cent. of our annual lumber cut. southern yellow pine was the most popular timber shipped abroad. one-half of the total export was of this material. during the four years before the war our imports of lumber from foreign countries amounted to about 1,200,000,000 board feet of lumber and logs. in 1918, imports exceeded exports by 100,000,000 board feet. in addition to this lumber, we also shipped in, largely from canada, 1,370,000 cords of pulp wood, 596,000 tons of wood pulp, 516,000 tons of paper, and close to a billion shingles. some of the material, such as wood pulp and paper, also came from sweden, norway, germany, spain, the netherlands and the united kingdom. as a result of the war, european countries for several years can use 7,000,000,000 feet of lumber a year above their normal requirements. for housing construction, england needs 2,000,000,000 feet a year more than normally; france, 1,500,000,000 feet; italy, 1,750,000,000 feet; belgium and spain 750,000,000 feet apiece. even before the war, there was a great deficiency of timber in parts of europe. it amounted to 16,000,000,000 board feet a year and was supplied by russia, the united states, canada, sweden, austria-hungary and a few other countries of western europe. if we can regulate cutting and replenish our forests as they deserve, there is a remarkable opportunity for us to build up a large and permanent export trade. [illustration: young white pine seeded from adjoining pine trees] the central and south american countries now have to depend on canada, the united states and sweden for most of their softwoods. unless they develop home forests by the practice of modern forestry, they will always be dependent on imported timber of this type. south africa and egypt are both heavy importers of lumber. africa has large tropical forests but the timber is hard to get at and move. china produces but little lumber and needs much. she is developing into a heavy importing country. japan grows only about enough timber to supply her home needs. australia imports softwoods from the united states and canada. new zealand is in the market for douglas fir and hardwoods. in the past, our export lumber business has been second only to that of russia in total amount. the value of the timber that we exported was larger than that of russia because much of our timber that was sent abroad consisted of the best grades of material grown in this country. in the future, we shall have to compete in the softwood export business with russia, finland, sweden, norway and the various states of southeastern europe which sell lumber. in the hardwood business, we have only a limited number of rivals. with the exception of a small section of eastern europe, our hardwood forests are the finest in the temperate zone. we export hickory, black walnut, yellow poplar, white and red oak even to russia and sweden, countries that are our keenest rivals in the softwood export business. europe wants export lumber from our eastern states because the transportation costs on such material are low. she does not like to pay heavy costs of hauling timber from the pacific coast to the atlantic seaboard and then have it reshipped by water. our eastern forests are practically exhausted. our supplies of export lumber except douglas fir are declining. most of the kinds of export timber that europe wants we need right at home. we have only about 258,000,000,000 feet of southern yellow pine left, yet this material composes one-half of our annual shipments abroad. we are cutting this material at the rate of 16,000,000,000 board feet a year. some authorities believe that our reserves will last only sixteen years unless measures to protect them are put into effect at once. at the present rate of cutting long-leaf pine trees, our outputs of naval stores including turpentine and rosin are dwindling. we cannot afford to increase our export of southern yellow pine unless reforestation is started on all land suitable for that purpose. our pine lands of the southern states must be restocked and made permanently productive. then they could maintain the turpentine industry, provide all the lumber of this kind we need for home use, and supply a larger surplus for export. although our supplies of douglas fir, western white pine, sugar pine and western yellow pine are still large, they will have to bear an extra burden when all the southern pine is gone. this indicates that the large supplies of these woods will not last as long as we would wish. to prevent overtaxing their production, it is essential that part of the load be passed to the southern pine cut-over lands. by proper protection and renewal of our forests, we can increase our production of lumber and still have a permanent supply. the forest service estimates that by protecting our cut-over and waste lands from fire and practicing care to secure reproduction after logging on our remaining virgin forest land, we can produce annually at least 27,750,000,000 cubic feet of wood, including 70,000,000,000 board feet of sawtimber. such a production would meet indefinitely the needs of our growing population, and still leave an amount of timber available for export. our hardwoods need protection as well as our softwoods. ten per cent of our yearly cut of valuable white oak is shipped overseas. in addition we annually waste much of our best oak in the preparation of split staves for export. at the present rate of cutting, the supply, it is said, will not last more than twenty-five years. we ship abroad about seven per cent. of our poplar lumber. our supplies of this material will be exhausted in about twenty years if the present rate of cutting continues. we sell to foreign countries at least one-half of our cut of black walnut which will be exhausted in ten to twelve years unless present methods are reformed. our supplies of hickory, ash and basswood will be used up in twenty to thirty years. we need all this hardwood lumber for future domestic purposes. however, the furniture factories of france, spain and italy are behind on orders. they need hardwood and much of our valuable hardwood timber is being shipped to europe. experience has proved that correct systems of handling the private forests can not be secured by mere suggestions or education. no ordinary method of public coöperation has been worked out which produces the desired results. it is necessary that suitable measures be adopted to induce private owners to preserve and protect their woodlands. the timberlands must be protected against forest fires. timber must be cut so as to aid natural reproduction of forest. cut-over lands must be reforested. if such methods were practiced, and national, state and municipal forests were established and extended, our lumber problem would largely solve itself. we not only should produce a large permanent supply of timber for domestic use, but also should have great reserves available for export. under such conditions, the united states would become the greatest supply source in the world for lumber. chapter xv why the lumberman should practice forestry the lumber industry of this country can aid reforestation by practicing better methods. it can harvest its annual crop of timber without injuring the future production of the forests. it can limit forest fires by leaving the woods in a safe condition after it has removed the timber. some private timber owners who make a living out of cutting lumber, have even reached the stage where they are planting trees. they are coming to appreciate the need for replacing trees that they cut down, in order that new growth may develop to furnish future timber crops. the trouble in this country has been that the lumbermen have harvested the crop of the forests in the shortest possible time instead of spreading out the work over a long period. most of our privately owned forests have been temporarily ruined by practices of this sort. the aim of the ordinary lumberman is to fell the trees and reduce them to lumber with the least labor possible. he does not exercise special care as to how the tree is cut down. he pays little attention to the protection of young trees and new growth. he cuts the tree to fall in the direction that best serves his purpose, no matter whether this means that the forest giant will crush and seriously cripple many young trees. he wastes large parts of the trunk in cutting. he leaves the tops and chips and branches scattered over the ground to dry out. they develop into a fire trap. as generally followed, the ordinary method of lumbering is destructive of the forests. it ravages the future production of the timberlands. it pays no heed to the young growth of the forest. it does not provide for the proper growth and development of the future forest. our vast stretches of desolate and deserted cut-over lands are silent witnesses to the ruin which has been worked by the practice of destructive lumbering. fortunately, a change for the better is now developing. with the last of our timberland riches in sight on the pacific coast, the lumbering industry is coming to see that it must prepare for the future. consequently, operators are handling the woods better than ever before. they now are trying to increase both the production and permanent value of the remaining forests. they aim to harvest the tree yield more thoroughly and to extend their cuttings over many years. they appreciate that it is necessary to protect and preserve the forest at the same time that profitable tree crops are being removed. they see the need for saving and increasing young growth and for protecting the woodlands against fire. if only these methods of forestry had been observed from the time the early settlers felled the first trees, not only would our forests be producing at present all the lumber we could use, but also the united states would be the greatest lumber-exporting country in the world. [illustration: what some kinds of timber cutting do to a forest] it will never be possible to stop timber cutting entirely in this country, nor would it be desirable to do so. the demands for building material, fuel, wood pulp and the like are too great to permit of such a condition. the nation would suffer if all forest cutting was suspended. there is a vital need, however, of perpetuating our remaining forests. wasteful lumbering practices should be stopped. only trees that are ready for harvest should be felled. they should be cut under conditions which will protect the best interests and production of the timberlands. as a class, our lumbermen are no more selfish or greedy than men in many other branches of business. they have worked under peculiar conditions in the united states. our population was small as compared with our vast forest resources. conditions imposed in france and germany, where the population is so dense that more conservative systems of lumbering are generally practiced, were not always applicable in this country. furthermore, our lumbermen have known little about scientific forestry. this science is comparatively new in america. all our forestry schools are still in the early stages of their development. as lumbermen learn more about the value of modern forestry they gradually are coming to practice its principles. the early lumbermen often made mistakes in estimating the timber yields of the forests. they also neglected to provide for the future production of the woodlands after the virgin timber was removed. those who followed in their steps have learned by these errors what mistakes to avoid. our lumbermen lead the world in skill and ingenuity. they have worked out most efficient methods of felling and logging the trees. many foreign countries have long practiced forestry and lumbering, yet their lumbermen cannot compete with the americans when it comes to a matter of ingenuity in the woods. american woods and methods of logging are peculiar. they would no more fit under european forest conditions than would foreign systems be suitable in this country. american lumbermen are slowly coming to devise and follow a combination method which includes all the good points of foreign forestry revised to apply to our conditions. we can keep our remaining forests alive and piece out their production over a long period if we practice conservation methods generally throughout the country. our remaining forests can be lumbered according to the rules of practical forestry without great expense to the owners. in the long run, they will realize much larger returns from handling the woods in this way. this work of saving the forests should begin at once. it should be practiced in every state. our cut-over and idle lands should be put to work. our forest lands should be handled just like fertile farming lands that produce big crops. the farmer does not attempt to take all the fertility out of the land in the harvest of one bumper crop. he handles the field so that it will produce profitable crops every season. he fertilizes the soil and tills it so as to add to its productive power. similarly, our forests should be worked so that they will yield successive crops of lumber year after year. lumbermen who own forests from which they desire to harvest a timber crop should first of all survey the woods, or have some experienced forester do this work, to decide on what trees should be cut and the best methods of logging to follow. the trees to be cut should be selected carefully and marked. the owner should determine how best to protect the young and standing timber during lumbering. he should decide on what plantings he will make to replace the trees that are cut. he should survey and estimate the future yield of the forest. he should study the young trees and decide about when they will be ripe to cut and what they will yield. from this information, he can determine his future income from the forest and the best ways of handling the woodlands. under present conditions in this country, only those trees should be cut from our forests which are mature and ready for the ax. this means that the harvest must be made under conditions where there are enough young trees to take the place of the full-grown trees that are removed. cutting is best done during the winter when the trees are dormant. if the cutting is performed during the spring or summer, the bark, twigs and leaves of the surrounding young growth may be seriously damaged by the falling trees. the trees should be cut as low to the ground as is practicable, as high stumps waste valuable timber. care should be taken so that they will not break or split in falling. trees should be dropped so that they will not crush young seedlings and sapling growth as they fall. it is no more difficult or costly to throw a tree so that it will not injure young trees than it is to drop it anywhere without regard for the future of the forest. directly after cutting, the fallen timber should be trimmed so as to remove branches that are crushing down any young growth or seedling. in some forests the young growth is so thick that it is impossible to throw trees without falling them on some of these baby trees which will spring back into place again if the heavy branches are removed at once. the top of the tree should be trimmed so that it will lie close to the ground. under such conditions it will rot rapidly and be less of a fire menace. the dry tops of trees which lodge above the ground are most dangerous sources of fire as they burn easily and rapidly. the lumbermen can also aid the future development of the forests by using care in skidding and hauling the logs to the yard or mill. care should be exercised in the logging operations not to tear or damage the bark of trunks of standing timber. if possible, only the trees of unimportant timber species should be cut for making corduroy roads in the forests. this will be a saving of valuable material. in lumbering operations as practiced in this country, the logs are usually moved to the sawmills on sleds or by means of logging railroads. if streams are near by, the logs are run into the water and floated to the mill. if the current is not swift enough, special dams are built. then when enough logs are gathered for the drive, the dam is opened and the captive waters flood away rapidly and carry the logs to the mill. on larger streams and rivers, the logs are often fastened together in rafts. expert log drivers who ride on the tipping, rolling logs in the raging river, guide the logs on these drives. on arrival at the sawmill, the logs are reduced to lumber. many different kinds of saws are used in this work. one of the most efficient is the circular saw which performs rapid work. it is so wide in bite, however, that it wastes much wood in sawdust. for example, in cutting four boards of one-inch lumber, an ordinary circular saw wastes enough material to make a fifth board, because it cuts an opening that is one-quarter of an inch in width. band saws, although they do not work at such high speed, are replacing circular saws in many mills because they are less wasteful of lumber. although sawmills try to prevent waste of wood by converting slabs and short pieces into laths and shingles, large amounts of refuse, such as sawdust, slabs and edgings, are burned each season. as a rule, only about one-third of the tree is finally used for construction purposes, the balance being wasted in one way or another. chapter xvi why the farmer should practice forestry the tree crop is a profitable crop for the average farmer to grow. notwithstanding the comparatively sure and easy incomes which result from the farm woodlands that are well managed, farmers as a class neglect their timber. not infrequently they sell their timber on the stump at low rates through ignorance of the real market value of the wood. in other cases, they do not care for their woodlands properly. they cut without regard to future growth. they do not pile the slashings and hence expose the timber tracts to fire dangers. they convert young trees into hewed crossties which would yield twice as great a return if allowed to grow for four or five years longer and then be cut as lumber. just to show how a small tract of trees will grow into money if allowed to mature, the case of a three-acre side-hill pasture in new england is interesting. forty-four years ago the farmer who owned this waste land dug up fourteen hundred seedling pines which were growing in a clump and set them out on the sidehill. twenty years later the farmer died. his widow sold the three acres of young pine for $300. fifteen years later the woodlot again changed hands for a consideration of $1,000, a lumber company buying it. today, this small body of pine woods contains 90,000 board feet of lumber worth at least $1,500 on the stump. the farmer who set out the trees devoted about $35 worth of land and labor to the miniature forest. within a generation this expenditure has grown into a valuable asset which yielded a return of $34.09 a year on the investment. [illustration: on poor soil trees such as these are more profitable than farm crops ] a new york farmer who plays square with his woodland realizes a continuous profit of $1 a day from a 115-acre timber tract. the annual growth of this well-managed farm forest is .65 cords of wood per acre, equivalent to 75 cords of wood--mostly tulip poplar--a year. the farmer's profit amounts to $4.68 a cord, or a total of $364.50 from the entire timber tract. over in new hampshire, an associate sold a two-acre stand of white pine--this was before the inflated war prices were in force--for $2,000 on the stump. the total cut of this farm forest amounted to 254 cords equivalent to 170,000 board feet of lumber. this was an average of about 85,000 feet an acre. the trees were between eighty and eighty-five years old when felled. this indicates an annual growth on each acre of about 1,000 feet of lumber. the gross returns from the sale of the woodland crops amounted to $12.20 an acre a year. these, of course, are not average instances. farmers should prize their woodlands because they provide building material for fences and farm outbuildings as well as for general repairs. the farm woodland also supplies fuel for the farm house. any surplus materials can be sold in the form of standing timber, sawlogs, posts, poles, crossties, pulpwood, blocks or bolts. the farm forest also serves as a good windbreak for the farm buildings. it supplies shelter for the livestock during stormy weather and protects the soil against erosion. during slack times, it provides profitable work for the farm hands. there are approximately one-fifth of a billion acres of farm woodlands in the united states. in the eastern united states there are about 169,000,000 acres of farmland forests. if these woodlands could be joined together in a solid strip one hundred miles wide, they would reach from new york to san francisco. they would amount to an area almost eight times as large as the combined forests of france which furnished the bulk of the timber used by the allies during the world war. in the north, the farm woodlands compose two-fifths of all the forests. altogether there are approximately 53,000,000 acres of farm woodlots which yield a gross income of about $162,000,000 annually to their owners. surveys show that in the new england states more than 65 per cent. of the forested land is on farms, while in ohio, indiana, illinois and iowa from 80 to 100 per cent. of the timber tracts are on corn belt farms. conditions in the south also emphasize the importance of farm woods, as in this region there are more than 125,000,000 acres which yield an income of about $150,000,000 a year. in fact the woodlands on the farms compose about 50 per cent. of all the forest lands south of the mason-dixon line. in maryland, virginia, north carolina, kentucky and oklahoma, over 60 per cent. of all the forest land is on farms. the government says timber raising is very profitable in the eastern states because there is plenty of cheap land which is not suitable for farming, while the rainfall is abundant and favors rapid tree growth. furthermore, there are many large cities which use enormous supplies of lumber. the transportation facilities, both rail and water, are excellent. this section is a long distance from the last of the virgin forests of the pacific coast country. the farms that reported at the last census sold an average of about $82 worth of tree crop products a year. new york, north carolina, virginia, georgia, tennessee, alabama, kentucky, wisconsin and pennsylvania each sold over $15,000,000 worth of lumber and other forest products from their farm woodlots during a single season. in 1918 the report showed that the farms of the country burn up about 78,000,000 cords of firewood annually, equal to approximately 11.5 cords of fuel a farm. the southern states burn more wood than the colder northern states. in north carolina each farm consumes eighteen cords of fuel annually, while the farms of south carolina and arkansas used seventeen cords apiece, and those of mississippi, georgia, tennessee, louisiana, and kentucky from fifteen to sixteen cords. even under these conditions of extensive cordwood use, our farm woodlots are producing only about one-third to one-half of the wood supplies which they could grow if they were properly managed. the farmer who appreciates the importance of caring for his home forests is always interested in knowing how much timber will grow on an acre during a period of twelve months. the government reports that where the farm woodlots are fully stocked with trees and well-cared for, an acre of hardwoods will produce from one-half to one cord of wood--a cord of wood is equal to about 500 board feet of lumber. a pine forest will produce from one to two cords of wood an acre. the growth is greater in the warmer southern climate than it is in the north where the growing season is much shorter. expert foresters say that posts and crossties can be grown in from ten to thirty years and that most of the rapid growing trees will make saw timber in between twenty and forty years. after the farm woodland is logged, a new stand of young trees will develop from seeds or sprouts from the stumps. farmers find that it is profitable to harrow the ground in the cut-over woodlands to aid natural reproduction, or to turn hogs into the timber tract to rustle a living as these animals aid in scattering the seed under favorable circumstances. it is also noteworthy that the most vigorous sprouts come from the clean, well-cut stumps from which the trees were cut during the late fall, winter or early spring before the sap begins to flow. the top of each stump should be cut slanting so that it will readily shed water. the trees that reproduce by sprouts include the oak, hickory, basswood, chestnut, gum, cottonwood, willows and young short-leaf and pitch pines. in order that the farm woodland may be kept in the best of productive condition, the farmer should remove for firewood the trees adapted only for that purpose. usually, removing these trees improves the growth of the remaining trees by giving them better chances to develop. trees should be cut whose growth has been stunted because trees of more rapid growth crowded them out. diseased trees or those that have been seriously injured by insects should be felled. in sections exposed to chestnut blight or gypsy moth infection, it is advisable to remove the chestnut and birch trees before they are damaged seriously. it is wise management to cut the fire-scarred trees as well as those that are crooked, large-crowned and short-boled, as they will not make good lumber. the removal of these undesirable trees improves the forest by providing more growing space for the sturdy, healthy trees. sound dead trees as well as the slow-growing trees that crowd the fast growing varieties should be cut. in addition, where such less valuable trees as the beech, birch, black oak, jack oak or black gum are crowding valuable trees like the sugar maples, white or short-leaf pines, yellow poplar or white oak, the former species should be chopped down. these cutting operations should be done with the least possible damage to the living and young trees. the "weed trees" should be cut down, just as the weeds are hoed out of a field of corn, in order that the surviving trees may make better growth. often the farmer errs in marketing his tree crops. there have been numerous instances where farmers have been deluded by timber cruisers and others who purchased their valuable forest tracts for a mere fraction of what the woodlands were really worth. the united states forest service and state forestry departments have investigated many of these cases and its experts advise farmers who are planning to sell tree crops to get prices for the various wood products from as many sawmills and wood-using plants as possible. the foresters recommend that the farmers consult with their neighbors who have sold timber. sometimes it may pay to sell the timber locally if the prices are right, as then the heavy transportation costs are eliminated. most states have state foresters who examine woodlands and advise the owner just what to do. it pays to advertise in the newspapers and secure as many competitive bids as possible for the timber on the stump. generally, unless the prices offered for such timber are unusually high, the farmer will get greater returns by logging and sawing the timber and selling it in the form of lumber and other wood products. the farmer who owns a large forest tract should have some reliable and experienced timberman carefully inspect his timber and estimate the amount and value. the owner should deal with only responsible buyers. he should use a written agreement in selling timber, particularly where the purchaser is to do the cutting. the farm woodland owner must always bear in mind that standing timber can always be held over a period of low prices without rapid deterioration. in selling lumber, the best plan is to use the inferior timber at home for building and repair work and to market the best of the material. chapter xvii putting wood waste to work for many years technical studies of wood were neglected. detailed investigations of steel, concrete, oil, rubber and other materials were made but wood apparently was forgotten. it has been only during the last decade since the establishment of the forest products laboratory of the united states forest service, at madison, wisconsin, that tests and experiments to determine the real value of different woods have been begun. one of the big problems of the government scientists at that station, which is conducted in coöperation with the university of wisconsin, is to check the needless waste of wood. by actual test they find out all about the wasteful practices of lumbering in the woods and mills. then they try to educate and convert the lumbermen and manufacturers away from such practices. the laboratory experts have already performed more than 500,000 tests with 149 different kinds of native woods. as a result of these experiments, these woods are now being used to better advantage with less waste in the building and manufacturing industries. a potential saving of at least 20 per cent. of the timbers used for building purposes is promised, which means a salvage of about $40,000,000 annually as a result of strength tests of southern yellow pine and douglas fir. additional tests have shown that the red heartwood of hickory is just as strong and serviceable as the white sap wood. formerly, the custom has been to throw away the heartwood as useless. this discovery greatly extends the use of our hickory supply. heretofore, the custom has been to season woods by drying them in the sun. this method of curing not only took a long time but also was wasteful and expensive. the forestry scientists and lumbermen have now improved the use of dry kilns and artificial systems of curing green lumber. now more than thirty-five of the leading woods such as douglas fir, southern yellow pine, spruce, gum and oak can be seasoned in the kilns in short time. it used to take about two years of air drying to season fir and spruce. at present the artificial kiln performs this job in from twenty to forty days. the kiln-dried lumber is just as strong and useful for construction as the air-cured stock. tests have proved that kiln drying of walnut for use in gun stocks or airplane propellers, in some cases reduced the waste of material from 60 to 2 per cent. the kiln-dried material was ready for use in one-third the time it would have taken to season the material in the air. heavy green oak timbers for wagons and wheels were dried in the kiln in ninety to one hundred days. it would have taken two years to cure this material outdoors. by their valuable test work, scientists are devising efficient means of protecting wood against decay. they treat the woods with such chemicals as creosote, zinc chloride and other preservatives. the life of the average railroad tie is at least doubled by such treatment. we could save about one and one-half billion board feet of valuable hardwood lumber annually if all the 85,000,000 untreated railroad ties now in use could be protected in this manner. if all wood exposed to decay were similarly treated, we could save about six billion board feet of timber each year. about one-sixth of all the lumber that is cut in the united states is used in making crates and packing boxes. the majority of these boxes are not satisfactory. either they are not strong enough or else they are not the right size or shape. during a recent year, the railroads paid out more than $100,000,000 to shippers who lost goods in transit due to boxes and crates that were damaged in shipment. in order to find out what woods are best to use in crates and boxes and what sizes and shapes will withstand rough handling, the laboratory experts developed a novel drum that tosses the boxes to and fro and gives them the same kind of rough handling they get on the railroad. this testing machine has demonstrated that the proper method of nailing the box is of great importance. tests have shown that the weakest wood properly nailed into a container is more serviceable than the strongest wood poorly nailed. better designs of boxes have been worked out which save lumber and space and produce stronger containers. educating the lumbering industry away from extravagant practices is one of the important activities of the modern forestry experts. operators who manufacture handles, spokes, chairs, furniture, toys and agricultural implements could, by scientific methods of wood using, produce just as good products by using 10 to 50 per cent. of the tree as they do by using all of it. the furniture industry not infrequently wastes from 40 to 60 per cent. of the raw lumber which it buys. much of this waste could be saved by cutting the small sizes of material directly from the log instead of from lumber. it is also essential that sizes of material used in these industries be standardized. the forest products laboratory has perfected practical methods of building up material from small pieces which otherwise would be thrown away. for example, shoe lasts, hat blocks, bowling pins, base-ball bats, wagon bolsters and wheel hubs are now made of short pieces of material which are fastened together with waterproof glue. if this method of built-up construction can be made popular in all sections of the country, very great savings in our annual consumption of wood can be brought about. as matters now stand, approximately 25 per cent. of the tree in the forest is lost or wasted in the woods, 40 per cent. at the mills, 5 per cent. in seasoning the lumber and from 5 to 10 per cent. in working the lumber over into the manufactured articles. this new method of construction which makes full use of odds and ends and slabs and edgings offers a profitable way to make use of the 75 per cent. of material which now is wasted. the vast importance of preserving our forests is emphasized when one stops to consider the great number of uses to which wood is put. in addition to being used as a building material, wood is also manufactured into newspaper and writing paper. furthermore, it is a most important product in the making of linoleum, artificial silk, gunpowder, paints, soaps, inks, celluloid, varnishes, sausage casings, chloroform and iodoform. wood alcohol, which is made by the destructive distillation of wood, is another important by-product. acetate of lime, which is used extensively in chemical plants, and charcoal, are other products which result from wood distillation. the charcoal makes a good fuel and is valuable for smelting iron, tin and copper, in the manufacture of gunpowder, as an insulating material, and as a clarifier in sugar refineries. it is predicted that the future fuel for use in automobile engines will be obtained from wood waste. ethyl or "grain" alcohol can now be made from sawdust and other mill refuse. one ton of dry douglas fir or southern yellow pine will yield from twenty to twenty-five gallons of 95 per cent. alcohol. it is estimated that more than 300,000,000 gallons of alcohol could be made annually from wood now wasted at the mills. this supply could be increased by the use of second-growth, inferior trees and other low-grade material. chapter xviii wood for the nation westward the course of forest discovery and depletion has taken its way in the united states. the pine and hardwood forests of the atlantic and new england states first fell before the bite of the woodman's ax and the sweep of his saw. wasteful lumbering finally sapped the resources of these productive timberlands. shift was then made farther westward to the lake states. their vast stretches of white pine and native hardwoods were cut to a skeleton of their original size. the lumbering operations then spread to the southern pine belt. in a few years the supplies of marketable lumber in that region were considerably reduced. then the westward trail was resumed. the strip of country between the mississippi river and the cascade, sierra nevada and coast ranges was combed and cut. today, the last big drive against our timber assets is being waged in the forests of the pacific coast. our virgin forests originally covered 822,000,000 acres. today, only one-sixth of them are left. all the forest land now in the united states including culled, burned and cut-over tracts, totals 463,000,000 acres. we now have more waste and cut-over lands in this country than the combined forest area of germany, belgium, denmark, holland, france, switzerland, spain and portugal. the merchantable timber left in the united states is estimated at 2,215,000,000,000 board feet. the rest is second-growth trees of poor quality. one-half of this timber is in california, washington and oregon. it is a long and costly haul from these pacific coast forests to the eastern markets. less than one-fifth of our remaining timber is hardwood. 56,000,000,000 board feet of material of saw timber size are used or destroyed in the united states each year. altogether, we use more than 26,000,000,000 cubic feet of timber of all classes annually. our forests are making annual growth at the rate of less than one-fourth of this total consumption. we are rapidly cutting away the last of our virgin forests. we also are cutting small-sized and thrifty trees much more rapidly than we can replace them. [illustration: a forest crop on its way to the market] the united states is short on timber today because our fathers and forefathers abused our forests. if they had planted trees on the lands after the virgin timber was removed, we should now be one of the richest countries in the world in forest resources. instead, they left barren stretches and desolate wastes where dense woods once stood. it is time that the present owners of the land begin the reclamation of our 326,000,000 acres of cut-over timberlands. some of these lands still are yielding fair crops of timber due to natural restocking and proper care. most of them are indifferent producers. one-quarter of all this land is bare of forest growth. it is our duty as citizens of the united states to aid as we may in the reforestation of this area. fires are cutting down the size of our forests each year. during a recent five-year period, 160,000 forest fires burned over 56,488,000 acres, an area as large as the state of utah, and destroyed or damaged timber and property valued at $85,715,000. year by year, fires and bad timber practices have been increasing our total areas of waste and cut-over land. we are facing a future lumber famine, not alone because we have used up our timber, but also because we have failed to make use of our vast acreage of idle land adapted for growing forests. we must call a halt and begin all over again. our new start must be along the lines of timber planting and tree increase. the landowners, the states and the federal government must all get together in this big drive for reforestation. it is impossible to make national forests out of all the idle forest land. on the other hand, the matter of reforestation cannot be left to private owners. some of them would set out trees and restore the forests as desired. others would not. the public has large interests at stake. it must bear part of the burden. proper protection of the forests against fire can come only through united public action. everyone must do his part to reduce the fire danger. the public must also bring about needed changes in many of our tax methods so that private owners will be encouraged to go into the business of raising timber. the government must do its share, the private landowner must help to the utmost and the public must aid in every possible way, including payment of higher prices for lumber as the cost of growing timber increases. france and scandinavia have solved their forest problems along about the same lines the united states will have to follow. these countries keep up well-protected public forests. all the landowners are taught how to set out and raise trees. everyone has learned to respect the timberlands. the woods are thought of as treasures which must be carefully handled. the average man would no more think of abusing the trees in the forest than he would of setting fire to his home. the foreign countries are now busy working out their forestry problems of the years to come. we in america are letting the future take care of itself. our states should aid generally in the work of preventing forest fires. they should pass laws which will require more careful handling of private forest lands. they should pass more favorable timber tax laws so that tree growing will be encouraged. uncle sam should be the director in charge of all this work. he should instruct the states how to protect their forests against fire. he should teach them how to renew their depleted woodlands. he should work for a gradual and regular expansion of the national forests. the united states forest service should have the power to help the various states in matters of fire protection, ways of cutting forests, methods of renewing forests and of deciding whether idle lands were better adapted for farming or forestry purposes. experts believe that the government should spend at least $2,000,000 a year in the purchase of new national forests. about one-fifth of all our forests are now publicly owned. one of the best ways of preventing the concentration of timber in private ownership is to increase the area of publicly owned forests. such actions would prevent the waste of valuable timber and would aid planting work. for best results, it is thought that the federal government should own about one-half of all the forests in the country. to protect the watersheds of navigable streams the government should buy 1,000,000 acres of woodlands in new england and 5,000,000 acres in the southern appalachian mountains. the national forests should also be extended and consolidated. federal funds should be increased so that the forest service can undertake on a large scale the replanting of burned-over lands in the national forests. as soon as this work is well under way, congress should supply about $1,000,000 annually for such work. many watersheds in the national forests are bare of cover due to forest fires. as a result, the water of these streams is not sufficient for the needs of irrigation, water power and city water supply of the surrounding regions. right now, even our leading foresters do not know exactly what the forest resources of the country amount to. it will take several years to make such a survey even after the necessary funds are provided. we need to know just how much wood of each class and type is available. we want to know, in each case, the present and possible output. we want to find out the timber requirements of each state and of every important wood-using industry. exact figures are needed on the timber stands and their growth. the experimental work of the forest service should be extended. practically every forest is different from every other forest. it is necessary to work out locally the problems of each timber reservation. most urgent of all is the demand for a law to allow federal officers to render greater assistance to the state forestry departments in fighting forest fires. many state laws designed to perpetuate our forests must be passed if our remaining timber resources are to be saved. during times when fires threaten, all the forest lands in each state should be guarded by organized agencies. this protection should include cut-over and unimproved land as well as timber tracts. such a plan would require that the state and federal governments bear about one-half the expenses while the private forest owners should stand the balance. there would be special rules regulating the disposal of slashings, methods of cutting timber, and of extracting forest products such as pulpwood or naval stores. if our forests are to be saved for the future we must begin conservation at once. to a small degree, luck plays a part in maintaining the size of the forest. some woodlands in the south atlantic states are now producing their third cut of saw logs. despite forest fires and other destructive agencies, these forests have continued to produce. some of the northern timberlands have grown crops of saw timber and wood pulp for from one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty years. expert foresters report that private owners are each year increasing their plantings on denuded woodlands. new england landowners are planting between 12,000,000 and 15,000,000 young forest trees a year. the middle atlantic and central states are doing about as well. to save our forests, planting of this sort must be universal. it takes from fifty to one hundred years to grow a crop of merchantable timber. what the united states needs is a national forestry policy which will induce every landowner to plant and grow more trees on land that is not useful for farm crops. our forestry problem is to put to work millions of acres of idle land. as one eminent forester recently remarked, "if we are to remain a nation of timber users, we must become a nation of wood growers." [illustration: _nat'l ass'n audubon societies_ the passenger pigeon, an extinct species.] conservation series conservation reader by harold w. fairbanks author of "home geography, stories of our mother earth," "rocks and minerals," "the western united states," "practical physiography," "geography of california," etc. illustrated with photographs and with reproductions of paintings in color yonkers-on-hudson, new york world book company 1920 world book company the house of applied knowledge established, 1905, by caspar w. hodgson yonkers-on-hudson, new york 2126 prairie avenue, chicago the need for education in the principles of conservation is imperative. as henry fairfield osborn states the matter, "we are yet far from the point where the momentum of conservation is strong enough to arrest and roll back the tide of destruction." the movement for the preservation of natural resources can succeed only with the establishment of an enlightened public sentiment on the subject. to create and maintain such a sentiment is the proper work of the schools. in making this _conservation reader_ available for school use, author and publishers have had in mind the great and lasting service that such a text might render. the publishers believe that this little volume and others forthcoming in the conservation series will rank high among "books that apply the world's knowledge to the world's needs" copyright, 1920, by world book company copyright in great britain _all rights reserved_ introduction the wave of enthusiasm for the conservation of our national resources must reach the children or it will expend much of its force uselessly. it is from the education of the children in right ways of looking at nature that everything is to be expected in the years to come. if they learn to understand the value of the things about them, as well as to appreciate their beauties, the carrying on and enlarging of the conservation program which is now so well under way can be safely left to their care. the west, although it has already been ruthlessly exploited, has lost less of its natural wealth than have the longer-settled eastern states. in the newer parts of our country we can reasonably hope to save most of the forests and most of the wild life, and pass them on down to our children and grandchildren in something of their primeval beauty and richness. in the east we can hope to arouse a stronger sentiment for preserving what remains of the forests as well as for extending their areas, for proper forestation will lessen the danger of erosion of the soil and of floods, and will encourage the return of the wild creatures that are of so much economic importance and add so much to the joy of life. a book bringing out in a simple and interesting manner the principles of conservation has long been needed, for there has been little that could be placed in the hands of pupils. it is with the earnest hope of furnishing something which will answer in part the present need that this _conservation reader_ has been prepared. acknowledgments are due the publishers of _american forestry_ and the _century magazine_ for courteous permission to reprint poems taken from those publications. for their help in supplying photographic subjects to illustrate the book, thanks are extended to the persons to whom the various illustrations are accredited in immediate connection with their use in the text. the reproductions in color of two bird subjects have been secured through the friendly coöperation of mr. t. gilbert pearson, secretary of the national association of audubon societies. contents chapter page 1. how our first ancestors lived 1 2. how our needs differ from those of the first men 9 3. the earth as it was before the coming of civilized men 18 4. nature's unequal distribution of her gifts 25 5. the land of the poor people 32 6. what the muddy rivulet has to say 39 7. how far will nature restore her wasted gifts? 44 8. the soil--the most important gift of nature 51 9. things of which soil is made 57 10. how the soil is made 61 11. how vegetation holds the soil 67 12. what happens where there is no protecting carpet of vegetation 73 13. the use and care of water 81 14. could we get along without the trees? 89 15. where has nature spread the forest? 96 16. what are the enemies of the trees? 104 17. how the forests are wasted 112 18. how the forests suffer from fires 119 19. evils that follow the destruction of the forests 125 20. how our government is helping to save the forests 130 21. our forest playgrounds 139 22. what is happening to the wild flowers 144 23. nature's penalty for interfering with her arrangements 150 24. what shall we do when the coal, oil, and gas are gone? 155 25. need for protection of creatures that live in the water 162 26. man more destructive than the other animals 171 27. what is happening to the animals and birds 176 28. the tragedies of milady's hat and cape 183 29. the court of the animals and birds 188 30. the birds our good friends and pleasant companions 195 31. how to bring the wild creatures back again 203 index 213 conservation reader chapter one how our first ancestors lived before these fields were shorn and tilled full to the brim our rivers flowed; the melody of waters filled the fresh and boundless woods; and torrents dashed, and rivulets play'd, the fountains spouted in the shade. william cullen bryant, quoted in _american forestry_, xiv. 520 the earth is our home. it is a great treasure house filled with the most wonderful things. although people have lived on the earth for many thousands of years, they have been very slow in learning the secrets of their treasure house. this is because early men were much like the lower animals. during all these years their minds have been slowly growing. now we can learn and understand many things which our ancestors of long ago could not. in habits and appearance the first men that roamed the earth were little different from the other animals except that they walked upright. when they had enough to eat and a home safe from enemies, they seemed perfectly happy and contented. these early men lived in the same wonderful treasure house as we do, but they did not know how to make use of its riches. in truth, their wants were so few that they would have had no use for the things that now seem so necessary to us. the rich fields about them lay untilled. the gold, silver, copper, and iron in the earth remained undiscovered; and the animals and birds that we now use in so many ways then served them mainly for food. since they had no furry coats to keep them warm as do the animals of the cold regions, and had not learned to make clothing, their homes must have been in the warm parts of the earth. while they were without weapons to defend themselves against the lion and tiger, yet they were sharp witted and very quick in their movements and thus were usually able to escape their more powerful enemies. although these early ancestors of ours seemed so much like the other animals, they were in reality very different. they had the same keen senses of sight, hearing, and smell, but they were more intelligent. when the dog and cat have had enough to eat, they lie down perfectly happy and contented. but when early men had had enough to eat, they were often not satisfied. they had other longings which finally led them to make discoveries about the uses of things around them and how to make their lives more comfortable. the little bear cub, for example, as it grows up learns from its mother just what it should do on all occasions. it learns what its mother knows and that is all. but among the early people of whom we are speaking the children not only learned all that their parents knew, but a little more. in this way each generation of children came to know more about the world. thus after many years had passed people came to understand something of the wonderful world in which they lived. they were no longer at the mercy of wild animals, storms, heat, cold, hunger, and disease. the first people, like the other animals, used only their hands and teeth in hunting and in fighting their enemies. finally some of the brighter ones discovered that a stick or club served better than the bare hands. the use of flint knives may have been brought about through some one cutting himself accidentally upon a piece of flint sticking out of the ground. if he happened to be very bright, he would at once see the value of such a piece of stone tied on the end of an arrow or club. by such means, perhaps, implements of wood, bone, and stone came into use. we have discovered the sites of many of the villages as well as the caves in which the ancient inhabitants of the earth lived. the implements of bone and stone which we have dug up in such places enable us to learn a great deal about their lives. there was a time when people did not know the use of fire. what a fearful thing fire must have seemed to them, at first. their knowledge of it probably came from lightning or from hot lava flowing from a volcano. after they had learned to control fire, and to make it by rubbing two sticks together, they must have felt rich indeed. the discovery of fire was one of their greatest triumphs. it kept the cold, damp cave warm and dry, even though it filled their eyes with smoke. it was a means of keeping them safe from the dangerous wild beasts when they had to sleep out in the open. it was useful in cooking their food, and by and by it was to prove valuable in still other ways, when they began to _make_ things as well as to _find_ things. they began, by and by, to build rude shelters,--huts and wigwams, low houses of dried mud, and dugouts in the hillside. they learned to weave simple coverings out of the fibers of certain plants, or hair or wool, to protect their bodies against the cold and the wet. they learned, somehow, to tan the skins of animals, so that they would not first stretch and grow slippery. they learned to hold things together by sewing, using sharp bones for needles and the sinews of animals or fibers of plants for thread. [illustration: _american forestry association_ the laplander of the far north uses the reindeer to pull his sled, its flesh for food, its skin for clothing, and its horns for various purposes.] how did men discover that they could travel on the water? some one may at first have made use of a log to cross a river and, afterwards, have tied several logs together, making a raft. when they had learned how to make a canoe out of a log, by burning or hewing it out with rude axes, they could then take long journeys on the water to new lands. since paddling was very tiresome, some one, brighter than the rest, probably thought of making a sail of bark or skins and so letting the wind push the canoe along. we do not know how the metals were discovered. perhaps fire melted some of the copper in a vein of ore. perhaps pure copper was found, for nature sometimes leaves it in this form. copper could be easily hammered into various useful articles, but it was too soft for many needs. after tin was discovered, it was learned that by melting it and copper together a new and very hard metal, known as _bronze_, was formed. next, we think, came the discovery of iron, which has become so important that we could not get along without it. think what this must have meant for them! to get firewood, to make rude boats and simple houses, to fight wild animals, now became easier. after iron they discovered gold and silver, and began to take an interest in making beautiful as well as useful things. it is easy to see how, once these new ways of using the earth were found, men could move into other regions than the belt where it was always warm. they could store up food for the winter, they could build warm shelters and get warm clothing, and they could sit by a fire. sometimes when the first people were out hunting, instead of killing the young animals that they caught, they took them home and cared for them. so the little creatures became quite tame and grew up about the camps. the wild jungle fowls were the ancestors of the domestic hens which we find so useful. the wild cow was tamed in like manner, and made to supply milk in addition to food and clothing. the colts of wild horses and donkeys were captured and used for carrying loads. sheep and goats were tamed in the same manner, and became the most valued possessions of some of the ancient peoples as they are of some peoples today. when they had learned to weave the wool of these animals into clothing and blankets, they had taken another step upon the long road which leads from ancient times down to us. did these early people live entirely upon meat? if they had done so, we should never have had the wonderful variety of fruits and vegetables that we now enjoy so much. we must not suppose that nature grew these things wild just as they are found in our gardens today. our ancestors grew them for many generations, gradually improving their size and flavor. by selecting the best and carefully cultivating them, we are still continuing to make them better. the horse, donkey, cow, and camel proved valuable in another way to the people who were learning to cultivate the ground. when harnessed to a crooked and sharpened stick they aided in breaking up the ground in which the young plants were growing. and so the long years passed while the early people were discovering and making use of the things around them. they came to building better and more permanent homes, because they did not have to move from place to place in search of food. where there were forests, wood served for their buildings. where there were few trees, stone or mud bricks were used. the brighter people learned to understand nature more quickly than those who were dull. each discovery of some new way of doing things aided them in making others, and in this way people finally came to have all the comforts of today. those people less quick to learn the secrets of nature, or those who lived in countries to which nature had given little, gained few comforts and even now remain savage. after our ancestors had learned to cultivate the soil, to use the minerals and the forests, and had tamed the animals and birds, they were still unsatisfied. they attempted to make the forces of nature work for them. for a long time people made flour by crushing grain in a mortar. next, two flat stones were used, one being made to turn upon the other by a handle. after that some animal, such as an ox or a horse, was harnessed to larger stones which, as they slowly turned, ground the grain. this was a great deal of work, and so some one thought of making the water tumbling over a ledge of rock grind the grain for them. the water was made to go over a water wheel. this wheel then made the millstones go around. it was a great deal easier. [illustration: the wild home of early men. _h. w. fairbanks_] where there was no water power, wind was made to do the same work. a crude windmill gathered the power of the rapidly moving air. after wind and water had been forced to serve them, some one who had seen the lid of a tea kettle dancing up and down, thought of using steam. then electricity, which in the form of jagged lightning had seemed so fearful a thing to the early people, was harnessed and made the greatest servant of all the forces of nature. the discovery of powder led to the making of guns so destructive that dozens of birds could be killed at one shot. some people became greedy and used all these wonderful discoveries to rob nature. it seemed as if in some places all the wild life would be destroyed. fires were allowed to burn the forest unhindered. the soil was made to produce crops until it grew poor. if we become selfish and indifferent and neglect to care for the treasures which nature has placed in our hands, very serious things will happen to us, as they have happened to other people. how to use the storehouse of nature without wasting or destroying these treasures is what we mean by _conservation_. chapter two how our needs differ from those of the first men we have seen that the first men, like the other animals, depended upon the food that nature supplied them, and when this was lacking they went hungry. when men had learned the use of fire they took the first step in making nature serve them better than she did the lower animals. today she works for us in so many ways that we can hardly name them all. after the use of fire the next thing that men learned was to make better homes, to tame some of the wild animals, and to raise a part of their food supplies, instead of depending entirely upon what they could pick up here and there. as the number of people increased, the question of securing food became more and more important. would it not seem pretty hard to have to go out and hunt for your breakfast in the woods, or fields, or along the water? if you were alone you might find enough to eat, but if there were thousands of other people doing the same thing, you would probably go hungry. for this reason people began to cultivate berries, fruits, roots, and grains, and to take better care of their herds. living as they did, in those parts of the world where the climate was warm, they usually found an abundance of food. but when these places became too crowded, and some of them had to move to new regions, they often found less food and a climate not always comfortable. in this way people spread into the colder and drier parts of the earth. the need for things which they did not have there sharpened the wits of these people. it led to one discovery after another. new needs were felt and new ways of satisfying them were sought. they kept finding out more about nature and how she works. after many years they knew much more and were also far more comfortable than those people who continued to live where nature supplied everything. there are now so many more people on the earth than there were long ago that to furnish them all with food is a very great task. besides, there are now many people engaged in work other than farming, hunting, and fishing. all such people have to be provided for by those whose business it is to get food. people of the great cities are dependent upon those in the country for all that they eat! we can picture to ourselves the suffering that would follow if for only one week every one had to get his own food. we need many things that the first people thought nothing about, because their manner of life was so much simpler than ours. let us see now what they are. we live in tightly closed houses, and so have less trouble in keeping warm and dry. but we do not always get the supply of fresh air that we need. many of us are sickly and weak because of this. our ancestors lived in the open air, which is always pure and fresh. a supply of pure air, then, is one of the things that we must now provide for. people once gave no thought to the purity of the water that they drank. when there were few people, water did not easily become impure. one could drink water wherever one found it and there was small risk of harm. now in many places there are so many thousands of people gathered together that they have to take the greatest care about drinking water, in order to keep in good health. to get pure water it is often necessary to bring it many miles from mountainous regions where no one lives. clothing is another thing that concerns us very much. our ancestors were not troubled about their clothing. in the warm countries they went almost naked. where it was cold the skins of animals served very well. changes of fashion did not disturb them and cause them to throw away warm covering. to supply ourselves now with clothing we call upon nature for many things. as she cannot, without our help, furnish what we need, we have to keep a great number of flocks, for their wool and skins, and cultivate vast fields of cotton and flax. when nature raised in her own way the berries, grains, and roots that the first men ate, no thought was given to the soil in which these things grew. in truth, it was not necessary to pay any attention to the soil. nature is very careful in her way and never makes the soil poor by growing more plants than it can support. in her own gardens she always renews the foods in the soil which the plants require as fast as they take them away. the needs of men have increased so fast that the soil has often been forced to grow more than it ought. men have been a long time in learning that they cannot keep on growing the same crops on the same soil year after year without supplying to the soil extra foods, or _fertilizers_, as we call them. the care of the soil is another thing to which we have to give attention, but which did not worry our ancestors. nature clothes the earth with a carpet of grasses, bushes, or trees. when the rain falls on the ground, their roots hold the soil so firmly that it usually washes away only very slowly. when men first began to cultivate the soil, they paid no attention to the fact that water washes away the loose earth very easily. in this loose earth at the top of the ground is stored most of the food which the plants require. care of the surface of the ground is, then, another thing which we have to keep in mind. men at first made shelters for themselves from anything that was at hand, such as bark, skins, rock, or earth. when they learned to make sharp-edged tools, they began to use trees. where it is cold, much wood is required to build warm houses. as the numbers of men increased, they used greater and greater quantities of wood. wood also proved to be most useful for many other purposes than house building. in order to plant larger fields the trees were cut down or burned off, without thought of doing any harm. in time trees became scarce in many parts of the world and men began to realize that care must be used or the supply of wood might fail them. coal was finally discovered and men said, "now we have something that will last always, for there must be an inexhaustible amount in the earth beneath our feet. all that we shall have to do is to dig it out." when men grew wiser they learned that coal must not be used carelessly any more than the other gifts of nature; otherwise the supply may give out and leave them with nothing to take its place. hunting and fishing continued to be the business of many. they invented destructive weapons with which they were able to kill such large numbers of wild creatures that some kinds disappeared entirely. fish, also, of which people thought the sea and the rivers contained a never failing supply, became scarcer. they did not know that fish live mostly in the shallow waters along shores, and that the great ocean depths contain very few. [illustration: _george j. young_ sierra junipers above tuolumne meadows, near the yosemite valley, showing how roots will force their way in apparently most unfavorable places.] thus, as the earth became thickly settled with men and their wants increased, they discovered that they had to treat nature in a very different way from that of their early ancestors. because of our great numbers we have to be careful not to use the earth in such a way as to lessen its fertility and productiveness. where people have been careless, famine has often resulted. poverty and suffering have come to many parts of the earth, as we shall learn farther along in this little book. the city on the plain strange indeed were the sounds i heard one day, on the side of the mountain: hushed was the stream and silent the bird, the restless wind seemed to hold its breath, and all things there were as still as death, save the hoarse-voiced god of the mountain. through the tangled growth, with a hurried stride, i saw him pass on the mountain, thrusting the briers and bushes aside, crackling the sticks and spurning the stones, and talking in loud and angry tones on the side of the ancient mountain. the tips of his goatlike ears were red, though the day was cool on the mountain, and they lay close-drawn to his horned head; his bushy brows o'er his small eyes curled, and he stamped his hoofs,--for all the world like pan in a rage on the mountain. "where are my beautiful trees," he cried, "that grew on the side of the mountain? the stately pines that were once my pride, my shadowy, droop-limbed junipers: and my dewy, softly whispering firs, 'mid their emerald glooms on the mountain? "they are all ravished away," he said, "and torn from the arms of the mountain, away from the haunts of cooling shade, from the cloisters green which flourished here- my lodging for many a joyous year on the side of the pleasant mountain. "the songbird is bereft of its nest, and voiceless now is the mountain. my murmurous bees once took their rest, at shut of day, and knew no fear, in the trees whose trunks lie rotting here on the side of the ruined mountain. "man has let in the passionate sun to suck the life-blood of the mountain, and drink up its fountains one by one: and out of the immortal freshness made a thing of barter, and sold in trade the sons of the mother mountain. "down in the valley i see a town, built of his spoils from my mountain- a jewel torn from a monarch's crown, a grave for the lordly groves of pan: and for this, on the head of vandal man, i hurl a curse from the mountain. "his palpitant streams shall all go dry henceforth on the side of the mountain, and his verdant plains as a desert lie until he plants again the forest fold and restores to me my kingdom old, as in former days on the mountain. "long shall the spirit of silence brood on the side of the wasted mountain, e'er out of the sylvan solitude to lift the curse from off the plain, the crystal streams pour forth again from the gladdened heart of the mountain." millard f. hudson, in _american forestry_, xiv. 42 [illustration: _pillsbury's pictures, inc._ "'where are my beautiful trees,' he cried, 'that grew on the side of the mountain?'"] chapter three the earth as it was before the coming of civilized men for ages, on the silent forest here, thy beams did fall before the red man came to dwell beneath them; in their shade the deer fed, and feared not the arrow's deadly aim. nor tree was felled, in all that world of woods, save by the beaver's tooth, or winds, or rush of floods. william cullen bryant, _a walk at sunset_ the earth has not always been as it is now. those parts now possessed by the more civilized peoples have been very greatly changed. if we could look back and see some of the countries as they were long ago, we should hardly know them. in certain lands the forests have been cut down, the wild creatures driven away, and the soil so carelessly cultivated that it has become poor. in other lands nature's gifts have been carefully used; even the barren deserts have been turned into green fields and blooming gardens for hundreds of miles. let us try to picture to ourselves how our own country looked when white men first found and explored it. a few hundred years ago it was the home of wild animals and indians only. we have been given our freedom in one of the richest of nature's gardens, and, like so many children, have tried to see who could gather the most treasures from it. we have given little attention to keeping up the garden. if you have been in some part of the country that is still wild and unsettled, it will help you to form a picture of how the entire land once looked. if you have been in one of our great natural parks, this will be a better help. in these parks everything remains just as nature made it. there the animals, birds, and plants are free to live their lives unmolested. is it not a good thing that our government has been wise enough to have large tracts of land left in just the condition in which the whole country was when our ancestors first came? we will think of our whole land, then, as a great wild park, rich in all kinds of animal and plant life. it was not an altogether happy family that lived in this park, for all were struggling for food, drink, and sunshine. but as none were possessed of such deadly weapons as those of civilized man, no one kind of animal was able to kill off all of any other kind. neither the indians in their wigwams, nor the wild animals in their lairs, nor the birds singing in the trees, nor the ducks quacking in the marshes dreamed of the change that was coming to their homes. they did not dream of civilized man with his terrible weapons and his many needs, who was to change the whole appearance of the country and nearly or quite exterminate many of them. the life of the indians was almost as simple as that of the lower animals. their clothing required little care. their homes were easily made. some of them had learned to cultivate the soil, but they depended mainly upon food obtained by hunting, and such roots, berries, and nuts as the women could collect. if we could have looked down on our land as the bird does, we should have seen little sign of human inhabitants. there were no roads or bridges, and only indistinct trails led from one village to another. in the far southwest there were people quite different from those of whom we have been speaking. they were called the pueblo indians. in mexico there were similar people called the aztecs. all these indians still live in permanent stone villages, as they did a thousand years ago. they learned more about nature than the wandering indians, but we do not believe they would ever become civilized if left to themselves. the only animal that the indians had tamed was the wolf. they made little use of the wolf-dog except in the far north, where it drew their sleds over the snow. some of the indians of our country once knew of the use of copper, but it had been forgotten when white men first came. all about the indians was the same world that surrounds us. in truth, it was a richer world in some ways, for since then many of its treasures have been lost through greed and waste. the rich soil of the valleys was almost undisturbed. the forests were uncut save for an occasional tree used in making a canoe or a rude cabin. the forests suffered only at the hands of the insects, storms, and fires. the flowers that covered the ground in spring went ungathered. the vast grassy prairies were disturbed only by the feeding of such animals as the buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope. a single great forest spread over all the mountains and valleys of the eastern part of our country. now you can travel for many miles in the more thickly settled portions of this region and see not a single tree of the original forest. to the west of the forest came the prairies and plains. still farther west came lofty mountains and desert valleys. on these western mountains were other forests with trees of wonderful size. [illustration: _american forestry association_ the elk once roamed the valleys.] this great natural park, with its long seacoasts, rivers, lakes, marshes, dense woods, and open plains, was a paradise for wild creatures of every description, and the indian was contented to leave it so. grizzly and black bears roamed the thickets. elk wandered through the mountains and valleys. deer were abundant everywhere. the antelope raced over the plains, mountain goats and sheep lived among the rocks, and moose filled the northern woods. great herds of buffalo darkened the surface of the plains. when the first railroad was built across the plains, less than fifty years ago, the trains were sometimes stopped by herds of buffalo crossing the track. most of the songbirds that filled the country then are still with us, for they were of little commercial value to the hunter. no other land has richer bird music than ours. many of the birds that are valuable for food are, however, nearly extinct. now we have laws for their protection, but these laws went into effect too late to save some species. the passenger pigeon is one of our greatest losses. the cutting down of the vast forests that once covered the eastern states, and the cultivation of fields, has helped to drive many of the wild creatures away. we are just beginning to learn how poor our country would be if we lost them all. refuges are being established in many places, where those birds and animals most in danger of extinction may live safe from the hunter. the coast waters, lakes, and streams of our country were once alive with fish. the indians made use of them, but their rude traps did not catch enough to affect the number seriously. we have fished with every kind of trap that the brightest fisherman could think of. many important food fishes are now very much reduced in numbers. the fur seal and sea otter are so nearly gone that only the most watchful protection will save them from extinction. the land, as the indian knew it, was beautiful, and was filled with everything that one could wish. but the indian did not know how to use it. he lived a poor life, suffering from cold and hunger. we came into the possession of a land unspoiled by its primitive inhabitants. it was just as nature made it. in a few short years we have almost exterminated the indian. we have swept away a large part of the forests. we have almost destroyed many of the species of animals and birds. we have robbed the soil and injured the flow of the rivers. some of this loss we could not help, for when many millions of people occupy a land there must be many changes. but for the losses that we have needlessly and carelessly caused we shall sometime be sorry. [illustration: _pillsbury's pictures, inc._ "such beautiful things in the heart of the woods! flowers and ferns and the soft green moss."] do you not think we are wise in seeking how to take better care of this land of ours? in the heart of the woods such beautiful things in the heart of the woods! flowers and ferns and the soft green moss; such love of the birds in the solitudes, where the swift winds glance and the treetops toss; spaces of silence swept with song, which nobody hears but the god above; spaces where myriad creatures throng, sunning themselves in his guarding love. such safety and peace in the heart of the woods! far from the city's dust and din, where passion nor hate nor man intrudes, nor fashion nor folly has entered in. deeper than hunter's trail hath gone glimmers the tarn where the wild deer drink; and fearless and free comes the gentle fawn, to peep at herself o'er the grassy brink. such pledges of love in the heart of the woods! for the maker of all things keeps the feast, and over the tiny flowers broods with care that for ages has never ceased. if he cares for this, will he not for thee- thee, wherever thou art today? child of an infinite father, see; and safe in such gentlest keeping stay. margaret e. sangster, in _american forestry_, xiv chapter four nature's unequal distribution of her gifts pure, fresh air is free to all of us, for, like an ocean, it surrounds the whole earth. we need pure water just as much as we do pure air, but it is not always easy to get. a large part of the earth is buried beneath water so salt that we cannot use it. other parts of the earth are so dry that if we venture into them we may die of thirst. the solid land on which we make our homes is not all of the same value. thousands of square miles are so rocky or so cold or so dry that they support no living thing. other thousands of miles of the earth have been so favored by nature that they are fairly alive with every sort of creature. we say that a country is rich in natural resources when it has an abundance of those things that men need or can make use of for their pleasure and comfort. a country is poor when it has few of these things. the first men were poor, although they lived in a rich part of the earth. they did not know how to make use of what lay around them. if civilized men are poor now, it is because they have wasted nature's gifts or because they live in a country upon which she has bestowed little. when we say that the far north where the eskimos live is a dreary, desolate region, we mean that it lacks most of those things necessary to make men comfortable and happy. when we read of the life of the wandering arabs in the desert of arabia, we think of a country to which nature has not given its share. when we speak of spain as poor, we have in mind a country once favored by nature, but no longer prosperous because its resources have been wasted. our own land is now rich and prosperous because of the abundance of its natural resources. we should guard these well lest we meet a fate similar to that of the people of spain. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ where nature has supplied little rain; desert sand dunes.] if we journey over our own land, we shall discover that nature has been very partial to certain parts, giving them more than they need. other parts have been left with little. we shall also discover what wonderful things men are doing to make up for the failures of nature, and to make habitable many of those places which she left uninhabitable. the forests of the eastern half of the country have been thinned out. west of the mississippi river there are thousands of square miles of prairies where there are almost no trees. in such places the first settlers had difficulty in getting firewood, and had to build their houses of earth or stone. upon the northwest coast there is fog and rain and little sunshine. there the forests grow so dense that it is difficult to travel through them. in the deserts of the southwest the sun shines out of a cloudless sky almost every day in the year. the ground becomes very dry and the living things found there have strange and curious habits. in the central and eastern states there is much coal; and because of this, millions of people have gathered there to engage in manufacturing. in california coal is scarce and has to be brought from other parts of the earth. the vast prairies of the mississippi valley are covered with fields of waving grain, much of which is shipped to distant regions. in new england much of the soil is rocky and not enough grain is raised there to supply the needs of the population. [illustration: _u. s. office of farm management (j. s. cotton)_ a farming scene in the fertile valley of the missouri river.] the work that people do in different places is determined by the way in which nature has distributed her resources. the farmers are mostly found in the valleys where the soil is best. cattle are pastured on those lands not suited to farming. the miners go to the mountains, where they can more easily find the minerals they are after. the lumberman finds his work where the climate favors the growth of forest trees. the manufacturer seeks the waterfalls, where there is power to turn his mills. now let us try to discover in how far we can change nature's plan and make habitable those places which she left uninhabitable. there are some things which we cannot do. we cannot make the air warmer or colder. we cannot cause rain to fall even though the fields are parched with drought. we cannot stop the rain falling, and we cannot stop the winds blowing. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the prickly pear in its desert home.] while we cannot stop the water falling from the clouds, we can drain the lowlands and marshes and so make them fit for the farmer. we can raise great dikes or embankments along the rivers and so shut out the flood waters. the people of holland have saved thousands of acres from the sea by building dikes and pumping out the water from the inclosed fields. while we cannot make it rain where not enough rain falls, we can do that which is just as good or better: we can carry water by ditches and pipes to the land that needs it. much of the soil of the great deserts in the southwestern part of our country is rich in plant food. all that it lacks is water. the indian roamed over the rich lands of the great delta of the colorado river. he often went hungry and thirsty. he did not think of taking the water out of the river in a ditch and allowing it to flow over and wet the rich soil. the white man came and turned the river out of its channel and spread the water over hundreds of square miles of the richest land on the earth. now, where once you would have died of thirst and hunger, there are green fields and growing crops as far as you can see. [illustration: the owens river aqueduct, through which water is carried to los angeles from a source more than two hundred miles distant.] the city of los angeles is situated in a dry region where there is not water enough for the needs of a great city. there has now been completed a great aqueduct which brings a river of water through deserts and mountains from the sierra nevada mountains, over two hundred miles away. there is now sufficient water for hundreds of thousands of people. when it rains too much, many rivers rise and overflow their banks. the farmer's crops are destroyed, his cattle drowned, and his buildings washed away. we can lessen the danger from these floods, which are very bad in such river basins as those of the ohio and mississippi, by building reservoirs in the highlands where the rivers take their start. if when summer comes these rivers are too shallow for safe navigation, the reservoirs can be opened and the streams supplied with this stored water. the lack of trees upon the prairies was once a serious matter for the settler. we must not think, however, that because nature placed no trees on the prairies that trees will not grow there. she may not have had handy the seed of the kind suitable for such dry lands. our government has found in the dry regions of other countries trees that will grow upon our prairies. in their own home these trees had become used to a dry climate like that of our prairies. steep cañons and cliffs of rock once kept people, living on the opposite sides of mountain ranges, from becoming acquainted with one another. our ancestors were afraid to venture out on the boundless oceans with their small, frail boats. because of this the continent that we live on long remained unknown. those who first found it, the ancestors of the present indians, came here by accident. storms probably blew their boats across the north pacific ocean, and thus they found a new home. now railroads enable us to cross the deserts in perfect comfort. tunnels have been made through the mountains, so that we can go easily from one valley to another. boats of giant size carry us safely and quickly across the stormy oceans. nature did not intend us to fly through the air or swim beneath the water, but we are learning so much about her laws that we shall soon be almost as much at home in the air and the sea as the birds and fish are. chapter five the land of the poor people my squandered forests, hacked and hewed, are gone; my rivers fail; my stricken hillsides, stark and nude, stand shivering in the gale. down to the sea my teeming soil in yellow torrents goes; the guerdon of the farmer's toil with each year lesser grows. robert m. reese, _the spendthrift_; quoted in _american forestry_, xiv. 269 this is the story of a land of plenty that became almost a desert. long ago there dwelt in this land a people wise in all the things that concerned their home. through many hard years of toil and struggle they had learned to take the very best care of what nature had given them. although nature seemed to them to be wasteful, she punished waste in her children. as long as they obeyed, they had comfortable homes, fertile fields, and sleek herds. the country of which we are speaking was very beautiful. there were lofty mountains and broad, fertile valleys. many streams, fed by clear, cool springs, flowed through the land. there were also green meadows and deep, dark forests. the forests contained many wild animals, for in the forests the animals found both food and protection. birds of every sort abounded, and their music filled the air. trees overhung the streams, shading them from the hot sun, so that they did not dry up in the summer. the springs never failed, for the carpet of leaves and decaying vegetation underneath the trees of the forests held much of the rainwater from running away, so that it sank into the ground. instead of making floods in the rivers, it fed the springs gradually and steadily through the long, dry summers. the people of this land had learned the secrets of the growing plants and how these plants could be made better by cultivation. they had also learned to tame the wild animals and make them useful. the farms were managed with great care so that they never grew poor. the soil never refused to grow their crops. the people had learned during their earlier years of struggle that they must not clear the forests from the hillsides, for, if they did, the soil would begin to wash away. they had learned that they must leave the forests on the mountains in order to save the springs. rain did not always come when it was needed for the crops, and at other times it rained too much. reservoirs were built to hold the surplus water for use in time of drought. canals were dug to carry it to the fields. the wild animals and birds bothered the crops, and the first thought of the people was to kill them. but it was soon discovered that this was not wise. those who destroyed the wild creatures about their farms began to suffer from rats, mice, rabbits, and a multitude of little insects that all but devoured the crops. it did not take these people long to learn that nature was not to be trifled with. if they took too much from the earth one year, she made them pay for it the next. they not only became wise enough to take care of every good thing that nature had given them, but improved upon many things that she had left unsuited to their use. thus the land was kept beautiful and fertile. the inhabitants became rich, and, instead of fearing nature as they once did, they came to love the rocks, the woods, the streams, and the wild creatures. let us now leave this rich and fertile land and come back to it after hundreds of years have passed. we find a new people living there and the country so changed that we can hardly believe it is the same land. yet it must be the same, for there are the very mountains that were there long ago. to be sure, they do not look just as they did. when we last saw them they were covered with forests, but now they are barren and scarred with many gulches. here is the same river, but it also looks different. while it was once overhung with trees and its waters were so clear that we could see the fish in the bottom, it now has a broad, sandy bed; the trees are gone, and the water is shallow and muddy. the new inhabitants of this land have a tired and discouraged appearance. they have a hard struggle to get enough to eat. the soil is rocky, and it takes much labor to raise the scanty crops. they never seem able to gather all the rocks from the fields, for the soil washes away and new ones are constantly uncovered. where are the forests that once grew here? we find in their stead only a few stunted trees and bushes. there is little grass and almost no flowers, even in spring. sheep and cattle wander far for their forage and do not have the sleek appearance they once did. there are few wild creatures of any sort, for since there are no woods there are few hiding places. neither do we see any birds, and we listen in vain for a song or note of any kind. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the women carry home the fuel.] the houses are made of mud or stone and look cold and cheerless. the people must suffer from cold in winter. the only wood they have is small brush which the women and children gather upon the far hills and bring home in huge bundles upon their backs. in the towns of this country the only fuel now to be had is charcoal. this is brought upon the backs of burros from the distant mountains, where the few remaining trees give work to charcoal burners. the charcoal is peddled through the streets and sold in tiny quantities at each door. the people are too poor to buy much at a time and are very careful in its use. it is burned in a metal or earthen dish called a brazier, and a double handful may last a family a whole day. rains still fall in this country of the poor people, as they did long ago. but the waters gather quickly upon the unprotected slopes and run off in muddy torrents, taking along some of the soil. thus each succeeding year there is less plant food for the crops. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the rocky land of the poor people.] how did this country, once rich and fruitful, become so barren? we are sure from what we know of nature's ways that she is not the cause of the trouble. through greed and ignorance of how to take care of their land the present inhabitants have wasted and squandered its wealth until it has become almost a desert. we can do things with nature, and direct many of her forces so that they will work for our good. we cannot, however, as we have learned, change the amount of rain that falls, nor can we make it warmer or colder. how, then, are these poor people to blame for the condition of their country? the troubles which overtook them came from two things. in the first place they did not know how to take care of their rich land, and in the second place they were greedy and wanted to become wealthy faster than they ought. why does the rain, which once made this country fruitful, now wash away the soil and make it barren? it is because in those earlier times much of the land was covered with cool forests. the rain then fell more gently because of the forests. more of it soaked into the ground and the springs were larger. now the rains are delayed by the hot air of the thirsty land until, when they finally do come, the water falls in torrents. such rains or cloudbursts, as we often call them, carry away the unprotected soil faster than nature can renew it. [illustration: _bailey willis_ the shallow, rock-filled river along whose banks the trees have been destroyed.] the strangers in the land, under whose rule it became poor, thought they knew better than nature. they did not look upon her as the great wise mother of them all. soon after these people came into possession of the land, they found that in other places there was a demand for their grain, cattle, and wool. they began to increase their fields and herds. to do this it was necessary to cut down the forests which had stood so long. it seemed to them too bad to leave valuable land covered only with trees. the people began to look askance at the birds, for they thought they were eating too much grain. because they did not know what good the little creatures were doing, they killed them. since most of the birds nested in trees, they got rid of them faster by cutting down the trees. the steep hillsides were finally cleared of trees and the soil began to wash, and the rocks soon appeared. no plant food was given to the soil to replace that taken by the growing plants, and the crops soon began to show the effect of starvation. the cattle began to suffer for lack of food. they ate the grass down so closely that much of it was killed. the rainwater, instead of feeding the springs, now ran swiftly away. the clear, steady rivers turned to muddy floods during the rainy season. they swept through the valleys, washing away houses and crops. in the summer they dried up so that the fish died. when these people at last discovered their mistake, they strove by hard labor to repair the damage which they had done through years of ignorance and greed. this was such slow, difficult work that the land still remains a dreary place in which to live. it is known as the land of the poor people. chapter six what the muddy rivulet has to say would you like to know something about what i am doing? would you like to know why my waters are yellow with mud? i am accused of being a noisy, roistering fellow, of robbing people of their wealth and of doing all sorts of wicked deeds. but, worst of all, i am accused of carrying away the tiny particles of soil in which the plants find their food and of dropping them in the depths of the sea. perhaps, when you really understand my work, you will say that i have no evil intentions at all. i am only one of nature's servants. each one of us has a work to do. sometimes we have to do things that seem to be bad, but that is because some one on the earth has broken nature's laws. nature has many servants. to each one of us is given a different kind of work. i am the great leveler of the land. no mountain is too great or too high for me to tear down. i can carry it all away grain by grain and leave it in the lowlands or in the sea. many mountains i have destroyed so completely that you would hardly believe they ever existed. long before there were any animals and men on the earth i was busy, and i shall be busy when they are all gone. the farmer believes me his enemy, but if i do injure his fields it is because i cannot help it. the work that has been given me to do is the carrying away of the loose earth wherever i can find it. if the farmer does not want his hillsides made poor, he should take care of them. the farmer does not know that he has me to thank for the richest of his lands, those lands where the soil is deep and dark, and filled with plant food. i and my brother rivulets have been thousands of years in collecting the soil which forms the fertile lowlands in the valleys through which we flow. we all unite to form the mighty river which finally ends in the sea. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ because some farmer was careless, a rivulet has nearly destroyed this rich valley.] upon all the slopes which drain toward the river we rivulets are at work. other servants of nature are working here. some of them are making the rocks soften and fall apart. others are bringing seeds of the grasses and trees that they may take root in the crumbling rock. it is their business to make a carpet of plants over the earth and thus stop my work. but wherever the slopes are steep we rivulets have our way. we pick up and carry away the particles of sand and clay so that only the bare, hard rocks remain. when the steep slopes become gentle, and we can no longer carry away all the particles of crumbled rock, then the carpet of plants spreads over the surface. now our waters become clear. we seem like different beings. once in a while, when the rains fall very heavily, some of us break through the protecting carpet and dig great hollows and gullies into the earth. would you like to know how we rivulets get rid of the load we carry from the mountain slopes? when we are muddy and swollen with the heavy rains, we turn the river into a flood. the river then breaks its banks and spreads out over all the lowlands along its course. now the river flows more slowly and drops a part of the sand and mud which we rivulets brought to it. finally, when the storm is over and the river goes back into its channel, there is left on the surface of the valleys a layer of earth rich in plant food. we brought the river the finest of the rock particles, together with the leaves and stems of plants that lay in our way. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the rivulets have united to form the broad, shallow river loaded with the soil from the farms along its upper course.] as year after year we made the river overflow, the soil of the lowlands grew deeper and deeper until it became as you see it today. now the slopes about the head of the river are not so steep as they were once. our waters do not run away so rapidly and the river seldom overflows. thus the farmer can use the land for his crops, which grow so luxuriantly that he is envied by his less fortunate neighbors who live upon the hills. [illustration: _u. s. office of farm management_ the soil of this valley has been washed to its present location by flood waters.] upon the slopes about the valleys we rivulets did not leave so much soil. the farther one goes up the slopes the thinner one finds the soil, until at the top the bare rock may appear. but our work, says the muddy rivulet, was not finished with the making of the fertile valley lands. we carried a part of our load of sand and mud on to the mouth of the river. here in the bay into which the river empties we began another great task. it seemed hopeless at first to try to turn the bay into dry land, but year after year we kept at work, through a time so long that i have forgotten when we began. at last we succeeded in bringing so much material to the bay that the waters became shallow. then the soft mud began to show itself when the water was low. at last the water was replaced by dry land, which appeared much like the lowlands which we had made along the river. now you who think we muddy rivulets do only harm see what we have accomplished. we have built a great delta of the richest land that extends away on every hand as level as a floor and almost as far as you can see. the soil of the delta is hundreds of feet deep and the richest to be found on the whole earth. it is on such river deltas that the first civilized men made their homes, and became rich and powerful. now i have told you what nature has appointed the muddy rivulets to do. is not the good that we do far greater than the harm? when we do harm it is because people have not learned how, or have not tried, to obey nature's laws. if we make people poor, it is their own fault. we still find much to do upon the earth. nature is still making mountains which we have to tear down. we are still building deltas which will sometime be inhabited by rich and prosperous people. we do not willingly spoil the lands of the farmers on the hills and make them labor hard for a living. in those happy lands where people understand nature we rivulets have a different kind of work to do. we become pure and clear. we furnish a home for the fish, drink for the thirsty flocks, and a never-failing power to turn the mill wheels. our waters are of service to every living thing. chapter seven how far will nature restore her wasted gifts? the natural wealth of our country is its soil, water, forests, minerals, animal and bird life, and, finally, its climate and scenery. of all these, _climate_ and _scenery_ are the only ones which we can use and enjoy as much as we like without any danger of their ever failing us. the sun will shine through the blue sky, the winds will blow, and the storms will come just the same, no matter what we may do. did you ever think how long a time it has taken to make the wonderful world in which we live, and place upon it the mountains and valleys, lakes and oceans? did you ever think how long a time it has taken to make the rocks and store away in them gold, silver, copper, and iron? did you ever think how long a time it has taken to cover the rocks with soil, and spread over the surface the flowers and trees and to stock it with uncounted numbers of animals and birds? nature usually works very slowly, but she never rests. the earth and all things on its surface, have always been changing, but changing so slowly that we do not ordinarily notice what is going on. when there is an earthquake, or a slide of rock on a mountain side, or an eruption of a volcano, we are astonished and often terrified. stories that have come down to us from the distant past tell us that the earth looked then much the same as it does now. if we could look away back to a time long before the first men lived, when even the animals and plants were different from those around us, we should discover that the surface of the earth was quite different from that of today. we should then see mountains and hills where now we find valleys, and dry land where now lies the blue ocean. nature has been such a long time making the beautiful world in which we live, that we ought to treat it with great consideration. it is also a wise thing for us to be heedful of her requests, for, if we will work with her, the earth with all its treasures will be at our command. shall we not now seek to learn which of the natural resources of our land will never be replaced if we squander them? let us also learn which may be made good again by nature, if we are willing to wait long enough, as well as to assist her in her slow work. each year the growing plants take certain substances from the soil. it is necessary for us to put back like substances if we would keep up the fertility of the soil. if we are neglectful of this law, or allow water to wash the soil away until only the bare rocks remain, poverty will be our lot for many years. nature will, however, if we give her a chance, renew the soil. the rocks will crumble and, by and by, seeds will sprout and tiny plants obtain a foothold. but it may take a whole lifetime, or hundreds of years, even, for a new and fertile soil to come again. during the early years of placer mining in california thousands of acres of rich lands in the foothills were destroyed. only boulders were left. now fifty years have passed and a new soil is being formed, but it will be a long time yet before it will be as good as it was in the first place. upon the western prairies only grain has been raised for so many years that in many places the soil will scarcely grow a crop worth gathering. many farmers have never thought of this, but the wise ones understand that they must frequently add plant food to the soil to replace that taken by crops. they understand also that it is a good thing to change the crops grown upon any particular field from year to year, since different plants take different substances from the soil. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the miner in his search for gold ruins the beautiful valley, leaving it a mass of boulders.] water goes through a ceaseless round. it rises from the sea and lakes to form the clouds, falls as rain or snow, and then flows back down the slopes to the sea. although we have learned that we cannot change the quantity of rain that falls in any place, we can influence the way in which it runs back to the sea. this in turn affects the lives of people. we can store water in reservoirs, and by building canals have it to use on the land during the summer. we can also keep it from flowing back to the sea as rapidly as it otherwise would, by leaving uninjured the covering of vegetation which has been spread over the mountain slopes. the water will run from bare rocks and bare soil much more quickly than it will from soil that is covered with leaf mold and held by plant roots. do you not see, then, that we have almost as much control over water and its distribution as though we could increase or decrease the rainfall? what about the forests? if we cut them down, will they ever come back? all through the eastern part of our country and in the mountains of the west are lands once forested which have been cleared and turned into farms. many of these farms, when abandoned, have in a few years been covered with a growth of young trees. the scattering trees that had been left in the vicinity of the clearings furnished the seed. the winds and the birds carried the seed to the open fields and so the forests began again. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ but nature, after a lapse of fifty years, has spread a new carpet of soil over the valley.] it will be hundreds of years before the trees are as large and valuable as those of the first forest. the "big trees" of the sierra nevada mountains are found nowhere else in the world, for they are the last of their race. some of these trees are more than 4000 years old. they stood here when our forefathers were still savages and lived in trees or caves. much of the region where these trees are found has now been reserved as a park. if the lumberman had been allowed to get at them, they would have soon been gone forever. [illustration: _george j. young_ uncle sam has preserved both forests and water power.] it is far more difficult to destroy completely most of the species of forest trees than it is to destroy the species of animals and birds. we can cut down the trees and in some cases they will grow again from sprouts. many will hide away in remote places and furnish seed for new forests. the animals as well as the plants have had a long history. they have had a harder struggle than the plants, because many of them prey upon one another. we often dig up the skeletons of strange animals unlike any now living. these must have all been killed long ago. each species or kind of animal now living must have come off victorious in the struggle with its enemies. does it not seem a heartless thing for us, who call ourselves civilized, to destroy so completely any species of animal or plant that not one of its kind remains alive? no species which we destroy will ever come back again, and its place will always remain empty. there are a few predatory animals and birds that destroy vast numbers of useful ones. we should keep these in check by every means in our power, but for our thoughtless destruction of the valuable ones the world will always be poorer. what of the mineral treasures hidden away in the earth? will these be replaced when once they have all been used up? it took nature a very long time to make coal out of the vegetation which had gathered in some ancient swamp. it took her fully as long to make the oil and gas from the bodies of the little organisms that once lived in the sea. the bodies of the little creatures from which oil is made are still gathering upon the bottom of the sea, and there are many swamps where we find vegetation and peat accumulating. but it is a long story from these substances to oil and coal. i am afraid we should get tired of waiting for nature to make a new supply. gold, silver, copper, and other minerals, so useful to us, are found in very small quantities scattered throughout most of the solid rocks of the earth. it would be impossible for us to obtain these from rocks, because there is so little in any one place. but nature has collected a part of them in veins in the rocks. we sink shafts upon these veins and mine the ores. it will be a long time before we shall have mined all there is of these minerals. because they are so hard to get we are not likely to waste them. but it is quite certain that there is a limit to the supply of mineral treasures, and equally certain that they can be renewed either very, very slowly, or not at all. shall we cause our remote descendants to suffer for our carelessness? chapter eight the soil--the most important gift of nature an ancient story tells us that men were made from the dust of the earth. this dust under our feet, which soils our shoes, this dust which the wind sometimes sweeps along in blinding clouds, is indeed precious. the delicate tissues of our bodies are made from the food we eat. if it be plant food, it comes directly from the soil. if it be meat or eggs or milk, it comes from animals which live upon the plants, that in turn got their nourishment from the soil. this soft, dark substance which covers the rocky skeleton of the earth we call the _soil_. how common and cheap it looks when it is placed by the side of a piece of gold! but how much more wonderful it would seem if we could know all about it. the soil is far more necessary to our comfort and prosperity than gold. gold, silver, or precious stones cannot keep us alive. they are of little worth to us compared with food and clothing. the soil, then, is the real wealth of the world. the farmer, who tills the soil, is the one worker we could not possibly do without. all the wealth of the world, all the comforts which we have, all the luxuries brought from far corners of the earth, come in the first place from the soil. we do not have to journey far over the earth to learn that there are many lands where the fields are not fruitful, and yet such lands are often rich and prosperous. how can this be if the soil is so necessary? let us go to new england and ask the people living there if they can tell us why rich people sometimes inhabit lands which do not raise enough for them to eat. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ these jagged rocks are formed of once molten lava. by and by they will crumble and be covered with a layer of soil.] much of new england is hilly and has a poor, rocky soil. the farmers who first settled there toiled hard, working early and late, and yet got few of the comforts of life. most of the farmers did not know how to improve the soil or even to keep it in as good condition as it was when they first cleared away the forests and began cultivating it; so many left their farms to seek a living elsewhere. there are now many abandoned farms that are growing up to forests again. in spite of this poor land, the new england states form one of the most wealthy and prosperous parts of our country. there are many great cities containing hundreds of thousands of people in this territory. the inhabitants enjoy luxuries of every kind sent from all parts of the world. the farmers of new england certainly do not produce this wealth from their rocky soil. where, then, does it come from? industries of almost every sort except farming are carried on in the cities of new england. all these people have to be fed and the farms of this region would hardly support them even if the soil were very productive. so much food is needed every day that if the supply were cut off for only a short time, there would be great suffering. somewhere there must be farmers at work raising food supplies for the people of the great cities. the many beautiful and wonderful things made by the workers in the cities must be exchanged with the farmers for the real necessities of life. somewhere there must be vast fertile fields which produce much more than their owners require. we will journey westward to the prairies of the mississippi valley. here for hundreds of miles we can see hardly anything but fields of waving wheat and corn. here are hundreds of granaries and flour mills. upon the rivers and lakes there are many boats, and upon the land railroads, all carrying flour and other farm products to feed the people of new england. here are great stock ranches with thousands of cattle and hogs, which, when fattened upon the grain, are also shipped to new england to help feed the people there. [illustration: a field of wheat on one of the western prairies.] we must conclude, then, that if it were not for the vast fields with their deep, rich soil, where the farmers are able to grow much more than they need for themselves, it would not be possible for the people of new england to become wealthy by working at other things than farming. the articles which they are making add to their own comfort and pleasure as well as to that of the farmers, but they have to have the products of the soil to keep alive. if the farmers of the mississippi valley and of all the other valleys that help support the city people are careful of their soil and keep up its fertility, our country will remain prosperous. but we are sorry to say that the farmers have not always been careful. many have wanted to make more than they should from their lands. the plant food with which nature has filled the soil has been taken away year after year faster than she has been able to renew it. many fields do not produce the crops they once did. the smaller the yield becomes, the higher the prices the produce brings. this makes it more difficult for the workers in the cities to live comfortably. the less abundant the supply of food becomes, the less prosperous is the country. there are countries, such as england, that have neglected agriculture but have, in spite of this, become rich and powerful through devoting their time to manufacturing articles to sell to other people. but those who work in the factories of england have to be fed, and so they must depend upon other countries to supply much of their food. if, for any reason, they were cut off from trade with these countries, not only would their manufacturing be ruined, but they would be in danger of starvation. to the first men, who lived entirely upon hunting and fishing, the soil was of little consequence. now things are different. the wild game has mostly gone and we have to depend upon the products of the soil. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ at the top of the bank we see a layer of dark, rich soil.] the people of those lands where the climate is unfavorable and the soil poor and rocky lack most of the comforts of life, unless they are able to obtain them through trade. it does not follow, however, that people living in lands favored by nature are always happy and prosperous. you must remember that when the first men increased in numbers over the earth, the soil was fresh from the hand of nature. although they had everything about them that could be asked for, yet they were poor. there are men living today on the rich deltas that we have learned about who have few of the comforts that we have. this is because they are lazy and ignorant, and do not make proper use of this valuable gift, the rich soil. we conclude, then, that the soil forms the real wealth of the world. all our comforts and luxuries come in the first place, as we have seen, from the soil. the more crowded people become upon the earth, and the greater the number that engage in manufacturing and trade, the more important becomes the care and cultivation of the soil. if we do not take the best of care of the soil, there may come a time when there will not be food enough for us all. chapter nine things of which soil is made let us take a spadeful of soft, dark earth from the garden and see if we can find of what it is made. we will first put the earth in a dish of water and stir it thoroughly. we notice that the water at once becomes muddy and that little particles of a dark substance rise to the surface. these particles appear to be pieces of stems and leaves. this crumbling vegetation is _peat_, a substance which fills many swamps and, when cut into blocks and dried, is used for fuel. when scattered through the earth peat has a very different use. as the leaves and stems of plants die and slowly mingle with the earth, they give it the dark color, which usually extends down for two or three feet. as this vegetation changes, or decays, as we usually say, it furnishes a number of substances which supply food to the roots of growing plants. one of the most important of these is _nitrogen_, an invisible gas. the decaying vegetation which we find mixed with the soil has other uses. it holds water and so helps to keep the soil moist. it makes the soil loose and more easy to cultivate. it absorbs heat from the sun and so helps to warm the soil. this vegetable matter, when it is completely decayed, we call _humus_. soils that are rich in humus are usually very fertile. we will now turn the muddy water into another dish, pour more clear water upon the material that remains in the bottom of the dish, and wash it again, repeating the work until the water is no longer muddied. we will set aside the dish containing the muddy water and examine what remains in the bottom of the dish that once contained the earth or soil. this is mostly sand, but with it are rough fragments of rock which can be crumbled in the hand. the greater number of the little sand grains are _quartz_. some of them are clear like glass, others are reddish. in this quartz sand are a few grains of _iron_ which the magnet picks out, and a number of scales of yellow _mica_. after standing a few hours the muddy water has become clear, and a deposit of a yellowish substance has collected in the bottom of the dish. we will carefully pour off the water and examine what remains. this fine soft mud we call _clay_. as it dries and becomes hard it shrinks and cracks, and thus breaks up into little pieces. clay forms a greater or lesser part of all soil. clay soil is very sticky when it is wet, as you will be sure to remember if you have tried to walk over it. when soil is formed largely of clay we speak of it as a _heavy soil_. in the west it is called _adobe_ and is sometimes used in making houses. when adobe soil dries, great cracks form in it. these cracks are sometimes large enough for small animals to fall into. when there is a large amount of sand, we speak of the soil as _light_ or _sandy_. a soil composed of sand and clay is sometimes called _loam_. if it is nearly all clay it is a _clay loam_; if there is much sand it is a _sandy loam_. soils found in low, swampy places are sometimes formed almost wholly of decaying vegetable matter. such soils are known as _peat soils_. they are usually very fertile. we have now learned about three things that the soil contains that are bulky and easy to discover: decaying vegetation, sand, and clay. these are, however, far from being all that compose the soil. there are still many other things, some of which are invisible to the unaided eye and difficult to find. we will next take the clear water that remained after the mud settled. we will pour it into a dish, place the dish over a fire, and let the water boil slowly until it has all evaporated. there will remain in the bottom of the dish a thin white coating. moisten this with a drop of vinegar or other weak acid and it will disappear in a mass of little bubbles. such behavior teaches us that the white substance is probably a mixture of _lime_ and _soda_. besides these there are tiny particles of _potash_ and _phosphorus_, which we cannot distinguish by the means we have used. some soils contain a great deal of lime, and because they have been formed from limestone, are called _limestone soils_. plants need a little soda, but when there is much in the soil it will kill them. soils rich in soda are known as _alkali soils_. they were formed in the bottom of lakes the waters of which contained soda. salt is another harmful thing found in the soil. you can sometimes see faint whitish deposits of soda and other salts on the soil in flower pots. there is one more thing that the soil contains that we must not forget, for it is one of the most important of them all. this is a living organism so small that we cannot see it with the unaided eye. many thousands of these organisms are contained in a bit of earth such as you could take up on the point of a small knife blade. we have named them _bacteria_. plants cannot make use of most of the substances in the soil without the aid of these organisms. the bacteria live upon the materials of the soil and change them into such form that plants can digest them. soil may be supplied with all kinds of plant food in just the right amount and yet, if it is packed hard and is not watered, no living thing can take root in it and grow. plants drink their food and so we must supply water. they also require oxygen, as do other living things. for this reason we must leave the soil loose, so that the air can enter it and the roots get the oxygen which it contains. thus we learn how wonderfully the soil is made. we learn that it contains many things required by plants. in order that the plants may be thrifty, there must be enough but not too much of these different things. chapter ten how the soil is made the substances which we found in the soil teach us that it was formed from the rocks. if we could take the sand, clay, potash, soda, lime, and iron that we found in the soil and put them together as nature knows how to do, we should have rock again. but if we should take a piece of rock and crush it to a fine sand, that would not be soil, because soil cannot be made in that way. it takes nature many, many years, as the rocks slowly crumble and decay, to change the materials of which they are composed into true soil with its swarms of bacteria and its plant food. if we should dig down through the soft earth under our feet, we would at last come to solid rock. this is the rough and jagged crust of the earth on which rests the carpet of soil. in the mountains where the slopes are steep the rocks stick up through the soil. the outer parts of this solid rock are, however, always crumbling. little particles, as soon as they become loosened, either fall by their own weight or are washed away. some of the rock fragments collect upon the gentler slopes and finally turn to soil. this soil is not rich and it dries out quickly, because it is shallow. the soil in the valleys, as we have already learned from the muddy rivulet, is deep and rich. nature is slowly spreading her mantle of soil over the earth. in some parts of the earth one can travel for hundreds of miles and see no rocks. one might think that in time nature's work would be finished. but before the mountains in one place have crumbled and been washed away, she raises up new ones somewhere else so that the tearing-down work begins again. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ little by little the great rocks break in pieces and crumble finally to form soil.] let us, in imagination, sit down by the side of a rock, prepared to stay there many years, that we may learn just how nature makes the soil. it will be a long, long time before we can see any change in the rock. each bright day the sun warms the cold rock and makes it expand a very little. at night the rock grows cold and shrinks. in this way minute crevices are finally formed between the grains of the different minerals that make up the rock. when it rains, water creeps into the tiny crevices. the water carries with it a little carbonic acid which the raindrops took from the air. this substance aids in dissolving some of the rock materials. if the nights are very cold, the water in the crevices freezes and opens them a little wider, for ice, as you know, takes up a little more room than it did when it was water. plants also aid in breaking the rock. often seeds are dropped by the wind, and the rootlets of some of these seeds, when they sprout, may find a crevice large enough and deep enough for them to push their way into the rock. in these crevices they find a little food and slowly grow larger and stronger. by and by some of the roots are strong enough to push apart large pieces of rock. if the rock which we are studying is granite, we shall after a time be able to pick out the different minerals of which it is composed. we can tell the grains of quartz, because they look glassy and remain very hard. other grains, which we call _feldspar_, soften and change into clay, which makes the water muddy as it runs over the rocks. we see also little scales of yellow mica, sometimes called "fool's gold," and a few grains of iron. there are tiny quantities of other things which we shall not be able to see, for the rainwater dissolves them and carries them away. as the rock slowly crumbles to sand and clay, the bacteria begin to make their home in it. hardy plants, that are not particular about what they grow in, get a foothold, and when they die their stems and leaves decay and mix with the rock particles until at last this material begins to look like soil. it has become dark in color and rich in plant food. then, many other plants that require a good soil take root there. the rock has at last completely disappeared under the layer of soil and its carpet of vegetation. suppose, now, that we dig down and find how deep the soil is and what lies below it. when we have gone down two feet the soil is harder and of a lighter color, for there are fewer plant remains in it. this poorer, lighter-colored soil we call _subsoil_. if we dig a little deeper, we shall find pieces of rock in the subsoil. below these we come to soft, crumbling rock and last of all the solid rock. the soil that is found resting on the rocks from which it was formed is known as _residual soil_. this name is given to such soil, because it is what remains after long years of rock decay during which the rains have washed away a part of the finer material. what has become of the soft earth that the water washed away? the muddy rivulet has already told us its interesting story. we have learned that a part of this earth (or soil) is borne to the distant ocean. there it is forever lost unless the sea bottom should some day become dry land. stranger things than that have happened on this ancient earth of ours. the part of the soil which the water carried away to form the rich valley lands and deltas is known as _alluvial soil_. [illustration: _u. s. department of agriculture_ a flood plain, where alluvial soil has been deposited by the river.] long ago the northern part of our country was covered with a sheet of ice. this ice crept slowly southward, and as it moved along it tore off all the soil and loose rocks on the surface of the earth over which it passed. when it melted it left them spread roughly over the country. such material forms _glacial soil_. it is often deep but not very rich. [illustration: _u. s. geological survey_ soil brought by a glacier and deposited as the ice melted.] there is another kind of soil, formed by the wind. if you have ever been in a dust storm you have seen the fine, powdery substance that settles over everything and creeps into the smallest cracks. in some countries where there are strong winds and not much rain there is little vegetation on the surface to hold the soil. year after year the winds pick up particles of the dusty soil, whirl them high in the air, and do not let them down again until they have been carried many miles. in some far-off land where the winds go down the dust particles settle again to the earth. after a long, long time, enough dust collects to form a thick layer of the richest soil. this is called æolian soil, from the word _æolus_, meaning the "wind." there is one more kind of soil which we ought to know about; that is _peat soil_. it is found in marshy or swampy lowlands and is formed largely of plant remains. when lands with such soil are drained, they prove very rich. chapter eleven how vegetation holds the soil [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ what the rivulets did to the hillside pastures where the grass was destroyed.] a walk up the mountains on a rainy day is not a pleasant one. there are mud and water under our feet, and overhead are the dripping branches which, if touched, send down a shower of drops. but if we keep our eyes open we shall learn something which will be of great value to us. we shall learn how it is that nature holds the soil on the slopes--the wonderful soil which it takes her so long a time to make and which is the source of all our wealth. our way up the mountains is by a winding road. we first pass the foothills upon which there are scattered oaks. the rain is steadily pouring down and rivulets loaded with mud are eating little gullies all over the slopes. along the roadside, where they have united, the rivulets form a torrent which is making a deep ditch that threatens to render the road impassable. these slopes were once covered with grass and the rivulets ran down them without doing any harm. but so many sheep were pastured here that the grass was killed. the roots, which once formed a thick protecting sod, are now decaying. how quickly the rivulets have taken advantage of the unprotected slopes! the road leads still upward until it brings us to where there were once pine forests. the lumbermen cut off all the trees, and then fire came and burned the decaying vegetation which once lay spread over the ground. now all that remains is bare earth and blackened stumps. what are the raindrops doing here? they gather in rivulets just as they do on the once grassy hillside; but because there are so many roots still remaining in the ground they have not done much work. they are not loitering, however, and by and by, when the roots have rotted, they will seize their chance and begin tearing away the soil from the mountain side. but this is not the end of the road. farther up we come to the primeval forests, where the giant trees stand just as they did before men came. here we can see how the slopes are protected, for in making the road the workmen cut deep into the hillside. they first removed a layer of pine needles and decaying branches. then they cut through a layer of soil about two feet thick which was completely filled with little roots of trees and bushes. below this they came to the soft subsoil, which contained only a few roots, and at the bottom they reached the solid rock. the layer of roots and soil at the top of the bank, you can see from the picture, now overhangs the road, because the raindrops which beat against the bank have washed away all that they could reach of the unprotected earth at the bottom. how plainly we can see the network of roots. what a hard task it must be for the water to get at the soil in which these roots are growing. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the layer of roots holds the soil on the mountain side.] we will now leave the road and, although it is still raining hard, we will walk a distance through the forest and see if there is anything more that we can learn. we are soon in the deep woods where, perhaps, no one has ever been before. around us are trees of all ages and sizes, from little seedlings to great giants six feet through. among them are the crumbling stumps of trees long dead. their trunks lie on the ground, and many are so soft and rotten that we can kick them to pieces with our feet. as we walk our feet never touch the real earth. it is always on the soft, yielding leaves and crumbling branches that we step. these leaves and branches form a thick layer completely hiding the soil. but the strangest thing is that, although the rain is still falling, we can discover no rivulets. what, then, becomes of the water? the soft, decaying vegetation on which we are walking and the rotting stumps and logs act like a great sponge. as long as this sponge can take up the falling drops, none have a chance to run away. if it rains a very long time and the sponge becomes saturated, the drops that creep away and finally unite in rivulets in the hollows do no harm to the soil, for they cannot get at it. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the roots of the tree grip the soil like the fingers of a great hand.] long after the storm has passed, the earth underneath the trees remains wet, while the ground out in the open has become dry. a part of the water held by the decaying vegetation evaporates. another part creeps down through the earth to the crevices in the rocks and feeds the springs. let us now put aside our storm clothes and journey, in imagination, far away to where it seldom rains--to that land which we call the desert. here the bare rocks of the mountain slopes are burned brown by the hot sun. here there is little soil and only a few little bushes that somehow manage to live. why does not the soil gather over the rocks as it does in other places? the rocks are surely crumbling, for we can crush some of the pieces in our hands. once in a long time it rains in this desert. then the drops descend furiously. the water gathers in rivulets and these turn to torrents which sweep down the slopes. they carry away the particles of sand and clay which would in time, if there were plant roots to hold them, turn to soil. the winds also help keep the desert rocks bare and free of soil. have you ever been in a dust storm or have you read of caravans caught in such storms in the sahara desert? the fierce wind picks up the particles of sand and clay from the bare earth and sweeps them along as it does the snow in winter, or it whirls them in clouds high in the air. the dust clouds are often so dense that they hide the sun and all landmarks by which the traveler can guide his way. but have any of us ever seen the winds pick up much dust from the green fields where the vegetation protects the surface? [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the vegetation prevents the wind from blowing the sand away, so that wherever the roots obtain a hold there a little mound is formed.] if we turn now to a very wet country, such as that upon our northwest coast, where often nearly eight feet of rain falls in a year, we shall find the vegetation so dense that it hides both soil and rocks. here water can do little in wearing away the soil, even upon the steepest slopes, while the wind cannot get a peep at the earth. does it not seem strange that where little rain falls the earth washes a great deal faster than where it rains very heavily? the reason is that the more it rains the more dense becomes the carpet of vegetation. if we wish to preserve the soil, we must preserve the natural growth on the hillsides. chapter twelve what happens where there is no protecting carpet of vegetation not all of the muddy streams are due to the carelessness of men. it is the business of some of the servants of nature, as we have already learned, to tear down the mountains and fill up the hollows in the earth. it is the business of others to spread a carpet of vegetation over the surface, and wherever they have already succeeded in their work the waters run clear most of the time. where it is dry so much of the time that few plants can live, the destructive servants have their own way when the occasional rains come. where there is a warm sun and frequent rains, a green carpet is spread over all the slopes. but when men destroy the carpet and take no care of the soil underneath, the raindrops are able to do as much damage as they do during the cloudbursts in the deserts. the colorado is one of those rivers in the basin of which few people live. much of its journey is through a land in which there is little vegetation. here, the waters from the melting snows upon the lofty mountains about the basin and those of the occasional heavy rains have things their own way. they are always yellow with mud. the amount of mud which this river carries has been measured. you will hardly believe me when i tell you that it amounts to sixty-one million tons every year. this is enough to cover 164 square miles one foot deep. we might call this the cream of the soil from all the slopes of the great basin of the colorado river. in other parts of our land, where abundant rains fall, the streams tell a different story. before men came the water of these streams was clear throughout the greater part of the year. it was only when the rains were very heavy that the soil washed away, for the vegetation held it well. now the gullies on the hillsides and along the roads tell us as plainly as though they could speak that our country is losing wealth here. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the roots of the tree form a wonderful network underground from which the water cannot tear the soil.] the soil is our most valuable possession. the people of many lands are suffering from poverty today because their forefathers did not take care of the soil as they should. in such lands the people who live on the mountain sides are poor, because the best of their soil has been washed away. those who live in the valleys are often poor because of the sands and gravels which floods have spread over their fertile fields. while it is raining, let us fill a bottle from some muddy stream and allow it to stand until the water settles. in the bottom will then appear a layer of fine mud, or _silt_ as it is usually called. how much soil do you suppose the rivulets washed from my garden and from yours during the last severe storm? how much do you suppose all the rivulets which make up the rivers of your state washed from all the gardens and fields during the same storm? make a guess and then multiply your answer by the number of storms in one year and that by fifty years, and you will get a quantity greater than you would believe possible. this is the way nature takes her toll for our carelessness. so quietly does she do it that often the farmer does not have any idea of what is happening. she is like a thief that comes and steals his goods while he is sleeping. [illustration: _bailey willis_ the soil on the hillsides of china is being washed away because of the thoughtlessness of the people.] when the farmer finally awakes and begins to wonder why his crops grow smaller each year, he has already lost the cream of his soil. he must at once stop plowing the steep hillsides and leaving the ground bare for the winter rains to wash it away. to save the slopes he can either terrace them or he can sow grass or clover, which will form a sod and hold the soil. if the farmer can get peas, beans, alfalfa, or clover to grow upon his wasted lands, they will make it fertile again, for these plants have the wonderful power of taking nitrogen from the air and storing it in the soil. [illustration: _american forestry association_ the farmer who owns this land will soon be made poor because of his carelessness in destroying the covering of the soil.] more earth has been washed from the hillsides of our country during the last fifty years than during thousands of years before white people came. the farm lands have been injured, the bays have been made shallower, and many river channels have been so filled up that it is more difficult to navigate them now than it was in the early days. the farmer, the stockman, the lumberman, and the miner has each been selfishly doing his share in the destruction of the soil. each one has thought only of how he could make the most money in the shortest time. it has not occurred to them that they are making it difficult for their children and grandchildren to live. in the southern states thousands of acres are being gullied by the rains, and the soil destroyed. the floods of spring have become worse in late years, because of the destruction of the forest cover in the appalachian mountains. buildings and bridges are frequently carried away, and gravel and boulders are washed over the rich bottom lands. in the mountains of far-away italy the soil is poor, and so are the people. they have cut down nearly all the trees and for hundreds of years the brush and grass have been eaten so closely by the sheep and goats that few roots remain to hold the soil. it does not need to rain heavily there to cause the rivers to become muddy and swollen. the soil which once covered the slopes has been carried to the bays, and now there is land where ships floated two thousand years ago. [illustration: _u. s. forest service_ terraces of rock built by natives of china to aid in holding the soil.] in spain so much of the best soil has been lost that the people now do not raise enough food to support themselves, and much has to be imported from other lands. france is a rich country still, in spite of the cutting of so much of the forest and the careless pasturing of the mountain slopes. the people are industrious and hard working and thus make a living in spite of the loss which they are suffering. the montenegrins are among the bravest people of europe, but their land is barren and they enjoy few luxuries. their country consists largely of limestone mountains, from which they have been cutting the trees for hundreds of years. there is but little soil and that is to be found in the hollows of the rocks. this soil is so precious that every bit, be it ever so small, is carefully cultivated. in the mountains of palestine and syria the people have so completely destroyed the trees and grasses which nature once planted there that it is difficult for them to raise enough to live upon. the rivers are muddy after every rain, and even the water from the melting snows picks up some of the soil and flows away with a dirty, yellow color. when we reach china and korea, we find that there the people have been most severely punished for their carelessness. the mountain sides have been torn by the rains and deeply gullied. the once smooth slopes upon which grew trees and grasses are now a mass of sharp ridges and deep hollows of bare earth. the water falling upon these mountains runs off in torrents, carrying even large boulders as it does in our western deserts. here and there the natives have built terraces of rock to aid in holding the soil, but many parts of the country are almost wholly deserted. the waters run off the mountains so quickly that they often form vast floods which spread over the lower valleys and plains. the floods destroy the crops and drown the people. eastward of china there is an arm of the pacific ocean known as the yellow sea. why do you suppose this name was given to the sea? one of the great rivers of china, the yangste-kiang, empties into it. the river rises in the barren mountains of which we have just been speaking, and it is continually bringing so much mud and sand that a whole sea is being filled. long before a ship comes within sight of the land the waters are seen to be of a muddy, yellow color. in the smaller valleys of korea the natives build dikes along the rivers to keep the mountain floods from spreading sand and gravel over their rice fields. every year they have to make the dikes higher as the river beds fill up. thus we see that all over the world people are suffering because they have not obeyed the laws which nature has made for the protection of the soil. chapter thirteen the use and care of water the ocean is the home of the water. the water would always remain in the ocean if it could, but the sun and air are continually at work stealing little particles away and sending them on long journeys. the water particles are so small as they rise from the ocean that we cannot see them. by and by they crowd together and make the clouds that float across the sky. as soon as the clouds meet colder air, the little water particles rush together and thus become larger and larger until they grow so heavy that they can no longer float in the air, but must fall. some of them fall into the ocean again, but others drop upon the land. the raindrops that reach the land have many sorts of stories to tell before they again get back to the ocean. some of them are at once snatched up again and are started upon another journey. the thirsty air, whether over the ocean or over the land, is ever in search of water particles. if the air is very cold, the clouds turn to snow instead of rain. the feathery flakes fall slowly through the air and form a soft white mantle over the earth. those that fall on lofty mountains form great banks which may not entirely melt and turn to water until late in the summer. the raindrops that fall where the slopes are steep, where nature has grown little vegetation, or where men have destroyed the earth cover, have little to detain them and are soon on their way back to their home. in their hasty journey they do much damage to the unprotected soil. if the drops fall upon gentle slopes, or where there are marshes and lakes, or upon the forest with its decaying vegetation, or upon deep beds of gravel and sand, they are a long time getting back to the ocean. [illustration: _george j. young_ the cool and shady stream before men came and cut the trees away so that the hot sun could get at it.] we can in no way change the amount of rain that falls upon any part of the earth. we cannot call up a storm when we wish it, nor can we send it away when there has been rain enough. but there are many ways in which we can hasten or delay the return of the water to the ocean. nature shows us some of these. the spongelike carpet underneath the forest holds the water until it has had time to soak into the earth from which it later emerges as springs. nature forms basins on the heads of the rivers where a part of the water, instead of immediately flowing away, collects in the form of lakes. from these lakes the water runs away slowly instead of in torrential floods. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the rotting tree trunks take up the rainwater like a sponge.] only a few places in our country have more rain than is really needed. one of these is the region about the mouth of the mississippi river upon the gulf of mexico. another is upon the northwest coast. throughout the central part of the country the summer rains are sometimes too light to afford a full harvest. the rainfall upon the plains and valleys of the southwest is so small that the only plants that can live there are those strange and curious forms that have become used to desert conditions. the only way in which these lands can be made useful to the farmer is by means of irrigation. to obtain water for irrigation we have either to go to the distant mountains and build reservoirs to collect the rains which fall there and then dig canals to carry the water to the desert valleys, or to make use of some river flowing through them, if they are fortunate enough to have such a river. can you think of any rivers that are used in this way? [illustration: _brown brothers_ the great roosevelt dam, in the salt river irrigation project, arizona.] although water sometimes seems the greatest blessing that we have, yet it may prove a curse if it is not looked after. if you give the water a chance to make gullies in your fields, you lose not only the water but the best of the soil also. if you cultivate your fields with care, most of the water will soak into the ground. if you are a wise farmer you know also that cultivation of the soil helps to hold the water, for it cannot escape through loose soil as it can through compact soil. thus if you know how to handle both the water and the soil, you can, with only a little rain, accomplish a great deal. [illustration: scene below an irrigation reservoir near richfield, idaho, showing a field irrigated by means of canals and ditches.] we can, then, hold or _conserve_ the water, first, by leaving the steeper slopes covered with vegetation; second, by keeping the soil loose; and, third, by building reservoirs to hold the floods. we can make use of the conserved water by carrying it in pipes or ditches to those regions where it is needed. we can get rid of too much water by draining the swamps, and building dikes to protect lowlands from river floods. let us now learn something of the different uses of water. every one of our homes has its water supply. in the city the water comes through pipes from some distant reservoir. in the country the homes are so far apart that it is difficult to supply them in this way. the water in the streams is often not suitable for drinking, and if there are no springs near by it has to be obtained by some other means. nearly everywhere in the earth under our feet water can be found by digging or boring a well. sometimes we have to go only a few feet, at other times many hundreds of feet. this water in the earth, or _ground water_, is of very great importance. it enables us to build our homes where we wish. spring water is that which finds its way to the surface through some tiny crack or fissure in the rocks. how delicious is the pure, cold water that comes out of the shady hollow in the hills! you can form in your minds a picture of the rain falling on some distant mountain, of its soaking into the ground and finally reaching the little crevices in the rocks. along these crevices it may have crept for days and perhaps years until at last it found an outlet in some spring. the great river flows by so quietly that we often forget in how many ways it is serving us. it serves not only those upon its banks but those who live hundreds of miles away and who, perhaps, have never seen it. it was the first and easiest means of travel used by our forefathers before there were any roads or railroads through the wilderness. it now aids in carrying on trade between different regions. if large and deep enough, it permits boats from all parts of the world to reach the very heart of our country. canals might be called artificial rivers. they serve an important purpose in nearly level countries where nature has placed no navigable river. although canal boats usually move slowly, yet they can carry goods cheaper than railroads can. the erie canal, in connection with the great lakes and the hudson river, makes it possible for us to go all the way by water from the heart of the continent to new york city. the erie canal has helped make new york city the greatest city in our country. the canal across the isthmus of panama saves ships a journey of many thousand miles around south america. rivers serve us in yet another way by affording water for irrigation. a great river like the colorado flows through regions of many different climates. some rivers become so small in the summer that it is necessary to build great reservoirs at their headwaters in order to insure a supply when the crops need it. but in the case of the colorado this is not necessary. the headwaters of this river are among lofty mountains, where the melting snows and summer showers make the waters of the river higher in the early summer than at any other season of the year. thus its great delta, the colorado desert, has become the home of many thousands of people. another use which we make of rivers is by putting the water to turning mill wheels. if you will turn to your geographies, you will find that nearly all the great manufacturing cities of our country have grown up around rapids or waterfalls, where some river tumbles over a ledge of rocks. once we had to build our mills close to the rivers to use the water power, but this is no longer necessary. now we build electric-power plants by the rivers and carry electric energy more than a hundred miles to any place where we wish to use it. electricity made from the distant mountain waterfall will do any kind of work for us wherever we carry it. thus we see that the river works for us in more than one way. after it has created power for our factories, it can be turned on to the thirsty fields, where it will serve us equally well. [illustration: _great western power company of california_ electric-power plant on north fork of the feather river, california, for generating electricity which is carried to distant places.] chapter fourteen could we get along without the trees? we have come to depend upon trees to supply so many of our wants that we could not possibly do without them. we can no more spare the trees than nature can. she needs them in her work of protecting the soil on the steep slopes and of holding back the raindrops that they may keep the springs alive. she needs them to form nesting places for the birds, and she needs the dark forest so that the wild creatures may find shelter and a home. it would be strange if we did not love the trees; for they are not only useful, but add so much to the beauty of our homes. our early ancestors may at times have made their homes in the trees, as some of the wild people do now. they certainly lived among the trees, for the myth stories that they have given us speak of the deep, dark forests and of the mysterious people supposed to inhabit them. we feel pity for the people who live in treeless deserts. the few articles of wood which they possess have to be brought a long distance at great cost. the eskimos of the frozen north are more helpless than the desert people, for before the coming of explorers they had no communication with forested regions. they were not wholly without wood, however, for the ocean waves occasionally washed pieces upon their shores. from the time when the earliest man found a club a better weapon than his bare fists, wood has been used for an ever-increasing number of purposes. wood fires kept the early people warm. wood was used in making their bows and spears; bark and pieces of branches served to make their rude homes. the inner bark of the cedar and birch was used by the indians in weaving baskets and mats. from the inner bark of the birch tree they made canoes that were so light that they could be carried from one stream to another. where there were no birch trees, great cedars were cut or burned down and made into canoes, for traveling by water was much easier than over rocky ground or through dense forests. some tribes of indians learned to split the cedar logs into rude boards which they used in making their houses. the indians also learned to boil down the sweet sap of the maple until it turned to sugar. the eating of nuts and fruits furnished by certain kinds of trees came as natural to early men as it does to the other animals. they shared with the birds the wild fruits, and divided with the squirrels the many kinds of nuts. so highly do the italians still value the wild chestnut that this tree, almost alone of all the forest trees that once covered their country, has been saved. the most important uses of trees in our country are for lumber, for fuel, and for the edible fruits and nuts which they bear. there are several purposes to which logs are put without being sawed into lumber, such as for telegraph poles and for piling for the support of great buildings and for wharves. long ago nearly all our houses were made of logs. there was then an abundance of clear, straight trees but very few sawmills. it was easy to cut the logs, peel and notch them at the ends, and then lay them up in a house of just the size that was wanted. from the logs that split easily rough boards and shingles were made, as well as chairs and tables. blocks of wood were set in the openings cut for windows, because of the scarcity of glass. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ a giant sugar pine in a national forest in the sierra nevada mountains.] our forefathers had all the wood they wanted just for the cutting, and so they warmed their houses by means of fireplaces large enough to hold great logs. they made of wood every tool and household convenience for which this substance could be used. indeed, they had more wood than they wanted. trees covered so much of the land that the ground could not be cultivated until they had been cut away. now we wish that we had the oak, hickory, black walnut, and other kinds of trees, that the pioneers of our country burned in order to get them out of the way, for they have become very valuable. now, partly because wood is becoming scarce, and partly because our large buildings must be made very strong and safe from fire, we are using other materials for them. stone, brick, and concrete, when tied together with iron beams, are more suitable material for great buildings. our land now contains so many people, and so many new homes are needed every year, that the lumber required for houses alone is almost more than we can believe. the forests are now disappearing so fast that unless we use wood more carefully we may have to give up our attractive wooden homes and cheery fireplaces and live in houses of stone or concrete. in many parts of the world people have so completely destroyed the forests that they have not only to make their homes of mud bricks or stone, but have little wood left for fuel and other purposes. we cannot mention all the purposes to which wood is put in our homes and in our industries. it would take a whole page in this book merely to make a list of them. what we ought to remember, however, is that it is not so much the amount of wood that we actually _use_ as it is the wood that is _wasted_ that is likely to bring us to want. two thirds of the wood of the trees cut throughout our country is wasted in its manufacture into lumber and other objects. besides this, as much wood is burned every year in needless forest fires as is cut by the lumberman. the waste of trees that are cut merely for their bark which is used in tanning leather is a wrong for which nature will sometime call us to account. in switzerland, where the forests are given the care that we bestow upon a garden, not a particle of wood is allowed to go to waste. the branches are all picked up and saved. even the sawdust is made use of in the manufacture of wood alcohol, which has an important use as fuel. there are many kinds of trees the sap of which has great value. if care is used in tapping the trees, they are not greatly injured and will live for years. sap of the maple affords delicious maple sugar. the sticky sap of the coniferous trees is obtained by making a cut in the bark. canada balsam, thus obtained, is a clear liquid from a fir tree of the same name. it is the finest of all the turpentines and is used for many purposes in the arts. enormous quantities of turpentine are obtained from the yellow pines. the pine forests of the southern states supply nearly all our turpentine. from this by a process of distillation is obtained resin and spirits of turpentine. the rubber tree found in the tropical forests has become one of the most necessary of trees. rubber made from the sap of this tree is now used for many purposes for which we have been able to find no other material. we sometimes forget how valuable trees are for various substances used in medicine. our lives may depend on having such medicines within reach. quinine made from the bark of the cinchona tree is perhaps the most important. camphor gum is furnished by another tropical tree. the acacia supplies gum arabic. the poison, strychna, comes from a nut tree. the eucalyptus, birch, and other trees too numerous to name, supply various other medicinal products. [illustration: _arthur d. little, inc., "the little journal"_ when this beautiful long-leaf pine tree is cut we manage to save only about one third of it. from the wasted two thirds of this and other pine trees we could obtain many thousand tons of paper, great quantities of resin, and other products.] while we are trying to find other substances to replace wood as far as is possible, so as to keep the forests from being used up, we are requiring more and more for the manufacture of paper. the spruce forests are fast disappearing in pulp mills, from which the blocks of wood emerge as sheets of paper. perhaps after a time we shall find something to take the place of wood in the manufacture of paper. the one use to which we put the trees, which does not destroy or injure them in the slightest, is growing them for their fruit and nuts. we take great care of such trees, selecting the best varieties and cultivating, trimming, and spraying them in order to keep them healthy and strong. the better the care that we give them, the finer and larger become their fruits. trees are valuable to us in so many ways and appeal so deeply to our love of the beautiful things in nature that we should all be interested in them. if we give the trees a chance, they will do their share toward making our lives comfortable and happy. chapter fifteen where has nature spread the forest? our forefathers who came across the water to america found forests stretching away from the water's edge into an unknown wilderness. the settlements spread very slowly into the pathless woods, for there lurked danger from the indians and wild animals. the allegheny mountains also held the settlers back for a long time. the pioneers found the country, as far as the ohio river and beyond, still forest covered; but by and by openings or _prairies_ began to appear. by the time they had crossed the great river the forests had been left behind, except for fringes of trees upon the lowlands along the streams. from this point westward the open prairies stretched away to the horizon. antelope, deer, and buffalo were often seen feeding on the rich grasses. the adventurous pioneers pushed on across the fertile prairies, coming at last to a drier and higher region which we have called the _great plains_. on these plains the rocky mountains came in sight. these mountains gradually became higher as the travelers approached, until they rose before them like a mighty wall. here they again met vast forests, which covered all the higher slopes. beyond the rocky mountains they crossed a broad land of deserts where little rain fell. the vegetation was so scanty and springs so far apart that many of their horses and cattle died. the dreary and barren deserts were followed by another lofty range of mountains. entering these mountains, the pioneers came upon the most magnificent forest that had yet been seen upon our continent. after traveling for some days over rugged mountains, they at last emerged from the forests upon the great valley of california. [illustration: a forest of great trees in the sierras, near the yosemite valley.] scattered over portions of the valley were oak trees, giving it the appearance of a park. when the valley had been passed the pioneers climbed the last mountain range, and from this range looked down upon the waters of the pacific ocean. here they found forests again, some of the trees being of enormous size. thus we see that the eastern part of the continent was nearly all forested, but that in the west the forests grew chiefly on the mountains, because there is not enough rainfall upon the plains and in the valleys. the trees that make up most of the forests of our country are of two very different kinds. there is one kind that has narrow or needle-like leaves which they keep through the winter. these we commonly call _narrow-leaved_ trees or _conifers_. the most important of the narrow-leaved trees are the pines, firs, spruces, and hemlock. such trees form the forests of the greater part of the highlands of the northern and northeastern parts of our country. the pines also find a congenial home upon the lowlands of the southern states. trees of the second kind have broad leaves, and usually their wood is rather hard. hence we call them _broad-leaved_ or _hardwood_ trees. since most of these trees drop their leaves in winter, we often speak of them as _deciduous_ trees. by far the larger part of the lands of the eastern states that are now cultivated were found by the first settlers to be covered with hardwood trees. we are familiar with many of the hardwoods through their use in furniture and various household utensils and farm implements. the most important varieties are the walnut, hickory, chestnut, beech, maple, ash, oak, elm, locust, and linden. there are not many broad-leaved trees in the forests of the west. the children of the west miss all the nut trees that the boys and girls of the east enjoy. but to make up for this lack there are some in the west that are not found in the east. the sugar pine, the piñon pine, and the digger pine afford delicious nuts which once formed an important article of food for the indians. in the west the broad-leaved trees do not form dense forests. they are scattered among the pines on the lower mountain slopes, in the valleys, and along the streams. the most important of these trees are oaks of many kinds, soft maple, alder, cottonwood, sycamore, and laurel. the dense forests of the western mountains consist almost wholly of narrow-leaved trees. among them are the pines and firs of different kinds, spruce, cedar, redwood, and "big trees." the redwoods and "big trees" are both known as sequoias; they grow to an immense size upon the mountains of california. the coniferous forests of which these trees form a part are among the most wonderful and interesting ones on the earth. if you will take a forest map of our country and place it beside a rainfall map, you will quickly discover why the forests are found where they are. you will see that the forests are found where there is more than thirty inches of rain each year, except in the far north, where it is very cold. you can say, then, that the climate is the chief thing that determines where the forests shall grow. if the climate is warm and the rainfall heavy, the forest vegetation is so dense and rank that you can hardly travel through it. such forests are found in the tropical parts of the country. where little rain falls there is scanty vegetation, as upon the deserts of the southwest. but where it is very cold, even if there is much snow or rain, you will find no trees. [illustration: _george j. young_ mountain hemlocks, which john muir considered the most beautiful of all conifers.] we must not forget that there is another thing that affects the growth of trees, and that is the soil. pines like a sandy soil, while most other trees do not. certain cedars and cypresses like swampy places where no other trees will grow. many beautiful meadows and prairies have no trees, because the soil is not well drained. it is very easy to understand why trees cannot grow where it is dry, but how shall we learn of the effect of cold upon them? shall we have to take a journey of thousands of miles into the far north, until we finally come to the land called the _barren lands_ or _tundras_, where the trees become stunted and at last disappear--a land where they cannot longer fight against the cold and live? fortunately such a long journey is not necessary. all we have to do is to climb a great mountain range, like the sierra nevadas, to pass through all the different climates which we would experience on a long journey to the arctic regions. it is only a few miles from the hot san joaquin valley, at the base of the sierras, where it is so dry that irrigation is necessary, to the summit of the range, where the winter climate is as cold as it is in the arctic regions. in going up the mountains we first come to the foothills, where there is a little more rain than in the valley. here we find oak trees growing. farther up there is still more rain and we come to the pines. soon we reach the most wonderful coniferous forest in all the world. here not only is there a great variety of trees, but because of the favorable climate they grow to a great size. as we approach the summit of the mountains the trees become smaller, and at an elevation of about two miles they shrink to the size of little bushes and finally disappear. they can no longer stand the fierce winds and cold storms of this arctic region. [illustration: _george j. young_ east vidette, king's river country, california, showing how, as we approach the summit of the mountains, the trees become smaller.] we have learned now that the trees do not grow haphazard over our country, but that the rain, the temperature, and the soil determine where they can live. within the heart of the forest the trees will come again if we cut them down, but upon its borders, where the air is drier, it is more difficult for them to spring up anew. if we cut them down carelessly and allow fires to burn over the surface, and the water to wash away the soil, they may never come back. it is important, then, that we understand why trees grow in some places and not in others, in order that we may know how to take care of them. chapter sixteen what are the enemies of the trees? every living thing is engaged in a struggle for air to breathe and for something to eat. those that make their homes on the land also have to struggle for water. the stronger rob the weaker; for, among all of them except man, might always makes right. men are learning that unselfishness is the better way, although they do not always practice it. in this struggle the animals have an advantage over the plants, for if food fails in one place they can move to another. among the animals also the mother tries to protect her children; and, in the case of some,--the wolf, for example,--a number will hunt together for the common good. it is quite different with the plants. they must grow where the seeds take root. if there is little sunlight or water or the soil is poor, they must make the best of what they have. the plants have to struggle not only with such enemies as insects, winds, fire, and browsing animals, but with each other, for every tree is the real or possible enemy of every other tree. brother seeds sprouting under the same parent maple struggle with each other for the food and moisture in the soil and for the best place in the sunlight. the one that gets the most of these will grow the faster and choke some of its weaker brothers. [illustration: _edward s. curtis_ trees that struggle with cold and storm.] in yonder grove of pines there are trees of all ages and sizes. the older ones have much the advantage and take a part of the food and sunlight that the smaller ones require. how the little ones stretch up and grow tall and slender in their attempt to get the sunlight! but in spite of all their efforts some of them must die. some kinds of trees grow faster than others. where a number are springing up together, the slow-growing ones will stand less chance of ever becoming great trees. in this way the yellow pine sometimes chokes out the cedar, and the fir gets the advantage of the sugar pine. the bright, warm sun is the enemy of the tree that loves the shady hillsides. the swamp is the enemy of the tree that must have loose, dry soil. the cold is the enemy of the tree that is used to a hot climate. is it not strange that what is good for one tree is an enemy of another? many kinds of trees have their own particular insect enemies which attack them and no others. some of these insects live upon the leaves, others eat the sapwood under the bark, while a few attack the roots. certain insects burrow in and eat the heartwood. although this does not always kill the tree, it weakens it and makes the wood unfit for use. the cedar and the hickory are among the trees injured in this manner. the foliage of the broad-leaved trees is the delight of many insects. they sometimes eat the leaves so closely that the tree is killed; for the trees breathe through their leaves and can no more do without them than they can without their roots. the gypsy moth, which did no great harm in its european home, was brought to this country and accidentally set free. it at once began to attack the leaves of the elm, that beautiful tree of the old new england villages. now it is destroying other trees and, notwithstanding the fight which we have made against it, we have not yet been able to exterminate it. [illustration: _american forestry association_ insects are destroying the trees of this forest.] the chestnut tree, which every eastern child loves for its nuts, is now being destroyed by a fungus which may kill every one of these trees in the country. the white-pine blister, also brought over from europe, is now threatening all the white pines and the related trees of our country. this disease has already such a start in the east that we may not be able to stop it. the dainty mistletoe, about which there are so many pretty christmas legends, is a deadly enemy of many trees. the seed of this fungus is carried, by the birds or by the wind, from one tree to another. when it sprouts, tiny roots go down through the bark to the sap, on which it feeds until the tree is killed. all our fruit trees have their deadly enemies which cause a loss of many millions of dollars every year. among the worst of these is the san josé scale, which was carelessly brought into the country from china. [illustration: _pillsbury's pictures, inc._ a dwarf white pine which has found a foothold in the rocks on a mountain top.] the pear blight has destroyed whole orchards of pear trees in the western states. the citrus canker is now threatening the orange orchards of the southern states. for years we have been searching over the world for new and better varieties of fruit trees. with the shipments of such trees we have brought some of the worst of the diseases that we have just mentioned. we should have all foreign trees most carefully inspected before admitting them to the country. we should also be very careful about shipping fruit or other trees from one part of our country to another. diseases are often carried in this way into places which otherwise they could not reach. field mice, gophers, and rabbits eat the bark of young fruit trees and kill those which are not carefully protected. in some parts of our country the apple and peach tree borers are a serious menace to young orchards. grasshoppers occasionally come in dense swarms and eat the leaves from every tree or plant in their path. the valuable sugar pine of the western mountains is not seeding itself as rapidly as it should, and we fear it will become extinct. the beautiful silver-gray squirrel loves the nuts of this pine, and it is said that he eats so many that few are left to sprout and make new trees. for this reason some people would like to make it lawful to kill all the gray squirrels that one wished. this would be too bad, for we do not believe the gray squirrel is the cause of the trouble. it is more likely that the lack of young sugar pines is due partly to its struggle in the forest with more rapidly growing trees and partly to the less frequent occurrence of forest fires to burn off the humus on the ground. we know that the seeds of certain trees find difficulty in sending their roots down through the humus to the soil beneath. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ an avalanche has passed through this forest.] the narrow-leaved or cone-bearing trees, which are the main source of our lumber, also have other enemies. the most destructive of these are the little pine beetles which lay their eggs in the bark of the yellow pine, sugar pine, and tamarack pine. from these eggs there hatch worms which burrow under the bark until they cut off the flow of the sap. this kills the trees. the trees that are young and strong are sometimes able to pour out enough sap into the wounds to drown the insects, but many thousands of trees in the western mountains are destroyed every year by these insects. wind and lightning are both enemies of the forests. hundreds of forest fires are set every summer by thunder storms, but the rangers usually discover such fires soon enough to put them out before they have done much harm. the pasturing of forests by stock does great injury, because of the browsing and trampling underfoot of the young trees. sheep and goats are the worst of all the animals and should be kept out of those forests where the surface particularly needs protection and where the young trees require all the encouragement that nature can give them in order to make a successful start in life. we have learned something about the many enemies of the trees, but the worst one has not yet been mentioned. can you guess what it is? this terrible enemy is man,--not savage man or indian, but civilized man. although man has more need for forest trees than has any other animal, he is at the same time more ruthless in his treatment of them. man destroys more trees every year, as a result of fires which he sets and of his wasteful methods of lumbering, than all the other enemies of the trees put together. the forest area of the world is constantly growing smaller, and we must soon learn to treat the trees with more care or they may, like many of the wild creatures, nearly disappear from parts of the earth where they are most needed. chapter seventeen how the forests are wasted o forest home in which the songbirds dwell! the squirrel and the stag shall miss the spell of thy cool depths when summer's sun assails, nor more find shelter in thy shadowed vales. * * * * * all will be silent; echo will be dead; a field will lie where shifting shadows fled across the ground. the mattock and the plow will take the place of pan and satyr now. the timid deer, the spotted fawns at play, from thy retreats will all be driven away. farewell, old forest; sacred crowns, farewell! revered in letters and in art as well; thy place becomes the scorn of every one, doomed now to burn beneath the summer sun. all cry out insults as they pass thee by, upon the men who caused thee thus to die! farewell, old oaks that once were wont to crown our deeds of valor and of great renown! o trees of jupiter, dordona's grove, how ingrate man repays thy treasure trove that first gave food that humankind might eat, and furnished shelter from the storm and heat. pierre de ronsard, translated by bristow adams; _american forestry_, xvi. 244 when our grandfathers came to america they found the country so covered with forests that they had to cut and burn the trees in order to obtain the ground on which to raise their crops. the eastern states could not have been settled without clearing the land, and we cannot blame the pioneers for doing under those circumstances that which today would be very wrong. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the farmer wastes the trees by girdling them and then allowing them to rot.] there is now enough land so that it is no longer necessary to destroy the trees in order to raise our food supplies. the forests constitute one of the great natural resources of our country and men should not be allowed to waste them for private gain. although the need for more land has long passed, the habit of reckless tree cutting still continues. there are now parts of the east where none of the primeval forest remains and very little of the second growth. firewood is expensive and many a farmer has to buy coal, who, if he and his ancestors had been careful, might have a woodlot to supply not only fuel, but lumber for his buildings. many of the lands once cleared were found not suited to farming and have been left to grow up to brush. if the farmer were wise he would replant some of these lands with such trees as spruce, hickory, walnut, or maple. although his ancestors toiled early and late to get these trees out of the way, a few acres of them now would be a fortune. there are parts of our country, particularly in the south and west, where the settlers are still cutting the trees to get them out of their way. in distant mountain valleys where there is no market for lumber, men are chopping down the great pines. they would make fine lumber, for they are tall and straight, but instead of being put to some useful end their fate is the bonfire. it makes no difference to these men that they are wasting what it has taken nature hundreds of years to produce nor that in other parts of the country timber is scarce and expensive. in germany and switzerland the forest resources are carefully looked after. as fast as the grown trees are cut from a field, young trees are planted in their places. the keeping of a certain part of the land in forest is held to be of advantage to all the people. for this reason men are not allowed to cut trees upon their own land without permission from the forest officer. many years ago, when lumbering became an important industry and the mills began to turn out immense quantities of boards and beams of every sort needed by the growing population of our new country, it was believed that the supply would never be used up. only the best and clearest logs were sawed into lumber, and a large part of each tree was left on the ground to rot or to feed the first fire that occurred. now lumber is scarce and expensive; and the poorer grades also are in much demand. have you ever seen the giant sugar pines on the slopes of the western mountains? next to the sequoias they are the largest of our american trees. a single tree has furnished lumber enough for a house. sugar pine has now become so valuable that it is used only for such purposes as window sash, doors, and similar articles. we have taken no care of these wonderful trees until recently, but have allowed them to be cut and wasted in the most reckless fashion. if you could go through the sugar-pine forests, you would find hundreds and even thousands of these mighty trees lying on the ground rotting. this is the work of the shake or shingle maker. he has been as thoughtless in his cutting of these giants which have been hundreds of years growing as is the farmer of the stalks of grain that springs up and ripens its seed in one season. the shingle maker must have material which splits well. he hunts for the straightest and cleanest trees. at most he does not use over fifty feet of the trunk, and if the tree does not split to suit him, then all, or nearly all, of the tree is left to rot. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ in turning this giant sequoia into lumber more than half the tree is wasted.] the waste of the lumberman is not so great, but it is enough to open our eyes to one of the reasons for the rapid disappearance of our forests. on the average only about one third of the wood of every tree cut is actually used. the rest is lost in the logging operations and during the various processes through which it passes before it reaches our hands. in addition to the waste of the trees actually cut, there is the loss of the young trees due to careless logging. too often the lumbermen do not care in what condition the logs leave the forest. they want only the trees now fit for lumber, and they want to get them in the easiest way possible. instead of going through the forest and picking out only the ripe or mature trees and leaving the rest for a later cutting, the lumbermen usually take everything that has any present worth. trees that are less valuable for lumber, such as the firs, are used for skidways and bridges, and when no longer needed for these purposes are left on the ground. no care is taken to see that the great trees fall with the least possible damage to the young growth. upon the preservation of the young trees, which almost everywhere occupy the open spaces between the large ones, rests our hope of a future forest. when the work of lumbering in any particular region is finished, the sight is such as must make nature weep, for it almost brings tears to our eyes. the young trees are broken and crushed to the ground, branches and fragments of the trunks lie scattered about, while above the ruin rise those trees not considered worth cutting. the once beautiful and majestic forest is now ready for fire. some passer-by may drop a lighted match or cigarette, and you can easily form a picture in your mind of what happens. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the shake maker wastes the larger part of a great sugar pine that has been a thousand years in growing.] in the countries of europe lumbermen are very careful; not a particle of the cut tree goes to waste. the logs are sawed without removing what we call "slabs." the sawdust is saved and used in the manufacture of wood alcohol. if we saved all the present waste in the logging and milling of our pines, we could make all the turpentine needed in our country. if we saved what is now wasted of the poplar and spruce, we should have material enough to make all the paper we use. there are still large and valuable forests in the southern appalachian mountains, in the rocky mountains, the sierra nevada-cascade range, and the coast ranges. these regions were settled later than the eastern states, and parts of them are yet remote from markets. our wise lumbermen are beginning to understand that it is better to cut over the forest carefully, so that by and by there will be another crop. nature is doing all she can to keep up the supply of trees, and, if we give her half a chance, there will be timber enough both for us and for those that come after us. the forest crop is like any other crop, except that it cannot be cut every year. every one should understand that he has an interest in the forest. although he may not own a foot of land, yet his prosperity depends in part on how the forests are managed. if the forests are not taken care of, there will sometime be a wood famine. if the mountain slopes are stripped of their trees, the streams will no longer run clear and the low streams in summer will lead to a water famine, which in turn might easily cause a bread famine. chapter eighteen how the forests suffer from fires he who wantonly kills a tree, all in a night of god-sent dream, he shall travel a desert waste of pitiless glare, and never a stream, nor a blade of grass, nor an inch of shade- all in a wilderness he has made. o, forlorn without trees! he who tenderly saves a tree, all in a night of god-sent dream, he shall list to a hermit thrush deep in the forest by mountain stream, with friendly branches that lead and shade, all in a woodland that he has made. o, the peace of the trees! he who passionately loves a tree, growth and power shall understand; everywhere he shall find a friend. listen! they greet him from every land, english oak and the ash and thorn, silvery olive, and cypress tall, spreading willow, and gnarled old pine, flowering branches by orchard wall- sunshine, shadow, and sweetness of glade- all in a paradise he has made. o, the joy of the trees! _the dryad's message_ have you ever seen a forest fire? it is a terrible sight to see the flames sweep up a mountain side. they run along the ground licking up the leaves and dead branches. they leap from tree to tree, and then with a roar the sheet of flame goes to the top of a tall pine. the air is like the breath from an oven and is filled with sparks and with suffocating smoke. the birds and animals flee away in every direction. [illustration: _american forestry association_ the forest fire sweeps everything in its path.] it is no wonder that those whose homes are in the forest gather quickly to fight the fire, for if they cannot control it, they may lose everything that they possess. if there is a wind blowing, the fire will probably sweep over many miles of country. at night, though, when the air becomes cooler and more quiet, the men can get the advantage of it. you can understand, of course, that it is impossible to use water against such a fire, for water is not to be had throughout most parts of the forests. instead of using water, the men fight fire with fire. taking shovels, hoes, and rakes to a suitable place some distance ahead of the fire, they rake away the dead litter on the ground, making a broad, clean path through the forest. then they set "back-fires" along that side of this clean path which lies toward the coming fire. these back-fires burn slowly toward the main fire, and when they meet both must die out for lack of fuel. for many years forest fires have caused as much damage as the lumbermen; but now most of the forests are patrolled by rangers during the summer, and there are fewer serious fires. how do the fires start in the forest? it is supposed that long ago the indians set many fires to keep the woods open for their hunting. lightning has always been a frequent cause of forest fires. as many as a dozen fires are known to have started during a single thunderstorm. but such fires are not as serious as they once were, because the rangers are on the watch for them and put them out before they get well started. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ fires destroyed the forest that once covered this region and its place is now mostly occupied by small bushes.] aside from those due to lightning, most forest fires are now either set purposely or come from engine sparks or from somebody's carelessness. many fires are set purposely by stockmen who think by this means to clear away the brush and thus obtain better feed for their cattle and sheep. these men often care nothing for the forests or for the preservation of the summer water flow. they would, indeed, be pleased to see all the forests burned away if by that means they could increase their feed. if you could travel through some of the mountainous portions of the southwest, you would see how much harm has been done in this way to the trees, the streams, and the soil. it is a hot summer day and two men are riding along a mountain road. one of them thoughtlessly throws away a lighted cigarette, which falls upon some dry pine needles. in a few moments the pine needles are ablaze. the fire spreads with incredible rapidity and a great column of smoke rises above the treetops. before any one can reach it, the fire is sweeping up the mountain side, and it may not be stopped before it has destroyed thousands of acres of valuable timber. all this terrible loss is due to one careless man who, in the first place, should not have been smoking cigarettes, and in the second place should have known better than to throw a spark into the forest powder magazine. some campers, enjoying the summer in the mountains, go away leaving their fire burning. by and by a stick burns outward until the fire reaches the leaves, or a gust of wind comes along and carries a spark to them. in the hot sun the leaves and needles are almost as easy to ignite as powder, and in a few moments another fire is making headway into the surrounding forest. a farmer clearing land thinks he can get rid of the brush and young trees more easily by burning. but the undergrowth is drier than he thought, and, the wind coming up unexpectedly, the fire is soon beyond his control. it may destroy his own fences and buildings and, sweeping on, ruin those of his neighbors also. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the dead stubs of a once beautiful forest.] few people have perished from fires in the west, for there the forest regions are generally thinly inhabited, but in some of the eastern and northern states there have been terrible fires that have destroyed whole villages together with their inhabitants. in many mountain regions of our country there are large areas now covered with useless brush where there were once valuable forests. in regions where the lumbermen have not utterly destroyed the forests, but have left some seed trees, the forests will come back again, but in these large burned areas conditions are not favorable. the destruction of the humus as well as the trees has been so complete that the seeding of a new forest is slow work. it may be hundreds of years before the trees will spread over and again take possession of the waste land. a single fire often destroys more timber than would be destroyed by a whole camp of loggers working for years. in the northwest there are many sad and desolate pictures of the destruction caused by forest fires. we may travel for miles through forests of tall, dead stubs, the remains of once noble trees. where they have fallen the trunks lie piled many feet high and trails had to be cut through an almost solid mass of timber. here is wood enough to supply thousands of people with pleasant winter fires. but there are, alas, no people living near these vast woodpiles and often no road to them. the logs must lie there and rot. now let us see if we can state the chief reasons why we should be exceedingly careful about setting fires in the woods: 1. fires destroy an enormous amount of valuable timber every year. 2. between fires and lumbermen our forests are disappearing faster than they are growing. 3. fires destroy the young trees, and if they happen often enough will keep them from growing up to replace the mature trees. 4. fires do not permanently help the cattle ranges, but injure them by burning the humus and grass seeds. 5. fires leave the ground bare, so that it will dry out quickly. 6. fires leave the soil unprotected, so that it will wash away quickly. 7. fires destroy property and endanger lives. chapter nineteen evils that follow the destruction of the forests we have already learned something about the poverty of the people in those lands where the forests have been destroyed. this poverty is due not so much to lack of wood for fuel and other purposes, but to a whole series of troubles which the removal of the forests has brought upon them. the burning of the humus, when a fire sweeps the forest, is the next greatest loss to that of the timber itself. where there has been no fire, the ground under the trees is covered with decaying leaves and stems which are slowly mixing with the soil and becoming a part of it. the more there is of this humus in the soil, the more thriftily plants will grow. many people purposely burn over their pasture lands in the fall, believing that this will make the grass better the following year. they should know that every time this is done the soil is made poorer, and that it kills the seeds lying on the ground ready to sprout when the warm spring days come. instead of a better pasture there is more likely to be a crop of almost worthless weeds. the ground is full of worthless seeds which are always ready to take the place of the grasses when they have a chance. before the fire came, the roots of trees, bushes, and grasses kept the earth from washing; and the humus helped to hold the rainwater from running away rapidly, so that more of it had time to soak into the ground. how well this is shown on yonder hills which were once covered with brush. a fire swept over these hills and burned every living thing. what a barren appearance they presented after the heavy winter storms! the slopes were completely covered with little furrows and gullies where the rainwater had done its work. it will be a long time before vegetation will again gain a foothold there and stop the washing of the earth. when a fire occurs in the dense forests of the cascade range, all the trees are killed and the thick layer of decaying vegetation underneath is burned. the spruce, which is one of the most important lumber trees of this region, does not at once spring up again. its seeds may be scattered there, but the soil is not now in a condition to nourish them. in its place springs up the tamarack pine, which, because it can grow in poor soil, has the whole burned area to itself. if we should return to the same place perhaps one hundred years after the fire, we should find that the tamarack pines had formed a thick forest. the lumbermen have little use for the tamarack and so have passed it by. in looking carefully through the tamarack forest, we find that other trees are now springing up. they are already struggling for the food, the moisture, and the sunlight which the tamaracks are making use of. during the many years that have passed since the fire swept this region, decaying vegetation has been slowly accumulating and forming humus again. now at last the seeds of the spruce find the soil rich enough again to sprout and grow. here and there are thrifty young trees which will in a few years grow up and choke out the tamarack. thus the tamarack, though of so little value itself, has done a great work in preparing the soil for a new growth of the valuable spruce. upon the drier slopes of the western mountains shrubs, such as the manzanita and chaparral, spring up and cover the surface after a forest fire. nature does not seem to want the surface left bare and usually has something at hand, even though it be nothing better than brush, with which to clothe it again. as the years pass humus begins to collect upon the ground and finally restores it to much the same condition it had before the fire. now, if by any means seeds can reach such places, scattering trees will first spring up in favored spots and, after a time, the trees will become thick enough and large enough to shade the ground and the brush will be killed out. [illustration: _american forestry_ the work of the water where the forest has been cut away.] the cutting of the forests, especially from the steeper mountain slopes, has in many parts of the world changed water, one of nature's most valuable gifts, into an agent of destruction. throughout the eastern and southern states the floods are higher in spring and lower in summer than they used to be, because of the removal of so large a part of the forests that once covered this whole region. in the west it is even more necessary that the forest cover be disturbed as little as possible. one reason is that the greater part of the forests are found upon the lofty mountains in which the streams rise. if we deforest these steep slopes, water is going to injure them much more than it would the gentler slopes of the lower lands, if they had been deforested. another reason is that since little rain falls in the summer in this region, we must do nothing to lessen the summer flow of the streams, which is so much needed for irrigation. [illustration: _american forestry association_ this beautiful valley in the southern appalachian mountains has been ruined by the floods due to cutting off of the forests upon the headwaters of the river.] the more water that can be held back in the mountains of the west for summer use, the more prosperous the farmers are. there is nothing that helps to hold the water better than the forests. they help to equalize the flow of the streams so that the floods are not so high in the spring nor the water so low in the summer as they would be if there were no forests. one of the first questions asked by a man who is thinking of buying a farm is about the water supply. he wants to know whether there are wells, springs, or living streams on the place. almost everything depends upon the water supply. if there is an abundance, the farmer is likely to be prosperous. when he is prosperous all the rest of us are prosperous, no matter what our business is. are you not ready now to say that the swiss are right in not permitting tree cutting upon any land except under the supervision of a forester? the careless removal of the forests from the mountain slopes may affect the farmer in the valley fifty miles away. do you not think that this farmer is very much interested in the management of the forest, although he does not own a foot of it? trouble always follows the destruction of the forests on the headwaters of the streams. chapter twenty how our government is helping to save the forests as long as the forest shall live, the streams shall flow onward, still singing sweet songs of the woodland, and bringing the bright, living waters that give new life to all mortals who thirst. but the races of men shall be cursed. yea, the hour of destruction shall come to the children of men in that day when the forest shall pass away; when the low woodland voices are dumb; and death's devastation and dearth shall be spread o'er the face of the earth. avenging the death of the wood, the turbulent streams shall outpour their vials of wrath, and no more shall their banks hold back the high flood, which shall rush o'er the harvests of men; as swiftly receding again. lo! after the flood shall be dearth, and the rain no longer shall fall on the parching fields; and a pall, as of ashes, shall cover the earth; and dust-clouds shall darken the sky; and the deep water wells shall be dry. and the rivers shall sink in the ground, and every man cover his mouth from the thickening dust, in that drouth; fierce famine shall come; and no sound shall be borne on the desolate air. but a murmur of death and despair. alexander blair thaw, _the passing of the forest_; in _century magazine_, june, 1907 for many years it was thought the forests were inexhaustible and needed no special care. the national government encouraged people to acquire forest land and practically gave away 160 acres to every one who would build a cabin upon the land and live there for a short time. suddenly some of the wise people among us awoke to a realization of what was going on. they discovered that the forests were going very fast and that soon we should have none if something were not done. between the fires that swept them every year and the wasteful lumbering, the forests were in a fair way to leave us as they had the wasteful and careless peoples of other parts of the world. how fortunate it is that some of us did look ahead before it was too late; for, although the eastern forests have largely disappeared, there still remain millions of acres of government-owned forests in the west. these forests have now been withdrawn from sale and are to be held for the use and benefit of all. they are not to be permitted to pass into the hands of a few, to be cut and sold for private gain. our government is acting like a wise father who is interested in the welfare of his children, and who understands the need of taking care of their treasures until they are wise enough to manage them for themselves. we are all concerned in many ways in the welfare of the forests. whether we own any forest land or not, we are affected by the way in which the trees are managed. because we are all dependent more or less upon the forests, they should be regarded as the property of us all, just as the air and water are. but because some of us do not yet know how, or do not care, to protect them, it is best that the government should do so for us. [illustration: _american forestry association_ these men are replanting a mountain slope from which fire once swept the forest.] it may be that you live in a brick, or stone house and burn coal in your stoves. you think that it makes no difference to you whether or not there are any forests. but stop and think a moment. are you sure that you are really independent of them? how many things do you use every day that are made of wood? the list is surely a long one. if wood is rare and expensive, the articles which are made of it add to your cost of living and allow you less money for other things. let us suppose for a moment that you have no use for wood in any form. will this take away all interest that you may have in the forests? in any event you are dependent upon the fertility of your fields for the food that you require. now, if there is a lumber company stripping the mountains at the head of the river upon which your home is situated, and as a result of clearing the timber from the slopes the floods become worse, your garden is buried beneath gravel and sand, and your orchard washed away, will you not think it _does_ make a difference to you in what way the forests are treated? the timbered lands which the government is holding and caring for are known as national forests. about two thirds of the forests yet remaining in the west are included in them. these lands are mostly mountainous and not suited to agriculture. in the east the government has no lands except those which it buys. because of the great damage which is being done to the streams and valleys of the appalachian mountains by careless lumbering, a great tract of land is being acquired by purchase. this is called the appalachian forest. the timber in this region will be carefully cut and those areas from which it has been stripped will be replanted. in the white mountains of new hampshire, with mt. washington as the center, is a remnant of a once beautiful forest, which has been acquired by the government. this is known as the white mountain forest. it will be enlarged as the years pass and carefully guarded. it will serve for all time as a beautiful pleasure and camping ground. it is not the government's plan that the national forests shall remain unused, but they are to be used wisely, so as to be of the greatest permanent good to the greatest number of people. the men who have been placed in charge of these lands are called "forest rangers," and their duties are of many kinds. the rangers supervise the sale and cutting of the mature or ripe trees as they are needed for lumber, mining timbers, or posts. they see that the waste parts of the cut trees are piled so as to lessen the danger from chance fires. during the long summers the forests become as dry as tinder and the loss from fire amounts to millions of dollars every year. it is the chief duty of the rangers at this time to patrol the roads and trails leading through the forests and keep a sharp lookout for fires. stations have been established upon high points from which there is a view over a wide extent of country. in each of these stations there is a man constantly on watch for columns of smoke which indicate the beginning of a forest fire. when smoke is seen a message is telephoned to the ranger station nearest the fire, and from this station men are sent as quickly as possible with the object of putting out the fire before it spreads beyond the power of control. the forests are now watched so carefully that hundreds of fires are thus stopped before there has been any serious loss of timber. +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | stop | | forest fires | | | | they are a curse to the people | | of pennsylvania | | | | forest existing forests | | fires possibility of future forests | | destroy possibility of labor | | beauty of a region | | comfort | | homes | | lives | | prosperity | | | | protected forests increase in value | | | | they furnish labor, promote industry, afford recreation and | | sport, make a region beautiful, make home safe and comfortable, | | make life worth living, and a prosperous state | | inhabited by a contented and industrious people. | | | | which would you rather have | | | | forest fires } { green forests | | floods } { pure water | | disease } or { health | | destruction } { thriving industries | | devastation } { prosperity | | | | for information respecting pennsylvania forests and | | tree planting, write to | | | | commissioner of forestry, | | | | harrisburg, pennsylvania | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: this large poster, printed on sheets 14 by 22 inches, has been of excellent service in pennsylvania.] [illustration: _american forestry_ the seed trees left by the lumberman are giving rise to a new forest.] in convenient places the rangers store boxes of tools, which include axes, picks, shovels, and rakes to be used in fighting any near-by fire. they also have at hand provisions and camp outfits, so as to be able to live anywhere in the woods. in some parts where there is a great deal of small timber and brush, "fire lines" are cut along the ridges where it is easiest to stop a fire, should one occur. our forests are so vast that it is not possible to remove the dead wood as is done in europe and thus lessen the danger of fire. the forest rangers also wage a warfare against insect pests. in regions where the bark beetles carry on their destructive work among the pines, the rangers sometimes cut down and burn thousands of trees. another duty of the rangers is that of replanting burned or logged-off areas. in this way many thousands of acres which would otherwise remain waste land for years, not being suitable for agriculture, are made in a short time to produce a new forest. a limited number of cattle and sheep are allowed in those forests which can be pastured without doing injury to the young trees or affecting the flow of the streams. the rangers have charge of this work and collect the rent. a part of the money derived from the sale of timber and for pasturage rights is expended in the improvement of the roads and trails in the forests and in making the forests more safe from fire. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ a beautiful grassy meadow in the sierra nevada mountains.] the national forests are open to all for pleasure and recreation, but under strict regulations about the cutting of trees and the care of camp fires. violators of these rules are severely punished. visitors to the forests are expected to take care in the selection of places for their camp fires so that there will be no danger of the fire spreading. when the camp is left, the fire must be put out with water or covered with earth. many states have forest services of their own, and some have conservation commissions. it is the business of these organizations to look after various natural resources, including the forests, water, soil, minerals, and wild game. all forest rangers as well as state fire wardens are authorized to aid in the enforcement of the game laws. we should assist the foresters and wardens in every way possible. most of these men love the woods, the birds, and the animals. they are doing their best to protect the forest and its wild life for the good and happiness of us all. chapter twenty-one our forest playgrounds what does he plant who plants a tree? he plants the friend of sun and sky; he plants the flag of breezes free; the shaft of beauty, towering high; he plants a home to heaven anigh for song and mother-croon of bird in hushed and happy twilight heard- the treble of heaven's harmony- these things he plants who plants a tree. what does he plant who plants a tree? he plants cool shade and tender rain, and seed and bud of days to be, and years that fade and flush again; he plants the glory of the plain; he plants the forest's heritage; the harvest of a coming age; the joy that unborn eyes shall see- these things he plants who plants a tree. what does he plant who plants a tree? he plants, in sap and leaf and wood, in love of home and loyalty and far-cast thought of civic good- his blessing on the neighborhood who in the hollow of his hand holds all the growth of all our land- a nation's growth from sea to sea stirs in his heart who plants a tree. h. c. bunner, _the heart of the tree_; in _century magazine_, april, 1893 our national parks and forests form the grandest summer playgrounds that any people have ever had. the national forests, we have learned, were set aside for the direct purpose of preserving the timber supply and regulating the flow of the mountain streams. the national parks were created for the purpose of preserving for all time the most beautiful and attractive scenic features of our country. among the most important of these are the yellowstone, grand cañon, yosemite, rainier, and crater lake parks. they include many thousands of square miles of forested mountains, cliffs, lakes, waterfalls, and rivers, which are open to all of us with no restrictions except that we do not injure them. how delightful it is to have these wild and picturesque parts of our country left unspoiled and just as nature made them, and to be able to wander through them at will! in the parks we can become acquainted with the flowers, trees, birds, and animals as they were before the country was discovered and settled by white men. here the wild creatures are protected from the hunters. the deer no longer fear the sight of men, and the mother grouse can raise her brood in safety from them. when summer comes we feel a strange and mysterious longing to get out of doors and live in the forests with the wild creatures. the parks offer just the opportunity to satisfy this longing, for in them we can get away from the worries and perplexities of our everyday life. we feel the "call of the wild," perhaps, because long ago our savage ancestors dwelt in the forests among the hills. they were a part of nature and lived much as the animals do in caves in the hillsides, or in homes of the rudest sort made of the bark of trees or the skins of animals. our ancestors spent nearly all of their time out of doors in the pure, fresh air. their eyes and ears were trained to every sign of the forest, for upon the sharpness of their senses their very lives depended. [illustration: _george j. young_ a forest playground on virginia creek in the yosemite country, california, in one of uncle sam's forest reserves.] we have lived in houses so long, where the air is often close and impure and where we have no need of sharp senses for protection, that we have lost some of the strength and sturdy self-reliance of our wild ancestors. we have become partly dulled to the beauty out of doors, because we have been so constantly employed by the business of making a living. but the forest playgrounds are calling us to return for a little time each year to the wilds that were once our home, and to renew our acquaintance with the trees, the streams and the rocks, and with the wild creatures that live among them. to be able to make our beds on the leaves under the trees, and to build a fire of sticks and cook our own food, seems quite natural and like old and familiar times. the stories and legends that have come down to us about the forests and the imaginary people who lived in them were believed to be true by the people of long ago. the deep, dark woods once covered nearly all europe where our ancestors lived. to be lost in the woods was to be in danger of meeting the strange and mysterious people who were thought to live in their depths. among these beings, some of whom were good and others bad, were fairies, nymphs, gnomes, and ogres. when people ceased to believe so much in these stories, they began to lose their fear of the woods. among some of these people there grew up a love and fascination for the trees which they believed were the dwelling places of spirits or divinities. if in our great forest playgrounds we can lead this out-of-door life for a few weeks each year, it will make us healthier, stronger, and happier. we no longer fear any mysterious creatures in the woods or the forces of nature as shown in the lightning, the winds, and the waterfalls; but year by year we are finding more to love and admire in the wild scenery of the woods and mountains and in their animal and plant inhabitants. the wild woods call many of us on jaunts and picnics when, if it were not for them, we should stay at home shut up in stuffy rooms. in time may not the love of the forest wilds come back to us all? may not the time come when each one of us shall be able to look at a beautiful tree and not think only of how much lumber it would make? may not the time come when we may hear the grouse drumming its call and not feel the desire to kill and eat it? if the time does come in which we think as much of our beautiful mountains as the people of europe do of the alps, we shall then guard them with far more jealous care than we do today. in spite of the fact that the alps are wet and cold and that no one thinks of sleeping out of doors there, yet the people of europe love their mountains almost passionately. our mountains are much more attractive summer playgrounds than the alps. we can wander at will over a far greater number of untrodden ways than europeans can in the alps. we can make our beds under the trees with rarely a thought of the weather. the air is always balmy and the skies are almost always blue. chapter twenty-two what is happening to the wild flowers how eagerly we have looked forward to the coming of spring, and now it is here! the sun is shining brighter and warmer each day. the birds are returning from their winter home in the south. the buds on the trees are swelling and, in the warm nooks, some of the wild flowers have already opened their delicate petals. who will find the first _spring beauty_ in the eastern woods? who will find the first of the _purple trilliums_ that open their dark flowers in the shady groves, or the _golden poppies_ on the warm hillsides of the west? the spring air affects us as it does the plants and wild creatures. we long to get away from school, and taking our lunches, to spend the delightful days wandering through the fields and woods. there is no place like the open country when all nature is waking. we feel like running and frisking as the young lambs do. can it be wrong to gather all that we wish of the beautiful flowers with which the earth is carpeted? has not nature grown them in her great garden in such abundance that all we pick will make no difference to her? let us go with the children on their rambles after flowers and learn if nature does take any account of their innocent raids on her treasures. here is a party of children chasing across the fields. each one is searching for the flowers that have bloomed since last they were out, and each is trying to get more than his companions. the children have learned that some kinds of flowers grow in the woods, others in the marshy places, and still others on the dry hillsides. they know where to go for each kind, and not a spot escapes their sharp search. here they find a patch of violets, and all are quickly picked. there are some baby-blue-eyes, and yonder dry field is brilliant with the colors of many others. in the gathering of the flowers some of them are pulled up by the roots, but the children do not think of the harm this does. they wander on and on until many have more in their hands than they can carry. some of those picked first are already wilted, and, to make their burdens lighter, the children throw these away. at last a tired but happy band turns toward home. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ the wild oxalis loves the moist, shady places.] what will be done with all the flowers that have been picked? in each home the vases are filled and the tables decorated. there is no room for all of them and some are thrown out. these flowers, once so fresh and bright as they nodded in the breeze, now lie crushed and wilted on the ground. another spring returns and the children are out again looking in the familiar places for the flowers they know so well. but there seems to be something wrong, for there are not so many as there used to be. the children have to go farther and search more carefully to get their arms full. still a third spring comes and the children are just as ready for the happy excursions and just as anxious to get the flowers. they hunt the fields over, but in the places where the flowers used to be so thick there are only a few scattering ones. they cannot understand what is wrong, but nature could tell them if they would ask her. the year before she was short of seed, but this year it is much worse, for she had hardly any to plant in her garden. she is short of bulbs also, and of many other plants that grow from year to year, for the children carelessly pulled these up. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ wild asters cover the mountain meadows.] the children do not want to go home with only a few flowers, and so they wander farther into the country than they have ever been before. here they find them as abundant as they used to be near home. the children do not stop to think that at the base of the bright, fragrant blossoms grow the seed that will make the flowers of the next year. nature can spare the seed of a part of the blossoms, for she grows many more than she needs; but if we pick them all, what can she do for the coming year? the wild flowers are living things struggling for a place in the world, just as are the animals and birds. we cannot abuse and destroy too many of them if we would have them stay and add to the beauty of our homes. should we not take just as much pleasure in gathering the flowers if we did not bring home more than we needed? would it not be better to be satisfied with smaller bouquets and leave enough in the fields to go to seed and gladden us next year? the reckless gathering of wild flowers has gone on so long and they have been picked so closely about many of our towns and cities, that they are disappearing. when there are no longer wild flowers within reach of the children who live in the cities, they will have lost a great joy out of their lives. there are besides the flowers of which we have been speaking other low plants of beautiful foliage with which we love to decorate our homes. we must take care that these are not gathered too closely or they also will become scarce. we cannot go out into the woods and pull up ferns by the roots year after year and expect nature to keep up the supply. the huckleberry is one of the many beautiful shrubs which we admire for its delicate leaves and colors. it is cut and brought in from the country in huge bundles to supply the florists. the time will come when these decorations can no longer be had if the men are allowed to cut all they can find. just as in the case of the flowers, seekers for them will be obliged to go farther each year and by and by the shrubs will be so scarce and high priced that we shall be obliged to do without them. [illustration: _pillsbury's pictures, inc._ nature has grown flowers in abundance, but we should not pick or destroy too many of them.] we hunt far and wide for the beautiful "holly berries" with which to decorate our homes at christmas. when we have found a berry-laden bush, we eagerly break off the branches and bear them home in triumph. the bush, once so gay with berries, is a sad-looking thing when we are through with it. the branches are broken so far back that next year it will bear few berries and we shall have to seek another. we treat the beautiful earth on which we have been placed in a most thoughtless manner. we think only of what we want _now_, and forget that another year is coming in which also we shall want some of the earth's treasures. if we take only the surplus which each year produces, there will always be enough for us and for the people who live after us. chapter twenty-three nature's penalty for interfering with her arrangements nature seems very prodigal in her ways. she is continually creating on the earth a great multitude of living things, far more than there is room for. each one of these, if it would live, must have a certain amount of air, sunshine, and food. as there is not enough of these things to supply every one, there arises a struggle. those that are weakest die, because they are not able to get what they need. to us this seems hard, but it is nature's way. and further, since many of the animals feed on the flesh of other animals, the latter have, in addition to the struggle for their food, to watch constantly for their lives. every organism is in one sense the enemy of every other one. we do not mean that they often try to kill each other because of hate, as men do, but that they are after food to satisfy their hunger. some of the higher animals as well as men fight for mastery, in addition to struggling for food. we hope that among men the unnecessary fighting will sometime cease, and that kindness and unselfishness will rule. the struggle for life is ceaselessly going on around us, but so quiet is it that we are not often aware of the countless tragedies that take place. this struggle extends from the plants and animals in the pond, so small that we cannot see them with the unaided eye, upward through all the larger animals. the struggle among all living things helps us to understand the necessity for nature's prodigality. if the plants and animals that serve as food for others were not produced in great numbers, they would soon become extinct. it is seldom that any one kind of plant or animal, because of its many enemies, has an opportunity to spread and obtain more than its share of food and sunshine. according to nature's arrangements, each organism does its share in keeping down the numbers of the others. this we call the "balance of nature." sometimes the balance of nature is disturbed and one particular kind of animal gets the start of its enemies and increases until it becomes a _plague_. this may be caused by a favorable season or by the decrease of its enemies on account of disease among them. we have read of the plagues of grasshoppers which have sometimes visited the western states and eaten up every green thing. plagues of rats and field mice have been known to do a great deal of damage. in such cases their natural enemies, the hawks, owls, and coyotes, may be attracted to the region from far around, because of the extra food supply. after a time they may succeed in reducing the numbers of these pests. this balance among the animals, which comes from one living upon another, is a strange and wonderful thing. no one kind can long overrun its fellows. if one does get a start and increases until it becomes a pest or plague, some enemy is sure sooner or later to spring up to destroy it. we use this method in fighting some of the insect pests which are injuring our trees. men have searched in various parts of the world from which such pests as the gypsy moth and the san josé scale have come to find some of their enemies and bring them to this country to feed on these insects. when men came upon the earth, they soon began to upset nature's arrangements, and from that time until now matters of this kind have been growing worse. we have killed large numbers of the beneficial animals and birds that kept the harmful ones in check. we have carried others from the homes given them by nature, where they were doing little harm, to new homes where they have become terrible plagues. the killing of large numbers of hawks and owls, all the species of which many people have wrongfully thought to be harmful, has been followed by a great increase in the numbers of rats and mice. we have killed off most of the coyotes, the chief food of which was rabbits and ground squirrels. the two latter animals have now become a serious pest. they do enormous damage to the crops, and we spend thousands of dollars fighting them. the common rabbit has in most parts of its native country so many enemies which are always on the lookout for a good meal, that it cannot increase enough to do much harm. years ago a number of rabbits were taken to australia, where there were none. here they found a favorable climate and few enemies. they have now increased so that they overrun much of the continent and are a terrible pest which the farmers are unable to control. some years ago the gypsy moth and the browntail moth were introduced by accident into the new england states. finding there a congenial climate and few enemies, they increased rapidly. they soon began to strip the leaves from the beautiful elms which make the streets and parks of this region so attractive. now these moths have turned their attention to the white pine and are doing an ever-increasing amount of damage; and although they are being fought by every means in our power, we are not certain that we can ever control them. the codling moth, whose larva is the little apple worm, causes an immense loss in our fruit orchards. the cotton-boll weevil, which destroys so much of the cotton, is, like the codling moth, an insect imported from another country. the san josé scale reached california from china and has now spread throughout our country. it has a special fondness for the sap of fruit trees, and, being so small, was not noticed until it had got beyond control. this scale causes more loss than any other of the tree insects. the hessian fly, introduced from europe more than one hundred years ago, causes during certain seasons a very great loss to the wheat crop. the argentine ant has been brought to us from south america and is proving a most destructive pest. the norway rat was brought to our country on sailing vessels and causes more loss than most of us realize. the english sparrow has spread over much of the country and is driving many of the native birds from their homes, because of its quarrelsome disposition. it makes itself a nuisance on all our city streets. the mongoose, in its home in india, is a great rat killer, but does not there increase so as to do much harm. wherever it has been carried for the purpose of using it as a rat killer, this little four-footed animal has become a terrible scourge. after it destroys the rats it goes after the snakes. then it attacks the other small animals and birds. finally it begins upon the chickens, and even the vegetables in the garden are not safe from its voracious appetite. men are now watching at every port to see that no more dangerous insects and animals are brought into the country. they are particularly on the watch for the mediterranean fruit fly and for the mongoose. when we upset the balance of nature, we start a whole chain of troubles. what can we do to escape the consequences of our ignorance and carelessness? in the first place we can protect the birds, for they eat enormous quantities of the harmful insects. in the second place we can see that no more of these dangerous pests are allowed to land on our shores. in the third place we shall have to fight, by every means that we can discover, those that are already here. chapter twenty-four what shall we do when the coal, oil, and gas are gone? if coal, oil, and gas were suddenly taken away, all the nations would become poor and many of their industries would cease. just think for a moment of the amount of work these things do for us and what an effort there would be made to find something to take their place! wood once formed the chief fuel. it was used only to cook our food or to keep us warm. now fuel is required for so many different purposes that with the decrease of the forests wood has been found insufficient. peat is one of those substances that has been used in parts of europe to take the place of wood, but it is used so little in our own country that many have never seen it. peat is dug from bogs or marshes. we might say that a peat marsh is the beginning of a coal bed. peat is the partly decayed vegetation which has slowly accumulated in wet places. in the colder countries it is formed largely of moss and similar water-loving plants, but where the climate is warm other kinds of marsh vegetation, and even trees, aid in forming peat. sometimes floods bring earth and deposit it in the marshes, in which case the peat is less suitable for fuel, but forms a rich and productive soil instead. in many of the vast swamps of long ago, when there were no men nor even the higher animals upon the earth, vegetation grew very rank. it is believed that at that remote time the air contained more carbonic acid, a substance which promotes the growth of plants. thus the plants in the warm, moist parts of the earth grew more densely and luxuriantly than they usually do today. in the decay of this vegetation deposits similar to the peat marshes were formed, but they differed in being much thicker and more extensive. if the story of these ancient peat marshes had stopped here, we should never have had any coal. fortunately it did not, for some of the swamps sank beneath the water of a lake or ocean and thick beds of gravel, sand, or clay were deposited over them. while buried deep in the earth, the decaying vegetation was heated and pressed together by the great weight of the earth above, and was finally changed to shining, black coal. after the coal was made, but before men came to the earth, parts of the sea bottom with its buried treasures were raised to form hills and mountains. then the rainwater began its work upon the slopes, and after a time washed away so much of the overlying material that the coal was exposed at the surface. at last through some accident, such as lightning perhaps, men learned that this black substance would burn. coal was little used, however, as long as there was an abundance of wood and the needs of people were few. as manufacturing and the use of the steam engine increased, coal grew in value. the business of mining coal finally became one of the great industries. the mining operations were carried on as carelessly as though the supply in the interior of the earth were inexhaustible. in the underground working it is customary to leave about one quarter of the coal in the form of pillars for the purpose of supporting the roof. at a little more expense other materials could be substituted for these pillars and all the coal could be taken out. in using the coal we waste about another quarter. stoves and furnaces are usually built so poorly that a large part of the value of the coal escapes as gas and smoke. in large cities and manufacturing districts the smoke becomes a great nuisance. in the making of coke from coal, enormous quantities of coal tar and gas have been lost. most engines consume a far greater amount of coal than they should in doing a given amount of work. most of us do not know how to use coal economically in our homes, and thus aid not only in wasting the coal supplies but in making the cost of living higher than it should be. all together, in the handling of coal we lose fully half of it. the coal supply of the earth is disappearing very fast, and at the rate at which its use is now increasing it may not last more than one hundred years. if we cannot use coal without wasting so much, would it not be wiser for us to turn our attention more fully to the sources of power in the streams which are flowing down all our mountain sides? the use of this power when turned into electricity would enable us to save a large part of the coal, oil, and gas that are now used, and so make them last longer. it is far easier to waste oil and gas than coal, for, when we have drilled holes in the earth, unless we are very careful the gas will escape into the air and the oil will become mixed with water, so that it will be difficult for us to get it. oil and gas are confined under great pressure hundreds and often thousands of feet below the surface. to make clear how easy it is to waste them, we might compare them to the compressed air in an automobile tire. if the tire is punctured by a nail, the air issues suddenly with a sharp, whistling sound until the pressure inside is gone and no more will come out. for many years we have been puncturing the crust of the earth, where oil has been discovered, and letting the oil and gas escape. we have saved most of the oil, but nearly all the gas has been wasted. the gas will finally stop coming out when the pressure is gone, just as the air did in the automobile tire. on the opposite page is a picture of a "gusher" in the sunset oil field, california, which tells the story of how we are permitting the valuable substances within the earth to be wasted. in drilling this well the oil men suddenly struck a deposit of oil and gas under great pressure. the drilling tools were blown out of the well and a column of oil and gas shot up 150 feet. for a time the well flowed forty thousand barrels of oil each day, and an unknown quantity of gas. much of the oil was scattered around the surrounding country, and all the gas was lost. men worked for weeks making reservoirs of earth in an attempt to save the river of oil. another well a few miles distant struck an enormous quantity of gas. it blew off for days with a roar like that of the steam from a giant engine. then it took fire, and the column of flame at night was a fearful sight. there was gas enough lost from this one well to light a city for months. gas has been escaping during many years from hundreds of wells in the pennsylvania, ohio valley, oklahoma, texas, and california oil fields. the gas from all these wells together has been estimated to be equal in value to a river of oil flowing several hundred thousand barrels each day. in many districts the gas was nearly gone before people discovered its great value. it is impossible for us to realize the waste which this represents. [illustration: _myrl's studio, bakersfield, california_ a "gusher" in a california oil field wasting great quantities of oil and gas.] it has taken nature a long time to make the oil and gas which we are losing. when she began this work, the oil regions which have been mentioned were beneath the sea. in its waters lived countless numbers of minute organisms, as well as fish of many kinds. as they died, their bodies accumulated in beds which finally became thousands of feet thick. then the currents of the water changed and sand and mud were washed over these beds, burying them deeply. finally the bottom of the sea was lifted and became dry land. the movement squeezed and folded the rocky layers made of the skeletons of the animals and plants. the soft parts of their bodies held in these rocky layers produced a greenish or brownish oil and gas. the gas tried to escape from the rocks, for they were hot and it wanted more room. in some places it found openings through the rocks and escaped to the surface, usually bringing some of the oil with it. the gas was lost, but a part of the oil remained, forming deposits of tar. in other places the oil and gas could not reach the surface, but found porous, sandy rocks into which they went and remained until the oil driller found them. the tar springs, or "seepages," indicate to the oil prospector where deposits of oil may possibly be found. he examines the country about and, selecting a favorable place, drills a well. if he is successful, he will strike oil-bearing rocks. the oil may be a few hundred feet below the surface, or it may be a mile below. in the latter case it takes months to drill the well. if a robber came and attempted to take by force the coal, oil, and gas which we are daily losing through our carelessness and indifference, even though he might put it to better use than we put it, there would at once go up a great cry. we would raise an army and fight for our property, and perhaps suffer great loss in defending it. but, day by day, without making any serious objection, we are letting these natural resources go to waste. perhaps in some far distant future, after we have used up the stores of fuel in the earth, we may discover something to take its place; but wise and thoughtful people should make the most of what they have. chapter twenty-five need for protection of creatures that live in the water perhaps you think it is absurd to talk about caring for the creatures that live in the water, since they can so easily hide away in its depths where we cannot follow. perhaps you think that because the ocean is so great it would be impossible ever to catch all the fish that live in it. it is easy to understand how all the fish might be caught out of the creeks, rivers, and shallow lakes, since fish are hungry and we put before them such attractive bait; but with the ocean it seems different. it stretches so many thousands of miles and is so very deep that there does not appear to be any danger of exterminating the animals of the ocean as we have some of those of the land. is it true, however, that all the vast waters of the ocean are full of fish, or are they found only in certain parts? the fishermen can tell us about this matter. they know where to set the hooks and nets, and where they are most likely to get a good catch. they do not go far out where the water is deep but seek, instead, the shallow waters near the shore or about the reefs and islands. they know that the deep water of the ocean contains very few fish and none that are of any value as food. each kind of fish has become adapted to certain parts of the ocean, for both the food supply and the pressure of the water differ with different depths. fish caught in deep water are often dead before reaching the surface, because of the decrease in the water pressure. one reason why fish are not numerous far out in the ocean is because there is little food to be had there. the reason no fish are found in the very deep parts of the ocean is because the water there contains no air particles. strange as it may seem, although fish breathe water, they cannot live unless it contains oxygen from the air. the fish, then, that interest us because of their value for food, are found only in the shallow waters usually near the shore and in the lakes and rivers. because of this fact it is possible, as we have learned from experience, to set so many traps and use so many nets and hooks as entirely to destroy certain species. the fish have their natural enemies, and there is warfare among them just as there is among the land animals. the larger and more powerful live upon the smaller ones, but, seemingly to make up for this, nature has given the small fish quickness of movement--which the large fish do not possess--to aid them in escaping. they have also the power of increasing very rapidly. the little herring, which is the chief food of many of the large fish, maintains its countless numbers against all its enemies except the fishermen. the indians, with their crude traps, hooks, and spears, could obtain but few fish at a time and did not reduce their numbers. but civilized man, with his cunningly contrived hooks and nets, has the same advantage over the fish that the hunter, with his repeating gun, has over the land animals. nature, not foreseeing how destructive man would be, has armed neither the creatures of the land nor the creatures of the water against him. the fisherman does his work just as thoughtlessly as the hunter whose business it is to supply the market. he seems to think no more about the effect upon next season's supply, of his stretching a net across a river and catching all the fish going up to spawn, than does the market hunter who would, if he could, shoot the last duck. is it not strange that many fishermen will do anything in their power to evade the laws governing the catching of fish when by doing so they injure their own business? [illustration: _edward s. curtis_ a rocky island in the pacific ocean, used by seals as a sunning place.] we have already nearly destroyed the mammals that live in the ocean. among them are the whales, which were once numerous in the arctic regions. few whaling ships now arrive with profitable cargoes of oil or whalebone. the sea otter, the fur of which is more highly prized than that of any other animal, and the walrus, valuable for its oil, are also nearly extinct. no more cruel hunting was ever carried on than was that of the seal mothers in the open ocean where they go in search of food. when the mothers are killed the young ones, left in the rookeries upon the pribilof islands, soon die of starvation. the fur seal has thus been so reduced in numbers that it was threatened with extinction. now russia, japan, england, and the united states have agreed to stop all killing of the fur seal for a number of years. as a result of the great demand for fish, and the careless methods used by the thousands of men engaged in catching them, nature unaided cannot keep up the supply. for the purpose of assisting her, strict laws have been passed in many states. these laws prohibit fishermen from stretching their nets or weirs across the streams so as to block the passage of the fish when going to their spawning grounds. they also prohibit the taking of undersized fish and in some cases allow none at all of some kinds to be taken for a given time. our government is now doing a great deal to save the food fishes of the country, but some varieties are still decreasing. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ an indian fish trap.] the little herring is the most valuable of all the sea fish. enormous numbers are captured in nets, and still greater numbers form the food of other fish. the herring has so many enemies that it must increase rapidly in order to hold its place in the sea. nature has arranged that this fish should produce twenty thousand or more eggs at each spawning season. it is thought that if only two eggs out of this great number hatch and grow up, the supply of herring will be maintained. this estimate does not, however, take into account the present terrible waste of herring in the chesapeake and other bays on the atlantic coast, where it is taken in nets and used for making land fertilizer. is it any wonder that the herring is now decreasing in numbers? the oyster was once hunted so closely that it would have disappeared from our coast waters if the young had not been taken and raised artificially. is it not interesting to know that we plant young oysters on oyster farms, and raise oyster crops, all below the level of high tide? the greatest oyster farms in the world are upon chesapeake bay. there are also oyster farms in other bays upon the atlantic seaboard, and lately the oyster has been transplanted to the bays upon the pacific coast. the lobster was trapped so industriously that it also began to grow scarce. finally the government took up the matter of protecting it. the eggs and the young were guarded, and now it is increasing in numbers. once the sturgeon was very plentiful in the lakes and rivers of our country. for a long time it was thought to be of no value and was thrown away when caught in nets set for other fish. then it was discovered that its flesh was delicious, and its eggs, known as _caviar_, became a very fashionable dish. after this there followed a period of most destructive fishing, and now sturgeon are quite scarce and high priced. herring, shad, and salmon are migratory fish. by this we mean that they spend a part of their lives in the ocean but enter the bays and streams at the spawning season. you can readily understand that if the bays are blocked with nets the fish cannot reach the spawning grounds and their numbers must decrease. chesapeake bay contains such a maze of nets, many of them extending out ten miles from the shore, that it is a wonder that any fish get past them. [illustration: _h. w. fairbanks_ a fish wheel on the columbia river, in which salmon are caught on their way to the spawning grounds.] the waters of new england were once filled with striped bass, smelt, salmon, and shad, but now these fish are almost gone. the shad are rapidly decreasing all along the atlantic coast. the nets in lake erie extend out sometimes ten miles from shore, and the whitefish as well as the sturgeon have been greatly reduced in numbers there. when the pacific coast was first settled, the "salmon run" in the sacramento, columbia, and other rivers was a wonderful sight. the waters were fairly alive with these huge fish. hydraulic mining so muddied the waters of the sacramento that their numbers greatly decreased. then came the fishermen and stretched their nets across the rivers, so nearly blocking the channels that the salmon were rarely seen on their old spawning grounds. now salmon fishing is carefully regulated and salmon are increasing. the shallow waters of san francisco bay, the ocean for some miles out from shore, and the waters about the islands of southern california form very valuable fishing grounds, which, if they are taken care of, will furnish much larger supplies of fish than are now obtained. the interesting discovery has been made that the waters around the islands of santa catalina and san clemente form important spawning grounds for many food fish, including the great tuna. these waters were fished so destructively that many of the fish were found to be decreasing. this has led to the establishment of a fish preserve for three miles about santa catalina island. within this area no fish are allowed to be taken except with a hook and line. some of the most valuable fish, which were almost gone, are now becoming more numerous. the fact that the fish stay close about the island where the water is shallow makes the establishment of the preserve possible. the salmon and halibut fisheries of the alaskan waters have long been the source of much profit. this region, owing to the many bays and islands, fairly swarms with fish of many kinds. protection will soon be needed here if this great storehouse of fish is to be kept filled. the cod fisheries of the newfoundland banks are among the most valuable in the world, and are almost the only ones where fishing has long been carried on and where the supply is not decreasing. the "banks" are formed by a great flat reef four hundred miles long, over which the water is shallow enough to offer a fine home for cod. hatcheries have been established in many parts of our country for the purpose of collecting and hatching fish eggs. these are used for restocking those waters that have been fished out. after the eggs have hatched and the young fish have reached a certain stage, they are shipped to the streams where they are needed. the united states fishery on the mccloud river, california, has distributed rainbow trout all over the united states. shad and striped bass have been brought from eastern fisheries and planted in pacific coast waters, where they are now rapidly increasing. thus we learn that valuable food fish live within certain narrow bounds instead of being distributed all through the waters of the globe. it is as easy, with our many ingenious devices of net and weir, to destroy the inhabitants of the water as it is to destroy those of the land with guns. chapter twenty-six man more destructive than the other animals we have learned something about the struggle among the plants and animals for food and for room on the earth. we must not think, however, that this struggle is at all like the war that is carried on between different nations. wars are usually unnecessary and do more harm than good, for they result in the loss of the strongest and best men. but the struggle among the animals and plants has resulted in good, for it has crowded out the weakest and those less fitted to live. the struggle among all living things for food and a share of the sunshine has covered the earth with a far greater variety than there would otherwise be. because so many more are born than there is room for, they crowd and elbow each other. many are forced to make their homes in regions which they would not have chosen if they had been free to do as they pleased. it is partly because of this crowding that some of the animals which once lived on the ground became changed into birds and made their homes in the trees. a number of the mammals found more freedom in the water and finally became whales, seals, and walruses. many moved into deserts and, in learning to live with very little water, developed curious bodies and habits. some have found a home in the cold north, where they have become suited to a climate which would quickly kill those which had held their ground in the warm and moist tropical regions. nature has thus filled the earth with an infinite variety of living things, each of which is doing its part in making the world beautiful and attractive. man is nature's last and most wonderful creation. he has learned to fly like the birds, to swim under the sea like the fish, and to harness nature's forces and make them work for him. but man, with all his wisdom, has too often forgotten that he is really a brother to the lower creatures. the inhabitants of the air, the land, and the water could, if they were able to talk, tell the most pitiful tales of man's cruel treatment of them. of course we have to eat, as do all other living creatures, but for thousands of years people have supplied their wants largely from agriculture and from the domestic herds. although very few of us now have to hunt for our food, and these few are those who live far out on the borders of newly settled regions, yet we have not forgotten the hunting instincts of our ancestors. our ancestors of long ago, like the savages on the earth today, seldom killed game unless they needed it for food. we, who think ourselves far better than they, now kill wild life for the pleasure of the chase. the professional hunter who seeks the glossy coats of the fur-bearing animals or the beautiful plumage of certain birds gives no thought to the wasted bodies that he leaves behind. since men have become civilized and their needs have become so many, nature's arrangements have been seriously disturbed. she has not armed the wild creatures against men, who, with all kinds of marvelous weapons, are able to take advantage of them. the wild creatures discover very quickly that they can find little protection against this new enemy, no matter how quick and sharp their senses are. the blue jay has only his sharp eyes to help him when he seeks the cunningly hidden nest of another bird with the hope of being able to dine upon eggs. the breakfast of the wolf depends alone upon his quickness in catching a rabbit. the mountain lion depends upon his stealthiness when stalking a deer. the indian relies upon his skill in imitating the call or the appearance of an animal when he tries to approach near enough to use his bow and arrow. civilized men have lost much of the keenness of sight and hearing they once had, but they have far more than made up for this through their ingenuity in making deadly weapons. we depend no longer upon the hunt for each day's supply of food. but the instinct to hunt which still remains we use to amuse ourselves while upon our camping trips. some people even made a living by hunting for the market, although, fortunately for the wild creatures, little of this kind of hunting is now permitted. the desire to get out of doors and live for a time each year among the wild mountains is another instinct which comes to us from our savage forefathers. this is a beneficial instinct, for life in the fresh air gives us new strength. the hunting instinct is not wrong in itself. it is the manner in which we hunt that is wrong. but how much finer it would be if, instead of using an outing as an excuse to destroy the wild creatures, we should use it to learn about them and their curious ways. how much more real pleasure there is in studying the habits of the denizens of the woods and fields than there is in killing them! many a boy wants to carry a gun, because he has read lurid stories of indians and robbers, or of hunting in the jungles where lions and tigers abound. this often leads to the killing of harmless birds for the lack of bigger game. boys should be taught either at home or in school the sacredness of life, and a feeling of pity and love for the wild creatures that are surrounded by enemies on every side. they should be taught that animals have feelings and that they want to live. they should be taught how wrong it is to destroy life uselessly. the nest of eggs or helpless young left to their fate through the thoughtless killing of a mother bird is a sight which must arouse the sympathy of every boy who has been taught what it means. [illustration: _eastman kodak company_ the only right way to hunt birds' nests--with a camera.] the killing of the mothers is the surest way to destroy a species. the laws in most of our states now regulate hunting during the breeding season and limit the number of wild animals or birds that may be taken in a given time. whenever the numbers of any species become so reduced that it is in danger of extinction, all hunting of that species should be prohibited for a number of years. we should feel sorry for those men who live in a civilized land and get the benefit of its advantages and yet are worse than savages at heart. if these men who are so wasteful of wild life could be stripped of their destructive weapons and sent into the wilds to make their living as savages do, they would soon learn to be more careful. the animals prey upon each other because it is their nature to do so and because their lives depend upon it. savages hunt because they must have food. we do not need to hunt, but, because of our higher intelligence, our hunting methods are far more destructive than are those of either animals or savages. chapter twenty-seven what is happening to the animals and birds nature has done more for our land than for almost any other. she has given it vast forests, fertile soil, favorable climate, enormous water power, many minerals, and a wonderful variety of animal life. during all the centuries that the indians lived here before the coming of white men, wild game furnished them their chief food, but in spite of this, the amount of game was not decreased. when our forefathers landed upon this continent, it fairly swarmed with animals and birds. with the clearing away of the forests and the settling of the prairies men could not help depriving many wild creatures of both their shelter and their food, but this was not the chief cause for their rapid decrease in numbers. hunters followed them persistently into the wilder hills and mountains, and many, not needed for food, were killed for their furs. [illustration: "there is no recovery of an extinct species. conservation or devastation--which shall it be? common sense demands the regulation of hunting in such a way that our wild life will persist as a permanent asset." _western wild life call_, published by the california associated charities for the conservation of wild life.] now we may travel for days through the remote and still unsettled parts of our country and see very little life of any kind except birds and the smaller animals, such as squirrels. occasionally we may start up a deer that flees away from us like the wind. still more rarely we come upon a bear and are fortunate if we get even the merest sight of him before he is gone. the fear of man has spread among all the wild creatures. there is good reason for this fear, because man has completely exterminated some species and so reduced the numbers of others that careful protection will be needed to save them. travelers tell us that in those lands where man rarely goes the wild creatures have little fear of him. [illustration: _l. a. huffman, miles city, mont._ why the buffalo have nearly disappeared from the land.] the story of the slaughter of the buffalo is known to us all. once this noble animal roamed from the alleghenies to the rocky mountains. countless thousands were killed merely for their hides, and other thousands were killed for sport. finally, when they were almost gone, people awoke to the importance of saving them. several small herds, not more than a few hundred in number, that had escaped the hunters were placed under protection and now they are slowly increasing. [illustration: _american museum of natural history_ a group of roosevelt elk.] the grizzly, king of bears, was once abundant in parts of the rocky mountains and upon the pacific slope, but now he is found only in the yellowstone park region. the man who killed the last specimen in california is proud of his great achievement. of all the elk which once spread over the western part of our country, only a few remain outside of the yellowstone region. a protected herd exists in the san joaquin valley, california, and another small herd roams through the wilder parts of the northern coast ranges. the antelope, so common on the plains only a few years ago, are all gone except for small, scattered herds in the more remote parts of the west. of the many fur-bearing animals which once inhabited the northwest, beavers were the most widespread and abundant. their pelts were so valuable that they were used as money. for many years the trapping of these little animals was an important industry, until at last they were practically exterminated in every stream throughout the western half of the country. a few beaver are known to remain in the yellowstone park, where they are of course carefully protected. in oregon a few escaped and have been carefully protected for some years. in certain places they are now quite abundant. in parts of new england and canada they are now increasing under the protection of the game laws. the sea otter, now extremely rare, is so highly valued for its fur that it soon may become extinct, although completely protected by law. [illustration: _new york zoölogical society_ a beaver and its lodge.] the passenger pigeon, whose flights almost covered the sky at times not more than forty years ago, and whose numbers seemed so great that no one believed it possible of extermination, is now gone forever. the extinction of these birds was due chiefly to their being slaughtered at their roosting places. the california condor, one of the largest of birds, is almost extinct. the prairie chicken has disappeared from the prairies and plains. certain species of grouse, and especially the sage grouse, mountain quail, and others, which inhabit sparsely settled regions, are thought to be still holding their ground, but should be more carefully protected. the valley quail is, however, much reduced in numbers; while ducks, geese, and smaller shore birds are decreasing with each succeeding year. even in the jungles of far-away africa, where we would think the animals are exposed to little danger of extinction, some of them, such as the elephant, are in urgent need of protection. in the far north the great polar bear will not long survive unless rigidly protected. what terrible scourge has so suddenly come upon the birds and animals that once adorned our country? how is it that in the short space of fifty years many of them have almost disappeared from their ancient haunts? we feel like hiding our faces in shame, for it is the same man scourge that for many hundreds of years has been destroying the forests, the animals, and the birds of many other countries. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a california condor.] the helplessness of all the wild creatures before man's destructive weapons should arouse our sympathy, if nothing else does. leaving out of account a few predatory animals that destroy large numbers of other animals, we should most earnestly try to protect those that remain. the beauty of the birds, their sweet music, the companionship which they afford, and, last but not least, their great value to the farmer and fruit grower, should arouse our earnest efforts in their behalf. in our country alone an army of five million men and boys go out to hunt wild creatures every year. the animals are so defenseless against man's weapons that it is not a fair fight, in which the quicker or sharper escape, but a slaughter. if these hunters were savages armed only with bows and arrows, then the wild creatures would have a chance for their lives. besides, savages do not kill for sport, nor do they purposely destroy nature's most valuable gifts to them. the forest that has been cut down will grow again. the soil that has been made poor will, if let alone, sometime become fertile again. but those species of birds, animals, and fish which we have completely destroyed will never be restored to us. [illustration: _nat'l ass'n audubon societies_ the sage grouse, which is in danger of extinction.] chapter twenty-eight the tragedies of milady's hat and cape our savage ancestors depended largely for food upon animals, birds, and fish which they obtained. they used the skins and furs for clothing and the plumes for decorating themselves. they allowed no part of the bodies of the animals they killed to go to waste. we do not now have to depend upon the wild creatures for food, because our flocks and herds supply all that we require. but dame fashion has decreed that furs and feathers are still the proper thing to wear. thus it has come about that those animals that have soft, furry coats and those birds that have bright plumage are hunted more eagerly now than they were long ago when food was the most important thing. the demand for furs has always been great and the trapping industry has employed thousands of men ever since our land was discovered, but in recent years feathers have become almost as important. no region where fur-bearing animals have their lairs, or birds of beautiful plumage have their nests, is too far away or too difficult for the hunters and trappers to go and hunt. the business of killing wild creatures for money makes beasts out of men and has led to most heartless cruelties. the savage, hunting for food, kills his prey at once; but the fur trapper with a circuit which takes sometimes a week to cover often has to leave his prey, tortured in the traps, until it starves to death. if the wearer of that handsome warm fur coat could know what was, perhaps, the story of the wild creature to which it once belonged, would she enjoy it so much? could the wearer of that gay hat, for the making of which not only a mother bird, but perhaps a whole family of little ones, gave up their lives, take so much pleasure in it if she knew the history of its plumes? it is not the desire for warm furs about our necks or for beautiful feathers in our hats that is wrong. it is the needless suffering that those who hunt and trap cause the wild creatures that we should be ashamed of and insist upon having stopped. the work of the trapper and hunter is nearly done. these men have despoiled for money the life of a whole continent in a few short years. the fur-bearing animals, if hunted in moderation, would have continued to people the wilds for all time to come. but neither the wearer of furs nor the hunter has given one thought to their preservation. in the getting of bird plumage for millinery purposes we find cruelties practiced which are almost beyond our belief. the lowest savage that ever lived on the earth could be no worse than many of our bird hunters. birds have habits which make them easier to kill than fur-bearing animals. although the modern fashion for feathers began less than fifty years ago, the birds that afford bright and graceful plumage have already been nearly exterminated. now most of them are protected in our country, and the sale of feathers from other countries is prohibited in our markets. but there are some places where the law is not enforced, as well as many other countries where there are no laws, and thoughtless women still wear plumes. to supply the demands of fashion all the remote lands as well as islands of the sea are being searched. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ young great blue herons in their nest.] the slaughter began with the bright-colored songbirds, terns, gulls, herons, egrets, and flamingos. then it extended to other sea birds, including the albatross, to bright-colored tropical birds, and to the wonderful birds of paradise. how true is the following statement made in a millinery store: "you had better take the feather for twelve dollars," said the clerk, "for it is very cheap at that price. these feathers are becoming scarce and very soon we shall not be able to secure them." here is milady's beautiful cape glistening with all the colors of the rainbow. of what is this gorgeous thing made? would you believe it possible that it is formed entirely of humming birds' skins, with the heads and long, slender bills? perhaps a thousand of the tiny birds were sacrificed that some woman might have a beautiful cape. does it seem possible that any gentlewoman could wear this cape, who had any realization of the tragedies that had to take place in humming-bird life in order that it might be made? could she wear this cape if she knew of the forsaken nests and the hundreds of dying young ones waiting for the mothers that never returned? [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ forster's tern or sea swallow on its nest. the wings and tail of this bird are used for millinery purposes.] but more terrible, if anything, than the story of the humming-bird cape is the story of the delicate egret plumes on yonder hat. they once adorned the mother bird at nesting time in some far marsh. the feathers are almost perfect at this time, and to get them the bird must be killed. each bunch of egret feathers represents a family tragedy,--a nest of little birds left to die, because the mother has been sacrificed to satisfy the demands of fashion. the plume hunters invade the nesting places of the egrets, herons, and flamingos, often leaving not a single bird in what were once happy colonies, except the starving little ones. millions of these plumes have been obtained along our seacoasts and about the interior lakes and marshes. is it any wonder that the egrets are nearly extinct as a result of this merciless slaughter? now, when it is almost too late, protection has been given these beautiful birds. bird refuges have been established at different favorable points along the south atlantic and gulf coasts and in the klamath and malheur lake regions of oregon. these refuges are watched over by wardens, and we hope that the birds inhabiting them will thus be enabled to increase and again fill the almost forsaken marshes. in our plea for the protection of the birds of attractive plumage, we must not forget those of the tropical jungles. remote as many of these jungles are, the plumage hunter is devastating them already. the bird of paradise, found in the east india islands, will soon be extinct unless protected. chapter twenty-nine the court of the animals and birds once upon a time, not very long ago, the birds and animals were brought into court to be tried on the charge of committing all sorts of misdeeds. some of their accusers wanted to shoot them for food. others said they did much harm and should be destroyed, while still others envied their beautiful coats of fur or feathers. to settle the matter fairly, the judge decided that each prisoner should be tried by itself. the first case called was that of the english sparrow, who made such a noisy disturbance that the bailiff had to call for silence. all witnesses asserted that the bird was a foreigner and did not belong in this country. they further testified that the sparrow was a meddlesome, gossiping neighbor, always fighting the other birds and driving them away. the sparrow looked around, but not a single friend could he find. the court decided that he should be driven out and made the lawful prey of every one. he cautioned all present, however, always to be very careful to distinguish between the english sparrow and the other sparrows. the latter birds must on no account be molested, for they were without any exceptions most useful citizens. in regard to the linnet the judge hardly knew what to say. the bird was shown to be a sweet singer, but very destructive of fruit. it was finally decided that a census of the linnets must be taken occasionally. whenever their number was found to be so great as to endanger the fruit crop in any particular place, the farmers were to be allowed to dispose of a certain number. the bobolink had many friends as well as enemies present. every one that knew the bobolink in its summer home in the north insisted that this beautiful singer must be protected. but the people from the south, where it spends the winter, wished the privilege of shooting it. they said that its flesh formed a delicious morsel and also that in the rice fields, where it was known as the "rice bird," it did a great deal of harm. the judge refused to listen to the plea of the hunters and said that this attractive bird must be protected in both its winter and summer homes. the turn of the blue jay came next. every one wondered what the charge against this bird with the beautiful blue plumage could be. some thought that he was on trial for his discordant screeching, which alarmed all the inhabitants of the woods. the charge against the jay was, however, far more serious. he had been caught while making his breakfast of some baby birds which a mother robin had just hatched. the quail and every other small bird present called for vengeance on this ruthless destroyer of their homes. the gardener also added that the bird ate his cherries and apples. the jay now presented a strong defense, saying that most of his food was made up of harmful insects and worms. he proved that he did almost as much good as harm. the judge, knowing what a wise bird the jay was, told him to go but that he must thereafter look out for himself. the family of hawks was next examined. there were many witnesses who declared that they were the most destructive of neighbors and lived entirely upon small birds and chickens. the songbirds all raised their voices against hawks, saying that when they left their nests to hunt for food for their children, they were never sure of finding them alive upon their return. the judge inquired carefully as to the truth of these complaints, but found that only a few of the hawks were guilty as claimed. these included the peregrine falcon, sharp-shinned hawk, and cooper's hawk. the other hawks proved that they were the farmers' best friends, for they waged endless war upon mice, rats, ground squirrels, gophers, and rabbits, and only occasionally caught other birds. they had evidence also that in those places where their numbers had been much reduced by the hunters, the small rodents increased enormously. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ full-grown young red-tailed hawks.] the court had to be held at night to accommodate the owls and give them justice. the judge decided from the evidence that, in this family as in the last, there were good members as well as bad and he could not condemn them all to death. the owls proved that they were of even more benefit to the farmers than were the hawks, because of the large number of rats which they ate. the great horned owl and the barred owl only were singled out for punishment. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ the screech owl at home. this is a well-known bird, of great economic value because it catches so many mice.] the case of the meadow lark was called next. an old farmer complained that this bird had destroyed his young grain. then the hunters made the plea that the meadow lark was really a game bird and that they ought to be allowed to shoot it. in defense of these birds the stomachs of many of them that had been killed were shown in court. it was proved that two thirds of all their food was made up of harmful insects and that the farmers ought to be glad to have them about. it was further shown that if the insects killed by the meadow larks in one day in the san joaquin valley, california, were loaded on the cars and hauled away, it would take a train of twenty cars of ten tons each. the meadow lark, upon this showing, was allowed to go unmolested and at once began a happy carol. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a coyote, one of the keenest-witted animals of the western plains.] the grizzly bear had been summoned, but could not be found, for all of his species had been killed except a few in the yellowstone park. but the black bear was brought in and accused of eating young calves and colts. the stockmen asked that all the black bears be killed. the judge decided, however, that as there are so few left, and they are so timid and rarely do any harm, and are, besides, among the most interesting of the citizens of the woods, they should go free and be protected from the hunter. the coyote was next dragged in and accused of all manner of evil deeds. he pleaded in defense that he helped to keep down the numbers of the rabbits and ground squirrels, and that if it were not for his tribe, these little animals would eat up everything. the judge decided that the coyote was on the whole a rather unpleasant neighbor and refused to afford him any protection. every one knew, however, that the coyote was so sharp and keen that he was a match for most of the enemies about him and would get along very well. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a weasel in its summer coat.] those sly little animals, the skunk, weasel, coon, and mink, destroyed a great many birds, especially those that nested on or near the ground, according to the report of most of those present in court. but the skunk had some good friends who showed that his chief food was insects and worms, and that he did more good than harm. it was further proved that the fur of all these animals was so valuable that, while trapping them would be permitted, they must not be exterminated. in regard to the weasel, the testimony showed that he was a badly slandered animal. most of his food appeared to be rats and mice, and only rarely did he kill chickens. the judge added that these poor animals had too often been condemned offhand. although they occasionally ate chickens, no one had tried to find out the good which they did. to hear the complaints against the great california sea lion, the court adjourned to the seashore. the fishermen declared that the sea lion ate the fish upon which their livelihood depended, and also broke their nets. they demanded that all the sea lions be killed. careful search in the stomachs of some of them that had been taken for that purpose made it very clear that the fishermen were wrong. the sea lions ate almost no fish, but lived upon squid and other sea animals not valuable to the fishermen. as a result, these interesting animals were given full protection. the oyster farmers complained most indignantly to the court about the conduct of the wild ducks. they said that the ducks ate a large part of the young oysters on their oyster farms. they wanted the ducks shot without delay, for their business was almost ruined. this matter was carefully looked into, and it was proved that the ducks really ate very few oysters. the judge remarked as he adjourned court that if all the accusations were true, hardly a wild creature would be left. he said further that each one was entitled to fair treatment at the hands of men unless it was wholly bad. chapter thirty the birds our good friends and pleasant companions as we lie partly awake on some bright spring morning, we hear through the open window such a chorus of music that it seems almost as though we must be in some enchanted land. this music, however, is the songs of the birds that nest about our homes. we can distinguish in the chorus the notes of many different birds. from the treetop come the sweet songs of the oriole and robin. upon a low bush sits a black-headed grosbeak that never seems to weary of his refrain. from various hidden places in the dense foliage come the notes of the song sparrow and the lazuli bunting. from its perch upon some fence post the meadow lark adds to the cheerfulness of the morning. if your home is far enough south, you may hear the mocking bird pouring forth its melody in endless variation. rising above all other sounds, as the morning advances, are the cheery calls of the quail who seems to say: "where are you? where are you? stay right there; stay right there." both in the morning and in the evening the almost heavenly music of the thrush echoes through the deep woods. in the quiet night the hoot of the owls is most entertaining. would you for anything have the birds leave us? would you for anything lose these airy creatures whose music, bright plumage, and graceful movements not only add so much to the pleasure of our daily lives but also serve us in so many ways? the woods, fields, and waters would be lonely without them. did you ever think that it is possible, that it is indeed likely, that many of these beautiful creatures will leave us for all time if we do not treat them kindly and give them every protection in our power? did you ever think of all the enemies that are constantly on the watch for the birds,--the thoughtless boy who robs their nests, the angry farmer who mistakenly believes they injure him, the hunter who thinks only of how good they taste, the sleek cat lying so innocently by your fireside, which loves a bird above everything else, and last of all, the blue jay, butcher bird, and some of the hawks and owls? to realize how our home would seem without birds, let us take an imaginary journey far across the water to "sunny italy." here you will rarely hear bird music upon spring mornings, unless it be that of some poor caged creature. if you will walk through the country, you will see few birds where once they must have been abundant. but upon every holiday you will see the fields filled with hunters, who with keen eyes are watching for any stray birds that have happened to stop on their journey across the country to rest and to hunt worms or taste a bit of fruit. the italian does not know the good the birds do his garden and that it would be the part of wisdom for him to let them have a little of his corn and fruit. we will now journey to spain and learn something about the treatment of our bird friends there. this country was once rich and prosperous. from it came many of the early explorers of our own land. the people of the central highlands of spain never loved to hear the birds sing, because they were always thinking of the grain which the birds took. thinking to save their crops, they not only killed and scared away all the birds they could, but they also cut down the trees so that the birds would have no places to nest. thus the people freed themselves from the birds, but what was the harvest that they reaped? when the trees were gone they had no fuel, the soil dried out more quickly, and the insects increased until they destroyed far more of the grain and fruit than the birds could possibly have done. the people are now very poor and just manage to live from one harvest to another. now let us learn a little about our own birds and what they are doing for us. we ought to know the habits of all the common birds that frequent our gardens and be able to tell each by its note. this would add greatly to our pleasure when out of doors and make us appreciate the services they are rendering. go where you will through the open fields or among the trees and bushes, you will find different kinds of birds and all of them busily engaged. they are searching over every bit of ground as well as over the trunks, branches, and leaves of the trees. some are after the seeds of different kinds of weeds. others are getting the worms and insects that infest the trees. watch a flock of the little titmice going carefully over all the leaves and branches of an oak tree. when they have finished, there are few insects or their eggs left upon it. how anxious are some of our farmers as well as the sportsmen to have the meadow lark classed as a pest or as a game bird. would that the farmers knew how much good this bird does them! the stomachs of many of these larks have been carefully examined in order to find out what they really do eat. the contents show that more than half of the food of the meadow lark is made up of harmful insects, including beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, jerusalem crickets, cutworms, caterpillars, wireworms, bugs, bees, ants, wasps, flies, spiders, and many others. these birds also eat large quantities of the seeds of weeds and at times damage the grain fields. the good that they do, however, far outweighs the evil. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a young meadow lark.] woodpeckers belong to another class of birds that are very useful to us. how often have we heard them hammering upon a dead tree as they drill holes in search of the worms and beetles that are hidden under the bark or in the heart of the wood. it has long been the habit of hunters to shoot woodpeckers just for sport, although no one eats them nor are they known to do any harm. with a decrease in their numbers there has been an increase in insect pests which are now destroying so many trees in all parts of our country. the woodpeckers in the sierra nevada mountains are worth almost their weight in gold, for they destroy millions of beetles that are killing the great sugar pines and yellow pines. here and there you will find a tree, attacked by the beetles, from which the woodpeckers have almost stripped the bark in their search for these insects. the food of the martins and swallows is wholly made up of insects. we have all seen them in their graceful flight and have noticed how they seize their insect prey while on the wing. the martins are of little value for food, and yet, in some parts of our country they have become almost extinct because of the pursuit of them by pot hunters. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a barn swallow.] [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a least sandpiper or snipe, one of the shore birds.] the shore birds form a group of very great value. they include those long-legged birds with slender bills which are found, usually along the shores of the ocean and of lakes and small bodies of water, but sometimes in the interior away from the water. the food of these birds is almost wholly insects, which are harmful in various ways. among these insects are grasshoppers, army worms, cutworms, cabbage worms, grubs, horseflies, and mosquitoes. so cruelly and relentlessly have the shore birds been pursued by men who call themselves "sportsmen;" that many species are nearly extinct. we hope that the migratory bird law will be enforced and that with the protection this gives them they will again increase and fill their old haunts. but we must ever be on the watch, for there will still be greedy hunters trying to evade the law until all our boys grow up with love and appreciation for the birds. the killdeer, snipe, and other plovers, whose habits make them the most interesting of the shore birds, especially need our protection. we have all seen these birds in our walks along the shore. small and delicate their bodies are; each one would make scarcely a mouthful, and yet the pot hunters have seemed determined to kill them all. how many people ever think of the quail in any other light than as a delicious morsel to be served up on toast for dinner? the quail is not only useful because of the insects which it destroys, but is a most wonderfully interesting and attractive bird. if you have ever disturbed a mountain quail with a brood of young, you will never forget what an interesting sight the mother presented as she strutted back and forth on a log, warning her little ones to keep out of sight. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ a white heron.] quail eat over a hundred kinds of insects, and happy should be that farmer who can get them to come about his home. can you find it in your heart to shoot the father bird, as, perched upon some sightly point, he watches for danger while the mother just off the nest with her little brood feeds trustfully under his care? the hunting of quail for market is now prohibited by law. but before protection came market hunters were known to carry out the most cruel methods in order to bag the quail in large numbers. in the drier parts of our country, the springs where quail came to drink were covered until the thirsty birds gathered in large numbers. in this way the hunters were able to obtain all they wanted. [illustration: _finley & bohlman_ gulls and terns on their resting ground.] let us henceforth show by our kindness and good will to the living things around us that we are not merciless savages, thinking only of something to eat, but rather that we appreciate their presence and the great good that they do. chapter thirty-one how to bring the wild creatures back again in the preceding chapters we have learned something of the destructive warfare that men have carried on against wild creatures. we have learned that some species are already extinct and that many others have been so reduced in numbers that they are threatened with the same fate. nothing that we can do will bring back those that are gone, but we can save those that are left. throughout our own country as well as many foreign countries, people are waking up to the necessity of protecting wild life. thousands of men and women are spending their time and money trying to save birds and other animals. among the things they are doing is the establishing of refuges and game preserves, working for better laws, and teaching boys and girls to be careful of life and not wantonly to destroy it. the most important thing that we can do to bring wild creatures back again is to let them alone. man is their worst enemy, and, if he can be kept from hunting, nearly all will be able to take care of themselves and increase in numbers. we can help nature by supplying them with food when it is scarce and by protecting them from a few predatory animals and birds. the worst of these are the cougar or mountain lion, wild cat, lynx, wolves, and coyotes; the blue jay, butcher bird, and several of the hawks and owls. the cougar is the worst of all, for it has been estimated that one of these animals kills on the average fifty deer a year. many of the states offer bounties for the killing of the mountain lion and coyote. ordinarily birds are able to secure their own food; but sometimes during long, snowy winters those that do not fly away south need food. there are also many trees which bear fruit that is not much used by us but which is very attractive to the birds. the planting of such trees aids in bringing birds to our homes and encourages their increase. [illustration: we can help to conserve bird life by providing safe nesting places for our feathered friends.] the settlement of the lands suitable to farming has deprived some of the hoofed animals, such as the elk, of their natural feeding grounds. the elk that are found in the summer in the meadows of the yellowstone park migrate in winter to the lower valleys outside of the park. these valleys are mostly fenced up, and to keep the elk from getting into trouble with the farmers it is often necessary for the government to buy hay and feed them. in order to make sure that the wild animals shall be free to live and increase safe from the hunter, we have established great game preserves in different parts of the country. these are usually regions that are wild and unsettled and not useful for other purposes. all the great national parks which we are trying to keep in their natural condition with their animals, birds, and plants are now game preserves. among them are the yellowstone, yosemite, rainier, and crater lake parks. visitors to these preserves are not allowed to carry any guns, and wardens constantly patrol them. the life of the yellowstone park is wonderfully interesting. here we find droves of many of the animals that were in danger of becoming extinct. among them are the buffalo, elk, and antelope. here the grizzly and all the lesser bears are safe from the hunter. they have almost lost their fear of man and come about the camps and hotels for food, as the domestic animals do. in the park are some colonies of beaver, too, which will never again be disturbed by the fur hunter. on the higher peaks are a few rocky mountain sheep. another way in which we are protecting the wild animals is by making it legal to hunt them during only a short time each year. this is called the "open season." in the case of some of the animals that are nearly extinct we have made a "closed season" extending through a number of years. with this protection we are hoping that they will be saved and sometime become numerous again. all our states have made game laws which give more or less protection to the deer, elk, moose, antelope, squirrel, and other animals. in the case of some of these animals the females are absolutely protected, and the number of the males--as of the deer, for example--that may be killed in a season is often as small as two, and in two states it is only one. a heavy fine is imposed upon any one killing the protected animals or having their meat in his possession. we are trying to protect the birds in much the same manner as the wild animals. but because of their migrations this is much more difficult. many kinds of birds travel with the changing seasons from north to south across different countries. if the people of one country protect them and those of another do not, they may easily become exterminated. some species have become extinct in the last fifty years, and others have been reduced to a few pairs in regions where they were once seen in thousands. there are three things that have brought about this slaughter of the birds. the first is hunting them for food. this was not so serious until the market hunters began their work. then the small game birds that were salable quickly began to disappear. in most of our states the sale of game birds in the market is now prohibited. another cause for the decrease in the birds is the wanton shooting of some just for sport, and the hunting of others that are mistakenly supposed to be harmful. we cannot wholly stop this until we teach people to respect the birds, to love them for their music, and to appreciate the great good which many of them do by their destruction of insects and small animal pests. many of the birds which we have too often tried to kill or drive away are among the best friends we have. when we have learned all about their habits and their food, we shall find that only a very few are really harmful, and that the others abundantly repay the toll that they take of our produce. the farmer and the fruit grower should be particularly interested in protecting and encouraging the birds. if the birds pull up the sprouting seeds in your garden, do not kill them but protect the plants with wire screens. it is likely that these very birds feed largely upon the insects that are so harmful to your crops. if the children in our schools could spend a little of their time in the interesting study of bird life, we are sure that when they grow up the wanton destruction of birds will almost cease. the boy scouts and the camp fire girls are learning to love and respect life in the wilds and would not for anything injure its inhabitants. the children of the agassiz associations and the junior audubon societies can also be proud of the work they are doing. they are not only saving the birds about our homes but are attracting others by putting out food, planting trees that bear attractive fruit, and making nesting places for the birds. [illustration: _american forestry association_ the boys who are going to see that our wild life is protected.] the third important thing which has been bringing about the decrease of the birds is hunting them for their plumes. for fifty years the demand for plumes for millinery purposes has been growing. the trade has spread until it now reaches the most remote islands of the sea. no bird, be its home in the most remote and inaccessible jungles, has until recently been safe from the plume hunter. now some of the foremost nations have passed laws for the protection of many of the water and jungle birds, which, unfortunately for themselves, are so beautiful that milady longs to have them for her bonnet. nearly all the states of our own land offer more or less protection to birds of beautiful plumage. there is, however, much yet to be done, for in parts of our country birds that should be protected are still at the mercy of the plume hunter. the migratory bird law recently passed by congress is one of the most important things which we have ever done for the birds. this law protects the multitude of water birds as well as land birds, that migrate with the changing seasons. it is especially important that all such birds be protected in the regions where they nest. in the case of the water birds the nests are often grouped in colonies in certain places and not scattered singly here and there as with most land birds. thus when a colony, say of the heron, tern, or flamingo, is found it is very easy for the hunter to break it up and destroy all the birds. among the water birds the gulls, terns, grebes, herons, egrets, osprey, flamingos, and pelicans have been so hunted for their plumes that some of them are almost extinct. several of these species love the rocky coasts, where their nests are found upon the almost bare ledges of the cliffs. others establish colonies about the marshy lagoons of the gulf and south atlantic coasts and about the marshy shore of the lakes of the interior. during recent years many bird refuges have been established in various parts of the country. such refuges are now scattered all along the atlantic and gulf coasts, as well as at various other localities throughout the country which are favorite nesting places for the birds. some of these refuges have been established and are guarded by the government; others have been donated by wealthy persons who love birds and want to see them preserved. [illustration: _e. r. sanborn, n. y. zoölogical society_ a flock of wild duck.] the most beautiful of the water birds have been so relentlessly hunted by the plume gatherers that at the time of the establishment of the refuges some of them were almost extinct and it was feared the birds would not be able to survive. but in most cases the effect of protection was magical. the bird refuges in the southern coast islands and marshes which were almost deserted are now alive again with birds. here we can get some idea of the wonderful richness of life before the bird hunters began their work. even now, in spite of the watchful patrols, the hunters sometimes succeed in getting at the colonies. in order to insure full protection the refuges must be extended and more patrols employed, for such is the value of the plumes that desperate men will undergo great risks for the sake of obtaining them. in order fully to stop this work, all those countries where plumes are in demand must forbid their sale. only when there is no more demand can we get rid of the hunters. in our efforts to protect bird life, we must not forget to take into account the instincts of our friend pussy. it hardly seems as though the quiet house cat could do much harm, but if you will watch one out of doors when the birds are around you will be convinced that pussy is one of the worst enemies that small birds have. cats destroy many thousands of birds throughout the country. it is believed that they each average at least fifty birds killed every year. if you will multiply this number by the number of cats in your neighborhood, you will get some idea of the great losses among the birds due to the cats. we must choose between pussy and the birds. arbor day and bird day in our schools help call to mind the claims nature has upon us. we might celebrate them by planting trees which furnish food that the birds like, for the trees and birds go together. how pleasant it will be when that happy time comes in which the wild creatures will cease to regard man as their worst enemy! how pleasant it will be to go out through the fields and woods and along the shores and find that they look upon us as friends! the preceptor's plea for the birds plato, anticipating the reviewers, from his republic banished without pity the poets; in this little town of yours, you put to death, by means of a committee, the ballad-singers and the troubadours, the street musicians of the heavenly city, the birds, who make sweet music for us all in our dark hours, as david did for saul. the thrush that carols at the dawn of day from the green steeples of the piny wood; the oriole in the elm; the noisy jay, jargoning like a foreigner at his food; the bluebird balanced on some topmost spray, flooding with melody the neighborhood; linnet and meadow lark, and all the throng that dwell in nests, and have the gift of song. you slay them all! and wherefore? for the gain of a scant handful more or less of wheat, or rye, or barley, or some other grain, scratched up at random by industrious feet, searching for worm or weevil after rain! or a few cherries, that are not so sweet as are the songs these uninvited guests sing at their feast with comfortable breasts. do you ne'er think what wondrous beings these? do you ne'er think who made them, and who taught the dialect they speak, where melodies alone are the interpreters of thought? whose household words are songs in many keys, sweeter than instrument of man e'er caught! whose habitations in the treetops even are halfway houses on the road to heaven! think, every morning when the sun peeps through the dim, leaf-latticed windows of the grove, how jubilant the happy birds renew their old, melodious madrigals of love! and when you think of this, remember too 'tis always morning somewhere, and above the awakening continents, from shore to shore, somewhere the birds are singing evermore. think of your woods and orchards without birds! of empty nests that cling to boughs and beams as in an idiot's brain remembered words hang empty 'mid the cobwebs of his dreams! will bleat of flocks or bellowing of herds make up for the lost music, when your teams drag home the stingy harvest, and no more the feathered gleaners follow to your door? what! would you rather see the incessant stir of insects in the windrows of the hay, and hear the locust and the grasshopper their melancholy hurdy-gurdies play? is this more pleasant to you than the whir of meadow lark, and its sweet roundelay, or twitter of little fieldfares, as you take your nooning in the shade of bush and brake? you call them thieves and pillagers; but know they are the winged wardens of your farms, who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, and from your harvests keep a hundred harms; even the blackest of them all, the crow, renders good service as your man-at-arms, crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, and crying havoc on the slug and snail. henry w. longfellow, _the birds of killingworth_ index abandoned farms, 52. acacia tree, gum arabic made from, 95. adobe soil, 58. æolian soil, 66. africa, need for protection of animals in, 180. agassiz associations, work of, 207. air, importance of pure, 10. alaska, protection of fish in waters about, 170. alkali soil, 59. alluvial soil, 64. animals, the first domestic, 5; careless destruction of, 12, 49; court of birds and, 188-194; predatory, 203. antelope, disappearance of, 179; in yellowstone park, 205. appalachian forest, the, 133-134. arabs, life of the, 25. arbor day, celebration of, 210; argentine ant, a plague, 153. australia, rabbits as pests in, 152. aztec indians, 20. bacteria in soil, 59-60. balance of nature, 151; effects of upsetting, 151-154. barren lands, 101. bears, in early times, 21; in yellowstone park, 205. beaver, trapping of, 179; protection of, 205. big trees of california, 49, 99. bird day, observance of, 210. bird of paradise, nearly extinct, 187. bird refuges, 187, 208-209; patrols for, 209-210. birds, 21; extinct species of, 22; destruction of, 49, 176-182; hunting of, for millinery purposes, 183-187; court of the, 188-194; our good friends and pleasant companions, 195-202; predatory, 203; national protection of, 205-206. black bears, case of the, 192-193. blue jays, 189. bobolink, friends and enemies of, 189. bone, implements of, 3. boy scouts, love of, for wild creatures, 207. broad-leaved and narrow-leaved trees, 98. bronze, making of, 5. browntail moth, 152. buffaloes, 21; slaughter of, 177; in yellowstone park, 205. california, forests of, 49, 98; "big trees" of, 99. california condor, disappearance of, 180. camp fire girls, love of, for wild creatures, 207. camping parties, forest fires started by, 122. canada, beaver in, 179. canada balsam, 93. canals, use of water for, 87. cats, killing of birds by, 210. chesapeake bay, fisheries of, 167. chestnut-tree blight, 107. china, results of destruction of vegetation in, 79-80. christmas decorations, 149. cigarettes, forest fires caused by, 122. citrus canker, 109. "city on the plain, the," 14. clay, a part of soil, 58. clay loam, 58. closed season for hunting, 205. coal, care necessary in use of, 12; unequal distribution of, 27; deposits and mining of, 155-156; waste connected with, 156-157. cod fisheries, 170. codling moth, 153. colorado river, mud carried by, 73; use of water of, for irrigation, 87. cone-bearing trees, 98; enemies of, 110. conservation, meaning of, 8. conservation commissions, 138. coon, arguments for and against the, 193. cotton-boll weevil, 153. cougar, a predatory beast, 203. coyotes, killing of, 152; defense of, 193. crater lake national park, 140. deer, killed by cougars, 203. deltas of rivers, 43, 55; alluvial soil in, 64. desert, results of lack of vegetation in the, 70-71. digger pines, 99. ducks, complaints of oyster farmers against, disproved, 194. egrets, killing of, 185, 187. electricity, harnessing of, 8; use of water for making, 88. elephant, urgent need of protection of, 181. elk, 21; hunting of, 179; feeding grounds of, 204. english sparrow, 153; should be driven out, 188. erie canal, 87. eskimos, the, 25; wood lacking among, 89. farmers, great value of work of, 51. feldspar, rock grains called, 63. fertilizers, 11; use of herring for, 167. field mice, plagues of, 151. fire, ignorance of early people concerning, 3; discovery of, 3. _see_ forest fires. fish, caring for, 14; protection needed by, 162-165. fish preserves, 169-170. fish traps, 22, 165-169. flamingos, killing of, 187. flowers, destruction of, 144-149. fool's gold, 63. forest fires, 110-111, 119-124; steps taken by national government to prevent, 131-138. forest rangers, work of, 134-137. forests, effect of cutting down of, on birds, 22; unequal distribution of, 26-27; destruction of, 34; effect of destruction of, on soil, 37-38, 40-42; possible restoration of, 47-49; importance of, to man, 89-95; location of, 96-103; special sources of damage to, 104-111; various methods by which wasted, 112-118; government protection of, 131-138; national parks and forests as playgrounds, 139-143. france, cutting of forests and careless pasturing in, 79. fruit trees, enemies of, 107, 109. fuel, use of wood for, 90; use of peat for, 155. fur seals, destruction of, 165. game preserves, 204-205. gas, waste connected with, 157-161. glacial soil, 65. goats, forests injured by, 111. grand cañon national park, 140. grasshoppers, plagues of, 109, 151. great plains, 96. grizzly bears, destruction of, 179, 192; in yellowstone park, 205. gusher in california oil field, 158, 159. gypsy moth, 106-107, 151. hardwood trees, 98. hawks, arguments for and against, 189-190. "heart of the tree, the," 139. hens, early ancestors of, 5. herons, hunting of, for their plumage, 185. herring, waste in capture of, 166-167. hessian fly, 153. houses, the first, 3. huckleberry shrub, cutting of, 147, 149. humming birds, use of skins of, for capes, 186. humus, in soil, 57; destruction of, by forest fires, 123, 125. indians, life of, 19-23; uses found by, for wood, 90; fishing methods of, 163. insect enemies of trees, 106, 109, 110, 152-154; warfare waged against, by forest rangers, 136-137; eaten by birds, 197-202. "in the heart of the woods," 24. iron, found in quartz sand, 58. irrigation, storage of water for, 84, 85, 87. italy, results of destruction of forests in, 77, 79; wild chestnuts valued in, 90; scarcity of birds in, 196. jays, arguments for and against, 189. jungle fowls, wild, 5. junior audubon societies, work of, 207. klamath lake, bird refuge about, 187. korea, results of destruction of vegetation in, 79-80; dikes built along rivers in, 80. lightning, an enemy of the forest, 110-111; fires started by, 121. limestone soils, 59. loam, clay and sandy, 58. lobsters, protection of, 167. los angeles, water supply of, 29-30. lumber, an important use of trees, 90. lumbering, waste of trees in, 114-118. malheur lake, bird refuge about, 187. maple sugar, 93. martins, insects eaten by, 199. meadow larks, 191-192. medicinal products from trees, 93, 95. metals, discovery of, 4-5. mica, in quartz sand, 58. migrations of birds, 205-206. migratory bird law, 200, 208. mills, the first, 7. mineral resources, destruction and new supply of, 49-50. mink, points against and in favor of, 193. mississippi valley, rich prairies of, 53-54. mistletoe, an enemy of trees, 107. mocking bird, song of, 195. mongoose, as a pest, 153, 154. montenegro, results of destruction of soil in, 79. national forests, 133-139. national parks, 19, 139-143; are game preserves, 204-205. nets, catching of fish in, 167, 169. new england, soil of, 51-53; gypsy and browntail moths in, 152; beaver in, 179. newfoundland banks, fisheries of, 170. nitrogen, in soil, 57; stored in soil by plants, 77. norway rat, 153. oil, waste connected with, 157-161. open season for hunting, 205. orange orchards, citrus canker in, 109. oregon, protection of beaver in, 179; bird refuges in, 187. owens river aqueduct, 29. owls, good and bad points of, 190-191. oysters, raised on oyster farms, 167. palestine, destruction of vegetation in, 79. panama canal, 87. passenger pigeon, extermination of, 22, 180. "passing of the forest, the," 130. pear blight, 109. peat, crumbling vegetation called, 57; use of, for fuel, 155. peat soils, 58, 59, 66. phosphorus in soil, 59. pine beetles, 110. piñon pines, 99. plant food, 45, 60. plants, enemies of, 104-111. plumage, hunting of birds for, 183-187, 207-208. polar bear, protection needed by, 181. potash in soil, 59. powder, discovery of, 8. prairie chicken, disappearance of, 180. "preceptor's plea for the birds, the," 211-212. pueblo indians, 19-20. quail, need for protection of, to preserve from extinction, 180; cheery call of, 195; value and attractiveness of, 201; insects eaten by, 202. quartz, in sand grains, 58. quinine, made from cinchona tree, 95. rabbits, as pests, 152. rainier national park, 140. rats, plagues of, 151. redwood trees, 99. refuges for birds, 22. residual soil, 64. rocks, soil made from, 58, 61-66. rocky mountain sheep, in yellowstone park, 205. rubber trees, 93. sage grouse, need for protection of, 180. salmon fisheries, 169-170. san joaquin valley, 101. san josé scale, 109, 151, 153. santa catalina island, fish preserve about, 169. sea lions, 194. sea otter, destruction of, 22, 165; protection of, by law, 179. seals, fur, 22; hunting of, 165. sequoias, 99, 115. shad, decrease in numbers of, 169. sheep, damage done to forests by, 111. shingle makers, waste of trees by, 115. shore birds, value of, 200. sierra nevadas, "big trees" on, 49; changes in climate in ascent of, 101, 103; usefulness of woodpeckers in, 199. silt, 75. skunks, friends and enemies of, 193. soda in soil, 59. soil, care of the, 11-12; effect of destruction of forests upon, 37-38, 40-42; renewal of, by nature, 45; story of formation of, 51-56; real wealth of world formed by, 56; things of which made, 57-60; plant food in, 60; how made, 61-66; how vegetation holds, 67-72; our most valuable possession, 74; evil effects upon, of no protecting carpet of vegetation, 74-80; effect of, on growth of trees, 101. songbirds, hunting of, for their plumage, 185. southern states, destruction of soil in, 77; turpentine from pine forests of, 93. spain, waste of resources of, 25-26; results in, of loss of soil, 79; treatment of birds in, 196. spruce forest, destruction of, by forest fires, 126. squirrels, nuts of trees eaten by, 109; ground, as pests, 152. stone, implements of, 3. sturgeon, destructive fishing of, 167. subsoil, 64. sugar pines, 99; nuts of, eaten by squirrels, 109; careless cutting of, 115. swallows, insects eaten by, 199. switzerland, care of wood in, 93, 114. syria, destruction of vegetation in, 79. tamarack forests, use of, 126. trees, destruction of, 12; importance of, to man, 89-95; distribution of, in united states, 96-103; enemies of, 104-111; the careless wasting of, 111-118. tundras of far north, 101. turpentine obtained from yellow pines, 93. valley lands, 40, 42; fertility of, 53; alluvial soil in, 64. vegetation, holding of soil by, 67-72; results of lack of, 73-80. walrus, nearly extinct, 165. water, obtaining of pure, 10-11; home of, the ocean, 81; use and care of, 81-88. water creatures, need for protection of, 162-170. water power, use of, 157. water supply, effect upon, of cutting of forests, 127-129. weasels, defense of, 193. white mountain forest, the, 134. white-pine blister, 107. wild flowers, necessity for care of, 144-149. wind, effect of, on soil, 65-66; an enemy of the forests, 110. wood alcohol, 117. woodpeckers, usefulness of, 198. yangtse-kiang, soil carried away by, 80. yellow sea, reason for name, 80. yellowstone national park, 140; a game preserve, 204-205; animal life in, 205. yosemite national park, 140. _new-world science series_ _edited by john w. ritchie_ trees, stars _and_ birds a book of outdoor science by edwin lincoln moseley _head of the science department, state normal college of northwestern ohio_ the usefulness of nature study in the schools has been seriously limited by the lack of a suitable textbook. it is to meet this need that _trees, stars, and birds_ is issued. the author is one of the most successful teachers of outdoor science in this country. he believes in field excursions, and his text is designed to help teachers and pupils in the inquiries that they will make for themselves. the text deals with three phases of outdoor science that have a perennial interest, and it will make the benefit of the author's long and successful experience available to younger teachers. the first section deals with trees, and the discussion of maples is typical: the student is reminded that he has eaten maple sugar; there is an interesting account of its production; the fact is brought out that the sugar is really made in the leaves. the stars and planets that all should know are told about simply and clearly. the birds commonly met with are considered, and their habits of feeding and nesting are described. pertinent questions are scattered throughout each section. the book is illustrated with 167 photographs, 69 drawings, 9 star maps, and with 16 color plates of 58 birds, from paintings by louis agassiz fuertes. it is well adapted for use in junior high schools, yet the presentation is simple enough for pupils in the sixth grade. _cloth, viii + 404 + xvi pages. price $1.60_ world book company yonkers-on-hudson, new york 2126 prairie avenue, chicago [illustration] elizabeth v. brown's nature and industry readers these books draw upon the world's best literature, and present well-selected nature material and stories of industry. they are adapted for use either as readers, or to supplement nature, geography, and history lessons. stories of woods and fields alluring stories of animals, with chapters on our national holidays for fourth and fifth grades. cloth. 192 pages. illustrated in _colors_. price 72 cents. when the world was young a fascinating story of the development of modern means of communication, transportation, agriculture, etc. affords material for supplementary history lessons. for fifth or higher grades. cloth. 160 pages. illustrated. price 64 cents. stories of childhood and nature stories of unusual interest, by some of the greatest and most gifted authors. much of the material is of pronounced geographic value. for fifth and sixth grades. cloth. 222 pages. illustrated. price 68 cents. world book company yonkers-on-hudson, new york 2126 prairie avenue, chicago [illustration: figure 1. an observation point for finding forest fires. vigilance is the watchword on the national forests. during 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. photo by the author] our national forests a short popular account of the work of the united states forest service on the national forests by richard h. douai boerker, m.s.f., ph.d. arboriculturist, department of parks, city of new york. with the united states forest service from 1910 to 1917. new york the macmillan company 1918 _all rights reserved_ copyright, 1918 by the macmillan company set up and electrotyped. published, september, 1918 _whom should this humble volume seek to honor but the father and mother whose unselfish devotion made possible both my education and my profession?_ the highest type of scientific writing is that which sets forth useful scientific facts in language which is interesting and easily understood by the millions who read. l. a. mann. preface forestry is a vast subject. it has to do with farm and forest, soil and climate, man and beast. it affects hill and valley, mountain and plain. it influences the life of cities, states, and nations. it deals not only with the manifold problems of growing timber and forest by-products, such as forage, naval stores, tanbark, and maple sugar, but it is intimately related to the navigability of rivers and harbors, the flow of streams, the erosion of hillsides, the destruction of fertile farm lands, the devastation wrought by floods, the game and birds of the forest, the public health, and national prosperity. the practice of forestry has, therefore, become an important part in the household economy of civilized nations. every nation has learned, through the misuse of its forest resources, that forest destruction is followed by timber famines, floods, and erosion. mills and factories depending upon a regular stream flow must close down, or use other means for securing their power, which usually are more expensive. floods, besides doing enormous damage, cover fertile bottom-lands with gravel, bowlders, and débris, which ruins these lands beyond redemption. the birds, fish, and game, which dwell in the forests, disappear with them. springs dry up and a luxurious, well-watered country becomes a veritable desert. in short, the disappearance of the forests means the disappearance of everything in civilization that is worth while. these are the lessons that some of the world's greatest nations have learned, in some cases through sad experience. the french people, after neglecting their forests, following the french revolution, paid the penalty. france, through her reckless cutting in the mountain forests, has suffered and is still suffering from devastating floods on the seine and other streams. over one million acres were cut over in the mountains, and the slash and young growth that was left was destroyed by fire. as a result of this forest destruction the fertility of over 8,000,000 acres of tillable land was destroyed and the population of eighteen departments was impoverished or driven out. now, although over $40,000,000 has been expended, only a very small part of the damage has been repaired. our own country has learned from its own experiences and from the experiences of nations like france. on a small scale we have endured the same devastating floods. forest fires in the united states have caused an average annual loss of seventy human lives and from $25,000,000 to $50,000,000 worth of timber. the indirect losses run close to a half a billion a year. like other nations, we have come to the conclusion that forest conservation can be assured only through the public ownership of forest resources. other nations have bought or otherwise acquired national, state, and municipal forests, to assure the people a never-failing supply of timber. for this reason, mainly, our own national forests have been created and maintained. the ever-increasing importance of the forestry movement in this country, which brings with it an ever-increasing desire for information along forestry lines, has led me to prepare this volume dealing with our national forests. to a large extent i write from my own experience, having come in contact with the federal forestry movement for more than ten years. my connection with the united states forest service in various parts of the west has given me ample opportunity to study every phase of the problem. i am attempting to chronicle a wonderful accomplishment by a wonderful organization of altruistic americans,--an accomplishment of which every american has reason to feel proud. few people realize that the bringing under administration and protection of these vast forests is one of the greatest achievements in the history of forest conservation. to place 155,000,000 acres of inaccessible, mountainous, forest land, scattered through our great western mountain ranges and in eighteen western states, under administration, to manage these forests according to scientific forestry principles, to make them yield a revenue of almost $3,500,000 annually, and to protect them from the ravages of forest fires and reducing the huge annual loss to but a small fraction of what it was before--these are some of the things that have been accomplished by the united states forest service within the last twenty years. not only is this a great achievement in itself, but few people realize what the solution of the national forest problem has meant to the millions of people who live near them; what it has meant to bring civilization to the great forested empire of uncle sam; what it has meant to change from a condition of unrestricted, unregulated misuse with respect to the public domain, to a policy of wise, regulated use, based upon the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number in the long run. in the early days before the forest service organization became established, the people were said to have "shot-gun titles" to timber or grazing lands on the public domain, and "might made right" in the truest sense of the word. this crude condition of affairs gave way to wise, conservative use under government control. just as the farmer each year sets aside a certain amount of his seed for next year's planting, just so the stockman saves his calves and cows and lambs for greater growth and each year sees a part of his herd maturing for market, and just so the forester, under the new system, cuts only the mature trees and allows the young timber to remain for greater growth and greater value in the future, or, in the absence of young trees, plants small trees to replace those removed. the people of the west are convinced that a great work has been done well and wisely. the people of the eastern states will soon realize that a similar forest policy, already inaugurated in the appalachian and white mountains, will mean every bit as much to them. if i succeed only in a small degree to make my reader appreciate the great significance of the national forest movement to our national economy, i will feel amply repaid for the time spent in preparing this brief statement. i am indebted to the forest service for many valuable illustrations used with the text, and for data and other valuable assistance. to all those who have aided in the preparation of this volume, by reading the manuscript or otherwise, i extend my sincere thanks. i am especially grateful to mr. herbert a. smith and others of the washington office of the forest service for having critically read the manuscript and for having offered valuable suggestions. richard h. douai boerker. new york, n. y., july 7, 1918. introduction forestry as a national problem the forest problem is, both locally and nationally, of vital internal importance. not only is wood--the chief product of the forest--indispensable to our daily life, but the forest plays an important rôle in regulating stream flow, thereby reducing the severity of floods and preventing erosion. for these reasons the preservation of forests ceases to be a problem of private or individual concern, but forthwith becomes a governmental problem, or, at best, an enterprise which should be jointly controlled by the national government and the individual states. _our consumption of wood._ it is often said that wood enters into our daily life from the time we are born until we die--from the cradle to the coffin. it is difficult to imagine a civilization without wood. in our country in a single year we use 90,000,000 cords of firewood, nearly 40,000,000,000 feet of lumber, 150,000,000 railroad ties, nearly 1,700,000,000 barrel staves, 445,000,000 board feet of veneer, over 135,000,000 sets of barrel headings, over 350,000,000 barrel hoops, over 3,300,000 cords of native pulp wood, 170,000,000 cubic feet of round mine timbers, nearly 1,500,000 cords of wood for distillation, over 140,000 cords for excelsior, and nearly 3,500,000 telephone and telegraph poles. in short, we take from our forests yearly, including waste in logging and manufacture, more than twenty-two billion cubic feet of wood valued at about $1,375,000,000. this is enough lumber to construct seven board walks twenty-five feet wide from the earth to the moon, a distance of about 240,000 miles, or a board walk one-third of a mile wide completely around the earth at the equator. these figures give a little idea of the enormous annual drainage upon the forests of the united states and immediately suggest an important reason that led to the establishment of our national forests. _the lumber industry._ measured by the number of persons employed, lumbering is the country's largest manufacturing industry. in its 48,000 saw mills it employs more than 600,000 men. its investment in these plants is over $1,000,000,000, and the investment in standing timber is $1,500,000,000 more. this industry furnishes the railroads a traffic income of over $200,000,000 annually. if we include in these statistics also the derived wood products, we find that over 1,000,000 wage earners are employed, and that the products and derived products are valued at over $2,000,000,000 annually. most certainly we are dealing with a very large business enterprise. _our future lumber supply._ you may ask, "what effect have the great annual consumption of wood and these large business interests upon the future supply of wood?" the most reliable statistics show that out of 5,200 billion feet of merchantable timber which we once possessed, only 2,900 billion feet are left. in other words, almost half of our original supply of timber has been used. besides, the present rate of cutting for all purposes exceeds the annual growth of the forests. even the annual growth is considered by many experts of unknown quantity and quality, to some extent offset by decay in virgin forests. the only logical conclusion to draw from this condition of affairs, if the present rate of consumption continues, is a timber shortage in so far as our most valuable woods are concerned. in view of this it is fortunate that the national government began to control the lumber and forest situation by the creation of national forests and the institution of scientific forestry practice. _forests and stream flow._ but the forests not only supply us with wood. for other reasons they deserve governmental consideration. the forests in the mountains control our streams, vitally affect the industries depending upon water power, reduce the severity of floods and erosion, and in this way are intimately wrapped up with our great agricultural interests. for this reason forestry is by nature less suited for private enterprise. in agriculture and horticulture the influence of the farm or the fruit crop rarely extends beyond the owner's fence. what i plant in my field does not affect my neighbors; they share neither in my success or failure. if by the use of poor methods i ruin the fertility of my farm, this fact does not influence the fertility of my neighbor's fields. but in forestry it is different. unfortunately, just as the sins of the fathers are visited upon their children, so the sins of the mountains are visited upon the valleys. [illustration: map showing the national forest areas in the west, the location of the proposed national forests in the east, and the area which the present national forests would occupy if they were all consolidated into one body in some of the well-known eastern states.] the mountainous slopes of the appalachian ranges and the steep, broken, granite ridges of the rockies, the sierras, and the cascades are the sites most suited in our country for forestry purposes. the appalachian ranges have been affected most by the reckless cutting of forests. when these mountains were clothed with forests, the rivers ran bank full, ships came to the harbors at low tide with ease, and factories and cotton-mills ran steadily all year long. since the destruction of these forests the surrounding country has suffered from alternate floods and droughts; great manufacturing centers have lost their steady supply of water; harbors are filled with silt from the mountain sides; and fields, once fertile, are covered with sand, gravel, and débris, deposited by the ungovernable stream. these forests belonged to private individuals who disposed of the timber and pocketed all the profits, while the community below suffered all the loss. in other words, private ownership is inadequate since private interest and private responsibility are not sufficiently far-reaching and far-sighted. _forests and erosion._ erosion is one of the most serious dangers that threaten our farms both by transporting fertile soil and by covering the bottom-lands with sand, gravel, and débris. since we are largely an agricultural people, the importance of this problem will be readily appreciated. over 50 per cent. of our population is rural, and the annual production of farm crops has a value of over $5,500,000,000. farm uplands are washed away or eroded by high water, and high water is largely caused by the destruction of the forests on the mountain slopes. with the forest cover removed, there is nothing to obstruct the flow of water down the mountain sides. raindrops beating on the bare soil make it hard and compact so that most of the water runs off instead of being absorbed by the subsoil, with the result that a heavy rain storm rushes down through the valleys in a few days instead of a few weeks, tears out the river banks, floods the lowlands, and deposits upon them the rocks and gravel carried down from the mountains. the most effective means for preventing the erosion and destruction of our farmlands is by the wise use of the forests at the headwaters of the rivers. [illustration: figure 2. a typical national forest landscape in the high mountains. potosi peak, 13,763 feet, from yankee boy basin, uncampahgre national forest, ouray county, colorado.] _forestry a public enterprise._ from what has been said it will be seen that forestry is a national business rather than an individual's. moreover, it is of such a protracted nature, reaching continuously into such long periods of time, demanding so many years of time and patience to see the expected and promised results, that an individual would not live to see the success of his labors. the individual becomes easily discouraged and is especially affected by financial conditions. the government, on the other hand, having unlimited resources at its command can more readily afford to wait for results. in fact every consideration of national welfare urges the government to carry it on; it is a sure source of revenue, there is none less fluctuating, and it is closely connected with the manifold industries of life. its chief product is wood, without which the human race, so far, has not succeeded in managing its affairs, and which will therefore always have a sale value. the extent and character of our national forests _how the government obtained the national forest lands._ probably the first question that will occur to my reader concerning the national forests is, how did the government acquire them? to answer this question we have but to turn back the pages of history to the close of the revolutionary war. following this war, our country started on its career of continental conquest. this conquest was largely a peaceful one because most of the western country was acquired by treaty or purchase, thus: louisiana territory was purchased from france in 1803; texas applied for admission into the union in 1845; oregon territory was acquired by treaty from great britain in 1846; the present states of california, nevada, utah, new mexico, and arizona were ceded to us as a result of the mexican war in 1848; and the gadsden purchase was obtained from mexico in 1853 and added to the territory of new mexico. then also alaska was finally purchased from russia in 1867. these large acquisitions, comprising together the western two thirds of the united states, were gradually divided into territories. later they became states, and were opened up to settlement and development by means of various land and mining laws and large railroad grants. the national forests are composed of the land most valuable for growing timber, that has not been acquired in some way by private individuals, in the western part of the united states. _the romance of the national forest region._ this vast expanse west of the mississippi river boasts of some of the wildest and most romantic scenery on the north american continent, and it is in the heart of this picturesque country that the national forests are located. this is the country in which owen wister, harold bell wright, stewart edward white, jack london, theodore roosevelt, and other authors have gotten their inspirations and laid their plots. to one who knows "the virginian," or "when a man's a man," or "the winning of barbara worth," or "the valley of the moon," nothing more need be said. to others i might say that my pen picture of that country is a very poor and very inadequate method of description. it is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep-herder, and the lumber-jack; a land of crude customs and manners, but, withal, generous hospitality. it is the country of the elk and the mule-tail deer, the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. its grandeur makes you love it; its vastness makes you fear it; yet there is an irresistible charm, a magic lure, an indescribable something that stamps an indelible impression upon the mind and that makes you want to go back there after you have sworn an oath never to return. this national forest empire presents a great variety of scenery, of forest, and of topography. the beautiful white pine forests of idaho and montana, the steep pineand spruce-clad granite slopes of the colorado rockies, and the sun-parched mesas of the southwest, with their open park-like forests of yellow pine, all have their individual charm. and after crossing the well-watered cascades and sierra nevadas we find forest scenery entirely different. the dense, luxuriant, giant-forests of the coast region of oregon and washington, bathed in an almost continual fog and rain, are without doubt the most wonderful forests in the world. and lastly, california, so far as variety of forest scenery is concerned, has absolutely no rival. the open oak groves of the great valleys, the arid pineand oak-covered foothills, the valuable sugar pine and "big-tree" groves of the moist mountain slopes, and the dwarfed pine and hemlock forests near the serrated crest of the sierras, all occur within a comparatively short distance of each other, and, in fact, may be seen in less than a day on any one of the many national forests in these mountains. _famous scenic wonders near the forests._ many of the beautiful national parks that have been created by congress are either entirely or partly surrounded by one or more of the national forests. these parks are a mecca to which hundreds of thousands of our people make their annual pilgrimage. most of these parks are already famous for their scenery, and, in consequence, the national forests surrounding them have received greater patronage and fame. the glacier national park in montana, the yellowstone in wyoming, the rocky mountain in colorado, the mount rainier in washington, the crater lake in oregon, the wind cave in south dakota, and the lassen peak volcanic park, the yosemite, general grant, and sequoia parks in california, are all situated in the heart of the national forest region. the highest and best-known mountain peaks in the united states are either located within or situated near the national forests, as, for example, rainier and olympus in washington; hood, baker, st. helens, jefferson, and adams in oregon; shasta, lassen, and whitney in california; and pikes peak in colorado. then there are the national monuments, of which there are eleven, all situated within one or more of the national forests. these were created under an act of congress for the preservation of objects of historic or scientific interest. the largest monument, and no doubt the most famous, is the grand canyon national monument located in the tusayan and kaibab national forests in arizona, comprising over 800,000 acres. the next largest is the mount olympus monument on the olympic national forest in washington, comprising almost 300,000 acres. other well-known monuments are the cinder cone and the lassen peak monuments on the lassen national forest in california, and the cliff dwellings on the gila national forest in new mexico. _the size and extent of the national forests._ with this brief introduction of the nature of the country in which the national forests are located, the reader will be interested to know something of the size of the forests and their total area. the total area varies slightly from time to time, due to the addition of lands that have been found to have value for forestry purposes, or to the elimination of lands found to be chiefly valuable for agricultural use. on june 30, 1917, there were 147 national forests with a total of 155,166,619 acres. thus the average national forest comprises about one million acres of government lands. the many private holdings scattered through the forests make the average gross area of each forest much greater. these forests are located in alaska, arizona, arkansas, california, colorado, florida, idaho, michigan, minnesota, montana, nebraska, nevada, new mexico, north dakota, oklahoma, oregon, porto rico, south dakota, utah, washington, and wyoming. besides these forests there have been acquired or approved for purchase under the weeks law over 1,500,000 acres in the states of georgia, maine, new hampshire, north carolina, south carolina, tennessee, virginia, and west virginia. these lands are now under protection and will gradually be consolidated into national forests. more lands are constantly being acquired in the eastern states in accordance with the weeks law. few people have any conception of what a gigantic empire the national forest domain is. if consolidated into one large compact area, the 155 million acres of national forests would cover an area larger than the combined areas of thirteen well-known eastern states, viz.: maine, vermont, new hampshire, massachusetts, connecticut, rhode island, new york, new jersey, pennsylvania, maryland, delaware, virginia, and west virginia (see map). this area is also one fifth larger than the entire area of france. we marvel sometimes at the ability of a ruler to rule a country as large as france or germany; why should we americans not marvel at the ability of the man who practically rules over our national forests, who keeps in perfect working order the great organization which protects and administrates the forests? _the topography and climate of the national forest region._ the difficulty of the work of this organization is at once apparent when we find that these forests are located in wild, rugged, mountainous country, in most cases many miles from the railroad and human habitations, such as towns and cities. this country is usually far above sea level--the average being between 3,000 and 8,000 feet in altitude. but there are large areas in the national forests of colorado that lie above 10,000 feet elevation. such country as this has a very severe climate. the climate is usually too cold and the growing seasons too short for the production of crops such as wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, etc. therefore, practically all of this land is what the forester calls "absolute forest land," that is, it is better adapted for growing timber crops than any other. another important fact about the national forests is that they are located, for the most part, on steep mountain slopes and at the headwaters of mountain streams. this makes them of vital importance in regulating the stream flow of our western rivers. in fact it is no exaggeration to say that all our large western rivers have their origin on national forest land. why the national forests were created aside from the great economic reasons why a nation should possess national forests, there are local reasons which pertain to the welfare of the home builder and home industries which are often of paramount importance. the timber, the water, the pasture, the minerals, and all other resources on the government lands in the west are for the use of all the people. and only by a well-regulated policy of sale or rental can these resources be disposed so as to give all individuals an equal opportunity to enjoy them. these vast resources have been estimated to have a value of over $2,000,000,000. but their value to the local communities can hardly be overestimated. the welfare of every community is dependent upon a cheap and plentiful supply of timber. if lumber, fence posts, mine props, telephone poles, firewood, etc., must be brought in from distant markets, the prices are usually very much higher. the regulation of the cut on each national forest assures a never-failing supply of timber to the home builder and to home industries. then also the permanence of the great live stock industry is dependent upon a conservative use of vast areas of government range. local residents are protected from unfair competition. lastly, the protection by the forest service of the forest cover in the western mountains assures a regular stream flow which is of vital importance for power, irrigation, and domestic purposes. [illustration: figure 3. the climate of most of the national forests is severe. this view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. most of the national forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. photo by abbey.] [illustration: figure 4. on many high mountains on the national forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. this view was taken in the latter part of august. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] perhaps the most comprehensive statement upon the purposes of the national forests and the methods and general policy of administering them is to be found in a letter by the secretary of agriculture to the forester, dated february 1, 1905, when the forests were turned over to the department of agriculture: "in the administration of the forest reserves it must be clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people, and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies. all the resources of the forest reserves are for _use_, and this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt and businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will insure the permanence of these resources. the vital importance of forest reserves to the great industries of the western states will be largely increased in the near future by the continued steady advance in settlement and development. the permanence of the resources of the reserves is therefore indispensable to continued prosperity, and the policy of this department for their protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, bearing in mind that the _conservative use_ of these resources in no way conflicts with their permanent value. "you will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the home builder first of all, upon whom depends the best permanent use of lands and resources alike. the continued prosperity of the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and live-stock interests is directly dependent upon a permanent and accessible supply of water, wood, and forage, as well as upon the present and future use of these resources under businesslike regulations, enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and common sense. in the management of each reserve local questions will be decided upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered first, but with as little restriction to minor industries as may be possible; sudden changes in industrial conditions will be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice, and where conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run." how the national forest policy has benefited the people this general policy, which was laid down by the secretary of agriculture, has been followed out, with the result that a great many benefits have been derived by the nation as a whole, by the individual states in which the national forests are located, and, lastly, by the local communities and users of the forests. _the remaining timber resources were saved._ first of all the timber, the forage, and the water-power on the public domain has been reserved for the whole people and not for a privileged few. before the forest reserve policy went into effect, the most valuable timber was being withdrawn from government ownership by the misuse of the public land laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudulently evaded. many claims were initiated apparently for the purpose of establishing a homestead but in reality for the purposes of securing the timber on the land and later to dispose of it to some large timber holder. every citizen is allowed to exercise his homestead right. big timber operators would secure the services of many dummy locators, pay the expenses of locating, improving, and perfecting the patent, and then buy the claim from these dummies for small sums. a large timber holder in california secured his hundreds of thousands of acres of timber land in this way. by instructing these men where to locate their claims he was able to secure more or less solid blocks of timber made up originally of 160 acre patches. these patches, which originally were bought by the lumber barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have a value of from $8,000 to as high as $20,000. the people of the united states have lost the difference. it is difficult to say where or how this wholesale misuse of the public land laws would have ended if it had not been for the inauguration of the national forest policy. since the government has taken full charge of its forest domain, this misuse has stopped. in fact many of the fraudulent claims located years ago are being investigated, and if they are found to have been initiated with intent to defraud the government, the land and the timber is returned to the national forest in which it is located. to-day the national forests contain about one fifth of the standing timber in the united states, an amount which will undoubtedly have a great effect upon the supply of timber available for future generations, especially since under present lumbering methods the privately owned timber lands are being practically destroyed, while the national forests are actually being improved by scientific management. four fifths of the standing timber is privately owned, and this is usually of much higher quality than the publicly owned timber. [illustration: figure 5. the big trees. "mother of the forest" in the background. north calaveras grove, california.] _the use of forage and water resources was regulated._ the forage and water resources of the public domain have been subject to similar abuse. before the national forest policy was put into effect the large ranges of the west were used indiscriminately by all. the range was subject to considerable abuse because it was used very early in the spring before the forage was mature, or too late in the fall, which prevented the forage from ripening its seed and reproducing for the next season. not the small, local stockmen, however, but the large sheep and cattle companies, many controlled by foreign capital, benefited by this condition of affairs. these "big men," as they were called, illegally fenced and monopolized large areas, varying in size from townships to entire counties. what chance would a local rancher with fifty or sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with perhaps 40,000 to 50,000 cattle? he was merely swallowed up, so to speak, and had no chance whatever to get his small share. "might made right" in those days, and it is said that if a man held any title or equity on the range it was a "shotgun" title. also, the sheep and cattle men had innumerable disputes about the use of the range which in many cases resulted in bloodshed. if a sheep man arrived first on the range in the spring with his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. the government owned the land and the forage but it had no organization in the field to regulate the use of it. it was indeed a chaotic condition of affairs and ended only after the inauguration of the present policy of leasing the lands under the permit system. these permits are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. the conservative and regulated use of the grazing lands under forest service supervision has resulted in better growth and better weights on stock and more actual profit. there are ample data that show that the national forests produce some of the best lambs that are put upon the market. data secured from the modoc national forest, california, in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents per head more and weighed an average of 10 pounds more than lambs produced outside the forest. weights taken of 10,000 head showed an average of 72 pounds for national forest lambs, while outside the forest average weights on 3,000 lambs showed only 62 pounds. the regulation of the length of the grazing season, the introduction of better methods of handling sheep, and the prevention of over-grazing are some of the forest service methods that produce better lambs. then also under the old system the valuable water-power sites were being rapidly eliminated from government ownership by large corporations who secured valuable property for a song. the national forests, however, still contain about one-third of the potential water-power resources of the united states and over 40 per cent. of the estimated power resources of the western states. and this vast wealth will not pass from the ownership of the united states but will be leased under long-term leases from which the government will receive yearly a fair rental. _the forests were protected from fire and trespass._ but not only have these large timber, forage, and power resources been put under administration for the use of the people. the protection of the national forests, which goes hand in hand with their administration, means a great deal to the local communities, the states, and the nation as a whole. until about twenty years ago the forests upon our public lands--the timber of the rocky mountains from montana to new mexico and of the pacific coast ranges from northern washington to southern california--seemed destined to be destroyed by fire and reckless, illegal cutting. nothing whatever was being done to protect them from fire or trespass. they were simply left to burn. when the people living near the public domain wanted any house logs, fence posts, or firewood, they went into the public domain and took them. the best trees were usually taken first. in california, especially, there was a common practice of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and cutting and splitting them into shakes to make a roof covering. then, too, much government timber was stolen by lumber companies operating in the vicinity of valuable government timber. after the land had been stripped of everything of value a fire was started in the slashing, which among other things burned the stumps and thus practically obliterated all evidence of trespass. had this destruction continued there would to-day have been little timber left in the west, and the development of the country which demands timber all the time, and not only at certain intervals, would have been retarded, if not stopped altogether. [illustration: figure 6. a scene on one of the famous national parks. upper lake, glacier national park, northern rockies, montana.] how terrible the forest fires were in this western country is well illustrated by what an old california settler once told me, and what i have heard repeatedly in many western states. he said: "in the years before the forest service took over the care and protection of the forests around here, the mountains within view of my ranch were not visible for many months at a time, being almost continually enveloped in smoke from the big forest fires that were raging in the forests all summer without ever being under control. they started in the spring as soon as it became dry and were not suppressed until the late fall rains and snows put them out." but he added with great enthusiasm, "since the service has taken charge the sky around here is as clear as crystal all summer. i never see any forest fires, not even smoke, because the rangers seem to get to them before they get to be of any size." such testimony as this speaks volumes for the efficiency of the present system of protecting the forests from fire. _the watershed cover was preserved._ the destruction of the forest cover on the watersheds feeding thousands of streams which rise in the western mountains would have had its bad effect on stream flow--low water during the long dry periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. this condition of affairs would have meant disaster to the systems of irrigation by which most of the western farmers raise their crops. it would also have seriously impeded and in many cases prevented electric power development, to say nothing of affecting the domestic water of many of our large western cities whose drinking water comes from the streams rising in the national forests. the protection of these valuable watersheds by the forest service from fire and destructive lumbering is of such vital importance to the welfare of the nation that it has been made one of the main reasons for establishing national forests. _civilization brought to the mountains._ what the national forest movement has done for settling and building up the western states can hardly be overestimated. it has brought civilization into the wilderness. roads, trails, telephone lines, and other modern conveniences have been brought to remote corners of the mountains. it has encouraged the settlement of the country by calling attention to the agricultural lands within the national forests. more important than that, it has assured the west permanent towns, permanent civilization, and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization which vanishes with the exploitation of resources, as it did under the old régime. the improvements on the national forests have benefited not only the forest officers for the administration of the forests. they have helped immensely the local population. the pleasure resorts as well as the business of the forests have been made more accessible. new trails have opened up new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, hunting, and trapping are ideal. all the old and new roads and trails have been well marked with sign boards giving the tourist detailed information about distances between the various points of interest. roads have opened up new regions to automobiles and to the horse and wagon. in 1916 it was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people visited the national forests for recreation and pleasure. they came in automobiles, in horse and wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all sorts of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer has even seen those that could not afford anything better, pack their camp outfits in a wheelbarrow and push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and invigorating forests of uncle sam. in addition to the large numbers of tourists that visit the national forests every year, over 100,000 persons or companies use the national forests. of these a little more than half are paid users, who are charged a fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and a little less than half enjoy free use privileges. _agricultural lands opened to settlement._ the settlement of the agricultural lands in the national forests is a matter that has received special attention at the hands of the forest service in late years. land more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing was excluded from the national forests before the boundaries were drawn, so far as this was possible. small tracts of agricultural land within the forests which could not be excluded are opened to settlement under the forest homestead act of june 11, 1906. the amount of land, however, that is more valuable for agriculture than for timber is trifling, because the greater part of the valuable land was already settled before the forests were created. the few small patches that are left inside of the national forest boundaries are rapidly being classified and opened to entry for homesteads. much of the land apparently adapted for agricultural purposes has a severe climate because it lies at high altitudes and it is often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. therefore the chance offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of the forests is far better than in the forests themselves. the forest service is doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders on the national forests; it wants them because they help to report fires, help to fight fires, and in many other ways assist the forest officers. _permanent and not temporary civilization resulted._ only those people who have been brought up near a large lumbering center can appreciate what it means when a town vanishes; when all that is left of a thriving town of 5,000 or more souls is empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of tin cans. in the days of the golden age of lumbering in michigan many towns flourished in the midst of the forests. these towns had thrifty, busy people, with schools, churches, banks, and other conveniences. these people were engaged in exploiting the forests. the beautiful white pine forests were converted into boards at the rate of thousands of feet every day. when these magnificent forests were laid low, the lumbermen left to seek virgin timber elsewhere. they left behind them empty towns and barren lands; only a few charred stumps remained to show where the forests once stood. but this is not an incident peculiar to the golden age of lumbering in michigan. even to-day this very thing is happening. the town of crossfork, potter county, pennsylvania, had a population of over 2,500 souls in 1909. when the nearby timber was exhausted, practically the whole town was abandoned. in 1913 it had a population of 50. in direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of the state of michigan (and many others also) is the national forest policy, which provides for a future supply of forest products as well as a present supply; which provides for work and homes and schools and churches for future generations as well as for the present; which provides for a permanent industry and not one that vanishes with the exploitation of the resources of a region as snow vanishes under the warm rays of a spring day. lumbering even to-day is merely the removal of every vestige of timber that has any sale value. but forestry, which is practiced on the national forests, removes only the mature trees, leaving the young growth to be cut at some future time. lumbering has been and is to-day forest destruction; forestry is forest conservation under a system of wise use. lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often by an entire impoverishment of the region in which it is carried on because it destroys both the mature tree and the young growth; under a system of forestry, cutting is followed by young, green forests which are protected from fire for the benefit of future generations. such a system leaves the region and the industry in a permanent, good condition. the county under the old system receives no more taxes after its wealth is gone; but each county will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes every year as long as the national forests shall endure. [illustration: figure 7. the remains of the old boiler house. the town once had a sawmill, planning mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. all these are now gone after the forests have been cut. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan.] [illustration: figure 8. deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. these are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan.] _financial returns._ all the benefits of which i have spoken are without doubt great assets to the local community, to the state, and to the nation as a whole. they are great contributions to the welfare of our country even though they cannot be measured in dollars and cents. this brings us then to the financial aspect of the national forest movement. even though the fundamental purpose of the national forests was in no sense a financial one, it is interesting to look into the finances of this great forestry enterprise. the total regular appropriation for salaries, general expenses, and improvements for the fiscal year 1918 is $5,712,275. for 1917 it was slightly less than this: $5,574,735. the receipts from the sale or rental of national forest resources in the fiscal year 1917 reached $3,457,028.41. from these figures it will be seen that the expenditures exceed the receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, depending partly on the severity of the fire season and partly on the activity of the general lumber market. when we consider that this is really a newly established business scarcely twenty years old; that large expenditure have been made and must necessarily be made every year for equipment and improvements before the resources could even be used; and that an efficient organization had to be built up to handle the business, we must confess that the receipts are really a wonderful showing. when the forest reserves were taken over by the government it could not be expected that they would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor could it be expected that even in the long space of twenty-five years they could be made self-supporting. the reasons for this are many. they are located for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. in the case of almost every forest a great deal of money had to be expended for roads, trails, telephone lines, fences, bridges, ranger stations and other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and many other improvements before the resources could even be used. many of the resources were practically locked up; there were no roads by which to get them out of the wilderness. during the fiscal year 1916 alone there were built 227 miles of roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles of telephone lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, 40 bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, and other structures, and many other improvements. up to date there have been constructed over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of firebreaks, about 360 forest fire lookout cabins and towers, and many other improvements. their total value is estimated at $7,000,000. and these vast improvements are but a small percentage of the improvements which will be necessary to be able to put these forests to their highest use. not only must enormous sums be spent for improvements. the huge sums which are spent for the protection of the great resources bring no tangible return in dollars and cents; yet the fire protection system prevents the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of timber every year. then again, when government timber lands are cut over, only the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, although they have a commercial value, are left on the ground to mature because they will have a still greater value in from forty to fifty years. this is merely foregoing a small present revenue for a larger future one. also many national forests have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. these areas are maintained intact for watershed protection. in fact many of the forests of southern california are maintained solely for this purpose. these forests are covered almost entirely by a low bush-like growth called "chaparral," which has no value either as timber or as browse, but which has great value to preserve an equable stream flow for domestic use, irrigation, and water power. but there are still other reasons why the cash receipts from the national forests are not as large as they might be. in addition to the cash receipts the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every year through the various forms of free use and the sale of timber to settlers at cost instead of at its actual cash value. during the fiscal year 1917 approximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to settlers free of cost. about 40,000 people were served under this policy. also much timber is sold at cost to settlers for domestic use. in this way over 4,400 persons received many millions of feet of timber whose cost value was about $20,000, but whose sale value was much greater. the privilege of grazing a small number of stock free of charge is granted to settlers living on or near the forests. the stock thus grazed amounts to about 125,000 animals every year. the forests are also put to many special uses for which no charge is made although their administration involves some expense. strict accounting should credit the fair value of such uses to the receipts from the national forests, for it is in effect income which instead of being put into the treasury is made available for the benefit of the people. from what has been said it will be seen that a large part of the benefits derived from the systematic administration of the national forests cannot be measured in dollars and cents. these benefits are in effect privileges extended to the people who in return assist in the protection of the forests from fire and thus more than repay the government for what they receive. even under the rather unfavorable revenue producing conditions mentioned above, it is interesting to note that in 1917 the receipts of thirty-two national forests exceeded their total expenditures. on fifteen others the receipts exceeded the cost of protection and administration. in other words, one-third of the national forests are practically self-supporting. _the new eastern national forests._ the great success with which the national forest policy was launched in the western states was largely responsible for the inauguration of a similar policy in the appalachian and white mountains. the main purpose for which these forests are to be acquired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water-power navigation and domestic use, and to lessen the damage caused by floods and erosion. these forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow of the merrimac, connecticut, androscoggin, potomac, james, santee, savannah, tennessee, and monongahela rivers. some years ago the merrimac drove mills worth over $100,000,000, which employed over 80,000 people. upon these, it is said, 350,000 were dependent for support. in the carolinas and georgia alone the cotton mills operated by water-power turn out an annual product valued at almost $100,000,000. in these mills 60,000 people are employed, upon whom 250,000 are dependent for support. these mills utilize 106,000 horsepower. the forests which control these waters are therefore of great pecuniary value. the act of march 1, 1911, commonly known as the weeks law, made the acquisition of forest lands in the appalachian and white mountains possible. up to june 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase by the national forest reservation commission. the forest service has been designated as the bureau to examine and value such lands as may be offered for purchase. the original appropriation was $2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, beginning the last half of the fiscal year 1911. the agricultural appropriation bill for the fiscal year 1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subsequent years available until expended. a further appropriation of $3,000,000 was provided later for the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal years 1917 and 1918. under section 2 of the same law coöperative fire protection with the states was provided for. this section of the law provided that the forest service should maintain a coöperative system of forest fire protection with those states which have a law providing for a system of fire protection for state and private forest lands upon the watersheds of navigable streams. in no case was the amount to be expended by the forest service to exceed the amount appropriated by the state for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. the original appropriation was $200,000 and subsequent appropriations have been for $100,000 annually. twenty-one states are coöperating with the forest service in this way. by the passage of the weeks bill, congress has voiced the sentiment that the forest fire problem, _even on private land_, is not only no longer a private problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, but a joint problem and duty to be borne by the state and nation. forest fires are now rightfully looked upon as a public enemy rather than a private menace. this is a big step in the right direction, and it is hoped that this same principle will be applied in the not too distant future to all other matters dealing with private timber lands. if the protection of these private timber lands is a public and not a private problem, then certainly their management for continuity is a public problem. a timber owner should not be allowed to cut his timber without the consent of the government, and the government should see to it that he leaves the young growth as a basis for a future crop or provides a new growth of timber by planting young trees. table of contents page preface vii introduction xiii forestry as a national problem xiii our consumption of wood xiii the lumber industry xiv our future lumber supply xv forests and stream flow xvi forests and erosion xvii forestry a public enterprise xviii the extent and character of our national forests xix how the government obtained the national forest lands xix the romance of the national forest region xx famous scenic wonders near the forests xxii the size and extent of the national forests xxiv the topography and climate of the national forest region xxvi why the national forests were created xxvii how the national forest policy has benefited the people xxx the remaining timber resources were saved xxx the use of forage and water resources was regulated xxxii the forests were protected from fire and trespass xxxv the watershed cover was preserved xxxvii civilization brought to the mountains xxxviii agricultural lands opened to settlement xxxix permanent and not temporary civilization resulted xl financial returns xliii the new eastern national forests xlvii i the creation and organization of the national forests 1 economic conditions which led to forest conservation 1 prodigality leads finally to conservation 1 the march of forest destruction 2 our lumber and water supply imperiled 5 the first steps in federal forest conservation 6 the upbuilding of the west 6 the lake states first to act 7 the first federal steps 8 the act of august 16, 1876 9 further work under the act 11 the first forest reserves established march 30, 1891 12 the situation before 1891 12 the need of the forest policy 13 the act of march 3, 1891 14 an anomalous condition--forest reserves without forest administration 14 the need of administration on the reserves 14 more reserves created 16 the administration of the reserves under the general land office 16 the act of june 4, 1897 16 the division of forestry in 1898 18 the bureau of forestry 19 the consolidation of the forestry work in the department of agriculture in 1905 19 the act of february 1, 1905 19 early forestry education and literature 20 changes in the forest service personnel 21 more national forests created 21 the growth of the forest service 22 recent modifications in the organization 23 the present organization of the forest service 24 the administrative districts 24 the washington office 26 the district offices 28 ii the administration of the national forests 30 personnel 31 duties of forest officers 31 the forest supervisor 32 the forest assistant 34 the forest ranger 35 the forest clerk 38 forest service meetings 39 how the forest service appropriation is allotted to the national forests 40 forest service expenses 40 the agricultural appropriation bill 42 the ranger's protection and improvement plans 42 the supervisor's plans 43 approval of plans by the district forester 44 the district fiscal agent 45 tax money paid to the states 46 the equipment and supplies for the national forests 47 the property auditor and property clerk 47 blank forms 48 supplies 48 national forest improvements 49 the need of improvements 49 transportation facilities 50 communication facilities 53 grazing improvements 56 protection improvements 57 appropriations for improvement work 58 the classification and consolidation of national forest lands 61 land classification 61 the consolidation of national forest lands 63 how young forests are planted to replace those destroyed by fire 64 reforestation and the timber supply 64 reforestation and water supply 65 government reforestation policy 67 methods of reforestation 70 direct seeding work on the national forests 72 planting on the national forests 78 the organization and scope of forest experiments and investigations 83 the need of scientific experiments 83 the science of growing timber 84 dendrological studies 86 seed studies 87 nursery studies 88 forestation experiments 89 studies of forest influences 89 meteorological observations 91 forest management studies 92 forest protection studies 94 protection from grazing damage 95 protection from insects and diseases 96 tree studies 97 grazing investigations 98 investigations dealing with poisonous plants and predatory animals 102 national forest utilization experiments 104 forest products laboratory experiments 108 industrial investigations 116 iii the protection of the national forests 120 protection from fire 120 forest fire danger on the national forests 120 importance of fire protection 121 causes of forest fires on the national forests 124 behavior of forest fires 126 losses by forest fires on the national forests 126 the forest fire problem stated 128 fire prevention 129 fire suppression 133 how forest fire funds are distributed 134 forest fire history 136 relation of forest fires to the weather 137 improvements and equipment for protection 138 forest fire maps and charts 139 forest fire organization 140 how fires are located 142 the fire fighting organization 144 forest fire coöperation 146 fighting forest fires 147 protection against trespass, forest insects, erosion, and other agencies 150 trespass 150 forest insects 154 tree diseases 159 water supply 162 public health 167 violation of game laws 168 iv the sale and rental of national forest resources 170 the sale and disposal of national forest timber 170 government timber sale policy 171 annual yield and cut 172 timber reconnoissance 174 logging the timber 176 the first step in purchasing government timber 180 procedure in an advertised sale 180 timber sale contract clauses 182 special contract clauses 184 when the operation may begin 186 marking the timber for cutting 186 scaling, measuring, and stamping 188 disposal of slash 190 payment for timber 192 stumpage rates 193 cutting period 194 readjustment of stumpage rates 194 refunds 194 the disposal of timber to homestead settlers and under free use 195 sales to homestead settlers and farmers 195 free use 195 timber settlement and administrative use 198 the rental of national forest range lands 200 importance of the live-stock industry 200 permits issued in 1917 201 kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods handling stock 202 grazing districts and grazing units 205 who are entitled to grazing privileges 207 grazing permits 211 grazing fees 214 stock associations 215 protective and maximum limits 216 prohibition of grazing 218 protection of grazing interests 219 special uses 220 claims and settlement 223 the national forest homestead act 224 the mining laws 229 coal-land laws 230 administrative use of national forest lands 230 water power, telephone, telegraph, and power transmission lines 230 appendix 233 illustrations figure 1. an observation point for finding forest fires. vigilance is the watchword on the national forests. during during 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. photo by the author _frontispiece_ facing page figure 2. a typical national forest landscape in the high mountains. potosi peak, 13,763 feet, from yankee boy basin, uncompahgre national forest, ouray county, colorado xviii figure 3. the climate of most of the national forests is severe. this view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. most of the national forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. photo by abbey xxviii figure 4. on many high mountains on the national forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. this view was taken in the latter part of august. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author xxviii figure 5. the big trees. "mother of the forest" in the background. north calaveras grove, california xxxii figure 6. a scene on one of the famous national parks. upper lake, glacier national park, northern rockies, montana xxxvi figure 7. the remains of the old boiler house. the town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. all these are now gone after the forests have been cut. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan xlii figure 8. deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. these are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. lemiston, montmorency county, michigan xlii figure 9. forest officers in front of the forest supervisor's summer headquarters. note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. this is 50 miles from the railroad. lassen national forest, california 32 figure 10. scene in front of the forest supervisor's headquarters. sheep leaving the national forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. lassen national forest, california 32 figure 11. forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. the snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. washakie national forest, wyoming. photo by the author 38 figure 12. forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 38 figure 13. a forest fire lookout tower on leek springs mountain, eldorado national forest, california 50 figure 14. a typical forest ranger's headquarters. idlewood ranger station, arapaho national forest, colorado 52 figure 15. a typical view of the national forest country in montana. forest service trail up squaw peak patrol station, cabinet national forest 54 figure 16. forest rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. arapaho national forest, colorado 56 figure 17. a forest fire lookout station on the top of lassen peak, elevation 10,400 feet, lassen national forest, california. the cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in red bluff, about 50 miles away. it was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of lassen peak. on the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. photo by the author 58 figure 18. forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. payette national forest, idaho 58 figure 19. drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. near plumas national forest, california 66 figure 20. extracting tree seed from the cones. the dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine 66 figure 21. preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. battlement national forest, colorado. this view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. photo by the author 70 figure 22. a local settler delivering a load of lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. forest officers receiving them, arapaho national forest, colorado 70 figure 23. in a forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seeds in drills. the seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. pike national forest, colorado 72 figure 24. uncle sam grows the little trees by the millions. these will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the national forests of the west 72 figure 25. one of the largest forest service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the national forests. mccloud nursery, shasta national forest, california 76 figure 26. a view of seed sowing with a corn planter. san isabel national forest, colorado 78 figure 27. sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. pike national forest, colorado 78 figure 28. a planting crew at work setting out small trees. the man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. wasatch national forest, utah 82 figure 29. at the fort valley forest experiment station, coconino national forest, arizona. a typical meteorological station. forest officer measuring precipitation. note the shelter which contains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record the direction and velocity of the wind 90 figure 30. forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation from a free water surface. fort valley forest experiment station, flagstaff, arizona 90 figure 31. forest ranger with his pack horses traveling over his district. meadow creek, foot of mt. wilson, montezuma national forest, colorado 102 figure 32. a plank of incense cedar affected by a disease known as "pin rot." by cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this can be largely avoided. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 114 figure 33. the western pine forests will some day be a great source for naval stores. by distilling the crude resin of the jeffrey pine a light volatile oil--abietene--is secured which has great healing and curative properties. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 114 figure 34. a forest fire lookout station at the summit of mt. eddy. mt. shasta in the background. california 124 figure 35. a forest fire lookout station on the summit of brokeoff mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 128 figure 36. turner mountain lookout station, lassen national forest, california. this is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. the forest officer stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. photo by the author 128 figure 37. a fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of "chaparral" on the angeles national forest, california. this "chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. the streams are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern california 132 figure 38. a forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest fires. near oregon national forest, oregon 132 figure 39. putting out a ground fire. even if the fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. wallowa national forest, oregon 136 figure 40. forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest fire in the vicinity. such tool boxes as these are stationed at convenient places on national forests ready for any emergency. arapaho national forest, colorado 136 figure 41. a forest fire on the wasatch national forest, utah. forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire line. note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to save at the right 140 figure 42. a forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of the national forests in oregon 144 figure 43. men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. crater national forest, oregon 144 figure 44. fire in a lodgepole pine forest in colorado. arapaho national forest, colorado 148 figure 45. a mountain fire in "chaparral" five hours after it started. pasadena, california 148 figure 46. a few years ago this was a green, luxuriant forest. picture taken after the great fires of august 20, 1910, on the coeur d'alene national forest near wallace, idaho 152 figure 47. the first evidence of insect attack are the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine beetle. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 156 figure 48. the last stage of an insect-attacked tree. the tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 156 figure 49. wrecked farm buildings due to flood of may 21, 1901, nolichucky river, near erwin, tenn. this is one result of denuding the appalachian mountains of their forest cover 162 figure 50. when steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. erosion has been especially serious in the appalachian mountains. view taken in madison county, north carolina 162 figure 51. a fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. these farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. this could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river 166 figure 52. a view towards mt. adams and the headwaters of lewis river. council lake in the foreground. national forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. this means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. view taken on the rainier national forest, washington 172 figure 53. a large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. elevation 10,500 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by the author 176 figure 54. a sheep herder's camp used temporarily by forest service timber cruisers. elevation about 10,000 feet. battlement national forest, colorado. photo by author. 176 figure 55. view taken in the coast range mountains of california where sugar pine and douglas fir and the principal trees. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author 180 figure 56. a typical mountain scene in the california coast range. on these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. klamath national forest, california. photo by the author 180 figure 57. a forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of national forest lands. photo by the author 182 figure 58. a government timber cruiser's summer camp. these cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of uncle sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. photo by the author 182 figure 59. forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnoissance work. all food, beds, and clothing are packed on "alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. photo by the author 184 figure 60. a winter reconnoissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author 184 figure 61. a group of giant redwoods. santa cruz county, california 186 figure 62. a big sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. this is the most valuable timber species in california. photo by the author 188 figure 63. a western yellow pine forest in california. these trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. note the forest service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. photo by the author. 188 figure 64. logging in california. powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. photo by the author 190 figure 65. the loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. during the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the national forests brought into the national treasury almost $1,700,000.00. photo by the author 190 figure 66. scene in montana. forest officers constructing a telephone line through the flathead national forest 192 figure 67. forest ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking national forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. coconino national forest, arizona 192 figure 68. an excellent illustration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the forest service. in the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the forest service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the west. bitterroot national forest, montana 194 figure 69. view showing the forest service method of piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. new mexico 196 figure 70. a tie-cutting operation on a national forest. these piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by forest rangers. from this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. near evanston, wyoming 196 figure 71. brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. forest service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. bitterroot national forest, montana 198 figure 72. at a time of the year when there is least danger from fire the brush piles are burned. missoula national forest, montana 198 figure 73. counting sheep as they leave the corral. sheep and cattle are pastured on the national forests at so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. wasatch national forest, utah 208 figure 74. logging national forest timber. santa fe national forest, new mexico 208 figure 75. sheep grazing on the montezuma national forest at the foot of mt. wilson, colorado. over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on the national forests during the fiscal year 1917 216 figure 76. grazing cattle on a national forest in colorado. permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the national forests 216 figure 77. north clear creek falls, rio grande national forest, colorado. the national forests contain about one-third of all the potential water-power resources of the united states 230 figure 78. the power plant of the colorado power company, on the grand river, holy cross national forest, colorado. every fiscal year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the national forests 230 figure 79. this is only one of the thousands of streams in the national forests of the west capable of generating electric power. it has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water resources of the western states are included in the national forests. photo by the author 232 figure 80. view in the famous orange belt of san bernardino county, california. these orchards depend absolutely upon irrigation. the watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in the national forests and are protected by the forest service. some of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,000,000 232 our national forests chapter i the creation and organization of the national forests economic conditions which led to forest conservation in order that the reader may fully appreciate the gigantic task that has been accomplished in bringing the national forest administration and organization to its present state of development, it is necessary to briefly sketch the conditions that led up to the inauguration of the federal forest policy before we stop to consider that policy and the establishment and organization of national forests. _prodigality leads finally to conservation._ every great movement, which has for its object the betterment of the lot of mankind, lags far behind the times. there must be an actual economic need before a new movement can be expected to take root and flourish. forest conservation had no place in the household economy of nations that had forests in superabundance. their forests were used with prodigality. it seems to be a great human failing to use natural resources lavishly when the supply is apparently unlimited, and to practice frugality only when the end of a resource is in sight. thus we find in the pages of forestry history that all nations have begun to husband their forest resources only after having felt the pinch of want. in our country history repeats itself and our federal policy of forest conservation properly begins at the time that the national conscience was awakened to the realization that if we did not practice economy with our forest resources we would some day be without an adequate supply of timber and forage, and be confronted with other dangers and calamities that follow the destruction of forests. _the march of forest destruction._ when the london company settled at jamestown, virginia, in 1607 it found that unlimited pine and hardwood forests confronted it on every side. nor did these early settlers ever find a way out of this forested wilderness except by clearings made with the ax. when the pilgrim fathers landed at cape cod in 1620 they found similar forests stretching in all directions from their town-site. after the atlantic seaboard became pretty well settled the home-builders began moving westward through new york, pennsylvania, and what is now ohio. still nothing but unbroken, virgin forests were encountered. westward to the mississippi civilization advanced and still forests reigned supreme. then the middle west, the rocky mountain region, and finally the pacific coast regions were settled. during 140 years civilization has spread from coast to coast and of that vast wilderness of forest there is left only a remnant here and there. the giant pines that sheltered de soto and his thousand followers on their ill-fated expedition in 1541 to the mississippi river have long since disappeared. along the allegheny and appalachian ranges the vast forests that once harbored the hostile narragansetts and iroquois are now but a memory. the giant oak, ash, and cypress forests of the mississippi valley are rapidly being decimated by the big sawmills that work night and day to outdo each other. in the north the dense and magnificent forests of white pine that greeted father marquette, when he planted his missionary station at sault ste. marie in 1668, have been laid low. unproductive wastes, sandy barrens, and useless underbrush now greet the eye. in fact the pine forests which covered the greater part of michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota have been leveled by the woodman's ax. the army of lumbermen has moved now to the coast to again turn virgin timberlands into unproductive wastes. thus forest destruction has followed civilization. statistics show very vividly how gradually one large lumbering center after another has become exhausted, often leaving behind desolation and business depression. in these large centers thriving towns sprang up only to disappear again after the removal of the forest wealth. in 1850 about 55 per cent, of the annual cut of lumber came from the new england states; even as late as 1865 new york furnished more lumber than any state in the union. by 1890 michigan had reached the zenith of its production and in that year the lake states furnished 36 per cent. of the lumber cut. by 1909 the southern states had increased their cut to over 50 per cent. of the total of the country. in 1913 the cut of the state of washington was the largest ever recorded for that state or for any other state, even outdoing michigan during its golden age. in 1915 about 20 per cent. of the cut came from the coast but the south still furnished almost 50 per cent. _our lumber and water supply imperiled._ in our prodigal use of our forest resources we have become the most lavish users of wood in the world. while the annual consumption per capita for france is about 25 cubic feet, and that of germany about 40 cubic feet, our per capita consumption is in the neighborhood of 250 cubic feet. and the most terrible thing about our reckless methods has been that we have wasted by crude lumbering methods and we have let great forest fires consume many times as much lumber as we have used. there have been vast public and private losses through unnecessary forest fires which not only consumed millions of dollars' worth of timber every year, but which also cost the lives of thousands of settlers. then, as every one knows, by being grossly negligent with our forests, our rivers have visited their wrath upon the unfortunate people in the valleys. many streams have become raging torrents in the spring and only chains of stagnant pools in the summer, thus destroying their value for water power and irrigation. cotton mills, which formerly used water power all the year round, now must depend upon more expensive steam power generated by coal to keep their mills running in times of water shortage, while during high water there is the great danger that the entire factory might be swept away. the first steps in federal forest conservation. gradually the national conscience became awakened to the need of a more rational use of our forest resources. but it was not until after the civil war that the first steps were taken. as was to be expected, the states in which forest destruction had reached its worst stages were the first to attempt to mend their ways, thus leading the way along which the federal government was soon to follow. _the upbuilding of the west._ the decade following the civil war is marked by the construction of some of our great trans-continental railroads and the consequent development of the great western country. in fact between 1865 and 1875 the railroad mileage of the united states doubled. the first trans-continental railroad, the union pacific, was completed in 1869. others soon followed. to encourage construction and settlement vast tracts of land were granted to the railroad companies by the government, and with the land much valuable timber passed from government ownership. after the construction of the railroads towns and villages sprang up like mushrooms. as was to be expected with this increased development the destruction of our forests received an added impetus. the lake states, then the center of the lumber industry, began to take alarm at the rapidity with which their hillsides were being denuded. destructive lumbering, usually followed by devastating forest fires, was fast decimating the virgin pine forests. the young growth that had escaped the lumberman's ax fell a prey to forest fires which soon took the form of annual conflagrations. as the population increased the new sections of the country were settled, and as manufacturing operations were extended timber was getting higher in price. _the lake states first to act._ the first attempt to remedy the situation was made by the state of wisconsin. in 1867 the wisconsin legislature suggested a committee who should report upon the destruction of wisconsin's forests. the next year michigan took a similar step and in 1869 the maine legislature began to look into their waning supply by appointing a committee to estimate the standing timber of the state. as early as this observations and calculations upon the rate of consumption of lumber pointed to a not far distant wood famine. _the first federal steps._ the first step taken by the federal authorities was at the urgent request of the statistician of the department of agriculture in 1870. at that time lands were recognized as being either "improved" or "unimproved" farm lands. he recommended that the category of "unimproved farm lands" be subdivided into "woodlands" and "other unimproved lands." by thus dividing off woodlands from other unimproved farm lands more attention was concentrated upon the former. this attention was manifested in the investigations that followed shortly in which it was estimated that 39 per cent. of the area of the country was in woodland. this was the first and most logical step toward taking an inventory of our forest resources. another early attempt to assist in forest conservation was an attempt to reforest the treeless plains of our western states. on march 3, 1873, the timber culture act was passed by congress by which the planting to timber of 40 acres of land in the treeless territories conferred the title to 160 acres of public domain. at first this act seemed to work out as intended but it did not take very many years before it proved a dismal failure. settlers had no knowledge of planting trees; the restrictions of the act could not be enforced, and the act was open to other abuses. the act was finally repealed in 1891. many similar laws for encouraging the planting of timber were passed by the legislatures of some of the middle western states, but all met with little success. in 1874 nebraska inaugurated arbor day. by this act of the legislature the second wednesday in april of each year was set aside for planting trees. other states have followed the example of nebraska, so that to-day almost every state provides one day in the year for planting trees. thus arbor day has become practically a national institution. _the act of august 16, 1876._ the first constructive piece of legislation enacted by the congress of the united states was the act of august 16, 1876. this was the first of a series of acts passed by congress which, although occurring many years apart in some cases, put forest conservation upon a firm basis. under the first act the commissioner of agriculture was directed: "to appoint some man of approved attainments who is practically well acquainted with methods of statistical inquiry and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with questions relating to the national wants in regard to timber, to prosecute investigations and inquiries with the view of ascertaining the annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of timber and other forest products; the probable supply for future wants; the means best adapted to their preservation and renewal; the influence of forests upon climate and the means that have been successfully applied in foreign countries, or that may be deemed applicable in this country for the preservation and restoration or planting of forests, and to report upon the same to the commissioner of agriculture, to be by him in a separate report transmitted to congress." dr. franklin b. hough, an active, untiring, and intelligent scholar, was the first man to be appointed by this act. as commissioner of forestry he prepared the first report and submitted it to congress. the next year, in 1877, congress granted its first appropriation of $6,000, "for the purpose of obtaining other facts and information preparatory to establishing a division of forestry." _further work under the act._ the office of commissioner of forestry gradually enlarged the scope of its duties and functions. five years later, due to the ever-increasing importance of the subject, a distinct division, the division of forestry, was established in the department of agriculture. the duties and powers of this division were "to devote itself exclusively to such investigations of the subject as would tend to the fullest development of the resources of the country in that respect, to discover the best methods of managing and preserving our waning forests and to maintain in all its bearings the universal interest involved in that industry." in 1881 an agent of the department was sent to europe to study the work of forestry there. in 1882 the american forestry congress was organized. this organization had for its object the discussion and dissemination of the important facts of forestry, and while strictly a private body, had a considerable influence in later years in educating the people to the needs of forestry and in helping to establish a rational forest policy in the united states. its first meeting took place in cincinnati. at a second meeting held the same year in montreal the name was changed to the american forestry association and since then has been the center of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. in 1898 this association began the publication of a propagandist journal which is now called _american forestry_. in 1884 the duty of making experiments with timber was added to the functions of the division. the next year the collecting and distribution of valuable economic tree seeds was begun. in 1886 the study of the biology of some of our important timber trees was taken up, while in the following year silvicultural problems first engaged the attention of the division. the first forest reserves established march 30, 1891 _the situation before 1891._ before 1891 the division of forestry was simply a bureau of information. in general the information supplied was of a twofold nature. it was technical in so far as it related to the management of private woodlands and statistical in so far as the knowledge of the conditions of our forest resources induced the application of forestry principles. up to that date congress had neither appropriated enough money for efficient outdoor work nor did she attempt to put any government woodlands under the control of the division. therefore there had been no management because there were no forests to manage. this one-sided development of the forestry work of the division was greatly impeding a rational development of the forest conservation movement. _the need of a forest policy._ the need for a well-defined forest policy with respect to the government forest lands now began to be felt. railroad land grants, the homestead act, preëmption claims, and the timber and stone act were taking much valuable timberland out of government ownership. people secured claims under these acts merely for the timber that was on them. the purposes of the laws and acts of congress were being fraudulently evaded. also the government had restrictive and protective laws in regard to its lands, but it could not enforce them on account of lack of appropriations with which to maintain an administrative and protective organization. the time was now ripe for an executive policy to manage the woodlands that still remained in the possession of the government before it was too late to save what was left. _the act of march 3, 1891._ the division of forestry was designed by the nature of its duties to be more than a bureau of information. the existence of a governmental department to promulgate forestry principles while the government itself had made no provision to apply such principles to its own permanent timberlands was an incongruity that suggested further legislative action. this was in part supplied by the law of march 3, 1891, which conferred upon the president the power to establish forest reservations. the first exercise of power under this act was the presidential proclamation creating the yellowstone park timber land reserve under president harrison on march 30, 1891. this was probably the wisest step yet taken in the development of a national forest policy; but, unfortunately, the act left the division simply a bureau of information as it was before. an anomalous condition--forest reserves without forest administration _the need of administration on the reserves._ at first thought it will be seen that this piece of legislation must necessarily remain inoperative unless it were followed by the establishment of a proper administration of the reserves based upon sound forestry principles. furthermore, the law withdrew from public use all such lands that might be acquired under it. it was now easy for the government to acquire lands; the question that next presented itself was how to protect and regulate the use of these new acquisitions. forest protection cannot be secured without forest rangers and forest guards; nor forest management without technical foresters. the very reasons for establishing the reserves would point to the absolute need of a system of managing them. these reasons were briefly: "to prevent annual conflagrations; to prevent useless destruction of life and property by fires, etc.; to provide benefit and revenue from the sale of forest products, fuels, and timbers; to administer this resource for future benefit; to increase the stock of game; to promote the development of the country; to give regular employment to a professional staff; to secure continuous supplies of wood and to get the maximum amount of good from each acre." such arguments as these assume the presence of a force of men to protect and administrate these reserves. _more reserves created._ in spite of this serious fault in the act of march 3, 1891, more forest reservations were created. by 1894 presidents harrison and cleveland had created about 17,500,000 acres and on a single day, february 22, 1897, president cleveland proclaimed over 20,000,000 acres. by the close of 1897 a total of almost 40,000,000 acres of forest reserves had been established. during the six years following the law giving the president power to establish reserves, the reserves were under the jurisdiction of the general land office. the appropriations of congress were small, amounting to less than $30,000 annually. such appropriations were used mainly for testing timber strength and the conditions affecting quality. the administration of the reserves under the general land office _the act of june 4, 1897._ the secretary of the interior in 1896 requested the national academy of sciences, the legally constituted advisor of the government in scientific matters, to investigate, report upon, and recommend a national forest policy. this resulted in the act of june 4, 1897, under which, with subsequent amendments, the national forests are now being administered. under this act the reserves remained in the hands of the general land office, department of the interior. it charged this office with the administration and protection of the forest reservations. later the geological survey was charged with surveying and mapping them, and the division of forestry was asked to give technical advice. it is very evident that the division of forestry containing all the trained scientific staff had no relation to the government forestry work except as the offices of the department of the interior might apply for assistance or advice. it is true that an important step had been taken, but the complete separation of the administration by the general land office and the force of trained men in the division of forestry was a serious defect. the act of june 4 might be called the magna charta of national forestry. the u. s. geological survey undertook the task of surveying, classifying, and describing the forest reservations. at a cost of about one and one-half million dollars over 70,000,000 acres of forest reserves were mapped and described. the general land office undertook the administration and forest superintendents and rangers were appointed to take charge of the reservations. the rules and regulations for administering the reserves were formulated by the commissioner of the general land office. _the division of forestry in 1898._ on july 1, 1898, the division of forestry employed 11 persons, 6 clerical and 5 scientific. there were also some collaborators and student assistants. there was no field equipment and no field work. but in the fall of 1898 an important step was taken. from that time on the division of forestry offered practical assistance to forest owners and thus it shifted its field of activity from the desk to the woods. the lumbermen were met on their own grounds and actual forest management for purely commercial ends was undertaken by well known lumbermen. from that time dates the solution of specific problems of forest management and the development of efficient methods of attacking them. the work of the division at this time, therefore, consisted of activities along 4 distinct lines: (1) that of working plans, (2) that of economic tree planting, (3) that of special investigations, and (4) that of office work. thus it will be seen, even at this late date the division had practically nothing to say about the scientific forestry methods which should be used on the reservations. _the bureau of forestry._ in 1901 the division of forestry was raised to the rank of a bureau, but this was a change in name only and carried with it no change in the handling of the government's vast forest resources. the consolidation of the forestry work in the department of agriculture in 1905 _the act of february 1, 1905._ the necessity of consolidating the various branches of government forest work became apparent and was urged upon congress by president roosevelt and by the executive officers concerned. this was finally accomplished by the act of february 1, 1905, by which entire jurisdiction over the forest reserves was transferred to the secretary of agriculture. matters of surveying and passage of title, however, were still kept under the jurisdiction of the general land office. by this act the division of forestry for the first time in its career became an administrative organization. on july 1 of the same year the bureau of forestry became the forest service and in 1907 the change of name from "forest reserves" to "national forests" was made to correct the impression that the forests were like reserves which had been withdrawn from use. _early forestry education and literature._ the act of february 1, 1905, was the final step which established the federal policy with regard to our national forests. at this stage it will be interesting to note briefly the status of the science of american forestry and of forestry education. as late as the spring of 1898 there was no science or literature on american forestry, nor could education in the subject be procured in the country. but soon thereafter several forestry schools were established, namely, cornell forestry school in 1898, yale school of forestry and biltmore forest school in 1899, and the university of michigan forestry school in 1903. the beginning of the twentieth century saw the first professional foresters graduated and taking upon themselves the task of applying scientific forestry methods to the national forests. further evidence of the growth of the profession of forestry was the organization of the society of american foresters in 1900. the first professional journal was started in 1902 as the _forestry quarterly_, and other scientific forestry literature was issued by the government. the scientific knowledge gathered in the field work since 1898 has taken the form of a rapidly growing literature on the subject which has formed the basis of the science of american forestry. _changes in the forest service personnel._ by 1905 the work of the forest service had increased to such an extent that the number of employees was increased to 821. with the opening of the forestry schools, professional foresters became available and the national forests then began to be put into the hands of expert scientific men. gradually the old type of untrained, non-scientific woodsman is being replaced by the trained forester. in addition, the entire force was made a part of the classified civil service and the plan of political appointees was banished forever. _more national forests created._ while the administration of the national forests was being adjusted the area of national forests was constantly being increased. to the 40,000,000 acres of reserves set aside by presidents harrison and cleveland before 1897, president mckinley added over 7,000,000 acres until 1901. when roosevelt became president the national forest policy received an added impetus and vigor. being a great lover of the out-of-door-life and being especially well acquainted, on account of his extensive travels, with the great western country, president roosevelt threw his powerful influence into the balance. with the close coöperation of mr. gifford pinchot, his warm personal friend, and at that time the chief forester, mr. roosevelt set aside between 1901 and 1909 over 148,000,000 acres of national forests, more than three times as much as had been set aside by all his predecessors together. since 1909 a careful adjustment of the boundaries has been going on, both presidents taft and wilson adding small areas here and there, which were found valuable for forestry purposes, or eliminating small areas found to have no value. acts of congress passed since 1907 prohibit the addition by the president to the national forests already established in washington, oregon, california, idaho, montana, wyoming, and colorado. additions can be made in these states only by special act of congress. a number of such acts have been passed; some of them upon petitions of the people in these states. _the growth of the forest service._ the growth of the forest service between 1897 and 1917 is little short of marvelous. the number of its employees has increased from 61 in 1898 to 3,544 on june 30, 1917. the annual appropriations have increased from less than $30,000 in 1897 to $5,712,275 for the fiscal year 1918. but besides this appropriation for 1918 the weeks law calls for an expenditure of $2,100,000 and the federal aid road act for $1,000,000 more. the receipts of the national forests have also increased by leaps and bounds. in 1897 the receipts were practically negligible in amount but by 1906 they had reached approximately $800,000. in the fiscal year 1917 they were more than $3,457,000. _recent modifications in the organization._ further slight modifications in the organization, as established in 1905, were made since that date. before 1908 all the work of the forests was supervised from the main office in washington and this arrangement caused much delay and inconvenience in carrying on the business of the forests. in the fall of 1908 six administrative districts were established, to which another was added in 1914. by this arrangement the national forests are divided into 7 groups and each group has a district headquarters in a large city or town centrally located in the group. the district office acts as sort of clearing house for all national forest business. all matters in the administration and protection of the national forests that cannot be settled on the forest or appear to be of general importance to the district are taken to the district office, which is in charge of a district forester and several assistants. beginning in 1909 forest experiment stations were established in each district and in 1910 the forest products laboratory, the first one of its kind in the world, was formally opened at madison, wisconsin. the weeks law, passed on march 1, 1911, provides for the acquisition of forest lands on the watersheds of navigable streams in the appalachian and white mountains. up to june 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase in these mountains. the pisgah national forest in north carolina was recently organized from purchased lands. the present organization of the forest service _the administrative districts._ the administration of the national forests and the conduct of all matters relating to forestry which have been placed upon the department of agriculture are in charge of the forester whose office is in washington, d. c. to facilitate the administration of the forests 7 districts have been established with headquarters in the following places: district 1. (montana, northeastern washington, northern idaho, and northwestern south dakota) missoula, montana. district 2. (colorado, wyoming, the remainder of south dakota, nebraska, northern michigan, and northern minnesota) denver, colorado. district 3. (most of arizona and new mexico) albuquerque, new mexico. district 4. (utah, southern idaho, western wyoming, eastern and central nevada, and northwestern arizona) ogden, utah. district 5. (california and western nevada) san francisco, california. district 6. (washington, oregon, and alaska) portland, oregon. district 7. (arkansas, florida, oklahoma, and the newly purchased areas in south carolina, georgia, north carolina, tennessee, virginia, west virginia, new hampshire, maine, and alabama,) washington, d. c. each administrative district embraces a number of national forests and is in charge of a forest officer known as the district forester who is responsible to the forester for all administrative and technical work performed within the district. each district forester is aided by several assistants and by specialists in various lines of work. each national forest is in charge of a forest supervisor who may have a deputy and a forest assistant or forest examiner to assist him if the amount of business on a national forest warrants it. each national forest is subdivided into ranger districts for the purpose of facilitating the protection work. each ranger district is in charge of a ranger who may be assisted by other rangers or forest guards. _the washington office._ the work of the forest service in washington is organized under the office of forester and the branches of operation, lands, silviculture, research, grazing, engineering, and acquisition of lands under the weeks law. the office of forester includes the associate forester, the editor, the dendrologist, the chief of accounts, besides inspectors and lumbermen. the branch of operation administers and supervises the business organization of the forest service and has general supervision of the personnel, quarters, equipment, and supplies of the service and all the fire protection and permanent improvement work on the national forests. the branch of lands examines and classifies lands in the forests to determine their value for forest purposes, conducts the work in connection with claims on the forests prior to proceedings before united states registers and receivers, and assists the chief engineer of the service in handling matters in connection with the occupation and use of the national forest lands for hydro-electric power purposes. the branch of silviculture supervises the sale and cutting of timber on the national forests and coöperates with states in protecting forest lands under section 2 of the weeks law. the branch of research has supervision over the investigative work of the service, including silvicultural studies, studies of state forest conditions, investigations of the lumber and wood-using industries and lumber prices, and the investigative work carried on at the forest products laboratory and the forest experiment stations. the branch of grazing supervises the grazing of live stock upon the national forests, allotting grazing privileges and dividing the ranges between different owners and classes of stock. it is also charged with the work of improving depleted grazing lands and of coöperating with the federal and state authorities in the enforcement of stock quarantine regulations. the branch of engineering has to do with the proper designing and planning of roads, trails, and bridges; with the engineering problems involved in granting permits to hydro-electric plants in the forests; and with the making of forest maps, surveys, improving the forest atlas, and other drafting work. the branch of acquisition of lands under the weeks law has charge of examining and evaluating such lands which are offered for purchase and recommending suitable lands for purchase under the act. _the district offices._ each district office (of which there are 7) is organized in the main along the same lines as the washington office. each branch in the washington office is represented in the district office by an assistant district forester or some similar official. the office of the district forester has in addition the office of solicitor (forest service branch), which is in charge of an assistant to the solicitor of the department of agriculture. he is the advisor to the district forester in all matters of law which arise in the administration of the national forests. his opinions are usually binding except that, in urgent cases, appeal may be taken to the solicitor of the department at washington through the forester. many cases of law arise on the national forests such as cases of timber, fire, and grazing trespass. all these are handled in the office of the district forester. the office of accounts in the districts is in charge of the district fiscal agent who is an assistant to the chief of accounts in the washington office. three of the districts have a branch of products. the experiment stations in the districts are under the supervision of the district forester and the men in charge of them bear the same relation to the district office as the supervisor of a national forest. most of the districts also have in the office of silviculture a consulting pathologist who has charge of all problems relating to tree diseases. the following scheme will illustrate in a general way the organization of the forest service and show how the national forests are administered at the present time: chapter ii the administration of the national forests under the head of administration we must necessarily understand those factors which are essential to carry on the business of the national forests. first of all we must consider the personnel, that is, the men that make up the organization by means of which the work on the forests is done. next we must learn how the money for this large enterprise is appropriated each year to carry on the work, and how it is divided up so that each national forest gets an amount each year in proportion to its needs. then again men and money are of little avail without tools, equipment, and supplies. the proper distribution of these to the 147 national forests is no small business organization in itself. lastly we must learn of the many permanent improvements which are made on the national forests which are absolutely necessary for their proper administration, protection and use. no large constructive forestry enterprise is complete without these. they consist of the construction of means of transportation, means of communication, and living quarters for the personnel; of extensive planting of young trees to reëstablish forests which have been destroyed by fires; the carrying on of research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of forestry; and the classification and segregation of agricultural lands and the establishment of permanent boundaries. all these matters must necessarily be considered before we attempt to learn about the protection and the utilization of the national forests. personnel _duties of forest officers._ forest officers are the servants of the people and they are expected to assist in every way possible those who wish to use the resources of the forests. their first duty is to enforce the regulations under which all permits, leases, sales, and rentals are made. these regulations cover every phase of national forest activity and in conducting business under them they must not let personal or other interests weigh against the good of the forests. for the good of the forest service their conduct must be prompt and courteous and their business methods sensible and effective. they make it their business to prevent misunderstandings and violations of forest regulations rather than to correct mistakes after they have been made. on the national forests there are permanent employees and temporary employees. under the former heading come the forest supervisor, the deputy supervisor, the forest assistant, the forest ranger, lumbermen, sealers, planting assistants, and forest clerks. under the latter category come the forest guards, the field assistants, and the temporary laborers. all permanent positions are in the classified civil service. vacancies are filled from a certified list of those who have passed a civil service examination or by promotion from the lower ranks. [illustration: figure 9. forest officers in front of the forest supervisor's summer headquarters. note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. this is 50 miles from the railroad. lassen national forest, california.] [illustration: figure 10. scene in front of the forest supervisor's headquarters. sheep leaving the national forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. lassen national forest, california.] _the forest supervisor._ a forest supervisor is in charge of each national forest and he plans the work of the forest and supervises its execution. he works, of course, under direct instruction from the district forester and is responsible to him. when the amount of business on the forest warrants it he is assisted by a deputy supervisor. both these positions are filled by the promotion of experienced men in the classified civil service. the forest supervisor's headquarters are located in towns conveniently situated with regard to the most important points in his forest. the town is usually located on a railroad and centrally located with regard to the various ranger districts of his forest. his headquarters are usually the center of the system of roads and trails which covers his entire forest. from his office also the telephone system radiates in all directions to his various district rangers. in short, the forest supervisor's office is so situated that he has at all times full knowledge of all the activities of his forest; he is therefore in a position to give advice and directions by telephone to his rangers and other subordinates almost at any time of the day or night. such intimate communication is of especial importance during the fire season. some forests have two headquarters, one that is occupied in the winter and the other that is occupied in the summer. the summer quarters is usually most advantageously situated as far as the business of the forest is concerned, but owing to deep snow, which seriously interferes with mail and telephone connections, a more accessible winter quarters is occupied from october to may. the force of men the forest supervisor has working under him varies of course with the amount of work to be performed. the permanent force is usually from 10 to 15 men, which during the fire season may be increased to from 25 to 40 and in cases of great fire emergency sometimes to several hundred men, by the addition of temporary employees. _the forest assistant._ the other permanent men on a national forest are the forest assistant or forest examiner, forest rangers, and a forest clerk with his assistant, the stenographer and typewriter. the forest assistant or examiner ranks next to the deputy and his work is directed by the forest supervisor, to whom he makes his reports. the forest assistant is the technical man of the forest force, who upon making good is promoted to forest examiner. he is employed upon such technical lines of work as the examination and mapping of forest areas; reports on applications for the purchase of timber; marking, scaling, and managing timber sales; the survey of boundaries; and nursery and planting work. not only is a forest assistant called upon to perform these various lines of technical work. the very nature of the country he is in indicates that he must be an all-round practical man. he must be able to ride, pack, and drive. he must often live alone and therefore must do his own cooking, washing, and take care of other personal needs. he must be strong and healthy and capable of undergoing hardships, at least be able to stand long days of walking, climbing, and horseback riding. his various duties and the different situations that arise often call for knowledge and practical ability as a carpenter, a mechanic, a plumber, an engineer, a surveyor, and many other lines of work. perhaps more important than his education and ability are his personal qualifications. his temperament must be such that he must feel satisfied and contented under the most trying conditions. he must be able to do without most of the comforts of modern civilization for most of the time. for these reasons the country-bred western youths are more liable to make a success of the work than the city-bred easterner. _the forest ranger._ the forest ranger's position is one of the most important and at the same time the most difficult positions on our national forests. the forest ranger's headquarters are usually at the nearest business center to his district and if that is not practicable permanent headquarters are provided on the forest. in any case his station is located as near to the center of the business activity of his district as possible. if his headquarters are centrally located in his district, trails, roads, and telephone lines lead out from his cabin to all parts of his district. his station is built and maintained at government expense and usually has, besides his living quarters, a barn, tool-house, pasture, corral, and other necessary improvements. the forest ranger performs such routine work as the supervision of timber sales, grazing, free use, special use, and other contracts and permits, the carrying out of the protection and improvement plans for his district, and other administrative duties. the average forest ranger has a territory of from 75,000 to 150,000 acres to take care of. on june 30, 1917, there were about 1,100 forest rangers employed on the national forests who were assisted by over 900 assistant forest rangers and forest guards. the protective force was therefore about one man for every 77,800 acres or about 121 square miles. the forest ranger must be a man who is physically sound and capable of enduring great hardships. he is often required to do heavy manual labor in fighting fire under the most trying conditions. for this reason he must have great endurance. they are usually men who have been brought up in timber work, on ranches or farms, or with the stock business. they are therefore thoroughly familiar with the region in which they are to be employed and especially acquainted with the rough, semi-primitive life which is characteristic of remote places in the west. he must be able to take care of himself and his horses in regions remote from settlement and supplies. he must be able to build trails, roads and cabins; he must be able to ride, pack, and drive and deal tactfully with all classes of people. he must know something about land surveying, estimating, and scaling timber; of logging, mining laws, and the live stock business. his duties include patrol to prevent fire and trespass; estimating, surveying, and marking timber; the supervision of cutting and similar work. he is authorized to issue permits, build cabins and trails, oversee grazing business, investigate mining and agricultural claims, report upon applications, and report upon and arrest for the violation of forest laws and regulations. _the forest clerk._ the forest clerk performs the clerical work and the book-keeping in the forest supervisor's office. he sometimes has a stenographer and typewriter to assist him and to do the mechanical work of correspondence. lumbermen are specialists who are thoroughly well versed in all that pertains to logging, milling, scaling, and cruising timber. they are assigned temporarily to forests where need for their work arises. scalers are men thoroughly familiar with the art of scaling or measuring logs, ties, poles, cord wood and other forest products. planting assistants are specialists in nursery and planting work. their duties include the preparation of seed beds, seed sowing, transplanting and care of seedlings, and field planting. they are assigned to the forest service nurseries. [illustration: the work of forest officers in the winter figure 11. forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. the snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. washakie national forest, wyoming. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 12. forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. lassen national forest, california. photo by the author.] temporary laborers, forest guards, and field assistants are employed during the field season when additional work on the national forests warrants it. forest guards perform temporary protection, administrative, and improvement work; field assistants, usually students of forestry serving their apprenticeships, are usually employed at minor technical work and timber cruising; temporary laborers are employed by the day or month at any kind of improvement or maintenance work. _forest service meetings._ a general meeting of the forest force is usually held annually to give the forest officers the benefit of each other's experience, to keep in touch with the entire work of the forest, and to promote "esprit-de-corps." the time and place of the meeting depends upon circumstances, but it is usually held at a time of the year when there is least danger from fire. often joint meetings are held with the forces of adjacent forests. this annual meeting idea is carried through the entire forest service. the forest supervisors in each administrative district usually meet at the district headquarters once a year and the district foresters of all the districts together with representative officers from the washington office usually meet annually at some centrally located district office such as the one at ogden, utah. these meetings assist greatly in keeping all the work in the various branches of the service up to the same standard of efficiency, in avoiding mistakes by learning the experience of others, and in correlating and summarizing work done on similar problems in widely different regions. how the forest service appropriation is allotted to the national forests it is, indeed, a great task to distribute the money that is each year appropriated by congress for the forest service so that the washington office, the district offices, and the 147 national forests each get their just share and so that each dollar buys the greatest amount of good for the whole people without extravagance or waste. to do this a large organization has been built up composed of business men who have absolutely no selfish interest at heart and among whom graft or favoritism is unknown and unheard of. it may be said without exaggeration that the business of the national forests is on a thoroughly sound and efficient basis. _forest service expenses._ while for reasons already spoken of, the cash receipts are considerably below the expenses for running the forests, the rapidly increasing system of roads, trails and telephone lines points not only to a constantly increasing use and service to the public but also as a consequence to increased financial returns. the expenses of the forest service on the national forests are of a two-fold character. there are costs of administration and protection on the one hand which might be called ordinary running expenses, and the costs of improvements, reforestation, and forest investigations on the other. the latter are really in the nature of investments, and do not properly fall into the category of operating costs. yet they are absolutely necessary to the welfare of the forests. they comprise expenditures for roads, trails, telephone lines, and similar improvements, the establishment of forests by the planting of young trees which have been destroyed by past fires, the carrying on of research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of forestry, and expenses connected with the classification and segregation of agricultural lands in the forests. the establishment of permanent boundaries and the cost of making homestead and other surveys are also in the nature of investments. such expenditures may be looked upon as money deposited in the bank to bear interest; they will not bring direct financial returns now but will produce great revenue many years hence. _the agricultural appropriation bill._ the fiscal year in the forest service extends from july 1 of one year to june 30 of the next. every year, in the agricultural appropriation bill that comes before congress, there is an appropriation for the forest service for its work. this appropriation is not in a lump sum but by allotments or funds. there is the fund for fire fighting, one for general expenses, another for statutory salaries, another for improvements, another for emergency fire conditions, and usually there are special appropriations for various purposes. for the fiscal year 1918 (extending from july 1, 1917, to june 30, 1918) there are special appropriations for land classification, for purchasing land under the weeks law, for coöperative fire protection under the weeks law, and for the federal aid road act. _the ranger's protection and improvement plans._ long before this bill reaches congress every forest ranger on every national forest, every forest supervisor, and every branch of the washington and the district offices have been estimating how much money they will need to carry out the plans proposed for the next fiscal year. each forest ranger works and studies over his plans for the next year with which he hopes to protect his district from fire. he plans and figures out what improvements are urgently necessary to make the remote parts of his district more accessible. he tries to arrive at a safe estimate of the cost of so many miles of trails, roads, and telephone lines, so many cabins, barns, corrals, etc., which he thinks are absolutely essential to the proper administration of his district, and he estimates the number of forest guards, lookout men, and patrol men he will need for the protection of his territory. usually these items are summed up under his annual improvement plan and his protection plan respectively. _the supervisor's plans._ when the forest supervisor receives such estimates and plans from each of his forest rangers he studies them over carefully and tries to decide in an impartial way what improvements are most necessary in each ranger district and what additional men are necessary for the adequate protection of the region in question. he carefully weighs the arguments for and against each expenditure and decides what improvements must be made now and which ones it would be possible to postpone for one or more years without detriment to the work of his forest as a whole. for in most cases the amount of necessary work to be done on each ranger district is far in excess of the amount which the forest supervisor could approve owing to the inadequacy of the forest service funds. so, for the forest supervisor, it is merely a question of how low he can keep his estimates for money for the ensuing year until such a time when congress will appropriate more money so that all the important and necessary work can be done. in most cases therefore the major part of all the expenditures recommended by the forest ranger is warranted, but the forest supervisor knows that he must cut all the estimates down considerably in order to bring the total forest estimate reasonably near the amount he is likely to get, basing his judgment upon what he got the year before. _approval of plans by the district forester._ the district forester then gets the national forest estimate from every one of his 25 or 30 forest supervisors and he in turn must decide what projects on each forest are immediately necessary and which ones can be postponed. the same process is repeated in the washington office when all the estimates from the district foresters are received, and the forester in turn sends to the secretary of agriculture his estimates by allotments or funds, which in turn are put before congress. while congress sometimes makes minor changes in the forest service appropriation, in most cases the bill is passed as it stands. _the district fiscal agent._ the money appropriated by congress is allotted to each district, and in turn to each national forest and finally to each ranger district by funds, such as general expenses, fire fighting, improvements, etc. in each district the financial matters are taken care of in the office of accounts by the district fiscal agent. he is the assistant of the chief of the forest service branch of the division of accounts of the department of agriculture and pays all the bills incurred by the district and receives all the money which comes in from the sale of national forest resources. the amount of money appropriated for the district is credited to him and he disburses this appropriation in accordance with the fiscal regulations of the department of agriculture. no other officer is allowed to receive money for the sale of timber, forage, or other resources; in fact no other official in the district handles any of the forest service funds whatsoever. all remittances by users of the national forests are made to the u. s. district depository. if a rancher has bought some timber from a forest ranger, he is given a letter of transmittal showing the amount of the purchase which he must send to the district fiscal agent with the amount necessary to pay for the timber. the letter of transmittal explains the purpose of the remittance. _tax money paid to the states._ another interesting feature of the national forest business is the money paid each state out of the annual receipts in lieu of taxes. it must be remembered that national forests do not pay taxes to the states in which they are located. on the other hand, if the national forests were private property they would bring into the county and state treasuries yearly taxes. to compensate the state for the taxes lost in this way each national forest pays to each county in proportion to the area of the national forest lands located in that county a sum of money equal to 25 per cent, of the total gross receipts each fiscal year. from the receipts of the fiscal year 1917 this amounts to about $850,000. it is provided that this money is to be expended for schools and roads in the county in which the national forests lie. recently a law was passed giving the secretary of agriculture authority to expend an additional 10 per cent. of the national forest receipts for the construction of roads and trails for the benefit of local communities. from the fiscal year 1917 this amounts to about $340,000. these moneys for roads, trails, and schools are of course a great benefit to the mountain communities, since usually the amount of taxable property in such remote localities is small and hence the amount of taxes received is small. these allotments to the counties have helped to develop the communication systems of local communities and have also made the national forests more accessible and useful. the equipment and supplies for the national forests _the property auditor and property clerk._ the depot for equipment, supplies, and blank forms is located at ogden, utah, and this office furnishes all the forests in all the districts with most of the equipment necessary. the record of the property of the united states in the custody of the forest service is kept by a man called the property auditor. requisitions for supplies and equipment are made by the forest supervisor to the property clerk. government property is considered expendable or non-expendable depending upon its character. each forest has a property custodian who has charge of all the property assigned to the forest. when property is received from the property clerk or if property is transferred from one forest officer to another, the property custodian must note the change on his records. _blank forms._ the blank forms which are supplied by the property clerk are printed standard forms used in issuing permits, making contracts, reports, examinations, timber sale agreements, in short, those used in almost every business transaction of the forest service. even timber estimates, tree measurements, and other similar public records are kept on standard printed forms for permanent uniform record. _supplies._ supplies such as stationery, typewriters, pencils, ink, notebooks, paper for map work, compasses, measuring tapes, and a host of other articles are furnished upon requisition by the property clerk. equipment such as filing cases, tables, chairs, typewriters, tree-measuring instruments, tents, cooking utensils, surveying instruments, snow shoes, skiis, knapsacks, water buckets, canteens, kodaks, and many other forms of equipment are furnished by the property clerk, although in cases of emergency some of these things may be purchased locally by forest officers by the authority of the forest supervisor. national forest improvements _the need of improvements._ it is but natural, from their situation, that the national forests represent pioneer conditions; conditions that one might expect to find in a wild, rugged, mountainous country. this was true to an extreme degree when the national forests were first established and it is true in a very large degree even to-day, since the amount of time and money which it will be necessary to expend on the construction of improvements on the 155,000,000 acres of national forests is something enormous. for a long time to come, then, the national forests will need improvements in order to make them secure against fire and in order to make the resources, now locked up, available. proper protection and the fullest use of national forest resources depend mainly upon facilities for transportation, communication, and control. all parts of the national forests should be accessible by roads and trails; there should be telephone communication between settlements and forest officers' headquarters and with the lookout stations; and in most cases suitable living accommodations must be provided for the field force. for the fullest use of the forage resources, water for the live stock must be developed and range fences constructed; to reduce the hazard and the cost and difficulty of controlling forest fires, firebreaks and other works must be constructed. _transportation facilities._ adequate facilities for travel and transportation are of first importance. steam roads, electric roads, and boat lines are utilized in the national forest transportation system as well as the existing roads and trails. added to this, new roads and trails are being constructed every year to complete the already existing network. [illustration: figure 13. a forest fire lookout tower on leek springs mountain. eldorado national forest, california.] the need for new roads and trails depends upon the number of them already existing, the value of the resources that it is necessary to make accessible, the fire liability, and the amount of unrealized revenues due to lack of transportation facilities. if valuable grazing land or timber land can be made accessible there is good reason for building a new road. in many cases roads and trails are built to facilitate the protection of large remote areas from fire. such areas may have large bodies of valuable timber which if destroyed by forest fires would involve a heavy loss. even aside from valuable timber on an area, it is absolutely necessary when a forest fire breaks out to get to it with men and fire-fighting equipment in the shortest possible time before it spreads. if the fire gets to be a large one, many men with provisions, tents, fire-fighting tools, and other equipment must be transported to the scene of the fire. any delay in the transportation of these things may prove fatal and may result in an uncontrollable conflagration. the transportation system that is proposed for a national forest, if the one that exists is inadequate, is usually planned many years ahead. the ultimate or ideal system is always kept in mind so that every mile of road or trail that is constructed is made a part of it. if not enough money is available for a good road, a trail is built along the line of the proposed road. later this trail is widened into a permanent road. the engineer connected with each district office usually has charge of laying out big road projects. a few miles of permanent, good, dirt road with good grade is always preferred to many miles of poor road with heavy grade and improper drainage. a road and trail system is planned for each national forest which will eventually place every portion of the forest within a distance of at least 7-1/2 miles of a wagon road. a pack-train can then transport supplies from the point to which they are delivered on the wagon road to any field camp and return in a single day. in trail and road construction it is very often necessary to build bridges. sometimes a very simple log bridge meets the need, but in bridging many large mountain torrents, which become very high and dangerous in the spring, large bridges are necessary. cable suspension bridges and queen and king truss bridges are built where occasion arises for them, but only after being planned in detail and after the district forester has approved their design and method of construction. [illustration: figure 14. a typical forest ranger's headquarters. idlewood ranger station, arapaho national forest, colorado] very often navigable streams and lakes are used as a part of the transportation system on a national forest. on the tahoe national forest in california launches are operated by the forest service on lake tahoe to patrol the region around the lake for forest fires. ferries, boats, and launches belonging to private companies or individuals are used by agreement or if necessary are bought by the service from the improvement funds. speeders, motor cars, and hand cars on railroads or logging roads are often used when an agreement has been made with the company. in this way railroads are made a part of the transportation system of the forest. _communication facilities._ the system of communication on the national forests is scarcely less important than the system of transportation. this system includes telephone lines, signal systems, and mail service. the telephone system, as can be readily seen, is of the utmost importance for the transaction of all kinds of national forest business. in case a forest ranger wishes to speak to his supervisor about controlling a large fire, it makes a great difference whether he can talk to him over the telephone or whether he must send a messenger on horseback perhaps 60 or 70 miles. in the former case practically no time is lost, in the latter it would take at least two days for the messenger to reach the forest ranger, and in the meantime the fire would continue to rage and spread. in the absence of a telephone system a signal system is used. the one probably used the most in forest fire protection work is the heliograph, by which code messages are sent from one point to another by means of a series of light flashes on a mirror. the light of the sun is used and the flashes are made by the opening and closing of a shutter in front of the mirror. very often these heliograph stations are located on mountain tops in the midst of extremely inaccessible country. where there are a number of these stations at least one is connected by telephone to the forest supervisor's office. when the forest officer at the telephone gets a heliograph message about a certain fire he immediately telephones the news directly to the forest ranger in whose district the fire is located, or if he does not happen to be in direct communication with the forest ranger he notifies the forest supervisor, who then notifies the officer concerned. of course it is all prearranged who should be notified in case a fire is reported to the heliograph man. [illustration: figure 15. a typical view of the national forest country in montana. forest service trail up squaw peak patrol station, cabinet national forest.] unfortunately it has been found that this system of communication is not satisfactory even under favorable conditions. this system depends upon direct sunlight; without it is useless. when there is much smoke in the air it is also of uncertain value. the heliograph system has perhaps reached its greatest development upon the california national forest, but even here experience has shown that it is only a temporary makeshift and the plan is to replace it by a telephone system as soon as possible. the forest supervisor, especially in his summer headquarters, depends directly upon the mail service for communication with the district forester and the outside world. in many cases the fact that the forest supervisor has his headquarters in a small mountain community in the summer has made it possible for that community to receive a daily mail service or mail at least three times a week. when the forest supervisor becomes satisfied that mail service is desirable in certain mountain communities he investigates local settlers' needs for mail facilities; or he may coöperate with the people in the nearest village who are petitioning for mail service. often his influence proves the deciding factor in getting it. as i have said before, telephone communication is indispensable to fire protection and to quick and efficient methods of conducting national forest business. not only do forest service lines enter into the national forest telephone system but all private lines are also made use of. by coöperative agreements with private companies the national forest lines are used by private companies, in return for which private lines are used by the forest service. in this way a complete network of telephone lines is established connecting not only the forest supervisor with all his rangers and his forest fire lookout stations, but also connecting each one of these with local communities and the large towns at a distance. thus, when a forest fire occurs and the available local help is not sufficient to control the fire the telephone system is put to use to call help from the nearest villages and towns. [illustration: figure 16. forest rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. arapaho national forest, colorado] _grazing improvements._ it is often necessary for the complete and economical use of the forage on a national forest to coöperate with the local stockmen to develop range by constructing improvements. water may have to be developed; fences, corrals, bridges, trails, and other works may have to be constructed. often cattle belonging to different stockmen are grazed on adjacent areas which are not separated by natural boundaries such as rivers, ridges, or swamps. if there is no obstacle to prevent the cattle from drifting from one range into another, a drift fence is built, thus definitely separating one stockman's range from the other. often good range would remain unused on account of lack of water altogether or on account of lack of water during the dry season only. in this case the forest service usually coöperates with the stockmen to provide water. roads, trails, and bridges are often necessary to enable sheep and cattle to reach range lands. _protective improvements._ ranger stations, cabins, lookout stations, firebreaks and similar works are required to protect the forests from fire and are known as protective improvements. buildings are constructed for the field force to afford necessary shelter and to furnish an office for the efficient transaction of business. land is often cultivated for the production of forage crops and fences are built to insure necessary pasturage for live stock used by the forest officers in their work. the buildings may be substantial houses to be used throughout the year or they may be merely such structures as will afford the necessary shelter and domestic conveniences for forest officers in the summer. these summer camps are constructed where needed for the use of patrolmen, officers engaged in timber sale work or at such points as will serve the needs of officers traveling through the forest. barns, sheds, and other small structures are constructed at the ranger's headquarters when they are needed. office buildings are also constructed for the use of forest rangers or for summer headquarters of the forest supervisor. [illustration: figure 17. a forest fire lookout station on the top of lassen peak, elevation 10,400 feet, lassen national forest, california. this cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in red bluff, about 50 miles away. it was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of lassen peak. on the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 18. forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. payette national forest, idaho.] _appropriations for improvement work._ the money for the construction of national forest improvements is secured from various sources. the annual forest service appropriation usually carries a considerable sum for this purpose. in the fiscal year 1918 $450,000 has been appropriated for this work, which divided among the 147 national forests gives an average only of about $3,000 per forest. this is really a very small sum considering the size of the average national forest. fortunately there are other appropriations and funds and each year sees more money available for this most important work. under the law 25 per cent. of the receipts are paid to the states in which the national forests are located to be expended for roads and schools. the amount to be paid to the states in this way from the receipts in 1917 is about $848,874.00. by the acts of congress organizing them as states, arizona and new mexico also receive for their schools funds an additional share of the receipts based on the proportion that their school lands within the national forests bear to the total national forest area in the states. the approximate amounts due on account of the receipts for 1917 are $42,844.80 to arizona and $18,687.56 to new mexico. congress has also provided that 10 per cent, of the receipts shall be set aside as an appropriation to be used under the direction of the secretary of agriculture for road and trail building in national forests in coöperation with state authorities or otherwise. the amount thus appropriated on account of the fiscal year 1917 receipts is $339,549.61. this added to the amount carried over from the 1916 receipts fund, $136,981.23, and the amount appropriated for improvements, in the regular agricultural appropriation bill, $450,000.00, brings the total available for the construction of roads, trails, cabins, bridges, telephone lines, etc., on the national forests for the fiscal year 1918 to $926,530.84. there is still another fund recently appropriated which will enable roads and trails to be built on a very much larger scale than hitherto has been possible and will result in the rapid opening of forest regions at present practically inaccessible. the federal aid road act, passed by congress in 1916, appropriated ten million dollars for the construction and maintenance of roads and trails within or partly within national forests. this money becomes available at the rate of a million dollars a year until 1927. in general, the states and counties are required to furnish coöperation in an amount at least equal to 50 per cent. of the estimated cost of the surveys and construction of projects approved by the secretary of agriculture. the apportionment among the states is based on the area of national forest lands in each state and the estimated value of the timber and forage resources which the forests contain. the total amount from all sources available for roads, trails, and other improvements on the national forests during the fiscal year 1918 is therefore $1,926,530.84. the classification and consolidation of national forest lands the classification and consolidation of national forest lands is a matter of great importance to their proper administration and protection. if all the lands within the forests are to be put to their highest use for the permanent good of the whole people the lands inside of their boundaries must be classified and permanent boundaries established for each forest. through this kind of work the national forests gain in stability. the classification and segregation of the agricultural lands is most important, for these lands are open to entry under the forest homestead act. _land classification._ the land classification work is organized in the washington and district offices under the branch of lands. crews of men are sent out from the district offices and the work of classification, carefully planned ahead, is done by projects, that is, large contiguous areas are examined together. for instance, the hat creek project on the lassen national forest consisted of a number of large areas containing scattered parcels of agricultural lands along the hat creek valley in that forest. for the classification of the lands on a big project a surveyor and a lineman, one or more timber cruisers, and an expert from the bureau of soils constitute the crew. as a result of this work over 1,100 individual tracts within the forests were made available for entry under the forest homestead act during the fiscal year 1916, because this land was found to have a greater value for growing agricultural crops than for growing timber. under this same policy since 1912 about 12,000,000 acres were eliminated from the forests, partly because they were of greater value for agricultural use, or because they were not suited for the purposes for which the national forests were created. up to june 30, 1917, 127,156,610 acres of national forest land have been examined and classified. such work as this, once and for all time, will settle the controversy now and then waged in congress by certain congressmen that the national forests have large and valuable tracts of agricultural lands locked up within their boundaries and therefore should be abolished, or turned over to the states, or equally radical disposition made of them. such congressmen usually are working for some predatory private interests who want to secure the great wealth in the national forests that is being wisely conserved for the people. _the consolidation of national forest lands._ there has also been a great need for consolidating the national forest lands where these were interspersed with private or state lands. congress has recognized this need and from time to time has granted authority to exchange lands with private owners or states where such an exchange would be advantageous to the government through the resulting consolidation of holdings. thus by getting the government lands into a more compact body their administration and protection are materially facilitated in many ways. before any exchange is made it must be ascertained that the land which the government is to receive has equal value with that relinquished, also that the land is chiefly valuable for the production of timber and the protection of stream flow. recent additions to the whitman national forest in oregon consisted of privately owned cut-over timberland rapidly reproducing to valuable timber trees. title to this will be secured by exchange for government owned lands. how young forests are planted to replace those destroyed by fire _reforestation and the timber supply._ more than 15,000,000 acres of national forest lands which are capable of producing timber and valuable chiefly for that purpose have been denuded of their original tree growth. these lands are not adapted to agriculture and possess but a small value for grazing. in their present condition they are practically unproductive barrens. it is probable that one-half of this area will reforest itself naturally through the reseeding of burns, and the encroachment of tree growth upon natural openings, parks, grass lands, and brush lands. this natural extension of the forest on such areas is progressing at the estimated rate of 150,000 acres annually. the remaining half of the denuded area, 7,500,000 acres, must be reforested by artificial means. this land is unquestionably adapted to growing timber and useful to the nation primarily for that purpose. every year that it lies idle the country suffers a great financial loss, for such an immense area is capable of growing at least three-quarters of a billion feet of timber annually. it was recently estimated that the timberlands on the national forests are producing between five and six billion feet of lumber annually by growth. the complete restocking of the areas now denuded or sparsely timbered will increase the annual production of wood at least 25 per cent., an item certainly worth considering. _reforestation and water supply._ even more important than the value of the timber which is lost annually is the part which these large areas play in the conservation of water supply. most of this area is on the watersheds of western streams and rivers and the fact that it is denuded is a dangerous menace to the equable flow of the rivers which drain those areas. the national forests contain over 1,175 watersheds which supply many municipalities, 324 water-power projects, and 1,266 irrigation projects, aside from many other outside power and irrigation projects which are fed by watersheds within the forests. the cities of salt lake city, utah; denver and colorado springs, colorado; portland, oregon, and seattle, washington, all derive their municipal water supply from streams arising in the national forests. the proposed water system for the city of san francisco, california, is also to be taken from the national forest streams. a few years ago planting was undertaken on the watershed of the colorado springs, colorado, reservoir. this water supply is worth annually from $80,000 to $100,000. besides this the 2,000 horsepower hydro-electric plants are valued at $40,000 and the 40,000 undeveloped horsepower are said to have an additional value of $400,000, making the total value of the watershed more than $500,000, with the probability that a greater water supply having a far greater value will be needed as the city grows. [illustration: figure 19. drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. near plumas national forest, california.] [illustration: figure 20. extracting tree seed from the cones. the dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine.] and there are many evidences that the people of the west have begun to realize that the national forests are the key to the entire water-supply situation in the west no matter for what purpose the water is used. the public consideration now being given to flood control, the requests from many western cities for special measures to protect their municipal water supply, the concern expressed by irrigation associations in colorado and elsewhere, lest even the regulated cutting on the national forests may reduce stream flow, and the rapid rate at which unused reservoir and power sites in the forests are being developed, all are evidences of the importance of forests in protecting water supplies. reforestation is essential so that the national forests can effectively discharge this function. _government reforestation policy._ the duty of the forest service to put the denuded areas which will not be reforested naturally into a condition of productivity admits of no further argument. but the problem is not so easily solved as it is made clear. under the semi-arid conditions prevailing on many national forests this work involves uncertainties and unsolved problems. on the national forests artificial reforestation was an untried field when the forest service entered it. the government therefore had to develop its own practice in the face of a great variety of conditions, largely unfavorable. the situation still calls for intensive experiments to develop the best methods from the standpoint of both cost and results. more than that, it calls for a different set of methods for each forest region of the west which has its peculiar trees, climate, and soils. then, lastly, when the proper methods have been demonstrated by experiment, the new methods can be applied on a large scale with a very good chance for success. therefore intensive experiments must come first. business prudence requires the development of all methods in detail and reasonable certainty as to their results before large sums are expended upon field operations. in the least favorable regions like the semi-arid mesas of the southwest, the work is restricted for the present to small, carefully conducted experiments, the result sought being reliable information upon how to proceed rather than the reforestation of many acres. in the most favorable regions, as the western slopes of the rocky mountains and the cascade ranges, the results already obtained have been so excellent, due to an unusual combination of good growing conditions, that operations upon a larger scale have been justified simultaneously with continued intensive investigations. as the work is extended into each new region or new national forest, the most favorable sites are always chosen first. after the possibilities and limitations of each method have been ascertained by experience under the best conditions of each locality the work can either be intelligently extended or restricted. but the work is always conducted from the standpoint of the maximum return for each dollar expended. in accordance with the policy outlined by the forest service watersheds used for municipal supply or irrigation continue to receive first consideration. large sums are not, however, being spent on such watersheds where any uncertainty as to the outcome exists; that is before successful methods have been perfected by experiment. in addition to watersheds, reforestation work is being conducted for the primary object of producing timber only where climatic conditions and other factors are extremely favorable. as far as possible these areas are being selected with reference to the low cost of the work, natural conditions which insure rapid tree growth, and urgent local need for additional timber supplies. these favorable conditions generally obtain in washington, oregon, idaho, montana, minnesota, and michigan and it is in these states that the best results have been obtained. in california, utah, nevada, colorado, and the southwest the work is restricted to intensive experiments on a small scale, until successful methods of meeting the adverse local conditions have been perfected. [illustration: figure 21. preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. battlement national forest, colorado. this view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. photo by the author.] [illustration: figure 22. a local settler delivering a load of lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractors, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. forest officers receiving them. arapaho national forest, colorado.] _methods of reforestation._ two general methods of reforestation have been developed. the first is called the direct seeding method, in which tree seed is sown upon the ground with or without simple forms of cultivation. the other method is the planting method by which seedlings are grown in nurseries under ideal conditions of soil, light, and moisture until they are large enough to be transplanted and stand the rigors of the open field. direct seeding, where successful, is the cheaper method, but is necessarily limited to sites whose soil and moisture conditions are exceptionally favorable to tree growth. the inability of the newly germinated seedling to establish itself except in comparatively moist soil makes the success of this method on the semi-arid mesas of the southwest, for example, very problematical, especially since these localities are subject to long dry seasons. in such localities the use of the direct seeding method must be restricted to experiments designed to determine the exact range of conditions under which it is feasible. the main effort, however, of the forest service has been given to direct seeding on areas where reasonable success appears to be assured. the planting of 2 or 3 year old seedlings or transplants largely overcomes the adverse soil and moisture factors which appear to have made direct seeding unsuccessful in many localities. this method, which is the general practice in european forestry, must without doubt be employed to reforest a considerable portion of the denuded lands. the growing and planting of nursery stock is carried on simultaneously with direct seeding. the object of this is to ascertain the comparative results of the two methods, the sites on which the greater success will be obtained from each, and the proper relation of the two methods in the future development of reforestation work. since reforestation work was begun on the national forests about 135,500 acres have been sowed or planted. the larger part of this acreage was reforested by direct seeding. until only a few years ago larger areas were direct seeded each year than were planted to nursery stock, but at the present time more planting is being done. during the fiscal year 1916 about 7,600 acres were planted and about 2,800 acres were seeded. the average cost in that year of planting was about $10.00 per acre, that of the seeding was about $4.50 per acre. the 1917 costs were slightly higher, due to the increased cost of labor and supplies. the reforesting methods of the forest service mean the collection of large quantities of seeds and the growing of large quantities of small trees for planting. since 1911 the forest service has collected over 175,000 pounds of seeds for its direct seeding and planting work. during the fiscal year 1916 the forest service had 14 large tree-nurseries and 7 small ones, which had in them over 37 million young trees which would, in a short time, be planted in the field. from these figures it is readily seen that the reforestation work on the national forests is conducted on a large scale. _direct seeding work on the national forests._ the direct seeding work on the national forests involves many more problems than one would at first thought suppose. seed must be collected and extracted; it must be stored, if it is not used immediately; if the seed is sown it must be protected from rodents and very often the ground must be prepared before the seed is sown. [illustration: figure 23. in the forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seed in drills. the seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. pike national forest, colorado.] [illustration: figure 24. uncle sam grows the little trees by the millions. these will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the national forests of the west.] seeds are collected in various ways. often cones are purchased at advertised rates from persons who make a business of seed collecting. the collectors deliver the cones to a specified ranger station or to some seed extracting plant. but such collectors are not always available. seed is collected by forest officers by stripping cones directly from standing trees or from those felled in logging operations. large quantities are also gathered from the vast stores or caches assembled by squirrels. seed extraction is usually done most economically by experienced forest officers. it requires drying by exposure to natural or artificial heat to open the cones; threshing to separate the seed from the scales and woody portions of the cone; and cleaning or fanning to remove chaff and dirt. much of the extraction has hitherto been done in small quantities at a large number of stations and with very simple home-made appliances. in view of the large amount of seed which must be handled each year the cost of extraction has been materially reduced and seed of higher average fertility has been obtained by concentrating the major part of the work at central seed-extracting plants equipped with improved machinery. a problem of great importance from the standpoint of final results is that of having seed available at the season of the year when it is needed. past experiments have shown that fall sowing is essential to success in most parts of the west where extensive seeding projects will be conducted. experience has also shown that seed on a large scale cannot be extracted in time for use in the same season. moreover, every year is not a good seed year, so that forest officers must take advantage of the good years to collect large quantities and store them for use during years of seed shortage. purchased domestic or foreign seed cannot be used to advantage to make up these deficiencies because it is sometimes of poor quality and not adapted to the climatic conditions in which it must be sown. for these reasons methods had to be devised for storing large quantities of seeds for several years at a time and in such a manner that their vitality would not be impaired. many storage tests have been made by the forest service to determine the best way of storing seeds. the tests showed that the sealed glass jar is the best container and that seed must be stored either in air-tight receptacles or at low temperatures to be kept for any considerable period without loss of fertility. probably the greatest obstacle encountered in reforestation by direct seeding is the destruction of the seeds by rodents. the failure of many direct seeding projects has been due primarily to loss from this cause. failure has occurred on areas of practically every character regardless of the time of the year the seed was sown. success has been encountered only where recent burns had largely eliminated the animals either by outright destruction or by the loss of food supply. the rodents which are most destructive to tree seeds are the ground squirrels, the chipmunks, the mice, and the gophers. it is not strange that they should seek out the seed that has been carefully sown by the forest officers. in many cases these seeds are their natural food and they are wonderfully diligent and expert in searching it out. in coöperation with the biological survey, the forest service has worked on the problem of destroying the rodents. many methods have been tried out in the field. the free use of grain poisoned with strychnine has thus far produced the best results and has reduced the loss from rodents sufficiently to secure satisfactory germination. the successful elimination of such injury appears to lie in the thorough poisoning by this method of areas to be seeded, once or oftener in advance of sowing. with successful germination assured by the collection of good seed and the protection of it after it has been sowed from rodents, the next problem lies in cheap methods of cultivation and sowing. this will enable the young seedling to develop its root system early enough and rapidly enough to withstand the first annual drought, the dominant feature of the climate of all the western national forests. [illustration: figure 25. one of the large forest service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the national forests. mccloud nursery, shasta national forest, california.] there are numerous methods used in sowing tree seed on the national forests. three general methods are used in most of the work. broadcast sowing is practiced in the fall and spring or upon the snow in the winter, both on ground that has not been prepared and on soil that has been scarified by rough brush drags, harrowing, disking, or partial or complete plowing. in seed-spot sowing the seed is planted at regular intervals in small spots where the soil is cleared of vegetation and worked up loose to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches. when corn planting or dibbling is practiced the seed is thrust into the soil by a hand corn-planter, or, in the case of large nuts, pressed into holes made with a pointed stick. the corn-planter method is often combined with the preparation of seed spots or the plowing of single furrows, in order to plant the seed in loose soil free from vegetation. on a large majority of the forests broadcast seeding on unprepared ground has not succeeded. as a rule satisfactory stands have been secured from broadcasting only after an expensive preliminary cultivation which would be impracticable in extended operations and which would exceed the cost of planting with nursery stock. but broadcasting on prepared strips and upon recent burns has given some success. the seed-spot method has been most successful if done at the proper season. late summer and early fall sowing has produced better results than sowing in spring or winter. as a whole direct seeding has not succeeded, especially when the results and costs of the work are compared with the planting of nursery stock. planting has thus far yielded better results, especially on the less favorable areas. furthermore, from the standpoint of final results attained, planting has actually been cheaper than seeding, in spite of the greater initial cost of planting. while the major emphasis in reforestation work is placed upon planting, considerable seeding is being done, but it is confined to the most favorable localities and sites. _planting on the national forests._ reforestation by planting young trees has received much attention during the last few years principally because it has produced better results. much still remains to be said for both methods and future experiments alone can decide which method to use in a specified region and under given conditions of climate and soil. usually direct seeding has been tried first in any given locality where reforestation work was to be done. in fact the policy of the forest service in artificial reforestation on the national forests has been, first, to conduct experiments to find out what can be done and what is the best way to do it; second, to reforest by direct seeding wherever this is feasible; and third, to plant nursery seedlings where direct seeding has been found too uncertain. [illustration: figure 26. a view of seed sowing with a corn planter. san isabel national forest, colorado] [illustration: figure 27. sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. pike national forest, colorado] in selecting areas for planting, preference is usually given to the watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water supply and to land which is capable of producing heavy stands of a quick-growing species or of a specially valuable species. next in importance are areas which offer good opportunities for object lessons to the public in the practice of forestry. some areas offer combinations of advantages. for instance, a burned-over tract may be suitable for planting to some rapid-growing species which is also valuable for timber and at the same time may be situated so that it will serve as an object lesson also. it is on such areas in general that reforestation by planting is being concentrated. while the reforestation of the watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water supply has a large financial value, this value is hard to estimate because it involves not actual cash profit but loss prevented. but when a favorable site is planted to a quick-growing, valuable, species, it is comparatively easy to arrive at a fair estimate of the possible profit on money invested. it has been estimated that under many conditions it is highly profitable to reforest waste lands on the national forests by planting. from certain experiments made it is estimated that a white pine forest artificially established on a second-class forest soil in minnesota, will yield about 46,500 board feet per acre in 50 years, worth at least $10 per thousand feet, or $465 per acre. figuring the cost of planting and the cost of care and protection per acre per year at 3 per cent. compound interest gives a total cost of $34.07 per acre at the time the timber is cut and a net profit of $8.62 per acre per year. douglas fir in the northwest will produce 81,000 board feet in 80 years, worth at least $8.50 per thousand feet. after deducting all expenses this would leave a net profit of $555.30 in 80 years or about $6.94 per acre per year. these profits are indeed large, considering that the land is not capable of producing cereal or vegetable crops profitably. and it must be remembered that in all the above calculations all the money invested is earning 3 per cent. compound interest and that the net profits are the earnings in excess of this 3 per cent. interest. the little trees that are set out on the national forests every year are produced in large nurseries, where they are grown by the millions. in these nurseries the little trees receive the most expert care from the time the seeds germinate until the time they are large enough to withstand the rigors of wind and weather on the barren hillsides of uncle sam's forests. the seeds are first carefully sown in seed beds and left to develop in these from one to three years. at the end of one year they may be transplanted in nursery rows where they will have more room to develop. rapidly growing species like yellow pine are kept only a year in the seed bed and perhaps one or two years in the transplant beds; but slow growing species, like cedar, must remain in the seed beds two years and usually two years in the transplant beds. all this depends upon the species and the site upon which it is to be planted. if my reader were to visit the pikes peak region during spring or fall he would doubtless encounter large gangs of men planting young trees on the barren mountain slopes. under the proper supervision of forest officers some of the men will be seen digging holes with a mattock while others are coming directly behind them with bags or boxes with wet moss or burlap, containing small trees. these men are called respectively the diggers and planters. two men will plant from 500 to 1,000 trees a day, depending upon how deep the holes must be dug to accommodate the roots, whether the ground is bare or covered with sod, whether the land is mountainous or level, and many other factors. in this way uncle sam plants his denuded areas in the forests, so that they will be producing _timber_ for future generations instead of useless _brush_ or _tree weeds_. the great variety of climatic and topographic conditions included in the national forest area makes the problem of tree planting infinitely complex. nursery stock must be raised in each region having similar climatic conditions, and in each of these regions different methods of planting must be used, depending upon local conditions. the semi-arid mesas of arizona and new mexico present different planting problems from the humid forest regions of oregon and washington; the methods used in the sandhills of nebraska and the sand plains of michigan cannot be applied in full on the high mountain slopes of colorado; nor are the planting problems in the vast chaparral areas of northern california anything like those encountered in the mountains of idaho, or in the prairie states of the middle west, or in the black hills. then, again, the reforestation problems of the chaparral fields of southern california are more perplexing than any i have mentioned above. [illustration: figure 28. a planting crew at work setting out small trees. the man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. wasatch national forest, utah] the organization and scope of forest experiments and investigations _the need of scientific experiments._ no science can make progress without intensive experiments and investigations, least of all a new science like forestry. the science of forestry as it has developed in europe is several hundred years old, but the science of forestry as applied to american conditions is still in the infancy of its development--probably not over 20 years old. therefore we know very little about our trees, our forests, and the wood which they produce, and the professional foresters who handle the scientific work on our national forests are very much handicapped. to supply the needed info