transcriber's notes: italics converted to _ bold converted to = small caps converted to + gesperrt converted to ~ page 33 ...he native effort fred... typo repaired at ...the native effort freed... illustration caption typo stretches repaired at stretchers illustration caption typo carbriole repaired at cabriole 'patine' is the french version of the latin/italian, and english word 'patina' page 11 word screscent repaired for crescent this book contains instances of hyphenated and unhyphenated variants of words. all retained. jacobean furniture [illustration: plate i--the small jacobean room of elegance and intimacy] jacobean furniture and english styles in oak and walnut by helen churchill candee +author of "decorative styles and periods," "the tapestry book," etc.+ _with forty-three illustrations_ [illustration] new york frederick a. stokes company publishers _copyright, 1916, by_ +frederick a. stokes company+ _all rights reserved_ contents chapter page i +early jacobean styles+ 3 =james i crowned 1603.= ii +jacobean styles to charles ii+ 14 iii +the middle of the century+ 27 =end of the pure jacobean.= iv +carolean styles or the restoration+ 37 =charles ii, 1660 to 1685.= v +the end of the seventeenth century+ 48 =william and mary, 1689-1702.= illustrations plate i the small jacobean room of elegance and intimacy _frontispiece_ facing page ii late tudor mantel 4 iii late tudor bed 5 iv large oak chest 6 v early jacobean chest of carved oak 7 vi oak chest with drawers 8 vii oak stand and marquetry cabinet 9 viii gate-leg table, forming console with gate closed 10 ix oak chairs 11 x oak chest of drawers 12 xi early jacobean cabinet 13 xii oak chairs 16 xiii spiral turned chair, characteristic of first half of century 17 xiv oak cabinet, dated 1653 20 xv oak gate-leg dining table 21 xvi oak day beds 24 xvii stuart chairs 25 xviii marquetry cabinet about 1700 28 xix walnut cabinet 29 xx stuart settee with carving. second half of xvii century 42 xxi charles ii chairs in varying styles in carving 43 xxii walnut sofa 44 xxiii gilt mirror, time of charles ii 45 xxiv interesting chair transitional between stuart styles and william and mary 48 xxv chairs in variants of william and mary 49 xxvi chest of drawers in burr walnut veneer 50 xxvii small walnut table 51 xxviii carved chairs. period of william and mary 52 xxix walnut chairs, william and mary 53 xxx queen anne single chair. queen anne arm chair. walnut queen anne chairs 54 xxxi queen anne chair 55 jacobean furniture chapter i early jacobean styles james i crowned 1603 when a passion for collecting antique furniture first swept america, and prizes were plucked from attics, cellars and old barns, the eagle eye of the amateur sought only those fine pieces that were made in the age of mahogany and satin-wood. every piece was dubbed colonial with rash generalisation until the time when a little erudition apportioned the well-made distinctive furniture to its proper classes. then every person of culture became expert on eighteenth century furniture, and the names of chippendale and his prolific mates fell glibly from all lips. that much accomplished, the collector and home-maker then threw an intelligent eye on another page of history and realised that the seventeenth century and certain bits of oak and walnut that had stood neglected, belonged to an equally interesting period of america's social development. all at once the word jacobean was on every tongue, as colonial had been before. attics, cellars and barns were searched again, this time for oak and walnut, not mahogany, and for heavy square construction, not for bandy legs and delicate restraint. it was the marvellous carved chest that first announced itself, and then a six-legged highboy, and the lower part of a thousand-legged table--which now we call a gate. these, we said with inspiration, are the gods of the first settlers; mahogany is but modern stuff. but this time we were more savant than before, and instead of starving our eager minds on the occasional resurrected american bit, we went at once to the source, to england, and there found in abundance (for the long purse) a charming sequence of styles covering all the times of our earlier history as settlers and colonisers. thus were we able to identify these strange early pieces of our own and to recognise our quarry when found in a dusty corner. that very old pieces still are found, pieces brought over here in the days of their mode, is proved to any collector. in two towns on long island sound i recently found for sale two six-legged highboys, william and mary, and that great rarity, a straight oak chair known as a farthingale chair, made without arms for the purpose of accommodating the enormous crinoline or farthingale of its day. this chair may have supported the stiffly dressed ladies of elizabeth's court, so like it was to the italian models of tudor times. [illustration: plate ii--late tudor mantel from a house built in 1606, which shows a toning of tudor style into jacobean] [illustration: plate iii--late tudor bed with motifs which characterised early jacobean carving, dated 1593] the pity of it is, that no sooner had the artistic eye of the true collector begun to search for seventeenth century furniture than the commercial eye of the modern manufacturer began to make hideous variations on its salient features. he caught the name of jacobean and to every piece of ill-drawn furniture he affixed a spiral leg and the stuart name; or, he set a serpentine flat stretcher and called his mahogany dining set, william and mary. these tasteless things fill our department stores, and it is they that are rapidly filling american homes. and the worst of it is, that both buyers and sellers are startlingly yet pathetically glib with attaching historic names to the mongrel stuff, and thus are they misled. new furniture must be made, however, or resort must be had to soap-boxes and hammocks. the old models are the best to follow for the reason that the present is not an age of creation in this direction. the stylist is always a hobby-rider, and i must confess to that form of activity, but it is always with the idea in mind to make and keep our homes beautiful. and so i make the plea to manufacturers to stick to old models of tried beauty, and to buyers to educate their taste until they reject a hybrid or mongrel movable with the same outraged sense that they reject a mongrel dog. now let us pass through the gate that leads to happy hunting-grounds of study where we find historic men and women, both royal and common, making the times that called for the furniture we now admire as deeply as they admired it. one might almost say that since henry the eighth's introduction of the styles of the italian renaissance into england, that country has produced no original style of furniture. but lest this statement be resented by affronted savants and hurt sentimentalists, side by side with that fact must be placed another, that england has played upon the styles she imported with such skill and grace that she has thus produced variants of great and peculiar beauty. england has taken the furniture creations of europe through the centuries and has impressed them with her national traits, with a resulting beauty entirely her own. the effect is bewildering to all but the student of styles, for without study one is often unable to account for certain alterations of detail and construction. it cannot be too often repeated that as each nation in turn adopted the italian renaissance, that nation impressed its own signet upon the style. thus came all the variations. it is to be remembered that in the case of england, the affair is one of great interest and complication. in the sixteenth century pistaccio and his artist mates hurried from italy at the bidding of henry viii and planted their classic patterns in the british kingdom. that was an infusion of the pure renaissance drawing is visible but with a general flattening of the relief blood of the renaissance, and it lasted well into elizabeth's time before the anglo-saxon temperament altered it characteristically. [illustration: plate iv--large oak chest in noblest type of early jacobean carving] _courtesy of charles_ [illustration: plate v--early jacobean chest of carved oak] by the time james i, in 1603, established the stuart reign, the style became markedly british, and british styles called jacobean in compliment to james' latinized name, prevailed until another imported fashion came along. then came another and another, and so on even until the end of georgian styles and the beginning of victorian. the jacobean style developed serenely, playing happy pranks with itself, altered by mechanical inventions and by new woods, until the second half of the seventeenth century, when charles ii introduced strong french influence and portuguese--which was not greatly different from spanish. the french influence came lightly from the light ladies of the frivolous court, and the portuguese from charles' queen, catherine, whose home was braganza. bombay as her dowry threw eastern colours and design into the mêlée. british styles were not yet to be let alone, for no sooner was the french way set than the dutch pattern appeared, brought over by william and mary. delicately it came at first, giving place for hints from the court of louis xiv, and then in full force by the time anne took the sceptre in 1703. and all these styles imported throughout the seventeenth century, what were they but the several interpretations of the renaissance as it was expressed in france, portugal, and holland? let not the student stagger under these complications of english styles, for although there are yet more reasons for the shapes and ornament of furniture in england during the seventeenth century they are all bright with incidents of kings and courts. tudor monarchs stop in 1603 at elizabeth's death, but tudor styles were not at once outgrown, rather they linger along far into the seventeenth century, heavily and elegantly regarding the newly throned stuarts and their bewitching manners. the tudor table, for instance, was a serious piece of furniture, put together as squarely and solidly as a house. its enduring qualities are proved by the number of these tables still extant which, as refectory tables, are the smart thing for the dining-room of to-day. bulbous legs with italian carving, heavy square stretchers low on the ground, and draw-tops, are the distinguishing features. it is even suggested by the erudite that these tables are the last flicker of the style left by the romans during their occupation of england, so like are they to pictured tables of rome at that time. to fix in the mind certain important motifs used in early jacobean carving, a pause may be made before the fine oak bed pictured in plate 3, that we may discuss them. it is dated 1593, ten years before james i, but, although tudor, it has certain decorative features, the development of which was left to the jacobean styles of the seventeenth century. note especially among these the characteristic round arch savouring of the norman, of which two are shown on the bed's head. these arches frame a rough inlay which appears also on the square blocks of the tester. holly and bog oak were the favourite woods for this inlay on oak, woods obdurate enough to make the labour difficult. the half-circle repeat is used freely as a moulding on the headboard, and this develops in later furniture into an important motif. the general construction of this bed is noble in its proportions, and in all changes of fashion must it stand with the dignity of a temple. [illustration: plate vi-oak chest with drawers this is carved with all the characteristic motifs of early jacobean work--the arch, the guilloche, the s curve in pairs] [illustration: plate vii--oak stand and marquetry cabinet here are combined the jacobean robust strength and spanish moresque detail] as pictures on a screen melt one into another, so styles merge. plate 6 shows a chest full of jacobean promise yet retaining tudor feeling. the fact that it has drawers under the coffer pronounces it as a novelty of the early seventeenth century, and therefore jacobean. it especially well illustrates the pattern for carving that occupied workers through the reign of james i. there is the norman arch, low and wide, set on short supports which have now lost their architectural look of a column. the arches at the ends have as ornament the guilloche, that line of circles that sinuously proceeds through all that time. the carving just under the lid shows the characteristic s curve in one of its many varieties, and the line of decoration just above the drawers indicates the development of the half-circle. thus are shown in this one early piece the principal motifs of the carvers who were coaxing the models of a past renaissance into an expression that was entirely british. the small oak cupboard on plate 11 is another transition piece, being in feeling both tudor and jacobean. here the guilloche is enlarged to form a panel ornament, and the acanthus becomes a long fern frond to ornament the uprights. one hardly feels, however, that this piece was ever the accompaniment of elegant living, although much antiquity gives its present distinction. continuing with the low round arch as an ornament in the low-relief carving of james' time, an example of its use is given in the folding gate-legged table which is the property of the author (plate 8). the turned legs finished with squares, top and bottom, are characteristic of the first quarter of the century. the arch is here used as an apron to give elegance, and above is a drawer carved with leaves. in construction this table presents three sides to the front, as does the cabinet just considered, and its italian inspiration is evident. like all old oak of the time, it is put together with wooden pegs, and bears the marvellous patine of time. had the chairs of early stuart time not been heavily made and squarely constructed we would not have had so many examples with which to gladden the eye. almost without exception they are variants of the italian, originality having not then appeared possible to chair makers. three of the four chairs in the plates illustrate this so well that it is worth while to make a comparison with old italian chairs. [illustration: plate viii--gate-leg table. forming console with gate closed the turned legs with square bases and tops indicate date as early as 1610. the deep apron carved with fretted arch is an unusual feature] [illustration: plate ix--oak chairs early xvii century italian inspiration] the chair on plate 9 with a crescent-shaped carving on the back had its first inspiration in venice, that great port getting the idea from the wares of constantinople which the merchant ships brought to her with prodigality. all of these chairs are of the square construction that endures, and all have baluster legs but of different styles of turning. all are understayed with honest stretchers, but one has the front stretcher close to the floor, indicating a little earlier mode. the colonnade of arches forming the back is nearer its italian origin where a column supports the arch rather than a bulbous spindle. one more feature to note on these chairs, that is common to both late tudor and early jacobean styles, is the decoration of split spindles or pendants applied to a flat surface. this decoration is a favourite for wood panelling, for chests of drawers and all large pieces about the middle of the century. we have but to call to mind the costume of henrietta maria, the queen of charles i, to realise why these armless chairs were the most popular of the time; the voluminous skirts of the ladies of the court--whom others imitated--could not have been squeezed into an arm chair with courtly grace. the sort of room in which this furniture was set--how happy we of to-day would be to have their panelling! occasionally an entire room is taken from some old english home and set up in one of our american dwellings, such as the rooms now owned by mr. frederick pratt and mr. w. r. hearst. and thus we know what beauty surrounded the english family three hundred years ago. panelling in squares covered the walls from floor to ceiling or to a high level, above which hung tapestries or embroideries. and as the architect of the house composed the panelling it was drawn with such skill as to miss either hap-hazard or monotony. the linen-fold panel of gothic and early tudor popularity was no longer repeated. the true jacobean panel is small and square with carving on the pilasters and cornice in rooms of elegance. to this day no more home-like way of treating the walls of large rooms has been devised than this wood panelling, which gives a sense of seclusion and of richness that is never so well imparted except by the use of tapestry--and the combination of the two nearly approaches perfection. jacobean styles, so-called, extend through the greater part of the century, but each succeeding stuart marked his special progress on them. the styles of the first kings, james i and his son charles i, lifted the family movables from heaviness to comparative lightness, and grew away from the renaissance in truly original ways. on this fact rests much of its interest. the other great fact for us is that these years of the first stuart kings were the years of the first american colonisation. [illustration: plate x--oak chest of drawers an interesting example of the jacobean use of decorative mouldings] [illustration: plate xi--early jacobean cabinet carved and put together with wooden pegs. a guilloche carving ornaments each panel] chapter ii jacobean styles to charles ii brutally natural we may call the earlier characters in english history, but attached to the stuart name there is always poetic romance. and without romance what would our lives be! so when we sit in our loved library or dining-room at home, embellished by a few bits of furniture such as the stuarts lived among, those bits are like consolidated stories, things to dream about in the hours of ease. james i and his son charles cared about things they lived with, and cared, too, about giving them as much as possible a certain lightness of effect, in revolt from tudor bulk. perhaps the necessity for surpassing strength was waning. men no longer wore tons of armour, furniture in the seventeenth century no longer journeyed from castle to castle. inigo jones was at work also, with his marvellous talent at classical architecture, setting a standard of cheerful elegance in design that lightened the tudor magnificence. when james i began to rule in 1603, inigo jones, a lightsome young man of thirty, was employed by the king as a composer of masques. after developing his architect's talent he produced the palace at whitehall, hatfield house and other residences. his also was the invention that threw over the steps to the thames the noble water-gate, york stairs, that stands there now, a record of the merry days when ladies and cavaliers, all gay as flowers, crossed the greensward, filed under this richly carved arch, and were handed into elegantly equipped barges on the river. while things of an artistic sort were progressing in england, other events closely concerning us in america were also active. the entire century runs two parallel lines of history, one that of the gaiety of the house in power, the other that of the struggle of the people divided into religious sects. while "'twas merry in the hall, when beards wagged all," persecution was rife among religionists, and the puritans were finding it hard to stay in their own loved land. thus came the sufferers to america to plant new homes; and thus coming, brought with them such furniture as was in vogue at the time of migrating. and so it happens that our earliest bits of furniture, chairs that supported grim pilgrim fathers, tables which were set out by provident puritan mothers and maids, are jacobean in mode. the chair of elder brewster which has asylum in hartford, conn., is a fine example of the heavy turned work of the day, and numerous oak chairs show the strap-work and other low-relief carving so well known in early jacobean pieces. one especial class of chair (plate 12) when found in england is called for one of its shires, yorkshire, but when drawn from new england hiding places, we name it a wainscote chair. the design of the back easily gives reason for the name, for it is formed from a bit of panelling similar to that in vogue for walls. stolid and strong are these chairs, square-built and stayed with four strong stretchers, usually near the floor. the collector considers the charm irresistibly increased when the front stretcher is well worn with the friction of many feet, the resting feet of a long procession that has walked down the centuries. even better is the smoothness of the chair-arms which comes by contact with the human hand, that restless member with a habit of idly rubbing an inviting surface. like all makers of chairs, the ancient cabinet-maker left back-legs in utilitarian simplicity, while he limited variety to the front-legs. in this type of chair, turning gave the usual ornamentation. this baluster effect had many varieties, but all united in finishing with a square block at the bottom and where the seat-frame met the leg, or where the front stretcher crossed, if it was placed high. the ornamentation of the back was done with the light spirit that distinguished early jacobean styles from the preceding italian models, yet without the elegance that appeared later in the century. these chairs undoubtedly have charm and interest, but as works of art they are not comparable to those which preceded, nor to those which followed. they were, however, distinctly english, and as such, command interest. [illustration: plate xii--oak chairs called both wainscote and yorkshire chairs] [illustration: plate xiii--spiral turned chair, characteristic of first half of century] a close study of the motifs used by the wood-carver shows all the favourite lines, the guilloche, that ever interesting play upon circles, the s curve in pairs, the rounded arch, the half-circle, the rose and the tulip. cushions were a part of the chair's equipment. the tired ladies of the seventeenth century were not asked to recuperate on a thick oak plank unsoftened by padding. loose cushions of velvet and of embroidery were usual, for this was an age when handsome fabrics were made all over europe, and freely used in flashing blue and ruby red against the oak. nearly allied to the wainscote chair, yet infinitely more refined, is the chair of spiral parts, with back and seat upholstered. without arms it was favoured by ladies of voluminous petticoats who pattered about the thrones of james i and charles i. with arms it is sometimes called cromwellian, suggesting that the doughty dictator ruled therefrom. but the austerity of the wainscote chair seems more fitting to his resolute manner. this turned chair with its padded back and seat, so often dignifies our modern interiors that it is worth our while to know about it. while the wainscote chair belonged more especially to cottage furniture which was made all over england according to varying local taste, this chair was more or less of an aristocrat, and furnished the halls of wealth. its origin is italian. france used it freely, but she too got her first model from the italians. in the time these chairs prevailed, england outside of london was scant of luxury. the homes of all but the wealthiest were short of the comforts that ameliorate the jolt of life's car in these our modern days. but the whole country was sprinkled with inns and taverns wherein were gathered such luxuries as the times afforded, and thither went the man of the family, bored by the too rigid manner of the home. those who travelled, too, in the saddle or by lumbering coach, fell happily into the warm embrace of the chairs at the hospitable inn at each stop on the journey. the post-road made the string, the inns the pearls, and in this way the surface of england was covered with a net for the delectation of the restless. but old-time descriptions of the highways, their ruts and sloughs, their highwaymen even, show how laborious were the journeyings and how more than glad were travellers to alight. ben jonson declared a tavern chair to be the throne of human felicity. thus he spoke praise, not only of the inn but of such furniture as pleases us in these days. if, therefore, any husband of to-day rebel against the stiffness of backs, or weakness of legs, of the antique chairs at home, let him be reminded of jonson's opinion on these same chairs. the chair with spiral legs and other members runs through the larger half of the century, and has significant variations. one shown on plate 13 has a female head on the uprights of the arms, which represents mary of modena. the figure is given at full length in a model that our furniture manufacturers have many times repeated. while baluster legs for chairs and other furniture were a product of the reign of the first james, we may set down the more elegant spiral twist as an evidence of a better developed taste for which a few leaders were responsible. such a man as inigo jones must have influenced widely the public taste in all liberal arts. although his examples were set in the larger art of architecture, the crowd swaggering about the banqueting hall, which still excites our delight at whitehall, must have been inspired to introduce a daintier style at home. it was in 1625 that charles i succeeded his father, and soon after invited van dyck to be of those who surrounded the royal person. it sometimes seems to the art-seeking tourist, that charles' patronage of art had as motive the production of an infinity of portraits of his own much-frizzed, much-dressed self. but apart from painting portraits of the king, which the model made a bit pathetic, through the attempt to associate majesty with preciosity, van dyck had a large part in improving england's taste. another name is that of sir francis crane, he who helped his royal master with the noble art of tapestry-making at the mortlake works. to continue with the use of the spiral leg--as its modern use creates interest in the subject--it is found as the support on those most enticing of tables, the gate-leg. not that all gate-leg tables are thus made. alas no, economy travels heavily in all ages, so the less expensive baluster turning prevailed. but the spiral is the favourite and gives great value to the old tables. rarely indeed are they to be found at bargains since we in america have taken to collecting jacobean furnishings. gate-leg tables are labelled with the name of cromwell by those liking to fix a date by attaching to it a ruler. without doubt, the great commoner leaned his weary elbows on such a table when things went wrong, or curved a smiling lip above it--if he could smile--when the table was weighted with savoury puritan viands. but for many years before cromwell, english homes had found the gate-leg table a mobile and convenient replacer of the massive refectory tables of tudor or roman inspiration. in large size these tables set a feast for the family, in smaller drawing they held the evening light; or, smaller yet, they assisted the house-mother at her sewing. the wonder is not that we of to-day find them invaluable, but that mankind ever let them go out of fashion. collect them if you have the purse, but if you must buy a modern copy, remember that mahogany was not in use for furniture in england until the century after, for modern manufacturers flout chronology and produce gate-leg tables in the wood of which the originals were never made. they even lacquer them, in defiance of history. [illustration: plate xiv--oak cabinet, dated 1653 decorated with split spindles, and with inlay mother-of-pearl, ivory and ebony. the legs show tendencies not developed until the next century under queen anne] [illustration: plate xv--oak gate-leg dining table with oval top and rarely proportioned spiral legs. a drawer distinguishes the piece] since the fashion is for old tables in the dining-room, these jacobean gate-leg tables are found practical as well as beautiful. the large size, about four and a half feet wide by six feet long, accommodates a moderate family and presents none of the inconveniences that make certain antiques mere objects of art or curios. i must confess to a thrill of delight when sitting at such an old oak board set out with old lace and silver, not only for its obvious beauty, but by the thought of the groups who have gathered there through three hundred years, groups of varying customs, varying habits of thought, varying fashions in dress, yet human like ourselves, and prone to make of the dining-table a circle of joy. the inlaid cabinet on plate 11 is an aristocrat. though it is dated 1653 it exhibits the split spindles of earlier years, and these are executed with such nice feeling that they accord well with the italian look of the piece. in truth, its principal decoration is italian, an elaborate use of inlay in mother of pearl, ivory and ebony. its feet, too, are entirely un-english, yet it remains a jacobean piece of english make. the influences always at work in england left their mark on the development of english styles. always and always a monarch was marrying a foreign wife, or importing a court painter or architect, and these folk naturally brought with them the fashions of their own countries. it seemed as though the english knew that native art was not a flower of the first order of beauty and so were modest about it, and ever willing to adopt the art of other countries. it is the custom of the inexact to include in jacobean furniture all the styles of the seventeenth century up to the time of william and mary, and this gives to such loose classification an extraordinary variety. furniture does not die with a monarch, nor do new designs start up in a night; goods last after the master has gone, and the new master uses the old style until a later one has been evolved. james died and charles i took his place in the year 1625, but the lightening and elaborating of furniture came not all at once, and depended as much on mechanical invention and the use of new woods as on the rise and fall of monarchs. and yet, as the first man to be pleased was the king, and as the king in charles' case had a lighter nature than his forerunners and had moreover a continental encouraging of that lightness, we fancy we see an evidence of gaiety, of jocundity, in the furniture of his day. he was a king who intended to take all the privileges of his state, and one of these was to surround himself with beauty of the type that brought no reminders of hard living nor serious thinking, no hint of grim puritan asceticism. so the oak of england which had supplied austerity was now carved into shapes hitherto unknown. typical of the results of elaborate oak carving are the chairs in plate 17. the arm-chair is a typical example of a chair of the middle years of the century, and later. here the square construction of the chair is not altered from tudor days, but note how every part has been lightened, until an elegance and beauty have been attained which make it worthy of the finest rooms of any time. the carver when given free rein has left little of the chair untouched. legs, stretchers and uprights, are all made with a well proportioned spiral, and at each square of joining a rosette is carved. here also is seen an innovation in the ornamental stretcher across the front which, instead of being near the ground, is raised to a height out of reach of a ruthless boot which might mar its elaboration. this stretcher shows the use of the long curving palm in place of the classic acanthus, and also introduces the fat little cherubs which french designers affected. other points to notice are the very open back, composed of spirals and three rows of carving. it was at this time that pierced carving came into vogue, so far surpassing in beauty the wainscote backs. the incising of the seat-frame is another peculiarity of the middle of the century. perhaps the most interesting matter of all is the caning. wooden seats were the only ones hitherto; although cushions had been used to soften them, they lacked at best the reciprocal quality that we call "giving." springs were far in the future, but a luxury-loving aristocracy seized at once upon this amelioration. there is more or less quibbling upon the subject of caning, as to the date of its introduction. no one can fix it exactly, which robs the enthusiast of the pleasure of announcing with oracular precision, that his chair is of certain year because of its caning. the middle of the century saw it, the first part did not, but it lasted through varying styles of furniture, and is lasting still. its origin is undoubtedly eastern, for the tenacious splints from which it is woven are from warmer climes than england's. and that brings us again to one of those little facts in history of which our household gods are ever reminding us, the trade that united india with portugal, portugal with flanders, and the flemish with england. the small chair in the plate is, to the careless eye, a little sister to the larger, but the wise observer notes at once the substitution of the s curve heavy in carving for the more elaborate pierced palm. also the cane panels in the back, and the very decided change in the shape of the front legs. the heavy s curves are the same which later on gain in thickness and evolve into the ogee curve seen later, and which is often mistakenly ascribed to william and mary, although originating earlier and receives the name of james ii. arbitrary names are hard to make consistently exact; dates are hard to place on every piece, but is it not enough to know within a very few years the time of making of one's valuable antiques? [illustration: plate xvi--oak day beds carved after manner in vogue in second half of xvii century] [illustration: plate xvii--stuart chairs of lightened construction, open carving and incised seat frame] to finish the scrutiny of the smaller chair, note the curve of the front legs, the first attempt at deserting the straight perpendicular line of construction. this is the beginning of an insidious french influence which prevailed throughout the last third of the century. it beautified, of course, as the gift of france to the world is the _luxe_ of the eye, but from the time of its introduction dates the end of the furniture which was of solely english invention. so comes the end of this early jacobean mode, in its best time of flowering when it was drowned in a flood of foreign influence. it was in the styles prevailing through the reigns of the first two stuarts and of cromwell, that england expressed only herself in her furniture. it is this which makes the periods rich with originality and of peculiar interest. when the jacobean styles began shakespeare was living those sad years whose disillusion produced his later plays, and jacobean styles were at their height at the restoration when charles ii played the part of king for his royal pleasure. chapter iii the middle of the century end of the pure jacobean two matters influenced greatly the furniture makers of the middle of the seventeenth century. and these had less to do with kings and courts than with humble folk. one was the invention of a saw, the kind of a saw that would divide a plank into as many thin sheets of wood as were desired. naturally, those who looked upon these thin sheets imagined new ways of using them for the embellishment of furniture. heavy carving had been almost the only ornament when inch-thick planks were the usual material. now, a wondrous field of possibilities lay before the ambitious in the way of inlay and veneer. possibly andré boulle in france gave the inspiration, but even so the english inlay is a matter all by itself. from the invention of that saw arose a style of decoration that developed from such simplicity as the rare and occasional flower seen on early jacobean panels, to the exquisite elaboration known as the sea-weed pattern, and other masses of curving filaments, which found highest perfection in the last quarter of the century. the cabinets on plates 18 and 19 illustrate the almost unbelievable fineness of the work. in the larger cabinet the inlay is drawn with a free hand and is less characteristic of english design than the other, excepting the naïveté of the birds and trees, and the central panel wherein a gaily caparisoned youth strides a horse held by an infinitesimal blackamoor--a bit of the east's submission thus noted. wherever a plain surface was found, the new ornament seized it. cabinets and chests of drawers offered the best opportunities, but next to them were tables. the tops gave a fine field--although there is always a lack of unity of feeling between a table maker and a table user. the one thinks the table should be left inviolably empty, the other regards it as a rest for books and bibelots. but there is also the drawer of the table and its apron, so upon these the inlay designs were put in all their dainty beauty of design. this class of work must not be in any way confused with the dutch inlay of a later epoch and which is imitated to-day ad nauseam. if you have naught else to guide you in knowing the old english from modern dutch, there are the shapes of the pieces on which the inlay is put, besides the pattern of the work. the second matter which made a change in the general aspect of furniture in the second half of the seventeenth century was the use of walnut wood in place of oak. it is a pretty bit of history, that of the rich-toned walnut. as far back as elizabeth's day furniture of that wood was imported from italy in all its beauty of design, colour and finish. the wise queen ordered trees brought from italy and forests planted, that england might have a supply of the admired wood. she did not live to see the trees of use, but in the century following hers, it came suddenly into vogue. imagine the delight of those who had been working in the more obdurate oak, to feel this finer, softer wood under the tool. [illustration: plate xviii--marquetry cabinet about 1700 showing dutch indian influence in its design and ornament] [illustration: plate xix--walnut cabinet with veneer and inlay of seaweed pattern showing the extreme skill of cabinet workers in the second half of the xvii century. drop handles are noticeable] putting together the invention of the saw which could slice wood as thin as paper as well as fret it into sea-weed, and the adoption of walnut wood, still another type of beauty in furniture was produced, that of the plain large-panelled scheme. by cunning skill panels of walnut veneer were produced where the grain of the wood supplied the design. add to this the wonderful finish of the cabinet-maker, and the piece had the beauty of bronze and the simplicity of classicism. but no picture can give adequate idea of the beauty of the old burr walnut. its bronze surface of innumerable tones, all polished by generations of caressing hands and never by varnish, must be seen and touched to be appreciated. the patine of time is heightened by the patine of affection, and both together make of the plain walnut furniture a thing of appealing beauty to those who love restraint in ornament. a word about this thing we call patine. it began in these old pieces with the original finish of the old maker, who, having done all of the work himself, was tenderly careful of results. this early necromancer played on the wood of his precious meuble with soothing oil, with tonic of turpentine and with protective wax. with the oil he fed the open pores of the wood, until all were filled against the attack of less judicious nutriment, then with pungent turpentine and fragrant honest wax, he rubbed patiently the surfaces. no varnish, as he valued his art. varnish as we know it now was not in his laboratory. it was not needed when every man was lavish of the labour of his hand. thus was begun the patine for which we collectors cry to-day. but the assistance of the housewife was a necessary adjunct, for never through all the centuries must she do other than rub with oil and wax the fine old oak and walnut. i have seen the work of centuries destroyed by a modern vandal with a can of varnish. the lawns of england are made by centuries of unremitting care. the patine on old english furniture is brought about by the same virtue. if there be any who do not value the rare old finish, then for his household wares the manufacturers provide a vat of varnish into which whole sets of chairs are dipped to avoid even the labour of brushing on a coat of the shiny stuff. roundhead and cavalier each had to be suited with furniture, so the varying styles, the elaborate and the plain, met all requirements. in the midst of it all reigned charles, the second of the stuart kings, fostering art with his wondrous assistant van dyck, and making a thousand mistakes in the art of government, yet ever standing a romantic figure. we feel an interest in all that concerned his life as a man, feeling more pity than indignation at his futile descent upon parliament to pluck therefrom the five members who offended him. and who does not, when in london, glance at his high-bred marble effigy at whitehall with a secret sympathy for his miserable end? we all love a gentleman, and time has nothing to do with effacing that. the elegance charles i introduced into his time delights us now, and we thrill at the thought of owning any of the fine accessories with which he or his nobles surrounded themselves. after charles came the commonwealth. republican as we are, we feel an unaccountable revolt against any suggestion of cromwell's taste in life's elegant accessories. he was the great commoner, and as such has no skill at dictating fashions for aristocrats. so we accord to him a leather-covered chair with spiral turned frame, and a gate-leg table, feeling he should be grateful for the award, as even these things were not of his own invention. of the two great divisions, the cavaliers and the roundheads, the aristocratic party fell into subjection. all that was austere came to the fore, and all that had the charm of gaiety and mirth, elegance and extravagance, was disapproved by those in power. cromwell's personality did not inspire the makers of pretty kickshaws for my lady's boudoir, nor luxuries for my lord's hall. so nothing was to be done by the cabinet-makers but to repeat the previous styles. the asceticism of the puritan inspired no art in the few years of roundhead rule, but there is no telling what might have happened had cromwell stayed several decades in power. at the end he took most kindly to living in the royal palace of hampton court. the quick assumption of elegance of the beggar on horseback is proverbial. after napoleon had forgotten his origin, no king was more acquisitive than he in the matter of thrones and palaces, nor more insistent in the matter of royal pomp. but "old noll" did not live to rule like a prince of the blood, nor to develop a style of luxurious living that left a mark on the liberal arts. the development of walnut furniture went imperceptibly on, with oak still much in use, when all at once a new fact in history gave a new excuse for changes in the mode. the cromwells passed and the people of england took back the house of stuart, and did it with such enthusiasm that even the furniture reflected it at once. but it is just this reflection of events in the art of a period that gives undying interest to old styles, and especially to those ancient pieces that are left from the hands which made them and those who first used them in palace or cottage. back, then, came the old delight in royally born royalty, in being governed by a king and not by a commoner. with open arms the king was welcomed, and cavalier families that had been in sad plight, blotted out by confiscation and disapproval, sprang lightly back to their former places. this was the time of the restoration, that time when england adopted the rottenness of the continent to stimulate whatever of vice lay in the briton, forgetting to take with it the fundamental good. but the naughty game was one so prettily played that we never tire of its recounting. and as it produced so many changes in house furnishings, it must be considered. it was in 1660 that charles ii was called to smile from the throne on a pleased public. it was about that time that a queen was chosen for him, catherine of braganza, who brought with her, very naturally, some goods of her own. the styles in england at this time were especially england's, the native effort freed from copying italy's renaissance. but on this fell a sudden avalanche of new ideas greatly at variance with her methods, and from now on the styles of england took inspiration from the styles of the continent, and have ever since continued the game. but let this sink into the consciousness: each style adopted takes on the strong characteristics of the country adopting them. if to originate a decorative style was not the natural impulse of britain, it was her talent to alter that style in a way that expressed her characteristics. in the time of charles ii she had a love for the light side of life, coupled with prodigality and elegance, and this can be read to-day in the relics of those times. catherine the queen brought no children to inherit the throne--the duke of york being accused of having selected purposefully a barren mate for his brother--but she brought bombay as a dower. so, with her portuguese furniture and her eastern designs, her gifts turned the heads of artists and artisans. in england are found those chairs for which we go to portugal, yet they were made in england in the seventeenth century, the high-back straight chair covered with carved leather in both back and seat, put on with a prodigality of big nails, and having bronze spikes as a finish to the uprights of the back. the fluted foot came then, a sort of compromise between a claw and scroll, and known in our land as a spanish foot, and used until the end of the seventeenth century. it is found on much furniture of early colonial times prior to anne's day. but perhaps the first change in charles' reign was seen on the chairs of pierced carving of palm and s curve and cherub, with caned seats or backs. the carving on these chairs at once took as its popular device the crown, the crown which had been hidden out of sight in the years of the commonwealth. as if to show the wealth of affection with which it was welcomed, it was repeated as many as five conspicuous times on one chair. with what complacence must charles have looked upon this gentle flattery! for the queen's satisfaction there were matters from the near east in the way of ivory and ebony inlay, carved ebony, introductions of small black beings into designs, always in obvious subjection to white masters. but these were exotics of a sort that english taste preferred to import rather than manufacture. ladies who took to embroidering affected the bombay designs and colours. charles ii had been reigning but six years when the great fire swept away uncountable treasures in the way of furniture. to be sure, there was all the rest of england. but at that time london was practically all of elegant england. country gentlemen had estates and big houses, but owing to the impossibility of transportation on the always miry, rutted roads, they went without the luxuries of town life. so, with the great fire of london perished so much of old oak and walnut furniture as to make collectors weep who turn their thoughts thereon. but as the phoenix rises unabashed from the flames, so rose the inspirations of sir christopher wren, grinling gibbons, and of minor artists and artisans. wren rebuilt the fallen monuments, giving to the world his great st. paul's, and a pattern of church steeple that climbs high in american settlements as well as all through london; and the lesser workers gave men new patterns in beds and chairs for repose, and in tables for comforting viands, for games, or for the gossip which was a deep game of the day. chapter iv carolean styles or the restoration charles ii, 1660 to 1685 if it was to the queen of charles ii that the carolean period of furniture owed its portuguese strain and the evidence of strange things from the east, it was from a woman of quite another sort that the predominating influence came. french styles were the vogue at court, not because the queen, poor dull woman, wished it, but because louise de querouailles was the strong influence, and with her advent came follies and fashions enough to please the light side of one of the lightest of monarchs. france, in the person of louis xiv, felt that england would bear watching while a stuart strutted and flirted, oppressed and vacillated. and the french ways of those days being directed by such craft as that of the astute cardinal mazarin, a woman was sent from france to charm the king and stay closer beside the throne than any man could bide. charles created the light and lovely louise the duchess of portsmouth and the mother of the little duke of richmond; and, that so much of extravagant beauty might be royally housed, he spent much time and more money in fitting her apartments at whitehall. three times were they demolished at her whim, the extravagant fittings failing to suit her insatiable caprice. such procedure was hotly stimulating to artists and artisans. in the first attempt they sought to produce their best, but seeing it displease, they were lashed on to more and yet more subtle effort until at last the pretty lady of too much power had forced the production of elegant new styles which smacked of her native france. thus went by the board the efforts of english styles to remain english, and thus began that long habit of keeping an eye on french designs. we think of charles ii as a figure-head of romance, because the rosy mist of poetic fancy clings to the members of the stuart family from mary of scots down to--but not including--that duke of york who minced about the throne of charles ii with his soul concentrated on securing from his brother his own personal advancement. the horrors of charles' reign, the bloody assizes, the monmouth incident, his neglect to recognise the seriousness of his responsibilities, all these things are lost in the elegant frivolity of the life led at his court. cares, ennuis, tragedies, were flicked aside by white hands thrust from brocades and lace, and a merry measure was the antidote for soul-sickness. those who made music or danced to it, those who rhymed (the naughtier the better) and sang their verses, those who led at toasts and feasting, those who wore the richest dress, were the persons of importance under the patronage of charles ii, in the time of the restoration. nell gwynn, she of the quick smile and quick tear, and vulnerable heart, was of the king's favour to the extent of honouring him with the little duke of st. albans; and on her charles lavished accessories of elegant living similar to those he bestowed on louise de querouailles. the bewitching actress lived her quickly changing moods among the furniture that now graces our modern rooms here on this side of the water. we were not importing many of those elegances in 1664. that was the date when charles' brother james, duke of york, left the luxurious court at london and came to give royal dignity to the little american town of new amsterdam on the day when its dutch dominion ended and the city was re-christened new york. while considering the fascinating women of the court, hortensia mancini, for whom beautiful furnishings were made, must stand as the most alluring of them all because she ever eludes the critic or dissector. somewhat of her uncle cardinal mazarin was in her astute secretiveness, but a baffling quality all her own made her proof against surrendering her soul to any man's probing or to any man's charm. so rich she was that money could not tempt; so clever, with italian wit added to italian culture, that none could surpass her in repartee or discourse; so full of mystery was her dark and piquant beauty that all might envy her--yet so passionately unhappy, that none would wish to exchange with her. add to the list of women barbara palmer, duchess of cleveland, who represented a heavy voluptuousness and a prolific motherhood for the king, and we see the women favoured by the king's artisans, and for whom the beautiful furnishings of the time were produced. though charles ii had no royal factories such as louis xiv was conducting in france, plenty of rich objects of art were yielded by the workers. that astonishing aberration of taste, silver furniture, had a vogue at this time, the king considering his favourite worthy of such extravagance. it must have been ugly by its inappropriateness, however pretty was the woman it served. louise de querouailles had hers set in a room lined all with mirror glass, which at that time was an expensive novelty. but it pleased the king to wander into the apartment of his favourite satellite and see the lovely image of the duchess of portsmouth sitting among her silver movables, reflected so many times in the walls that the world seemed peopled only with adorable women. nell gwynn also had her mirror room. it was the duke of buckingham who made the mirror-lined room possible by establishing a factory for mirrors. previous to this time they were exceeding rare in england. now a leaf was taken from italy's books and mirrors were made at home, with bevelled edges, and also with bright blue glass framing, inside the wooden frame. grinling gibbons was at work on his carvings and inventions, and we have record of him as a decorator in a letter in which he tells his lady client: "i holp all things will please you." it was the year after the great fire, 1667, that gibbons began to make a feature of the garlands and swags of flowers and fruit, carved with excessive exuberance, that are associated with his name and that of queen anne in decoration. to gain his effects he used the fine soft limewood as yielding to his tool almost like a plastic stuff. in social england bath played an important part, and thither went for new scenes the merry gossiping crowd for their routs and aristocratic carousing. this was the time of the sedan-chair, of the dropped note, the flirted handkerchief, the raised eyebrow and the quick eye-flash, all full of poignant meanings of their own. life was a pretty game, insistently a pretty one, and following the mode, its accessories were pretty. at bath the same elegant crowd played as in london, transferred by shockingly primitive coaches over outrageously rutted roads. the wonder is they ever cared to undertake such hardships as those imposed on travellers in england in the seventeenth century. but at bath we see them, at the famous spas, with nell gwynn, way-ward and ardent, charming the men, slighted by the women. to be specific about the furniture styles of the times is satisfactory to the student, to the desired end that old pieces may be known from imitation, and that good adaptations may be distinguished from bad. in general it may be said that lightness continued to be the ideal in construction, particularly in chairs and tables, and that carvings grew ever finer in workmanship. chair backs also grew narrower and higher. caning was retained, but seats were covered with a squab cushion, or upholstered. a minute examination of the chairs on plate 21 leads to the detection of certain characteristics. this plate shows a particularly good example of the chairs as they depart from the fashion which prevailed immediately before the fire, and as they merged into the style of william and mary. these chairs have details in common with chairs that preceded them, but as a whole, they are entirely different. they do not tell the same story, convey the same message, as the chairs of charles i, for example. and that shows the subtle power of furniture to express the spirit of the times in which it was made. "feeling" is a word for the serious collector. ability to read feeling amounts almost to a talent, and is certainly an instinct. those who possess it know without recourse to detail where to place a piece of furniture never encountered before, and this even though it be one of those erratic pieces that appear in all periods. the feeling, then, of these chairs is french, but a transplanted french, growing under alien influence. [illustration: plate xx--stuart settee with carving. second half of xvii century] [illustration: plate xxi--charles ii chairs of varying styles in carving] descending upon details, the shape of the legs is so much at variance with those of the preceding fashion that they seem to alter the scheme of construction. by means of the change from a straight line to a curve the chair loses in honesty and in balance while growing in elegance. another point to notice is the change in the arrangement of stretchers, also the lifting from the floor of the elaborate front stretcher which is made to match the ornamental top of the chair back. the seat-frame retains the incising of the former fashion, and the square blocks at points of intersection carry the familiar carved rosette. the backs have strong points of interest. the radical change is in the uprights, which, instead of being wide, flat carvings of leafage, are gracefully designed posts. a long step in the way of beauty was made when this style of back was adopted, a treatment which developed later in the century into the exquisite carved backs, which even exceeded the french in graceful invention. an examination of the chairs of 1685 will show the perfection of the style which was begun by charles ii, adopted by james ii and further developed under william and mary. to continue the lesson of the chairs, it was here that the old flat s curve began to alter into the richer, more robust c curve. the leg of chairs carved in c scrolls follows the shape of the curves, and furniture of this pattern has exceeding charm, especially when the front stretcher has been treated by an inspired hand. much sought are the chairs and sofas of this period, and when covered with needle-point are keenly valued for use in the superb living-room which in modern homes often takes place of the drawing-room. happy indeed is the collector who can find such an old english sofa as that in the metropolitan museum on plate 22. it is entirely characteristic, and shows not only the interesting fashion in carving, but the large advance in upholstering. such comfortable work was unknown before the reign of charles ii. if we have curiosity as to the appearance of the gentlefolk who used such furniture, the embroidered cover of this piece shows lovely woman in her hours of ease, and mankind hovering near with a wish to please. but this very embroidery shows how difficult a matter it was for the english to draw with true hand and free, a purely decorative motive; for outside the figures of the medallions, the whole thing is meaningless and without consistency. [illustration: plate xxii--walnut sofa carved in c curves, time of james ii covered with petit point embroidery] [illustration: plate xxiii--gilt mirror. time of charles ii when mirrors were freely made in england] for a clue to the inspiration of english work in the last quarter of the century, which embraces that of charles' reign, that of james ii and of william and mary, it is advisable to turn a keen eye on the artistic and political actions of france. the great louis was on the throne, and the great le brun was the leader in the decorative art of the day. one of the political mistakes of louis xiv was the revocation of the edict of nantes, that edict which had protected from persecution so large a number of protestant workers in the liberal arts. among these people were tapestry weavers, silk weavers, glass workers, wood carvers, members of all the crafts that contribute to the beauty of the home. eventually they came to england for safe haven. it is impossible to over-estimate the benefit to england in an æsthetic way of the advent of all these skilled workers, men whose equal were to be found in no other country. louis xiv had made a royal hobby of exquisite furnishings. he had placed their manufacture among the royal pleasures and also among the state duties. he had glorified the art of furnishing as it had never before been done, by the magnificent institution of the gobelins factory. here men learned their craft--an infinite variety of crafts--and achieved perfection. all at once many of these workers were forced to flee or meet death under the new dictum of the king. and thus england received the outcasts to her own enrichment. one of the industries in which england was behind the continent was the manufacture of silk. the french refugees were soon established in london at spitalfields, reproducing the magic weaves they had formerly made for the imperious pleasure of the royal favourites in france. satins, brocades, taffetas of wondrous dye and lustre, flowed from the looms of the able weavers who thus drowned their nostalgia in excess of a loved and familiar occupation. one result of this mass of beautiful material being thrown to a delighted public, was the change made in the fashion of interior wall-treatment. the beautiful oak panelling of other days oppressed with its seriousness the light mood of charles ii and his light companions. the gay sheen of silk was more sympathetic and enlivening. on the walls, then, went the silk. in anne's time the panels grew larger, then became a wainscot and sank to the height of a man's bewigged and capricious head; then lowered to a chair's height for the georgian era. and above flowed the gracious lines of silken fabrics concealing all the walls, made in spitalfields by the french refugees and their followers. the pretty duchess of portsmouth had her rooms hung with silk and with wondrous tapestries from france, though england made both silks and tapestries. beds of the day retained the high posts and tester or canopy, heavily draped, and the bed was similarly covered. the bed was carved, even to the tester, in french inspiration, and was elegant indeed. in such a bed came the king at last to lie in mortal illness in the palace at whitehall, where the lovely louise had first place by the royal invalid, while the queen was treated as a negligible quantity. the duchess of cleveland, that other favourite, was not far in the background, and the king in his last hours remembered still another when he implored: "don't let poor nell starve." chapter v the end of the seventeenth century william and mary. 1689-1702 the style named for william and mary embraces all the changes that occurred from late carolean days until the time of anne, and even includes some of the models and details that are given the name of that queen. dutch influence comes largely into both, but was stronger in the style known as queen anne's. mixed up with other influences were those not only of holland but of the countries with which her political life was concerned. spain contributed certain details, and as for the dutch connections with the near and the far east, they supplied an infinity of inspiration. nothing more piquant to the decorative spirit could be imagined than the fantastic motifs of indian and chinese importation. to us, surfeited as we are from babyhood with chinese toys and indian stuffs, it is hard to look upon these things as startling novelties. but in those days of less travel they were delicious exotics. among persons of fashion, there was a rage for the living evidences of the strange east, and more than popular as pets in the drawing-room became the exotic monkey and the vivid parrot. if these creatures, leashed to a standard, could be tended by a tiny black human, then fashion was pleased to an infantine joyousness. [illustration: plate xxiv--interesting chair transitional between stuart styles and william and mary] [illustration: chairs in variants of william and mary covered with petit point of the time] [illustration: william and mary caned chairs, one with fluted spanish foot plate xxv] every ship that came in from far eastern countries brought wise parrots and tiny frisking monkeys, and these were valued by decorative artists for models, as well as by my lady to pique gay conversation in her drawing-room. william and mary styles, like all of the seventeenth century, are at present in high vogue in america, and for this reason it interests us to study them. they come in after the use of oak has passed its vogue, and when walnut prevails, although woods of lighter colour, such as pearwood and sycamore, are employed. in chairs and sofas, carving prevails as decoration; but in cabinets and tables, the preference is for veneer and for inlay. at this time occurs a change in the style of cabinets. hitherto they had been closed cupboards; now, because of the fashion for collecting delft china from holland, a need came for cabinets that would display the collector's treasure. as furniture makers ever express the whims and needs of the day, so they at once invented the cabinet with shelf-top protected by glass. a feature of the design is the hooded top, so characteristic of william and mary. two types of carving prevailed in chairs in the last twenty years of the seventeenth century, that of the broken c curve, originating under charles ii, and that of great elaboration which in some respects caught its details from the french. a study of the plates will show that the post-like upright which flanks the back is retained in both cases. examples of fine carving under william and mary show the free fancy of the designer and the skill of the worker who was possibly the designer as well. but the original chairs must be seen to gain any idea of the beauty of colour and finish. the whole bears the look of bronze that has been polished with caressing hands for centuries. the shape of the leg in these finely carved chairs is to be noticed, as it is fathered by the chair-leg in vogue under louis xiv in france, and in slight variations it prevails all through the william and mary period. it is noticeable by a pear-shaped enlargement near the top. the spanish foot is often seen on this style. petit point, gros point, or mere cross-stitch embroidery you may call it, was a fashionable occupation for dame and damsel. in charles ii's time the stuffed high-relief stump work pleased the court. sorry stuff it looks now, much like the court ladies of that time, in that its colour and gilt are gone and its false art is pitifully exposed. but the good honest embroidery in wool and silk still stands, and is again tremendously in vogue. [illustration: plate xxvi--chest of drawers in burr walnut veneer mounted on legs, used in the last quarter of the xvii century] [illustration: plate xxvii--small walnut table with spiral legs and inlay. here is seen the beginning of the flat serpentine stretcher] it was madame de maintenon who gave such inspiration to the work in france that england copied. her school at st. cyr, which she conducted solely for the purpose of giving happiness and education to penniless daughters of fallen aristocrats, at that school the young girls executed work that ranks with objects of art. a well-known american collector has a large sofa executed thus under the hand of madame de maintenon which represents scenes from a play of molière's, the piece having also been given by these same young girls, then the cartoons drawn by an artist of high talent. so petit point was almost a high art in france in the time of william and mary, and england did her best to follow the fine pattern set her. if, in judging whether this work be french or english, the mind hesitates, it is well to take the eye from the medallions and study how the designer filled the big field outside. in french drawing the whole is a harmonious composition; in the english, the hand is crude and uncertain, and the motifs meaningless, though bold, without coherence or co-ordination. nowadays the lady who wishes to embroider a chair gets from paris a medallion already complete and fills in the surrounding territory at her pleasure. it would seem that the ladies in england did the same in the seventeenth century, but with less taste. among minor points of interest, those little points used by the amateur in identifying, is the marked change in the stretcher. away back in the beginning of the century, as seen on chairs and tables, it was heavy, made of square three-or four-inch oak, and placed almost on the ground. the first change was in using thinner wood; the next was in giving the stretcher a look of ornamental lightness by turning. when this happened the front stretcher of chairs was lifted from the ground to spare it the heavy wear apparent in older pieces. when carving attacked the stretcher, then it was placed well out of the way of harm, and it took on the ornamental effect of the chair's back. the portuguese style of stretcher copied closely the carving on the top of the back in graceful curves. it was when the larger pieces of furniture took on a certain lightness of effect that a change in their stretchers occurred, and this was in the period of william and mary. the stretcher became wide, flat and serpentine. in chairs it wandered diagonally from the legs, meeting in the centre. in tables its shape was regulated by the size of the table top. in chests of drawers it wavered from leg to leg of the six which like short posts supported the weight. if the piece of furniture was inlaid these flat stretchers offered fine opportunity for continuing the work. strangely enough the stretcher, in chairs at least, disappeared at just the time it was most needed. that was at the introduction of the curved or cabriole leg, in the early days of queen anne. those who know by experience how frail the curve makes this sort of construction, sigh with regret that the fine old queen anne pieces of their collection cannot be consistently stayed according to the older method. [illustration: plate xxviii--carved chairs. period of william and mary with all the fine characteristics of the carved designs of the time] [illustration: plate xxix--walnut chairs, william and mary with the exquisitely carved backs, stretchers and legs characteristic of the time] it was in the interesting time of william and mary that the kneehole desk made its appearance. a certain enchanting clumsiness marks these desks from later products on the same line, and a decided flavour of chinese construction. such a desk was recently rooted out of the dark in an obscure connecticut town, it having been brought over in the early days, and, not being mahogany, has lain despised by local dealers until one more "knowledgeable" than his fellows discovered that it was elizabethan! a contribution made by china was the art of lacquering. although it was not in the fulness of its vogue until the century had turned the corner in queen anne's reign, it had its beginnings in the earlier importations of lacquer and the desire of the cabinet-makers to imitate the imported art. varnish as we know it had never been in use, else had we missed the wonderful hand polish on old oak and walnut that cannot be imitated. and when it appeared it was only to use it in the chinese manner, as a thick lacquer over painted or relief ornament. as the art of lacquering grew, cabinets of great elaboration became fashionable, and these were in many cases imported from china as the cunning handicraft of the chinese exceeded that of the english in making tiny drawers and tea-box effects. then these pieces were sent to england where they were painted and lacquered by ladies as a fashionable pastime, and were set on elaborate carved stands of gilt in a style savouring more of grinling gibbons than of china,--which is the true accounting of the puzzling combination of lacquer and gold carving. the metal mounts or hardware of furniture throughout the seventeenth century was simple beyond necessity, yet this simplicity has its charm. in earliest days, iron locks and hinges of a gothic prudence as to size and invulnerability, ushered in the century, but it was still the time of shakespeare, and that time threw a glance back to the gothic just left behind. knobs were needed as drawers appeared, and these were conveniently and logically made of wood, and were cut in facets like a diamond. but the prevailing metal mount for the rest of the century was the little drop handle that resembles nothing so much as a lady's long earring. it is found on old jacobean cabinets, side-tables, and all pieces having drawers and cupboards. its origin is old spanish, and that smacks always of moorish. with unusual fidelity this little drop handle clung until under queen anne (1703) the fashion changed to the wide ornamental plate with looplike handle, and _that_ in turn served, with but slight variations, throughout the century. [illustration: queen anne single chair made of walnut with carved motives gilded. this type of chair shows the strong effect of chinese motifs, especially on the legs.] [illustration: queen anne arm chair upholstered in gros point with splat black and dutch shell on curved legs. _metropolitan museum of art, new york_] [illustration: walnut queen anne chairs with cabriole leg and claw and ball foot adapted from chinese spanish leather set on with innumerable nails elegantly covers the taller. these chairs foreshadow the georgian styles. plate xxx] [illustration: plate xxxi--queen anne chair with marquetry back and carved cabriole leg with hoof and serpentine stretcher _courtesy of p. w. french_] in summing up the seventeenth century as a whole, it seems to show a british and insular attempt to form its own styles, to dress its homes and palaces in a british way, regardless of what the world else-where was doing. bits of outside product came drifting across the channel, but these were not treated with too great seriousness. they were never adopted intact with all the feeling of foreign thought shining from their elegant surfaces, but rather were cut apart and certain bits were used to tack onto the more british work. and it is just here that is found the secret of the charm which lies in old english furniture. it is the endeavour of england to tell her own story, and her story is necessarily different from that of france, portugal, spain, holland, the east. so, although she borrows motifs from foreign lands, it is only to indicate her historical connection with them and not to make a witless copy of their wares. this holds true even at the time when two great artists dominated the decorative arts in europe, rubens and le brun, and that decorative monarch, louis xiv, ruled art as well as politics. yet the insularity of england kept her, happily, from realising the fine flowering of french art to imitate it, and, instead, she expressed her own sturdy characteristic development. and so we love the evidences of sincerity and the pursuit of beauty that our english ancestors made for us, and in our homes of ease, with these things about us, we like to dream of the men and women who created and used these dignified time-kissed old pieces. and in dreaming we forget the frailty and cruelty of courts and rulers and think on the nobility and courage of the lesser yet greater folk who laid the foundation of our country. the end table of interesting dates +james i. 1603 to 1625+ shakespeare died 1616 first american colonies, yorktown, 1607 first american colonies, plymouth, 1620 +charles i. 1625 to 1649+ inigo jones, architect, died 1651 van dyck, court painter sir francis crane +commonwealth under cromwell, 1649 to 1660+ +charles ii. 1660 to 1685+ the restoration queen catherine of braganza, 1660 bombay influence and east india company, 1660 great fire of london, 1666 sir christopher wren, 1632-1723 st. paul's commenced, 1675 grinling gibbons, 1648-1726 mirror factory, 1673 chatsworth built, 1670 +james ii. 1685 to 1688+ revocation of edict of nantes, 1685 spitalfields silk factories, 1685 +william and mary. 1689 to 1702+ daniel morot hampton court, principal parts built +queen anne. 1702 to 1714+ _a_ book _of_ distinctive interiors _edited by_ william a. vollmer [illustration] new york mcbride, nast & company 1912 copyright, 1910, 1911, 1912, by mcbride, nast & company _published november, 1912_ contents page planning the living-room 5 by _a. raymond ellis_ designing the dining-room 47 by _a. raymond ellis_ decorating and furnishing the bedroom 69 by _margaret greenleaf_ the problem of the bathroom 87 by _a. raymond ellis_ the proper treatment for the nursery 99 by _sarah leyburn coe_ characteristic halls and stairway types 108 planning the kitchen 116 by _james earle miller_ [illustration: pleasing decorative effects may be obtained by bringing out the natural graining of the woodwork. chestnut and cypress are particularly suitable for this as they may be stained and wax finished, or stained and rubbed down to produce this effect. this fireplace was built with outside bricks selected for their color. there is a mottling of purple and bluish tones among the reds that harmonizes strikingly with the oriental rug before it ] [illustration] planning the living-room [illustration: a lounge before the fireplace becomes more useful if a table bearing a lamp is placed behind it. cypress is reasonable for interior trim, costing from sixty to sixty-eight dollars a thousand feet ] after the method of modern planning, the living-room is treated as the principal room in the house. i do not mean to say that this room should be overdone, or given undue prominence to the exclusion of the other rooms, but it is essential that this room be treated differently from the old-fashioned way we formerly treated our living-rooms, then generally a front and back parlor. these two rooms have now been superseded by one large room, as our mode of living and entertaining makes it more desirable than the two small, stuffy rooms, then used only occasionally. to-day we plan to give pleasure and comfort to the family, rather than the occasional guest. [illustration: the drawing of the suggested room arrangement shows the fireplace and the french doors leading to the piazza. above the ivory tinted wainscoting the background paper is of a putty color and panels are filled with a striped and foliated fabric held in place by a molding strip the ground plan of the room shows a good arrangement of rugs and furniture in order that advantage may be taken of the fireplace and the various lights. conversation may be carried on with ease and comfort and the room used for various purposes conveniently ] [illustration: this reception room has chiefly louis xvi furniture, which appears well with the light gray and white woodwork designed after the adam style] there are probably two or three dozen ways that the living-room can be planned and decorated and at the same time be comfortable and attractive. i have chosen to illustrate this with a type of living-room that adapts itself to almost any house and offers the greatest amount of free space when the room is properly furnished. the room is 15 ft. × 29 ft. 6 in., with a ceiling height of 9 feet, these dimensions giving a well-proportioned room. the fireplace is in the center of the west wall, flanked on each side by two french doors which open out on a piazza. at each end of the room are two windows, balancing one another. on the east wall a wide opening with french doors permits access to the main hall. the most prominent feature of the room is the fireplace, which is accentuated and made a natural center. this is an important consideration when planning a natural grouping of the family or its guests. [illustration: such architectural features as beamed ceilings should only be used in rooms of pretentious size. a good example of caen stone fireplace is found here] the treatment of the room is colonial. a low wainscot, 2 ft. 6 in. high, comprising a base, panel, and cap, is carried around the room. the ceiling is beamed with four substantial beams and a half beam to form a cornice around the room at the junction of the wall and ceiling. over the heads of the doors and windows there is a wide wooden frieze with a cap which ties them, one might say, to the bottom of the cornice, and makes them more completely an integral part of the woodwork. the window stools form a part of the wainscot cap. [illustration: a summer living-room that achieves a brilliant note through white woodwork and figured hangings with upholstery to match] the finish of the room is white wood, given four coats of lead and oil paint, with a fifth coat of white enamel, rubbed down, and a sixth and final finishing coat of enamel of an ivory shade that dries out with a very dull satin-like luster that is very durable and not easily marred. above the wainscot the walls are covered with a heavy background paper having a body color almost of a putty shade, enlivened in certain lights with a pinkish caste. this is accented by the panels, between the windows and doors, of a delicately hued fabric with a foliated striped design. a flat molding covers the edge of the fabric and forms the panel. in order to balance these and add character to the room, the draperies at the windows and doors are of soft blue velour, without which the scheme would be lifeless and flat. the facing of the fireplace is of sienna marble surmounted with a simple mantel, consisting merely of a heavy classical architrave, with a shelf above and a large plate glass mirror over it. one must not lose sight of the fact that the colors of this room, while light and delicate, are all very rich and warm, due to the predominating ivory color of the woodwork, enlivened and strengthened by the richer and heavier color used in the panels and curtains. [illustration: some would consider it bold to combine white walls and white woodwork in the living-room. the rug, pictures and furniture covering, however, are chosen with an eye to bright colors ] the ceiling is sand-finished and tinted to match the walls. the floor is of quartered oak, filled and given two coats of a finish which produces a durable even surface with a dull luster that is not so slippery as a waxed floor. the disposition of the rugs over this floor is a matter of personal taste and the amount one can afford for rugs. the rugs should be oriental and of light uniform coloring. the plans show probably the most economical way of covering the floor--using one large rug as a center and filling with smaller rugs. one large rug might be obtained that would extend from the piano to the pier glass, but it would have to be an odd shape or specially made. two large rugs might be used, one in each end of the room, with a small rug to fill in before the fireplace. the approximate positions and proper design for the various pieces of furniture used in the room are indicated. in order to obtain the real benefit of the fireplace, it is necessary to have a broad comfortable sofa or an upholstered mahogany seat in front of it. in back of this should be a small mahogany table on which an ornamental lamp may stand. on each side of the table can be drawn up large comfortable chairs. this arrangement permits the light of the lamp to fall in the correct position for anyone wishing to read in the chairs or on the seat in front of the fireplace. at one side of the fireplace a large wing-chair would be well placed. the bookcases would, of course, be unnecessary if there were a library in the house, but where the living-room is to answer the general purposes of the family, the book-shelves would be found very useful, and could be movable or built in as part of the finish. between the northern windows a fine position is obtained for the piano, on the right of which is a good place for a davenport. [illustration: where a living-room is long, various parts of it may be devoted to different uses, one end being a library and the other a sitting-room for instance, with a corner for deskwork ] the disposition of the minor pieces of furniture need not be mentioned, except the fact that a pier glass at the opposite end of the room, between the two southern windows is a very decorative treatment, and that the corner at the left affords a place for a tea table or a colonial pie-crust table. [illustration: the low hanging center light is rapidly being superseded by individual fixtures about the room or hung from chains. the three-quarter paneling here is attractive when combined with some conventionalized frieze design ] in addition the electric lights are provided with switches, and in the baseboard around the room are two plugs for attaching portable table lamps. there must also be a bell registering its signal on an annunciator in the kitchen,--one ring for a maid--two rings for tea, or as the housewife may arrange. the cost of the furniture used in this room, covered in cotton, made from the architect's drawings, would be as follows: 18th century sofa, rolled ends, $90; and it requires 3-1/6 yards of 50-inch goods to cover it. low-boy with drawers, $90--size 2 ft. 6 in. × 4 ft. 6 in. tip-top tea table, 38 in. in diameter, $60. martha washington wing-chair, $54, in cotton; requires 5 yards of 50-inch goods to cover. martha washington armchair, $40, in cotton; requires 2 yards of 50-inch goods to cover. the crown ladder-back side chairs would cost about $35 each in cotton, and the armchair to match, $40. [illustration: as a general color rule for decoration, red should be used for north rooms and blue for east and west rooms; the warmer tones in living-rooms than in bedrooms. this shows a good use of scrim curtains with a gathered valance ] the beamed ceiling, door and window casings, mantel and wainscot in the room would cost about $450. if the wainscot were omitted about $75 would be saved--the mantel and marble facing cost about $100 separately. a. raymond ellis [illustration: the use of a single large rug as the basis for the floor covering is often very satisfactory. this house shows an interesting treatment with a molding that acts as cornice] [illustration: there is something in the restraint shown in the fireplace of indiana limestone with no mantel shelf that overdecoration could never have obtained. an interesting feature is the use of candle sconces as an auxiliary to the electric lighting ] [illustration: heavy woodwork requires the use of heavy, substantial furniture. in this room, where the appearance of craftsmanship is prevalent, such furniture is very suitable] [illustration: a very unpretentious room, but one in good taste. the furniture has all been planned for a distinct location and has been built in to it] [illustration: a large living-room demands some such architectural treatment as these pillars. the usual mistake is on the side of overdecoration. here, however, a decided simplicity is employed, leaving the flanking windows in small bays ] [illustration: oftentimes four beams only are used for the ceiling; two as a cornice and two framing in the chimney-piece ] [illustration: a consideration of modern house decoration is to provide comfort for all members. a small den off the living-room affords privacy when others occupy the living-room ] [illustration: in a california bungalow there is an interesting decorative combination where old heirlooms of furniture from the eastern ancestors of the family are carefully preserved and navajo rugs are used as a floor covering. these rugs and the indian baskets are chosen of a color that will not clash with the polished mahogany ] [illustration: another corner of the bungalow living-room on page 18 shows a good type of secretary. the navajo rugs seem to add a tone of vigor that is not found in the rag rugs generally used in this connection ] [illustration: a living-room given a manorial treatment with the use of gothic arches. it is carefully treated, even to the rug, which is rectangular in pattern somewhat like the ceiling beams. although this is in a great house, there is no reason why smaller houses might not be furnished with equal consistency ] [illustration: two living-rooms in an old connecticut colonial house that are decorated with furniture in use during revolutionary times. these flowered papers were considered very rich then and have colors well chosen as a background for the dark mahogany furniture ] [illustration: an antique stone fireplace forms the keynote for this room and gives the suggestion for large commodious chairs and lounges. the table and chair in the foreground show jacobean influences ] [illustration: there is surely a decorative quality in bookcases that is heightened by the color of books when arranged properly. perhaps the results might have been better had all the bookcases been built the same height entirely around the room. the furniture here is of a type that is particularly comfortable and wears well ] [illustration: a living-room decorated along colonial lines, where the fireplace of red brick with wide white mortar joints is particularly effective. french doors open onto a veranda that is used as a living-room annex. the mantel is a reproduction of an old one ] [illustration: a charming, little colonial room is decorated entirely in white woodwork with a baseboard. the prim pattern of the flowered wallpaper is quite appropriate. the only modern furniture appearing is the wicker chair, but it lends no jarring note ] [illustration: this room with its heavy settles and rag rugs, its ornaments and pictures, is furnished with nothing but objects from colonial times. the floor with its original wide boards is stained a dark color and much of it left bare ] [illustration: this room shows the possibility of combining various sorts of furniture. wicker and willow are suitable for the living-room when used with furniture of an informal type. above the fireplace is a plaster reproduction of a section of the parthenon frieze that is well placed ] [illustration: the architects of the west are achieving distinction in the creation of a particular style. this interior is characteristic of their work. horizontal lines are emphasized and colored brickwork enters as a part of the decoration ] [illustration: a bay with three connecting windows of this sort may be curtained as a unit. there is but one valance for the three windows and light silk curtains are used to match the grass cloth of the walls ] [illustration: living-rooms need not always be indoors. in this home a glazed in piazza makes it possible to enjoy the early days of spring and late fall when the weather is too uncomfortable to remain out-of-doors. the porch is furnished with all the conveniences that may be found in an indoor living-room and has connections for reading lights and other lamps. the furniture is of grass cloth, willow and wicker, and there are rugs covering the entire floorspace ] [illustration: much of the colonial carving was extremely simple. here added decorative detail appears in the old-fashioned fireback of modeled iron. the covering of the old rosewood furniture is quite in harmony with the wallpaper ] [illustration: an exemplification of the use of deep colors in the living-room treatment is here shown. a restful green makes a good background for large and variously formed pieces ] [illustration: this studio living-room is a successful exponent of the same principle of color harmony shown in the previous illustration. a heterogeneous collection of various styles of furniture is rendered harmonious by the use of kindred tones of browns, tans and dull reds ] [illustration: built-in furniture is not limited to seats and cupboards. this desk is carpenter built, and although quite inexpensive fits more exactly than many products that could be purchased. the bookcases encircling the room are made part of the desk ] [illustration: the living-room of two stories and with mezzanine floor is receiving more and more favor for its spacious effect. the simple woodwork in this room is well chosen and there is a good suggestion in the lighting fixtures ] [illustration: the cream colored walls and woodwork in this english drawing-room make an especially fine background for mahogany furniture. this fireplace nook is a good example of modern english work ] [illustration: english architects consider that woodwork may be decorative in itself, and finish it so that its natural colors take the place of wall paper. the walls are of unfinished plaster ] [illustration: some straight lines might be introduced by different curtains and by doing away with the fussy table-covers and frilled lounge pillow. the mantel is particularly good dutch colonial but is too much cluttered with bric-à-brac ] [illustration: every house builder should consider that the downstairs living-room may not always be occupied by the entire family at one time. the upstairs sitting-room provides privacy on all occasions. the mantel treatment here is interesting ] [illustration: the living-room in the same house is rendered distinctive by a large inglenook. it is finished in rough plaster and colored in a light tan ] [illustration: green and white is a scheme for this summer living-room. white wicker chairs are combined with green willow ones and the green design of the wall paper is echoed in the green rug with a white pattern ] [illustration: even the most modest bungalow may have personality. the match board wall is finished with a light stain that shows the grain. india prints with their bold colors and striking designs are used for curtains, table and couch covers and for the pillows ] [illustration: the inside curtains in this living-room are of figured madras. although they fade, their price is reasonable enough to permit reduplication every few years with small expense ] [illustration: a more formal room is this with its intricate mahogany paneling. the ceiling has an architectural cornice, below which the wall is decorated with a velour in proper coloring ] [illustration: there is a growing desire to build living-rooms that open into the light and air. this is as completely furnished as any other room in the house, but is given a dark stained lattice background as suitable for plants ] [illustration: an informal living-room, where the plaster walls are divided by vertical strips run from a wide molding to the baseboard. this is a cheap, and if properly handled, effective substitute for paneling ] [illustration: a living-room that was designed to take advantage of the view in many directions from a high situation. a large rug with harmonious colors occupies the center of the floor space ] [illustration: dutch house builders make a feature of the window nook and most of the light is directed toward one part of the room. matting of an ivory color has been selected as a floor covering ] [illustration: an english mantel treatment that is worth copying is shown here. a single-color carpet is used and the brilliant chintzes lend the completing note of cheerfulness ] [illustration: in contrast is this room where deeper tones are emphasized in rugs and wall treatment and it is desired to produce a more serious effect ] [illustration: another example of the two-story living-room is here shown in more elaborate style where the precedent was the manorial hall of england. tapestries and heavy wall papers are used and the chandeliers are large and elaborate ] [illustration: this sun room is an integral part of the house and is fitted with casement windows, but is by no means a porch. the fireplace renders it a comfortable place in the most severe weather ] [illustration: furniture covering and draperies here are of a large figured english chintz. as the ceiling was low, a green paper with a perpendicular stripe was used for heightening effect ] [illustration: the chief feature of this room is the doorway with its fine fan light. the chairs in the foreground are of heppelwhite design ] [illustration: in england a great deal of attention is given to centering the family life about the hearth. this inglenook has almost the value of an additional room. the walls are plain except for the woodwork and the tiling ] [illustration: the inglenook here has a raised floor of ordinary brick and an attractive brick fireplace the mantel of which is a cypress beam supported by projecting bricks. the furniture is made consistent by being stained and then waxed ] [illustration: glazed tile fireplaces are very much the vogue in england. here the colors are selected to go well with the light ash treatment of the woodwork ] [illustration: the heavy beams in this living-room made it a simple matter to place the inglenook. the curved lines of the seat, however, and the grotesque plaster figures might grow tiresome, and are most suitable for the house occupied only in the summer or one with more informal treatment ] [illustration: an architect's suggested treatment of a flemish dining-room. the fireplace is of caen stone and the plaster wall is sand-finished in a dark shade ] [illustration] designing the dining-room we have a habit, generally, of making the dining-room either english or colonial in style, i suppose for the reason that we have so many good types of furniture in these two styles that their use makes it easier to obtain an attractive dining-room. the room of flemish character is probably more unusual and i have, therefore, chosen to offer a design in this style. [illustration: the plan shows an arrangement for a dining-room about fifteen by sixteen feet, showing suggested positions for the rugs and furniture that is consistent with the scheme ] [illustration: a very similar treatment to that described in the article is shown in this room with its high rectangular panel wainscot. instead of a cornice the sand-finished walls are rounded into the ceiling and the ceiling is lower. an interesting candle fixture is hung above the plain oak table. the picture framed in the paneling is an additional possibility ] [illustration: warm tones are appreciated in a dining-room where the woodwork is all white. here they are obtained in an oriental rug of good colors. chairs are of present-day manufacture, suggested by sheraton's work ] the room is 15 × 16 feet in size, opening from a broad hall from which it is shut off with glass doors. the morning sun, a very essential feature in any dining-room, is obtained through the eastern window and through the southern windows in the summer, while the after-glow of the summer sunset comes through the west window, thus insuring a pleasant dining-room at all times. there is nothing so cheerless as a breakfast-room which is cut off from the sun in the winter, by being isolated in the north or northeastern part of the house; it continually exerts a depressing influence on the family at meals. the dining-room is adjoined by the serving-room, which connects with the kitchen, affording a quick and direct line of service. [illustration: most dining-rooms need color, which may be introduced in a frieze, as here, or by the use of tapestry. side fixtures, such as these in duplication of old colonial lamps, may be purchased for six or seven dollars. the center light is of etched glass ] it is suggested that the room be wainscoted in oak to a height of seven feet, with rectangular panels formed by very flat rails and stiles, without any panel moldings. a wide plate-rail forms the cap of the wainscot, affording a place to put bits of china and old pieces of pewter or copper. above the wainscot the plaster is sand-finished, as is also the ceiling, and at the intersection of the ceiling and side walls a cornice is carried around the room. on the north side is a large fireplace, which is a necessity on a rainy day to make breakfast cheerful and the room comfortable. it is built of light gray caen stone, which has almost the appearance of limestone. it is imported in blocks and is soft enough to be worked into a variety of shapes. the hearth has a curb border, raised an inch or two above the level of the stone hearth in order to retain the ashes better. a heavy carved casing is carried around the stonework of the fireplace, surmounted by a carved shelf supported on heavy brackets. [illustration: all the furniture necessary beside the chairs and dining-table is a sideboard and a serving-table. the china closet may be dispensed with if a place for decorative china is made on a plate rail. this china closet matches well and seems part of the room ] french doors are an essential feature in the dining-room because they permit it to be shut off from the hall and kept warm, and they prevent interruptions during the dinner hour. as they are of glass, they afford a view into the hall--a very attractive feature, which does away with that feeling of oppressiveness experienced sometimes from being shut up in a room with solid doors of wood. the floor is of oak, filled and given two coats of a finish which has a dull luster and enough elasticity to make it durable. the floor should be of a shade that is not too light or so dark that it readily shows the dust. [illustration: instead of using the separate pieces of dining-room furniture, two sideboards were built in flanking the fireplace and as an extension of its woodwork. a tapestry paper is used above this wainscot ] opposite the fireplace is a position for the sideboard and there is wall space enough for a china-cupboard although i should prefer to omit this cumbersome piece of furniture, which everybody shuns with the admonition of childhood still ringing in his ears, "mustn't touch." near the door to the serving-room is the proper place for the serving-table, and there remains plenty of wall space for chairs. by referring to the plan the position of these pieces of furniture will be made more clear. [illustration: a possible variation for the seven-foot wainscot suggested, is the room entirely paneled with cypress finished to show the grain. the french doors in this room are desirable in a dining-room, as they allow plenty of light to enter ] the decoration of this room is a simple problem. on the floor there should be a rich-colored rug with deep reds in it, strong enough to afford a foundation for the dark sturdy flemish furniture and the dark finish of the wainscot. above the wainscot, the sand-finished ceiling and side walls should be sized and painted with three coats of oil paint of a dull golden shade which reflects a warm glow over the room when lighted. the rough texture of the sand-finish is well adapted for such use as this. of course a frieze of foliated tapestry paper, or real tapestry, could be used with good effect, or even an oil-painted frieze representing a scene from medieval history is permissible. it is safe to say that all of these schemes would be good, though, of course, there would be a great difference in their cost. the radiator under the east window should be painted to match the color of the wainscot. to obtain the correct shade for this wainscot, the wood should go through several processes of staining. the first coat is a deep penetrating stain of burnt sienna hue to form a mellowing base, similar to the warm colors the old masters used in their paintings. this makes a warm color to reflect through the succeeding coats of darker stain, each coat of which should be rubbed into the wood and any superfluous stain rubbed off, exposing each time the high lights of the wood's grain. the final coat should be a thin coat of wax or a flat-drying oil paint to give the wood a dull luster. [illustration: the woodwork treatment here is much the same as that suggested in the text, but of a colonial or english style and finished white. a good stenciled frieze is used above it. the chairs are of chippendale design ] the furniture should be of the flemish type, preferably a shade lighter or a shade darker than that of the finish of the woodwork, in order to give contrast. the dining-room table should be a modern extension table with heavy, turned legs, which would of course be repeated in the sideboard, serving-table and chairs. this type of furniture depends entirely for its beauty upon its plain sturdy lines and simple turnings. the chairs should have leather seats and backs, studded with copper nails. the brasses of the fireplace should be of odd design, and the electric lights and fixtures should be of old brass to add a touch of color to the dark wood finish. it seems hardly necessary to mention that the lights of this room should be governed by an electric switch, and an electric bell on the table should ring a buzzer in the serving-room. in the serving-room there is a counter shelf two feet eight inches high on each side wall, over which there are glazed cases with sliding doors to contain the china. under the window there is a sink for the washing of fine china, glass, and silver, which should not go into the kitchen with the heavier dishes. under the counter are cupboards and drawers and at one end a plate-warmer and a small refrigerator, in order that one may obtain a bite to eat late at night without having to go through the kitchen to the kitchen pantry--which is sometimes awkward if there is no servant's dining-room and the maid is entertaining. [illustration: still another substitute for the wainscot is the use of wood strips applied in this fashion. the moravian tiles in the fireplace add welcome color ] the finish of the room would cost approximately $575 in selected white oak. the mantel alone is worth $80 and the wainscot about $300. the furniture for the room, made from detail drawings, would cost about $450 in oak and leather. a. raymond ellis [illustration: where the dining-room woodwork shows its natural grain, a specially designed buffet of quartered oak, such as this, proves very attractive and satisfactory ] [illustration: the rough plaster walls here are surmounted by a plaster frieze of grapes in color. this design is echoed in the center drop light ] [illustration: flanking china closets, when in perfect balance, form an admirable feature for the decoration of a colonial room ] [illustration: the ladder back design of chippendale is most attractive. in this room with its white woodwork an attempt has been made to repeat the dominant colors of the rug in the wall paper ] [illustration: in this dining-room there is architectural treatment that could by no means find place in any but a large room. panels at one end of the room are filled with tapestries that give a fine color effect. the scheme is georgian and the furniture hepplewhite ] [illustration: having a large quantity of old blue china, the owner of this room selected a brown figured paper that would harmonize with it. the plates have almost the value of a stenciled frieze ] [illustration: two types of modern furniture are shown here. the china closet is unnatural and is of no decorative value and but little usefulness. the table and chairs are of simple design and good, solid workmanship ] [illustration: this colonial room shows an effective panel treatment that can be secured at low cost by applying a molding directly to the plaster and then painting the plaster and the woodwork alike. good colonial fixtures are shown above the mantel. ] [illustration: faithfulness to colonial tradition does not necessarily make the most comfortable room, but the windsor chairs are serviceable and easy ] [illustration: white woodwork in this dining-room permits such a set design as this with the little green bay trees. a gate-legged table is not always the most comfortable thing for a dining-room ] [illustration: furniture, made of applewood, finished with a plain smooth surface and covered with reeds, is especially applicable to the small house and suggests the original home, the english cottage ] [illustration: white enameled furniture as well as woodwork is a novel suggestion for the summer home and makes a brilliant, cheery dining-room, especially when accompanied by bright reds or blues in the rugs, chair cushions and curtains ] [illustration: in the summer camp little ornamentation is necessary, yet the natural attractiveness of wood finish is both useful and beautiful here ] [illustration: in remodeling an old tavern, the taproom with its smoke-blackened beams and dark wainscot was converted into the dining-room. the use of handmade floor tile is particularly interesting ] [illustration: this dutch interior offers a suggestion for a summer camp in the dining-room alcove placed at one end of the living-room ] [illustration: wilton rugs in a single color with a darker toned border serve well for the dining-room. the curtains repeat the color in a figured pattern ] [illustration: during house cleaning there are various objections to a plate rail. in this dining-room it was done away with and a frieze was set low and secured by the use of a narrow white molding. if the room were irregular, it would have been almost impossible to locate in this position, but in a rectangular room it is not so difficult. it is in neutral colors and the friezes are in delft blue with draperies of a darker blue. the furniture is hepplewhite ] [illustration: the combination of gray and white as used here is an effective background for mahogany. the candle sconce fixtures at either side of the sideboard alcove are in good taste ] [illustration: although the furniture need not be permanently fixed to the room it may be planned to accommodate certain spaces, as here. the chairs are reproductions along colonial lines ] [illustration: in a house where there is an additional room, there is a suggestion from the german boudoir. this is really the modern woman's workroom and place of rest and adjoins the sleeping apartment. it is also a place to receive intimate friends ] [illustration] decorating and furnishing the bedroom [illustration: attractive results are achieved in adopting a central figure or idea and planning the room about it. the main unit of design in the wall paper has been repeated on the ivory white furniture ] in the bedroom the individuality of the occupant is more in evidence than in any other room of the house, as such rooms or suites are complete in themselves and need not necessarily be considered relatively. where the house has the marked characteristics of any period the architectural detail of the wood trim in the bedrooms as well as that in the other apartments will, of course, express this and must in a measure influence the furnishings, but even under these conditions more latitude is permissible in the chambers than in the living-rooms. [illustration: this room, also shown in the two illustrations following, uses the blue bird as a _motif_. cretonne repeats the design that is echoed again in the cut out border. a blue and white rag rug, having a blue bird edging, is suitable for the floor ] a room in which no period idea is dominant may be made very charming, and the individual taste of the occupant may influence the entire scheme of decoration. a very dainty and attractive room is shown in the illustration on page 69. the floral paper used on the side wall here is beautiful in color and design, and the crown of this has a cut out extension of flowers and leaves that is applied directly to the ceiling proper. the furniture of ivory enamel finish has been painted with clusters of the same flowers as those shown in the wall paper. much of the green of the foliage in this design is repeated in the two-tone rug upon the floor. the curtains and bedspread are made of ivory white linen taffeta and bordered with four-inch bands of cretonne showing the same floral design as the side walls. much of the comfort as well as the attractiveness of a bedroom depends upon the arrangement of the furniture it holds. the space for the bed is usually indicated by the architect in the first drafting of the plans, and should be adhered to unless the room is unusually large. however, the other furniture may be arranged and rearranged until the right position is found for each piece. where a couch is included this may be placed near the window with the bookshelves conveniently at hand, or it may be set directly across the foot of the bed. the readingor work-tables and easy-chairs should find their permanent place, as their proper grouping adds much to the livableness of any room. [illustration: the wall paper is plain with a satin stripe in what is known as a cerulean blue. the crown effect of the border is a silhouetted pattern cut out and attached separately ] the english idea of placing a dressing-table directly in front of a window is not especially favored here as we are loath to sacrifice so much of direct sun and air as the closed window would necessitate, although by such an arrangement we secure a good overhead light. [illustration: a white bedstead of this style may be had either of wood enameled or of metal] the placing of the lighting fixtures should also be given some careful study. side or drop lights should be near the dressing-mirror, and a convenient stand or drop light, well shaded, should be placed near the head of the bed. and a well-arranged table light for reading and sewing is of great convenience in a large bedroom which is used at all as a sitting-room. however small the room, the light must be well arranged for the dressing-table. a central light for a bedroom is a very objectionable feature. [illustration: in many cases the bedroom serves more purposes than for sleeping quarters. there should be space for a desk, comfortable chairs and books ] light and crisp colors are more acceptable in the decorative scheme of the bedroom than any other room of the house. where plain walls and figured cretonnes or chintzes are used in combination the latter should appear generously, that is, not only in valanced curtains at windows, but as slip covers, or cushion covers for chairs, window-seat, or lounge. the old-time idea of a blue, a pink, a green, and a yellow room is falling into disuse, although any one of these colors may be brought out prominently in the scheme of the room, or, as is even more usual, all may be combined in either wall covering or drapery material. the dominant color should appear again in the plain or two-tone floor covering. plain and embroidered muslins for window draperies and covers for dressing-tables are effective and dainty, and by having two sets for a room it may be kept always delightfully fresh and clean, as these muslins launder well. a small coin-dot of color on a very sheer, though not fine, white ground can be purchased from 25 to 35 cents a yard and gives a dainty charm to a room in which it is freely used that few other fabrics at the same cost will supply. [illustration: there is a preference for bedrooms furnished in light colors. here the paper is figured and the color of the design appears in curtains of a solid color. the closet doors have full length mirror panels ] where the decorative scheme must be very inexpensively carried out, a floral paper on an ivory ground can be purchased for 25 cents a roll of eight yards. in these cheaper papers one finds a better selection in yellow and old rose than in other colors; greens, too, are usually soft and attractive. if plain colored over-draperies are desired for the windows these may be made from cheese-cloth which has been dyed to the desired shade, matching the color of the flower in the wall paper. it is not a difficult matter for the amateur to do. there are now made some very attractive cotton crepes showing a variety of floral and other patterns. some of these are beautiful in color and good in design, and, with plain tinted walls, a room in which the curtains and slip covers for cushions and pillows are made from this fabric is very attractive. [illustration: the lighting fixtures should be planned for the position the dressing table and chiffonier is to occupy. this is an attractive bedroom paper of an old-fashioned design ] old furniture may be revamped and given a fresh coat of ivory white enamel, and a central rug or a number of small rugs made after the old-fashioned rag carpet in one or two colors makes a satisfactory floor covering for use in such rooms. if the woodwork can be painted ivory white the scheme is more successful, as this is an important factor in the completed whole. in fact for bedrooms there is no better finish than the ivory white enamel. it is easy to apply and durable, and harmonizes with almost any scheme of furnishing one may desire to bring out in the room. attractive little shades for electric lights or candles may be made from bits of silk or even tissue paper, and, used in a room in which old rose predominates, the effect is charming, as the light showing through the rose color is very soft and pleasing. margaret greenleaf [illustration: an unusual decorative treatment is the division of walls into colored panels which are held in place by molding strips ] [illustration: the perpendicular stripe in this paper serves to increase the height of a rather low ceiling. the window is fitted with sash curtains and draperies of a figured pattern on the order of the crown border ] [illustration: an interesting feature of this house is the long window seat placed for reading or sewing. beneath it is a quantity of space for many things ] [illustration: a room consistently decorated along colonial lines. some sort of a couch or lounge is a decided boon in the bedroom, as it provides a place for the afternoon nap ] [illustration: the so-called craftsman's house or house with woodwork left in natural condition may well use furniture built to match the trim ] [illustration: the informal bedroom of rough plaster and brick substitutes strength of color and form for the delicacy of colonial white woodwork ] [illustration: many people still delight in the old-fashioned four-poster or in the canopy bed. this should be considered in planning the room, as the architect generally arranges a certain set position for it ] [illustration: this dressing table shows a satisfactory arrangement for lighting--two flanking lights and one overhead light. the striped walls require the color furnished by the hangings ] [illustration: in this little under-the-eaves bedroom a surprising saving of space has been made by fitting part of one side of the room with a series of drawers painted in white enamel. there is room here for the household linen and for storing away clothes ] [illustration: where neutral grays are chosen for the walls there should be some warmth of color elsewhere. here most of the decoration is left to the furniture in its warm mahogany tones and to the brighter colors of the rug ] [illustration: in the small bedroom that must be used as a study there should be a space for living-room comforts. the sash curtains combined with inside ones of sill length are attractive ] [illustration: even a small under-the-eaves bedroom may be well arranged. this is consistent colonial with its rag rugs and windsor chair ] [illustration: a bedroom in which the cream colored chintz with pink and green design is repeated in the upholstery and echoed in the carpet ] [illustration: curtains may be very simple but in good taste. this is a fine cheesecloth with a stencil design, which conventionalizes the flowers in the wall paper ] [illustration: another treatment of cheesecloth, showing a poppy design that is taken from the cut out band pasted at the top of a gray striped wall paper ] [illustration: views of an old-fashioned bedroom that is finished in dull grayish blue. such heavy furniture would appear uncomfortably bulky in any smaller room ] [illustration: the carpet helps to make the room homelike, with bare floors the height and size of the room would be more apparent ] [illustration: a short length of cretonne hanging between two sill length curtains may be used instead of a valance ] [illustration: the cut out paper border goes well with a shaped valance and side curtains. the valance is hung on a projecting frame ] [illustration: the japanese design is repeated on the gathered valance of the curtains, chairs and the table-cover. several original stencils of butterflies are framed as decorations ] [illustration: ivory white is always a satisfactory color for the woodwork of most bedrooms. here it takes the place of wall paper ] [illustration: one article of bedroom furniture that should not be neglected is a bedside cabinet on which an electric light may be placed. these twin beds are of gray ash with a natural finish ] [illustration: an example of several of the uses for stenciled borders is shown here in this desk corner. the room makes good use of wicker furniture and bungalow rugs ] [illustration] the problem of the bathroom only a few years ago, sanitary conveniences, which were very crude when compared with those of to-day, were considered luxuries; to-day they are necessities, demanded for our physical comfort and welfare. the old-fashioned saturday tubbing was a much dreaded and messy event; but with sanitary house plumbing, bathing became a pleasure and a valuable adjunct to good health. it is, therefore, interesting to note the treatments of the present bathroom. the average house to-day contains at least two bathrooms, the simplest equipment being a water-closet, lavatory, and tub, the two latter fixtures supplied with hot and cold water supply pipes. from these three fixtures of the simplest kind, installed in a room not smaller than 5 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., we may enlarge the scheme to contain a shower-bath, with floor receptor to catch the water, a sitz or foot-bath, double lavatories, if for the owner's bath, with marble or porcelain pier slabs for toilet articles. these fixtures may be simple in pattern, of enameled iron or of porcelain or marble, in a room having tile or marble floors and wainscot. there are, happily, inexpensive fixtures of good quality that are just as efficient as the most expensive ones, and the plainer the lines of the fixtures the more beautiful they will appear in the finished bath; heavy ornamentation in color or molded design should be avoided--it is not so easily kept clean, nor is it so beautiful. in many houses having but one servant, a separate bath is provided for her use, and in a house costing $8,000 it is customary to provide a private bath connecting with the owner's chamber, as well as a general bath for the family and guests, and a servants' bath in the attic. the importance the bath and sanitary plumbing have attained is shown by the fact that seven or eight per cent of the cost of a house is taken for plumbing, and in houses costing from $8,000 to $15,000, three bathrooms are installed. [illustration: two oval lavatories are generally representative of the latest convenience for the modern bathroom ] the model servants' bath should have a floor of small hexagonal white, unglazed tile with hard plastered walls, above a sanitary base, painted with four coats of moisture-resisting paint and equipped with a five-foot enameled iron tub, quiet syphon-jet closet, with oak seat and tank, and a plain pattern enameled iron lavatory. a medicine closet should be built in the wall over it, having a mirror set in the door. the fixtures cannot be properly set in an area less than 5 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., and 5 ft. 6 in. × 7 ft. 6 in. would be much better. the owner's bath is largely a matter of personal taste and cost. usually this has a floor of 2 in. white, unglazed hexagonal tile, with a 4 × 6 in. white glazed tile for walls, with cap and sanitary base, marble thresholds and plinth blocks. the height of the wainscot is optional; but 4 ft. 6 in. is usual, with the walls and ceilings above it oil painted. the room should not be smaller than 8 ft. × 10 ft. and may open from the owner's chamber or dressing-room. its equipment usually comprises two lavatories of vitreous china, placed at least six inches apart, unless a double lavatory is used in one slab, over which may be a medicine closet built into the wall with mirror door set in; the bathroom door should have a full-length mirror. in the illustration that appears on page 95 is shown a silent syphon-jet closet with low-down tank finished in mahogany. the "low-down combinations," as they are called, are made in oak, cherry, mahogany, and white enamel. the tub should be at least 5 ft. long, of enameled iron or porcelain, finished on both sides if enameled, and supported on porcelain block feet, with standing waste and mixing cocks. the tub must be set far enough from the wall to permit cleaning. [illustration: the great problem in planning a bathroom is not to sacrifice all warmth and color to sanitation. at present there are washable and sanitary papers made by the decorators that are very proper for bathroom furnishings. the seagull design in blues and greens and the kingfisher in a brilliant, cool green are both suitable and attractive ] [illustration: the upper left hand plan shows excellent spacing and good arrangement combining all the desirable features and conveniences of a bathroom. the upper right hand plan shows a desirable arrangement for minimum space. the lower left hand plan shows a modern idea of dividing the bathroom into two sections. in the lower right hand plan there is a complete equipment, well arranged, but with few more than the necessary conveniences ] every fitting or exposed pipe in the bathroom should be nickel-plated. the shower may be installed over the tub, as in one of the illustrations, or made a separate fixture with a floor receptor to drain off the water. it may be inclosed with a cotton duck curtain, which is more agreeable to the body than rubber or marble slabs. the merits of each fixture and its equipment i shall leave to the reader, because these things he can readily determine for himself; but the arrangements and number of fixtures required must be considered--the quality is a matter of price. the general bathroom of a house should be similar to the owner's--in some cases it is divided into two compartments, as shown in one plan, with the water-closet by itself--permitting independent use. [illustration: one especial convenience that should not be neglected is the shower with the duck curtain arranged over the top. for bathroom floors the hexagonal tile is very suitable and enduring ] in homes costing from $15,000 up, the number of bathrooms is in proportion to the number of occupants. every room may have a connecting bath with tile floor and wainscot, completely equipped--in such a case the visit of a guest is not fraught with hasty skirmishes to the nearest bath, perhaps only to retreat, and wait and listen for an opportunity to use it. plumbing fixtures are made in many materials; the most popular of these, on account of durability and cost, is cast iron with an enamel glaze fused on the iron. this ware will stand hard usage, is not easily fractured, does not craze, and therefore holds its color. the vitreous china ware is, i think, more appropriate for bathrooms finished in tile, because the materials, being similar, are in harmony, while the enameled iron is not quite as heavy or substantial looking when used with tile. vitreous china is potter's clay, properly fired, with a vitreous glaze baked on; porcelain is similar and their cost is about the same, except that this increases rapidly with the larger pieces; because fewer perfect fixtures are obtained. fixtures cut from solid marble block are the most expensive and their relative merit with their relation to cost is a question for the owner to determine. [illustration: a sunken bathtub is a form of luxury that is desirable but requires low ceiling in the room below, or that the bathroom be built on the ground floor. this is oftentimes an impossible arrangement ] there is little difference between the enameled iron, vitreous china and porcelain or marble as far as the retention of heat is concerned, or the feeling from bodily contact. there are in every kiln some fixtures that are not quite perfect; they are called "seconds," and catalogued as "class b" goods, with a lower price. the weight of massive plumbing in a frame dwelling is considerable and will cause a settlement of the floors unless carefully supported. the fashions in tubs are many. the usual shape is square at the foot and round at the head-at the foot are the waste and supply pipes which are made in several combinations. the double bath cock, which gives hot or cold water or a mixture of both, is advisable for tubs-the small cup between the faucets is a ring tray and can be replaced with a soap dish if desired. most shower-baths have a shampoo attachment or body spray that can be used instead of the overhead shower, so that the head and hair are kept dry if desired, and if a shower is not to be installed this can be provided in the tub. [illustration: the bathroom to-day finds great need of such built-in conveniences as wall chests and cupboards. these should be arranged for at the time the house is built ] a tub incased in tile is a perfectly sanitary treatment, and in some cases the tub has been sunk into the floor a foot and then incased to avoid the high step necessary to get into the tub. the plunge--sunk in the floor--is an unusual treatment that permits more freedom of movement than the tub; but the tile, when wet, is slippery, and i should expect one might carelessly slip in with fatal results. roman tubs are alike at each end--with fixtures in the middle of one side of the rim. solid porcelain tubs rest on the floor, set into the tile. the ideal position for the tub, if there is available room, is with the foot against a wall and ample room on either side to get in or out of it. tubs are made in lengths ranging from 4 ft. to 6 feet, and about 30 inches in width over rims. [illustration: this room contains the desirable articles and fixtures for the modern bathroom in a very satisfactory arrangement. there is the latest thing in nickel plumbing and modern equipment, but at the same time there is an attractiveness that is so lacking in the cold, hospital type of room ] [illustration: the small hexagonal floor tiles permit sections to be taken up with little difficulty and replaced at small expense. wall tile, however, should be made of the larger rectangular units with a cornice at the top and a rounded surbase that obviates a sharp angle at the junction with the floor ] the lavatory is an important fixture that is made in a great many varieties. the old-fashioned bowl is obsolete--the oval has taken its place, though probably the best is the kidney-shaped bowl, as it permits a free and natural movement of the arms in raising water to lave the face. the bowl should be at least 14 × 17 inches, in a slab 22 × 32, with a space surrounding the bowl countersunk a little to form a border that tends to confine the splashed water. all the fixtures manufactured by responsible concerns are equipped with nickel-plated faucets, wastes, traps, and supplies that are very satisfactory; but quite often the plumber who installs the work buys the fixtures without the selected trimmings and substitutes a cheaper pattern. some tubs and lavatories are sold in "a" and "b" qualities, and it will be to your advantage to select the fixtures with your architect, who knows the grades and fittings. [illustration: all the wood that is in these bathrooms is heavily enameled in white. both rooms show a good use of colored tile worked in attractive designs. the room on the left has a mosaic pattern in several shades as a decoration, while in the right hand room there is a bright border and vertical strips making panels. the tiles between them are laid in herring-bone fashion. both tubs are without supports and rest flat on the floor ] [illustration: this european treatment is particularly effective for the owner's bath, which opens into his bedroom. the glass doors provide all the lighting necessary and are very decorative with their curved segments ] a particularly pleasing treatment is the bath opening from the owner's chamber, and separated from it by glass partition. this arrangement is good where outside light cannot be afforded or obtained, and a curtain effectively screens it. [illustration: a simple bathroom where waterproof enameled paint was used in several coats instead of a tiled wainscot, and above this an attractive waterproof paper that suggests tiling. such an arrangement is a possibility where tiles may not be purchased ] bath-room accessories should be arranged with care and consist of the following devices: plate glass shelves supported on nickel-plated brackets are the best; towel-racks; toothbrush holders; clothes-brush hangers; clothes hooks; soap dishes; and soiled towel baskets. hardware is usually of nickel-plated tubing screwed into the tile. the accompanying photographs and plans will illustrate the subject further and are self-explanatory. a. raymond ellis [illustration] the proper treatment for the nursery furnishings for the modern child's room, like everything else that belongs to that important personage, are as complete in the smallest detail as skill and ingenuity can make them, and every feature of a well-appointed bedroom may be duplicated in miniature for the youngsters. the wall-papers and draperies especially designed for nurseries and children's rooms are in a way more distinctively juvenile than the actual pieces of furniture, and are a most important consideration in fitting out such apartments. if one does not care to go to the expense of furnishing a nursery completely, paper and curtains that will leave no doubt as to the identity of the room may be had at small cost, and from this simple touch the scheme of decorations and the furniture, to say nothing of the cost, may be indefinitely extended. strictly hygienic parents who scout the idea of wall-paper as being unhealthy and will have nothing but painted walls in a bedroom are confronted by a bare expanse that may be sanitary, but is neither attractive nor interesting for the child. with walls treated in this way a decorative frieze may be used with good effect. the friezes, which come in panels varying in depth from fourteen to nineteen and one-half inches, are printed in gay colors on backgrounds of blue-gray, ivory-white, drab, and other neutral tones that can be matched exactly in the color of the walls. the designs include processions of noah's ark inhabitants, farmyard animals, chickens and ducks, normandy peasants going to market, toy villages with stiff little soldiers and prim-looking trees, hunting scenes, and a row of dutch kiddies indulging in a mad race across the paper. if wall-paper is used it also matches the background of the frieze, the paper being either in a solid color or with a figure so inconspicuous that it gives the impression of a single tone. one of the new papers for children's rooms is a reproduction of the quaint kate greenaway figures that are quite as fascinating to little people in these days as they were years ago. the background is a pale yellow and the figures are printed in rather delicate colors, each group representing one of the calendar months. the effect is particularly dainty and the designs are diverting for the children without becoming tiresome from too great contrast in color. another paper that shows groups quite as charming is printed from designs by boutet de monvel, the famous french illustrator of child life. a new idea, and one that is proving popular, is a decided departure from the conventional wall-paper, with its figures at regularly repeated intervals. this consists in first putting on the walls a paper of solid color to be used as a background for single figures or groups that are cut from friezes and pasted on to suit one's individual taste. the figures, of course, must be quite large, in order to be effective, and in some favorite groups cut from a frieze showing little dutch girls and yellow chicks the latter are even larger than life. for nurseries, when the children are very small, the figures are often arranged in a frieze just above the foot-board, so that they come on a line with the child's eye, and are therefore vastly more entertaining than when placed at the infinite distance of the top of the wall. blue and white seems to be the favorite combination of colors for nursery draperies, and among the all-over patterns are a lot of roly-poly children picking gigantic daisies on a pale blue ground, and also a delft design on a white ground covered with black cross lines that are far enough apart to give a tiled effect. a number of other colors and patterns may be had as well as the gay printed borders that come two strips to a width of the material. when figured wallpaper is used, draperies of solid color with the printed border are rather more satisfactory, as one set of children or animals tumbling over the walls, and another set chasing across the draperies, create a bewildering impression that is anything but restful and quieting for the small occupant. the borders are particularly attractive for curtains made of plain scrim or some soft white material, and are stitched on in strips or cut out and put on in silhouette. [illustration: the playroom in this house was to be made use of by the grown folks occasionally for their handicraft work. special attention was paid to built-in closets convenient for toys and tools ] floor coverings especially suitable for children's rooms are to be found in the more or less recently revived rag carpet rugs, either plain or with figured borders. almost any of these rugs with their decorative strips showing queerly constructed landscapes are suitable, but most appropriate is one that has a solemn procession of geese across either end, or another that is ornamented with a family of black and white bunnies lined up against a red brick wall. they come in various sizes, from the small hearthrug up to the one that is large enough for the center of an average size room. a new rug for nurseries that is rather more practical than pretty is woven in the same way as the rag rugs, but instead of cotton materials, strips of oilcloth are used, rolled so that the glossy side is uppermost. the idea was first employed in making small rugs for bathrooms, as they are waterproof and easy to keep clean, but they are quite as serviceable and sanitary for children's rooms, and are cleaned by wiping off with a damp cloth. they are made in different sizes, and in a mixed design, like the ordinary rag rug, or with white centers and borders of solid color. in the way of furniture, chairs and beds are to be had in a much greater variety than the other pieces, and the miniature morris chair is no doubt the most attractive piece of furniture that is made for the little folks. it comes in almost as many different styles and prices as the grown-up variety, and may be had in light or dark wood, with cushions of velour or leather or figured cotton material, and is a perfect reproduction of the large chair. little sets consisting of table and two chairs, one straight, the other with arms, are decorated with juvenile figures in color, and may be had for prices that are quite reasonable. they are especially useful when no attempt can be made at arranging a regulation nursery. one of the most serviceable of these sets is of dark wood with leather seat chairs and a table of good size, the top of which is hinged and may be raised disclosing a receptacle for toys or books. small willow and wicker tables and chairs are made in attractive shapes, many of them copies of the larger pieces, and are used either in the natural color or stained to harmonize with the color scheme of the room. less substantial than the pieces made of solid wood, they are rather more practical for older children than for small ones who are no respecters of furniture, and, while designed for use all the year round, they are particularly suitable for summer rooms or to be carried outdoors. in spite of the fact that the little white bed is always associated with the child's room in story and song, to say nothing of the popular imagination, there are various kinds of brass and wooden beds made in small sizes that are thoroughly in keeping with one's idea of a typical nursery. the white enamel beds, which may be had as plain or as elaborate as one desires, are always dainty, and have the advantage of harmonizing perfectly with furniture and hangings of almost every description. brass beds have the same characteristic, but they are much more expensive than those of iron, and seem to require rather more elaborate surroundings. the newest brass beds for children are quite low, only about half as high as the ordinary bed, which is a distinct advantage, as it is much easier for the child to climb into, and less dangerous in case he falls out. [illustration: the sense of possession that the child has in its own room produces much satisfaction. substantial furniture may be purchased in small sizes and a variety of wall treatments are suggested with interesting friezes ] a recently designed wooden bed of attractive appearance shows severely plain lines in the head and foot boards, and in the sides long narrow panels are cut out, through which the covering of the box spring is seen. this bed is made only to order, and is intended for elaborately decorated rooms in which a definite color scheme is carried out. it may be had in any desired width and stained any color to match the other furniture, while the box spring and little pillow and mattress are covered with the same material as the draperies of the room. [illustration: japanese prints are being received with increasing favor and thousands of beautiful designs are particularly appropriate for the children's room. the subjects are chiefly natural history figures and they serve as an inspiration to have stories woven about them ] furniture of a special size for children's rooms is made in a design that is substantial and handsome, by the manufacturer of a well-known and widely used type. there is a wardrobe just five feet high, with compartments for hats, clothing, and shoes; a bureau twenty-nine inches high, with a twenty-inch mirror on it; a bed with high sides, the simple decorations of which match those of the bureau; rocking chairs and straight chairs with leather seats, a settle, and tables of different sizes and shapes. nothing could be more attractive or complete than a room furnished in this way for a child of six or seven years who has outgrown the daintier surroundings of the nursery. it has all of the dignity of a well-appointed grown-up room, but with everything in proportion to the size of its owner. even washstand sets, suitable as to shape and decoration, may be had for the child's room in which no detail is to be omitted. they are little if any smaller than the usual sets, but the decorations are in keeping with those of the other appointments, and the pitchers are designed with a view to their being handled easily by small hands. they are not unlike milk jugs in shape, with a substantial handle over the top and another at the back, so that there is small chance of their slipping while in transit, and the mouth is a definitely formed one that will not fail to pour in the direction intended. for a comparatively small amount a room may be fitted up with enough distinctive juvenile furnishings to impart individuality and to give the child a sense of possession that it will never have in grown-up surroundings. even though circumstances are such that it has not had an elaborate nursery, as soon as a child is old enough to have a room of its own there is no reason why the furnishings should not be in keeping, and with the expenditure of a little money a dainty and attractive room may be arranged. high-priced beds and other pieces of furniture are by no means necessary, and, as is often the case, the most reasonably furnished room may be the most satisfactory if a little ingenuity and good taste are brought into service. [illustration: there are various ways that japanese prints may be used in the child's room. this and the opposite illustration show prints put on the wall and held by a molding at top and bottom. this also may contain a glass to protect each picture ] [illustration: there are decorations such as this that have an educational value and that take the place of toys. these little figures on the left are really companions, while the plaster plaque illustrates stevenson's verses ] [illustration: these bas-reliefs make interesting decorations and at the same time serve as object lessons in illustrating good poetry ] thirty to thirty-two dollars can be made to cover the cost of wall-paper, curtains, bed and mattress, a rug and a bureau, all in sizes and designs suitable for children. the wall-papers in juvenile patterns are not expensive, and the cost of papering a room of average size would be about five dollars. a little white iron bed may be had for as low as five dollars, with seven dollars additional for the mattress, and a rug 3 × 6 feet in size with a decorative border is $3.50. a bureau of small size, such as comes in an inexpensive grade of the so-called antique oak, costs about $8.00. for the very reason that the furnishings of the room are only temporary, and soon to be outgrown and discarded, it is quite satisfactory to buy a cheap grade of furniture whenever possible, if price is a consideration. a small bureau is less expensive than one made especially in a child's size, and is equally practical if not so substantially made. such a bureau can be done over in white enamel to match the bed, or in any dark color that may be preferred in place of the shiny oak finish. for curtains that hang straight from the top of the window to the lower edge of the sash, scrim at twenty-five cents a yard would cost two dollars. allowing four yards for each of two windows, and enough printed cretonne to make a decorative border, it would cost a dollar and a half additional. these figures are of the very lowest for which a child's room can be fitted up, but even with everything of the most inexpensive grade it will give more real pleasure than one on which a much greater amount has been spent if the room is nondescript in its furnishings and fails to impress the child with a sense of ownership. sarah leyburn coe [illustration] characteristic staircase types and hall treatments [illustration: in the right place half-timber work on plaster has many possibilities for hall decoration ] [illustration: japanese grass cloth in golden color is an excellent combination for chestnut stained light brown. wood strips are used instead of paneling ] [illustration: in certain old colonial halls the entrance is fashioned in a semicircular recess up which the stairs curve in a spiral. the effect is exceedingly beautiful but requires much space ] [illustration: the front door in this house opens directly into the living-room, into which stairs come down at one side. the wood has natural treatment and part of the banister forms the wainscot of the room ] [illustration: some of the best colonial detail is to be found in newel posts where careful craftsmen worked a variety of spirals ] [illustration: one method of securing pleasing decorative effects was the use of balusters in three different designs ] [illustration: in the old farmhouses for the sake of warmth the main stairway was made with the smallest possible well and often closed with a door at the main hall ] [illustration: this is a modern example by wilson eyre of the stair well inclosed for the greater part of its length. such arrangement is only possible under certain lighting conditions ] [illustration: the stairs that rise from this living-room are designed to take up as little room as possible. in this they are very successful and little of the banister rail and stair woodwork can be seen ] [illustration: where there is a large room made dignified by architectural decoration the twin stairways curving either side of a main flight are decidedly impressive; but one should not plan to make use of this effect in any but a pretentious house ] [illustration: the hall paper should not be a decided contrast to rooms opening onto it. tapestry paper may often be found successful in this situation ] [illustration: another stairway that divides on the way to the upper flight, but a treatment particularly fit for houses in english style of decoration ] [illustration: this view shows to good advantage the value of an archway between living-room and hall. woodwork, simply carved, frames in delightfully the stairway which is so appropriately treated with a forest frieze. curtains would be objectionable here ] [illustration: this hall is of generous width, and the stairs rise straight with but one landing lighted by a large window. a window is almost a necessity in the hall as it permits a free circulation of air throughout the house ] [illustration: a use of the colonial flat arch which separates this stairway from the living-room and makes a small room of it ] [illustration: simplicity characterizes this colonial stairway that is very similar to the one at the top of page 114. there is, however, a baseboard treatment which, like the banister rail, is crowned with mahogany ] [illustration: in the recess made by the vestibule the stairway is economically placed. the hall serves the double purpose of entrance and reception room ] [illustration] planning the kitchen there is a growing and altogether proper tendency to treat the kitchen as an integral part of the house, which was almost entirely absent in english and american houses of early times; in fact, until within the last twenty-five years very little thought was attached to it. a century ago it was regarded advisable to have the kitchen occupy a separate building somewhat removed from the main building or located at a great distance from the dining or living rooms, ofttimes the whole length of the house. the principal reason for this was the primitive methods used in cooking and preparing foods which were very objectionable at close range. odors, noises and unsanitary appliances made the kitchen a place to be abhorred and to be kept as far away as possible. the present-day intelligent methods of dealing with the kitchen, particularly in america, have effected a complete transformation in this old idea. our modern successful architect of the home attaches great importance to the planning of the kitchen, with its adjoining pantries, closets, storage rooms, etc.; and rightfully he should, as it goes more towards making for the convenience, help and comfort of the up-to-date household than possibly any other feature of the home. the modern english kitchen with its relation to the dining-room is interesting for comparison with those here in america, chiefly because the early english settlers constitute the original source from which we obtain our start in house-building. the english kitchen's adjuncts practically comprise separate departments, such as the scullery, larder, wood, ashes, knives and boots, fuel, etc. this condition naturally requires the employment of considerable help even in the smaller homes. on the other hand, the compactness so noticeable in american homes--requiring perhaps one-half the space, thus reducing the necessary help to a minimum and obtaining the maximum of convenience--has brought our kitchen to a standard, nearly, if not entirely, approaching the ideal. the american architect has based his idea for this compactness upon the same reasoning as is exercised in fitting up a convenient workshop, for truly a kitchen is the workshop of the house. again, the peculiar custom of medieval times in placing the kitchen a considerable distance from the dining-room still survives in the english homes, while in american homes a marked difference has long prevailed. the kitchen here is usually placed as near as possible to the dining-room, only separated, if at all, by a china-closet, pantry, or butler's room. [illustration: the model kitchen has developed considerably from the higgledy-piggledy arrangement of colonial times. supplies are limited to the most necessary articles, and these stored away in a handy location ] [illustration: such a kitchen _de luxe_ is expensive, but not extravagant. the built-in range, tiled wall and floor, together with the open plumbing, give the highest degree of sanitation ] convenience, cleanliness and ventilation are three essentials that must be paramount in arranging the up-to-date kitchen and its accessories. while there may be differences as to minor details, the principal features to be obtained in establishing a modern kitchen may be found in the various suggestions herein contained: 1st. the kitchen should be roomy but not excessively large. this applies to any size of house, as too large a kitchen is maintained at the expense of convenience and labor. an ideal size for a kitchen in a house measuring 25 × 50 (containing living-room, reception room, dining-room and pantry on first floor) would be 12 × 15 feet. 2nd. the general construction of the interior is of the utmost importance. the floor may be of hard georgia pine, oiled, or covered with linoleum or oilcloth. as a covering, linoleum of a good inlaid pattern, while more expensive than oilcloth, proves the best and most economical in length of service. in a house where comfort is demanded regardless of cost, an interlocking rubber tiling is suggested. this flooring absolutely avoids noises and slipping and is comfortable to the feet, as well as being of an exceptional durability. other floors of a well-merited character are unglazed tile, brick, or one of the many patented compositions consisting chiefly of cement, which is also fireproof. the wainscoting, if adopted for the kitchen, can be of tile, enameled brick, or matched and v-jointed boards, varnished or painted; but in any event should be connected with the floor in a manner to avoid cracks for collecting dust or dirt. this is accomplished (when a wooden wainscot is used) by means of a plain rounded molding which is set in the rightangle formed by the junction of the floor with the wainscot. while seldom seen, because of the expense, a kitchen completely tiled or bricked on walls, floor and ceiling is indeed a thing of beauty and necessarily an ideally sanitary room. [illustration: the sink should have a drainboard space and be located where the light may fall directly upon it. the row of hooks for utensils saves much walking ] the doors, window frames, dressers and other necessary woodwork should be plain, made of medium wood and painted some light color or enameled white; or finished in the natural state with a transparent varnish. [illustration: the butler's pantry should have an indirect connection between the kitchen and the dining-room. the two doors here keep out odors, noise and heat from the dining-room. the refrigerator is in the cook's pantry and opens out on the porch ] the walls and ceiling, if not tiled or bricked, should be finished with a hard smooth plaster and painted three or four coats of some light color--light yellow, green, or blue making a very agreeable color to the eye. this manner of treatment permits the walls to be washed and kept free from dust and dirt, which latter is a disagreeable feature in the use of wall papers. 3rd. the proper installation of the various furnishings of the kitchen is worthy of much thought and consideration. of all these, nothing is of more vital importance nor appeals more strongly to the household than the range. the size of the range is largely governed by the size of the house or the number of persons it is intended to serve. however, it is advisable to have a range not less than three feet square for a seven or eight-room house. it should be of a thoroughly modern style, with a hood over it, either built in or of sheet iron, an excellent provision for drawing away the steam and fumes of cooking. and, by all means, the range should be placed so that direct daylight falls upon it. most present-day houses also have either gas or electric ranges installed in them and these should be near the coal range so as to confine all cooking to one part of the kitchen; and further, especially in winter when large gatherings are entertained, they furnish a combined service. some large establishments, in addition to the range, are especially equipped with "warmers." [illustration: the modern kitchen may be neat and clean if all of wood, with v-matched boards varnished or painted. the space under the drainboard here for a table is a feature worth adopting. the cupboard over the shelf is also an attractive feature ] the sink, being so closely allied in its usefulness to the range, should be placed near the latter and under, between or near windows, but never where the person using it would have his back to the light. it may be of galvanized iron, copper, soapstone or enameled porcelain, and provided with an ample draining-board; two being much preferred. if there is a special sink for vegetables required, it should be immediately adjoining the draining-board to insure compactness and convenience as well as economy in plumbing. the draining-board may be of hard wood or of wood covered with copper or zinc. the best are made of enameled ware similar to the sinks. draining-boards of copper or zinc should be given only a slight slope to prevent the possibility of dishes slipping therefrom. [illustration: a feature of this plan is the sliding door connecting the kitchen and pantry. this may be closed when cooking is in progress and successfully keeps all odors from finding their way into the dining-room. opposite windows provide a cross draft and excellent ventilation ] the refrigerator should be built in or placed against an outside wall in order that the ice can be put in easily from without through either a small opening or window. if it can be avoided, the refrigerator should not be placed immediately in the kitchen, but rather in the entry, pantry or enclosed porch. the kitchen of the small house which sometimes has no communicating pantry should have built therein dressers of such proportions as will accommodate all the necessary dishes, pots, vessels, bins for flour, sugar, etc., cutlery, and other things essential for obtaining the best results under the circumstances. a dresser of commodious size is always a blessing. the top portion, of plain shelves, should be enclosed either with doors or sliding glass fronts; the lower portion, first lined with zinc and enclosed with solid wooden doors so constructed to fit nearly if not airtight. if an exclusive pot closet is desired, it should be handy to the range and at the same time be under cover for sanitary reasons. [illustration: this german kitchen is a model of neatness and cleanliness in its white enamel furnishings. the cupboard provides space for china, the long shelf beneath being a great convenience, while the various bins and drawers provide proper places for everything ] frequently in a small kitchen a counter or drop leaves against the wall are substituted for a table, but in most kitchens a good-sized substantial table, preferably in the center of the room, is found indispensable. the table should have a smooth top that can be easily kept clean. although costly, a heavy plate glass fitted perfectly with rounded edges makes a splendid top for the table. the service part of the house, of which the kitchen is the central room, should fit together just as parts of a machine and form a unit in themselves. the pantries, store rooms, etc., should be placed so as to afford easy access one to the other. in a house, which has two or more servants, a dining-room or alcove should be provided for their use. this may be a part of the kitchen or immediately adjoining, and merely large enough to seat comfortably the servants around a table. [illustration: a kitchen in a large country place that is equipped with every possible convenience, sliding doors, built-in refrigerator, clothes chute, dumbwaiter and a revolving drum between kitchen and butler's pantry. there is also provision made for a servants' dining-room, advisable wherever possible ] the cook's pantry should contain cupboards in which are all the necessary paraphernalia for preparing pastries, puddings, etc., such as bins, bakeboards, crockery, pans and supplies, and should be lighted by at least one window. the butler's pantry, or china-closet as it is often called--generally located and affording direct communication between the kitchen and the dining-room--is essentially a serving-room and should contain a sink with draining-boards, cupboards and shelves to accommodate the fine china, glassware and other requisites for the table. with such a plan the door between the pantry and kitchen may be either sliding or double swinging, but between the pantry and the dining-room, a noiseless double-swinging door. a slide, with small shelves or counters on either side, between the kitchen and pantry, for the passing of food and dishes, saves time and steps. it is well to have the communication rather indirect through the pantry to prevent in a measure the passage of odors or a direct view of the kitchen by those entering the dining-room or seated at the table. this can be partly accomplished by not having the communicating doors directly opposite each other. [illustration: the kitchen need not be large, if it is compact. in the house 25´ × 50´ the ideal size is about 13´ × 15´. a work table of this sort does away with many unnecessary steps, the lower shelf being a convenient place to put articles that are in constant use ] the outside entrance to the kitchen should be so placed as to facilitate the delivery of provisions, preferably through an entry or an enclosed porch. the laundry in many houses is combined with the kitchen or immediately adjoining, in which latter case it often serves as an entry and a place to store certain articles, such as brooms, buckets and possibly the refrigerator. the very best plan is to have the laundry in the basement, with separate outside stairs. in such a case, a chute for sending soiled linen, etc., should run from the kitchen or pantry to the laundry. [illustration: the butler's pantry or serving-room should be equipped with a cupboard and sink in order that the finer glass ware can be stored and the more fragile articles be washed without finding their way into the kitchen ] [illustration: a rather unusual plan, in which great economy of space is made by building the service stairs about the chimney. the pantry is exceedingly well arranged in that it takes up no room from the kitchen or the dining-room ] [illustration: plaster walls should be finished with a hard surface and given several coats of a waterproof paint. the shelves beneath the sink here provide a place useful and easily accessible ] the kitchen should above all be well ventilated and have plenty of daylight. the necessary fumes and heat arising from the cooking should be taken care of in such a way that none of it is carried to the dining-room or to other parts of the house. this can partly be accomplished by the hood over the range, but plenty of fresh air is required. generally in country homes, the living-rooms are given the southern exposure, so the kitchen usually faces the north. the best location is either the northern or eastern exposure, as the cooling breezes in the summer generally come from that direction, especially in this part of the country, and combined with the morning sun, make the kitchen cheerful and cool. if possible there should be exposure on at least two sides, opposite, affording cross ventilation as well as an abundance of light. all windows should be well fitted with screens in summer to keep out flies and other insects attracted by the odors of cooking. the best artificial lighting is obtained by a reflector in the center of the kitchen, possibly with side brackets where necessary, as at the sink or at the range. [illustration: a very novel kitchen cupboard is this, with the shelf space in the doors giving almost a double capacity. the bread board slides beneath a shelf and is provided with handles ] in a large house the service portion may be situated in a separate wing and if so the stairs should be in a small hall, centrally located and near the kitchen, especially the stairs to the cellar. this hall may contain a closet for brooms and a lavatory for the use of the servants. it it well not to have the stairway ascending directly from the kitchen, as it lessens the valuable wall space. the rooms directly over the kitchen can best be utilized in most cases for servants' sleeping rooms as they are often objectionable for members of the household, or guests. james earle miller * * * * * transcriber's notes: italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold text by =equals signs=. [illustration: front cover] little books about old furniture ii. queen anne little books about old furniture uniformly bound, crown 8vo price 2s 6d net each i. tudor to stuart ii. queen anne iii. chippendale and his school iv. the sheraton period london: william heinemann 21 bedford street, w.c. [illustration: queen anne walnut tallboy and stool (early eighteenth century.)] little books about old furniture english furniture: by j. p. blake & a. e. reveirs-hopkins. volume ii the period of queen anne [illustration: william heinemann logo] new edition illustrated london mcmxiv william heinemann _first published october 1911_ _new edition january 1913_ _second impression june 1914_ _copyright london 1911 by william heinemann_ introduction the sovereigns of england, unlike those of france, have seldom taken to themselves the task of acting as patrons of the fine arts. therefore when we write of the "queen anne period" we do not refer to the influence of the undistinguished lady who for twelve years occupied the throne of england. the term is merely convenient for the purpose of classification, embracing, as it does, the period from william and mary to george i. during which the furniture had a strong family likeness and shows a development very much on the same line. the change, at the last quarter of the seventeenth century, from the jacobean models to the dutch, was probably the most important change that has come over english furniture. it was a change which strongly influenced chippendale and his school, and remains with us to this day. the period from william and mary to george i. covered nearly forty years, during which the fashionable furniture was generally made from walnut-wood. no doubt walnut was used before the time of william and mary, notably in the making of the well-known stuart chairs with their caned backs and seats, but it did not come into general use until the time of william. it continued in fashion until the discovery of its liability to the attacks of the worm, combined with the advent of mahogany, removed it from public favour. walnut nevertheless remains a beautiful and interesting wood, and in the old examples the colour effects are probably unsurpassed in english furniture. its liability to "worming" is probably exaggerated, and in the event of an attack generally yields to a treatment with paraffin. certainly the furniture of what is termed the "queen anne period" is in great request at the present day, and as the period was so short during which it was made, the supply is necessarily limited. we referred in the introduction to the first volume to the fact that the present series does not in any sense pretend to exhaust what is practically an inexhaustible subject. the series is merely intended to act as an introduction to the study of old english furniture, and to provide handbooks for collectors of moderate means. the many admirable books which have been already written on this subject seem to appeal mostly to persons who start collecting with that useful but not indispensable asset--a large income. in the present volume, although rare and expensive pieces are shown for historical reasons and to suggest standards of taste, a large number of interesting examples are also shown and described which are within the reach of persons of moderate incomes, and frequently an approximate price at which they should be acquired is indicated. in collecting the photographs necessary for this volume we are indebted to the director and secretary of the victoria and albert museum, south kensington, london, for placing the various exhibits at our disposal and particularly for causing a number of new exhibits to be specially photographed. however good a photograph may be, it can only be a ghost of the original, which should always, if possible, be examined. we would therefore strongly recommend readers when possible to examine the museum objects for themselves. the south kensington collection, admirable as it is, is still far from complete, and increased public interest should contribute to its improvement. for the further loan of photographs we are also indebted to mr. f. w. phillips, of the manor house, hitchin, herts; to mr. j. h. springett, high street, rochester, and others to whom we acknowledge our indebtedness in the text. j. p. blake a. e. reveirs-hopkins 21 bedford street, w.c. chapters page i. the queen anne period 1 ii. sir christopher wren and grinling gibbon 18 iii. mirrors, stools, and some notes on a queen anne bedroom 34 iv. chairs and tables 47 v. chests of drawers, tallboys, cabinets and china cabinets 65 vi. secretaires, bureaux, and writing-tables 76 vii. clocks and clock-cases 82 viii. lacquered furniture 95 bibliography it is with pleasure we acknowledge our obligations to the following authorities: percy macquoid: "the age of walnut." (the standard work on the furniture of this period.) j. h. pollen: "ancient and modern furniture and woodwork." an admirable little handbook and guide to the furniture and woodwork collection at the victoria and albert museum, south kensington. f. j. britten: "old clocks and watches and their makers." (exhaustive in its treatment, and fully illustrated. the standard book. a new edition has recently been published.) john stalker: "japanning and varnishing." (the earliest english book on this subject. published in 1688 during the craze for japanned furniture.) law: "history of hampton court," vol. iii. ashton: "social life in the reign of queen anne." evelyn: "diary." macaulay: "history of england." chapter i: the queen anne period william and mary, 1689-1702 anne, 1702-1714 george i., 1714-1727 william the third was a dutchman and, although he was for thirteen years king of england, he remained a dutchman until his death. his english was bad, his accent was rough, and his vocabulary limited. he had a dutch guard, the friends whom he trusted were dutch, and they were always about him, filling many of the offices of the royal household. he came to england as a foreigner and it remained to him a foreign country. his advent to the throne brought about certain changes in the style of furniture which are generally described as "the dutch influence," which, however, had its origin at least as far back as the reign of charles ii. both william and mary were greatly interested in furnishing and furniture. they took up their residence at hampton court palace soon after their coronation, and the place suited william so well and pleased him so much that it was very difficult to get him away from it. william was a great soldier and a great statesman, but he was more at his pleasure in the business of a country house than in the festivities and scandals of a court life, both of which he perhaps equally disliked. the queen also cordially liked country life, and no less cordially disliked scandal. mr. law, in his interesting book on hampton court, mentions the story that mary would check any person attempting to retail scandal by asking whether they had read her favourite sermon--archbishop tillotson on evil speaking. with the assistance of sir christopher wren as architect and grinling gibbon as master sculptor, great changes were made in the palace at hampton court. the fogs and street smells of whitehall drove william to the pure air of the country, and there was the additional attraction that the country around the palace reminded him in its flatness of his beloved holland. when one of his ministers ventured to remonstrate with him on his prolonged absences from london, he answered: "do you wish to see me dead?" william, perhaps naturally, cared nothing for english tradition: he destroyed the state rooms of henry viii. and entrusted to wren the task of rebuilding the palace. the architect appears to have had a difficult task, as the king constantly altered the plans as they proceeded, and, it is said, did a good deal towards spoiling the great architect's scheme. in william's favour it must be admitted that he took the blame for the deficiencies and gave wren the credit for the successes of the building. the result--the attachment of a renaissance building to a tudor palace--is more successful than might have been expected. the king's relations with wren seem to have been of a very friendly sort. mr. law mentions the fact that wren was at this time grand master of freemasons; that he initiated the king into the mysteries of the craft; and that william himself reached the chair and presided over a lodge at hampton court palace whilst it was being completed, which is, in the circumstances, an interesting example of the working rather than the speculative masonry. mary was herself a model housewife, and filled her court with wonder that she should labour so many hours each day at her needlework as if for her living. she covered the backs of chairs and couches with her work, which was described as "extremely neat and very well shadowed," although all trace of it has long since disappeared. it is appropriate to observe, as being related to decorative schemes and furnishing, that the taste for chinese porcelain, which is so general at this day, was first introduced into england by mary. evelyn mentions in his diary (june 13, 1693) that he "saw the queen's rare cabinets and collection of china which was wonderfully rich and plentiful." macaulay expresses his opinion with his usual frankness. he writes: "mary had acquired at the hague a taste for the porcelain of china, and amused herself by forming at hampton a vast collection of hideous images, and vases upon which houses, trees, bridges, and mandarins were depicted in outrageous defiance of all the laws of perspective. the fashion--a frivolous and inelegant fashion, it must be owned--which was thus set by the amiable queen spread fast and wide. in a few years almost every great house in the kingdom contained a museum of these grotesque baubles. even statesmen and generals were not ashamed to be renowned as judges of teapots and dragons; and satirists long continued to repeat that a fine lady valued her mottled green pottery quite as much as she valued her monkey and much more than she valued her husband." it is strange to consider in these days how greatly macaulay, in this opinion, was out of his reckoning. there is, perhaps, no example of art or handicraft upon which the opinion of cultured taste in all countries is so unanimous as in its admiration for good chinese porcelain, amongst which the queen's collection (judging from the pieces still remaining at hampton) must be classed. mary was probably the first english queen to intimately concern herself with furniture. we have it on the authority of the duchess of marlborough that on the queen's first visit to the palace she engaged herself "looking into every closet and conveniency, and turning up the quilts upon the beds, as people do when they come into an inn, and with no other concern in her appearance but such as they express." we find in this period lavishly painted ceilings, woodwork carved by grinling gibbon and his school, fine needlework, upholstered bedsteads, and marble mantelpieces with diminishing shelves for the display of delft and chinese ware. the standard of domestic convenience, in one respect, could not, however, have been very high, if one may judge from the queen's bathing-closet of this period at hampton court palace. the bath is of marble and recessed into the wall, but it is more like a fountain than a bath, and its use in the latter connection must have been attended by inconveniences which modern women of much humbler station would decline to face.[1] [1] the bathroom is, however, not in itself so modern in england as might be supposed. wheatley mentions that as early as the fourteenth century a bathroom was attached to the bedchamber in the houses of the great nobles, but more often a big tub with a covering like a tent was used. good specimens of the wood-carving of grinling gibbon (born 1648, died 1721) are to be seen at hampton court, to which palace william iii. appointed the artist master carver. he generally worked in soft woods, such as lime, pear and pine, but sometimes in oak. his subjects were very varied--fruit and foliage, wheat-ears and flowers, cupids and dead game, and even musical instruments--and were fashioned with amazing skill, resource, and ingenuity. he invented that school of english carving which is associated with his name. his fancy is lavish and his finish in this particular work has never been surpassed in this country; but it is doubtful whether his work is not overdone, and as such may not appeal to the purer taste. often his masses of flowers and foliage too much suggest the unpleasant term which is usually applied to them, viz. "swags." frequently nothing is left to the imagination in the boldness of his realism. fig. 1 shows a very happy example of his work over a mantelpiece in one of the smaller rooms in hampton court palace, which is reproduced by the courtesy of the lord chamberlain, the copyright being the property of h.m. the king. upon the shelf are pieces of china belonging to queen mary, but the portrait inset is of queen caroline, consort of george iv. in the grate is an antique fire-back, and on either side of the fire is a chair of the period of william and mary. the court bedsteads (and probably on a smaller scale the bedsteads of the upper classes generally) continued to be at once elaborate and unhygienic, and were fitted with canopies and hangings of velvet and other rich stuffs. king william's bedstead was a great four-poster, hung with crimson velvet and surmounted at each corner with an enormous plume, which was much the same fashion of bedstead as at the beginning of the century. fig. 2 is an interesting photograph (reproduced by permission of the lord chamberlain) of three royal bedsteads at hampton court, viz. those of william, mary, and george ii. the chairs and stools in front are of the period of william and mary. the table is of later date. most of the old furniture at hampton court, however, has been dispersed amongst the other royal palaces. an excellent idea of the appearance of a london dwelling-room of this period is shown in fig. 3. it was removed from no. 3 clifford's inn, and is now to be seen at the victoria and albert museum. the owner, john penhallow, must have been well-to-do, as the fine carving about the mantelpiece and doors was expensive even in those days. the festoons of fruit and flowers of the school of grinling gibbon around the mantelpiece, in the centre of which are the arms of the owner, and the broken pediments over the doors surmounting the cherubs' heads, are characteristic of the time. the table with the marquetry top and "tied" stretcher is of the period. the chairs retained for a time that rigid resistance to the lines of the human form which marks the stuart chairs; but very soon adapted themselves in a physiological sense. what is termed the queen anne period of furniture may be said to date from the reigns of william and mary (1689-1702), and queen anne (1702-1714), to that of george i. (1714-1727). the dutch influence of william and mary became anglicised during the reign of anne and the first george, and the influence remains to this day. mahogany was introduced about 1720, and thenceforward the influence of chippendale and his school came into force. the queen anne style has probably been over-praised, a little misunderstood, and possibly a trifle harshly treated. mr. ernest law, whose studies of this period we have already mentioned, describes it as "nothing better than an imitation of the bastard classic of louis xiv., as distinguished from the so-called 'queen anne style' which never had any existence at all except in the brains of modern ã¦sthetes and china maniacs," and as a case in point refers to queen anne's drawing-room at hampton court palace. this verdict is no doubt a true one as regards the schemes of interior decoration, with their sprawling deities and the gaudy and discordant groupings of classical figures of verrio and his school, to be seen at hampton court and other great houses. verrio, as macaulay wrote, "covered ceilings and staircases with gorgons and muses, nymphs and satyrs, virtues and vices, gods quaffing nectar, and laurelled princes riding in triumph"--a decorative scheme which certainly does not err on the side of parsimony. the taste of a court, however, is by no means a criterion of taste in domestic furniture. there can be no doubt that to this period we are indebted for the introduction of various articles of furniture of great utility and unquestionable taste. the chairs and tables in particular, depending as they do for charm upon simple lines and the transverse grain of the wood, for neatness of design and good workmanship are unsurpassed. amongst other pieces the bureaux and long-cased clocks made their appearance; also double chests of drawers or tallboys, mirrors for toilet-tables and wall decoration; and washstands came into general use, as well as articles like card-tables, powdering-tables, &c. the houses of the wealthy were furnished with great magnificence and luxuriousness in a gaudy and ultra-decorative fashion. restraint is the last quality to be found. judging however from the many simple and charming specimens of walnut furniture surviving, the standard of comfort and good taste amongst the middle classes was high. table glass was now manufactured in england; carpets were made at kidderminster; chairs grew to be comfortably shaped; domestic conveniences in the way of chests of drawers, writing bureaux, and mirrors were all in general use in many middle-class houses. mr. pollen, whose handbook on the victoria and albert collection is so much appreciated, writes of the queen anne furniture as being of a "genuine english style marked by great purity and beauty." anne, the second daughter of james ii., was the last of the stuarts, with whom, however, she had little in common, and indeed it is with something of an effort that we think of her as a stuart at all. personally she had no more influence upon the period which bears her name than the goths had upon gothic architecture. the term "queen anne" has grown to be a conveniently descriptive term for anything quaint and pretty. we are all familiar with the queen anne house of the modern architect, with its gables and sharply pitched roof. this, however, is probably suggested by various rambles in picturesque country districts in england and holland; but it has nothing in common with the actual houses of the period under review. the bulk of the genuine furniture which has come down to us was probably from the houses of the merchant classes, the period being one of great commercial activity. the condition of the poor, however, was such that they could not concern themselves with furniture. mr. justin mccarthy, in his book on these times, estimates that one-fifth of the population were paupers. a few rude tables and chairs, a chest, truckle-beds, and possibly a settle, would have made up the possessions of the working-class house; and it is probable that not until the nineteenth century was there any material improvement in their household surroundings. it was a time in which the coffee-and chocolate-houses flourished; when covent garden and leicester square were fashionable neighbourhoods; when the sedan chair was the fashionable means of transit; when the police were old men with rattles who, sheltered in boxes guarded the city; and when duels were fought, in lincoln's inn fields. the coffee-house was a lively factor in the life of the times: although wines were also sold, coffee was the popular drink. the price for a dish of coffee and a seat by a good fire was commonly one penny, or perhaps three-halfpence, although to these humble prices there were aristocratic exceptions. anderton's hotel in fleet street, "the bay tree" in st. swithin's lane, and the now famous "lloyd's" are interesting developments of the queen anne coffee-houses. coffee itself was retailed at about seven shillings per pound. chocolate-houses were small in number, but included names so well known at the present time as "white's" and the "cocoa tree." chocolate was commonly twopence the dish. "fancy the beaux," thackeray writes, "thronging the chocolate-houses, tapping their snuff-boxes as they issue thence, their periwigs appearing over the red curtains." tea-drinking was a social function and mainly a domestic operation, and to its popularity we owe the number of small light tables of this period. snuff, or the fan supply each pause of chat, with singing, laughing, ogling, and all that. the price of tea fluctuated very much--some years it was much cheaper than others, varying from 10s. to 30s. per lb., although it is said that in the cheaper sorts old infused leaves were dried and mixed with new ones. as regards pottery and porcelain, the chinese was in great request, following, no doubt, on the fashion set by queen mary. the english factories--worcester, derby, chelsea, bow, wedgwood, and minton--only started in the last half of the eighteenth century. mr. ashton, in his interesting book on "social life in the reign of queen anne," quotes the following advertisement, which points to the continued popularity of decorative china: "whereas the new east india company did lately sell all their china ware, these are to advertise that a very large parcel thereof (as broken and damaged) is now to be sold by wholesale and retail, extremely cheap at a warehouse in dyer's yard. note.--it is very fit to furnish escrutores, cabinets, corner cupboards or spriggs, where it usually stands for ornament only." this fashion first brought into use the various forms of cabinets used for the display of china. the earliest pieces would therefore date from the end of the seventeenth, or the beginning of the eighteenth century. in the first volume of this series we referred to a characteristic of elizabethan woodwork, viz. inlaying--the laying-in of small pieces of one or several kinds of wood in places cut out of the surface of another kind. in the period under review two further practices are deserving of special notice. the first is veneering, which consists of wholly covering one sort of wood (frequently a common wood, such as deal or pine, but also oak) with a thin layer of choice wood--walnut, mahogany, &c. the object of veneering was not for purposes of deception, as it was not intended to produce the effect that the whole substance was of the finer sort of wood; but by means of applying these thin overlays a greater choice of wood was possible, and a more beautiful effect was produced by the juxtaposition of the various grains. although at the present time the term veneer is frequently used as one of approbrium, the principle it stands for is a perfectly honest one. it is very much the same as the application of the thin strips of marble to the pillars and walls of st. mark's at venice, which is called incrustation, and of which ruskin writes in the "stones of venice." the basis of st. mark's is brick, which is covered by an incrustation or veneer of costly and beautiful marbles, by which rich and varied colour effects are produced which would have been impossible in solid marble. the same principle applies to veneers of wood, in which there is likewise no intention to deceive but rather a desire to make the most of the materials on hand. it would have been impossible to construct a great many cabinets of solid walnut-wood, nor would the effect have been so satisfactory, because, as already pointed out, the fact of veneers being laid in thin strips immensely increases the choice of woods and facilitates the composition of pleasing effects. there is, moreover, often a greater nicety of workmanship in the making of veneered furniture than in the solid article, and it is indeed often a complaint that the doing up of old veneered furniture is so expensive and troublesome. in old days veneers were cut by hand--sometimes one-eighth of an inch thick--but the modern veneer is, of course, cut by machinery, and is often a mere shaving. in the period under discussion walnut-veneering reached great perfection, beautiful effects being produced by cross-banding various strips and varying the course of the grains and the shades. oak was first used as a base, but later commoner woods such as deal. it is a mistake to condemn an article because the basis is not of oak. as a matter of fact, after a time oak went out of use as a basis for the reason that it was unsatisfactory, the veneer having a tendency to come away from it. we frequently find the front of a drawer is built of pine, to take the veneer, whilst the sides and bottom of the drawer are of oak. marquetry, which is also a feature in furniture of this period, is a combination of inlaying and veneering. a surface is covered with a veneer and the desired design is cut out and filled in with other wood. its later developments are of french origin, and it was first introduced into england from holland towards the end of the seventeenth century, after james ii. (who had been a wanderer in holland) came to the throne. most arts date back to ancient times; and the arts of woodcraft are no exceptions. inlaying, veneering, and wood-carving reach back to the temple of solomon; and the egyptians also practised them. ancient inlay, moreover, was not confined to woods--ivory, pearls, marbles, metals, precious stones all being requisitioned. during the reigns of william and mary, anne, and george the first, events of great importance transpired. st. paul's, that great monument to wren and renaissance architecture, was opened; the marlborough wars were fought; the south sea bubble was blown and burst; sir christopher wren and grinling gibbon completed their work; marlborough house and blenheim were built; addison, pope, and daniel defoe were at work; gibraltar was taken; england and scotland were united; the bank of england was incorporated; and last, but not least, the national debt started. chapter ii: sir christopher wren and grinling gibbon the temper of a nation is reflected in its architecture and, in a lesser degree, in its furniture. when we look at the furniture of the last of the stuarts, mary ii. and her sister anne, we see written all over it in large letters one great virtue--sobriety. in the oak furniture of the last of the tudors and the first of the stuarts (elizabeth and james i.) we find the same sober note; but in the main it is more essentially english. in the augustan era of elizabeth we certainly see in the more pretentious examples of court-cupboards and cabinets the influence of the renaissance; but the furniture made by the people for the people is simply english in form and decoration. during the troublous times of the two charles and to the end of the revolution which placed william and mary on the throne, the country was alternately in the throes of gaiety and puritanism; and a dispassionate view leads one to suppose that "merrie england" had the greater leaning towards merriment. the people of england knew well enough that sobriety was good for them, and cromwell gave it in an unpalatable form. the remedy was less to the country's liking than the disease, and with the restoration in 1660 the passions of the nation ran riot in the opposite extreme. the final lesson came with the twenty-nine years of misrule under charles ii. and james ii. having drained the cup of degradation to the dregs, the country set about her real reformation by the aid of dutch william, himself the grandson of a stuart, and his cousin-consort anne, the daughter of the self-deposed james. james ii. had learnt his lesson from the errors of his brother charles, but was not wise enough to fully profit by it. he realised that misrule had stretched his subjects' patience to the breaking-point, and during his short reign there was a certain amount of surface calm. but beneath was the continual struggle for absolutism on the part of the monarch and emancipation on the part of the people. the subject is familiar to students of history. with the advent of the orange _rã©gime_ we find a distinct revolution in english furniture. there is no evidence of a sudden change. we find comparatively severe examples during james ii.'s reign and flamboyant patterns dating from the days of william. the transitional period was shorter than usual, and once the tide had gathered strength in its flow there was very little ebb. the civil troubles in the country had given a severe check to the arts: the influence of the renaissance upon furniture was upon the wane, and the ground was lying fallow and hungry for the new styles which may be said to have landed with william of orange in torbay in 1688. the main influence in the furniture was dutch, and the dutch had been to a large extent influenced by a wave of orientalism. twenty-five years before this, england's most renowned, if not greatest, architect had designed his first ecclesiastical building--the chapel of pembroke hall, cambridge--in the classical style which he made famous in england. christopher wren was born in 1631 or 1632. he was son of dr. christopher wren, dean of windsor, and nephew of matthew wren, bishop of ely, who, to celebrate his release from the tower, built pembroke hall chapel in 1663, employing his nephew as architect. in 1664, when christopher wren was about thirty-two years of age, he came in contact with john evelyn, the diarist, who in his journal, under date july 13, writes of him as that "miracle of a youth." the acquaintanceship ripened into a friendship, only broken by evelyn's death in 1706. from evelyn's diary we are able to glean many things concerning the then rising young architect. the idea of the royal society was the outcome of a meeting in 1660 of several scientists in wren's room after one of the lectures at gresham college. on being approached on the desirability of forming the society, charles ii. gave his assent and encouragement to the project, and we learn that one of the first transactions of the society was an account of wren's pendulum experiment. the society was incorporated by royal charter in 1663. it would appear that wren had no world-wide reputation as an architect at the time, but, probably through the instrumentality of his friend evelyn, he was appointed by the king as assistant to sir john denham, the surveyor-general of works, and in the opinion of one of his biographers, lucy phillimore, "the practical experience learned in the details of the assistant-surveyor's work was afterwards very serviceable to him." we find him occupied in 1664 in plans for repairing old st. paul's and in building the sheldonian theatre at oxford, which was finished in 1669. during the plague of 1665 wren made a tour of the continent, and there absorbed ideas which fructified in the new style of classical architecture which has made his name famous. during further discussions concerning the much-needed repairs to st. paul's came the fire of london in 1666. this solved the difficulty, for st. paul's was left a gaunt skeleton in the city of desolation. wren's plans for the rebuilding of the city were accepted by the king, but were never carried out in anything like their entirety. all attempts to patch up the cathedral were abandoned in 1673, and the ground was cleared for the new foundations. the architect and his master mason laid the first stone on june 21, 1675. the cathedral and the story of its building is familiar to us all. the great architect, having drawn the circle for the dome, called to a workman to bring him a piece of stone to mark the centre. the man brought a fragment of an old tombstone on which was the single word "resurgam." all present took it as a good omen. we all know how the last stone of the lantern was laid thirty-five years afterwards by the architect's own son in the presence of his father. during those thirty-five years the great freemason's hands had been full, and in the city which rose from the ashes of the fire of 1666 no less than fifty-four churches were either built or restored by him. in addition, we find that the rebuilding or restoration of thirty-six halls of the city guilds, as well as upwards of fifty notable buildings--hospitals, colleges, palaces, cathedrals and churches--in london and the provinces, is laid to his credit. st. paul's cathedral, wren's city churches, and the monument, would in themselves make london famous amongst the cities of the world. the monument was erected to commemorate the rebuilding of the city. the inscription thereon absurdly attributes the origin of the fire to the papists. pope satirises it in his "moral essays": london's column pointing to the skies like a tall bully lifts the head and lies. chief, for beauty, amongst the churches is st. stephen's, walbrook. canova, the great sculptor, after paying a visit to england for the purpose of seeing the elgin marbles, was asked if he would like to return to the country. "yes," he replied, "that i might again see st. paul's cathedral, somerset house, and st. stephen's, walbrook." a dozen or more of wren's churches have been swept off the map of london, in many cases with a wantonness amounting to sacrilege; but we can still rejoice in the possession of such gems as st. stephen's, walbrook; st. nicholas, cole abbey; and st. mary abchurch, with its flat roof and cupola supported on eight arches. st. dunstan's in the east, near the custom house, still stands testifying to the fact that wren could restore a church without spoiling it. st. dunstan's, built in the latest style of perpendicular gothic, was left a mere shell after the fire. wren added the fine tower, and capped it with the curious and graceful spire supported on flying buttresses. it is said that the architect stood on london bridge with a telescope anxiously watching the removal of the scaffolding from the spire. it is scarcely credible, however, that such a man should doubt his own powers of building. this legend recalls the story of the building of the town hall at windsor in 1686. the spacious chamber on the street level is used as a corn exchange and above is the great hall. the anxious town councillors declared that the great room above would collapse. wren knew exactly how much his four walls and great beams could bear, but, to appease the burghers, he promised to place four columns at the intersections of the beams. he purposely built them about two inches short, and, to this day, after the lapse of two hundred and twenty-five years, there is still a two-inch space between the top of each column and the ceiling it is supposed to support. on the exterior of the building are two statues given by wren in 1707: one of queen anne and the other of her danish consort, prince george. our good christopher could flatter on occasion. the inscription to prince george in his roman costume reads, _inter alia_: heroi omni saeculo venerando. underneath the figure of queen anne is the legend: arte tua sculptor non est imitabilis anna annae vis similem sculpere sculpe deam. the local rhyming and free translation runs: artist, thy skill is vain! thou can'st not trace the semblance of the matchless anna's face! thou might'st as well to high olympus fly and carve the model of some deity! we admit this is a very free and extended translation, but it passes current locally. to say the least, it is high praise; but wren had a staunch friend in queen anne, and every eye makes its own beauty. the exigencies of the time called for a great architect, and he appeared in the person of christopher wren: they called for a great artist to adorn the master's buildings, and he appeared in the guise of grinling gibbon. the discovery of gibbon in an obscure house at deptford goes to the credit of gossipy john evelyn, who on january 18, 1671, writes: "this day, i first acquainted his majesty (charles ii.) with that incomparable young man gibbon, whom i had lately met with in an obscure place by mere accident, in a field in our parish, near sayes court. i found him shut in; but looking in at the window, i perceived him carving that large cartoon or crucifix of tintoretto, a copy of which i had brought myself from venice, where the original painting remains. i asked if i might enter; he opened the door civilly to me, and i saw him about such a work as for the curiosity of handling, drawing and studious exactness, i never had before seen in all my travels. i questioned why he worked in such an obscure and lonesome place; it was that he might apply himself to his profession without interruption, and wondered not a little how i found him out. i asked him if he were unwilling to be known to some great man, for that i believed it might turn to his profit, he answered, he was yet but a beginner, but would not be sorry to sell off that piece; on demanding the price he said â£100. in good earnest, the very frame was worth the money, there being nothing in nature so tender and delicate as the flowers and festoons about it, and yet the work was very strong; in the piece was more than one hundred figures of men, &c.... of this young artist, together with my manner of finding him out, i acquainted the king, and begged that he would give me leave to bring him and his work to whitehall, for that i would venture my reputation with his majesty that he had never seen anything approach it, and that he would be exceedingly pleased, and employ him. the king said he would himself go see him. this was the first notice his majesty ever had of mr. gibbon." the king evidently did not "go see him," for under date march 1 we read: "i caused mr. gibbon to bring to whitehall his excellent piece of carving, where being come, i advertised his majesty.... no sooner was he entered and cast his eye on the work, but he was astonished at the curiosity of it, and having considered it a long time and discoursed with mr. gibbon whom i brought to kiss his hand, he commanded it should be immediately carried to the queen's side to show her. it was carried up into her bedchamber, where she and the king looked on and admired it again; the king being called away, left us with the queen, believing she would have bought it, it being a crucifix; but when his majesty was gone, a french peddling woman, one madame de boord, who used to bring petticoats and fans and baubles, out of france to the ladies, began to find fault with several things in the work, which she understood no more than an ass, or a monkey, so as in a kind of indignation, i caused the person who brought it to carry it back to the chamber, finding the queen so much governed by an ignorant french woman, and this incomparable artist had his labour only for his pains, which not a little displeased me; he not long after sold it for â£80, though well worth â£100, without the frame, to sir george viner. his majesty's surveyor, mr. wren, faithfully promised to employ him. i having also bespoke his majesty for his work at windsor, which my friend mr. may, the architect there, was going to alter and repair universally." grinling gibbon was born in 1648, and so the "incomparable young man" would have been about twenty-three years of age when he sailed into royal favour. we do not know the whereabouts of the carved cartoon after tintoretto; but we shall find at the victoria and albert museum a carving by gibbon, measuring 6 ft. in height by 4 ft. 4 in. in width, of the "stoning of st. stephen." it is executed in limewood and lance-wood. walpole, in his "catalogue of painters," writes of the "stoning of st. stephen," which was purchased and placed by the duke of chandos at canons,[2] as the carving which had "struck so good a judge" as evelyn. it is palpably not identical with the tintoret subject which evelyn describes as "being a crucifix." fig. 10 in chapter iii. is a remarkable example of gibbon's carving of fruits, flowers, and foliage. [2] james brydges, duke of chandos, who as paymaster of the forces during the wars in the reign of queen anne amassed a large fortune, built canons, near edgware, in 1715. the building and furnishing is said to have cost between â£200,000 and â£250,000. it was in the classical or palladian style of architecture, and was adorned with costly pillars and statuary. the great _salon_ was painted by the paolucci and the ceiling of the staircase by thornhill. although the building was designed to stand for ages, under the second duke the estate became so encumbered that it was put up to auction, and as no buyer could be found the house was pulled down in 1747. the materials of "princely canons" realised only â£11,000. the marble staircase and pillars were bought by lord chesterfield for his house in mayfair. the witty earl used to speak of the columns as "the canonical pillars of his house." the grinling gibbon carving of the "stoning of st. stephen" was transferred to bush hill park, near enfield, and finally acquired in 1898 by the victoria and albert museum at a cost of â£300. readers who are familiar with the belgian churches will remember the wonderful carvings at brussels and mecklin by drevot and laurens, who were pupils of gibbon. they out-gibbon gibbon in their realism. in fig. 4, photographed for this book by the south kensington authorities, we give an illustration of a carving in pinewood of a pendant of flowers attributed to gibbon. it originally decorated the church of st. mary somerset, thames street, e.c., built 1695--one of wren's city churches so wantonly destroyed. to see gibbon's wood carving at its best we must go to st. paul's cathedral, windsor castle, and hampton court palace. at windsor we shall also see carved marble panels of trophies, emblems and realistic fruits, flowers and shell-fish on the pedestal of the statue of charles ii. at charing cross we have another example of his stone carving on the pedestal of the statue of charles the martyr. we have already referred to the church of st. mary abchurch in abchurch lane, between king william street and cannon street, city. it was built in 1686, eleven years after the first stone of st. paul's was laid. it also serves for the parish of st. laurence pountney. it lies in a quiet backwater off the busy stream, and the flagged courtyard is still surrounded by a few contemporary houses. externally it is not beautiful, but wren and gibbon expended loving care on the really beautiful interior. the soft light from the quaint circular and round-headed windows casts a gentle radiance over the carved festoons of fruit, palm-leaves and the "pelican in her piety." just across, on the other side of cannon street, is another backwater, laurence pountney hill. two of the old queen anne houses remain, no. 1 and no. 2, with beautiful old hooded doorways dated 1703. the circular hoods are supported by carved lion-headed brackets. the jambs are ornamented with delicate interlaced carving. no. 2 has been mutilated as to its windows, and a modern excrescence has been built on to the ground floor; but no. 1 appears to be much as it left the builders' hands in 1703, and still possesses the old wide staircase with twisted "barley-sugar" balusters and carved rose newel pendants. these houses may or may not have been designed by wren. they seem to bear the impress of his genius, and in any case they give us a glimpse--and such glimpses are all too rare--of the homes of the city fathers, just as the little church across cannon street brings us in touch with their religious life in the early days of queen anne. fig. 5 represents an interesting series of turned balusters taken from old houses of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. they are executed in oak, lime, ash and pinewood--mostly the latter; and many of the details will be found repeated in the furniture legs of the queen anne period. the photograph was specially taken for this volume by the courtesy of the director and secretary of the victoria and albert museum. fig. 6 represents a contemporary doorway of a room formerly at no. 3 clifford's inn. it is of oak, with applied carvings in cedar of acanthus-leaf work, enclosing a cherub's head and a broken pediment terminating in volutes. we shall find members of the same cherub family on the exterior of st. mary abchurch. fig. 7 is the overmantel of the same room with a marble mantelpiece of somewhat later date. this room, now at the victoria and albert museum, was erected in 1686 by john penhallow, who resided there till 1716. fig. 8 is a beautiful doorway carved in yellow pine, with corinthian columns and pediment. we shall find similar pediments in the tower of wren's church, st. andrew's, holborn. this doorway with the carved mantelpiece (fig. 9) came from an old house in carey street, lincoln's inn fields. these belong to the early part of the eighteenth century. these are but a few isolated examples of beautiful settings to the furniture of the period of the revival of classical architecture in england. such things are not for the modest collector, who will content himself with the chairs, tables, and bureaux of the period--articles, in the main, of severe outline devoid of carving, and relying for effect much upon the rich tones of the wood employed, but withal eminently beautiful, inasmuch as they were and are eminently useful. chapter iii: mirrors, stools, and some notes on a queen anne bedroom the mirror, at the present time, is so generally an accepted necessary of life, and so indispensable in many of its situations, that it may seem remarkable that not until the sixteenth century was it in anything like general use in england. the pleasure and interest of reflection must have been felt from the time when "the reindeer roared where paris roars to-night." still water must have been the first mirror of the first man and woman in which they discovered their astonished faces, and where it is possible that, like narcissus, they fell in love with their own reflections. thus we find eve saying in "paradise lost": i thither went and with unexperienced thought, and laid me down on the green bank; to look into the clear smooth lake, that to me seem'd a second sky. as i bent down to look, just opposite, a shape within the wat'ry gleam appear'd, bending to look on me. no doubt a reflecting surface was one of the first things that human ingenuity concerned itself about. brass mirrors were used by the hebrews, and mirrors of bronze by the egyptians, greeks, and romans; surviving specimens may be seen in the museums. silver mirrors were also used in very early times. glass mirrors are also of ancient origin. sauzay, in his work on "glass-making," quotes from aristotle as follows: "if metals and stones are to be polished to serve as mirrors, glass and crystal have to be lined with a sheet of metal to give back the image presented to them." and here we have the foreshadowing of the mercury-backed sheet of glass of modern times. in england mirrors of polished metal were well known in anglo-saxon times, and from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries the ladies carried mirrors at their girdles or in their pockets. venice has always been the home of glass-work, and it was there, in the early fourteenth century, that the immediate prototypes of our modern glass mirrors were made. for something like a century and a half the venetians had the monopoly of the making of the best mirrors. their secrets were carefully guarded, and any workman emigrating had his nearest relative imprisoned. it is interesting to note in passing that in jan van eyck's picture in the national gallery, london, painted in 1434, there is a framed convex wall mirror which has an astonishingly modern look. it is difficult to say whether or not this is made of glass, but it shows, of course, that mirrors were used for wall decoration at that time. this picture, by the way, is very interesting, as providing undeniable evidence as to the nature of the dutch furniture of the early fifteenth century. as regards the early history of the mirror in britain, there is a glass mirror in holyrood palace in the apartments used by queen mary the first and said to have belonged to her. at hampton court there are mirrors belonging to the period of william iii. and later, some of which have bevelled edges and borders of blue glass in the form of rosettes. glass mirrors were made in england by italian workmen early in the seventeenth century, but not extensively until about 1670, when the duke of buckingham established works in lambeth, where mirrors were made. the edges were bevelled in venetian fashion. we find evelyn writing in his diary under date of september 19, 1676: "to lambeth to that rare magazine of marble, to take order for chimney pieces, &c, for mr. godolphin's house. the owner of the workes had built for himselfe a pretty dwelling house; this dutchman had contracted with the genoese for all their marble. we also saw the duke of buckingham's glass worke, where they made high vases of metal as cleare, ponderous and thick as chrystal; also looking-glasses far larger and better than any that come from venice." as will be seen at hampton court, the glass in each of the large mirrors of this time is in two pieces, for the reason that, by the methods then in use, it was not possible to make larger sheets. this method of making mirrors in two pieces is followed even in the present day in modern copies of old mirrors. it was, no doubt, a cause of regret to the old makers that they could not turn out a large glass in one sheet, and they would no doubt have been astonished to think that succeeding ages would deliberately copy their defect. a collector will not, probably, come across a mirror earlier than william and mary, and he should have little difficulty in finding genuine mirrors of the next reign--queen anne--which are at once interesting and inexpensive. mr. clouston thinks that "the wall mirrors of the queen anne period may very well rank with the best furniture of their time. they are simple yet satisfying, and rich without extravagance." a mirror is not a mere looking-glass, although in this connection it has always been greatly appreciated. mirrors bring a sense of space to a small room, and make a larger room appear more spacious. in the king's writing-closet at hampton court there is a mirror over the chimney-piece which provides a vista of all the rooms on the south side of the state apartments. great furniture-designers from the time of grinling gibbon to that of chippendale have appreciated the opportunities offered by mirrors for the purposes of decoration. fig. 10 is a mirror-frame of carved limewood by grinling gibbon to be seen in the victoria and albert museum. it is a rich and wonderful example of chisel play, but, like his work in general, does not satisfy a taste which inclines to less resplendent decoration. such a mirror is probably not within the reach of any collector, great or small; and it is even probable--at least as regards the small collector--that, if by a stroke of fortune such a piece descended to him, he would find that it would scarcely harmonise with any ordinary scheme of decoration. its presence would be as embarrassing as the entertainment of royalty in a suburban home. the ordinary types--and they are many--of queen anne mirrors can with perfect propriety find places in almost any room in any house of taste, and on the walls of hall or staircase they are at once interesting and decorative. particularly are they in harmony with the surroundings of a "queen anne" bedroom. in this connection, however, a word of warning is in place regarding the old glass. this is very well on the wall mirrors, but in the mirror for the toilet-table it should be replaced by new glass. nothing lasts for ever, and it is rare that the old glasses fully retain their reflecting powers. old mirrors are bad to shave by, and are, moreover, extremely unpopular with ladies. the art of furnishing consists of a tactful combination of whatever is best in the old and the new. figs. 11 and 12 are simple mirrors of the queen anne period. fig. 11 is a wall glass with a pleasing scroll outline, and fig. 12 is a toilet-table glass characteristic of the period, the gilt inner moulding or "embroidery" being an interesting feature. we find similar decorative devices to the above on many of the mirrors of this time, and such examples should be purchasable at about two guineas each. figs. 13 and 14 are more elaborate and expensive mirrors, the broken pediments in each case suggesting the influence of sir christopher wren. although the architectural inspiration, which was absolute in the gothic periods and strong in the elizabethan, was very much less marked in the time of queen anne, still the classical influence of wren's renaissance style is shown in many ways, and particularly in the many varieties of the broken pediment which are favourite forms of decoration for the tops of mirror frames. fig. 13, in addition to the broken pediment, is decorated on the frame with egg-and-tongue mouldings, and on the base with a bust of a cherub in high relief. fig. 14 is surmounted by a boldly carved figure of an eagle enclosed by the broken pediment. on either side are carved festoons of fruit and flowers, possibly suggested by the work of grinling gibbon. these important mirrors, interesting and effective as they are, require large rooms to set them off. simple mirrors, as in figs. 11 and 12, present no difficulties regarding their disposal. the more elaborate ones, however, apart from their expensiveness, should not be purchased unless there is a suitable place in which to hang them. this suggests a maxim which applies to the collection of any sort of furniture, viz. not to purchase any piece until you have decided what to do with it. adherence to this rule may involve the occasional loss of a bargain, but it avoids confusion and possible domestic complications. we knew an enthusiastic collector who resisted the purchase of old examples with the greatest difficulty. his wife, on the other hand, whilst appreciating possibly as keenly as her husband the attractions of the antique, was also fastidious regarding the prompt settlement of tradesmen's bills. the climax was reached one day when the husband, instead of settling certain pressing accounts, attended a sale and purchased an enormous dutch wardrobe which was found to be at least eighteen inches too tall for any room in the house. another form of decoration applied to mirror-frames of the queen anne period was that known as "gesso" work, whereby a design was built into relief with layers of size and plaster applied with a brush. it gives scope for delicate line work, and is often softer than carving. figs. 15 and 16 are mirrors decorated with gesso ornament, to which, however, little justice can be done in a photograph. fig. 17 is a fine mirror of pinewood with gesso ornamentation, in which the broken pediment form has taken a somewhat fanciful shape. in fig. 18 the broken pediment appears in a more strictly architectural form. this mirror, which is of painted pine, was formerly in the "flask" tavern, ebury square, pimlico. although its date would be about 1700, it is clearly in its mouldings reminiscent of the jacobean period, which style no doubt continued in popularity amongst the poorer classes. this mirror is an interesting instance of the merging of the two styles. marquetry was also used on the mirror-frames of this period, an example in a broad frame inlaid with a floral pattern being shown in fig. 19. this mirror was sold for seventeen guineas. fig. 20 is an example of a toilet mirror of the queen anne period, the front of which lets down with a flap, after the manner of a bureau, revealing a nest of drawers. this form of mirror is not often met with, and an opportunity of acquiring one at a reasonable price should not be neglected. fig. 21 is of similar construction mounted on a stand, an architectural touch being given by the pilasters on either side of the mirror. this pattern is singularly simple and charming. * * * * * stools of the period under review are generally difficult and somewhat expensive to acquire, but these are not reasons for giving up hope. a type of the william and mary stool is shown in fig. 22. the scrolled feet and x-shaped stretcher are characteristic. stools were very popular articles of furniture at this time. we find them in numbers in contemporary prints, and they continued to be used as seats at meal-times, as no doubt (providing the table were low enough) they were more comfortable than the stiff-backed chairs of the time. in the face of decided evidence of their prevalence in the queen anne period, their scarcity to-day is somewhat remarkable. in the coloured frontispiece is shown a simple stool of the time of the early queen anne period covered with petit-point needlework, with which the ladies of that period delighted to occupy themselves. this needlework--which, in addition to being used as a covering for furniture, was also framed to hang on the walls--is often patterned with quaint trees, people, goats, dogs, and a sprinkling of lovers and birds. a stool such as is shown in the frontispiece makes an admirable seat for a knee-hole writing-table. fig. 23 is a large stool of the queen anne period with escallop-shell decoration, cabriole legs and an early form of the claw-and-ball feet. it is covered with contemporary needlework. * * * * * a queen anne bedroom conjures up the possibility of composing a charming scheme of interior decoration. first it is necessary to face the inevitable and accept the position that a modern bedstead is essential. this should be made of walnut-wood, and the ends shaped after the manner of the solid splats in the simple chairs of the period. such bedsteads are made by several of the good modern furniture firms. they are not, of course, literal reproductions of the bedsteads of the period, which were of the four-poster order, but they will be found to be in good taste. upon this bed should lie a reproduction of the bed-covers of the period in a pattern boldly coloured and oriental in design. the floor should be covered by antique persian rugs (or modern reproductions). a walnut toilet-table should stand in the window (_see_ fig. 64). upon it should rest a toilet-glass (_see_ fig. 12), and in front of it, if possible, a stool covered with the needlework of the period (_see_ frontispiece). this stool will, however, be difficult to obtain, and its place could be taken by a simple chair of the period (_see_ figs. 32 and 34). two other simple chairs should find places around the room, upon one side of which should be placed a walnut tallboy (_see_ fig. 56) surmounted by a piece of chinese blue-and-white. we cannot too strongly emphasise the desirability of associating old chinese blue-and-white pottery with eighteenth-century furniture. the washstand of the period (too small to be efficient) should be replaced by an unobtrusive wooden table painted white, the top of which should be covered with tiles in a shade which does not disagree with a reproduction of an old "spode" or "mason's ironstone" toilet set. toilet sets, as we understand the term to-day, were unknown in the days of queen anne. common earthenware pitchers and basins, or at best english and dutch delft, did duty until the rise of the great staffordshire factories late in the eighteenth century. orignal "spode" or "mason" ware would not be of earlier dates than 1770 and 1804 respectively, and so quite out of the queen anne period. we merely mention these two styles of so-called "indian" decorations as being most suitable for the purpose in hand. we might, indeed, happen upon an eighteenth-century blue-and-white service; but all these early ewers and basins, like the early washstands, are altogether too diminutive for modern requirements. the reproductions, whilst retaining the old decoration, are built in more generous proportions. for wall covering a plain white-or champagne-coloured paper might be adopted, and for wall decoration one or two old mirrors (_see_ figs. 11 and 15) and some reproductions of dutch interiors by the old masters, framed in broad black frames, would be in harmony with the surroundings. a difficulty in composing a queen anne bedroom is to find a suitable hanging wardrobe. the marquetry hanging-press or wardrobe of the period, with its bombã©-shaped lower section, is somewhat heavy in appearance, except in a large room, and is, moreover, expensive to acquire. failing a hanging cupboard in the wall, a simple plain cupboard should be built and painted white. such a cupboard at least strikes no false note, and is greatly to be preferred to a modern wardrobe or one of another period. in this connection a schedule of the cost to the authors of furnishing a similar bedroom may be of interest. ⣠s. d. walnut tallboy 10 10 0 3 simple queen anne chairs 9 0 0 1 " " toilet-table 5 0 0 1 " " toilet mirror 2 2 0 1 " " wall mirror 2 2 0 ------------ â£28 14 0 the cost of such details as carpets, curtains, bed-covering, china, &c, is not included. to this, therefore, must be added the various modern reproductions, including the bedstead: the total cost of the room would be about fifty pounds. the result is, of course, a combination of the old and the new--the best points of each being preserved--and the effect will be found harmonious. chapter iv: chairs and tables in volume one we left the chair at the time of king james ii. when it was composed of tall and straight lines, generally cane-backed and cane-seated, with a carved stretcher fixed rather higher than midway between the two front legs. such pieces would not, of course, have been found in the homes of the poor. historical books, for the most part, concern themselves very much with the affairs of courts and the practice of battles, but very little with the habits and surroundings of the bulk of the people. we know that the amount of poverty and crime at the beginning of the eighteenth century was enormous, and the social condition of the people being such, it is unlikely that their homes could have been either comfortable or decently furnished. very little of the wealth of the country percolated through the middle class to the poor; but there is no doubt that as regards the middle-class homes, they had by the beginning of the eighteenth century reached a very tolerable standard of social comfort and convenience. it is probable that a good deal of this standard of comfort was attributable to dutch influence. the sense of home comfort seems to have been developed in holland in early times. in the picture of john arnolfini and his wife in the national gallery, london, painted by jan van eyck, who lived between 1390 and 1440, there is a vivid and interesting glimpse of the furniture of this period. this picture should be studied by all interested in furniture. in the bedroom shown in the picture we find, in addition to the bed with its heavy red stuff hangings, a coffer, probably for clothes; a tall chair with a gothic traceried top and a red cushion; a smaller chair with a red cushion; a carpet of persian pattern; a brass chandelier; and a mirror reflecting the room and its two occupants. the mirror is in a round wooden frame decorated with small medallion panels, with paintings illustrative of the passion of our lord. the room is lighted by casement windows, and the whole effect suggests a degree of comfort creditable to the taste of the fifteenth century. a very notable feature in the male costume of the time of william and mary was the enormous periwig, which was considered a sign of social importance. a man would not wear his hat (a _chapeau-bras_), but in order that his wig might not be disarranged would carry his hat under his arm. it is rather strange that a hard-headed business man like william should have countenanced such a fashion by wearing a great periwig himself. it appears to have been a custom to comb these wigs in the coffee-houses, for which purpose each gallant carried an elegant comb. the men's hats were adorned with feathers, and they also wore full-skirted coats decorated with lace and embroidery, stockings, breeches, buckled shoes, and huge cuffs garnished with lace. the ladies also wore a heavy head-gear, the hair being brushed away from the forehead and surmounted by ribbons and rows of lace, over which was thrown a lace scarf which hung nearly to the waist, giving the general impression of a great mob-cap. "stiff stays," writes mr. dillon, "tightly laced over the stomacher and very long in the waist, became fashionable; and to so great an extent was this pernicious fashion carried that a lady's body from the shoulders to the hip looked like the letter v." there was another fashion among the ladies of building several tiers of lace to a great height upon the hair. these structures, in the prints of the period, have the appearance of enormous combs. as regards the dress of this period, "the general tendency," mr. calthrop writes, "was to look dutch, stiff, prim, but very prosperous." costume and furniture have always had a close relationship, and we find mr. percy macquoid writing in his "age of walnut": "the settles and chairs of the latter part of the seventeenth century were evidently constructed with a view of forming backgrounds to the prevailing fashions in costume; the strongest characteristic at this time being an extremely high-backed seat to suit the voluminous periwigs and tall head-dresses of the women." it will also be noticed that the arms of the chairs were set back from the front of the seat to allow room for the ample skirts of the women. figs. 24, 25, and 26 are three chairs of carved walnut with seats covered with figured red velvet. these chairs, from the old palace, richmond, at first glance appear to be of the same pattern, but a closer examination will show that no two are quite alike. two of them certainly have similar backs, but a difference appears in the legs. in shape there is little difference between these chairs and those of the preceding reign except that the stretcher is lower. the backs, however, differ considerably from the stuart chairs, the cane having disappeared and its place being taken by pierced and elaborate carvings. fig. 27 is another and probably a later specimen of a fine william and mary chair. although the back is less elaborate, the legs have now assumed the cabriole form and the feet are extremely realistic. the stretcher in the front has, it will be noted, disappeared. these chairs were, of course, made for the wealthy classes, and were comparatively few in number as the fashion was a brief one; but they show the prevailing ideas which in turn expressed themselves on the simpler chairs. an example of the latter is shown in fig. 28, which, purely as a matter of taste, is possibly as pleasing as some of the more elaborate chairs of this period. this example cost five pounds. figs. 29 and 31 are rush-seated chairs of the queen anne period and are made of oak, probably in a country place where the prevailing walnut fashion had not reached. they are exceedingly simple and pleasing in shape and were sold at one pound each. the centre chair (fig. 30) is a child's chair of the same period--a type which, in our experience, is not often met with. there is no example in the victoria and albert museum, a fact we mention in case any reader would like to offer such a specimen. here the splat is slightly different from those of its companions. the present piece lacks a front rail to prevent the child from falling. queen anne chairs of simple character should not be very difficult to obtain, nor should they make extravagant incursions upon the purse. to purchase a number of chairs of identical form sufficient to compose a set is a far more expensive method than to collect more or less odd chairs, singly or in pairs, and to make up a set for oneself. each may not be exactly similar to the other, but the family likeness is amply sufficient to satisfy any reasonable taste. indeed such little differences as are expressed, say, in the splats and the legs may be said to break the line of uniformity and to produce an effect which is permanently pleasing and interesting. such a set of chairs would be admirable in a dining-room; and single chairs of this period and type would be scarcely out of place in any room in the house. elaborately carved and marquetried chairs of this time are expensive, but it is a question whether the plain chairs are not as pleasing. at present the taste for old furniture runs to pieces which are highly carved and decorated, but this is often for the simple reason that such pieces are more uncommon, and therefore more expensive, than the plain ones. it is possible, however, that in a succeeding age, when all old furniture, both carved and plain, will be rare, that the latter may be as highly favoured as the former. in many of the plain old chairs the lines are charming and the woods rich and interesting, and possessing these, we need scarcely envy those whose means enable them to prefer the richer sorts. we now approach a departure in the designs of furniture which had a far-reaching and lasting effect upon style in england. we refer to the cabriole leg and the shaped foot, which ultimately developed into the claw-and-ball. the first movement appears to have occurred when the straight lines of the stuart furniture were superseded by the curved lines of the dutch style; and occasionally we find the cabriole leg on a william and mary chair, as in fig. 27. the cabriole leg has been traced back to china and egypt, but was introduced into england through holland and france. it may be called the leading characteristic of the domestic woodwork of the queen anne period. it made its appearance on chairs, tables, sofas, and chests--in fact, upon every form of furniture which is lifted from the ground. the word is adopted from the french _cabriole_, a goat-leap, although it must be admitted that this is scarcely a literal description of the form the carving takes. at first the shaping was of the simplest description and showed but the faintest resemblance to the leaping leg of an animal, but later forms took a more realistic turn. the term cabriole has become generic, and is now applied to almost any furniture leg built with a knee. fig. 32 is a simple type of queen anne chair with cabriole legs, carved with an escallop-shell, a form of decoration which finds its way upon very many forms of furniture of this time, and is as popular as the crown and cherub decoration of the departed stuarts. the claw-and-ball foot, which, like the cabriole leg, is traceable to the east, we find on the more elaborate chairs of the queen anne period, and is generally accepted to represent the three-toed claw of the chinese dragon holding the mystic buddhistic jewel. the development of the claw-and-ball is traceable through the feet of the furniture of this period, and commenced by the base of the chair legs being slightly shaped into a foot, which will be remarked in figs. 29 and 31. such form is generally known as the club foot. then the toe assumed the shape of an animal's foot, out of which a claw was evolved, and, having to clutch something to make a base, a ball was added, and we have the familiar claw-and-ball foot which has remained a favourite decoration to the present time. the good examples are full of spirit and significance, entirely different from the machine-made inanimate examples on modern furniture. figs. 33, 34, 35 are simple examples of queen anne chairs. those with arms should be purchasable for about five guineas and the single chairs for about three guineas. fig. 36 is an example of an inlaid chair[3] of this period, the tall graceful back being particularly pleasing. the earlier chairs of this period (figs. 33 and 35) were provided with strengthening rails between the legs, but later the knee was made stronger and the cross rails dispensed with (fig. 34), which had the effect of lightening the appearance of the chair but not of increasing its durability. the disappearance of these leg rails marks the later queen anne chairs, so that it is a fair guide as to date of production. thus disappears the last link with the good old times, when the floors were so dirty that rests were provided for the feet. fig. 37, in addition to its cabriole legs and embryo claw-and-ball feet, is especially interesting as foreshadowing the familiar ladder-backed chairs of the chippendale school. in this chair the rail connecting the back legs has been retained. [3] the splat of the original is nicely inlaid, but it is impossible to adequately reproduce this in a photograph. in this period the "knee" was either plain or ornamented with an escallop-shell; it rarely had any other form of decoration: but it developed many forms under the influence of chippendale and his school. it is well to remember, however, that in england the cabriole leg in its original and simpler form belongs to the reign of queen anne. an essential and highly important development is at this period particularly noticeable in the chair, which is now adapted to the human frame instead of, as heretofore, the human frame having to adapt itself to the chair. it is probable that the greater pliability of walnut over oak made this departure feasible, but one has only to sit in the tall straight-backed stuart chair and the shaped chairs of the queen anne reign to see in which direction the advantage in comfort lies. it will be found that in the latter the top of the back is curved so as to fit the nape of the sitter's neck, and that the splat is shaped to suit itself to the back and shoulders. examples of this shaping are shewn in the chairs, figs. 32 and 36, which also have the simple cabriole legs. figs. 38 and 39 are arm-chairs of this period. fig. 38 has a central vase-shaped panel with a volute and leaves on either side. the arms have flattened elbow-rests. fig. 39 has curiously twisted arms. it has suffered in the splat very much from the worms. in this chair it will be noticed the side rail connecting the legs is missing. the seat is stuffed and covered with canvas, which is decorated with needlework ("petit-point") in coloured wools and silks. these are arm-chairs for respectable people, but there were also broad-seated arm-chairs at this time known as "drunkards' chairs." the width of the seat in front was nearly three feet, which gave ample room for a man to comfortably collapse. figs. 40 and 41 are two fine chairs of the late queen anne period, showing finely developed cabriole legs and claw-and-ball feet. in both specimens the connecting leg-rails have disappeared and the back feet are shaped. fig. 40 is covered with gilt and embossed leather over a stuffed back and seat. in fig. 41 the back has almost lost its queen anne character and is merging into what we know as the chippendale style. the seat of this chair is covered with silk. the huguenot refugee silk-workers had settled in spitalfields, and in the reigns of william and mary and anne large quantities of silks and velvets were produced, which were frequently used to cover the chairs of the bedroom furniture of the time. stuffed and upholstered arm-chairs were also favoured at this period, which was distinctly one for the appreciation of comfort. fig. 42 is a partly veneered corner or round-about chair of this time; a type of chair largely made in mahogany during the chippendale period. the double chair, or settee, remains to be noticed. this, by a process of refinement and elimination, had no doubt been evolved from the old-time settle. it was also called a love-seat, and was constructed in such form as to allow for the pose of social gallantry, simpering, and the plying of the snuff-box and fan, inseparable from the manners of the period. these double seats were usually found in the drawing-rooms of the rich, and simple ones are not as a rule met with. fig. 43 is a settee of the type of william and mary; the tied stretchers beneath and the inverted bowl turnery on the legs are characteristic features. fig. 44 is a fine late queen anne specimen with a marquetried back, claw-and-ball feet, and an insistent decoration of the escallop-shell. fig. 45 is another fine settee of the same period with a full back and claw-and-ball feet. both these specimens have beautifully shaped arms and feet, and the back feet being also slightly shaped at the base, suggest the latter part of the period. in the beginning of the eighteenth century, tapestries, as forms of wall decoration, had been replaced either by wainscoting or, more generally, by wall-papers. needlework was a popular occupation amongst the women, who made hangings for their bedsteads and windows and covers for their chairs, stools and couches. mary, the queen of william iii., set an example as an industrious needlewoman. it was at this time that the gay chintzes and printed cottons, of which so many admirable and inexpensive reproductions can be purchased at the present day, came into vogue. like so many of the decorative ideas of the time, they were introduced into england by the dutch, who in their turn borrowed them from the east. they were extremely oriental in design, depicting trees, birds and flowers, all more or less related to nature. this was, of course, the period when everything oriental was the fashion,[4] when chinese porcelain and red and black lacquer were desired by many and acquired by some; and the gay oriental chintzes contributed fittingly to the scheme of decoration, as well as affording a protection for the cherished needlework coverings of the furniture. the modern reproductions are no less indispensable in any house in which the old furniture of this period has a place. some firms print them by hand from the old blocks, and from such firms they should be purchased. chintzes appear to have been first produced in england by a foreign settlement in richmond, surrey, early in the eighteenth century. the english workmen afterwards greatly simplified the designs, and in queen anne's time they were largely the fashion. [4] addison wrote that "an old lady of fourscore shall be so busy in cleaning an indian mandarin as her great-granddaughter is in dressing her baby." the queen anne home of the middle class would not have startled a visitor from the present century who had elected to inspect it by means of mr. wells's time machine. its exterior was square, unpretentious and a trifle heavy, and the interior comfortable and efficiently furnished. in fact, it is at this period that we find the first tangible approach to our own idea of a home. the bathroom was still a luxury even in the great houses, but in most other respects the standard of comfort approached the modern idea. * * * * * the first tables made of walnut-wood seem to have followed very much the designs of the jacobean oaken tables, and have the square sturdy look which we associate with oak furniture. one of the first changes to be noticed is in the appearance, on the legs, of an inverted bowl decoration as in fig. 46. then we find a change in the stretchers or bars connecting the legs; these instead of being straight rails between the four corners, now assume the x or tied-stretcher pattern as shown in fig. 47. this table is inlaid with cedar and boxwood, and is valued at twelve guineas. fig. 48 is a museum piece of the same period, the marquetry work on which is very fine--the top being most elaborately inlaid. the inlaid work of this period reached great perfection, blossoms and birds, as well as geometrical designs, being worked out in various woods with great taste and dexterity. it will be noticed that there is a strong family likeness between the two tables, although the latter is a much finer one.[5] chinese pottery was (as has been pointed out) the rage at this time, and the flat space in the centre of the tied stretcher was very likely intended to hold a chinese bowl. [5] fine tables of this type are very expensive. one such was sold at christie's in june 1911 for fifty-eight guineas. it was thus described: "a william and mary walnut-wood table, with one drawer, the top inlaid with a chariot, flowers and birds, in marqueterie of various woods, on turned legs with x-shaped stretcher--38 in. wide." william and mary tables have turned legs, which were so popular on the furniture of the preceding period but which were soon to disappear in favour of the cabriole leg. in fact, the tables in a few years underwent a great transformation, as will be seen in the next example, fig. 49. the queen anne period was a drinking, gambling, duelling, dice-throwing age. in fact, it is said that loaded dice could be purchased at the toy shops in fleet street. the spirit of speculation was about. the nation had accumulated wealth a trifle too quickly, and trustee securities, as we now understand them, had small attraction for any one. every one wanted to grow rich at once. the wildest schemes were launched. these culminated in 1720 in the south sea bubble. companies, as is well known, were formed with the most extraordinary objects, such as "for the invention of melting down sawdust and chips and casting them into clean deal boards without cracks or flaws"; "for the importing of a number of large jackasses from spain"; and "for an undertaking which shall in due time be revealed." all classes were affected; and the prince of wales became governor of a copper company which had an unfortunate end. the gambling spirit was continued in private, and to this fact we probably owe the existence of the many interesting card-tables of the late queen anne period. these were, of course, only found in the houses of the richer classes, and are often beautiful pieces of furniture. table legs developed similarly to chair legs. the ubiquitous cabriole, which has already been dealt with at length, was applied generally to tables, with, later, the escallop-shell decoration and the claw-and-ball foot. the fine example, fig. 49, possesses all these decorations, together with a pendant under the shell. this specimen was purchased by the victoria and albert museum in 1904 for the sum of twelve pounds, which figure has, of course, little relation to its present value. these tables are generally built with a flap and covered with cloth, except at the four corners, where round or square places are left to take candlesticks or glasses; cups are also shaped in the tables to hold money, and they are sometimes provided with secret drawers. we have read extraordinary stories of great sums being discovered in these drawers--the proceeds of a night when "the old home was gambled away"; but personally we have not chanced on such a find. tables with two flaps were also used as breakfast-and small dining-tables. they were generally oval, but sometimes round, and occasionally square. these types were repeated later in mahogany with added decorative details, and later still sheraton adopted the folding-table, converting it to his own style. tables in great variety were made in this period, but the heavy type of table of the previous century went out with the banqueting-hall and has never returned. the gate-leg table, which originated in the oaken period, is dealt with in volume i.; and no doubt in many parts of the country it continued to be made in oak, but it does not appear ever to have become popular in walnut, which, after all, was never a wood in general use in country districts. fashion has a strong controlling influence over furniture, as it has over so many other matters of taste. the table with cabriole legs came into fashion, and immediately cabriole legs in some form or other became _de rigueur_. the slender-legged gate-leg table did not offer sufficient opportunity to the wood-carver, and was also rather unsuitable for card-playing. its perfect plainness, moreover, was not to the taste of an age which inclined towards richness and colour in its household surroundings. chapter v: chests of drawers, tallboys, cabinets and china cabinets in volume i., dealing with the oak period, we traced the evolution of the chest of drawers from the simple chest or coffer, first by the addition of an under-drawer to the coffer; then, the main body of the chest being subdivided into convenient drawers (with the consequent disappearance of the lid), we had the primitive form of the chest of drawers, the term "chest" still clinging--apparently for all time--to the structure. the earlier chests of drawers, dating from about the middle of the seventeenth century, were comparatively small, usually with raised panels or mouldings; occasionally we find them with decorations of simple carved scroll-work and guilloche banding. the prolongation of the stiles to form feet, as in the simple chest, had disappeared in favour of bracketed corners or ball feet, as in figs. 50 and 51. fig. 50 represents an interesting chest of drawers, simple in outline but elaborately decorated. the top is inlaid _en parterre_ with four corner scroll designs and a centre design of birds, flowers, and fruit, in ebony and laburnum wood on a ground of holly. a delicately cut laurel-leaf band of inlay (shaded with hot sand) frames the top, sides, and drawer fronts. it belongs approximately to about 1680. the dimensions are fairly typical for the period, being 36 in. high, 39 in. wide, and 23 in. deep. fig. 51 is of rather unusual form, having three large drawers in the upper portion and one long drawer under, which is capped by a bold moulding. the oblong panel decorations consist of marquetry designs of conventional flowers in ebony, holly, rose, and laburnum woods. this also belongs to the year 1680; 41 in. high, 40 in. wide, and 23 in. deep. it has a value of about eighteen guineas. marquetry began to come into favour in this country about 1675-1680. we quote mr. pollen, who says: "at first the chief motives in design appear to have been acanthus leaves, figures, and arabesques, under italian and french influence: a little later, designs of flowers and birds, treated in a more realistic fashion, were introduced by the dutch. finally, about 1700, these two styles passed into an english style of very delicate leaf-work of conventional form, often intricately mingled with scrolls and strap-work; and geometrical designs were used." mr. macquoid remarks that "investigation proves that, compared with the english manufacture, dutch marquetrie is always duller in colour and more disconnected in design." late in the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth centuries we find the chests of drawers raised on twisted or turned legs, which are fixed to a shallow plinth or joined near the ground by shaped stretchers. for the first-named type we refer readers to fig. 52, a specimen at the victoria and albert museum. it is built of pinewood overlaid with lignum vitã¦, sycamore and walnut, in small roundish pieces cut across the grain. the top is further decorated with sycamore bands arranged in two concentric circles in the centre, surrounded by intersecting segments. in the corners are quadrants. each side has a large circle of similar materials. the structure is 3 ft. 8 in. high and 3 ft. 4 in. wide. it cost the museum â£10 in 1898. fig. 53, another dwarf chest of drawers of the same period, also at the museum, is of oak and pine veneered with various woods. this is an excellent example illustrating the amount of labour expended by the craftsmen of the day on the early examples of veneering. on the face of the top drawer alone there are no less than twenty large and thirty-three small pieces of veneer, exclusive of the bordering. the feet are very unusual, having a curiously booted appearance, with the soles clearly indicated. this and the previous example bear the brass drop handles and fretted escutcheons of the period. great variety is displayed in these brass fitments. the handles more often are of elongated pear shape, but occasionally resemble a flattened flower-bud. the ring handles appeared somewhat later. as types of the chests of drawers on legs we give two illustrations. fig. 54, from a photograph supplied by messrs. hampton and sons ltd., pall mall, represents a fine specimen of veneered work of the william and mary period. the figuring in the walnut veneer is very good and finely matched. the stand is tall, with but one long shallow drawer. the turned legs are particularly graceful in outline. it will be noticed that the inverted cup detail is repeated in the china cabinet (fig. 69), amongst the illustrations of lacquered furniture. fig. 55 possesses twisted legs, a survival of the stuart period proper. during the reign of william and mary and that of anne, we are, strictly, still in the stuart period--the two queens being wholly and william half stuart. with the abdication of james ii. there was a change in the temper of the people and a comparatively abrupt change in the furniture. in the chest under discussion the upper portion is severely plain, whilst the lower half or stand is of particularly graceful outline. we see how the stand is gradually being brought into requisition, not only as a stand, but to hold extra drawers--quite small drawers at first. the lifting of the central arch and consequent shallowing of the corresponding small drawer give a pleasing diversity of line. this structure is scarcely a "tallboy," being rather a chest of drawers on a stand; and the stand, more than anything (as in the previous illustration), points to the reign of william and mary. this piece is in the possession of mr. f. w. phillips, of the manor house, hitchin. the owner values it at ten guineas. something more nearly approaching the genuine "tallboy" is shown in the coloured frontispiece. here we have the stand growing deeper and containing five small drawers. the angular-kneed cabriole legs denote the period--about 1710, the middle of queen anne's reign. the veneer is of richly figured walnut banded with herring-bone inlay. it is furnished with brass handles and engraved escutcheons. we begin to see how increasing wealth in clothes called for more commodious furniture. this piece has six drawers in the upper carcase in addition to the five small ones in the stand: altogether a very considerable storage capacity as compared with the dumpy chests of drawers of earlier make. by easy stages we arrive at the tallboy pure and simple, sometimes called "double chest" or "chest on chest." the term "tall" is obvious, but "boy" is not so clear. the tallboy was purely the outcome of a demand for something more commodious than the early form. it was made in two sections, mainly for convenience in moving, and partly, by breaking up the lines, to lighten the appearance of what would otherwise be a somewhat ungainly structure. there is scarcely room for much variation in form, and the tallboys of the queen anne and early georgian period are very much of one family. fig. 56 is of walnut-wood bordered with a herring-bone banding of yew-wood. a lightness is given to the upper portion by the corners being canted and fluted. the oval ring plates are a pleasing feature. this double chest of nine drawers stands 69 in. high. a well-preserved specimen of this calibre would have a value of from ten to fifteen guineas. fig. 57 is a less pretentious tallboy chest of six drawers, valued at ten guineas, in the possession of mr. j. h. springett, of high street, rochester. like the majority of these old veneered walnut chests, the drawer fronts and sides of the main structure are veneered on pine, whilst the bodies of the drawers are of oak. the fretted escutcheons and cusped handles (unfortunately not quite uniform) are exceptionally good. there is interesting documentary evidence connected with this old piece of furniture. pasted on the back of the bottom drawer is the maker's label, yellow with age. at the top of the label are engraved designs of an elaborate cabinet and four coffins; underneath is printed the following legend: "john knowles cabinet maker and sworn appraiser, at the cabinet and four coffins in tooley street southwark maketh and selleth all sorts of cabinets and joiners goods, viz cabinets scruetores, desk and book cases, bewrowes, chests of draws and all sorts of tables as wallnut tree mehogny, wainscot and japan'd. all sorts of corner cubbords looking glasses and sconces and all other joiner's goods made and sold both wholesale and retail at reasonable rates. likewise funerals decently furnished." we have not been able to unearth any other record of john knowles. his name does not appear in the first edition of the london directory, a very small volume published in 1731, nor in any subsequent edition up to 1771. the style of printing and archaic spelling, however, would point to a date fairly early in the eighteenth century, probably during the reign of george i. the mention of "mehogny" practically precludes an earlier date than 1715-20. in the earlier days--away back in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries--the wardrobe was a special room, fitted with closets set apart for the storage of clothes. all through tudor times the coffer was in use, and was all-sufficient to hold the clothes and household linen. we find in jacobean times the coffer growing into the chest of drawers, and, in addition, tall hanging-cupboards were coming into use. but it is not till the reign of queen anne--the walnut period--that we find the prototype of the present-day wardrobe, with its roomy drawers, hanging-cupboards, and numerous shelves. the inspiration of this eminently useful article came from holland. it is made usually of oak and pine veneered with walnut and, as often as not, inlaid with marquetry. the upper storey consists of small drawers and shelves enclosed by two doors and surmounted by a curved cornice, the lower portion being a chest of three or four long drawers. even the admittedly english-made specimens are so extremely dutch in appearance, that it is probable the majority were designed and made by the dutchmen who came over in the train of william iii. we give an example in fig. 58 of an inlaid hanging-press or wardrobe, showing decidedly dutch influence in the lower portion, particularly noticeable in the protruding knees set at an angle of forty-five degrees. the marquetry designs of vases and flowers are also of dutch type. it is of average size, being 91 in. high, 66 in. wide, and 22 in. deep. as with the other furniture of the walnut period, the early wardrobes were extremely solid and dignified in appearance. the modern maker has made improvements as to interior fittings, but on general principles the old pieces leave little or nothing to be desired. the old-time craftsman was conscientious in his work. we do not find the doors flying open unasked; the drawers have no nasty habits of refusing to open or close. the queen anne or early georgian wardrobe, which is sound to-day, bids fair to outlive our great-grandchildren, and should be cheap at its average selling-price--say, twenty to thirty pounds. the china cabinet came in with the craze for oriental porcelain. we shall have more to say upon this subject in the chapter on lacquer. fulham stoneware, bristol and lambeth "delft" and other early english "clome" had no claim on cabinet space. the more pretentious pieces, when not in actual use, adorned the court cupboard and sideboard cheek by jowl with the family silver or pewter. in the main, all pottery was for use rather than ornament until the blue-and-white and _famille verte_ arrived from china, and we shall scarcely find a glazed china cabinet earlier than the orange accession. many of the william and anne bureaux were surmounted by cabinets, the doors glazed with panes of glass set in designs consisting of small squares or oblongs with larger sexagonals or octagonals. this form was used either as a bookcase or a china cabinet. unglazed corner cupboards, often bow-fronted and lacquered, made to hang in the angle of the wall, were for storage, rather than display, of china. another variety of corner cupboard made to stand on the floor has a glazed upper storey. these belong to the varieties of furniture used by the middle classes, whilst the cabinet of the china collector would be an imposing structure of more elegant design surmounted on legs joined by shaped stretchers. we give an example in the chapter on lacquer. fig. 59 is an example of a china cabinet in marquetry work, with scrolled cornice, two glazed doors, two cupboards, bracketed base, and shaped under-framing. this piece has a value of about â£30. the walnut period is rich in cabinets, which were used for the storage of papers and valuables--structures quite distinct from the writing-desks of the period. some types will be found in the illustrations to the chapter on lacquered furniture. it must be borne in mind that the lacquering was often but an afterthought decoration. scrape away the pseudo-chinese decoration and we shall probably find the beautiful old walnut veneer. chapter vi: secretaires, bureaux, and writing-tables one would naturally suppose that the writing-desk is as old as the art of writing. so far as this country is concerned, the writing-desk of a sort was known in very early times. in the art library of the victoria and albert museum are illuminated mss. of about 1440-1450 showing scribes working at sloping desks of simple construction. coming to elizabethan and early jacobean times, we find desks of small dimensions mounted on table-stands, but it is fairly certain that the ordinary tables of the house were more often used for writing purposes. the composite article--secretaire, escritoire, or bureau (interchangeable terms)--for writing and storage of writing materials is the product of the end of the seventeenth century. the connection between the writer or secretary (_secretus_, early latin; _secretarius_, late latin) and his desk, the secretaire, is obvious. escritoire is but another form of the word; sometimes scrutoire or scruetoire in corrupt english. bureau in the french was originally a russet cloth which covered the desk (from the latin _burrus_, red), but came to mean the desk itself, and also the office in which the business was transacted. we look back upon the elizabethan times as the renaissance period of english literature, but even then the lettered were in the minority. by the end of the seventeenth century literature had spread to the middle classes, and we find the press pouring out countless ponderous volumes on every imaginable subject. it is the age of the diarists, conspicuous amongst whom were samuel pepys and john evelyn, whose gossipy daily journals bring us so intimately in touch with the political and social life of the times. it is the age of the pamphleteers and essayists whose effusions led up to the semi-satirical periodicals of the early eighteenth century--chief amongst them being the _spectator_, started by joseph addison and richard steele in 1710. this vast outpouring of literature called for more commodious writing-desks, and the escritoire or bureau is the natural result. like the other furniture of the period, the desks were solid and dignified. in the main they were severe in outline, but generally reflected the prevailing architecture of the period, which was derived from the italian renaissance. we find the desks often surmounted by finely moulded, boldly carved cornices and broken pediments. as the dutch influence grew we find the lower portions, containing commodious long drawers, with rounded or _bombã©_ fronts. the principal wood used was walnut, sometimes solid and sometimes veneered on oak and pine. we also find the same schemes in marquetry work, as in the chests of drawers, cabinets, and clock-cases showing continental influences. fig. 60 represents a william and mary period bureau of simple outline surmounted by a panelled cupboard with bookshelves. the raised panels are of the late jacobean type. it is built of solid walnut, oak and limewood. behind the visible stationery cases are concealed a number of secret recesses; the two pillars flanking the small central cupboard are the fronts of two narrow upright sliding receptacles; on removing these, springs are released which secure inner secret drawers. this bureau, valued at sixteen guineas, is in the possession of mr. j. h. springett, of rochester. fig. 61, dating from early eighteenth century, is a bureau with four serpentine drawers below decorated with sprigs of flowers. it stands on depressed ball feet much like "china oranges." the knees set at an angle denote the dutch influence, if it were not actually made in holland. the piece, standing 43 in. high and 40 in. wide, is valued at eighteen guineas. fig. 62, a walnut-wood small bureau with sloping lid and knee-hole recess, belongs to queen anne's reign. beneath the lid are numerous useful small drawers and stationery cases. it bears the charming original brass drop handles in form of flattened flower-buds. this type was very popular all through the eighteenth century. in general outline it is of the pattern adopted by modern makers of small bureaux. fig. 63 represents a charming type of queen anne period pedestal writing-table with knee-hole recess. it is a beautiful example of figured walnut veneered on oak; all the drawers are oak-lined. it was recently purchased in london for ten pounds. the knee-hole writing table--of which the present is an example--is a type of queen anne furniture of the greatest utility. it has many drawers as well as a cupboard underneath, and, for its size, may be said to represent the maximum of usefulness. whilst seated at it you may be said to have the whole of its resources to your hand, which can scarcely be said of the bureau, as, when the writing-flap falls, it is difficult to get to the drawers beneath. the queen anne knee-hole table is becoming rarer, and the writers would certainly recommend its purchase should opportunity arise. its pleasing lines and frequently beautiful arrangement of veneers make it a desirable addition to almost any room. its dimensions are slender, usually measuring at the top about 30 by 21 ins. fig. 64 represents a still simpler form of queen anne writing-table on solid walnut cabriole legs. the drawer fronts and top are veneered and inlaid with simple bands. this specimen has a value of about â£5. the photograph was supplied by mr. springett, of rochester. this form of table and the one previously illustrated are sometimes described as dressing-tables. they were probably used for both purposes, and they certainly lend themselves to either use. one of the most useful forms of the escritoire, or bureau, is of the type given in figs. 65 and 66. it was bought recently in mid-somerset at a cost of thirty pounds. this type is made in two sections, sometimes with bracketed feet and sometimes with ball feet. the bureau under consideration is of an average size, being 5 ft. 3 in. high, 3 ft. 7 in. wide, and 19 in. deep. it is of rectangular form and the falling front, which serves as a writing-table, is supported by jointed steel rods. the opened front discloses an assemblage of drawers and pigeon-holes. the pigeon-holes at the top pull out in four sections, and behind are hidden numerous small drawers. other secret drawers are so ingeniously contrived that they can only be discovered on pulling out the visible drawers and the dividing pieces on which the drawers run. the middle member of the cornice details forms the front of a shallow drawer running the whole length and depth of the bureau top. this bureau, which contains in all about thirty drawers and recesses, is built of red deal overlaid with thick veneers of walnut and fine knotted pollard oak of dark hue, with cross-banded edges of walnut in various shades. the visible drawers are of oak throughout, whilst the hidden ones are oak-bodied with red deal fronts to match the lining of the main structure--thus ingeniously disguising their presence. we have seen specimens of the same type entirely veneered with walnut and others inlaid with marquetry. these bureaux, dating from about 1690 well into queen anne's reign, have selling values of from â£25 to â£35. there must be an added sentimental pleasure in sitting at an escritoire which was possibly the treasured possession of a pamphleteer or diarist of the last years of the rebellion: an ã¦sthetic joy in rummaging amongst the secret drawers which contained the journals in cypher of the wire-pullers of the new monarchy. chapter vii: clocks and clock-cases a learned dissertation on clocks and the theory of time would be out of place in a volume of this description, and anything we have to say concerning the clocks of the "walnut period" will, of necessity, be of a popular nature. in england the chamber clocks, as distinguished from the costly and elaborate timepieces which adorned public buildings, appear to have been introduced about the year 1600.[6] the type is fairly familiar, and is known as the "lantern," "bird-cage," or "bedpost." amongst dealers such clocks are usually styled "lantern" or "cromwell." they usually stood on a wall-bracket, but sometimes were suspended from a nail. the clocks are built of brass surmounted by a bell, sometimes used for striking the hours and sometimes only for an alarm. the clocks were often housed in hooded oak cases, which protected them from the dust. [6] strictly speaking, de vyck's clock, invented about 1370, is the earliest known type of the domestic clock. made for the wealthy few in days when the generality of people did not look upon clocks as necessities, they only exist to-day as rare museum specimens. these original cases are sometimes met with and are interesting in themselves, but the brass clocks are more ornamental when minus the cases. these clocks were made to run for thirty hours, the motive power being a heavy weight with a cord or chain. at first the vertical verge movement was used, but about 1658 the pendulum was introduced. the alternate bobbing in and out of the short pendulum through slits in either side of the clock accounts for the term "bob" pendulum. it has been noticed that the doors of these early clocks were often constructed from old sundial plates, the engraved figures of the sundial still showing on the insides. doubtless the sundial makers, finding their trade falling off, used the materials in hand for the new-fangled clocks. the dial-plate of the early lantern clock is circular, with a band of metal (sometimes silvered) for the numerals, which at first were rather short. about 1640 the hour-hands were made wider and the numerals longer. after about 1660, we find the circular dial growing larger in relation to the body of the clock and protruding slightly on either side. during the latter years of queen anne's reign the dial-plates often protruded as much as two or three inches on either side. this did not improve the general appearance. clocks of this pattern are known as the "sheep's head." with such slight variations the lantern clock was made from elizabeth's to george iii.'s reigns. the late ones, probably made by provincial clock-makers, have square dials with arched tops. the tops of the square cases of the lantern clocks are often surrounded by fretted galleries. as a rule the four fretted pieces are all of one pattern, but generally the front one only is engraved. a favourite form of fret is that in which the crossed dolphins appear; this pattern came in between 1660 and 1670. these lantern clocks with ornamental galleries are furnished with bells as wide as the clock-case suspended from two intersecting arched bands stretching from corner to corner. they are finished off by the addition of a turned pinnacle at each corner and a fifth one on the apex of the bell. such clocks were apparently not intended to be covered by an outer wooden case. they would not be greatly harmed by dust, as they contain no delicate mechanism. these old-world lantern clocks were practically indestructible, and until a few years ago they could be found in plenty in the old farm-houses, and would fetch but a pound or two at auction. of recent years, with the growth of the collecting habit, the dealers have found a ready market, and to-day a well-made lantern clock in original condition has an appreciable value of from five to ten pounds. they have but a single hand, like the old clock on westminster abbey, and consequently to tell the exact time of day is a matter of guess-work, as only the quarters are marked. to tell the time within a quarter of an hour would have been sufficient for the original owners, who had no trains to catch. the usual process to-day is to substitute a modern eight-day "fuzee" movement for the old thirty-hour "verge." thus, by eliminating the chain and weight, the clock is adapted for a place on the mantelshelf. from a decorative point of view it is difficult to conceive anything more charming as a finish to a "walnut period" room. fig. 67 is a "bird-cage" clock at the victoria and albert museum. the dial, which is very nicely engraved with a flower design, is signed "andrew prime londini fecit." it has dolphin-pattern frets on three sides. the side frets are engraved to match the front one. this clock cost the museum â£4 4s. in 1892. andrew prime was admitted to the clockmakers' company in 1647, and we shall be within the mark in assuming that the clock was made some time between that date and 1680. the dolphin decoration would, indeed, point to a date not earlier than 1660, and, furthermore, the length of the pendulum would suggest not earlier than 1675. in fig. 68 we give an illustration of a small lantern clock by anthony marsh, of london, with its original hooded oak case. fig. 69 is the same clock shown without the hood. this subject was kindly lent for illustration by mr. whittaker, of 46 wilton road, london, s.w., one of the comparatively few remaining clock-makers following the old-time traditions. a talk with mr. whittaker in his workshop takes us back to the old days of individual work at the lathe and bench, when each clock-maker was an artist with ideas of his own--a clock-maker in every sense of the word, making his own parts by hand instead of, as in these days, buying them by the gross from the factory. anthony marsh, the maker of the clock illustrated, was a member of the clockmakers' company in 1724, and worked "at ye dial opposite bank of england." marsh is a well-known name amongst the clock-making fraternity, no less than fifteen of the name following the trade between 1691 and 1842. contemporary with the lantern clocks of the middle period (about 1660) we find the "bracket" or "pedestal" clocks enclosed by wooden cases, as distinguished from the brass-cased chamber clocks. the earlier patterns had flat tops with brass handles for carrying. sometimes they were surmounted by perforated metal domes, resembling inverted baskets, to which the handles were fixed. as time went on the tops of the clock-cases were made more dome-shaped and the baskets and handles were elaborately chased. the cases, often of exquisite workmanship, were generally constructed of oak or ebony, and as timepieces these clocks, by skilled makers, were far superior to the generality of lantern clocks of the country-side. we associate these bracket-clocks with such names as tompion, graham, and quare. thomas tompion, "the father of english watchmaking," was born at northill, in bedfordshire, in 1638, and died in london in 1713. he was the leading watchmaker at the court of charles ii. george graham, tompion's favourite pupil, was born in cumberland in 1673, and died in london in 1751. he was known as "honest george graham," and was probably the most accomplished british horologist of his own or any age. he was admitted a freeman of the clockmakers' company on completion of his apprenticeship in 1695, when he entered the service of tompion. a lifelong friendship was only severed by the death of tompion in 1713. graham was elected a fellow of the royal society in 1720, and made a member of the society's council in 1732. even to-day graham's "dead-beat escapement" is used in most pendulum clocks constructed for really accurate time-keeping. the site of graham's shop in fleet street is now occupied by the offices of _the sporting life_. tompion and graham lie in one grave in the nave of westminster abbey, near the grave of david livingstone. daniel quare, a contemporary maker of first rank, was born in 1648 and died in 1734. he was clockmaker to william iii. there is a fine example of a tall clock by quare at hampton court palace. quare was the inventor of the repeating watch. fig. 70 is a bracket clock in marquetry case made by john martin, of london, in the seventeenth century. it is fitted with "rack striking work" invented by edward barlow (born 1636, died 1716). it will be noticed that the corners of the dial-plate are ornamented with the winged cherubs' heads which we find so often in the scheme of decoration of sir christopher wren's churches. this clock, lent by lieut.-col. g. b. c. lyons, may be seen at the victoria and albert museum. the "bracket" clocks were the favourite household timepieces before the introduction of the long-cased or grandfather clocks, which came in some time between 1660 and 1670. the earliest long-cased clocks were furnished with the "bob" pendulum. the long or "royal" pendulum was introduced about 1676. the "bob" pendulum clock-cases were very narrow--just wide enough to comfortably accommodate the chain and weights, the primal idea of the case being merely to hide the chains and weights. the wide swing of the long pendulum necessitated more room in the case, and examples are found with added wings, showing that long pendulums have been added to the old movements. as with the lantern clocks, the early long clocks had thirty-hour movements; but the great makers, such as tompion, graham, and quare, constructed clocks to run for eight days, a month, three months, and even a year. the introduction of the eight-day movement appears to have been coincident with the long pendulum. the cases of the grandfather clocks, in the main, harmonised with the other furniture of the period. the majority of them were built of oak, and those of country make were generally plain. many were veneered with walnut, and others (more rarely) with ebony. with the advent of william iii. came the taste for marquetry work, and the long-cased clocks received their due share of this form of ornamentation. the fronts were often pierced with an oval or circular hole filled with greenish bull's-eye glass, through which the swinging pendulum bob could be seen. about 1710 the taste for marquetry began to wane. the lacquering craze was at its height. clock-cases were sent out to china to receive treatment at the hands of the chinese lacquerers. it was a lengthy and expensive process: it probably would take a year or so with the slow travelling and slow drying of the various coats of lacquer. we show, in the chapter on lacquered furniture, how the growing demand was met by the english and dutch lacquerers, who adopted less expensive and more expeditious, if less satisfactory, methods. it is in the nature of things that the old long-cased clocks were gently treated, and, consequently, genuine old specimens are still fairly plentiful. old thirty-hour clocks in plain oak cases with painted dials may still be bought for four or five pounds apiece, whilst reliable eight-day clocks of fair make will fetch anything from five to ten pounds. we cannot expect to get a tompion or graham clock for anything like these prices. we had the opportunity five years ago of buying a magnificent graham clock in a mahogany case of fine proportions for â£20. it was the chance of a lifetime, and--the chance was missed. the three illustrations we give (figs. 71, 72, and 73) represent fine examples of marquetry-decorated clocks at the victoria and albert museum. the simple naturalesque style of marquetry, showing direct dutch influence, is shown in fig. 71. the carnations are exceedingly lifelike. the dial-plate of this clock, which is still in good going order, bears the inscription "mansell bennett at charing cross." it was probably made about 1690. figs. 72 and 73 represent the more typically english style of delicate geometrical marquetry work, dating from about 1700. in both of these clocks the fretted bands of wood beneath the cornices, as well as the nature of the marquetry, would point to a later period than that of the mansell bennett clock. they belong to the queen anne period. fig. 72 was made by henry poisson, who worked in london from 1695 to 1720. fig. 73, unfortunately a clock-case only, has the original green bull's-eye glass in the door. a word of warning may be in place in regard to grandfather clocks with carved oak cases. such things purporting to be "200 years old" are often advertised for sale, but are scarcely likely to be genuine. speaking for ourselves, we have never seen one which bore the impress of genuineness. we must bear in mind that at the date of the introduction of the long case--say 1660-1670--the practice of carving furniture was rapidly on the wane, and by the end of the century had practically ceased. in this connection we quote that great authority on old clocks, mr. f. j. britten, who says: "dark oak cases carved in high relief do not seem to have been the fashion of any particular period, but the result rather of occasional efforts by enthusiastic artists in wood, and then in most instances they appear to have been made to enclose existing clocks in substitution of inferior or worn-out coverings." in regard to the wonderful time-keeping qualities of old grandfather clocks, mr. h. h. cunyngham, in his useful little book, "time and clocks," expresses the opinion that the secret lies in the length of the pendulum. "this," he writes, "renders it possible to have but a small arc of oscillation, and therefore the motion is kept very nearly harmonious. for practical purposes nothing will even now beat these old clocks, of which one should be in every house. at present the tendency is to abolish them and substitute american clocks with very short pendulums, which never can keep good time. they are made of stamped metal and, when they get out of order, no one thinks of having them mended. they are thrown into the ashpit and a new one bought. in reality this is not economy." mr. cunyngham's remarks point the moral as to the economy of the long clock. but we should say, more strictly speaking, that german and austrian wall and bracket clocks have to a large extent taken the place of the old english long-cased clocks. the shortness of the pendulum is not of necessity the weak point. the bracket clocks of the best english makers since the seventeenth century, with short pendulums, have been noted for their reliability as timekeepers. efficiency from a badly constructed clock, be it american, german or english, can scarcely be expected. as we have already suggested, fine clocks by the great masters are now beyond the means of the modest collector; but serviceable and decorative grandfather clocks of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries are still obtainable at moderate prices. in many cases the dials show great taste in the art of engraving. we must bear in mind that the majority of these clocks--particularly those with the painted dials and plain oak cases--were the joint productions of the country clock-maker and the country joiner, and numbers of them have the very smallest pretentions to correctness of design. we find clock-cases which have the appearance of being "all plinth"; others are too long or too short or too wide in the body; others are overweighted in the head; and, again, others are too shallow and have an unhappy appearance of being flattened out against the wall. the old oak clock-case of perfect proportions is comparatively rare. the collector must studiously avoid any clock-case which is "obviously out of drawing," and in the main his eye will guide him in the selection. we are indebted to mr. stuart parker, an experienced amateur collector of clocks, for a carefully thought-out opinion as to the ideal dimensions of a clock-case. supposing a full-sized clock-case 7 ft. 6 in. high: the three main sections should measure as follows: the plinth: 2 ft. high and 1 ft. 10 in. wide. the body: 3 ft. high and 1 ft. 4â½ in. wide. the head: 2 ft. 6 in. high and 1 ft. 10 in. wide. the width is taken at the middle of each of the three sections. the base of the plinth and the cornices of the head section should each measure 2 ft. 1 in. in width. chapter viii: lacquered furniture english lacquered furniture "in the oriental taste" belongs to the last quarter of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centuries. it is not surprising that when the rage for everything chinese and japanese--at the time indiscriminately called "indian"--was prevalent, a school of anglo-oriental craftsmen should have sprung up. the taste was at its height about 1710, and continued for many years. the art of lacquering is said by the japanese themselves to have been practised in japan as early as the third century, when the empress jingo conquered corea. in the ninth century the kioto artists inlaid their lacquer with mother-of-pearl. in the fifteenth century landscape decorations were used, and by the end of the seventeenth century the art had reached its zenith. the material used in japan is resin-lac, an exudation from the lacquer-tree (_rhus vernicifera_). without going into the details of the art, it is well to bear in mind that the brilliant surface of japanese lacquer is not obtained by varnishing, but by the actual polishing of the lacquer itself. it is treated as a solid body, built up stage by stage and polished at every stage. for an exposition of the art one cannot do better than read mr. marcus b. huish's chapter on lacquer in "japan and its art." it was probably not till late tudor times that any specimens of japanese or chinese lacquer found their way to this country, and then principally in the shape of small cups, bowls, and trays. "indian cabinets" are mentioned occasionally in inventories at the end of elizabeth's reign, and in the household accounts of charles ii. there is an item of â£100 for "two jappan cabinets." the english and portuguese traded with japan in elizabeth's reign, but were expelled in 1637. the dutch were more tenacious, and from the commencement of their trading operations with japan, in 1600, managed, at intervals, to keep in touch with their new market. even the dutch were regarded unfavourably by the japanese authorities, and traded under considerable disabilities. the majority of the lacquered ware which came to england filtered through holland. it was brought to europe round the cape in the armed dutch merchantmen which, at the same time, were bringing home the beautiful old imari vases and dishes with _kinrande_ (brocade) decorations, which served later on as the models for the early crown derby "old japan" wares and the simple kakiyemon specimens copied at chelsea, bow, and dresden. one of these old ships, the _middleburg_, trading from the china seas, homeward bound and laden with bullion and curios, went down in soldanha bay, off the south african coast, on october 18, 1714. in august 1907 the divers salvaged some of the cargo. needless to say, the "jappan cabinets" had long since perished, but the little chinese blue-and-white cups and saucers came to the surface none the worse for nearly two hundred years' immersion in salt water. we are fortunate in still possessing at hampton court palace a goodly number of kakiyemon hexagonal covered jars and bottle-shaped vases, and tall cylindrical chinese blue-and-white vases of the khang hi reign, placed there by william and mary; but the scarcity of contemporary english furniture there is deplorable. the real beauty of old oriental porcelain is never so apparent as when displayed on the old "jappan cabinets" or the sombre furniture of the orange-nassau dynasty. it was fashionable to decry the craze for things chinese, and early eighteenth-century literature teems with gibes at the china maniacs of the day. we have referred in the first chapter of the volume to macaulay's small opinion of the merits of old chinese porcelain. the _spectator_ for february 12, 1712, contains a letter from an imaginary jack anvil who had made a fortune, married a lady of quality, and grown into sir john enville. he tells how my lady mary enville "next set herself to reform every room in my house, having glazed all my chimney-pieces with looking glasses, and planted every corner with such heaps of china, that i am obliged to move about my own house with the greatest caution and circumspection for fear of hurting some of our brittle furniture." daniel defoe, in his "tour of great britain," says: "the queen (mary) brought in the custom or humour, as i may call it, of furnishing houses with china ware which increased to a strange degree afterwards, piling their china upon the tops of cabinets, scrutores and every chymney piece to the top of the ceilings and even setting up shelves for their china ware where they wanted such places, till it became a grivance in the expence of it and even injurious to their families and estates." at hampton court to-day we can see the chimney-pieces in the corners of the smaller closets with the tiers of diminishing shelves reaching almost to the ceilings, and displayed thereon are the "flymy little bits of blue" which mr. henley laughs at in his _villanelle_. perhaps some day our national museum will overflow and refurnish hampton court palace, which to-day in its furnishing, apart from the pictures and tapestries, is but a shadow of its old self. although germane to the matter, the foregoing is somewhat in the nature of a digression from the subject of the "japanned" furniture, which took such a hold of the popular fancy that the making of such things was practised as a hobby by the amateurs of the period. "a treatise on japanning and varnishing" was issued by john stalker in 1688, and, just as "painting and the use of the backboard" were essentials in the curriculum of the early victorian seminary, so were the young ladies of the reign of william iii. taught the gentle art of "japanning." in the verney memoirs we find edmund verney, son of sir john verney, the squire of east claydon, writing to his little daughter molly (aged about eight years) in 1682 or 1683, at mrs. priest's school at great chelsey: "i find you have a desire to learn to jappan, as you call it, and i approve of it, and so i shall of anything that is good and virtuous, therefore learn in god's name all good things, and i will willingly be at the charge so farr as i am able--tho' they come from japan and from never so farr and look of an indian hue and odour, for i admire all accomplishments that will render you considerable and lovely in the sight of god and man.... to learn this art costs a guiney entrance and some 40's more to buy materials to work upon." john stalker's treatise is probably the earliest printed work in connection with furniture-making. we never hear of any individual name connected with the manufacture of furniture during the oak period, although there had been a guild of cofferers. the names of the makers of the superb charles chairs are lost in oblivion, and we have to wait till the eighteenth century before any artist-craftsman or designer gives his name to a style. stalker's treatise is contained in a folio volume of eighty-four pages of letterpress and twenty-four pages of copper-plate engravings. the title-page reads: "a treatise of japanning and varnishing, being a compleat discovery of those arts. with the best way of making all sorts of varnish for japan, woods, prints, plate or pictures. the method of guilding, burnishing and lackering with the art of guilding, separateing and refining metals, and the most curios ways of painting on glass or otherwise. also rules for counterfeiting tortoise shell, and marble and for staining or dying wood, ivory, etc. together with above an hundred distinct patterns of japan work, for tables, stands, frames, cabinets, boxes &c. curiously engraven on 24 large copper plates. by john stalker september the 7th 1688. licenced r. midgley and entered according to order. oxford printed for and sold by the author, living at the golden ball in st. james market london in the year mdclxxxviii." this comprehensive work is "dedicated to the right honourable the countess of darby a lady no less eminent for her quality, beauty and vertue, then for her incomparable skill and experience in the arts that those experiments belong to, as well as in several others." in a page and a half of the preface the author takes us through the history of painting from early grecian times, particularly pointing out that the art of portrait-painting alone can keep our memories green. he goes on to say: "well then as painting has made an honourable provision for our bodies so japanning has taught us a method, no way inferior to it, for the splendour and preservation of our furniture and houses. these buildings, like our bodies, continually tending to ruin and dissolution are still in want of fresh supplies and reparations. on the one hand they are assaulted with unexpected mischances, on the other with the injuries of time and weather; but the art of japanning has made them almost impregnable against both; no damp air, no mouldring worm, or corroding time, can possibly deface it; and, which is more wonderful, although its ingredients the gums, which are in their own nature inflamable yet this most vigorously resists the fire, and is itself found to be incombustible. true, genuine japan, like the salamander, lives in the flames, and stands unalterable, when the wood which was imprison'd in it, is utterly consumed.... what can be more surprising then to have our chambers overlaid with varnish more glassy and reflecting than polisht marble? no amorous nymph need entertain a dialogue with her glass, or narcissus retire to a fountain, to survey his charming countenance, when the house is one entire speculum. to this we subjoin the golden draught, with which japan is so exquisitively adorned, than which nothing can be more beautiful, more rich or majestick." in john stalker's opinion europe, both ancient and modern, must in the adornments of cities give pride of place to japan, for "surely this province was nature's darling and the favourite of the gods, for jupiter has vouchsaft it a visit as formally to danae in a golden shower." in an epistle to "the reader and practitioner" he severely censures inferior artificers who "without modesty or blush impose upon the gentry such stuff and trash, for japan work, that whether it is a greater scandal to the name or artifice, i cannot determine. might we advise such foolish pretenders, their time would be better imployed in drawing whistles and puppets for the toyshops to please children, than contriving ornaments for a room of state." he cautions the reader against the common error of mistaking bantam work for real japan. "this must be alledged for the bantam work that it is very pretty," &c. &c.; but the japan is "more grave and majestick ... the japan artist works most of all in gold and other metals, and bantam for the generality in colours with a small sprinkling of gold here and there, like the patches on a ladie's countenance." he professes, in the "cutts or patterns," to have exactly imitated the towers, steeples, figures and rocks of japan according to designs of such found on imported specimens. "perhaps we have helped them a little in their proportions where they were lame or defective, and made them more pleasant, yet altogether as antick. had we industriously contrived the prospective, or shadowed them otherwise than they are: we should have wandered from the design, which is only to imitate the true genuine indian work, and perhaps in a great measure might puzzle and confound the unexperienced practitioner." it may interest readers to know the market prices of some of the materials used in 1688. seed-lac, 14s. to 18s. per lb.; gum sandrack, 1s. to 1s. 2d. per lb.; gum animã¦, 3s. to 5s. per lb.; venice turpentine, 1s. 6d. to 1s. 8d. per lb.; white rosin, 4d. to 6d. per lb.; shell-lac, 1s. 6d. to 2s. per lb.; gum arabic, 1s. per lb.; gum copall, 1s. to 1s. 6d. per lb.; gum elemni, 4d. to 5d. per oz.; benjamin or benzoine, 4d. to 8d. per oz.; dragon's blood, 8d. to 1s. per oz. "brass dust," stalker says, cannot be made in england, though it has often been tried. the best, we learn, comes from germany! he goes on to describe various metal-dusts, such as "silver dust," "green gold," "dirty gold," "powder tinn," and "copper." of the makers of "speckles" of divers sorts--gold, silver, copper--"i shall only mention two, viz. a goldbeater, at the hand and hammer in long acre; and another of the same trade over against mercers chappel in cheapside." the twenty-four pages of "cutts" include designs for "powder boxes," "looking glass frames," "for drauers for cabbinets to be placed according to your fancy," and "for a standish for pen inke and paper which may also serve for a comb box." the drawings include "an embassy," "a pagod worshipp in ye indies," and another sketch in which the central figure would appear to be a hybrid red indian before whom several devotees are grovelling. we have quoted john stalker at some length as giving interesting sidelights on an industry occupying the attentions of a numerous class in his own day. for the actual carrying out of the methods employed we must refer the reader to the book itself--a book which is invaluable to any one who has a piece of old english lac in want of repair. there is an old-world charm about the work of the stalker and contemporary schools, but in point of real beauty it is as far removed from the japanese lacquer as the "oriental" porcelain of the eighteenth-century european factories is from its chinese or japanese prototype. the complaint has often been made of the lack of perspective in the oriental decorations. this may be said, to use a hackneyed phrase, to be the defect of its qualities. we have by this time come to see things to a certain extent through japanese eyes, and have learnt to love the defect. the artist of old japan--be he painter, potter, metal-worker, or lacquerer--was an artist to his finger-tips, and his work was full of a symbolism utterly incomprehensible to the western mind. those in japan who know will tell you that a master lacquerer of the seventeenth century would spend many years on the decoration of a simple, small box. in the initial stage--the preparation of the background--it has been calculated that 530 hours are required in the aggregate for drying the various layers; but the young ladies at mrs. priest's school at great chelsey in the seventeenth century expect, by the aid of stalker's instructions, to learn the art in twelve lessons! honest john stalker thinks he can improve upon his japanese models, with the result that, whilst we may have a little less of the "defect," we have scarcely any of the "qualities." it is ever thus when west attempts to copy east. we may mention in passing that the french furniture-makers of the eighteenth century utilised, in the production of some of their finest commodes, drawer-fronts and panels of genuine japanese lacquer which must have been manufactured specially for the french market, exhibiting, as they do, shapes quite foreign to anything in use in japan. it is highly probable that these serpentine and bow-shaped drawer-fronts were sent out to japan to receive their decoration. in the "jones bequest" at the victoria and albert museum, we can see superb examples of such belonging to the period of louis xv. it is said that madame pompadour expended 110,000 livres on japanese lacquer. marie antoinette's collection in the louvre is considerable; but it is quite certain that the finest examples of the art never left japan. mr. huish, to whose book we have above referred, gives some interesting statistics pointing to the scarcity of fine old lacquer in this country during the early days of trade with the east. in one year during the eighteenth century eleven ships sailed, and, whilst carrying 16,580 pieces of porcelain, they brought only twelve pieces of lac. to-day old english lacquered furniture is much sought after, and prices are advancing rapidly. the coloured varieties include red, blue, green, violet, and occasionally buff. the red in particular is highly prized. black lac, which was made in great quantities in every shape of furniture, is still comparatively plentiful. an early eighteenth-century grandfather's clock, which might fetch anything from five to ten pounds if the case were of plain oak, would have a selling value of from ten to twenty pounds if lacquered. evidence points to the fact that, in the majority of cases, the lacquer was an afterthought. the furniture of the day was turned out, in the ordinary course of trade, quite innocent of lacquer, and afterwards treated by professional japanners--sometimes maltreated by amateurs. not long since, in our own day, there was a similar craze for covering furniture with enamel paints. fig. 74 is an interesting china cabinet in black lacquer of william and mary period, 7 ft. 5 in. high and 5 ft. wide, priced at â£30. a first-class modern mahogany or walnut-wood cabinet of the size could scarcely be made for the money, whilst the old lac, apart from its intrinsic charm, has an additional sentimental value as marking a phase in the history of furniture--a phase in decoration. in this cabinet we have also a development in form; it is palpably the product of a period when the rage for collecting porcelain was prevalent, and in the same connection it is no less useful to-day. the modern designer scarcely invents anything more appropriate. it is interesting to note this cabinet as an example of the afterthought in decoration. the owners--messrs. story and triggs ltd., of queen victoria street, london--have discovered that the lacquer is superimposed on walnut veneer! it tells its own tale. fig. 75 is an early example of red lacquer, a cabinet with boldly arched cornice; the repetition of the arch at either end gives a fine architectural finish to the top. the upper part encloses shelves, and there are four drawers in the base. the decoration consists of various chinese views of ladies in a garden, a temple with a man and children, trees, rocks and lakes. it was probably made about 1690; 75 in. high, 31 in. wide, and 23 in. deep. fig. 76 is somewhat later--about 1710--with typical queen anne period cabriole legs and claw-and-ball feet. the doors, which enclose five drawers, are decorated with figures, buildings, birds and flowers, and are furnished with finely chased ormolu lock-plates and hinges. it is of black lacquer with red and gold reliefs, measures 67 in. by 39 in. by 19 in, and is valued at about â£45. fig. 77 is still later--about 1730--a cabinet surmounted on plain cabriole legs. on the front is a view of a lake with oriental figures, cocks, and vegetation. inside the doors are studies of the lotus-flower in vases. the hinges and lock-plates are fine examples of english metal-work in the chinese taste. this piece is 56 in. high and 36 in. wide, and is valued at â£35. for comparison we give an example (fig. 78) of a piece of lacquered furniture made in china about 1740. this dressing-table, built of camphor-wood, and still exhaling a delicate fragrance, was evidently made for england and copied, as to shape, from an english table. it is inlaid with mother-of-pearl designs of landscape, birds, and flowers; and the interior is fitted with a mirror, writing-desk, and numerous boxes. during the english "japanning" period, every imaginable shape of furniture received this oriental treatment. besides the various forms of cabinet, we find lacquered mirror-frames, dressing-tables, corner cupboards, hanging cupboards, chests and chests of drawers, chairs, work-boxes, writing-desks, coffee-tables, card-tables, pole-screens, trays, barometer-cases, and even bellows-cases. we give an example of a simple mirror in red lacquered frame with arched top (fig. 79). it measures 39 in. by 19 in. this and the three preceding examples are the property of mr. f. w. phillips, of the manor house, hitchin. fig. 80 is a barometer in lacquered case of about 1700. fig. 81, at the victoria and albert museum, is of dutch make of the early eighteenth century--a dressing-glass suspended between two uprights, which are supported on a cabinet with sloping front. inside the cabinet is a compartment with a hinged door, flanked on either side by an open compartment, one long and two short drawers. the lower part has seventeen compartments fitted with boxes, brushes, and various toilet requisites. the lacquer is raised and gilt on a red ground, showing groups of figures in chinese costumes, buildings, landscapes and floral designs with birds. fig. 82 is a somewhat similar glass but of english make. the woods composing it are poplar, pine and oak, and it is decorated with blue and gold lacquer, the effect of which is the reverse of pleasing. we have said that the european lacquer will not bear close comparison with the old japanese. the methods of the chinese were simpler, and the english "japanner" (it is, of course, a misleading term) was more successful in his attempts to copy the chinese cabinets. his best examples, if indeed they fell far short in technique, did in method to a large-extent approximate to the work of the celestial. english lacquer as a mere investment is worth buying at reasonable prices, and in choosing pieces the collector will do well to look, as much as possible, for the real oriental feeling. [illustration: fig. 1. mantelpiece in hampton court palace] [illustration: fig. 2. bedsteads at hampton court palace] [illustration: fig. 3. room in clifford's inn (period william and mary)] [illustration: fig. 4. carving in pinewood attributed to grinling gibbon] [illustration: fig. 5. turned balusters (late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries)] [illustration: fig. 6. doorway (late seventeenth century)] [illustration: fig. 7. overmantel (late seventeenth century)] [illustration: fig. 8. doorway (early eighteenth century)] [illustration: fig. 9. mantelpiece (early eighteenth century)] [illustration: fig. 10. mirror frame attributed to grinling gibbon] [illustration: fig. 11. simple wall mirror (queen anne period) (the property of mr. f. w. phillips, the manor house, hitchin)] [illustration: fig. 12. simple toilet mirror (queen anne period) (the property of mr. f. w. phillips, the manor house, hitchin)] [illustration: fig. 13. wall mirror (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 14. wall mirror (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 15. "gesso" mirror (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 16. "gesso" mirror (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 17. fine "gesso" mirror (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 18. mirror from "flask" tavern pimlico, date about 1700] [illustration: fig. 19. marquetry mirror (early eighteenth century)] [illustration: fig. 20. toilet mirror with drawers (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 21. toilet mirror on stand (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 22. stool (period of william and mary)] [illustration: fig. 23. fine stool (period queen anne)] [illustration: fig. 24 fig. 25 fig. 26 fine chairs (period william and mary)] [illustration: fig. 27. fine chair (period william and mary)] [illustration: fig. 28. simple chair (period william and mary) (the property of f. w. phillips, the manor house, hitchin, herts)] [illustration: fig. 29 fig. 30 fig. 31 simple chairs (period queen anne) (the property of mr. j. h. springett, high street, rochester)] [illustration: fig. 32 simple chair with cabriole legs (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 33 fig. 34 fig. 35 simple chairs with cabriole legs (queen anne period) (the property of mr. j. h. springett, high street, rochester)] [illustration: fig. 36. queen anne chair with inlaid splat] [illustration: fig. 37. late queen anne chair] [illustration: fig. 38. fine arm chair (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 39. arm chair (queen anne period) covered with "petit point" needlework] [illustration: fig. 40 fine chair (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 41 fine chair (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 42 corner or roundabout chair (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 43. settee (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 44. fine settee (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 45. fine settee (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 46 table (period william and mary) (the property of mr. f. w. phillips, the manor house, hitchin)] [illustration: fig. 47 table (period william and mary)] [illustration: fig. 48. table (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 49. table (late queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 50. chest of drawers (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 51. chest of drawers (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 52 chest of drawers on twisted legs (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 53. dwarf chest of drawers on feet (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 54 fine chest on stand (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 55 simple chest on stand (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 56. tallboy (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 57. tallboy (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 58. wardrobe in marquetry (the property of mr. f. w. phillips, the manor house, hitchin, herts)] [illustration: fig. 59. china cabinet in marquetry] [illustration: fig. 60. simple bureau (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 61. bureau (william and mary period)] [illustration: fig. 62. bureau (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 63. writing table (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 64 writing or dressing table (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 65. fig. 66 escritoire (queen anne period)] [illustration: fig. 67. "birdcage" clock (second half seventeenth century)] [illustration: fig. 68 lantern clock in hooded case (first half eighteenth century)] [illustration: fig. 69 lantern clock without case (first half eighteenth century)] [illustration: fig. 70. bracket clock (seventeenth century)] [illustration: fig. 73 fig. 72 fig. 71 marquetry clocks and clock cases] [illustration: fig. 74. lacquered china cabinet] [illustration: fig. 75. lacquered cabinet with drawers] [illustration: fig. 76. lacquered cabinet] [illustration: fig. 77. lacquered cabinet] [illustration: fig. 78. lacquered dressing-table] [illustration: fig. 79 lacquered mirror] [illustration: fig. 80 barometer in lacquered case] [illustration: fig. 81 lacquered toilet mirror] [illustration: fig. 82 lacquered toilet mirror] index architectural inspiration less marked, 39 ashton on queen anne period, 13 balusters, examples of, 31 baths at hampton court, 5 in early times, 5 bedroom, queen anne, 43-46 bedsteads at court, 7 modern queen anne, 43-44 buckingham's, duke of, glass works, 37 bureaux, queen anne period, 79 william and mary period, 78 with secret drawers, 80-81 cabriole legs, 53 chairs (_see_ chapter iv.) claw-and-ball decoration, 54 double, 58 drunkards', 57 fine, 57 ladder-backed, 55 period of james ii., 47 queen anne, 51-57 shaped, 56 william and mary, 50-51 with cabriole legs, 53-54 with rigid lines, 8, 50 chests of drawers (_see_ chapter v.) history of, 65 the tallboy, 70-71 veneered, 67-68 with cabriole legs, 69 with marquetry, 66 with turned legs, 67-69 china cabinets first introduced, 13 varieties of, 74-75 chinese porcelain, defoe on, 98 evelyn on, 4 first introduced into england, 3 chinese porcelain, macaulay on, 4 popularity of, 13 _spectator_ on, 59, 98 chintzes, 59-60 coffee-houses, 11, 12 claw and ball, 54 clocks (_see_ chapter vii.) "bob" pendulum, 83 bracket or pedestal, 86-89 cromwell or lantern, 82-86 cunyngham on, 92-93 daniel quare, 88 george graham, 87 grandfather, 89-94 in lacquer, 90 in marquetry, 88, 91 "sheep's head," 83 thomas tompion, 87 clouston on queen anne mirrors, 37 cunyngham on clocks, 92-93 defoe, daniel, on chinese porcelain, 98 doorways, carved, 32 dutch influence, 1, 20, 47, 96 dwelling-room, clifford's inn, 7 escallop-shell decoration, 54 evelyn on sir christopher wren, 21 evelyn's dairy, 4, 36 "gesso" work, 41 gibbon, grinling, and charles ii., 26-27 examples at hampton court, 6 his life and work, 25-30 mirror frame, 38 graham, george (clock-maker), 87 hampton court palace (_see_ chapter i.), 97, 98-99 homes of the poor, 11, 47 houses of the wealthy, 10 huguenot silk-workers, 57 huish, m. b., on "japan and its art," 96, 107 inlay, 14 japanning or varnishing by john stalker, 99-105 lacquer (_see_ chapter viii.) cabinets, 109 china cabinet, 108 clock, 108 dressing-glasses, 111 dressing-table, 110 french, 106-107 history of, 95-97 japanese, 106 mirror, 110 law, ernest, on queen anne period, 2, 3, 8 macaulay, on verrio, 9 views on collecting porcelain, 4 macquoid, percy, "age of walnut," 50 on marquetry, 67 mahogany introduced, 8, 72 marquetry defined, 16 macquoid on, 67 pollen on, 66 used on clock, 88 mirror frames, 42 tables, 61 wardrobes, 73 marsh, anthony (clock-maker), 86 martin, john (clock-maker), 88 mccarthy, justin, on queen anne period, 11 mirrors (_see_ chapter iii.) by grinling gibbon, 38 clouston on, 37 early examples, 35 "gesso" work, 41 in hampton court, 36-37 in holyrood palace, 36 mirrors, in marquetry, 42 in van eyck's picture in national gallery, 35 influence of wren, 40 mentioned in evelyn's diary, 36 mentioned in "paradise lost," 34 notes on purchasing, 40 simple, 38-39 toilet, 42 needlework, "petit point," 57 popular with women, 59 queen mary's, 3 pollen, j. h., on marquetry, 66 on queen anne period, 10 quare, daniel (clock-maker), 88 queen anne period, a gambling age, 62 anne's influence, 10 ashton quoted, 12 bedroom, 43-46 chairs and tables, &c. (_see_ chapter iv.) definition, 8-9 houses of middle class, 60 justin mccarthy on, 11 old city houses, 31 ordinary types of mirrors, 38, 39 simple furniture, 9, 10 thackeray on, 12 writing-table, 79 queen mary, her needlework, 3 settee, 58 stalker, john, on japanning and varnishing, 99-105 stools, william and mary, 42 queen anne, 43 tables (_see_ chapter iv.) card, 62-63 gate leg, 64 tables, inverted bowl decoration, 60 william and mary, 61 with cabriole legs, 63 with claw-and-ball feet, 63 with escallop-shell decoration, 63 with flaps, 63 with marquetry work, 61 with tied stretchers, 61 tallboys, 70-71 tea-drinking, 12 thackeray on queen anne period, 12 toilet sets, 45 tompion, thomas (clock-maker), 87 van eyck, picture by, 48 veneering, 14-15 verney memoirs, 99 verrio, his work at hampton court, 9 wardrobe (or hanging cupboard) in early days, 72 in marquetry, 73 of dutch origin, 72 william and mary at hampton court, 1 costume, 48-49 woodcraft, ancient, 16 wren, sir christopher, 2-3 builds st. paul's cathedral, 22 evelyn on, 21 his life and work, 20-25 writing-desks, history of, 76-78 queen anne knee-hole, 79-80 transcriber's note: the italics markup surrounding currency has been removed. the hyphenation of some words has been standardised. chats on old furniture [illustration: _jacobean chair._] chats on old furniture _press notices, first edition._ "mr. hayden knows his subject intimately."--_pall mall gazette._ "the hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_athenæum._ "a useful and instructive volume."--_spectator._ "an abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed history."--_daily news._ "mr. hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_scotsman._ "a book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual merit."--_vanity fair._ "mr. hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the collector."--_saturday review._ chats on old china by the same author. _second edition._ _price_ 5s. _net._ _with coloured frontispiece and reproductions of 156 marks and 89 specimens of china._ a list of sale prices and a full index increase the usefulness of the volume. this is a handy book of reference to enable amateur collectors to distinguish between the productions of the various factories. _press notices, first edition._ "a handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_st. james's gazette._ "all lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."--_daily news._ "it gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know about the principal varieties of english ware. we can warmly commend the book to the china collector."--_pall mall gazette._ "one of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are very accurately given."--_queen._ in preparation. chats on old prints _price_ 5s. _net._ _illustrated with coloured frontispiece and 70 full-page reproductions from engravings._ with glossary of technical terms, bibliography, full index and table of more than 350 of the principal english and continental engravers from the xvith to the xixth centuries, together with copious notes as to prices and values of old prints. london: t. fisher unwin, adelphi terrace. [illustration] chats on old furniture a practical guide for collectors by arthur hayden author of "chats on english china" london: t. fisher unwin 1 adelphi terrace. mcmvi * * * * * _first edition, 1905._ _second " 1906._ _all rights reserved._ [illustration: _portion of carved walnut virginal._] preface this volume has been written to enable those who have a taste for the furniture of a bygone day to arrive at some conclusion as to the essential points of the various styles made in england. an attempt has been made to give some lucid historical account of the progress and development in the art of making domestic furniture, with especial reference to its evolution in this country. inasmuch as many of the finest specimens of old english woodwork and furniture have left the country of their origin and crossed the atlantic, it is time that the public should awaken to the fact that the heritages of their forefathers are objects of envy to all lovers of art. it is a painful reflection to know that the temptation of money will shortly denude the old farmhouses and manor houses of england of their unappreciated treasures. before the hand of the despoiler shall have snatched everything within reach, it is the hope of the writer that this little volume may not fall on stony ground, and that the possessors of fine old english furniture may realise their responsibilities. it has been thought advisable to touch upon french furniture as exemplified in the national collections of such importance as the jones bequest at the victoria and albert museum, and the wallace collection, to show the influence of foreign art upon our own designers. similarly, italian, spanish, and dutch furniture, of which many remarkable examples are in private collections in this country, has been dealt with in passing, to enable the reader to estimate the relation of english art to contemporary foreign schools of decoration and design. the authorities of the victoria and albert museum have willingly extended their assistance in regard to photographs, and by the special permission of the board of education the frontispiece and other representative examples in the national collection appear as illustrations to this volume. i have to acknowledge generous assistance and courteous permission from owners of fine specimens in allowing me facilities for reproducing illustrations of them in this volume. i am especially indebted to the right honourable sir spencer ponsonby-fane, g.c.b., i.s.o., and to the rev. canon haig brown, master of the charterhouse, for the inclusion of illustrations of furniture of exceptional interest. the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ have generously furnished me with lists of prices obtained at auction from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_, and have allowed the reproduction of illustrations which have appeared in the pages of the _connoisseur_. my thanks are due to messrs. hampton, of pall mall, for their kind permission to include as illustrations several fine pieces from their collection of antique furniture. i am under a similar obligation to messrs. waring, who have kindly allowed me to select some of their typical examples. to my other friends, without whose kind advice and valuable aid this volume could never have appeared, i tender a grateful and appreciative acknowledgment of my indebtedness. arthur hayden. [illustration: _italian chair about 1620_] [illustration: _spanish chest._] contents page preface 7 list of illustrations 13 bibliography 19 glossary of terms used 23 chapter i. the renaissance on the continent 31 ii. the english renaissance 57 iii. stuart or jacobean (seventeenth century) 79 iv. stuart or jacobean (late seventeenth century) 109 v. queen anne style 133 vi. french furniture. the period of louis xiv. 155 vii. french furniture. the period of louis xv. 169 viii. french furniture. the period of louis xvi. 189 ix. french furniture. the first empire style 201 x. chippendale and his style 211 xi. sheraton, adam, and heppelwhite styles 239 xii. hints to collectors 257 index 275 [illustration: _chippendale bureau bookcase._] list of illustrations jacobean oak cabinet; decorated with mother-of-pearl, ebony, and ivory. dated 1653. (by permission of the board of education) _frontispiece_ carved wood frame; decorated with gold stucco. sixteenth century. italian _title page_ page chapter i.--the renaissance on the continent. portion of carved cornice, italian, sixteenth century 33 frame of wood, with female terminal figures, italian, late sixteenth century 35 front of coffer, italian, late fifteenth century 38 bridal chest, gothic design, middle of fifteenth century 39 front of oak chest, french, fifteenth century 44 walnut sideboard, french, middle of sixteenth century 45 cabinet, french (lyons), second half of sixteenth century 48 ebony and ivory marquetry cabinet, french, middle of sixteenth century 50 spanish cabinet and stand, carved chestnut, first half of sixteenth century 51 spanish chest, carved walnut, sixteenth century 52 chapter ii.--the english renaissance. carved oak chest, english, sixteenth century 59 bench of oak, french, about 1500 60 portion of carved walnut virginal, flemish, sixteenth century 61 carved oak coffer, french, showing interlaced ribbon-work 61 fireplace and oak panelling, "old palace," bromley-by-bow. built in 1606 64 elizabethan bedstead, dated 1593 66 panel of carved oak, english, early sixteenth century 68 mirror, in oak frame, english, dated 1603 71 court cupboard, carved oak, english, dated 1603 73 " " carved oak, early seventeenth century 74 " " about 1580 75 elizabethan oak table 78 chapter iii.--stuart or jacobean. seventeenth century. gate-leg table 81 oak chair, made from sir francis drake's ship, the _golden hind_ 83 oak table, dated 1616, bearing arms of thomas sutton 85 chair used by james i. 87 jacobean chair, at knole 89 jacobean stool, at knole 90 carved walnut door (upper half), french, showing ribbon-work 91 oak chair, with arms of first earl of strafford 93 italian chair, about 1620 94 high-back oak chair, early jacobean, formerly in possession of charles i. 95 jacobean chairs, various types 97 ebony cabinet, formerly the property of oliver cromwell 99 jacobean carved oak chairs, yorkshire and derbyshire types 101 jacobean oak cupboard, about 1620 101 jacobean oak chairs 105 carved oak cradle, time of charles i., dated 1641 107 chapter iv.--stuart or jacobean. late seventeenth century. interior of dutch house, latter half of seventeenth century 111 cabinet of time of charles ii., showing exterior 112 " " " showing interior 113 portuguese high-back chair 115 oak chest of drawers, late jacobean 117 " " panelled front, late jacobean 119 charles ii. oak chair 120 charles ii. open high-back oak chair 121 charles ii. chair, cane back and seat 122 james ii. chair, cane back and seat 123 william and mary chair 125 portuguese chair-back (upper portion), cut leather work 128 chapter v.--queen anne style. queen anne oak settle 135 queen anne mirror frame, carved walnut, gilded 137 oak desk, dated 1696 139 oak cupboard 140 queen anne cabinet, burr-walnut panel 141 queen anne chairs, various types 143 dutch marquetry cabinet 147 queen anne clock 148 queen anne settle, oak, dated 1705 149 old lac cabinet 150 lac cabinet, middle of eighteenth century 151 " " showing doors closed 152 " " chased brass escutcheon 154 chapter vi.--french furniture. the period of louis xiv. cassette, french, seventeenth century 157 chair of period of louis xiii. 159 pedestals, showing boule and counter-boule work 163 boule cabinet, or armoire 165 chapter vii.--french furniture. louis xv. commode, by cressent 171 commode, formerly in the hamilton collection 173 commode, by caffieri 175 escritoire à toilette, formerly in possession of marie antoinette 179 secrétaire, by riesener 181 "bureau du roi," the masterpiece of riesener 183 chapter viii.--french furniture. louis xvi. jewel cabinet, "j. h. riesener," mounts by gouthière 193 commode, by riesener 197 chapter ix.--french furniture. the first empire style. portrait of madame récamier, after david 203 detail of tripod table found at pompeii 205 servante, french, late eighteenth century 206 jewel cabinet of the empress marie louise 207 armchair, rosewood, showing empire influence 210 chapter x.--chippendale and his style. table made by chippendale 213 oliver goldsmith's chair 215 chippendale settee, walnut, about 1740 217 " " oak, about 1740 219 chippendale chair-back, ribbon pattern 222 ribbon-backed chippendale chair, formerly at blenheim 223 chippendale corner chair, about 1780 224 gothic chippendale chair-back 225 mahogany chippendale chair, about 1740 226 " " " about 1770 227 chippendale mirror 229 chippendale bureau bookcase 231 mahogany chair, chippendale style 232 cottage chairs, beechwood, chippendale style 233 interior of room of about 1782, after stothard 235 chapter xi.--sheraton, adam, and heppelwhite styles. heppelwhite settee, mahogany 241 sheraton, adam, and heppelwhite chairs 243 old english secrétaire 250 shield-back chair, late eighteenth century 251 chapter xii.--hints to collectors. design for spurious marquetry work 259 "made-up" buffet 261 cabinet of old oak, "made-up" 267 design for spurious marquetry work 273 piece of spanish chestnut, showing ravages of worms 274 bibliography general. ancient furniture, specimens of. h. shaw. quaritch. 1836. £10 10s., now worth £3 3s. ancient and modern furniture. b. j. talbert. batsford. 1876. 32s. antique furniture, sketches of. w. s. ogden. batsford. 1889. 12s. 6d. carved furniture and woodwork. m. marshall. w. h. allen. 1888. £3. carved oak in woodwork and furniture from ancient houses. w. b. sanders. 1883. 31s. 6d. decorative furniture, english and french, of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. w. h. hackett. 7s. 6d. ecclesiastical woodwork, remains of. t. t. bury. lockwood. 1847. 21s. french and english furniture. e. singleton. hodder. 1904. furniture, ancient and modern. j. w. small. batsford. 1883. 21s. furniture and decoration. j. a. heaton. 1890-92. furniture and woodwork, ancient and modern. j. h. pollen. chapman. 1874-5. 21s. and 2s. 6d. furniture and woodwork. j. h. pollen. stanford. 1876. 3s. 6d. furniture of the olden time. f. c. morse. macmillan. 12s. 6d. gothic furniture, _connoisseur_. may, 1903. history of furniture illustrated. f. litchfield. truslove. 25s. marquetry, parquetry, boulle and other inlay work. w. bemrose. 1872 and 1882. old furniture, english and foreign. a. e. chancellor. batsford. £1 5s. old furniture from twelfth to eighteenth century. wyman. 1883. 10s. 6d. style in furniture and woodwork. r. brook. privately printed. 1889. 21s. particular. english.--adam r. & j., the architecture, decoration an furniture of r. & j. adam, selected from works published 1778-1822. london. 1880. adam, the brothers. _connoisseur._ may, june and august, 1904. ancient wood and iron work in cambridge. w. b. redfern. spalding. 1887. 31s. 6d. chippendale, t. cabinet makers' directory. published in 1754, 1755 and 1762. (the best edition is the last as it contains 200 plates as against 161 in the earlier editions. its value is about £12.) chippendale and his work. _connoisseur_, january, july, august, september, october, november, december, 1903, january, 1904. chippendale, sheraton and heppelwhite, the designs of. arranged by j. m. bell. 1900. worth £2 2s. chippendale's contemporaries. _connoisseur_, march, 1904. chippendale and sheraton. _connoisseur_, may, 1902. coffers and cupboards, ancient. fred roe. methuen & co. 1903. £3 3s. english furniture, history of. percy macquoid. published by lawrence & bullen in 7s. 6d. parts, the first of which appeared in november, 1904. english furniture and woodwork during the eighteenth century. t. a. strange. 12s. 6d. furniture of our forefathers. e. singleton. batsford. £3 15s. hatfield house, history of. q. f. robinson. 1883. hardwicke hall, history of. q. f. robinson. 1835. heppelwhite, a., cabinet maker. published 1788, 1789, and 1794, and contains about 130 plates. value £8 to £12. reprint issued in 1897. worth £2 10s. ince and mayhew. household furniture. n.d. (1770). worth £20. jacobean furniture. _connoisseur_, september, 1902. knole house, its state rooms, &c. (elizabethan and other furniture.) s. j. mackie. 1858. manwaring, r., cabinet and chairmaker's real friend. london. 1765. mansions of england in the olden time. j. nash. 1839-49. old english houses and furniture. m. b. adam. batsford. 1889. 25s. old english oak furniture. j. w. hurrell. batsford. £2 2s. old english furniture. frederick fenn and b. wyllie. newnes. 7s. 6d. net. old oak, the art of collecting. _connoisseur_, september, 1901. sheraton, t. cabinet maker's drawing book. 1791-3 edition contains 111 plates. value £13. 1794 edition contains 119 plates. value £10. sheraton t. cabinet directory. 1803. staircases and handrails of the age of elizabeth. j. weale. 1860. upholsterer's repository. ackermann. n.d. worth £5. french.--_dictionnaire de l'ameublement._ h. havard. paris. n.d. worth £5. _dictionnaire raisonné._ m. viollet-le-duc. 1858-75. 6 vols. worth £10. french furniture. lady dilke. bell. 1901. french eighteenth century furniture, handbook to the. jones collection catalogue. 1881. french eighteenth century furniture, handbook to the. wallace collection catalogue. 1904. history of furniture. a. jacquemart. chapman. 1878. 31s. 6d. issued in paris in 1876, under the title _histoire du mobilier_. _le meuble en france au xvi siècle._ e. bonnaffe. paris. 1887. worth 10s. japanese.--lacquer industry of japan. report of her majesty's acting-consul at hakodate. j. j. quin. parliamentary paper. 8vo. london. 1882. scottish.--scottish woodwork of sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. j. w. small. waterston. 1878. £4 4s. spanish.--spanish and portuguese. catalogue of special loan exhibition of spanish and portuguese ornamental art. 1881. glossary of terms used _armoire._--a large cupboard of french design of the dimensions of the modern wardrobe. in the days of louis xiv. these pieces were made in magnificent style. the jones collection at the victoria and albert museum has several fine examples. (see illustration, p. 165.) _baroque._--used in connection with over ornate and incongruous decoration as in _rococo_ style. _bombé._--a term applied to pieces of furniture which swell out at the sides. _boule._--a special form of marquetry of brass and tortoiseshell perfected by andré charles boule in the reign of louis xiv. (see chapter vi., where specimens of this kind of work are illustrated.) the name has been corrupted into a trade term _buhl_, to denote this style of marquetry. boule or _première partie_ is a metal inlay, usually brass, applied to a tortoiseshell background. see also _counter-boule_. _bureau._--a cabinet with drawers, and having a drop-down front for use as a writing-table. bureaux are of many forms. (see illustration, p. 231.) _cabriole._--used in connection with the legs of tables and chairs which are curved in form, having a sudden arch outwards from the seat. (see illustration, p. 143.) _caryatides._--carved female figures applied to columns in greek architecture, as at the erectheum at athens. they were employed by woodcarvers, and largely introduced into renaissance furniture of an architectural character. elizabethan craftsmen were especially fond of their use as terminals, and in the florid decoration of elaborate furniture. _cassone._--an italian marriage coffer. in chapter i. will be found a full description of these _cassoni_. _commode._--a chest of drawers of french style. in the chapters dealing with the styles of louis xiv., louis xv., and louis xvi., these are fully described and illustrations are given. _counter-boule._ _contre partie._--see chapter vi., where specimens of this work are illustrated. it consists of a brass groundwork with tortoiseshell inlay. _french polish._--a cheap and nasty method used since 1851 to varnish poor-looking wood to disguise its inferiority. it is quicker than the old method of rubbing in oil and turpentine and beeswax. it is composed of shellac dissolved in methylated spirits with colouring matter added. _gate-leg table._--this term is self-explanatory. the legs of this class of table open like a gate. they belong to jacobean days, and are sometimes spoken of as cromwellian tables. an illustration of one appears on the cover. _gothic._--this term was originally applied to the mediæval styles of architecture. it was used as a term of reproach and contempt at a time when it was the fashion to write latin and to expect it to become the universal language. in woodcarving the gothic style followed the architecture. a fine example of the transition between gothic and the oncoming renaissance is given (p. 44). _inlay._--a term used for the practice of decorating surfaces and panels of furniture with wood of various colours, mother-of-pearl, or ivory. the inlay is let into the wood of which the piece inlaid is composed. _jacobean._--strictly speaking, only furniture of the days of james i. should be termed jacobean. but by some collectors the period is held to extend to james ii.--that is from 1603 to 1688. other collectors prefer the term carolean for a portion of the above period, which is equally misleading. jacobean is only a rough generalisation of seventeenth-century furniture. _lacquer._ _lac._--a transparent varnish used in its perfection by the chinese and japanese. (see "consular report on japanese lacquered work," in bibliography.) introduced into holland and france, it was imitated with great success. under louis xv. vernis-martin became the rage (_q.v._). _linen pattern._--a form of carving panels to represent a folded napkin. this particular design was largely used in france and germany prior to its adoption here. (see illustration, p. 60.) _marquetry._--inlays of coloured woods, arranged with some design, geometric, floral, or otherwise, are classed under this style. (see also _parquetry_.) _mortise._--a term in carpentry used to denote the hole made in a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece to be joined to it. the portion which fits into the mortise is called the tenon. _oil polish._--old furniture, before the introduction of varnishes and french polish and other inartistic effects, was polished by rubbing the surface with a stone, if it was a large area as in the case of a table, and then applying linseed oil and polishing with beeswax and turpentine. the fine tone after centuries of this treatment is evident in old pieces which have a metallic lustre that cannot be imitated. _parquetry._--inlays of woods of the same colour are termed parquetry work in contradistinction to marquetry, which is in different colour. geometric designs are mainly used as in parquetry floors. _reeded._--this term is applied to the style of decoration by which thin narrow strips of wood are placed side by side on the surface of furniture. _renaissance._--the style which was originated in italy in the fifteenth century, supplanting the mediæval styles which embraced byzantine and gothic art; the new-birth was in origin a literary movement, but quickly affected art, and grew with surprising rapidity, and affected every country in europe. it is based on classic types, and its influence on furniture and woodwork followed its adoption in architecture. _restored._--this word is the fly in the pot of ointment to all who possess antiquarian tastes. it ought to mean, in furniture, that only the most necessary repairs have been made in order to preserve the object. it more often means that a considerable amount of misapplied ingenuity has gone to the remaking of a badly-preserved specimen. restorations are only permissible at the hands of most conscientious craftsmen. _rococo._--a style which was most markedly offensive in the time of louis xv. meaningless elaborations of scroll and shell work, with rocky backgrounds and incongruous ornamentations, are its chief features. _baroque_ is another term applied to this overloaded style. _settee._--an upholstered form of the settle. _settle._--a wooden seat with back and arms, capable of seating three or four persons side by side. _splat._--the wooden portion in the back of a chair connecting the top rail with the seat. _strapwork._--this is applied to the form of decoration employed by the elizabethan woodcarvers in imitation of flemish originals. (see p. 68.) _stretcher._--the rail which connects the legs of a chair or a table with one another. in earlier forms it was used as a footrest to keep the feet from the damp or draughty rush floor. _tenon._--"mortise and tenon joint." (see _mortise_.) _turned work._--the spiral rails and uprights of chairs were turned with the lathe in jacobean days. prior to the introduction of the lathe all work was carved without the use of this tool. pieces of furniture have been found where the maker has carved the turned work in all its details of form, either from caprice or from ignorance of the existence of the quicker method. _veneer._--a method of using thin layers of wood and laying them on a piece of furniture, either as marquetry in different colours, or in one wood only. it was an invention in order to employ finer specimens of wood carefully selected in the parts of a piece of furniture most noticeable. it has been since used to hide inferior wood. _vernis-martin_ (martin's varnish).--the lacquered work of a french carriage-painter named martin, who claimed to have discovered the secret of the japanese lac, and who, in 1774, was granted a monopoly for its use. he applied it successfully to all kinds of furniture, and to fan-guards and sticks. in the days of madame du pompadour vernis-martin had a great vogue, and panels prepared by martin were elaborately painted upon by lancret and boucher. to this day his varnish retains its lustre undimmed, and specimens command high prices. woods used in furniture. _high-class work._--brazil wood, coromandel, mahogany, maple, oak (various kinds), olive, rosewood, satinwood, sandalwood, sweet cedar, sweet chestnut, teak, walnut. _commoner work._--ash, beech, birch, cedars (various), deals, mahogany (various kinds), pine, walnut. _marquetry and veneers._--selected specimens for fine figuring are used as veneers, and for marquetry of various colours the following are used as being more easily stained: holly, horsechestnut, sycamore, pear, plum tree. _woods with fancy names._ king wood, partridge wood, pheasant wood, purple wood, snakewood, tulip wood. these are more rare and finely-marked foreign woods used sparingly in the most expensive furniture. to arrive at the botanical names of these is not an easy matter. to those interested a list of woods used by cabinet-makers with their botanical names is given in mr. j. hungerford pollen's "introduction to the south kensington collection of furniture." at the museum at kew gardens and in the imperial institute are collections of rare woods worth examination. i the renaissance on the continent [illustration: portion of carved cornice of pinewood, from the palazzo bensi ceccini, venice. italian; middle of sixteenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] chats on old furniture i the renaissance on the continent italy. flight of greek scholars to italy upon capture of constantinople by the turks--1453. rediscovery of greek art. florence the centre of the renaissance. leo x., pope (1475-1521). leonardo da vinci (1452-1520). raphael (1483-1520). michael angelo (1474-1564). france. francis i. (1515-1547). henry iv. (1589-1610). spain. the crown united under ferdinand and isabella (1452-1516). granada taken from the moors--1492. charles v. (1519-1555). philip ii. (1555-1598). germany. maximilian i., emperor of germany (1459-1519). holbein (1498-1543). in attempting to deal with the subject of old furniture in a manner not too technical, certain broad divisions have to be made for convenience in classification. the general reader does not want information concerning the iron bed of og, king of bashan, nor of cicero's table of citrus-wood, which cost £9,000; nor are details of the chair of dagobert and of the jewel-chest of richard of cornwall of much worth to the modern collector. it will be found convenient to eliminate much extraneous matter, such as the early origins of furniture and its development in the middle ages, and to commence in this country with the tudor period. broadly speaking, english furniture falls under three heads--the oak period, embracing the furniture of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries; the walnut period, including the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries; the mahogany period, beginning with the reign of george iii. it may be observed that the names of kings and of queens have been applied to various styles of furniture as belonging to their reign. early victorian is certainly a more expressive term than early nineteenth century. cromwellian tables, queen anne chairs, or louis seize commodes all have an especial meaning as referring to styles more or less prevalent when those personages lived. as there is no record of the makers of most of the old english furniture, and as a piece of furniture cannot be judged as can a picture, the date of manufacture cannot be precisely laid down, hence the vagueness of much of the classification of old furniture. roughly it may in england be dealt with under the tudor, the stuart, and the georgian ages. these three divisions do not coincide exactly with the periods of oak, of walnut, and of mahogany, inasmuch as the oak furniture extended well into the stuart days, and walnut was prevalent in the reigns of george i. and george ii. in any case, these broad divisions are further divided into sub-heads embracing styles which arose out of the natural development in taste, or which came and went at the caprice of fashion. [illustration: frame of wood, carved with floral scrollwork, with female terminal figures. italian; late sixteenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] the formation of a definite english character in the furniture of the three periods must be examined in conjunction with the prevailing styles in foreign furniture showing what influences were at work. many conditions governed the introduction of foreign furniture into england. renaissance art made a change in architecture, and a corresponding change took place in furniture. ecclesiastical buildings followed the continental architecture in form and design, and foreign workmen were employed by the church and by the nobility in decorating and embellishing cathedrals and abbeys and feudal castles. the early tudor days under henry vii. saw the dawn of the renaissance in england. jean de mabuse and torrigiano were invited over the sea by henry vii., and under the sturdy impulse of henry viii. classical learning and love of the fine arts were encouraged. his palaces were furnished with splendour. he wished to emulate the château of francis at fontainebleau. he tried to entice the french king's artists with more tempting terms. holbein, the great master of the german school, came to england, and his influence over tudor art was very pronounced. the florid manner of the renaissance was tempered with the broader treatment of the northern school. the art, too, of the flemish woodcarvers found sympathetic reception in this country, and the harmonious blending of the designs of the renaissance craftsmen of the italian with those of the flemish school resulted in the growth in england of the beautiful and characteristic style known as tudor. [illustration: front of coffer. chestnut wood. italian; late fifteenth century. with shield of arms supported by two male demi figures terminating in floral scrollwork. (_victoria and albert museum._)] the term renaissance is used in regard to that period in the history of art which marked the return to the classic forms employed by the greeks and romans. the change from the gothic or mediæval work to the classic feeling had its origin in italy, and spread, at first gradually but later with amazing rapidity and growing strength, into germany, spain, the netherlands, france, and finally to england. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ bridal chest. gothic design. middle of fifteenth century. (_munich national museum._)] the renaissance was in origin a literary movement, and its influence in art came through literature. the enthusiasm of the new learning acting on craftsmen already trained to the highest degree of technical skill produced work of great brilliance. never did the fine arts rise to such transcendent heights as in italy from the fourteenth to the middle of the seventeenth centuries. the late john addington symonds, in his work on "the renaissance in italy," deals in a comprehensive manner with this memorable period, during which every city in italy, great or small, was producing wonderful works of art, in painting, in sculpture, in goldsmiths' work, in woodcarving, in furniture, of which now every civilised country struggles to obtain for its art collections the scattered fragments of these great days. "during that period of prodigious activity," he says, "the entire nation seemed to be endowed with an instinct for the beautiful and with the capacity for producing it in every conceivable form." in the middle of the fourteenth century the renaissance style in woodwork was at first more evident in the churches and in the palaces of the nobility in the italian states. some of the most magnificent examples of carved woodwork are preserved in the choir-stalls, doorways and panelling of the churches and cathedrals of italy. the great artists of the day gave their talents to the production of woodwork and furniture in various materials. wood was chiefly employed in making furniture, usually oak, cypress, ebony, walnut, or chestnut, which last wood is very similar in appearance to oak. these were decorated with gilding and paintings, and were inlaid with other woods, or agate, lapis-lazuli, and marbles of various tints, with ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, or with ornaments of hammered silver. the victoria and albert museum contains some splendid examples of fourteenth and fifteenth century italian renaissance furniture, which illustrate well the magnificence and virility of the great art movement which influenced the remainder of europe. in particular, carved and gilded frames, and marriage coffers (_cassoni_) given to brides as part of their dowry to hold the bridal trousseau, are richly and effectively decorated. the frame of carved wood (illustrated p. 35), with fine scroll work and female terminal figures, is enriched with painting and gilding. the frame on the title-page of this volume is of carved wood, decorated with gold stucco. both these are sixteenth-century italian work. in fact, the study of the various types and the different kinds of ornamentation given to these _cassoni_ would be an interesting subject for the student, who would find enough material in the collection at the victoria and albert museum to enable him to follow the renaissance movement from its early days down to the time when crowded design, over-elaboration, and inharmonious details grew apace like so many weeds to choke the ideals of the master spirits of the renaissance. the front of the late fifteenth-century coffer (illustrated p. 38) is of chestnut wood, carved with a shield of arms supported by two male demi-figures, terminating in floral scroll work. there are still traces of gilding on the wood. at first the lines followed architecture in character. cabinets had pilasters, columns, and arches resembling the old roman temples. the illustration of a portion of a cornice of carved pinewood appearing as the headpiece to this chapter shows this tendency. the marriage coffers had classic heads upon them, but gradually this chaste style gave place to rich ornamentation with designs of griffins and grotesque masks. the chairs, too, were at first very severe in outline, usually with a high back and fitted with a stretcher between the legs, which was carved, as was also the back of the chair. in the middle of the fifteenth century gothic art had attained its high-water mark in germany before the new art from italy had crossed the alps. we reproduce a bridal chest, of the middle of the fifteenth century, from the collection in the munich national museum, which shows the basis of gothic art in england prior to the revival and before further foreign influences were brought to bear on english art (p. 39). the influence of italian art upon france soon made itself felt. italian architects and craftsmen were invited by francis i. and by the princesses of the house of medici, of which pope leo x. was the illustrious head, to build palaces and châteaux in the renaissance style. the tuileries, fontainebleau, and the louvre were the result of this importation. primaticcio and cellini founded a school of sculptors and wood-carvers in france, of which jean goujon stands pre-eminent. the furniture began gradually to depart from the old gothic traditions, as is shown in the design of the oak chest of the late fifteenth century preserved in the dublin museum, which we illustrate, and commenced to emulate the gorgeousness of italy. this is a particularly instructive example, showing the transition between the gothic and the renaissance styles. [illustration: front of oak chest. french; fifteenth century. (_dublin museum._)] the french renaissance sideboard in the illustration (p. 45) is a fine example of the middle of the sixteenth century. it is carved in walnut. the moulded top is supported in front by an arcading decorated with two male and two female terminal figures, which are enriched with masks and floral ornament. behind the arcading is a table supporting a cupboard and resting in front on four turned columns; it is fitted with three drawers, the fronts of which, as well as that of the cupboard, are decorated with monsters, grotesque masks, and scroll work. [illustration: _by permission of t. foster shattock, esq._ walnut sideboard. french; middle of sixteenth century.] the impulse given by francis i. was responsible for much decorative work in the early period of the french renaissance, and many beautiful examples exist in the churches and châteaux of france to which his name has been given. it is noticeable that the chief difference between the italian and the french renaissance lies in the foundation of gothic influence underlying the newer renaissance ornament in french work of the period. flamboyant arches and gothic canopies were frequently retained and mingled with classic decoration. the french clung to their older characteristics with more tenacity, inasmuch as the renaissance was a sudden importation rather than a natural development of slower growth. the french renaissance cabinet of walnut illustrated (p. 48) is from lyons, and is of the later part of the sixteenth century. it is finely carved with terminal figures, masks, trophies of ornaments, and other ornament. in comparison with the sixteenth-century ebony cabinet of the period of henry iv., finely inlaid with ivory in most refined style, it is obvious that a great variety of sumptuous furniture was being made by the production of such diverse types as these, and that the craftsmen were possessed of a wealth of invention. the range of english craftsmen's designs during the renaissance in this country was never so extensive, as can be seen on a detailed examination of english work. [illustration: cabinet of walnut french (lyons); second half of sixteenth century. carved with terminal figures, masks, and trophies of arms. (_victoria and albert museum._)] in spain the italian feeling became acclimatised more readily than in france. in the sixteenth century the wood carving of spain is of exceeding beauty. the decoration of the choir of the cathedral at toledo is held to be one of the finest examples of the spanish renaissance. in furniture the cabinets and buffets of the spanish craftsmen are of perfect grace and of characteristic design. the older spanish cabinets are decorated externally with delicate ironwork and with columns of ivory or bone painted and richly gilded, exhibiting moorish influence in their character. many of the more magnificent specimens are richly inlaid with silver, and are the work of the artists of seville, of toledo, or of valladolid. the first illustration of a cabinet and stand is a typically spanish design, and the second illustration of the carved walnut chest in the national archælogical museum at madrid is of the sixteenth century, when the spanish wood-carvers had developed the renaissance spirit and reached a very high level in their art. simultaneously with the italianising of french art a similar wave of novelty was spreading over the netherlands and germany. the flemish renaissance approaches more nearly to the english in the adaptation of the italian style, or it would be more accurate to say that the english is more closely allied to the art of the netherlands, as it drew much of its inspiration from the flemish wood-carvers. the spiral turned legs and columns, the strap frets cut out and applied to various parts, the squares between turnings often left blank to admit of a little ebony diamond, are all of the same family as the english styles. ebony inlay was frequently used, but the flemish work of this period was nearly all in oak. marqueterie of rich design was made, the inlay being of various coloured woods and shaded. mother-of-pearl and ivory were also employed to heighten the effect. [illustration: french cabinet. ebony and ivory marquetry work. middle of sixteenth century. (_from the collection of m. emile peyre._)] [illustration: spanish cabinet and stand. carved chestnut; first half of sixteenth century. width of cabinet, 3 ft. 2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 4 in.; height, 4 ft. 10 in. (_victoria and albert museum._)] the italian renaissance laid a light hand upon the flemish artists, who, while unavoidably coming under its influence, at first copied its ornateness but subsequently proceeded on their own lines. much quaint figure work, in which they greatly excelled, was used by the flemish wood-carvers in their joinery. it is grotesque in character, and, like all their work, boldly executed. the influx of foreign influences upon the netherlands was in the main as successfully resisted as is the encroachment of the sea across their land-locked dykes. the growth of the spanish power made charles v. the most powerful prince in europe. ferdinand of spain held the whole spanish peninsula except portugal, with sardinia and the island of sicily, and he won the kingdom of naples. his daughter joanna married philip, the son of maximilian of austria, and of mary the daughter of charles the bold. their son charles thus inherited kingdoms and duchies from each of his parents and grandparents, and besides the dominions of ferdinand and isabella, he held burgundy and the netherlands. in 1519 he was chosen emperor as charles v. flooded with italian artists and austrian and spanish rulers, it is interesting to note how the national spirit in art was kept alive, and was of such strong growth that it influenced in marked manner the english furniture of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century, as will be shown in a subsequent chapter. [illustration: spanish chest; carved walnut. sixteenth century. (_in the national museum, madrid._)] recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. chest, gothic, carved with parchemin panels, with a wrought-iron lock, from nuremburg castle, german, about 1500. christie, january 29, 1904 31 10 0 cabinet, walnut wood, of architectural design, with folding doors above and below and small drawers, carved with arabesque foliage and scrolls in relief, and with columns at the angles, 69 in. high, 38 in. wide, french, middle of the sixteenth century. christie, april 12, 1904 21 0 0 coffer, oak, the front divided by six buttresses, the steel lock pierced with tracery, 65 in. long, 46 in. high, french, late fifteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 126 0 0 coffer, large walnut wood, the whole of the front and sides carved in low relief, the lock is rectangular, and pierced with flamboyant tracery, french (provincial), early part of the fifteenth century, 84 in. wide, 36 in. high. christie, may 6, 1904 50 8 0 coffer, walnut wood, the front and sides divided into arch-shaped panels containing gothic tracery, 86 in. wide, 32 in. high, french, fifteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 52 10 0 chair, walnut wood, with semicircular seat, the back composed of six upright rectangular panels, each containing various forms of gothic tracery; below is a longitudinal panel of tracery, 27 in. wide, 29 in. high, french or flemish, fifteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 91 7 0 credence, oak, with folding doors and drawers above and shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the various door panels, &c., carved in low relief; at the back below is linen fold panelling, 54 in. wide, 62 in. high, probably french, early sixteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 336 0 0 cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form, with folding doors above and below, and two drawers in the centre, carved with grotesque terminal figure and gadrooned mouldings, strapwork and duplicated rosettes, french work, early seventeenth century, 78 in. high, 48 in. wide. christie, may 6, 1904 110 5 0 cabinet, walnut-wood, in two parts, of rectangular form, with folding doors below and door above; at the sides are terminal male and female figures, the centres of the doors carved, 92 in. high, 49 in. wide, french work (lyons school), second quarter of sixteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 99 15 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. ii the english renaissance [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ carved oak chest. english; sixteenth century. panels finely carved with gothic tracery.] ii the english renaissance henry viii. 1509-1547. edward vi. 1547-1553. mary 1553-1558. elizabeth 1558-1603. 1525. hampton court built. 1566. increased commercial prosperity. foundation of royal exchange by sir thomas gresham. 1580. drake comes home from the new world with plunder worth half a million. 1585. antwerp captured by the duke of parma; flight of merchants to london. transfer of commercial supremacy from antwerp to london. beginning of carrying trade, especially with flanders. [illustration: bench of oak. french; about 1500. with panels of linen ornament. seat arranged as a coffer. (formerly in the collection of m. emile peyre.) (_royal scottish museum, edinburgh._)] the opening years of the sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the renaissance movement in england. the oak chest had become a settle with high back and arms. the fine example of an early sixteenth-century oak chest illustrated (p. 59) shows how the gothic style had impressed itself on articles of domestic furniture. the credence, or tasting buffet, had developed into the tudor sideboard, where a cloth was spread and candles placed. with more peaceful times a growth of domestic refinement required comfortable and even luxurious surroundings. the royal palaces at richmond and windsor were filled with costly foreign furniture. the mansions which were taking the place of the old feudal castles found employment for foreign artists and craftsmen who taught the english woodcarver. in the early days of henry viii. the classical style supplanted the gothic, or was in great measure mingled with it. many fine structures exist which belong to this transition period, during which the mixed style was predominant. the woodwork of king's college chapel at cambridge is held to be an especially notable example. [illustration: portion of carved walnut virginal. flemish; sixteenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: french carved oak coffer. showing interlaced ribbon work. second half of sixteenth century. (height, 2 ft. 1 in.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.) (_victoria and albert museum._)] the great hall at hampton court dates from 1531, or five years after cardinal wolsey had given up his palace to henry viii. its grand proportions, its high-pitched roof and pendants, display the art of the woodcarver in great excellence. this hall, like others of the same period, had an open hearth in the centre, on which logs of wood were placed, and the smoke found its way out through a cupola, or louvre, in the roof. the roofs of the early tudor mansions were magnificent specimens of woodwork. but the old style of king-post, queen-post, or hammer-beam roof was prevalent. the panelling, too, of halls and rooms retained the formal character in its mouldings, and various "linen" patterns were used, so called from their resemblance to a folded napkin, an ornamentation largely used towards the end of the perpendicular style, which was characteristic of english domestic architecture in the fifteenth century. to this period belongs the superb woodcarving of the renowned choir stalls of henry vii.'s chapel in westminster abbey. the bench of oak illustrated (p. 60) shows a common form of panel with linen ornament, and is french, of about the year 1500. the seat, as will be seen, is arranged as a locked coffer. [illustration: fireplace and oak panelling from the "old palace" at bromley-by-bow. built in 1606. (_victoria and albert museum._)] the elizabethan woodcarver revelled in grotesque figure work, in intricate interlacings of strapwork, borrowed from the flemish, and ribbon ornamentation, adapted from the french. he delighted in massive embellishment of magnificent proportions. among tudor woodwork the carved oak screen of the middle temple hall is a noteworthy example of the sumptuousness and splendour of interior decoration of the english renaissance. these screens supporting the minstrels' gallery in old halls are usually exceptionally rich in detail. gray's inn (dated 1560) and the charterhouse (dated 1571) are other examples of the best period of sixteenth-century woodwork in england. christ church at oxford, grimsthorp in lincolnshire, kenninghall in norfolk, layer marney towers in essex, and sutton place at guildford, are all representative structures typical of the halls and manor houses being built at the time of the english renaissance. in the victoria and albert museum has been re-erected a room having the oak panelling from the "old palace" at bromley-by-bow, which was built in 1606. the massive fireplace with the royal coat of arms above, with the niches in which stand carved figures of two saints, together with the contemporary iron fire-dogs standing in the hearth, give a picture of what an old elizabethan hall was like. [illustration: elizabethan bedstead. dated 1593. carved oak, ornamented in marquetry. (height, 7 ft. 4 in.; length, 7 ft. 11 in.; width, 5 ft. 8 in.) (_victoria and albert museum._)] under queen elizabeth new impulses stirred the nation, and a sumptuous court set the fashion in greater luxury of living. gloriana, with her merchant-princes, her fleet of adventurers on the high seas, and the pomp and circumstance of her troop of foreign lovers, brought foreign fashions and foreign art into commoner usage. the growth of luxurious habits in the people was eyed askance by her statesmen; "england spendeth more in wines in one year," complained cecil, "than it did in ancient times in four years." the chimney-corner took the place of the open hearth; chimneys were for the first time familiar features in middle-class houses. the insanitary rush-floor was superseded by wood, and carpets came into general use. even pillows, deemed by the hardy yeomanry as only fit "for women in child-bed," found a place in the massive and elaborately carved elizabethan bedstead. the illustration of the fine elizabethan bedstead (on p. 66) gives a very good idea of what the domestic furniture was like in the days immediately succeeding the spanish armada. it is carved in oak; with columns, tester, and headboard showing the classic influence. it is ornamented in marquetry, and bears the date 1593. all over england were springing up town halls and fine houses of the trading-classes, and manor houses and palaces of the nobility worthy of the people about to establish a formidable position in european politics. hatfield house, hardwick hall, audley end, burleigh, knole, and longleat, all testify to the renaissance which swept over england at this time. stately terraces with italian gardens, long galleries hung with tapestries, and lined with carved oak chairs and elaborate cabinets were marked features in the days of the new splendour. men's minds, led by raleigh, the prince of company promoters, and fired by drake's buccaneering exploits, turned to the new world, hitherto under the heel of spain. dreams of galleons laden with gold and jewels stimulated the ambition of adventurous gallants, and quickened the nation's pulse. the love of travel became a portion of the englishman's heritage. the italian spirit had reached england in full force. the poetry and romances of italy affected all the elizabethan men of letters. shakespeare, in his "merchant of venice" and his other plays, plainly shows the italian influence. in costume, in speech, and in furniture, it became the fashion to follow italy. to ascham it seemed like "the enchantment of circe brought out of italy to mar men's manners in england." [illustration: panel of carved oak. english; early sixteenth century. showing interlaced strapwork. (_victoria and albert museum._)] the result of this wave of fashion on the domestic furniture of england was to impart to it the elegance of italian art combined with a national sturdiness of character seemingly inseparable from english art at all periods. as the reign of queen elizabeth extended from the year 1558 to the year 1603, it is usual to speak of architecture and furniture of the latter half of the sixteenth century as elizabethan. a favourite design in elizabethan woodwork is the interlaced strapwork (see illustration p. 68), which was derived from similar designs employed by the contemporary stonecarver, and is found on flemish woodwork of the same period. the panel of a sixteenth-century flemish virginal, carved in walnut, illustrated, shows this form of decoration. grotesque terminal figures, half-human, half-monster, supported the front of the buffets, or were the supporting terminals of cornices. this feature is an adaptation from the caryatides, the supporting figures used instead of columns in architecture, which in renaissance days extended to woodwork. table-legs and bed-posts swelled into heavy, acorn-shaped supports of massive dimensions. cabinets were sometimes inlaid, as was also the room panelling, but it cannot be said that at this period the art of marquetry had arrived at a great state of perfection in this country. it is noticeable that in the rare pieces that are inlaid in the late tudor and early jacobean period the inlay itself is a sixteenth of an inch thick, whereas in later inlays of more modern days the inlay is thinner and flimsier. in the flemish examples ivory was often used, and holly and sycamore and box seem to have been the favourite woods selected for inlay. take, for example, the mirror with the frame of carved oak, with scroll outline and narrow bands inlaid with small squares of wood, alternately light and dark. this inlay is very coarsely done, and unworthy to compare with italian marquetry of contemporary date, or of an earlier period. the uprights and feet of the frame, it will be noticed, are baluster-shaped. the glass mirror is of nineteenth-century manufacture. the date carved upon the frame is 1603, the first year of the reign of james i., and it is stated to have come from derby old hall. the court cupboard, also of the same date, begins to show the coming style of jacobean ornamentation in the turning in the upright pillars and supports and the square baluster termination. the massive carving and elaborate richness of the early elizabethan period have given place to a more restrained decoration. between the drawers is the design of a tulip in marquetry, and narrow bands of inlay are used to decorate the piece. in place of the chimerical monsters we have a portrait in wood of a lady, for which arabella stuart might have sat as model. the days were approaching when furniture was designed for use, and ornament was put aside if it interfered with the structural utility of the piece. the wrought-iron handle to the drawer should be noted, and in connection with the observation brought to bear by the beginner on genuine specimens in the victoria and albert museum and other collections, it is well not to let any detail escape minute attention. hinges and lock escutcheons and handles to drawers must not be neglected in order to acquire a sound working knowledge of the peculiarities of the different periods. [illustration: mirror. glass in oak frame with carved scroll outline and narrow bands inlaid with small squares of wood. the glass nineteenth century. english. dated 1603. (_victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: court cupboard, carved oak. english. dated 1603. decorated with narrow bands inlaid, and having inlaid tulip between drawers. (_victoria and albert museum._)] in contrast with this specimen, the elaborately carved court cupboard of a slightly earlier period should be examined. it bears carving on every available surface. it has been "restored," and restored pieces have an unpleasant fashion of suggesting that sundry improvements have been carried out in the process. at any rate, as it stands it is over-laboured, and entirely lacking in reticence. the elaboration of enrichment, while executed in a perfectly harmonious manner, should convey a lesson to the student of furniture. there is an absence of contrast; had portions of it been left uncarved how much more effective would have been the result! as it is it stands, wonderful as is the technique, somewhat of a warning to the designer to cultivate a studied simplicity rather than to run riot in a profusion of detail. [illustration: court cupboard, carved oak. about 1580. (restored.) (_victoria and albert museum._)] another interesting court cupboard, of the early seventeenth century, shows the more restrained style that was rapidly succeeding the earlier work. this piece is essentially english in spirit, and is untouched save the legs, which have been restored. [illustration: _by kind permission of t. e. price stretche, esq._ court cupboard, early seventeenth century. with secret hiding-place at top.] the table which is illustrated (p. 78) is a typical example of the table in ordinary use in elizabethan days. this table replaced a stone altar in a church in shropshire at the time of the reformation. it was late in the reign of queen elizabeth that upholstered chairs became more general. sir john harrington, writing in 1597, gives evidence of this in the assertion that "the fashion of cushioned chayrs is taken up in every merchant's house." wooden seats had hitherto not been thought too hard, and chairs imported from spain had leather seats and backs of fine tooled work richly gilded and decorated. in the latter days of elizabeth loose cushions were used for chairs and for window seats, and were elaborately wrought in velvet, or were of satin embroidered in colours, with pearls as ornamentation, and edged with gold or silver lace. the upholstered chair belongs more properly to the jacobean period, and in the next chapter will be shown several specimens of those used by james i. in elizabethan panelling to rooms, in chimneypieces, doorways, screens such as those built across the end of a hall and supporting the minstrels' gallery, the wood used was nearly always english oak, and most of the thinner parts, such as that designed for panels and smaller surfaces, was obtained by splitting the timber, thus exhibiting the beautiful figure of the wood so noticeable in old examples. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. chest, oak, with inlaid panels under arches, with caryatid figures carved in box-wood, english, temp. elizabeth. christie, january 29, 1904. 40 9 0 tudor mantelpiece, with elaborately carved jambs, panels, } brackets, sides, and cornice, 6 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. high.} herbert wright, ipswich, february 19, 1904 } } 155 0 0 old oak panelling, in all about 60 ft. run and 6 ft. 6 in. } high, with 17 carved panels and 3 fluted pilasters } fitted in same, part being surmounted by a cornice. } herbert wright, ipswich, february 19, 1904 } credence, walnut-wood, with a cupboard and drawer above and shelf beneath, the corners are returned, the central panel has carved upon it, in low relief, circular medallions, pierced steel hinges and lock, 36 in. wide, 50 in. high, early sixteenth century. christie, may 6, 1904 346 0 0 bedstead, elizabethan, with panelled and carved canopy top, supported by fluted and carved pillars, inlaid and panelled back, with raised figures and flowers in relief, also having a carved panelled footboard. c. w. provis & son, manchester, may 9, 1904 22 10 0 bedstead, oak elizabethan, with carved back, dated 1560, and small cupboard fitted with secret sliding panel, and further having carved and inlaid panelled top with inlaid panels, the whole surmounted with heavy cornice. c. w. provis & son, manchester, may 9, 1904 33 0 0 sideboard, elizabethan old oak, 6 ft. 2 in. wide by 7 ft. 6 in. high, with carved canopy top; also fitted with gallery shelf, supported by lions rampant. c. w. provis & son, manchester. may 9, 1904 60 0 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. [illustration: _by kindness of t. e. price stretche, esq._ elizabethan oak table.] iii stuart or jacobean. seventeenth century [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring._ gate-leg table.] iii stuart or jacobean. seventeenth century james i. 1603-1625. charles i. 1625-1649. the commonwealth 1649-1660. 1619. tapestry factory established at mortlake, under sir francis crane. ---banqueting hall added to whitehall by inigo jones. 1632. vandyck settled in london on invitation of charles i. 1651. navigation act passed; aimed blow (1572-1652) at dutch carrying trade. all goods to be imported in english ships or in ships of country producing goods. with the advent of the house of stuart the england under james i. saw new fashions introduced in furniture. it has already been mentioned that the greater number of old houses which are now termed tudor or elizabethan were erected in the days of james i. at the beginning of a new monarchy fashion in art rarely changes suddenly, so that the early pieces of jacobean furniture differ very little from elizabethan in character. consequently the court cupboard, dated 1603, and mirror of the same year (illustrated on p. 70), though bearing the date of the first year of the reign of james, more properly belong to tudor days. in the bodleian library at oxford there is preserved a chair of fine workmanship and of historic memory. it was made from the oak timbers of the _golden hind_, the ship in which sir francis drake made his adventurous voyage of discovery round the world. in spite of many secret enemies "deaming him the master thiefe of the unknowne world," queen elizabeth came to deptford and came aboard the _golden hind_ and "there she did make captain drake knight, in the same ship, for reward of his services; his armes were given him, a ship on the world, which ship, by her majestie's commandment, is lodged in a dock at deptford, for a monument to all posterity." [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ oak chair made from the timber of the _golden hind_. commonly called "sir francis drake's chair." (_at the bodleian library._)] it remained for many years at deptford dockyard, and became the resort of holiday folk, who made merry in the cabin, which was converted into a miniature banqueting hall; but when it was too far decayed to be repaired it was broken up, and a sufficient quantity of sound wood was selected from it and made into a chair, which was presented to the university of oxford. this was in the time of charles ii., and the poet cowley has written some lines on it, in which he says that drake and his _golden hind_ could not have wished a more blessed fate, since to "this pythagorean ship" "... a seat of endless rest is given to her in oxford, and to him in heaven--" which, though quite unintentional on the part of the poet, is curiously satiric. [illustration: _by permission of the master of the charterhouse._ oak table, dated 1616, bearing arms of thomas sutton, founder of the charterhouse hospital.] the piece is highly instructive as showing the prevailing design for a sumptuous chair in the late seventeenth century. the middle arch in the back of the chair is disfigured by a tablet with an inscription, which has been placed there. of the early days of james i. is a finely carved oak table, dated 1616. this table is heavily moulded and carved with garlands between cherubs' heads, and shields bearing the arms of thomas sutton, the founder of the charterhouse hospital. the upper part of the table is supported on thirteen columns, with quasi-corinthian columns and enriched shafts, standing on a moulded h-shaped base. it will be seen that the designers had not yet thrown off the trammels of architecture which dominated much of the renaissance woodwork. the garlands are not the garlands of grinling gibbons, and although falling within the jacobean period, it lacks the charm which belong to typical jacobean pieces. at knole, in the possession of lord sackville, there are some fine specimens of early jacobean furniture, illustrations of which are included in this volume. the chair used by king james i. when sitting to the painter mytens is of peculiar interest. the cushion, worn and threadbare with age, is in all probability the same cushion used by james. the upper part of the chair is trimmed with a band of gold thread. the upholstering is red velvet, and the frame, which is of oak, bears traces of gilding upon it, and is studded with copper nails. the chair in design, with the half circular supports, follows old venetian patterns. the smaller chair is of the same date, and equally interesting as a fine specimen; the old embroidery, discoloured and worn though it be, is of striking design and must have been brilliant and distinctive three hundred years ago. the date of these pieces is about 1620, the year when the "pilgrim fathers" landed in america. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ chair used by james i. in the possession of lord sackville.] from the wealth of jacobean furniture at knole it is difficult to make a representative selection, but the stool we reproduce (p. 90) is interesting, inasmuch as it was a piece of furniture in common use. the chairs evidently were state chairs, but the footstool was used in all likelihood by those who sat below the salt, and were of less significance. the stuffed settee which finds a place in the billiard-room at knole and the sumptuous sofa in the long gallery, with its mechanical arrangement for altering the angle at the head, are objects of furniture difficult to equal. the silk and gold thread coverings are faded, and the knotted fringe and gold braid have tarnished under the hand of time, but their structural design is so effective that the modern craftsman has made luxurious furniture after these models. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ jacobean chair at knole. in the possession of lord sackville.] [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ jacobean stool at knole. in the possession of lord sackville.] [illustration: upper half of carved walnut door. showing ribbon work. french; latter part of sixteenth century. (height of door, 4 ft. 7 in.; width, 1 ft. 11 in.) (_victoria and albert museum._)] carved oak chests were not largely made in jacobean days--not, at any rate, for the same purpose as they were in tudor or earlier times. as church coffers they doubtless continued to be required, but for articles of domestic furniture other than as linen chests their multifarious uses had vanished. early jacobean coffers clearly show the departure from elizabethan models. they become more distinctly english in feeling, though the interlaced ribbon decoration, so frequently used, is an adaptation from french work, which pattern was now becoming acclimatised. the french carved oak coffer of the second half of the sixteenth century (illustrated p. 61) shows from what source some of the english designs were derived. in the portion of the french door which we give as an illustration (on p. 91), it will be seen with what grace and artistic excellence of design and with what restraint the french woodcarvers utilised the running ribbon. the ribbon pattern has been variously used by designers of furniture; it appears in chippendale's chair-backs, where it almost exceeds the limitations of the technique of woodcarving. art in the early days of charles i. was undimmed. the tapestry factory at mortlake, established by james i., was further encouraged by the "white king." he took a great and a personal interest in all matters relating to art. under his auspices the cartoons of raphael were brought to england to foster the manufacture of tapestry. he gave his patronage to foreign artists and to foreign craftsmen, and in every way attempted to bring english art workers into line with their contemporaries on the continent. vandyck came over to become "principal painter of their majesties at st. james's," keeping open table at blackfriars and living in almost regal style. his grace and distinction and the happy circumstance of his particular style being coincident with the most picturesque period in english costume, have won him a place among the world's great painters. fine portraits, at windsor and at madrid, at dresden and at the pitti palace, at the louvre and in the hermitage at petersburg, testify to the european fame of the painter's brilliant gallery representing the finest flower of the english aristocracy, prelates, statesmen, courtiers and beautiful women that were gathered together at the court of charles i. and his queen henrietta maria. [illustration: oak chair. charles i. period. with arms of thomas wentworth, first earl of strafford (1593-1641). (_victoria and albert museum._)] in early stuart days the influence of inigo jones, the surveyor of works to charles i., made itself felt in woodwork and interior decorations. he was possessed with a great love and reverence for the classicism of italy, and introduced into his banqueting hall at whitehall (now the united service museum), and st. paul's, covent garden, a chaster style, which was taken up by the designers of furniture, who began to abandon the misguided use of ornament of later elizabethan days. in the victoria and albert museum is an oak chair with the arms of thomas wentworth, first earl of strafford, which, in addition to its historic interest, is a fine example of the chair of the period of charles i. (illustrated p. 93). [illustration: italian chair, about 1620. thence introduced into england. (_victoria and albert museum._)] it is certain that the best specimens of jacobean furniture of this period, with their refined lines and well-balanced proportions, are suggestive of the stately diction of clarendon or the well-turned lyrics of herrick. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & son_ high-back oak chair. early jacobean. elaborately carved with shell and scroll foliage. (formerly in the stuart macdonald family, and originally in the possession of king charles i.)] in the illustration of a sixteenth-century chair in common use in italy, it will be seen to what source the jacobean woodworkers looked for inspiration. the fine, high-backed oak stuart chair, elaborately carved with bold shell and scroll foliage, having carved supports, stuffed upholstered seats, and loose cushion covered in old spanish silk damask, is a highly interesting example. it was long in the possession of the stuart macdonald family, and is believed to have belonged to charles i. the gate-leg table, sometimes spoken of as cromwellian, belongs to this middle jacobean style. it cannot be said with any degree of accuracy that in the commonwealth days a special style of furniture was developed. from all evidence it would seem that the manufacture of domestic furniture went on in much the same manner under cromwell as under charles. iconoclasts as were the puritans, it is doubtful whether they extended their work of destruction to articles in general use. the bigot had "no starch in his linen, no gay furniture in his house." obviously the civil war very largely interfered with the encouragement and growth of the fine arts, but when furniture had to be made there is no doubt the roundhead cabinetmaker and the anabaptist carpenter produced as good joinery and turning as they did before charles made his historic descent upon the house in his attempt to arrest the five members. there is a style of chair, probably imported from holland, with leather back and leather seat which is termed "cromwellian," probably on account of its severe lines, but there is no direct evidence that this style was peculiarly of commonwealth usage. the illustration (p. 97) gives the type of chair, but the covering is modern. that cromwell himself had no dislike for the fine arts is proved by his care of the raphael cartoons, and we are enabled to reproduce an illustration of a fine old ebony cabinet with moulded front, fitted with numerous drawers, which was formerly the property of oliver cromwell. it was at olivers stanway, once the residence of the eldred family. the stand is carved with shells and scrolls, and the scroll-shaped legs are enriched with carved female figures, the entire stand being gilded. this piece is most probably of italian workmanship, and was of course made long before the protector's day, showing marked characteristics of renaissance style. [illustration: jacobean chair, cane back cromwellian chair. armchair. dated 1623. armchair. with inlaid back. jacobean chairs. (_by permission of t. e. price stretche, esq._)] the carved oak cradle (p. 107), with the letters "g. b. m. b." on one side, and "october, 14 dai," on the other, and bearing the date 1641, shows the type of piece in common use. it is interesting to the collector to make a note of the turned knob of wood so often found on doors and as drawer handles on untouched old specimens of this period, but very frequently removed by dealers and replaced by metal handles of varying styles, all of which may be procured by the dozen in tottenham court road, coarse replicas of old designs. another point worthy of attention is the wooden peg in the joinery, securing the tenon into the mortice, which is visible in old pieces. it will be noticed in several places in this cradle. in modern imitations, unless very thoughtfully reproduced, these oaken pegs are not visible. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ ebony cabinet. on stand gilded and richly carved. formerly the property of oliver cromwell. (from olivers stanway, at one time the seat of the eldred family.)] in the page of jacobean chairs showing the various styles, the more severe piece, dated 1623, is early jacobean, and the fine unrestored armchair of slightly later date shows in the stretcher the wear given by the feet of the sitters. it is an interesting piece; the stiles in the back are inlaid with pearwood and ebony. the other armchair with its cane panels in back is of later stuart days. it shows the transitional stage between the scrolled-arm type of chair, wholly of wood, and the more elaborate type (illustrated p. 123) of the james ii. period. [illustration: jacobean carved oak chairs. yorkshire, about 1640. derbyshire; early seventeenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: _by permission of the rt. hon. sir spencer ponsonby-fane, g.c.b, i.s.o._ jacobean oak cupboard. about 1620.] in addition to the finer pieces of seventeenth-century furniture to be found in the seats of the nobility, such as at penshurst, or in the manor houses and homes of the squires and smaller landowners, there was much furniture of a particularly good design in use at farmsteads from one end of the country to the other, in days when a prosperous class of yeoman followed the tastes of their richer neighbours. this farmhouse furniture is nowadays much sought after. it was of local manufacture, and is distinctly english in its character. oak dressers either plain or carved, were made not only in wales--"welsh dressers" having become almost a trade term--but in various parts of england, in yorkshire, in derbyshire, in sussex, and in suffolk. they are usually fitted with two or three open shelves, and sometimes with cupboards on each side. the better preserved specimens have still their old drop-handles and hinges of brass. it is not easy to procure fine examples nowadays, as it became fashionable two or three years ago to collect these, and in addition to oak dressers from the farmhouses of normandy, equally old and quaint, which were imported to supply a popular demand, a great number of modern imitations were made up from old wood--church pews largely forming the framework of the dressers, which were not difficult to imitate successfully. the particular form of chair known as the "yorkshire chair" is of the same period. certain localities seem to have produced peculiar types of chairs which local makers made in great numbers. it will be noticed that even in these conditions, with a continuous manufacture going on, the patterns were not exact duplicates of each other, as are the machine-made chairs turned out of a modern factory, where the maker has no opportunity to introduce any personal touches, but has to obey the iron law of his machine. as a passing hint to collectors of old oak furniture, it may be observed that it very rarely happens that two chairs can be found together of the same design. there may be a great similarity of ornament and a particularly striking resemblance, but the chair with its twin companion beside it suggests that one, if not both, are spurious. the same peculiarity is exhibited in old brass candlesticks, and especially the old dutch brass with circular platform in middle of candlestick. one may handle fifty without finding two that are turned with precisely the same form of ornament. the usual feature of the chair which is termed "yorkshire" is that it has an open back in the form of an arcade, or a back formed with two crescent-shaped cross-rails, the decorations of the back usually bearing acorn-shaped knobs either at the top of the rail or as pendants. this type is not confined to yorkshire, as they have frequently been found in derbyshire, in oxfordshire, and in worcestershire, and a similar variety may be found in old farmhouses in east anglia. in the illustration of the two oak chairs (p. 105), the one with arms is of the charles i. period, the other is later and belongs to the latter half of the seventeenth century. the jacobean oak cupboard (illustrated p. 101) is in date about 1620. at the side there are perforations to admit air, which shows that it was used as a butter cupboard. the doors have an incised decoration of conventional design. the lower part is carved in style unmistakably jacobean in nature. the pattern on the two uprights at the top is repeatedly found in pieces evidently designed locally for use in farmhouses. it is not too much to hope that enough has been said concerning jacobean furniture of the early and middle seventeenth century to show that it possesses a peculiar charm and simplicity in the lines of its construction, which make it a very pleasing study to the earnest collector who wishes to procure a few genuine specimens of old furniture, which, while being excellent in artistic feeling, are not unprocurable by reason of their rarity and excessive cost. it should be within the power of the careful collector, after following the hints in this volume, and after examining well-selected examples in such a collection as that at the victoria and albert museum, to obtain, without unreasonable expenditure, after patient search, one or two jacobean pieces of undoubted authenticity. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. fenton & sons._ jacobean oak chairs. armchair, time of charles i. yorkshire chair. late seventeenth century.] recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. cabinet, jacobean oak, with two drawers, and folding doors below enclosing drawers, decorated with rectangular panels in relief, inlaid in ebony and ivory, and with baluster columns at the side--48 in. high, 46 in. wide. christie, november 27, 1903 44 2 0 cabinet, jacobean black oak, 5 ft. wide by 6 ft. 2 in. high, fitted with cupboards above and below, with sunk panelled folding doors, carved with busts of warriors in high relief, the pilasters carved with mask heads and caryatid figures, the whole carved with floral scrolls and other devices. capes, dunn & pilcher, manchester, december 9, 1903 57 0 0 chairs, set of three jacobean oak, with canework seats, and panels in the backs, the borders carved with scrolls, and on scroll legs with stretchers. christie, january 29, 1904 52 10 0 table, cromwell, oak, on spiral legs. dowell, edinburgh, march 12, 1904 11 0 6 elbow-chair, oak, scotch, back having carved wheel, "a. r., 1663." dowell, edinburgh, march 12, 1904 60 18 0 cabinet, jacobean oak, with drawer and folding doors below, with moulded rectangular panels and balusters in relief, 50 in. high, 46 in. wide. christie, july 1, 1904 35 14 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. [illustration: cradle, time of charles i. carved oak; with letters g. b. m. b. dated 1641. (_victoria and albert museum._)] iv stuart or jacobean. late seventeenth century [illustration: (_after picture by caspar netscher_) interior of dutch house. latter half of seventeenth century.] iv stuart or jacobean. late seventeenth century charles ii. 1660-1685. james ii. 1685-1688. william and mary. 1689-1694. william 1694-1702. sir christopher wren (1632-1723). grinling gibbons (1648-1726). 1660. bombay became a british possession. importation of indo-portuguese furniture. 1666. great fire in london. much valuable furniture destroyed. 1675-1710. st. paul's cathedral built under wren's direction. 1685. edict of nantes revoked. spitalfields' silk industry founded by french refugees. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ cabinet of the time of charles ii. with exterior finely decorated with needlework.] after the civil war, when charles ii. came into his own again, the furniture of the restoration period most certainly took its colour from the gay court with which the merry monarch surrounded himself. the cabinet which we reproduce has the royal arms embroidered on the cover, and is a beautiful example of intricate cabinetmaking. the surface of the piece is entirely covered with needlework. on the front stand a cavalier and lady, hand-in-hand. on the side panel a cavalier is leading a lady on horseback. on the back a man drives a laden camel, and on another panel is shown the traveller being received by an old man in the grounds of the same castle which appears all through the scenes. this suggests the love-story of some cavalier and his lady. the casket is worthy to have held the love-letters of the chevalier grammont to la belle hamilton. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ cabinet of the time of charles ii. showing interior and nest of drawers.] as is usual in pieces of this nature, the cabinet contains many artfully devised hiding places. a tiny spring behind the lock reveals one secret drawer, and another is hidden beneath the inkwell. there are in all five of such secret compartments--or rather five of them have been at present discovered--there may be more. the illustration of the cabinet open shows what a nest of drawers it holds. in the days of plots, when titus oates set half the nation by the ears, when james solemnly warned the merry charles of plots against his life, provoking the cynical retort, "they will never kill me, james, to make you king," secret drawers were no doubt a necessity to a fashionable cabinet. catherine of braganza, his queen, brought with her from portugal many sumptuous fashions in furniture, notably cabinets and chairs of spanish and portuguese workmanship. the cavaliers scattered by the civil war returned, and as in their enforced exile on the continent they had cultivated foreign tastes, it was only natural that dutch, french, and italian work found its way to this country and effected the character of the early furniture of the charles ii. period. from portugal came the high-backed chair, having the back and the seat of leather cut with fine design, and coloured or gilded. this leather work is of exquisite character, and we reproduce a portion of a portuguese chair-back of this period to show the artistic excellence of the design. with catherine of braganza came the marriage dower of bombay, and from india, where the settlement of goa had been portuguese for centuries, were sent to europe the carved chairs in ebony, inlaid in ivory, made by the native workmen from portuguese and italian models, but enriched with pierced carving and intricate inlay of ivory in a manner which only an oriental craftsman can produce. having become fashionable in portugal, they made their appearance in england, and rapidly became popular. at penshurst place there are several fine specimens of this indo-portuguese work, with the spindles of the chair-backs of carved ivory; and in the ashmolean museum at oxford there is the well-known chair which was presented by charles ii. to elias ashmole. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ portuguese high-back chair. seat and back formed of two panels of old stamped leather, studded with brass bosses.] both in this later stuart period and in the days of the first charles inlay was considerably used to heighten the carved designs on oak tables, chairs, and cabinets. the growth of commerce was responsible for the introduction of many varieties of foreign woods, which were used to produce finer effects in marquetry than the rude inlay of elizabethan days. the frontispiece to this volume represents a very handsome cabinet of english workmanship, inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl. it is an unusually fine example of the middle seventeenth century, and bears the date 1653, the year when cromwell forcibly dissolved the rump parliament and was declared "lord protector of the commonwealth." up till now oak--the hard, tough, english variety, and not the more modern baltic oak or american varieties now used--was the material for the tool of the carver to work upon. with the introduction of more flowing lines and curves, a wealth of detail, it is not unnatural to find that softer woods began to find favour as more suitable to the new decorations. the age of walnut was approaching when, under william the dutchman, and in the days of queen anne, a newer style of furniture was to arise, made by craftsmen trained in the precepts of grinling gibbons and following the conceptions of sir christopher wren. it must be borne in mind that in italy the softer woods, such as lime, willow, sycamore, chestnut, walnut, and cypress, had long been used for the delicate carving during the height of the renaissance and succeeding period, and in france and spain chestnut and walnut were favourite woods. in the central panel of the restoration chair-back, canework began to be used instead of the early jacobean carving. cane seats were frequent, and loose cushions, attached by means of strings, covered these cane panels and seats. the illustration (p. 122) shows a jacobean chair of this period. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring_ oak chest of drawers. late jacobean. (height, 3 ft. 3 in.; width, 3 ft.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)] belonging to these later jacobean days are chests of drawers of oak with finely panelled fronts. we illustrate two specimens, showing the old brass metal work and the drop-handles. they are usually in two parts, and are very deep from back to front. these are two typical examples of this kind of furniture, which was in general use up to the days of queen anne, when pieces are frequently found supported on a stand. in the picture by caspar netscher, showing a dutch lady at her toilet, a good idea is conveyed of the kind of chair in use in holland in the latter half of the seventeenth century, upholstered in brocade, and the rich tapestry tablecloth is a noticeable feature. before entering upon the last phase of stuart furniture, and leaving the days of jacobean oak with its fine carving and handsome appearance--the careful result of selecting the timber and splitting it to show the fine figure of the wood--the attention of the reader should be drawn to the fact that the appearance of the surface of furniture made subsequent to this period begins to approach the results of the modern cabinetmaker with his polishes and spirit varnishes and highly glazed panels and table tops. the lover of old oak abominates varnish. the elizabethan and jacobean carved oak furniture received only a preliminary coat of dark varnish in its early days, mixed with oil and not spirit, which sank into the wood and was not a surface polish, and was probably used to preserve the wood. these old pieces, which have received centuries of rubbing with beeswax and oil, have resulted in producing a rich, warm tone which it is impossible to copy by any of the subtle arts known to the modern forger. the collector should make himself thoroughly familiar with the appearance of this old oak by a careful examination of museum pieces, which, when once seen, cannot easily be forgotten. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring._ chest of drawers. panelled front; late jacobean. (height, 3 ft. 4 in.; width, 3 ft. 10 in.; depth, 1 ft. 10 in.)] the italian renaissance furniture probably received an oil varnish, the composition of which, like the varnish employed for old violins, has been lost, but after centuries of careful usage and polishing, the result, as seen in the fine specimens in the victoria and albert museum, is to give to them the appearance of bronze. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ charles ii. oak chair. open back carved with shell and scrolled foliage. stuffed seat covered with old damask.] there is little doubt that the great fire, which did such immense destruction in london in 1666, in which some eighty-nine churches and thirteen thousand houses were demolished, gave a considerable impetus to the manufacture of furniture in the new style. it is not a pleasing reflection to think how many fine pieces of elizabethan and early jacobean furniture were consumed in the flames, including much of inigo jones's work. under the genius of sir christopher wren many of the city churches were rebuilt, including st. paul's cathedral; and greenwich hospital and hampton court were enlarged according to wren's designs, with the co-operation of the master woodcarver, grinling gibbons. in later jacobean days a splendour of style and an excellence of workmanship were the outcome of the fine achievements in interior woodwork by grinling gibbons and the school he founded. the work of grinling gibbons consisted of most natural chains of flowers and foliage, fruit, or birds or cherubs' heads, all faithfully reproduced untrammelled by convention. st. paul's cathedral, hampton court, chatsworth, and petworth house all contain work by him of singular beauty. he trained many assistants to help him to carry on his work, and one of them, selden, lost his life in endeavouring to save the carved room at petworth from a destructive fire. the soft wood of the lime was his favourite for detailed carving; for church panelling or choir stalls, such as at st. pauls, he employed oak; in his medallion portraits or figure work he preferred pear or close-grained boxwood. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ charles ii. open high-back oak chair. finely carved legs and stretcher. stuffed seat covered in old spanish silk damask.] the gradual development of the chair in the later stuart days in the direction of upholstered seat will be noticed in the specimens which are given as illustrations. the revocation of the edict of nantes in 1685 by louis xiv. drove some thousands of french workmen--weavers, glass-workers, and cabinetmakers--to this country. the silk-weaving industry established by them at spitalfields was one of the results, and silk stuffs and brocades were used for covering the seats and backs of furniture. at hampton court the crystal glass chandeliers were made by french workmen, whom wren was glad to employ to assist him to make that palace a worthy rival to versailles. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ charles ii. chair. cane back and seat, finely carved legs and stretcher.] [illustration: _by permission of messrs. fenton & sons._ james ii. chair. with cane back and seat, and finely turned legs and stretcher.] the chair here illustrated shows the commencement of the use of cane work in place of wood for the panel in back and for the seat. the james ii. chair illustrated shows the later development of the cane-back. the william and mary chair (illustrated p. 125) shows how the cane-back was retained later than the cane-seat, and how rich damask was employed for the upholstered seat. it is interesting to see how the stretcher, which in earlier days was of use to keep the feet raised from a wet or draughty floor, has now become capable of elaborate ornamentation. genuine examples of chairs of elizabethan and early stuart days show the wear of the feet of the sitters. the same wear is observable in the lower rail of old tables. in later stuart days the stretcher has left its place at the bottom, between the two front legs. since its use as a foot-rest, owing to carpeted floors, is gone, it is found either joining the legs diagonally, or higher up as an ornament with carved front. in the eighteenth century it has almost disappeared altogether. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ william and mary chair. cane back. seat upholstered in damask. finely carved legs and stretcher.] mirrors began to take a prominent place in interior decoration. the house of nell gwynne in st. james's square had one room entirely lined with glass mirrors. hampton court is full of mirrors, and they are arranged with considerable skill. by an artful arrangement the mirror in the king's writing closet is placed at such an angle that the reflection of the whole suite of rooms may be seen in it. the looking glasses made in this country in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries were the work of venetian and french workmen. the plates had a bevel of an inch in width, and these bevels followed the shape of the frame, whether square or oval. a factory was established near battersea which produced some fine work of this nature. it will be noticed by the collector who is observant that the bevels differ considerably from modern bevels. the angle is not such an acute one, and sometimes the edges are double bevelled. many of the mirrors of the time of william and mary had an ornamented border of blue glass. sometimes the mirror was painted with festoons of flowers and with birds in french manner. in imitation of italian style the back of the mirror, in examples a little later, was worked upon in the style of intaglio, or gem cutting, this presenting a dull silver surface when seen from the front. in picture frames, in chimneypieces, or in mirror frames the school of grinling gibbons was still pre-eminent in carving. now and again are found traces of italian or louis xiv. influence, but as a whole the english carver held his own, and the traditions of grinling gibbons were maintained, and he did not easily allow himself to be carried away by foreign elaborations. when william of orange came over in 1688 he brought with him many of his own countrymen as military and civil advisers, and in their train came artists and craftsmen, who introduced dutch art into england, and prepared the way for the more homely style of queen anne. walnut cabinets inlaid with various woods, and with ivory squares representing miniature dutch courtyards in the recesses of cabinets, had found their way into england. with the period of william and mary the cabriole leg in chairs and in tables became popular--at first an english adaptation of dutch models--but later to develop into the glorious creations of the age of walnut. blue delft jars and bowls, some especially made for william and mary and bearing the royal arms and the cypher "w. m. r." and the nassau motto, "_je main tien-dray_," still to be seen in the queen's gallery at hampton court, were introduced, and it became fashionable to collect china. consequently the furniture in rooms had to be adapted for the arrangement of this new class of ornament, and cabinets were largely made with accommodation to receive vases and beakers and blue bowls on their shelves. the earlier form have straight sides; but later, especially in the next reign, they follow french designs, and are swollen or _bombé_ at the sides. [illustration: upper portion of chair back of cut leather. portuguese. latter part of seventeenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] with william, too, came over the plain walnut card-table. clock cases of the style termed "grandfather" were of dutch origin. the seats of chairs were shaped and removable. the dutch trade with the east indies had brought oriental china and lac cabinets into holland, and these, with the coming of william, found their way into this country. bureaux with a number of secret recesses were introduced, and another dutch importation from the east was the now celebrated chair or table leg with claw and ball foot. this came directly from china, and as in the case of delft, which is the earthenware replica by the dutch potter of fine blue porcelain vases, from nankin and canton, where the oriental perspective and design have been slavishly copied, so with the furniture, the old chinese symbol of a dragon's foot holding a pearl, was repeated in the furniture by dutch cabinetmakers. dutch marquetry made an early appearance with simple ornamentation, sometimes enriched by ivory or mother-of-pearl inlay, but later it developed into flowing floral designs with figures, vases, fruit, butterflies, and elaborate scrolls in various coloured woods, of which yellow was the predominant colour. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. armchair, charles ii., oak, carved with cherubs supporting crowns, and with turned column supports. christie, november 20, 1903 15 4 6 chairs, pair, charles ii., oak, with cane seats and oval cane panels in the backs, spirally turned legs, stretchers and rails at the back. christie, march 4, 1904 63 0 0 armchair, charles ii., oak, with high back carved with arabesque foliage, with lions' masks and claw legs. christie, march 29, 1904 63 0 0 chairs, pair, nearly similar, carved with foliage. christie, march 29, 1904 39 18 0 armchair, charles ii., walnut-wood, of italian design, carved with masks, cane seat and panel in back; and cushion, covered with old flemish tapestry. christie, march 4, 1904 77 14 0 chairs, three, charles ii., oak, with oval panels of canework in the backs, the borders carved with foliage, flowers, and amorini, and surmounted by busts. christie, april 12, 1904 42 0 0 chairs, set of twelve, charles ii., of chestnut-wood, with high backs carved with rosette ornaments, scroll foliage, and formal blossoms, on cabriole legs carved with flowers and shaped stretchers. christie, july 1, 1904 462 0 0 chairs, pair of chestnut-wood, with high backs slightly curved, pierced and carved at the top, and each inlaid with two cane panels, on carved cabriole legs and shaped stretchers, _temp._ james ii. christie, june 2, 1904 36 15 0 cabinet, english marquetry, with folding doors, enclosing twelve drawers and small cupboard, and with four drawers below, the whole elaborately inlaid with vases of tulips, roses, and other flowers, small figures, birds, and insects, on a walnut-wood ground, 69 in. high, 47 in. wide, _temp._ william iii. christie, february 12, 1904 105 0 0 mirror, in case of old english marquetry, inlaid with large flowers and foliage in coloured woods and ivory on walnut-wood ground, 32 in. by 28 in., _temp._ william iii. christie, february 19, 1904 43 3 0 chairs, set of six, walnut-wood, with high, open backs, carved with foliage, the centre inlaid in marquetry, on carved cabriole legs and eagles' claw-and-ball feet, _temp._ william and mary. christie, june 2, 1904 315 0 0 chairs, set of four, of similar form, open backs, carved with shell, and gadroon ornament, and on carved cabriole legs with hoof feet, the stretcher carved with a shell, _temp._ william and mary. christie, june 2, 1904 105 0 0 cabinet, william and mary, marquetry, veneered with walnut-wood, decorated with oval and shaped panels, inlaid, upon ebony field, 42 in. wide. christie, march 18, 1904 65 2 0 cabinet on stand, ebony, dutch, seventeenth century, supported by six beaded columns with stage under and mirror panels at back, the upper part composed of doors carved in medallions; the centre doors enclose an architectural hall, inlaid in ivory, &c., with gilt columns and mirror panels, and fitted with secret drawers, 5 ft. 3 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 22 in. deep. jenner & dell, brighton, may 3, 1904 100 0 0 corner cupboard, dutch marquetry, 8 ft. high, having carved crown-shaped cornice, with centre vase, four doors, with bow fronts, inlaid with flowers and carved raised beadings, the interior fitted. c. w. provis & son, manchester, may 9, 1904 32 0 0 table, dutch marquetry, with shaped front and two drawers inlaid with sprays of flowers in coloured woods and ivory, on cabriole legs, 32 in. wide. christie, march 4, 1904 37 16 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. v queen anne style [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons_ queen anne oak settle. scrolled arms, panelled back and loose cushioned seat. width 6 feet.] v queen anne style anne 1702-1714. 1707. act of union between england and scotland. first united parliament of great britain met. 1713. the national debt had risen to £38,000,000. with the age of queen anne domestic furniture departed from the ornate characteristics which had marked previous epochs. the tendency in english furniture seems to have made towards comfort and homeliness. the english home may not have contained so many articles of luxury then as does the modern house with its artistic embellishments, and a popular taste rapidly ripening into a genuine love of the fine arts. "a modern shopkeeper's house," says lord macaulay, "is as well furnished as the house of a considerable merchant in anne's reign." it is very doubtful whether this statement holds good with regard to the days of elizabeth or the days of the early stuarts, but there certainly seems to have been in the dawn of the walnut period a curtailment of luxurious effects that might well tempt a casual observer to generalise in the belief that the days of anne spelt dulness in art. the settle, the illustration of which is given (p. 149), bearing the date 1705, the year after blenheim, shows that jacobean models of early days were not forgotten. the inlaid borders are very effective, and there is nothing vulgar or offensive in the carving. it is simple in style and the joinery is good. a walnut mirror, carved and gilded (illustrated p. 137), exhibits the same solidity. there is nothing to show that the glorious age of louis xiv. had produced the most sumptuous and richly decorated furniture the modern world had seen. the simplicity of this carved mirror frame is as though art had begun and ended in england, and probably it is this insularity of the furniture of this period, and the almost stubborn neglect of the important movements going on in france that makes the queen anne style of peculiar interest. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ queen anne mirror frame. walnut, carved and gilded.] the oak desk illustrated (p. 139), dated 1696, is similar to the one at abbotsford, in which sir walter scott mislaid his manuscript of "waverley," where it lay among his fishing-tackle for eleven years. another piece of the same period is the cupboard with carved doors and drawers beneath (illustrated p. 140). [illustration: oak desk. with initials "l. g." and dated 1696. (_from the collection of t. e. price stretche, esq._)] some pretty effects were now obtained by veneering, which was largely coming into practice. the pieces with the burr-walnut panels, marked in a series of knot-like rings, are especially sought after. this pattern was obtained from the gnarled roots of the walnut-tree, and applied in a decorative manner with excellent result. [illustration: _by permission of t. e. price stretche, esq._ oak cupboard. seventeenth century. metal handles of drawers, eighteenth century. (height 6 ft. 7 in.; width, 4 ft. 6 in.)] [illustration: _by permission of messrs. brown & bool._ cabinet closed; showing fine mottled figure of burr walnut. cabinet open; showing drop-down front and nest of drawers. queen anne walnut cabinet.] [illustration: dutch marquetry chair. queen anne chair. _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._] [illustration: queen anne walnut armchair. black and gold lac chair. _by permission of messrs. waring._] in the fine cabinet, the illustration of which is given (p. 141), the style is typical of this period. the panels of the doors are of exquisite finish, and show a beautiful walnut grain of peculiarly-pleasing mottled appearance, and the mellow effect which time has given to this specimen cannot be imitated with any degree of success in modern replicas. in the illustration showing this piece when open, the rich effect of the walnut in the middle panel may be noticed; the contemporary brass handles to the nest of drawers are typical of this style. in chairs and in tables the elegant cabriole and colt's-foot legs were now commonly adopted, and apparently, simple as is the construction, it is only when queen anne pieces come to be repaired that it is found how expensive an undertaking it is, owing to their ingenious construction and the patient labour that was expended upon them, to produce unpretentious and harmonious effects. the assertively english spirit which was the dominant note of the furniture of the early eighteenth century continued up till the early years of the reign of george ii. during this period, which covers half a century, walnut was the wood mostly used in the manufacture of furniture, and this walnut period shows a quiet dignity of style and a simple proportion, reticently elegant and inornate without being severe. the queen anne oak settle, with shaped panelled back and scroll arms, which appears as the headpiece to this chapter, is especially representative of the kind of piece in common use at the time; oak was still employed in furniture of this nature. the legs show the newer design, which was already departing from the elegant turning of earlier jacobean days. in the queen anne chair which is illustrated in the group of chairs of this period (p. 143), with open back and carved scroll foliage, the cabriole legs are finely carved with lion masks and acanthus leaf ornament, on lion's claw-and-ball feet. the seat is removable, and is stuffed. queen anne chairs had high carved or plain splat backs. the armchair in the same group shows this type of back. the dutch shell-pattern often appears either on back or at the juncture of the leg with the seat. chairs decorated in marquetry, in dutch fashion, were in use at this period. the one illustrated with the two above-mentioned chairs is inlaid with birds and flowers, and the legs are cabriole. the seat follows the growing usage of being loose and stuffed. dutch marquetry cabinets on stands, with straight uprights, were imported and became a feature in the early eighteenth century drawing-room (see illustration, p. 147). the earlier forms had straight sides, but later, as the fashion grew, bureaux and large cabinets, with the dimensions of a modern wardrobe, had taken their place, with _bombé_ or swelled sides, and profusely decorated in marquetry, with vases and tulips and unnamed flowers of the cabinetmaker's invention, birds, butterflies, and elaborate scrollwork, in which ivory and mother-of-pearl were often employed as an inlay. the stands on which the smaller cabinets stood were turned with the spiral leg of jacobean days, and later they have the cabriole leg, with ball-and-claw or club feet. cabinets and stands are frequently found together, in which the one is much earlier than the other. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ dutch marquetry cabinet. fitted with shelves. door richly inlaid with flowers and scrolled foliage. on stand with turned legs and stretcher.] rich damask began to be used in the furnishing of hangings, and in some of the palatial furniture of the period the looms of spitalfields produced the coverings. in queen anne's bedroom the hangings were of rich silk velvet. clocks of the variety termed "grandfather," either with fine walnut cases or inlaid with marquetry, came into more general use in the days of queen anne. an elaboration of carving on grandfather clock cases as a rule is to be regarded with suspicion. plain panels are not so saleable as carved ones; the want is supplied, and many fine old clock cases are spoiled by having the touch of a modern hand. the clock illustrated is an untouched specimen. the walnut case is a fine example of queen anne marquetry work. the works are by sam barrow, hermitage bridge, london. the steel dial is richly mounted with cupids, masks, and scrolls in chased brass. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton & sons._ queen anne clock. walnut case with marquetry work.] towards the middle of the eighteenth century and later, cabinets of dutch importation, and japanese or chinese in origin, were extensively in use. in smaller numbers they had, without doubt, in the days of william and mary, been introduced, but it was not until the commerce with the east had been well established that they became popular. in the cabinet illustrated (p. 150) the cabinet-work is english, the drawers are all dovetailed in the english manner, but the lacquered doors come from the east. it is an especially interesting example, as the pagoda-like superstructure is not often found complete. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring._ queen anne oak settle. dated 1705. with borders in marquetry. (width, 5 ft.)] [illustration: _by permission of messrs. brown & bool._ old lac cabinet. english; early eighteenth century.] lacquered boxes had been sent home from the east by english, french, and dutch merchants, for many years, and with characteristic ingenuity the french cabinetmakers had employed these as panels for their furniture, but the supply not being sufficient they had attempted a lacquer of their own, which is dealt with in a subsequent chapter on louis xiv. furniture. dutch lacquer-work was a similar attempt on the part of the craftsman of holland to equal the oriental originals. [illustration: lac cabinet. middle of eighteenth century. (height, 2 ft. 5 in.; width, 2 ft. 8-1/2 in.; depth, 1 ft. 6-1/2 in.; height of stand, 2 ft. 9 in.) (_from the collection of w. g. honey, esq., cork._)] [illustration: _w. g. honey, esq., cork._ front of lac cabinet (illustrated), with doors closed.] in the early eighteenth century the english craftsman tried his skill at lacquered furniture, it is true not with very successful results, but it is interesting to see what he has left as attempts. the illustration (p. 143) of a chair in black and gold lac is of english manufacture. the splat back and the cabriole leg give the date, and the specimen is a noteworthy example. another piece of the first half of the eighteenth century period is the lac cabinet illustrated (p. 151). the metal hinges and corners of this are of chased brass and of english or dutch workmanship. the shape and design of the drawer handles are frequently found in nests of drawers of this period, and there was a singular fondness shown at this time for numbers of small drawers and pigeon-holes in furniture. the now familiar bureau with bookcase above, and drop-down, sloping front covering drawers and recesses, dates from this time. the escutcheon of the lac cabinet is illustrated in detail as a tailpiece to this chapter to show the particular style of work found on the locks and hinges and drawer-handles of pieces of this nature. as has been said before, it is especially useful to the collector to make himself thoroughly familiar with these details of the various periods. it may be readily imagined that at a time when cards were the passion of everybody in society, the card-table became a necessary piece of furniture in eighteenth-century days, just before the dawn of the great age of mahogany, when chippendale, and the school that followed him, eagerly worked in the wood which raleigh discovered. they produced countless forms, both original and adapted from the french, which have enriched the _répertoire_ of the cabinetmaker and which have brought fame to the man whose designs added lustre to the reputation of english furniture. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. chairs, six, mahogany, single, and one armchair to match, with shaped legs and openwork backs (early eighteenth century). f. w. kidd, & neale & son, nottingham, november 11, 1903 25 4 0 chairs, eight queen anne, walnut-wood, with high backs, on slightly cabriole legs, with stretchers. christie, december 11, 1903 33 12 0 armchair, queen anne, large walnut-wood, carved with foliage, the arms terminating in masks, on carved cabriole legs and lion's-claw feet. christie, march 29, 1904 50 8 0 cabinet, queen anne, the lower part fitted with escritoire, the upper part with numerous drawers, shaped cornice above, 3 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. puttick & simpson, april 12, 1904 34 0 0 chairs, four queen anne, walnut-wood, with interlaced backs carved with rosettes and a shell at the top, on cabriole legs carved with shells and foliage; and a pair of chairs made to match. christie, july 8, 1904 44 2 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_, these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. [illustration: _w. g. honey esq., cork._ chased brass escutcheon of lac cabinet (illustrated). (width, 10-1/2 in.)] vi french furniture. the period of louis xiv [illustration: _by kind permission, from the collection of dr. sigerson, dublin._ cassette. french; seventeenth century. containing many secret drawers.] vi french furniture. the period of louis xiv louis xiv. (1643-1715), covering english periods of civil war, commonwealth, charles ii., james ii., william and mary, and anne. 1619-1683. colbert, minister of finance and patron of the arts. 1661-1687. versailles built. 1662. gobelins tapestry works started by colbert; le brun first director (1662-1690). 1664. royal academy of painting, architecture, and sculpture founded by colbert, to which designs of furniture were admitted. in order to arrive at a sense of proportion as to the value of english furniture and its relation to contemporary art in europe, it is necessary to pass under hasty examination the movements that were taking place in france in the creation of a new style in furniture under the impulses of the epoch of the _grande monarque_. to estimate more correctly the styles of the early jacobean and of the later english furniture extending to the days of chippendale and sheraton, it must be borne in mind that england was not always so insular in art as the days of queen anne would seem to indicate. it is impossible for the cabinetmakers and the craftsmen to have utterly ignored the splendours of france. louis xiv. had a long and eventful reign, which extended from the days when charles i. was marshalling his forces to engage in civil war with the parliament down to the closing years of queen anne. during his minority it cannot be said that louis xiv. influenced art in furniture, but from 1661, contemporary with charles ii., when he assumed the despotic power that he exercised for half a century, his love of sumptuousness, and his personal supervision of the etiquette of a formal court, in which no detail was omitted to surround royalty with magnificence, made him the patron of the fine arts, and gave his court the most splendid prestige in europe. as a headpiece to this chapter we give a very fine example of a _cassette_, or strong box, of the time of louis xiv. it is securely bound with metal bands of exquisite design. the interior is fitted with a number of secret drawers. in the illustration (p. 159) it will be seen that the chair of the period of louis treize differed in no great respects from the furniture under the early stuarts in this country. this design is by the celebrated crispin de passe, and the date is when charles i. raised his standard at nottingham, a year prior to the birth of louis xiv. [illustration: chair of period of louis xiii. designed by crispin de passe, 1642.] during the reign of louis xiv., tables, armoires, and cabinets were designed on architectural principles. under the guiding influence of colbert, minister of finance, architects and cabinetmakers were selected to design furniture for the tuileries, the louvre, and fontainebleau. in the early years of the reign furniture was made with severe lines, but gradually it became the practice to fashion larger pieces. immense tables with sumptuous decoration, on gilded claw-feet, and having tops inlaid with _pietra-dura_ intended to carry bronze groups and porphyry vases, were made at the gobelins factory, under the direction of the celebrated le brun. this artist loved grandeur and gorgeousness in decoration, and in accord with the personal ideas of louis xiv., who had an inordinate love for perfect symmetry, huge pieces of furniture were built in magnificent manner to please the taste of the _grande monarque_. men of genius were employed in the manufacture of tapestries, of furniture, and of metal mountings, and the interior decorations of the palaces were designed in harmony with the furniture intended for use therein. the most illustrious among the cabinetmakers was andré charles boule, who was made, in 1673, by letters patent, _premier ébéniste de la maison royale_. the work of this artist in wood has attained a worldwide celebrity, and his name even has been corrupted into "buhl" to denote a particular class of work which he perfected. his most notable productions are the finely chased ormolu, in which he was an accomplished worker, and the inlay of tortoiseshell and brass, sometimes varied with ebony or silver, which have remained the wonder of succeeding generations. boule was born in 1642, and lived till 1732. the first boule, termed "_le père_," he was succeeded by no less than four sons and nephews of the same name, in addition to his pupils who carried on his traditions at the boule _atelier_, and a crowd of later imitators, even up to the present day, have followed his style in lavish decoration without being possessed of his skill. in italy and in france marquetry of considerable delicacy and of fine effect had been produced long before the epoch of louis xiv., but it was boule who introduced a novelty into marquetry by his veneered work, which rapidly grew into favour till it developed into cruder colouring in inlays and unbridled licence in ornamentation, to which its originator would never have given countenance. the pieces of furniture usually associated with him are massive structures of ebony with their surfaces covered with tortoiseshell, in which are inlaid arabesques, scrolls, and foliage in thin brass or other metal. upon the surface of this metal inlay further ornamentation was chased with the burin. this alternation of tortoiseshell and brass forms a brilliant marquetry. into the chased designs on the metal a black enamel was introduced to heighten the effect, which was further increased by portions of the wood beneath the semi-transparent tortoiseshell being coloured black or brown or red; sometimes a bluish-green was used. later imitators, not content with the beautiful effect of tortoiseshell, used horn in parts, which is more transparent, and they did not fear the garish effect of blue or vermilion underneath. boule's creations, set in massive mounts and adornments of masks and bas-reliefs, cast in gilt-bronze and chased, were pieces of furniture of unsurpassed magnificence, and especially designed for the mirrored splendours of the _salons_ of versailles. in boule-work all parts of the marquetry are held down by glue to the bed, usually of oak, the metal being occasionally fastened down by small brass pins, which are hammered flat and chased over so as to be imperceptible. in order to economise the material, boule, when his marquetry became in demand, employed a process which led to the use of the technical terms, _boule_ and _counter-boule_. the brass and the tortoiseshell were cut into thin sheets. a number of sheets of brass were clamped together with the same number of sheets of tortoiseshell. the design was then cut out, the result being that each sheet of tortoiseshell had a design cut out of it, into which the same design from one of the sheets of brass would exactly fit. similarly each sheet of brass had a design cut out of it into which a corresponding piece of tortoiseshell would fit. that in which the ground is of tortoiseshell and the inlaid portion is brass, is considered the better, and is called _boule_, or the _première partie_. that in which the groundwork is brass and the design inlaid is of tortoiseshell, is called _counter-boule_ or _contre-partie_. this latter is used for side panels. an examination of the specimens preserved in the louvre, at the jones bequest at the victoria and albert museum, or in the wallace collection will enable the student to see more readily how this practice works out in the finished result. in the illustration (p. 163) of the two pedestals the effect of the employment of _boule_ and _counter-boule_ is shown. [illustration: (_a._) (_b._) pedestals showing boule and counter-boule work. (_wallace collection._) (_a_) boule or _première partie_. (_b_) counter-boule or _contre-partie_.] associated with boule is jean bérain, who had a fondness for the italian style; his designs are more symmetrically correct, both in ornamental detail and in architectural proportion. his conceptions are remarkable for their fanciful elaboration, and their wealth of profuse scrollwork. in the french national collections at the louvre, at versailles, and elsewhere there are many beautiful examples of his chandeliers of magnificent carved and gilded work. the freedom of the spiral arms and complex coils he introduced into his candelabra have never been equalled as harmonious portions of a grandly conceived scheme of magnificent interior decoration, to which, in the days of louis xiv., so much artistic talent was devoted. [illustration: boule cabinet, or armoire. valued at nearly £15,000. _jones bequest._ (_victoria and albert museum._)] with regard to the value of some of the specimens in the national collections, it is difficult to form an estimate. the boule cabinet, probably designed by bérain, executed by boule for louis xiv. (illustrated p. 165) would, if put up for sale at christie's, probably fetch £15,000. this piece is held to be grander in style than any in the galleries in france. at the wallace collection there are examples which would bring fabulous sums if sold. a cabinet by boule, in the jones bequest, purchased by mr. jones for £3,000 in 1881, is now worth three times that sum. upon the building, decorating, and furnishing of versailles louis xiv. spent over five hundred million francs, in addition to which there was the army of workmen liable to statute labour. some twenty thousand men and six thousand horses were employed in 1684 at the different parts of the château and park. in may, 1685, there were no less than thirty-six thousand employed. the illustrious craftsmen who were employed upon the magnificent artistic interior decorations have transmitted their names to posterity. bérain, lepautre, henri de gissey, are the best known of the designers. among the painters are the names of audran, baptiste, jouvenet, mignard, and the best known of the sculptors are coustou and van clève. of the woodcarvers, metal-chasers, locksmiths, and gilders pierre taupin, ambroise duval, delobel, and goy are names of specialists in their own craft who transformed versailles from a royal hunting-box into one of the most splendid palaces in europe. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. commode, louis xiv., of inlaid king-wood, with two drawers, mounted with handles and masks at the corners of chased ormolu, and surmounted by a fleur violette marble slab, 52 in. wide. christie, january 22, 1904 31 10 0 show-cabinet, of louis xiv. design, inlaid king-wood, with glazed folding doors, ormolu mounts, chased and surmounted by vases, 73 in. high, 46 in. wide. christie, april 12, 1904 30 9 0 casket, louis xiv., black boule, inlaid with cupids, vases of flowers and scrolls, and fitted with four tortoiseshell and gold picqué shell-shaped snuff boxes. christie, april 19, 1904 73 10 0 commode, louis xiv., boule, of sarcophagus form, containing two drawers, at either corners are detached cabriole legs, the various panels are inlaid with brass and tortoiseshell, the whole is mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 49 in. wide. christie, may 27, 1904 57 15 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_, these items are reproduced from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. vii french furniture. the period of louis xv [illustration: _by permission of messrs. foley & eassie._ commode, by cressent. (from a drawing by walter eassie.) (_wallace collection._)] vii french furniture. the period of louis xv louis xv. 1715-1774 petit trianon built at versailles. meissonier, director of royal factories (1723-1774). watteau (1684-1721). pater (1695-1736). lancret (1690-1743). boucher (1704-1770). 1751. the leading ébénistes compelled to stamp their work with their names. louis xiv. died in the year following the death of queen anne, so that it will be readily seen that english art was uninfluenced by france in the days of william and mary, and how insular it had become under anne. the english craftsman was not fired by new impulses from france during such an outburst of decorative splendour. the reign of louis xv. extends from george i. down to the eleventh year of the reign of george iii., which year saw the cargoes of tea flung into boston harbour and the beginning of the war with america. in glancing at the louis quinze style it will be observed how readily it departed from the studied magnificence of louis xiv. in attempting elegance of construction and the elimination of much that was massive and cumbersome in the former style, it developed in its later days into meaningless ornament and trivial construction. at first it possessed considerable grace, but towards the end of the reign the designs ran riot in rococo details, displaying incongruous decoration. it was the age of the elegant boudoir, and the bedroom became a place for more intimate guests than those received in the large reception-room. in the days of louis xiv. the bed was a massive structure, but in the succeeding reign it became an elegant appendage to a room. at versailles the splendid galleries of magnificent proportion were transformed by the duke of orleans, regent of france (1715-1723) during the king's minority, into smaller _salons_ covered in wainscoting, painted white and ornamented with gilded statues. in like manner the louis quinze decorations were ruthlessly destroyed by louis-philippe. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring._ louis xv. parquetery commode. with chased and bronze-gilt mounts. (_formerly in the hamilton palace collection._)] [illustration: louis xv. commode. by caffieri.] the commode in the wallace collection (illustrated p. 171) is of the time when louis xv. was in his minority, and of the days of the regency. it is by charles cressent (1685-1768), who was cabinetmaker to philippe d'orleans, regent of france. this is an especially typical specimen of the class to which it belongs as showing the transition style between louis xiv. and the succeeding reign. to establish louis the fifteenth's _petits appartements_ the gallery painted by mignard was demolished, and later, in 1752, the ambassadors' staircase was destroyed, the masterpiece of the architects levau and dorbay, and the marvel of louis the fourteenth's versailles. it is necessary to bear these facts in mind in order to see how a new french monarch set ruthlessly new fashions in furniture and created a taste for his personal style in art. in the first part of the louis quinze period the metal mountings by caffieri and cressent are of exquisite style; they are always of excellent workmanship, but later they betrayed the tendency of the time for fantastic curves, which had affected the furniture to such an extent that no straight lines were employed, and the sides of commodes and other pieces were swelled into unwieldy proportions, and instead of symmetrical and harmonious results the florid style, known as the "rococo," choked all that was beautiful in design. meissonier, director of the royal factories (1723-1774), was mainly responsible for this unnatural development. he revelled in elaborate combinations of shellwork and impossible foliage. in the louis xv. commodes illustrated (pp. 173, 175) it will be seen how far superior is the design and treatment of the one which was formerly in the celebrated hamilton collection. its chased and gilt mounts are harmoniously arranged, and though the ornamentation is superbly rich, it breaks no canons of art by overloaded detail or coarse profusion. not so much can be said for the other commode of the rococo style, even though the mounts be by caffieri and executed in masterly manner. there is a wanton abandonment and an offensive tone in the florid treatment which point clearly to the decline of taste in art. the highest art of concealment was not a prominent feature in a court which adopted its style from the caprices of madame du pompadour or the whims of madame du barry. but among the finest productions are the splendid pieces of reticent cabinetmaking by the celebrated jean françois oeben, who came from holland. his preference was for geometrical patterns, varied only with the sparing use of flowers, in producing his most delicate marquetry. in the pieces by boule and others, not in tortoiseshell but in wood inlay, the wood was so displayed as to exhibit in the panels the grain radiating from the centre. oeben did not forget this principle, and placed his bouquets of flowers, when, on occasion, he used them, in the centre of his panels, and filled up the panel with geometric design. [illustration: louis xv. _escritoire à toilette_. of tulip-wood and sycamore, inlaid with landscapes in coloured woods. formerly in the possession of queen marie antoinette. (_jones bequest: victoria and albert museum._)] the well-known maker, charles cressent (1685-1768), used rosewood, violet, and amaranth woods in his marquetry, and at this time many new foreign woods were employed by the cabinetmakers in france and italy. in addition to woods of a natural colour, it was the practice artificially to colour light woods, and inlay work was attempted in which trophies of war, musical instruments, or the shepherd's crook hung with ribbon, were all worked out in marquetry. pictures, in coloured woods, in imitation of oil paintings on canvas, were foolishly attempted, and altogether the art of inlay, ingenious and wonderful in its construction, began to affect trivialities and surprising effects most unsuited to the range of its technique. in the toilet-table illustrated (p. 179), this misapplication of inlay to reproduce pictures is seen on the three front panels and on the middle panel above. the chief woods employed are tulip and sycamore, inlaid with tinted lime, holly, and cherry-woods. the mountings of the table are chased ormolu. the cylindrical front encloses drawers with inlaid fronts. beneath this is a sliding shelf, under which is a drawer with three compartments, fitted with toilet requisites and having inlaid lids. this specimen of louis quinze work is in the jones collection at the victoria and albert museum. it was formerly in the possession of queen marie antoinette. it is attributed to oeben, though from comparison with some of the chaster work known to have come from his hand it would seem to be of too fanciful marquetry for his restrained and sober style. it is especially true of the furniture of this great french period that it requires harmonious surroundings. the slightest false touch throws everything out of balance at once. of this fact the inventors were well aware. if dutch furniture requires the quiet, restful art of cuyp or van der neer, or metzu or jan steen on the surrounding walls, the interiors of louis quinze demand the works of contemporary french genre-painters. [illustration: louis xv. secrétaire. by riesener, in his earlier manner. in transitional style, approaching louis seize period. (_wallace collection._)] all things worked together to produce a harmonious _ensemble_ in this brilliant period. the royal tapestry and sèvres porcelain factories turned out their most beautiful productions to decorate rooms, furniture, and for the table. tapestries from beauvais, gobelins, and aubusson, rich silks from the looms of lyons, or from lucca, genoa, or venice were made for wall-hangings, for chair-backs, for seats, and for sofas. fragonard, natoire, and boucher painted lunettes over chimney-fronts, or panels of ceilings. of great cabinetmakers, riesener and david roentgen, princes among _ébénistes_, worked in wonderful manner in tulip-wood, in holly, in rosewood, purple wood, and laburnum to produce marquetry, the like of which has never been seen before nor since. associated with the period of louis xv. is the love for the lacquered panel. huygens, a dutchman, had achieved good results in imitations of oriental lacquer, which in france, under the hand of martin, a carriage-painter, born about 1706, rivalled the importations from japan. it is stated that the secret of the fine, transparent lac polish that he used was obtained from the missionaries who resided in japan before the date of the massacres and foreign expulsion of all except the dutch traders. vernis-martin, as his varnish was termed, became in general request. from 1744 for twenty years, sieur simon etienne martin was granted a monopoly to manufacture this lacquered work in the oriental style. although he declared that his secret would die with him, other members of his family continued the style, which was taken up by many imitators in the next reign. his varnish had a peculiar limpid transparency, and he obtained the wavy network of gold groundwork so successfully produced by japanese and chinese craftsmen. on this were delicately painted, by boucher and other artists, arcadian subjects, framed in rocaille style with gold thickly laid on, and so pure that in the bronze gilding and in the woodwork it maintains its fine lustre to the present day. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. foley & eassie._ the "bureau du roi." the masterpiece of riesener. (from a drawing by walter eassie.) (_wallace collection._)] towards the close of the reign of louis xv. a new style set in, which reverted to simpler tastes, to which the name "_à la reine_" was given, in deference to the taste which is supposed to have emanated from marie leczinska, the queen, but is said to have been due to madame du pompadour. at the wallace collection is a fine secrétaire, with the mounts and ornaments of gilt bronze cast and chased, which is illustrated (p. 181). the central panel of marquetry shows, in life size, a cock, with the caduceus, a snake, a banner, and symbolical instruments. it is by jean françois riesener, and in his earliest manner, made in the later years of louis quinze in the transitional style approaching the louis seize period. among the wonderful creations of riesener, probably his masterpiece is the celebrated "bureau du roi," begun in 1760 by oeben, and completed in 1769 by riesener--who married the widow of oeben, by the way. its bronzes are by duplesis, winant, and hervieux. the design and details show the transition between the louis quinze and the louis seize styles. the original, which is at the louvre, is in marquetry of various coloured woods and adorned by plaques of gilt bronze, cast and chased. the copy from which our illustration is taken (p. 183) is in the wallace collection, and is by dasson, and follows the original in proportions, design, and technique. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. table, louis xv., oblong, the legs are cabriole, it contains one drawer and a writing-slide; around the sides are inlaid panels of old japanese lacquer, each panel bordered by elaborate scrollwork of chased ormolu, signed with "b. v. r. b.," surmounted by a slab of white marble, 39 in. wide. christie, december 18, 1903 1900 0 0 writing-table, louis xv., marquetry, with sliding top and drawer, fitted with movable writing slab, compartment for ink-vases, &c., signed "l. doudin," louis xv. form, with cabriole legs, the top decorated with scrolls forming panels, the centre one containing a teniers figure subject, parquetry and inlays of flowers round the sides, corner mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast and chased, 30 in. wide. christie, march 18, 1904 630 0 0 cartonnière, louis xv., of inlaid tulip-wood, containing a clock by palanson, à paris, mounted with chinese figures, masks, foliage and scrolls of chased ormolu, 48 in. high, 36 in. wide. christie, april 22, 1904 409 10 0 secrétaires, pair, louis xv., small marquetry, with fall-down front, drawer above and door below, inlaid with branches of flowers, and mounted with chased ormolu, surmounted by white marble slabs, 46 in. high, 22 in. wide. christie, april 29, 1904 46 4 0 cabinet, louis xv., parquetry, with folding doors enclosing drawers, mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a brescia marble slab, 30 in. high, 44 in. wide. christie, april 29, 1904 31 10 0 bergères, pair of louis xv., corner-shaped, the frames of carved and gilt wood, the seats and backs covered with old beauvais tapestry. christie, may 18, 1904 420 0 0 settee, louis xv., oblong, of carved and gilt-wood, covered with panels of old beauvais tapestry, 3 ft. 8 in. wide. christie, may 18, 1904 231 0 0 canapé, louis xv., of carved and gilt wood, the borders carved with acanthus scrolls, the seat and back covered with old beauvais silk tapestry, decorated, 4 ft. 6 in. wide. christie, may 18, 1904 420 0 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. viii french furniture. the period of louis xvi viii french furniture. the period of louis xvi louis xvi. 1774-1793. 1730-1806. riesener, _ébéniste_ to marie antoinette (born near cologne). 1789. commencement of the french revolution. the so-called louis seize period embraces much that is good from the later days of the previous reign. the same designers were employed with the addition of a few younger men. caffieri and riesener were producing excellent work, and above all was gouthière, whose renown as a founder and chaser of gilded bronze ornaments is unrivalled. elegance and simplicity are again the prevailing notes. straight lines took the place of the twisted contortions of the rococo style. thin scrolls, garlands, ribbons and knots, classical cameo-shaped panels, and sèvres plaques form the characteristic ornamentation. the acanthus-leaf, distorted into unnatural proportions in the middle louis quinze period, returned to its normal shape, the egg-and-tongue moulding came into use, and the delicacy of the laurel-leaf was employed in design in louis seize decorations. in the jewel cabinet illustrated (p. 193), the new style is shown at its best. the cabinet is inlaid in rosewood and sycamore, and bears the name of "j. h. riesener" stamped on it. the chased ormolu mounts are by gouthière. the geometrical inlay is a tradition which oeben left to his successors. the upper portion has a rising lid with internal trays. in the lower part is a drawer and a shelf. this piece is at the victoria and albert museum in the jones bequest, and it is well worth detailed examination as being a representative specimen of the most artistic work produced at this period. pierre gouthière had a complete mastery over his technique. the estimation with which his work is regarded has made furniture which he mounted bring extraordinary prices. in 1882, at the dispersal of the celebrated hamilton palace collection, three specimens with his workmanship realised £30,000. the vernis-martin panels were decorated by watteau and pater. the age of artificialities with its _fêtes-galantes_ in the royal gardens of the luxembourg and in the pleasure parks of the court, with the ill-starred marie antoinette playing at shepherds and shepherdesses, had its influence upon art. watteau employed his brush to daintily paint the attitudes of _le lorgneur_ upon a fan-mount, or to depict elegantly dressed noblemen and ladies of the court dancing elaborate minuets in satin shoes, or feasting from exquisite sèvres porcelain dishes in the damp corner of some park or old château. [illustration: louis xvi. jewel cabinet. inlaid in rose and sycamore woods. stamped "j. h. riesener." chased ormolu mountings by gouthière. (_jones bequest. victoria and albert museum._)] the artificial pretence at arcadian simplicity adopted by the queen, in the intervals between her attendance at public _bals-masqué_, when she almost wantonly outraged the susceptibilities of the french people by her frivolities, found a more permanent form in interior decorations. riesener and david designed a great deal of furniture for her. dainty work-tables and writing-tables and other furniture of an elegant description are preserved in the national collection in the louvre and at fontainebleau, in the victoria and albert museum in the jones bequest, and in the wallace collection. tables of this nature are most eagerly sought after. a small table with plaques of porcelain in the side panels, which is said to have belonged to marie antoinette, was sold at christie's for £6,000 (hamilton collection). there is a similar writing-table in the jones collection, given by marie antoinette to mrs. eden, afterwards lady auckland. during the period under louis seize, when fragonard and natoire deftly painted the panels of rooms and filled ceilings with flying cupids and chains of roses, when boucher was director of the academy, the interior of rooms assumed a boudoir-like appearance. the walls were decorated in a scheme of colour. handsome fluted pillars with fine classic feeling were the framework of panelling painted in delicate and subdued tones. oval mirrors, avoiding all massive construction, lightened the effect, and mantelpieces of white marble, and furniture evidently designed for use, completed the interiors of the homes of the _grands seigneurs_. sometimes the walls were painted, giving a lustrous appearance resembling silk, and this style is the forerunner of the modern abomination known as wall-paper. before leaving this period of french furniture, when so much marquetry work was done of unsurpassed beauty and of unrivalled technique, a word may be said as to the number of woods used. oeben and riesener and their contemporaries used many foreign woods, of which the names are unfamiliar. mr. pollen, in his "south kensington museum handbook to furniture and woodwork," has given the names of some of them, which are interesting as showing the number of woods especially selected for this artistic cabinetmaking. tulip-wood is the variety known as _liriodendron tulipifera_. rosewood was extensively used, and holly (_ilex aquifolium_), maple (_acer campestre_), laburnum (_cytisus alpinus_), and purple wood (_copaifera pubiflora_). snake-wood was frequently used, and other kinds of light-brown wood in which the natural grain is waved or curled, presenting a pleasant appearance, and obviating the use of marquetry (_see_ "woods used," p. 29). in the great collections to which reference has been made, in well-known pieces made by riesener his name is found stamped on the panel itself, or sometimes on the oak lining. the large bureau in the wallace collection (gallery xvi., no. 66) is both signed and dated "20th february, 1769." this piece, it is said, was ordered by stanislas leczinski, king of poland, and was once one of the possessions of the crown of france. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. waring._ louis xvi. riesener commode.] with regard to the cost of pieces of furniture by the great master _ébénistes_, it is on record that a secrétaire which was exhibited at gore house in 1853, and made originally for beaumarchais by riesener, cost 85,000 francs, a sum not much less than £4,000. celebrated copies have been made from these old models. the famous cabinet with mounts by gouthière, now in the possession of the king, was copied about twenty-five years ago for the marquis of hertford, by permission of queen victoria. the piece took years to complete, and it is interesting to have the evidence of its copyists that the most difficult parts to imitate were the metal mounts. this replica cost some £3,000, and is now in the wallace collection. the copy of the famous bureau or escritoire in the louvre, known as the "bureau de st. cloud," was made by permission of the emperor napoleon iii., and cost £2,000. another copy of the same piece exhibited at the french international exhibition was sold for £3,500 to an english peeress. many fine copies of riesener's work exist, and in the illustration (p. 197) a copy is given of a handsome commode, which exhibits his best style under the influence of his master, oeben. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. cabinets, pair of louis xvi., dwarf ebony, the panels inlaid with black and gold lacquer, decorated with birds and trees in the chinese taste, mounted with foliage borders of chased ormolu, and surmounted by veined black marble slabs, 45 in. high, 35 in. wide. christie, november 20, 1903 39 18 0 suite of louis xvi. furniture, with fluted borders and legs, painted white and pale green, the seats, backs, and arms covered with old beauvais tapestry, with vases and festoons of flowers and conventional arabesques in poly-chrome, on white ground in pale green borders, consisting of an oblong settee, 72 in. wide, eight fauteuils. christie, december 18, 1903 1470 0 0 secrétaire, louis xvi., upright marquetry, with fall-down } front, drawer above, and folding doors below, inlaid } with hunting trophies on trellis-pattern ground, mounted} with foliage, friezes, and corner mounts of chased } ormolu, and surmounted by a breccia marble slab, stamped} "j. stumpff. 315 0 0 me.," 56 in. high, 40 in. wide. } christie, february 12, 1904 commode, _en suite_, with } five drawers, 58 in. wide. christie, february 12, 1904 } } 714 0 0 work-table, louis xvi., oval, in two tiers, upon a tripod } stand, with double candle branches above; the top tier } is composed of a sèvres plaque, painted with sprays of } roses; around this is a gallery of chased ormolu; the } second tier is of parquetry, this has also a balcony; } the tripod base is of mahogany, with mounts of ormolu, } cast and chased; the nozzles for the two candles above } are similar in material and decoration, width of top } tier, 13 in. christie, march 18, 1904 table, louis xvi., marquetry, signed "n. petit," top inlaid with musical trophy, &c., mounts, &c., of ormolu, cast and chased, 30 in. wide. christie, march 18, 1904 99 15 0 fauteuils, pair, louis xvi. (stamped "j. leglartier"), tapered oblong backs and curved arms, turned legs, white and gilt, covered with beauvais tapestry, with subjects from "fables de la fontaine," and other designs. flashman & co., dover, april 26, 1904 75 0 0 console-table, louis xvi., carved and painted wood, with fluted legs and stretchers, and open frieze in front, surmounted by a slab of white marble, 5 ft. 4 in. wide. christie, may 6, 1904 46 0 0 commode, louis xvi., containing three drawers, in front it is divided into three rectangular sunk panels of parquetry, each bordered with mahogany, with ormolu mounts, surmounted by a slab of fleur-de-pêche marble, 57 in. wide. christie, may 27, 1904 357 0 0 commode, louis xvi., stamped with the name of "j. h. reisener," with tambour panels in front and drawers at the top; it is chiefly composed of mahogany, the central panel inlaid in a coloured marquetry; on either side, and at the ends, are panels of tulip-wood parquetery, the whole is mounted with ormolu, surmounted by a slab of veined marble, 34 in. wide. christie, may 27, 1904 3150 0 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. ix french furniture. the first empire style [illustration: portrait of madame récamier. (after david.) showing empire settee and footstool. (_in the louvre._)] ix french furniture--the first empire style 1789. commencement of french revolution. 1798. napoleon's campaign in egypt. 1805. napoleon prepares to invade england; battle of trafalgar; french naval power destroyed. 1806. napoleon issued berlin decree to destroy trade of england. 1812. napoleon invaded russia, with disastrous retreat from moscow. 1814. napoleon abdicated. 1815. wellington defeated napoleon at waterloo. when louis xvi. called together the states-general in 1789, which had not met since 1614, the first stone was laid of the french republic. after the king was beheaded in 1793, the reign of terror followed, during which the wildest licence prevailed. under the directory, for four years from 1795, the country settled down until the rise of napoleon bonaparte, who took the government in his own hands with the title of consul, and in 1804 called himself emperor of the french. during the reign of terror the ruthless fury of a nation under mob-law did not spare the most beautiful objects of art which were associated with a hated aristocracy. furniture especially suffered, and it is a matter for wonderment that so much escaped destruction. most of the furniture of the royal palaces was consigned to the spoliation of "the black committee," who trafficked in works of great price, and sold to foreign dealers the gems of french art for less than a quarter of their real value. so wanton had become the destruction of magnificent furniture that the convention, with an eye on the possibilities of raising money in the future, ordered the furniture to be safely stored in the museums of paris. after so great a social upheaval, art in her turn was subjected to revolutionary notions. men cast about to find something new. art, more than ever, attempted to absorb the old classic spirit. the revolution was the deathblow to rococo ornament. with the classic influences came ideas from egypt, and the excavations at herculaneum and pompeii provided a further source of design. a detail of a portion of a tripod table found at pompeii shows the nature of the beautiful furniture discovered. as early as 1763, grimm wrote: "for some years past we are beginning to inquire for antique ornaments and forms. the interior and exterior decorations of houses, furniture, materials of dress, work of the goldsmiths, all bear alike the stamp of the greeks. the fashion passes from architecture to millinery; our ladies have their hair dressed _à la grecque_." a french translation of winckelmann appeared in 1765, and diderot lent his powerful aid in heralding the dawn of the revival of the antique long before the curtain went up on the events of 1789. paris in revolution days assumed the atmosphere of ancient rome. children were given greek and roman names. classical things got rather mixed. people called themselves "romans." others had athenian notions. madame vigée-lebrun gave _soupers à la grecque_. madame lebrun was aspasia, and m. l'abbé barthélemy, in a greek dress with a laurel wreath on his head, recited a greek poem. [illustration: detail of tripod table found at pompeii. (_at naples museum._)] these, among a thousand other signs of the extraordinary spirit of classicism which possessed france, show how deep rooted had become the idea of a modern republic that should emulate the fame of athens and of rome. the first consul favoured these ideas, and his portraits represent him with a laurel wreath around his head posing as a cæsar. [illustration: _by kind permission from the collection of dr. sigerson, dublin._ servante. marble top; supported on two ormolu legs elaborately chased with figures of isis. panelled at back with glass mirror. french; late eighteenth century.] in transition days before the style known as empire had become fixed there is exhibited in art a feeling which suggests the deliberate search after new forms and new ideas. to this period belongs the _servante_, which, by the kindness of dr. sigerson, of dublin, is reproduced from his collection. the claw-foot, the ram's head, the bay-leaf, and a frequent use of caryatides and animal forms, is a common ornamentation in furniture of the empire period. in this specimen the two legs of ormolu have these characteristics, and it is noticeable that the shape of the leg and its details of ornament bear a striking resemblance to the leg of the pompeiian table illustrated (p. 205). but the deities of egypt have contributed a new feature in the seated figure of the goddess isis. [illustration: jewel cabinet of the empress marie louise. made on the occasion of her marriage with the emperor napoleon bonaparte, in 1810. (_at fontainebleau._)] napoleon himself encouraged the classic spirit which killed all memories of an _ancien régime_. he would have been pleased to see all the relics of the former glories of france demolished. he had at one time a project to rebuild versailles as a classic temple. at the height of his splendour he became the patron of the fine arts, and attempted to leave his impression upon art as he did upon everything else. new furniture was designed for the imperial palaces. riesener was alive, but it does not appear that he took any part in the new creations. david, the great french painter, an ardent republican, was won over to become a court painter. at malmaison and at fontainebleau there are many fine examples of the first empire period which, however, cannot be regarded as the most artistic in french furniture. preserved at fontainebleau is the jewel cabinet, made by thomire and odiot, at the emperor's orders as a wedding gift, in 1810, to the empress marie louise, in emulation of the celebrated riesener cabinet at the trianon. the wood used for this, and for most of the empire cabinets, is rich mahogany, which affords a splendid ground for the bronze gilt mounts (_see_ p. 207). the portrait of madame récamier, by david, which is in the louvre, given as headpiece to this chapter, shows the severe style of furniture in use at the zenith of the empire period. the couch follows classic models, and the tall candelabrum is a suggestion from herculaneum models. the influence that this classic revival had upon furniture in this country is told in a subsequent chapter. in regard to costume, the gowns of the first empire period have become quite fashionable in recent years. although this style of furniture degenerated into commonplace designs with affectedly hard outlines, it had a considerable vogue. in addition to the influence it had upon the brothers adam and upon sheraton, it left its trace on english furniture up till the first quarter of the nineteenth century. the chair illustrated (p. 210) is about the year 1800 in date. there is presumptive evidence that this chair was made in bombay after european design. it is of rosewood, carved in relief with honeysuckle and floral design. the scrolled ends of the top rail show at once its french derivation. in the national collections in this country there are very few specimens of empire furniture. the duke of wellington has some fine examples at apsley house, treasured relics of its historic associations with the victor of waterloo. the demand in france, for furniture of the first empire style has in all probability denuded the open market of many fine specimens. owing to the fact that this country was at war with france when the style was at its height, the number of empire pieces imported was very limited, nor does first empire furniture seem to have greatly captivated the taste of english collectors, as among the records of sales of furniture by public auction very little has come under the hammer. [illustration: _by kind permission of the rev. h. v. le bas._ armchair, rosewood. carved in relief with honeysuckle pattern formerly in possession of the duke of newcastle. english; late eighteenth century.] x chippendale and his style [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ table made by chippendale. (height, 29-3/8 in.; width, 32-3/8 in.; depth, 21-5/8 in.)] x chippendale and his style george i. 1714-1727. george ii. 1727-1760. george iii. 1760-1820. horace walpole built strawberry hill (1750) sir william chambers (1726-1796) built pagoda at kew about 1760. chippendale's _director_ published (1754). thomas chippendale, the master cabinetmaker of st. martin's lane, has left a name which, like that of boule, has become a trade term to mark a certain style in furniture. with the dawn of the age of mahogany, chippendale produced designs that were especially adapted to the new wood; he relied solely upon the delicate carving for ornament, and rejected all inlay. discovered by sir walter raleigh, who brought specimens home with him, mahogany did not come into general use till about 1720. the material then used by chippendale and his school was the splendid mahogany from the great untouched forests, producing at that time timber the like of which, in dimension and in quality, is now unprocurable. the cheaper "honduras stuff" was then unknown, and english crews landed and cut timber from the spanish possessions in spite of the protests of the owners. many a stiff fight occurred, and many lives were lost in shipping this stolen mahogany to england to supply the demand for furniture. these nefarious proceedings more than once threatened to bring about war between england and spain. the furniture of france, during the four great periods treated in the previous chapters, was designed for the use of the nobility. one wonders what furniture was in common use by the peasantry in france. in england, too, much of the furniture left for the examination of posterity was made for the use of the wealthy classes. in jacobean days, settles and chairs, especially the yorkshire and derbyshire types, were in more common use, and the homely pieces of queen anne suggest less luxurious surroundings, but it was left for chippendale to impress his taste upon all classes. in the title-page of his great work, the _director_, published in 1754, he says that his designs are "calculated to improve and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances of persons in all degrees of life." [illustration: oliver goldsmith's chair. wood, painted green, with circular seat, carved arms, and high back. bequeathed by oliver goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, dr. hawes. (_bethnal green museum._)] his book of designs, as may naturally be supposed, was not greatly bought by the working classes, but fifteen copies of the _director_ went to yorkshire, and many other copies were subscribed for in other parts of the country, so that local cabinetmakers began at once to fashion their furniture after his styles. the common form of chair at the time was similar to the specimen illustrated (p. 215), which formerly belonged to oliver goldsmith, and was bequeathed by him to his friend, dr. hawes. this is of soft wood, probably beech, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high back. chippendale revolutionised this inartistic style, and for the first time in the history of the manufacture of furniture in england, continental makers turned their eyes to this country in admiration of the style in vogue here, and in search of new designs. it might appear, on a hasty glance at some of chippendale's work, that originality was not his strong point. his claw-and-ball feet were not his own, and he borrowed them and the wide, spacious seats of his chairs from the dutch, or from earlier english furniture under dutch influence. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ chippendale settee; walnut. about 1740. (_from the collection of sir w. e. welby-gregory, bart._)] sir william chambers, the architect of somerset house, whose fondness for chinese ornament produced quite a craze, and who built the pagoda in kew gardens, gave chippendale another source of inspiration. in his later days he came under the influence of the gothic revival and was tempted to misuse gothic ornament. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ chippendale settee, oak. about 1740. (_by courtesy of v. j. robinson, esq., c.i.e._)] his second style shows the louis xiv. french decoration in subjection. in his ribbon-back chairs he employed the louis xvi. ornamentation. but chippendale was the most masterly adapter that england has ever produced. his adaptions became original under his hand, and his creations are sturdy and robust, tempered by french subtleties, and having, here and there, as in the fretwork in the chair-legs and angles, a suggestion of the east. he is the prince of chair-makers. his chairs are never unsymmetrical. he knew the exact proportion of ornament that the structure would gracefully bear. the splats in the chairs he made himself are of such accurate dimensions in relation to the open spaces on each side that this touch alone betrays the hand of the master, which is absent in the imitations of his followers. the illustration given of the chippendale table in chinese style (p. 213), is a beautiful and perfect piece of a type rarely met with. it was made by chippendale for the great-grandmother of the present owner. a similar table was in the possession of the princess josephine. in chairs, the back was sometimes of fret-cut work, as was also the design of the legs, with fretwork in the angles, which betray his fondness for the chinese models. the gothic style influenced chippendale only to a slight degree. horace walpole at strawberry hill set the fashion in england, which fortunately was short-lived. collectors divide chippendale's work into three periods. to the first they assign the more solid chairs or settees with cabriole legs and louis xiv. ornament, harmoniously blended with queen anne style. these chairs and settees are often found with claw-and-ball feet, and are frequently of walnut. two fine examples of settees, the one of oak, the other of walnut, are illustrated. [illustration: ribbon pattern. chippendale chair-back. (_from the "director."_)] the second period embraces the fine creations which have the celebrated louis xvi. ribbon ornamentation in the backs. from one of the designs in chippendale's book, here illustrated, the elegance of the style is shown. it is exuberant enough, but the author complains in his volume that "in executing many of these drawings, my pencil has but faintly carved out those images my fancy suggested; but in this failure i console myself by reflecting that the greatest masters of every art have laboured under the same difficulties." the ribbon-backed chair illustrated (p. 223) is one of the two given to an ancestor of the present owner by the fourth duke of marlborough in 1790. they were formerly at blenheim, and there is an added interest in them owing to the fact that the seats were worked by sarah, the great duchess of marlborough. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ ribbon-backed chippendale chair, formerly at blenheim, the seat worked by sarah, duchess of marlborough.] the latest style of chippendale's work is the gothic. there are many pieces in existence which he probably had to produce to satisfy the taste of his fashionable clients, but the style is atrocious, and the less said about them the better. the illustration (p. 225) of a chair-back from his design-book shows how offensive it could be. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ chippendale corner chair, about 1780. (_reproduced by kindness of the hon. sir spencer ponsonby-fane, g.c.b., i.s.o._)] the fine corner-chair, here illustrated, exhibits the strength and solidity he could impart to his work. his chairs were meant to sit upon, and are of excellent carpentry. the square, straight legs are a feature of much of his work. the examples belonging to the india office and the governors of the charterhouse illustrated (pp. 226, 227) show the type that he made his own and with which his name has been associated. [illustration: gothic chippendale chair-back. (_from the "director."_)] although his chairs are sought after as especially beautiful in design (his father was a maker of chairs before him) he made many other objects of furniture. the mirrors he designed are exquisite examples of fine woodcarving. the one illustrated (p. 229) shows the mastery he had over graceful outline. bureau bookcases with drop-down fronts have been successfully produced since his day after his models. the one illustrated (p. 231) shows a secret drawer, which is reached by removing the left-hand panel. card-tables, settees, knife-boxes, tea-caddies, sideboards, and overmantles were made by him, which show by their diversity of technique that there was more than one pair of hands at work in carrying out his designs. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ mahogany chippendale chair. about 1740. (_property of the india office._)] the collecting of chippendale furniture has become so fashionable of late years that genuine old pieces are difficult to procure. it is true that two old chairs were discovered in a workhouse last year, but when specimens come into the market they usually bring large prices. two elbow state-chairs, with openwork backs, were sold a little while ago for seven hundred and eighty guineas, and a set of six small chairs brought ninety-three guineas about the same time. but even this is not the top price reached, for two chairs at christie's realised eleven hundred pounds! [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ mahogany chippendale chair. 1770. (_by permission of the master of the charterhouse._)] chippendale, the shopkeeper, of st martin's lane, who took orders for furniture, which he or his sons, or workmen under their direct supervision, executed, was one person, and chippendale, who had quarrelled with the society of upholsterers, and published a book of designs on his own account, which quickly ran through three editions, was another person. in the one case he was a furniture maker whose pieces bring enormous prices. in the other he was the pioneer of popular taste and high-priest to the cabinetmakers scattered up and down england, who quickly realised the possibilities of his style, and rapidly produced good work on his lines. these pieces are by unknown men, and no doubt much of their work has been accredited to chippendale himself. the illustration (p. 232) shows a mahogany chair well constructed, of a time contemporary with chippendale and made by some smaller maker. this type of chair has been copied over and over again till it has become a recognised pattern. it finds its counterpart in china in the old willow-pattern, which originated at coalport and has been adopted as a stock design. [illustration: _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_ chippendale mirror.] furniture is not like silver, where the mark of the maker was almost as obligatory as the hall mark. artists, both great and small, have signed their pictures, and in the glorious days of the great french _ébénistes_ and metal-chasers, signed work is frequently found. but in england, at a time when furniture of excellent design, of original conception, and of thoroughly good workmanship was produced in great quantities, the only surviving names are those of designers or cabinetmakers who have published books. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ chippendale bureau bookcase. with drop-down front, showing secret drawer.] so great was the influence of the style of chippendale that it permeated all classes of society. an interesting engraving by stothard (p. 235) shows the interior of a room, and is dated 1782, the year that rodney gained a splendid victory over the french fleet in the west indies, and the year that saw the independence of the united states recognised. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ mahogany chair. in the chippendale style. late eighteenth century.] [illustration: cottage chairs, beechwood. late eighteenth century, in style of chippendale.] kitchen furniture or cottage furniture was made on the same lines by makers all over the country. the wood used was not mahogany; it was most frequently beech. chairs of this make are not museum examples, but they are not devoid of a strong artistic feeling, and are especially english in character. more often than not the soft wood of this class of chair is found to be badly worm-eaten. two chairs of this type, of beech, are illustrated (p. 233), and it is interesting to note that, as in the instance of the yorkshire and derbyshire chairs of jacobean days made by local makers, it is not common to find many of exactly the same design. the craftsman gave a personal character to his handiwork, which makes such pieces of original and artistic interest, and cabinetmaking and joinery was not then so machine-made as it is now. [illustration: interior of room, about 1782. (_from engraving after stothard._)] it may be here remarked that the earlier pieces of the eighteenth century were polished much in the same manner as was old oak previously described. highly polished surfaces and veneers, and that abomination "french polish," which is a cheap and nasty method of disguising poor wood, bring furniture within the early nineteenth-century days, when a wave of philistine banalities swept over europe. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. side table, chippendale, with gadrooned border, the front boldly carved with a grotesque mask, festoons of flowers and foliage, on carved legs with claw feet, 64 in. long. christie, february 14, 1902 126 0 0 tea-caddy, chippendale mahogany, square, with four divisions, the borders carved with rosettes and interlaced riband ornament, the sides inlaid with four old worcester oblong plaques painted with exotic birds, insects, fruit, flowers, and festoons in colours on white ground, 10 in. square. christie, february 6, 1903 52 10 0 fire-screen, chippendale mahogany, containing a panel of old english petit-point needlework, worked with a basket of flowers in coloured silks, on pillar and tripod carved with foliage and ball-and-claw feet. christie, december 4, 1903 17 17 0 armchairs, pair large chippendale mahogany, with interlaced backs carved with foliage, the arms terminating in carved and gilt eagles' heads. christie, january 22, 1904 88 4 0 cabinet, chippendale mahogany, with glazed folding doors enclosing shelves, and with cupboards and eight small drawers below, the borders fluted, 8 ft. high, 8 ft. wide. christie, january 22, 1904 67 4 0 chairs, set of six chippendale mahogany, with open interlaced backs, with scroll tops, carved with foliage and shell ornament, on carved cabriole legs and ball-and-claw feet. christie, january 22, 1904 102 18 0 table, chippendale, oblong, cabriole legs, carved with shells, &c., on claw feet, surmounted by a veined white marble slab, 53 in. wide. christie, march 4, 1904 73 0 0 settee, chippendale mahogany, with double back with scroll top, carved with arabesque foliage, the arms terminating in masks, on legs carved with lions' masks and claw feet, 54 in. wide. christie, april 12, 1904 278 5 0 mirror, chippendale, carved with gilt, 88 in. high, 50 in. wide. christie, may 18, 1904 94 10 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication _auction sale prices_. xi sheraton, adam, and heppelwhite styles [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ heppelwhite settee, mahogany.] xi sheraton, adam, and heppelwhite styles robert adam 1728-1792. thomas sheraton 1751-1806. 1752. loch and copeland's designs published. 1765. manwaring's designs published. 1770. ince and mayhew's designs published. 1788. heppelwhite's designs published. in the popular conception of the furniture of the three georges the honours are divided between chippendale and sheraton. up till recently all that was not chippendale was sheraton, and all that was not sheraton must be chippendale. the one is represented by the straight-legged mahogany chairs or cabriole legs with claw-and-ball feet and the backs elaborately carved; the other with finely tapered legs, built on elegant lines, and of satinwood, having marquetry decoration or painted panels. this is the rough generalisation that obtained in the earlier days of the craze for collecting eighteenth-century furniture. heppelwhite and adam (more often than not alluded to as adams), are now added to the list, and auction catalogues attempt to differentiate accordingly. but these four names do not represent a quarter of the well-known makers who were producing good furniture in the days between the south sea bubble in 1720 and the battle of waterloo in 1815. in this chapter it will be impossible to give more than a passing allusion to the less-known makers of the eighteenth century, but to those who wish to pursue the matter in more detailed manner the bibliography annexed (p. 19) gives ample material for a closer study of the period. the four brothers adam, sons of a well-known scottish architect, were exponents of the classic style. robert adam was the architect of the fine houses in the adelphi, and he designed the screen and gateway at the entrance to the admiralty in 1758. james is credited with the designing of interior decorations and furniture. carriages, sedan-chairs, and even plate were amongst the artistic objects to which these brothers gave their stamp. the classical capitals, mouldings and niches, the shell flutings and the light garlands in the adam style, are welcome sights in many otherwise dreary streets in london. robert, the eldest brother, lived from 1728 to 1792, and during that time exercised a great influence on english art. [illustration: sheraton armchair; mahogany, about 1780. adam armchair; mahogany, about 1790. armchair of walnut, shield-back carved with three ostrich feathers. in heppelwhite style. late eighteenth century. chair of walnut, shield-back; in the style of heppelwhite. late eighteenth century. (_victoria and albert museum._)] in 1790, a set of designs of english furniture were published by a. heppelwhite. in these chairs with pierced backs, bookcases with fancifully framed glass doors, and mahogany bureaux, the influence of chippendale is evident, but the robustness of the master and the individuality of his style become transformed into a lighter and more elegant fashion, to which french _finesse_ and the adam spirit have contributed their influence. in the illustration (p. 243) various types of chairs of the period are given. a chair termed the "ladder-back" was in use in france at the same time. in chardin's celebrated picture of "_le jeu de l'oye_," showing the interior of a parlour of the middle eighteenth century, a chair of this type is shown. the heppelwhite settee illustrated as the headpiece to this chapter shows the delicate fluting in the woodwork, and the elaborated turned legs which were beginning to be fashionable at the close of the eighteenth century. the two chairs by heppelwhite & co., illustrated (p. 243), are typical examples of the elegance of the style which has an individuality of its own--a fact that collectors are beginning to recognise. the shield-back chair with wheat-ear and openwork decoration, and legs in which the lathe has been freely used, are characteristic types. the elegance of the legs in heppelwhite chairs is especially noticeable. the designers departed from chippendale with results exquisitely symmetrical, and of most graceful ornamentation. hogarth, in his biting satires on the absurdities of kent, the architect, painter, sculptor, and ornamental gardener, whose claims to be any one of the four rest on slender foundations, did not prevent fashionable ladies consulting him for designs for furniture, picture frames, chairs, tables, for cradles, for silver plate, and even for the construction of a barge. it is recorded by walpole that two great ladies who implored him to design birthday gowns for them were decked out in incongruous devices: "the one he dressed in a petticoat decorated in columns of the five orders, and the other like a bronze, in a copper-coloured satin, with ornaments of gold." heppelwhite learned the lesson of hogarth, that "the line of beauty is a curve," and straight lines were studiously avoided in his designs. of the varieties of chairs that he made, many have the prince of wales's feathers either carved upon them in the centre of the open-work back or japanned upon the splat, a method of decoration largely employed in france, which has not always stood the test of time, for when examples are found they often want restoration. of satin-wood, with paintings upon the panels, heppelwhite produced some good examples, and when he attempted greater elaboration his style in pieces of involved design and intricacy of detail became less original, and came into contact with sheraton. his painted furniture commands high prices, and the name of heppelwhite will stand as high as chippendale or sheraton for graceful interpretations of the spirit which invested the late eighteenth century. before dealing with sheraton in detail, the names of some lesser known makers contemporary with him may be mentioned. matthias lock, together with a cabinetmaker named copeland, published in 1752 designs of furniture which derived their inspiration from the brothers adam, which classic feeling later, in conjunction with the egyptian and pompeian spirit, dominated the style of the first empire. josiah wedgewood, with his etruscan vases, and flaxman, his designer, filled with the new classic spirit, are examples in the world of pottery of the influences which were transmitted through the french revolution to all forms of art when men cast about in every direction to find new ideas for design. ince and mayhew, two other furniture designers, published a book in 1770, and johnson outdid chippendale's florid styles in a series of designs he brought out, which, with their twisted abortions, look almost like a parody of thomas chippendale's worst features. there is a "chairmaker's guide," by manwaring and others in 1766, which contains designs mainly adapted from all that was being produced at the time. it is not easy to tell the difference between chairs made by manwaring and those made by chippendale, as he certainly stands next to the great master in producing types which have outlived ephemeral tastes, and taken their stand as fine artistic creations. among other names are those of shearer, darly, and gillow, all of whom were notable designers and makers of furniture in the period immediately preceding the nineteenth century. thomas sheraton, contemporary with william blake the dreamer, shares with him the unfortunate posthumous honour of reaching sensational prices in auction rooms. there is much in common between the two men. sheraton was born in 1751 at stockton-on-tees, and came to london to starve. baptist preacher, cabinetmaker, author, teacher of drawing, he passed his life in poverty, and died in distressed circumstances. he was, before he brought out his book of designs, the author of several religious works. often without capital to pursue his cabinetmaking he fell back on his aptitude for drawing, and gave lessons in design. he paid young black, who afterwards became lord provost of edinburgh, half a guinea a week as workman in his cabinetmaker's shop in soho. in a pathetic picture of those days the lord provost, in his _memoirs_, tells how sheraton and his wife and child had only two cups and saucers and the child had a mug, and when the writer took tea with them the wife's cup and saucer were given up to the guest, and she drank her tea from a common mug. this reads like blake's struggles when he had not money enough to procure copper-plates on which to engrave his wonderful visions. that the styles of chippendale and sheraton represent two distinct schools is borne out by what sheraton himself thought of his great predecessor. speaking in his own book of chippendale's previous work he says: "as for the designs themselves they are wholly antiquated, and laid aside, though possessed of great merit according to the times in which they were executed." from this it would appear that the chippendale style, at the time of sheraton's "cabinetmaker's and upholsterer's drawing book," published in 1793, had gone out of fashion. the woods mostly employed by sheraton were satinwood, tulip-wood, rosewood, and apple-wood, and occasionally mahogany. in place of carved scrollwork he used marquetry, and on the cabinets and larger pieces panels were painted by cipriani and angelica kauffman. there is a fine example of the latter's work in the victoria and albert museum. sheraton borrowed largely from the french style under louis xvi., when the lines had become severer; he came, too, under the influence of the adam designs. he commonly used turned legs, and often turned backs, in his chairs. his later examples had a hollowed or spoon back to fit the body of the sitter. when he used mahogany he realised the beauty of effect the dark wood would give to inlay of lighter coloured woods, or even of brass. the splats and balusters, and even the legs of some of his chairs, are inlaid with delicate marquetry work. ornament for its own sake was scrupulously eschewed by sheraton. the essential supports and uprights and stretcher-rails and other component parts of a piece of furniture were only decorated as portions of a preconceived whole. the legs were tapered, the plain surfaces were inlaid with marquetry, but nothing meaningless was added. in france sheraton's style was termed "_louis seize à l'anglaise_." [illustration: _by permission of messrs. hampton &. sons._ old english secrétaire. rosewood and satinwood. drop-down front.] it was the firm of heppelwhite that first introduced the painted furniture into england, and under sheraton it developed into an emulation of the fine work done by watteau and greuze in the days of marie antoinette. among the varied pieces that sheraton produced are a number of ingenious inventions in furniture, such as the library-steps he made for george iii. to rise perpendicularly from the top of a table frame, and when folded up to be concealed within it. his bureau-bookcases and writing-cabinets have sliding flaps and secret drawers and devices intended to make them serve a number of purposes. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. harold g. lancaster & co._ shield-back chair. mahogany. late eighteenth century.] on the front of his chairs is frequently found the inverted bell flower, and another of his favourite forms of decoration is the acanthus ornament, which he puts to graceful use. the influence of his work, and of that of heppelwhite & co., was lasting, and much of the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century cabinetmaking owes its origin to their designs. the old english secrétaire illustrated (p. 250), of rose and satinwood, with drawer above and fall-down front, having cupboard beneath with doors finely inlaid with plaques of old lac, is of the date when heppelwhite was successfully introducing this class of french work into england. it is especially interesting to note that the drawer-handles are mounted with old battersea enamel. the difficulty of definitely pronouncing as to the maker of many of the pieces of furniture of the late eighteenth century is recognised by experts. the chair illustrated (p. 251) cannot be assigned to any particular designer, though its genuine old feeling is indisputable. in the fine collection of old furniture of this period at the victoria and albert museum will be found many examples of chairs with no other title assigned to them than "late eighteenth century." this fact speaks for itself. a great and growing school had followed the precepts of chippendale and heppelwhite and sheraton. this glorious period of little more than half a century might have been developed into a new renaissance in furniture. unfortunately, the early days of the nineteenth century and the dreary early victorian period, both before and after the great exhibition of 1851, display the most tasteless ineptitude in nearly every branch of art. from the days of elizabeth down to the last of the georges, english craftsmen, under various influences, have produced domestic furniture of great beauty. it is impossible to feel any interest in the windsor chair, the saddle-bag couch, or the red mahogany cheffonière. the specimens of misapplied work shown at the bethnal green museum, relics of the english exhibits at the first exhibition, are unworthy of great traditions. the awakened interest shown by all classes in old furniture will do much to carry the designers back to the best periods in order to study the inheritance the masters have left, and it is to be hoped that the message of the old craftsmen dead and gone will not fall on deaf ears. recent sale prices.[1] £ s. d. chairs, wheel back, set of seven (including armchair), adam, carved, mahogany. good condition. brady & sons, perth, september 1, 1902 27 2 6 mirror, adam, in gilt frame, corinthian pillar sides, ornamental glass panel at top, surmounted by a carved wood eagle figure. gudgeon & sons, winchester, november 11, 1903 7 10 0 mantelpiece, adam, carved wood, with corinthian column supports, carved and figures and festoons. france & sons, december 16, 1903 20 0 0 mirrors, pair, oval, adam, carved and gilt wood frame. christie, march 18, 1904 46 4 0 cabinet or enclosed buffet, adam, on empire lines, veneered on oak with grained spanish mahogany, in the frieze is a long drawer, and below a cupboard, the whole on square feet, doors inlaid, handles, &c., of ormolu, 3 ft. 9 in. wide. flashman & co., dover, april 26, 1904 15 0 0 side-tables, pair hare-wood, by adam, with rounded corners, on square-shaped tapering legs, the sides and borders inlaid with marquetry, in coloured woods, 53 in. wide. christie, june 2, 1904 105 0 0 bookcase, 4 ft. 8 in., mahogany, heppelwhite, inlaid tulip-wood with box and ebony lines, fitted shelves and drawers, enclosed by doors. phillips, son and neale, november 17, 1903 44 0 0 settee, heppelwhite, square-shaped, 6 ft., and three elbow chairs. gudgeon & sons, winchester, march 9, 1904 38 0 0 console-table, heppelwhite satinwood, the top shaped as a broken ellipse, and of hare-wood with inlays of husks and flowers round a fan-pattern centre with borderings in ebony and other woods on a filling of satinwood; the edge is bound with ormolu, reeded and cross banded, below is the frieze of satin-wood inlaid with honeysuckle, pateræ, and other ornament in holly, &c., and supported on a pair of carved square tapered legs painted and gilt, and with pendants of husks and acanthus capitals, 4 ft. 3 in. wide. flashman & co., dover, april 26, 1904 40 0 0 suite of heppelwhite mahogany furniture, with open shield backs, with vase-shaped centres carved, the back, arms and legs widely fluted, consisting of a settee, 74 in. wide, and ten armchairs. christie, june 2, 1904 325 10 0 knife-box, oblong, sheraton mahogany, with revolving front, inlaid with prince-of-wales's feathers and borders in satinwood, 19-1/2 in. wide. christie, november 21, 1902 7 17 6 sideboard, sheraton, mahogany, satinwood inlaid, fitted with brass rails. dowell, edinburgh, november 14, 1903 30 9 0 wardrobe, sheraton mahogany, banded with satinwood, with folding doors above and below, and five drawers in the centre, 7 ft. high, 8 ft. wide. christie, january 22, 1904 60 18 0 chairs, set of eighteen sheraton, with oval backs with rail centres, fluted and slightly carved with foliage and beading, the seats covered with flowered crimson damask; and a pair of settees, _en suite_, 6 ft. wide. christie, february 26, 1904 126 0 0 armchairs, pair, sheraton, with shield-shaped backs, painted with prince of wales feathers, and pearl ornament on black ground. christie, march 28, 1904 28 7 0 cabinet, sheraton satinwood, with glazed folding doors enclosing shelves, drawer in the centre forming secretary, and folding-doors below, painted with baskets of flowers, &c., 7 ft. 9 in. high, 41 in. wide. christie, march 28, 1904 189 0 0 secrétaire, sheraton small satinwood, with revolving tambour front, drawer and folding doors below, inlaid with arabesque foliage, 23 in. wide. christie, april 29, 1904 47 5 0 [1] by the kindness of the proprietors of the _connoisseur_ these items are given from their useful monthly publication, _auction sale prices_. xii hints to collectors [illustration: design for spurious marquetry work.] xii hints to collectors the demand for old furniture has become so great that there is an increasing difficulty in supplying it. in order to satisfy the collector many artifices have been practised which in varying degree are difficult to detect, according to the skill and ingenuity of the present-day manufacturer of "antique" furniture. replicas of old pieces are frequently made, and the workmanship is so excellent, and the copy of the old craftsman's style so perfect, that it only requires a century or two of wear to give to the specimen the necessary tone which genuine old furniture has naturally acquired. in particular, french ornate furniture from the days of boule to the empire period has received the flattering attention of the fabricator by being imitated in all its details. these high-class french pieces are fine examples of cabinetmaking, and it is not easy for anybody who has not a special expert knowledge to pronounce definitely upon their authenticity. doubts have even been expressed regarding certain pieces in the great national collections; in fact the art of the forger in regard to old french furniture, of which specimens change hands at anything from £1,000 to £10,000, has reached a very high level of excellence, having almost been elevated to one of the fine arts. if a clever workman possessed of great artistic feeling turns his attention to forging works of art, it is obvious that his triumph is complete over amateurs possessed of less artistic taste and knowledge than himself. many secret processes are employed to impart an appearance of age to the wood and to the metal mountings. the cruder methods are to eat off the sharper edges of the metal mountings by means of acid, and to discolour the newer surfaces by the aid of tobacco juice, both of which are not difficult to detect. the steady manufacture of these finer pieces goes on in france, and it has been found that the foggy atmosphere of london is especially useful in producing the effect of age upon the finer work, consequently many forged pieces are shipped to london to be stored in order to ripen until considered fit for the american market, where so many forgeries have been planted. the reward is great, and even considering the amount of trouble bestowed upon such pieces and the excellence of the artistic work where the highest skilled labour is employed, the profit is enormous. the parvenu buys his louis xiv. or louis xv. suite, and pays an immense sum for pieces which are stated to have come from some french nobleman's château, whose name must not be divulged, and so the interesting deal is brought to a successful termination. [illustration: "made-up" buffet. the middle portion, consisting of the two drawers and three panelled cupboards above, is genuine old carved oak. the stand, with the finely turned legs and rails, and the whole of the upper portion, is modern.] as an object-lesson as to the truth of the above remarks, the wallace collection contains a modern french copy in facsimile, by dasson, of the celebrated "bureau du roi" of the louis xv. period, the original being in the louvre. the original is fully described in the chapter on louis xv. style, and it is not too much to assert that ninety-nine per cent. of the visitors to the collection could not say that this copy was not an old french specimen of over a century and a quarter ago, and the remaining one, unless he happened to be an expert, would not question its genuineness. old oak has always been a favourite with the public, and from the modern flemish monstrosities, carved in evil manner and displaying proportions in the worst possible taste, to the equally vulgar home production in buffet or sideboard, and stocked by many dealers in so-called "antique" furniture, the number of grotesque styles foisted upon the public within the last fifteen years has been remarkable. one wonders what has become of the high-backed oak chairs, nearly black with repeated applications of permanganate of potash, having flaming red-leather seats. they seem to have mysteriously disappeared from up-to-date "antique" stores of late. the public has taken to inquiring into art matters a little more closely. nowadays the latest thing is "fumed" oak, which is modern oak discoloured by means of ammonia, which darkens the surface of the wood to a depth of a sixteenth of an inch. it is not infrequent to find an attempt made to represent this as old oak after an elaborate treatment with linseed oil, turpentine, and beeswax, though an examination of the interior edges of the wood will discover its modernity at once. of course, such tricks as these are not practised by any firm of standing, who cannot afford to damage their reputation by any misrepresentation. as a general rule a dealer will readily point out the details of workmanship and offer technical information of much value to a beginner, if he discovers that his customer is a collector desirous of acquiring only fine specimens. it is more often than not the folly of the public, and not the dishonesty of the dealer, which results in trade frauds being committed in the attempt to execute some impossible and imperative order, which the moneyed collector has given. the difference between the genuine and the replica is most clearly made by old-fashioned firms of high standing. it is only when the collector enters into the arena and endeavours to set forth in quest of bargains, where he pits his skill against that of the dealer in the hope of outwitting the latter, that he is obviously on dangerous ground. in the one case he pays a higher price and obtains the benefit of the experience of a firm with expert knowledge, in the other he relies on his own judgment in picking up a bargain from some one whom he believes to be possessed of less knowledge than himself. if he is successful he is not slow to brag about his cleverness; but if he is worsted in the encounter, and pays, let us say, five pounds for an object which he fondly believed was worth fifty, if genuine, and which he subsequently discovers is worth less than he gave, there is nothing too bad to say concerning his antagonist. it is chiefly by the character of carved work that old pieces can be recognised. there are three classes of pitfalls to avoid. 1. fraudulent pieces throughout, of modern wood and of modern carving. 2. "made-up" pieces which often consist of genuine old pieces of carved wood pieced together ingeniously from fragments of carvings, with modern additions. 3. "restored" pieces which are mainly old and should have received, if admitted to a collection, only the necessary repairs to make them serviceable. with regard to the first class, fraudulent throughout, it is the hope of the writer that enough has already been written in this volume to point the way to the reader and to assist him to follow his natural inclinations in developing the necessary critical taste to readily detect pieces wholly false in character and feeling. "made-up" pieces present a greater difficulty. considerable skill has been exercised in combining certain parts of old furniture into a whole which is, however, mostly inharmonious. in pieces of this nature there is an absence of feeling in style and carving. it is difficult to define the exact meaning of the word "feeling" as applied to art objects, it is a subtle expression of skill and poetry which communicates itself to the lover of art. it is so subtle and elusive that experts will tell one that such and such a piece requires to be "lived with" to test its authenticity. mr. frederick roe, whose volume on "ancient coffers and cupboards" displays a profound knowledge of his subject, writes, "it occasionally happens that pieces are so artfully made up that only living with them will enable the collector to detect the truth. in dealing with pieces of this suspicious kind one often has to fall back on a sort of instinct. with critical collectors of every sort this innate sense plays a very important part." two specimens of "made-up" furniture are reproduced, which will bear close study in order to appreciate the difficulty of collecting old oak. the illustration of the buffet (p. 261) has many points of interest. the general appearance of the piece is not inharmonious. it has been carefully thought out and no less carefully put into effect. the middle portion, consisting of the three drawers and the three cupboards above, up to and including the shelf partition at the top, is the only old part. the handles, locks, and escutcheons of the two drawers are old, but the hinges above are modern copies of old designs, and the handles of the cupboards are modern replicas. [illustration: cabinet of old oak. made up from several pieces of genuine old carved oak.] the massive stand with artistically turned rails in jacobean style, is soft wood artfully fumed and generously beeswaxed. the whole of the top portion has been added and is soft wood very well carved. the carving of the panels is also well executed, and is evidently a copy of some old design. the older portion is a fine piece of early jacobean work, and it is not difficult to distinguish between the feeling of this and the expression conveyed by the modern woodwork. the patina of the wood after two centuries of exposure and polishing has that peculiarly pleasing appearance which accompanies genuine old woodwork. the edges of the carving have lost their sharp angles, and the mellowness of the middle panels are in strong contrast to the harsher tone of those of the upper portion. such a piece as this would not deceive an expert, nor, perhaps, is it intended to, or greater care would have been bestowed upon it, but it is sufficiently harmonious in composition not to offend in a glaring manner, and might easily deceive a tyro. the next piece illustrated (p. 267) is interesting from another point of view. it is a more elaborate attempt to produce a piece of old furniture in which the details themselves have all the mellowness of fine old oak. in fact, with the exception of one portion, some eight inches by three, to which allusion will be made later, the whole of it is genuine old oak. the three panels at the top are finely carved and are jacobean work. the two outside panels at the bottom, though of a later period, are good work. the middle panel at the bottom is evidently a portion of a larger piece of carving, because the pattern abruptly breaks off, and it was most certainly not designed by the old carver to lie on its side in this fashion. the two heads at the top corners have been cut from some old specimen, and artfully laid on. the carving on both sides, running below each head from top to bottom, is of two distinct designs joined in each case in a line level with the upper line of the lower panels. the two uprights on each side of the middle lower panel are exquisite pieces of carved work, but certainly never intended to be upright. they are evidently portions of a long, flowing ornament, as their cut-off appearance too plainly shows. the top panels have done duty elsewhere, as part of the ornamental carving at the top and bottom of each lozenge is lost. the long line of scrolled carving above them is distinctly of interest. on the left hand, from the head to the middle of the panel, a piece of newer carving has been inserted, some eight inches long. the wood, at one time darkened to correspond with the adjacent carving, has become lighter, which is always the case when wood is stained to match other portions. the carving in this new portion follows in every detail the lines of the older design, and is a very pretty piece of "faking." the cross-piece running from left to right, dividing the lower panels from the upper, is in three parts. an examination of the design shows that the last three circles on the right, and the last four on the left, are of smaller size than the others. the design evidently belonged to some other piece of furniture, and has been removed to do service in this "made-up" production. in all probability the two uprights enclosing the top middle panel, and the two uprights on the outside at the bottom were once portions of a carved bedstead, as they are all of the same size and design. it is a notorious trick to slice an old carved bedpost into four pieces, skilfully fitting the pieces into "made-up" furniture. there is a prevalent idea that worm-holes are actually produced in furniture, in order to give a new piece a more realistic appearance. there are traditions of duck-shot having been used, and there is little doubt that holes were drilled by makers who knew their public. but it is improbable that such artifices would be of much use for deceptive purposes nowadays. as a matter of fact, worm-holes are avoided by any one who gives a moment's thought to the matter. to get rid of worm in furniture is no easy task, and they eventually ruin any pieces they tenant. the illustration (p. 274) shows a piece of spanish chestnut badly honeycombed by furniture worms. in chairs, especially, their havoc is almost irreparable, and in the softer woods the legs become too rotten to be repaired or even strengthened. metal plates are often screwed on the sides to prevent the chairs falling to pieces, but they become useless to sit upon without fear of disaster. the insect is really the boring wood-beetle, which is armed with formidable forceps, to enable it to burrow through the wood. the worm, the larva of this beetle, is also provided with boring apparatus, and this insect, whether as beetle or as worm, is a deadly enemy to all furniture. the "death-watch" is also accused of being a depredator of books and of furniture of soft wood. to remove worms from furniture is a costly undertaking, requiring the greatest skill. large pieces of furniture have actually to be taken to pieces and the whole of the damaged parts removed with a chisel. in cases where the legs, or slender supports, have been attacked, the difficulty is one requiring the specialist's most delicate attention. various applications are recommended, but cannot be stated to be reliable. injecting paraffin is said to be the best remedy, and putting the pieces in a chamber where all the openings have been sealed, and lighting pans of sulphur underneath the furniture, allowing the specimens to remain in this fumigating bath for some days is another method resorted to. with regard to chippendale furniture, a word of caution is necessary. it is as impossible for chippendale and his workmen to have produced all the furniture attributed to them as it is for the small factory at lowestoft to have made all the china with which it is credited. as has been shown in the chapter on thomas chippendale, his styles were most extensively copied by his contemporaries all over the country and by many makers after him, and modern makers produce a great quantity of "chippendale" every year. only a careful examination of museum pieces will train the eye of the collector. the fine sense of proportion, at once noticeable in the genuine chippendale chair, is absent in the modern copy, and, above all, the carving in the latter is thin and poor. in the old days the wastage of wood was not a thing which the master had in his mind. in modern copies the curl of the arm, or the swell at the top of the back, shows a regard for economy. there is a thin, flat look about the result, which ought not to be mistaken. scrolls and ribbon-work are often added to later pieces made in the style of chippendale, which have enough wood in their surfaces to bear carving away. an ingenious device is adopted in cases of inlaid pieces of a small nature, such as imitation sheraton clock-cases and knife-boxes and the frames of mirrors. old engravings are procured of scrollwork, usually from the end of some book. the illustration (p. 259) shows the class of engravings selected. these engravings are coated with a very thin layer of vellum, which is boiled down to a liquid, and carefully spread over them. after this treatment they are ready to be glued on to the panels to be "faked," and, when coated over with transparent varnish, they present the appearance of an ivory and ebony inlay. [illustration: design for spurious marquetry work.] the frauds practised in satinwood and painted pieces are many and are exceedingly difficult to detect. much of sheraton's furniture was veneered with finely selected specimens of west india satinwood. these carefully chosen panels were painted by cipriani and others. the modern "faker" has not the material to select from, as the satinwood imported is not so beautiful nor so richly varied in grain as in the old days. he removes a side panel from an old piece, and substitutes another where its obnoxious presence is not so noticeable. to this old panel he affixes a modern coloured print after one of sheraton's artists, which, when carefully varnished over and skilfully treated so as to represent the cracks in the supposed old painting, is ready for insertion in the "made-up" sideboard, to catch the fancy of the unwary collector. finis. [illustration: piece of spanish chestnut showing ravages of worms.] index a adam, the brothers, and their style, 209, 241-256 adam armchair (illustrated), 243 admiralty, screen and gateway, designed by robert adam, 242 anne, queen, furniture of, prices realised at auction, 153 ---insularity of furniture in reign of, 136 ---well-constructed furniture of period of, 145 apsley house, collection of furniture at, 209 armoire, _see_ glossary, 23 ascham, quotation from, 68 ashmolean museum, oxford, chair at, 115 b baroque, _see_ glossary, 23 barrow, sam, name of maker, on queen anne clock, 148 battersea enamel, its use on furniture, 252 bérain, jean, 162 blenheim, chair from, 222 bodleian library, oxford, illustration of chair at, 82 _bombé_, _see_ glossary, 23 bookcase by chippendale, 225, 231 boucher, 182, 195 boule, andré charles, and his marquetry, 160-162 ---cabinet (illustrated), 165 ---_see_ glossary, 23 ---and counter-boule (illustrated), showing difference between, 163 bridal chest (german), 43 bromley-by-bow, "old palace," oak panelling from, 65 brown and bool, messrs., specimens from collection of, 141, 150 buhl work, 160 bureau, _see_ glossary, 24 burr-walnut panels, 139 butter-cupboard, 104 c cabinet, ebony, formerly property of oliver cromwell, 99 cabriole, _see_ glossary, 24 cabriole-leg, introduction of into england, 127 caffieri, 177, 191 cambridge, king's college chapel, woodwork of, 63 cane seats and backs of chairs, adoption of, 117 ---work in chairs, later development of, 122 carolean, _see_ glossary, 25 carving supplanted by cane-work panels, 117 caryatides, _see_ glossary, 24 _cassette_, (strong box) of period of louis xiv., 158 _cassone_, _see_ glossary, 24 ---(marriage coffer), the italian, 42 catherine of braganza, fashions introduced by, 114 cecil, lord burleigh, quotation from, 66 chair, charles i., 93, 95 ---chippendale, 223, 224, 226, 227, 232, 233 ---"cromwellian," 96 ---high-backed, portuguese, 114 ---italian (1620), 94 ---jacobean, made from timber of drake's _golden hind_, 83 ---james i., 87, 89 ---james ii., 123 ---louis xiii. period, 159 ---ribbon-back, 222, 223 ---oliver goldsmith's, 215 ---with arms of first earl of strafford, 93 chairs, test as to age of, 100 ---types of jacobean (illustrated), 97, 100, 105, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124 ---types of queen anne period (illustrated), 143 ---upholstered, adopted in late elizabethan days, 75 chambers, sir william, 216 chardin, picture by, showing ladder-back chair, 245 charles i. furniture, prices realised at auction, 106 ---ii. furniture, prices realised at auction, 129 ---ii., repartee of, 114 charterhouse, specimen at, illustration of, 227 chatsworth, work of grinling gibbons at, 121 chests of drawers, jacobean, 117 china collecting, influence of, on furniture, 127 chinese and japanese cabinets, 148 "chinese" chippendale, 213, 221 chippendale, thomas, and his style, 213-238; his _director_, 215 ---bureau-bookcase, 225, 231 ---furniture, tricks concerning, 272; prices of, 227, 236 cipriani, 249 classic models paramount, 205 claw-and-ball feet adopted by chippendale, 216 ---feet (prior to chippendale), 146 ---foot, introduction of, 127 clock, "grandfather," introduction of, 127 clocks, "grandfather," 147 colbert, the guiding spirit of art under louis xiv., 159 collectors, hints to, 259-274 commode, _see_ glossary, 24 commodes (illustrated), cressent, 171; louis xiv., 173; caffieri, 175; riesener, 197 _contre partie_, _see_ glossary, 24 copeland, designs of, 247 copies of old furniture, 259, 263 ---of fine french pieces, 185, 197 cottage furniture (chippendale style), 232 counter-boule, _see_ glossary, 24 -----boule, 161 court cupboard, 70 cowley, quotation from, 85 cradle, with initials and date, 96 cressent, charles, 177, 178 crispin de passe, chair designed by, 159 cromwellian chair, 96 cromwell's ebony cabinet, 96 cushions for chairs when adopted, 75 d darly, 248 dated pieces- 1593, elizabethan bedstead, 66 1603, mirror, carved oak frame, 71 1603, court cupboard, 73 1616, oak table, 85 1623, chair, 97 1641, cradle, 96 1642, chair, 159 1653, cabinet, _frontispiece_ 1760-69, "bureau du roi," 185 1769, bureau, 196 1810, jewel cabinet, 207 david, 195, 208, 209 derbyshire chairs, 103 diderot, 205 _director_, designs of chair-backs from, 222, 225 drake, sir francis, chair made from timber of _golden hind_, 82 drawers, chests of, jacobean, 117 dressers, normandy, 103 ---"welsh," 100 dublin museum, illustration of oak chest at, 44 dutch art, introduction of, by william of orange, 124 ---house, interior of (illustrated), 111 ---lacquer work, 151 ---marquetry, 128, 146 ---marquetry chair, illustrated, 143 ---marquetry, prices realised at auction, 132 e eassie, walter, illustrations from drawings by, 171, 183 egyptian design, influence of, 247 eighteenth century, early, well-constructed furniture of, 145 ---interior of room (illustrated), 235 elizabethan mansions, some noteworthy, 67 elizabethan woodwork, fine example of, 65 empire style furniture, 202-210 ---its influence on english makers, 209 england, renaissance in, 37, 59-78 f farmhouse furniture, 100 figure in wood, how obtained, 76, 118 fire of london, destruction of furniture by, 120 first empire style, 203-210 flemish wood-carving, its influence on english craftsmen, 49 fontainebleau, illustration of jewel cabinet at, 207 foreign workmen employed in england, 37 fragonard, 182, 195 france, renaissance in, 43 francis i., patron of the new art, 47 frauds perpetrated on collectors, 259-274 french polish, _see_ glossary, 24, 236 french revolution, vandalism during, 204 g gate-leg table, _see_ glossary, 24 ---table, 95 gibbons, grinling, work of, 121 gillow, 248 _golden hind_, chair made from timbers of, 82 goldsmith, oliver, chair of, 215, 216 gothic, _see_ glossary, 25 ---revival, its influence on chippendale, 221 gouthière, pierre, 191, 192, 197 grandfather clock, 147 ---clock, introduction of, 127 great hall at hampton court, 63 grimm, quotation from, 205 grotesque design prevalent in elizabethan furniture, 69 h hall, hampton court, the great, 63 ---middle temple, carved screen at, 65 hampton court, the great hall at, 63 ---court, work of grinling gibbons at, 121 hampton & sons, messrs., pieces from collection of, 59, 95, 99, 115, 120, 121, 135, 143, 147, 148, 250 harrington, sir john, quotation from, 75 henry vii.'s chapel, westminster abbey, 63 ---viii., patron of the new art, 37 heppelwhite, the style of, 241-256 ---chairs (illustrated), 243 herculaneum and pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 209 hints to collectors, 259-274 hogarth, william, 246 holbein in england, 37 honey, w. g., esq., specimen from collection of, 151 huygens, dutch lacquer of, 182 i ince & mayhew's designs, 247 india office, specimen at, illustration of, 226 ingenious contrivances of sheraton's furniture, 251 inlay, _see_ glossary, 25 ---in elizabethan pieces, 69 italian art dominates elizabethan fashion, 68 italy, renaissance in, 41 j jacobean, _see_ glossary, 25 ---furniture, its fine simplicity, 104 jacobean furniture, prices realised at auction, 106, 129 james i., chair at knole house, 86 ---ii. furniture, prices realised at auction, 130 japanese and chinese cabinets, 148 japanese lac imitated, 182 jones bequest, illustrations of specimens in, 165, 179, 193 ---inigo, his influence, 93 k kauffman, angelica, 249 kent, eighteenth-century designer, 246 kew gardens, pagoda at, 216 king's college chapel, cambridge, woodwork of, 63 kitchen furniture (chippendale style), 232 knole house, james i. furniture at, 86 l lac, _see_ glossary, 26 ---japanese and chinese imitated, 182 lacquer, _see_ glossary, 26 lancaster & co., messrs. harold g., specimens from collection of, 122, 123, 137, 231, 232, 241, 251 leather work, cut design, portuguese chair-back, 128 le bas, rev. h. v., illustration of specimen in possession of, 210 lebrun, madame, 205 leczinski, stanislas, king of poland, 196 linen pattern, _see_ glossary, 26 lock, matthias, designs of, 247 louis xiii., chair of period of, 159 ---xiv., period of, 157-167 ---xv., period of, 171-187 ---xvi., period of, 191-200 louvre, copy of picture in, 203 ---illustration of portrait in, 209 m macaulay, lord, quotation from, 96, 136 "made-up" pieces, 265 madrid national museum, illustration of specimen at, 52 mahogany period, 34 ---how procured by british captains, 214 ---sir walter raleigh's discovery of, 214 mansions built in elizabethan days, 67 manwaring, designs of, 247 marie antoinette, furniture belonging to, 179, 180, 195 marie louise, jewel cabinet of, 208 marquetry, _see_ glossary, 26 ---dutch, 128 ---dutch, 146 ---elaborate, 180, 182 ---in elizabethan pieces, 69 ---work, spurious, 273 martin, sieur simon etienne (_vernis-martin_), 182 martin's varnish (_vernis-martin_), _see_ glossary, 28 meissonier, inspirer of rococo style, 177 middle temple hall, carved oak screen at, 65 mirrors, arrangement in hampton court galleries, 123 ---at nell gwynne's house, 123 ---chippendale, 229 ---made by french and italian workmen, 124 ---queen anne, 136 ---various forms of, 124 mortise, _see_ glossary, 26 mother-of-pearl inlay, seventeenth century, 116 munich national museum, illustration of specimen at, 39 n naples museum, illustration of table at, 205 napoleon, his influence on art, 208 natoire, 182, 195 needlework decorated cabinet, charles ii. period, 112 netherlands, renaissance in, 49 netscher, caspar, illustration after picture by, 111 normandy dressers, 103 notable examples of sixteenth, century english woodwork, 65 o oak, collectors of, hints to, 103, 118 ---furniture, the collector's polish for, 118 ---period, 34 ---polish, _see_ glossary, 26 oeben, jean françois, 178 old oak, polish for, 118 p parquetry, _see_ glossary, 26 passe crispin de, chair designed by, 159 pater, 192 penshurst place, indo-portuguese furniture at, 115 petworth house, work of grinling gibbons at, 121 _polish_, french, 24; ---oil, 26 pollen, j., hungerford, quotation from, 196 pompeii, influence of excavations at, 204, 208, 247 ponsonby-fane, right hon. sir spencer, specimens in collection of, 101, 224 portuguese furniture, late seventeenth century, in england, 114 q queen anne cabinet (illustrated), 141 ---chairs (illustrated), 143 ---furniture, prices realised at auction, 153 ---mirror frame (illustrated), 137 ---settle (illustrated), 149, 155 r raleigh, sir walter, mahogany first brought home by, 214 récamier, portrait of, by david, 209 reeded, _see_ glossary, 27 renaissance, _see_ glossary, 27 ---in england, 37, 59-78 ---in france, 43 ---in italy, 41 ---in the netherlands, 49 ---in spain, 48 ---on the continent, 33-55 ---origin of, 38, 41 restored, _see_ glossary, 27 ---cupboard showing over-elaboration, 73 "restored" pieces, 265 revolution in france, vandalism during, 204 ribbon-back chair (illustrated), 222 ---ornamentation adapted from france, 64; (illustrated) 60 ---pattern, early use of, by french woodcarvers, 92 riesener, jean françois, 185, 191, 192, 195, 197, 208 robinson, v. j., esq., c.i.e., furniture belonging to, 219 rococo, _see_ glossary, 27 roe, mr. frederick, quotation from, 266 roentgen, david, 182 s sackville, lord, early jacobean furniture in collection of, 86 st. paul's cathedral, work of grinling gibbons at, 121 secret drawers, 114 ---drawers, pieces with, 113, 157, 231 ---drawers, sheraton's love of, 251 ---processes to impart age to spurious pieces, 260 settee, _see_ glossary, 27 ---upholstered, early jacobean, at knole, 90 settle, _see_ glossary, 28, 60 ---queen anne style, 145, 149 sèvres porcelain as decoration to furniture, 191 ---porcelain in harmony with furniture, 181 shattock, esq., t. foster, specimens from collection of, 45 shearer, 248 sheraton, thomas, and his style, 209, 241-256 ---chair (illustrated), 243 ---mechanical contrivances of his furniture, 251 ---poverty of, 248; his opinion of chippendale, 248 sigerson, dr., dublin, specimens from collection of, 157, 206 sixteenth-century woodwork, fine example of, 65 spain, renaissance in, 48 spanish furniture (illustrated), cabinet, 51; chest, 52 spitalfields' velvet for furniture, 147 ---weaving founded by aliens, 122 splat, _see_ glossary, 28 stothard, copy of engraving by, 231, 235 strafford, first earl of, chair with arms of, 94 strapwork, _see_ glossary, 28 ---borrowed from flemish designers, 64; illustrated, 61, 68 ---elizabethan, 69 stretche, esq., t. e. price, specimens from collection of, 75, 78, 97, 139, 140 stretcher, _see_ glossary, 28 ---in chairs, evolution of the, 122 ---wear given to, by feet of sitters, 100 sutton, thomas, founder of charterhouse hospital, 86 symonds, john addington, "the renaissance in italy," quoted, 41 t table, gate-leg, _see_ glossary, 24 tapestry factory established at mortlake, 92 ---in harmony with furniture, 181 tenon, _see_ glossary, 28 terror, reign of, vandalism during, 204 timber split to give figure in surface, 76, 118 transition between gothic and renaissance, 44, 47, 63 turned work, _see_ glossary, 28 u upholstered chairs adopted in late elizabethan days, 75 ---seat (william and mary), 122 v vandyck at the court of charles i., 92 varnish, oil, composition of, not now known, 119 ---spirit, a modern invention, 118 ---_vernis-martin_, _see_ glossary, 28 veneer, _see_ glossary, 28 veneered work, its adoption, 139 veneers, woods used as, _see_ glossary, 29 _vernis-martin_ (martin's varnish), _see_ glossary, 28, 182 versailles, sums spent upon building, 166; vandalism at, 172, 177 w wallace collection, illustrations of specimens, at, 163, 171, 181, 183 walnut period, 34 walnut veneer, queen anne period, 139 walpole, horace, 221 waring, messrs., specimens from collection of, 81, 117, 119, 143, 149, 197 watteau, 192 wedgwood, josiah, 247 wellington, duke of, collection in possession of, 209 welsh dresser, 100 westminster abbey, henry vii.'s chapel, 63 william and mary furniture, prices realised at auction, 130 winckelmann, 205 woods preferred by grinling gibbons, 121 ---used for delicate carving by foreign schools, 116 ---used in furniture, _see_ glossary, 29 ---with fancy names, 29; botanical names of, 196 woodwork, sixteenth century, fine examples of, 65 worms, ravages of furniture, 234, 271, 274 wren, sir christopher, 120 y yorkshire chairs, 103 the gresham press, unwin brothers, limited, woking and london. proofreading team the art of interior decoration plate i there is something unusually exquisite about this composition. you will discover at a glance perfect balance, repose--line, everywhere, yet with it infinite grace and a winning charm. one can imagine a tea tray brought in, a table placed and those two attractive chairs drawn together so that my lady and a friend may chat over the tea cups. the mirror is an italian louis xvi. the sconces, table and chairs, french. the vases, italian, all antiques. a becoming mellow light comes through the shade of deep cream italian parchment paper with louis xvi decorations. it should be said that the vases are italian medicine jars--literally that. they were once used by the italian chemists, for their drugs, and some are of astonishing workmanship and have great intrinsic value, as well as the added value of age and uniqueness. the colour scheme is as attractive as the lines. the walls are grey, curtains of green and grey, antique taffeta being used, while the chairs have green silk on their seats and the table is of green and faded gold. the green used is a wonderfully beautiful shade. [illustration: _portion of a drawing room, perfect in composition and detail_] the art of interior decoration by grace wood and emily burbank _illustrated_ new york dodd, mead and company 1917 dedicated to a.m.m. _at the age of eighty, an inspiration to all who meet her, because she is the embodiment of what this book stands for; namely, fidelity to the principles of classic art and watchfulness for the vital new note struck in the cause of the beautiful._ foreword if you would have your rooms interesting as well as beautiful, make them say something, give them a spinal column by keeping all ornamentation subservient to line. before you buy anything, try to imagine how you want each room to look when completed; get the picture well in your mind, as a painter would; think out the main features, for the details all depend upon these and will quickly suggest themselves. this is, in the long run, the quickest and the most economical method of furnishing. there is a theory that no room can be created all at once, that it must grow gradually. in a sense this is a fact, so far as it refers to the amateur. the professional is always occupied with creating and recreating rooms and can instantly summon to mind complete schemes of decoration. the amateur can also learn to mentally furnish rooms. it is a fascinating pastime when one gets the knack of it. beautiful things can be obtained anywhere and for the minimum price, if one has a feeling for line and colour, or for either. if the lover of the beautiful was not born with this art instinct, it may be quickly acquired. a decorator creates or rearranges one room; the owner does the next, alone, or with assistance, and in a season or two has spread his or her own wings and worked out legitimate schemes, teeming with individuality. one observes, is pleased with results and asks oneself why. this is the birth of _good taste_. next, one experiments, makes mistakes, rights them, masters a period, outgrows or wearies of it, and takes up another. progress is rapid and certain in this fascinating amusement,--study--call it what you will, if a few of the laws underlying all successful interior decoration are kept in mind. these are: harmony in line and colour scheme; simplicity in decoration and number of objects in room, which is to be dictated by usefulness of said objects; and insistence upon spaces which, like rests in music, have as much value as the objects dispersed about the room. treat your rooms like "still life," see to it that each group, such as a table, sofa, and one or two chairs make a "composition," suggesting comfort as well as beauty. never have an isolated chair, unless it is placed against the wall, as part of the decorative scheme. in preparing this book the chief aim has been clearness and brevity, the slogan of our day! we give a broad outline of the historical periods in furnishing, with a view to quick reference work. the thirty-two illustrations will be analysed for the practical instruction of the reader who may want to furnish a house and is in search of definite ideas as to lines of furniture, colour schemes for upholstery and hangings, and the placing of furniture and ornaments in such a way as to make the composition of rooms appear harmonious from the artist's point of view. the index will render possible a quick reference to illustrations and explanatory text, so that the book may be a guide for those ambitious to try their hand at the art of interior decoration. the manner of presentation is consciously didactic, the authors believing that this is the simplest method by which such a book can offer clear, terse suggestions. they have aimed at keeping "near to the bone of fact" and when the brief statements of the fundamental laws of interior decoration give way to narrative, it is with the hope of opening up vistas of personal application to embryo collectors or students of periods. contents foreword chapter i. how to rearrange a room method of procedure.--inherited eyesores.--line.--colour.--treatment of small rooms and suites.--old ceilings.--old floors.--to paint brass bedsteads.--hangings.--owning two or three antique pieces of furniture, how proceed.--appropriateness to setting.--how to give your home a personal quality. chapter ii. how to create a room mere comfort.--period rooms.--starting a collection of antique furniture.--reproductions.--painted furniture.--order of procedure in creating a room.--how to decide upon colour scheme.--study values.--period ballroom.--a distinguished room.--each room a stage "set."--background.--flowers as decoration.--placing ornaments.--tapestry.--tendency to antique tempered by vivid bakst colours. chapter iii. how to determine character of hangings and furniture-covering for a given room silk, velvet, corduroy, rep, leather, use of antique silks, chintz.--when and how used. chapter iv. the story of textiles materials woven by hand and machine, embroidered, or the combination of the two known as tapestry.--painted tapestry.--art fostered by the church.--decorated walls and ceilings, 13th century, england. chapter v. candlesticks, lamps, fixtures for gas and electricity, and shades fixtures, as well as mantelpiece, must follow architect's scheme.--plan wall space for furniture.--shades for lights.--important as to line and colour. chapter vi. window shades and awnings coloured gauze sash-curtains.--window shades of glazed linen, with design in colours.--striped canvas awnings. chapter vii. treatment of pictures and picture frames selecting pictures.--pictures as pure decoration.--"staring" a picture.--restraint necessary in hanging pictures.--hanging miniatures. chapter viii. treatment of piano cases where interest centres abound piano.--where piano is part of ensemble. chapter ix. treatment of dining-room buffets and dressing-tables articles placed upon them. chapter x. treatment of work tables, bird cages, dog baskets, and fish globes value as colour notes. chapter xi. treatment of fireplaces proportions, tiles, andirons, grates. chapter xii. treatment of bathrooms a man's bathroom.--a woman's bathroom.--bathroom fixtures.--bathroom glassware. chapter xiii. period rooms chiselling of metals.--ormoulu.--chippendale.--colonial.--victorian.--the art of furniture making.--how to hang a mirror.--appropriate furniture.--a home must have human quality, a personal note.--mrs. john l. gardner's italian palace in boston.--the study of colour schemes.--tapestries.--a narrow hall. chapter xiv. periods in furniture the story of the evolution of periods.-assyria.--egypt.--greece.--rome.--france. --england.--america.--epoch-making styles. chapter xv. continuation of periods in furniture greece.--rome.--byzantium.--dark ages.--middle ages.--gothic.--moorish.--spanish.--anglo-saxon.--cæsar's table.--charlemagne's chair.--venice. chapter xvi. the gothic period interior decoration of feudal castle.--tapestry.--hallmarks of gothic oak carving. chapter xvii. the renaissance italy.--the medici.--great architects, painters, designers, and workers in metals.--marvellous pottery.--furniture inlaying.--hallmarks of renaissance.--oak carving.--metal work.--renaissance in germany and spain. chapter xviii. french furniture renaissance of classic period.--francis i, henry ii, and the louis.--architecture, mural decoration, tapestry, furniture, wrought metals, ormoulu, silks, velvets, porcelains. chapter xix. the periods of the three louis how to distinguish them.--louis xiv.--louis xv.--louis xvi.--outline.--decoration.--colouring.--mural decoration.--tapestry. chapter xx. charts showing historical evolution of furniture french and english. chapter xxi. the mahogany period chippendale.--heppelwhite.--sheraton.--the adam brothers.--characteristics of these and the preceding english periods; gothic, elizabethan, jacobean, william and mary, queen anne.--william morris.--pre-raphaelites. chapter xxii. the colonial period furniture.--landscape paper.--the story of the evolution of wall decoration. chapter xxiii. the revival of directoire and empire furniture shown in modern painted furniture. chapter xxiv. the victorian period architecture and interior decoration become unrelated.--machine-made furniture.--victorian cross-stitch, beadwork, wax and linen flowers.--bristol glass.--value to-day as notes of variety. chapter xxv. painted furniture including "mission" furniture.--treatment of an unplastered cottage.--furniture, colour-scheme. chapter xxvi. treatment of an inexpensive bedroom factory furniture.--chintz.--the cheapest mirrors.--floors.--walls.--pictures.--treatment of old floors. chapter xxvii. treatment of a guest room where economy is not a matter of importance.--panelled walls.--louis xv painted furniture.--taffeta curtains and bed-cover.--chintz chair-covers.--cream net sash-curtains.--figured linen window-shades. chapter xxviii. a modern house in which genuine jacobean furniture is appropriately set traditional colour-scheme of crimson and gold. chapter xxix. unconventional breakfast-rooms and sports balconies porch-rooms.--appropriate furnishings.--colour schemes. chapter xxx. sun-rooms colour schemes according to climate and season.--a small, cheap, summer house converted into one of some pretentions by altering vital details. chapter xxxi. treatment of a woman's dressing-room solving problems of the toilet.--shoe cabinets.--jewel cabinets.--dressing tables. chapter xxxii. the treatment of closets variety of closets.--colour scheme.--chintz covered boxes. chapter xxxiii. treatment of a narrow hall furniture.--device for breaking length of hall. chapter xxxiv. treatment of a very shaded living-room in a warm climate.--in a cool climate.--warm and cold colours. chapter xxxv. servants' rooms practical and suitable attractiveness. chapter xxxvi. table decoration appropriateness the keynote.--tableware.--linen, lace, and flowers.--japanese simplicity.--background. chapter xxxvii. what to avoid in interior decoration: rules for beginners appropriateness.--intelligent elimination.--furnishings.--colour scheme.--small suites.--background.--placing rugs and hangings.--treatment of long wall-space.--men's rooms.--table decoration.--tea table.--how to train the taste, eye, and judgment. chapter xxxviii. fads in collecting a panier fleuri collection.--a typical experience in collecting.--a "find" in an obscure american junk-shop.--getting on the track of some italian pottery.--collections used as decoration.--a "find" in spain. chapter xxxix. wedgwood pottery, old and modern the history of wedgwood.--josiah wedgwood, the founder. chapter xl. italian pottery statuettes. chapter xli. venetian glass, old and modern murano museum collection.--table-gardens in venetian glass. in conclusion four fundamental principles of interior decoration re-stated. illustrations plate i portion of a drawing-room, perfect in composition and detail. plate ii bedroom in country house. modern painted furniture. plate iii suggestion for treatment of a very small bedroom. plate iv a man's office in wall street. plate v a corner of the same office. plate vi another view of the same office. plate vii corner of a room, showing painted furniture, antique and modern. plate viii example of a perfect mantel, ornaments and mirror. plate ix dining-room in country house, showing modern painted furniture. plate x dining-room furniture, italian renaissance, antique. plate xi corner of dining-room in new york apartment, showing section of italian refectory table and italian chairs, both antique and renaissance in style. plate xii an italian louis xvi salon in a new york apartment. plate xiii another side of the same italian louis xvi salon. plate xiv a narrow hall where effect of width is attained by use of tapestry with vista. plate xv venetian glass, antique and modern. plate xvi corner of a room in a small empire suite. plate xvii an example of perfect balance and beauty in mantel arrangement. plate xviii corner of a drawing-room, furniture showing directoire influence. plate xix entrance hall in new york duplex apartment. italian furniture. plate xx combination of studio and living-room in new york duplex apartment. plate xxi part of a victorian parlour in one of the few remaining new york victorian mansions. plate xxii two styles of day-beds, modern painted. plate xxiii boudoir in new york apartment. painted furniture, antique and reproductions. plate xxiv example of lack of balance in mantel arrangement. plate xxv treatment of ground lying between house and much travelled country road. plate xxvi an extension roof in new york converted into a balcony. plate xxvii a common-place barn made interesting. plate xxviii narrow entrance hall of a new york antique shop. plate xxix example of a charming hall spoiled by too pronounced a rug. plate xxx a man's library. plate xxxi a collection of empire furniture, ornaments, and china. plate xxxii italian reproductions in pottery after classic models. "those who duly consider the influence of the _fine-arts_ on the _human mind_, will not think it a small benefit to the world, to diffuse their productions as wide, and preserve them as long as possible. the multiplying of copies of fine work, in beautiful and durable materials, must obviously have the same effect in respect to the arts as the invention of printing has upon literature and the sciences: by their means the principal productions of both kinds will be forever preserved, and will effectually prevent the return of ignorant and barbarous ages." josiah wedgwood: catalogue of 1787. one of the most joyful obligations in life should be the planning and executing of beautiful homes, keeping ever in mind that distinction is not a matter of scale, since a vast palace may find its rival in the smallest group of rooms, provided the latter obeys the law of _good line, correct proportions, harmonious colour scheme and appropriateness_: a law insisting that all useful things be beautiful things. the art of interior decoration chapter i how to rearrange a room lucky is the man or woman of taste who has no inherited eyesores which, because of association, must not be banished! when these exist in large numbers one thing only remains to be done: look them over, see to what period the majority belong, and proceed as if you _wanted_ a mid-victorian, late colonial or brass-bedstead room. to rearrange a room successfully, begin by taking everything out of it (in reality or in your mind), then decide how you want it to look, or how, owing to what you own and must retain, you are obliged to have it look. design and colour of wall decorations, hangings, carpets, lighting fixtures, lamps and ornaments on mantel, depend upon the character of your furniture. it is the mantel and its arrangement of ornaments that sound the keynote upon first entering a room. conventional simplicity in number and arrangement of ornaments gives balance and repose, hence dignity. dignity once established, one can afford to be individual, and introduce a riot of colours, provided they are all in the same key. luxurious cushions, soft rugs and a hundred and one feminine touches will create atmosphere and knit together the austere scheme of line--the anatomy of your room. colour and textiles are the flesh of interior decoration. in furnishing a small room you can add greatly to its apparent size by using plain paper and making the woodwork the same colour, or slightly darker in tone. if you cannot find wall paper of exactly the colour and shade you wish, it is often possible to use the wrong side of a paper and produce exactly the desired effect. in repapering old rooms with imperfect ceilings it is easy to disguise this by using a paper with a small design in the same tone. a perfectly plain ceiling paper will show every defect in the surface of the ceiling. if your house or flat is small you can gain a great effect of space by keeping the same colour scheme throughout--that is, the same colour or related colours. to make a small hall and each of several small rooms on the same floor different in any pronounced way, is to cut up your home into a restless, unmeaning checkerboard, where one feels conscious of the walls and all limitations. the effect of restful spaciousness may be obtained by taking the same small suite and treating its walls, floors and draperies, as has been suggested, in the same colour scheme or a scheme of related keys in colour. that is, wood browns, beiges and yellows; violets, mauves and pinks; different tones of greys; different tones of yellows, greens and blues. now having established your suite and hall all in one key, so that there is absolutely no jarring note as one passes from room to room, you may be sure of having achieved that most desirable of all qualities in interior decoration--repose. we have seen the idea here suggested carried out in small summer homes with most successful results; the same colour used on walls and furniture, while exactly the same chintz was employed in every bedroom, opening out of one hall. by this means it was possible to give to a small, unimportant cottage, a note of distinction otherwise quite impossible. here, however, let us say that, if the same chintz is to be used in every room, it must be neutral in colour--a chintz in which the colour scheme is, say, yellows in different tones, browns in different tones, or greens or greys. to vary the character of each room, introduce different colours in the furniture covers, the sofa-cushions and lamp-shades. our point is to urge the repetition of a main background in a small group of rooms; but to escape monotony by planning that the accessories in each room shall strike individual notes of decorative, contrasting colour. plate ii a room with modern painted furniture is shown here. lines and decorations empire. note the lyre backs of chairs and head board in day-bed. treatment of this bed is that suggested where twin beds are used and room affords wall space for but one of them. [illustration: _bedroom in country house. modern painted furniture._] * * * * * what to do with old floors is a question many of us have faced. if your house has been built with floors of wide, common boards which have become rough and separated by age, in some cases allowing dust to sift through from the cellar, and you do not wish to go to the expense of all-over carpets, you have the choice of several methods. the simplest and least expensive is to paint or stain the floors. in this case employ a floor painter and begin by removing all old paint. paint removers come for the purpose. then have the floors planed to make them even. next, fill the cracks with putty. the most practical method is to stain the floors some dark colour; mahogany, walnut, weathered oak, black, green or any colour you may prefer, and then wax them. this protects the colour. in a room where daintiness is desired, and economy is not important, as for instance in a room with white painted furniture, you may have white floors and a square carpet rug of some plain dark toned velvet; or, if preferred, the painted border may be in come delicate colour to match the wall paper. to resume, if you like a dull finish, have the wax rubbed in at intervals, but if you like a glossy background for rugs, use a heavy varnish after the floors are coloured. this treatment we suggest for more or less formal rooms. in bedrooms, put down an inexpensive filling as a background for rugs, or should yours be a summer home, use straw matting. for halls and dining-rooms a plain dark-coloured linoleum, costing not less than two dollars a yard makes and inexpensive floor covering. if it is waxed it becomes not only very durable but, also, extremely effective, suggesting the dark tiles in italian houses. we do not advise the purchase of the linoleums which represent inlaid floors, as they are invariably unsuccessful imitations. if it is necessary to economise and your brass bedstead must be used even though you dislike it, you can have it painted the colour of your walls. it requires a number of coats. a soft pearl grey is good. then use a colour, or colours, in your silk or chintz bedspread. sun-proof material in a solid colour makes an attractive cover, with a narrow fringe in several colours straight around the edges and also, forming a circle or square on the top of the bed-cover. * * * * * if your gas or electric fixtures are ugly and you cannot afford more attractive ones, buy very cheap, perfectly plain, ones and paint them to match the walls, giving decorative value to them with coloured silk shades. plate iii shows one end of a very small bedroom with modern painted furniture, so simple in line and decoration that it would be equally appropriate either for a young man or for a young woman. we say "young," because there is something charmingly fresh and youthful about this type of furniture. the colour is pale pistache green, with mulberry lines, the same combination of colours being repeated in painting the walls which have a grey background lined with mulberry--the broad stripe--and a narrow green line. the bed cover is mulberry, the lamp shade is green with mulberry and grey in the fringe. on the walls are delightful old prints framed in black glass with gold lines, and a narrow moulding of gilded oak, an old style revived. a square of antique silk covers the night table, and the floor is polished hard wood. here is your hall bedroom, the wee guest room in a flat, or the extra guest room under the eaves of your country house, made equally beguiling. the result of this artistic simplicity is a restful sense of space. [illustration: _suggestion for treatment of a very small bedroom_] if you wish to use twin beds and have not wall space for them, treat one like a couch or day-bed. see plate ii. your cabinet-maker can remove the footboard, then draw the bed out into the room, place in a position convenient to the light either by day or night, after which put a cover of cretonne or silk over it and cushions of the same. never put a spotted material on a spotted material. if your couch or sofa is done in a figured material of different colours, make your sofa cushions of plain material to tone down the sofa. if the sofa is a plain colour, then tone it up--make it more decorative by using cushions of several colours. if you like your room, but find it cold in atmosphere, try deep cream gauze for sash curtains. they are wonderful atmosphere producers. the advantage of two tiers of sash curtains (see plate ix) is that one can part and push back one tier for air, light or looking out, and still use the other tier to modify the light in the room. another way to produce atmosphere in a cold room is to use a tone-on-tone paper. that is, a paper striped in two depths of the same colour. in choosing any wall paper it is imperative that you try a large sample of it in the room for which it is intended, as the reflection from a nearby building or brick wall can entirely change a beautiful yellow into a thick mustard colour. how a wall paper looks in the shop is no criterion. as stated sometimes the _wrong side_ of wall paper gives you the tone you desire. when rearranging your room do not desecrate the few good antiques you happen to own by the use of a too modern colour scheme. have the necessary modern pieces you have bought to supplement your treasures stained or painted in a dull, dark colour in harmony with the antiques, and then use subdued colours in the floor coverings, curtains and cushions. if you own no good old ornaments, try to get a few good shapes and colours in inexpensive reproductions of the desired period. if your room is small, and the bathroom opens out of it, add to the size of the room by using the same colour scheme in the bathroom, and conceal the plumbing and fixtures by a low screen. if the connecting door is kept open, the effect is to enlarge greatly the appearance of the small bedroom, whereas if the bedroom decorations are dark and the bathroom has a light floor and walls, it abruptly cuts itself off and emphasises the smallness of the bedroom. everything depends upon the appropriateness of the furniture to its setting. we recall some much admired dining-room chairs in the home of the maclaines of lochbuie in argyleshire, west coast of scotland. the chairs in question are covered with sealskin from the seals caught off that rugged coast. they are quite delightful in a remote country house; but they would not be tolerated in london. the question of placing photographs is not one to be treated lightly. remember, intimate photographs should be placed in intimate rooms, while photographs of artists and all celebrities are appropriate for the living room or library. it is extremely seldom that a photograph unless of public interest is not out of place in a formal room. to repeat, never forget that your house or flat is _your_ home, and, that to have any charm whatever of a personal sort, it must suggest _you_--not simply the taste of a professional decorator. so work with your decorator (if you prefer to employ one) by giving your personal attention to styles and colours, and selecting those most sympathetic to your own nature. your architect will be grateful if you will show the same interest in the details of building your home, rather than assuming the attitude that you have engaged him in order to rid yourself of such bother. if you are building a pretentious house and decide upon some clearly defined period of architecture, let us say, georgian (english eighteenth century) we would advise keeping your first floor mainly in that period as to furniture and hangings, but upstairs let yourself go, that is, make your rooms any style you like. go in for a gay riot of colour, such combinations as are known as bakst colouring,--if that happens to be your fancy. this russian painter and designer was fortunate in having the theatre in which to demonstrate his experiments in vivid colour combinations, and sometimes we quite forget that he was but one of many who have used sunset palettes. plate iv here we have a man's office in wall street, new york, showing how a lawyer with large interests surrounds himself with necessities which contribute to his comfort, sense of beauty and art instincts. the desk is big, solid and commodious, yet artistically unusual. [illustration: _a man's office in wall street_] recently the fair butterfly daughters of a mother whose taste has grown sophisticated, complained--"but, mother, we dislike _periods_, and here you are building a tudor house!" forgetting, by the way, that the so-called bakst interiors, adored by them, are equally a _period_. this home, a very wonderful one, is being worked out on the plan suggested, that is, the first floor is decorated in the period of the exterior of the house, while the personal rooms on the upper floors reflect, to a certain extent, the personality of their occupants. remember there must always be a certain relationship between all the rooms in one suite, the relationship indicated by lines and a background of the same, or a harmonising colour-scheme. chapter ii how to create a room one so often hears the complaint, "i could not possibly set out alone to furnish a room! i don't know anything about _periods_. why, a louis xvi chair and an empire chair are quite the same to me. then the question of antiques and reproductions--why any one could mislead me!" if you have absolutely no interest in the arranging or rearranging of your rooms, house or houses, of course, leave it to a decorator and give your attention to whatever does interest you. on the other hand, as with bridge, if you really want to play the game, you can learn it. the first rule is to determine the actual use to which you intend putting the room. is it to be a bedroom merely, or a combination of bedroom and boudoir? is it to be a formal reception-room, or a living-room? is it to be a family library, or a man's study? if it is a small flat, do you aim at absolute comfort, artistically achieved, or do you aim at formality at the expense of comfort? if you lean toward both comfort and formality, and own a country house and a city abode, there will be no difficulty in solving the problem. formality may be left to the town house or flat, while during week-ends, holidays and summers you can revel in supreme comfort. every man or woman is capable of creating comfort. it is a question of those deep chairs with wide seats and backs, soft springs, thick, downy cushions, of tables and bookcases conveniently placed, lights where you want them, beds to the individual taste,--double, single, or twins! the getting together of a period room, one period or periods in combination, is difficult, especially if you are entirely ignorant of the subject. however, here is your cue. let us suppose you need, or want, a desk--an antique desk. go about from one dealer to the other until you find the very piece you have dreamed of; one that gives pleasure to you, as well as to the dealer. then take an experienced friend to look at it. if you have every reason to suppose that the desk is genuine, buy it. next, read up on the furniture of the particular period to which your desk belongs, in as serious a manner as you do when you buy a prize dog at the show. now you have made an intelligent beginning as a collector. reading informs you, but you must buy old furniture to be educated on that subject. be eternally on the lookout; the really good pieces, veritable antiques, are rare; most of them are in museums, in private collections or in the hands of the most expensive dealers. i refer to those unique pieces, many of them signed by the maker and in perfect condition because during all their existence they have been jealously preserved, often by the very family and in the very house for which they were made. our chances for picking up antiques are reduced to pieces which on account of reversed circumstances have been turned out of house and home, and, as with human wanderers, much jolting about has told upon them. most of these are fortified in various directions, but they are treasures all the same, and have a beauty value in line colour and workmanship and a wonderful fitness for the purposes for which they were intended. "surely we are many men of many minds!" plate v the sofa large, strong and luxuriously comfortable; the curtains simple, durable and masculine in gender. the tapestry and architectural picture, decorative and appropriately impersonal, as the wall decorations should be in a room used merely for transacting business. [illustration: _a corner of the same office_] some prefer antiques a bit dilapidated; a missing detail serving as a hallmark to calm doubts; others insist upon completeness to the eye and solidity for use; while the connoisseur, with unlimited means, recognises nothing less than signed sofas and chairs, and other _objets d'art_. to repeat:--be always on the lookout, remembering that it is the man who knows the points of a good dog, horse or car who can pick a winner. wonderful reproductions are made in new york city and other cities, and thousands bought every day. they are beautiful and desirable pieces of furniture, ornaments or silks; but the lover of the _vrai antique_ learns to detect, almost at a glance, the lack of that quality which a fine _old_ piece has. it is not alone that the materials must be old. there is a certain quality gained from the long association of its parts. one knows when a piece has "found itself," as kipling would put it. time gives an inimitable finish to any surface. if you are young in years, immature in taste, and limited as to bank account, you will doubtless go in for a frankly modern room, with cheerful painted furniture, gay or soft-toned chintzes, and inexpensive smart floor coverings. to begin this way and gradually to collect what you want, piece by piece, is to get the most amusement possible out of furnishing. when you have the essential pieces for any one room, you can undertake an _ensemble_. some of the rarest collections have been got together in this way, and, if one's fortune expands instead of contracting, old pieces may be always replaced by those still more desirable, more rare, more in keeping with your original scheme. to buy expensive furnishings in haste and without knowledge, and within a year or two discover everything to be in bad taste, is a tragedy to a person with an instinctive aversion to waste. antique or modern, every beautiful thing bought is a cherished heirloom in embryo. remember, we may inherit a good antique or _objet d'art_, buy one, or bequeath one. let us never be guilty of the reverse,--a bar-sinister piece of furniture! sympathy with unborn posterity should make us careful. it is always excusable to retain an ugly, inartistic thing--if it is _useful_; but an ornament must be beautiful in line or in colour, or it belies its name. practise that genuine, obvious loyalty which hides away on a safe, but invisible shelf, the bad taste of our ancestors and friends. having settled upon a type of furniture, turn your attention to the walls. always let the location of your room decide the colour of its walls. the room with a sunny exposure may have any colour you like, warm or cold, but your north room or any room more or less sunless, requires the warm, sun-producing yellows, pinks, apple-greens, beige and wood-colours, never the cold colours, such as greys, mauves, violets and blues, unless in combination with the warm tones. if it is your intention to hang pictures on the walls, use plain papers. remember you must never put a spot on a spot! the colour of your walls once established, keep in mind two things: that to be agreeable to the artistic eye your ceilings must be lighter than your sidewalls, and your floors darker. broadly speaking, it is nature's own arrangement, green trees and hillsides, the sky above, and the dark earth beneath our feet. a ceiling, if lighter in tone than the walls, gives a sense of airiness to a room. floors, whether of exposed wood, completely carpeted, or covered by rugs, must be enough darker than your sidewalls to "hold down your room," as the decorators say. if colour is to play a conspicuous part, brightly figured silks and cretonnes being used for hangings and upholstery, the floor covering should be indefinite both as to colour and design. on the other hand, when rugs or carpets are of a definite design in pronounced colours, particularly if you are arranging a living-room, make your walls, draperies and chair-covers plain, and observe great restraint in the use of colour. those who work with them know that there is no such thing as an ugly colour, for all colours are beautiful. whether a colour makes a beautiful or an ugly effect depends entirely upon its juxtaposition to other tones. how well french milliners and dressmakers understand this! to make the point quite clear, let us take magenta. used alone, nothing has more style, more beautiful distinction, but in wrong combination magenta can be amazingly, depressingly ugly. magenta with blue is ravishing, beautiful in the subtle way old tapestries are: it touches the imagination whenever that combination is found. plate vi the table is modern, but made on the lines of a refectory table, well suited in length, width and solidity for board meetings, etc. the chairs are italian in style. [illustration: _another view of the same office_] we grow up to, into, and out of colour schemes. each of the seven ages of man has its appropriate setting in colour as in line. one learns the dexterous manipulation of colour from furnishing, as an artist learns from painting. refuse to accept a colour scheme, unless it appeals to your individual taste--no matter who suggests it. to one not very sensitive to colour here is a valuable suggestion. find a bit of beautiful old silk brocade, or a cretonne you especially like, and use its colour combinations for your room--a usual device of decorators. let us suppose your silk or cretonne to have a deep-cream background, and scattered on it green foliage, faded salmon-pink roses and little, fine blue flowers. use its prevailing colour, the deep cream, for walls and possibly woodwork; make the draperies of taffeta or rep in soft apple-greens; use the same colour for upholstery, make shades for lamp and electric lights of salmon-pink, then bring in a touch of blue in a sofa cushion, a footstool or small chair, or in a beautiful vase which charms by its shape as well by reproducing the exact tone of blue you desire. there are some who insist no room is complete without its note of blue. many a room has been built up around some highly prized treasure,--lovely vase or an old japanese print. a thing always to be avoided is monotony in colour. who can not recall barren rooms, without a spark of attraction despite priceless treasures, dispersed in a meaningless way? that sort of setting puts a blight on any gathering. "well," you will ask, "given the task of converting such a sterile stretch of monotony into a blooming joy, how should one begin?" it is quite simple. picture to yourself how the room would look if you scattered flowers about it, roses, tulips, mignonette, flowers of yellow and blue, in the pell-mell confusion of a blooming garden. now imitate the flower colours by _objets d'art_ so judiciously placed that in a trice you will admire what you once found cold. as if by magic, a white, cream, beige or grey room may be transformed into a smiling bower, teeming with personality, a room where wit and wisdom are spontaneously let loose. if your taste be for chintzes and figured silks, take it as a safe rule, that given a material with a light background, it should be the same in tone as your walls; the idea being that by this method you get the full decorative value of the pattern on chintz or silk. figured materials can increase or diminish the size of a room, open up vistas, push back your walls, or block the vision. for this reason it is unsafe to buy material before trying the effect of it in its destined abode. remember that the matter of _background_ is of the greatest importance when arranging your furniture and ornaments. see that your piano is so placed that the pianist has an unbroken background, of wall, tapestry, a large piece of rare old sills, or a mirror. clyde fitch, past-master at interior decoration, placed his piano in front of broad windows, across which at night were drawn crimson damask curtains. some of us will never forget geraldine farrar, as she sat against that background wearing a dull, clinging blue-green gown, going over the score,--from memory,--of "salomé." the aim is to make the performer at the piano the object of interest, therefore place no diverting objects, such as pictures or ornaments, on a line with the listener's eye, except as a vague background. there can be no more becoming setting for a group of people dining by candle or electric light, than walls panelled with dark wood to the ceiling, or a high wainscoting. a beautiful sitting-room, not to be forgotten, had light violet walls, dull-gold frames on the furniture which was covered in deep-cream brocades, bits of old purple velvets and violet silks on the tables, under large bowls of benares bronze filled with violets. the grand piano was protected by a piece of old brocade in faded yellows, and our hostess, a well-known singer, usually wore a simple florentine tea-gown of soft violet velvet, which together with the lighter violet walls, set off her fair skin and black hair to beautiful advantage. put a figured, many-coloured sofa cushion behind the head of a pretty woman, and if the dominating colour is becoming to her, she is still pretty, but change it to a solid black, purple or dull-gold and see how instantly the degree of her beauty is enhanced by being thrown into relief. plate vii gives attractive corner by a window, the heavy silk brocade curtains of which are drawn. a standard electric lamp lights the desk, both modern-painted pieces, and the beautiful old flower picture, black background with a profusion of colours in lovely soft tones, is framed by a dull-gold moulding and gives immense distinction. the chair is venetian louis xv, the same period as desk in style. not to be ignored in this picture is a tin scrap basket beautifully proportioned and painted a vivid emerald green; a valuable addition a note of cheerful colour. the desk and wooden standard of lamp are painted a deep blue-plum colour, touched with gold, and the silk curtains are soft mulberry, in two tones. [illustration: _corner of room, showing painted furniture, antique and modern_] study values--just why and how much any decorative article decorates, and remember in furnishing a room, decorating a wall or dining-room table, it is not the intrinsic value or individual beauty of any one article which counts. each picture on the wall, each piece of furniture, each bit of silver, glass, china, linen or lace, each yard of chintz or silk, every carpet or rug must be beautiful and effective _in relation to the others used_, for the _art_ of interior decoration lies in this subtle, or obvious, relationship of furnishings. we acknowledge as legitimate all schemes of interior decoration and insist that what makes any scheme good or bad, successful, or unsuccessful presuming a knowledge of the fundamentals of the art, is the fact that it is planned in reference to the type of man or woman who is to live in it. a new note has been struck of late in the arranging of bizarre, delightful rooms which on entering we pronounce "very amusing." original they certainly are, in colour combinations, tropical in the impression they make,--or should we say oriental? they have come to us via russia, bakst, munich and martine of paris. like rheinhardt's staging of "sumurun," because these blazing interiors strike us at an unaccustomed angle, some are merely astonished, others charmed as well. there are temperaments ideally set in these interiors, and there are houses where they are in place. we cannot regard them as epoch-making, but granted that there is no attempt to conform to two of the rules for furnishing,--_appropriateness_ and _practicality_, the results are refreshingly new and entertaining. this is one of the instances where exaggeration has served as a healthy antidote to the tendency toward extreme dinginess rampant about ten years ago, resulting from an obsession to antique everything. the reaction from this, a flaming rainbow of colours, struck a blow to the artistic sense, drew attention back to the value of colour and started the creative impulse along the line of a happy medium. whether it be a furnished porch, personal suite (as bedroom, boudoir and bath), a family living-room, dining-room, formal reception-room, or period ballroom, never allow members of your household or servants to destroy the effect you have achieved with careful thought and outlay of money, by ruthlessly moving chairs and tables from one room to another. keep your wicker furniture on the porch, for which it was intended. if it strays into the adjacent living-room, done in quite another scheme, it will absolutely thwart your efforts at harmony, while your porch-room done in wicker and gay chintzes, striped awnings and geranium rail-boxes, cries out against the intrusion of a chair dragged out from the house. remember that should you intend using your period ballroom from time to time as an audience room for concerts and lectures, you must provide a complete equipment of small, very light (so as to be quickly moved) chairs, in your "period," as a necessary part of your decoration. the current idea that a distinguished room remains distinguished because costly tapestries and old masters hang on its walls, even when the floor is strewn with vulgar, hired chairs, is an absurd mistake. each room from kitchen to ballroom is a stage "set,"--a harmonious background for certain scenes in life's drama. it is the man or woman who grasps this principle of a distinguished home who can create an interior which endures, one which will hold its own despite the ebb and flow of fashion. imposing dimensions and great outlay of money do not necessarily imply distinction, a quality depending upon unerring good taste in the minutest details, one which may be achieved equally in a stately mansion, in a city flat, or in a cottage by the sea. the question of background is absorbingly interesting. a vase, with or without flowers, to add to the composition of your room, that is, to make "a good picture," must be placed so that its background sets it off. let the venetian glass vase holding one rose stand in such a position that your green curtain is its background, and not a photograph or other picture. one flower, carefully placed in a room, will have more real decorative value than dozens of costly roses strewn about in the wrong vases, against mottled, line-destroying backgrounds. flowers are always more beautiful in a plain vase, whether of glass, pottery, porcelain or silver. if a vase chances to have a decoration in colour, then make a point of having the flowers it holds accord in colour, if not in shade, with the colour or colours in the vase. there is a general rule that no ornament should ever be placed in front of a picture. the exception to this rule occurs when the picture is one of the large, architectural variety, whose purpose is primarily mural decoration,--an intentional background, as tapestries often are, serving its purpose as nature does when a vase or statue is placed in a park or garden. one sees in portraits by some of the old masters this idea of landscape used as background. bear in mind, however, that if there is a central design--a definite composition in the picture, or tapestry, no ornament should ever be so placed as to interfere with it. if you happen to own a tapestry which is not large enough for your space by one, two or three feet, frame it with a plain border of velvet or velveteen, to match the dominating colour, and a shade darker than it appears in the tapestry. this expedient heightens the decorative effect of the tapestry. chapter iii how to determine character of hangings and furniture-covering for a given room in a measure, the materials for hangings and furniture-coverings are determined more or less by the amount one wishes to spend in this direction. for choice, one would say silk or velvet for formal rooms; velvets, corduroys or chintz for living-rooms; leather and corduroy with rep hangings for a man's study or smoking-room; thin silks and chintz for bedrooms; chintz for nurseries, breakfast-rooms and porches. in england, slip-covers of chintz (glazed cretonne) appear, also, in formal rooms; but are removed when the owner is entertaining. if the permanent upholstery is of chintz, then at once your room becomes informal. if you are planning the living-room for a small house or apartment, which must serve as reception-room during the winter months, far more dignity, and some elegance can be obtained for the same expenditure, by using plain velveteen, modern silk brocades in one colour, or some of the modern reps to be had in very smart shades of all colours. if your furniture is choice, rarely beautiful in quality, line and colour, hangings and covers must accord. genuine antiques demand antique silks for hangings and table covers; but no decorator, if at all practical, will cover a chair or sofa in the frail old silks, for they go to pieces almost in the mounting. waive sentiment in this case, for the modern reproductions are satisfactory to the eye and improve in tone with age. if you own only a small piece of antique silk, make a square of it for the centre of the table, or cleverly combine several small bits, if these are all you have, into an interesting cover or cushion. nothing in the world gives such a note of distinction to a room as the use of rare, old silks, properly placed. the fashion for cretonne and chintz has led to their indiscriminate use by professionals as well as amateurs, and this craze has caused a prejudice against them. chintz used with judgment can be most attractive. in america the term chintz includes cretonne and stamped linen. if you are planning for them, put together, for consideration, all your bright coloured chintz, and in quite another part of your room, or decorator's shop, the chintz of dull, faded colours, as they require different treatment. a general rule for this material--bright or dull--is that if you would have your chintz _decorate_, be careful not to use it too lavishly. if it is intended for curtains, then cover only one chair with it and cover the rest in a solid colour. if you want chintz for all of your chairs and sofa, make your curtains, sofa cushions and lamp shades of a solid colour, and be sure that you take one of the leading colours in the chintz. next indicate your intention at harmony, by "bringing together" the plain curtains or chairs, and your chintz, with a narrow fringe or border of still another colour, which figures in the chintz. let us suppose chintz to be black with a design in greens, mulberry and buff. make your curtains plain mulberry, edged with narrow pale green fringe with black and buff in it, or should your chintz be grey with a design in faded blues and violets and a touch of black, make curtains of the chintz, and cover one large chair, keeping the sofa and the remaining chairs grey, with the bordering fringe, or gimp, in one or two of the other shades, sofa cushions and the lamp shades in blues and violets (lining lamp shades with thin pink silk), and use a little black in the bordering fringe. plate viii shows an ideal mantel arrangement, faultless as a composition and beautiful and rare in detail. the exquisite white marble mantel is italian, not french, of the time of louis xvi. though the designs of this period are almost identical, one quickly learns to detect the difference in feeling between the work of the two countries. the italians are freer, broader in their treatment, show more movement and in a way more grace, where the french work is more detailed and precise, hence at times, by contrast, seems stilted and rigid. enchantingly graceful are the two candelabra, also louis xvi, while the central ornament is ideally chosen for size and design. the dull gold frame of the mirror is very beautiful, and the painting above the glass interesting and unusual as to subject and execution. the chair is a good example of italian louis xv. [illustration: _example of a perfect mantel, ornaments and mirror_] if you decide upon a very brilliant chintz use it only in one chair, a screen, or in a valance over plain curtains with straps to hold them back, or perhaps a sofa cushion. whether a chintz is bright or dull, its pattern is important. as with silks, brocaded in different colours, therefore never use chintz where a chair or sofa calls for tufting. a tufted piece of furniture always looks best done in plain materials. in using a chintz in which both colour and design are indefinite, the kind which gives more or less an impression of faded tapestry, you will find that the very indefiniteness of the pattern makes it possible to use the chintz with more freedom, being always sure of a harmonious background. the one thing to guard against is that on entering a room you must not be conscious either of several colours, or of any set design. chapter iv the story of textiles the story of the evolution of textiles (any woven material) is fascinating, and like the history of every art, runs parallel with the history of culture and progress in the art of living,--physical, mental and spiritual. to those who feel they would enjoy an exhaustive history of textiles we recommend a descriptive catalogue relating to the collection of textiles in the south kensington museum, prepared by the very rev. daniel rock, d.d. (1870). in the introduction to that catalogue one gets the story of woven linens, cottons, silks, paper, gold and silver threads, interspersed with precious jewels and glass beads--all materials woven by hand or machine. the story of textiles includes: 1st, woven materials; 2nd, embroidered materials; 3rd, a combination of the two, known as "tapestry." if one reads their wonderful story, starting in assyria, then progressing to egypt, the orient, greece, rome and western europe, in any history of textiles, one may obtain quickly and easily a clear idea of this department of interior decoration from the very earliest times. the first european silk is said to have been in the form of transparent gauze, dyed lovely tones for women of the greek islands, a form of costume later condemned by greek philosophers. we know that embroidery was an art three thousand years ago, in fact the figured garments seen on the assyrian and egyptian bas-reliefs are supposed to represent materials with embroidered figures--not woven patterns--whereas in the bible, when we read of embroidery, according to the translators, this sometimes means woven stripes. plate ix an ideal dining-room of its kind, modern painted furniture, empire in design. in this case yellow with decoration in white. curtains, thin yellow silk. note the empire electric light fixtures in hand-carved gilded wood, reproductions of an antique silver applique. even the steam radiators are here cleverly concealed by wooden cases made after empire designs. the walls are white and panelled in wood also white. [illustration: _dining-room in country house, showing modern painted furniture. style directoire._] the earliest garments of egypt were of cotton and hemp, or mallow, resembling flax. the older egyptians never knew silks in any form, nor did the israelites, nor any of the ancients. the earliest account of this material is given by aristotle (fourth century). it was brought into western europe from china, via india, the red sea and persia, and the first to weave it outside the orient was a maiden on the isle of cos, off the coast of asia minor, producing a thin gauze-like tissue worn by herself and companions, the material resembling the seven veils of salome. to-day those tiny bits of gauze one sees laid in between the leaves of old manuscript to protect the illuminations, as our publishers use sheets of tissue paper, are said to be examples of this earliest form of woven silk. the romans used silk at first only for their women, as it was considered not a masculine material, but gradually they adopted it for the festival robes of men, titus and vespasian being among those said to have worn it. the first silk looms were set up in the royal palaces of the roman kings in the year 533 a.d. the raw material was brought from the east for a long time but in the sixth century two greek monks, while in china, studied the method of rearing silk worms and obtaining the silk, and on their departure are said to have concealed the eggs of silk worms in their staves. they are accredited with introducing the manufacture of silk into greece and hence into western europe. after that greece, persia and asia minor made this material, and byzantium was famed for its silks, the actual making of which got into the hands of the jews and was for a long time controlled by them. metals (gold, silver and copper) were flattened out and cut into narrow strips for winding around cotton twists. these were the gold and silver threads used in weaving. the moors and spaniards instead of metals used strips of gilded parchment for weaving with the silk. we know that england was weaving silk in the thirteenth century, and velvets seem to have been used at a very early date. the introduction of silk and velvet into different countries had an immediate and much-needed influence in civilising the manners of society. it is hard to realise that in the thirteenth century when edward i married eleanor of castile, the highest nobles of england when resting at their ease, stretched at full length on the straw-covered floors of baronial halls, and jeered at the spanish courtiers who hung the walls and stretched the floors of edward's castle with silks in preparation for his spanish bride. the progress of art and culture was always from the east and moved slowly. do not go so far back as the thirteenth century. james i of england owned no stockings when he was james vi of scotland, and had to borrow a pair in which to receive the english ambassador. in the eleventh century italy manufactured her own silks, and into them were woven precious stones, corals, seed pearls and coloured glass beads which were made in greece and venice, as well as gold and silver spangles (twelfth and thirteenth centuries). here is an item on interior decorations from proverbs vii, 16; "i have woven my bed with cords, i have covered it with painted tapestry brought from egypt." there were painted tapestries made in western europe at a very early date, and collectors eagerly seek them (see plate xiv). in the fourteenth century these painted tapestries were referred to as "stained cloth." embroidery as an art, as we have already seen, antedates silk weaving. the youngest of the three arts is tapestry. the oldest embroidery stitches are: "the feather stitch," so called because they all took one direction, the stitches over-lapping, like the feathers of a bird; and "cross-stitch" or "cushion" style, because used on church cushions, made for kneeling when at prayer or to hold the mass book. hand-woven tapestries are called "comb-wrought" because the instrument used in weaving was comb-like. "cut-work" is embroidery that is cut out and appliqued, or sewed on another material. carpets which were used in western europe in the middle ages are seldom seen. the kensington museum owns two specimens, both of them spanish, one of the fourteenth and one of the fifteenth century. in speaking of gothic art we called attention to the fostering of art by the church during the dark ages. this continued, and we find that in henry viii's time those who visited monasteries and afterward wrote accounts of them call attention to the fact that each monk was occupied either with painting, carving, modelling, embroidering or writing. they worked primarily for the church, decorating it for the glory of god, but the homes of the rich and powerful laity, even so early as the reign of henry iii (1216-1272), boasted some very beautiful interior decorations, tapestries, painted ceilings and stained glass, as well as carved panelling. bostwick castle, scotland, had its vaulted ceiling painted with towers, battlements and pinnacles, a style of mural decoration which one sees in the oldest castles of germany. it recalls the illumination in old manuscripts. chapter v candlesticks, lamps, fixtures for gas and electricity, and shades candlesticks, lamps, and fixtures for gas and electricity must accord with the lines of your architecture and furniture. the mantelpiece is the connecting link between the architecture and the furnishing of a room. it is the architect's contribution to the furnishing, and for this reason the keynote for the decorator. in the same way lighting fixtures are links between the construction and decoration of a room, and can contribute to, or seriously divert from, the decorator's design. it is important that fixtures be so placed as to appear a part of the decoration and not merely to illuminate conveniently a corner of the room, a writing-desk, table or piano. plate x the dining-room of this apartment is italian renaissance--oak, almost black from age, and carved. the seat pads and lambrequin over window are of deep red velvet. the walls are stretched with dull red _brocotello_ (a combination of silk and linen), very old and valuable. the chandelier is italian carved wood, gilded. attention is called to the treatment of the windows. no curtains are used, instead, boxes are planted with ivy which is trained to climb the green lattice and helps to temper the light, while the window shades themselves are of a fascinating glazed linen, having a soft yellow background and design of fruit and vines in brilliant colours. [illustration: _dining-room furniture, italian renaissance_] in planning your house after arranging for proper wall space for your various articles of furniture, keep in mind always that lights will be needed and must be at the same time conveniently placed and distinctly decorative. one is astonished to see how often the actual balance of a room is upset by the careless placing of electric fixtures. therefore keep in mind when deciding upon the lighting of a room the following points: first, fixtures must follow in line style of architecture and furniture; second, the position of fixtures on walls must carry out the architect's scheme of proportion, line and balance; third, the material used in fixtures--brass, gilded wood, glass or wrought iron--must contribute to the decorator's scheme of line and colour; fourth, as a contribution to colour scheme the fixtures must be in harmony with the colour of the side walls, so as not to cut them up, and the shade should be a _light_ note of colour, not one of the _dark_ notes when illuminated. this brings us to the question of shades. the selecting of shapes and colours for shading the lights in your rooms is of the greatest importance, for the shades are one of the harmonics for striking important colour notes, and their value must be equal by day and by night; that is, equally great, _even if different_. some shades, beautiful and decorative by daylight, when illuminated, lose their colour and become meaningless blots in a room. we have in mind a large silk lamp shade of faded sage green, mauve, faun and a dull blue, the same combination appearing in the fringe--a combination not only beautiful, but harmonising perfectly with the old gothic tapestry on the nearby wall. nothing could be more decorative in this particular room during the day than the shade described; but were it not for the shell-pink lining, gleaming through the silk of the shade when lighted, it would have no decorative value at all at night. in ordering or making shades, be sure that you select colours and materials which produce a diffused light. a soft thin pink silk as a lining for a silk or cretonne shade is always successful, and if a delicate pink, never clashes with the colours on the outside. a white silk lining is cold and unbecoming. a dark shade unlined, or a light coloured shade unlined, even if pink, unless the silk is shirred very full, will not give a diffused, yellow light. it is because italian parchment-paper produces the desired _glow_ of light that it has become so popular for making shades, and, coming as it does in deep soft cream, it gives a lovely background for decorations which in line and colour can carry out the style of your room. figured italian papers are equally popular for shades, but their characteristic is to decorate the room by daylight only, and to impart no _quality_ to the light which they shade. unless in pale colours, they stop the light, absolutely, throwing it down, if on a lamp, and back against the wall, if on side brackets. therefore decorators now cut out the lovely designs on these figured papers and use them as appliques on a deep cream parchment background. when you decide upon the shape of your shades do not forget that successful results depend upon absolutely correct proportions. almost any shape, if well proportioned as to height and width, can be made beautiful, and the variety and effect desired, may be secured by varying the colours, the design of decoration, if any, or the texture or the length of fringe. the "umbrella" shades with long chiffon curtains reaching to the table, not unlike a woman's hat with loose-hanging veil, make a charming and practical lamp shade for a boudoir or a woman's summer sitting-room, especially if furnished in lacquer or wicker. it is a light to rest or talk by, not for reading nor writing. the greatest care is required in selecting shades for side-wall lights, because they quickly catch the eye upon entering a room and materially contribute to its appearance or detract from it. chapter vi window shades and awnings the first thing to consider in selecting window shades when furnishing a _house_, is whether their colour harmonises with the exterior. keeping this point in mind, further limit your selection to those colours and tones which harmonise with your colour schemes for the interior. if you use white net or scrim, your shades must be white, and if ecru net, your shades must be ecru. if the outside of your house calls for one colour in shades and the interior calls for another, use two sets. your dark-green sun shades never interfere, as they can always be covered by the inner set. sometimes the dark green harmonises with the colouring of the rooms. a room often needs, for sake of balance, to be weighted by colour on the window sides more than your heavy curtains (silk or cretonne) contribute when drawn back; in such a case decorators use coloured gauze for sash curtains in one, two or three shades and layers, which are so filmy and delicate both in texture and colouring that they allow air and light to pass through them, the effect being charming. another way to obtain the required colour value at your windows is the revival of glazed linens, with beautiful coloured designs, made up into shades. these are very attractive in a sunny room where the strong light brings out the design of flowers, fruits or foliage. plate x shows a room in which this style of shade is used with great success. it is to be especially commended in such a case as plate x, where no curtains are used at windows. here the figured linen shade is a deliberate contribution to the decorative scheme of the room and completes it as no other material could. awnings can make or mar a house, give it style or keep it in the class of the commonplace. so choose carefully with reference to the colour of your house. the fact that awnings show up at a great distance and never "in the hand," as it were, argues in favour of clear stripes, in two colours and of even size, with as few extra threads of other colours as possible. plate xi shows a part of a fine, old italian refectory table, and one of the chairs, also antiques, which are beautifully proportioned and made comfortable with cushions of dark red velvet, in colour like curtains at window, which are of silk brocade. the standard electric lamps throw the light _up_ only. there are four, one in each corner of the room, and candles light the table. the wall decoration here is a flower picture. [illustration: _corner of dining-room in new york apartment, showing section of italian refectory table and italian chairs, both antique and renaissance_] _all awnings fade_, even in one season; green is, perhaps, the least durable in the sun, yellows and browns look well the longest. fortunately an awning, a discouraging sight when taken down and in a collapsed mass of faded canvas, will often look well when up and stretched, because the strong light brings out the fresh colour of the inside. hence one finds these rather expensive necessities of summer homes may be used for several seasons. chapter vii treatment of pictures and picture frames strive to have the subject of your pictures appropriate to the room in which they are to be hung. it is impossible to state a rule for this, however, because while there are many styles of pictures which all are able to classify, such as old paintings which are antique in colouring, method and subject, portraits, figure pictures, architectural pictures, flower and fruit pictures, modern oil paintings of various subjects (modern in subject, method and colouring), water colours, etchings, sporting prints, fashion prints, etc., there is, also, a subtle relationship between them seen and felt only by the connoisseur, which leads him to hang in the same room, portraits, architectural pictures and flower pictures, with beautiful and successful results. often the relationship hangs on similarity in period, style of painting or colour scheme. your expert will see decorative value in a painting which has no individual beauty nor intrinsic worth when taken out of a particular setting. the selecting of pictures for a room hinges first on their decorative value. that is, their colour and size, and whether the subjects are appropriate and sympathetic. always avoid heavy gold frames on paintings, for, unless they are real objects of art, one gets far more distinction by using a narrow black moulding. when in doubt always err on the side of simplicity. if your object is economy as well as simplicity, and you are by chance just beginning to furnish your house and own no pictures, we would suggest good photographs of your favourite old masters, framed close, without a margin, in the passepartout method (glass with a narrow black paper tape binding). old coloured prints need narrow black passepartout, while broad passepartout in pink, blue or pale green to match the leading tone in wall paper makes your quaint, old black-and-white prints very decorative. never use white margins on any pictures unless your walls are white. the decorative value of any picture when hung, is dependent upon its background, the height at which it is hung, its position with regard to the light, its juxtaposition to other pictures, and the character of those other pictures--that is, their subjects, colour and line. if you are buying pictures to hang in a picture gallery, there is nothing to consider beyond the attraction of the individual picture in mind. but if you are buying a picture to hang on the walls of a room which you are furnishing, you have first to consider it as pure _decoration_; that is, to ask yourself if in colour, period and subject it carries out the idea of your room. a modern picture is usually out of place in a room furnished with antiques. in the same way a strictly modern room is not a good setting for an old picture, if toned by time. if you own or would own a modern portrait or landscape and it is the work of an artist, and beautiful in colour, why not "star" it,--build your room up to it? if you decide to do this, see that everything else representing _colour_ is either subservient to the picture, or if of equal value as to colour, that they harmonise perfectly with the picture in mind. plate xii from a studio one enters a smaller room, one side of which is shown here, a veritable italian louis xvi salon. [illustration: _an italian louis xvi salon in a new york apartment_] we were recently shown a painting giving a view of central park from the plaza hotel, new york, under a heavy fall of snow, in the late afternoon, when the daylight still lingered, although the electric lights had begun to spangle the scene. the prevailing tone was a delicate, opalescent white, shading from blue to mauve, and we were told that one of our leading decorators intended to hang it in a blue room which he was furnishing for a new york client. etchings are at their best with other etchings, engravings or water colours, and should be hung in rooms flooded with light and delicately furnished. the crowding of walls with pictures is always bad; hang only as many as _furnish_ the walls, and have these on a line with the eye and when the pictures vary but slightly in size make a point of having either the tops of the frames or the bottoms on the same line,--that is, an equal distance from floor or ceiling. if this rule is observed a sense of order and restfulness is communicated to the observer. if one picture is hung over the other uniformity and balance must be preserved. one large picture may be balanced by two smaller ones. hang your miniatures in a straight line across your wall, under a large picture or in a straight line--one under the other, down a narrow wall panel. chapter viii treatment of piano cases a professional pianist invariably prefers the case of his or her piano left in its simple ebony or mahogany, and would not approve of its being relegated to the furniture department and decorated accordingly, any more than your violinist, or harpist, would hand over his violin, or harp, for decoration. when a piano, however, is not the centre of interest in a house, and the artistic ensemble of decorative line and colour is, the piano case is often ordered at the piano factory to be made to accord in line with the period of the room for which it is intended, after which it is decorated so as to harmonise with the colours in the room. this can be done through the piano factory; but in the case of redecorating a room, one can easily get some independent artist to do this work, a man who has made a study of the decorations on old spinets in palaces, private mansions and museums. some artists have been very successful in converting what was an inartistic piece of furniture as to size, outline and colour, into an object which became a pleasing portion of the colour scheme because in proper relation to the whole. you can always make an ebony or mahogany piano case more in harmony with its setting by covering it, when not in use, with a piece of beautiful old brocade, or a modern reproduction. plate xiii another side of same italian louis xvi salon. the tea-table is a modern painted convenience, the two vases are italian pharmacy jars and the standard for electric lights is a modern-painted piece. [illustration: _another side of same italian louis xvi salon_] chapter ix treatment of dining-room buffets and dressing-tables a dining-room buffet requires the same dignity of treatment demanded by a mantelpiece whether the silver articles kept on it be of great or small intrinsic value. here, as in every case, appropriateness dictates the variety of articles, and the observance of the rule that there shall be no crowding nor disorder in the placing of articles insures that they contribute decorative value; in a word, the size of your buffet limits the amount of silver, glass, etc., to be placed upon it. the variety and number of articles on a dressing-table are subject to the same two laws: that is, every article must be useful and in line and colour accord with the deliberate scheme of your room, and there must be no crowding nor disorder, no matter how rare or beautiful the toilet articles are. chapter x treatment of work tables, bird cages, dog baskets and fish globes every bedroom planned for a woman, young or old, calls for a work table, work basket or work bag, or all three, and these furnish opportunities for additional "flowers" in your room; for we insist upon regarding accessories as opportunities for extra colour notes which harmonise with the main colour scheme and enliven your interior quite as flowers would, cheering it up--and, incidentally, its inmates! apropos of this, it was only the other day that some one remarked in our hearing, "this room is so blooming with lovely bits of colour in lamp shades, pillows, and _objets d'art_, that i no longer spend money on cut flowers." there we have it! precisely the idea we are trying to express. so make your work-table, if you own the sort with a silk work-bag suspended from the lower part, your work-basket or work-bag, represent one, two or three of the colours in your room. if some one gives you an inharmonious work-bag, either build a room up to it, or give it away, but never hang it out in a room done in an altogether different colour scheme. bird-cages, dog-baskets and fish-globes may become harmonious instead of jarring colour notes, if one will give a little thought to the matter. in fact some of the black iron wrought cages when occupied by a wonderful parrot with feathers of blue and orange, red and grey, or red, blue and yellow, can be the making of certain rooms. and there are canaries with deep orange feathers which look most decorative in cages painted dark green, as well as the many-coloured paroquet, lovely behind golden bars. many a woman when selecting a dog has bought one which harmonised with her costume, or got a costume to set off her dog! certainly a dark or light brindle bull is a perfect addition to a room done in browns, as is a red chow or a tortoise-shell cat. see to it that cage and basket set off your bird, dog or cat; but don't let them become too conspicuous notes of colour in your room or on your porch; let it be the bird, the dog or the cat which has a colour value. the fish-globe can be of white or any colour glass you prefer, and your fish vivid or pale in tone; whichever it is, be sure that they furnish a needed--not a superfluous--tone of colour in a room or on a porch. plate xiv shows narrow hall in an old country house, thought impossible as to appearance, but made charming by "pushing out" the wall with an antique painted tapestry and keeping all woodwork and carpets the same delicate dove grey. [illustration: _a narrow hall where effect of width is attained by use of tapestry with vista_] chapter xi treatment of fireplaces nothing is ever more attractive than the big open fireplace, piled with blazing logs, and with fire-dogs or andirons of brass or black iron, as may accord with the character of your room. if yours is a _period_ room it is possible to get andirons to match, veritable old ones, by paying for them. the attractiveness of a fireplace depends largely upon its proportions. to look well it should always be wider than high, and deep enough to insure that the smoke goes up the chimney, and not out into your room. if your fireplace smokes you may need a special flue, leading from fireplace to proper chimney top, or a brass hood put on front of the fireplace. many otherwise attractive fireplaces are spoiled by using the wrong kind of tiles to frame them. shiny, enamelled tiles in any colour, are bad, and pressed red brick of the usual sort equally bad, so if you are planning the fireplace of an informal room, choose tiles with a dull finish or brick with a simple rough finish. in period rooms often beautiful light or heavy mouldings entirely frame the three sides of the fireplace when it is of wood. _well designed_ marble mantels are always desirable. this feature of decoration is distinctly within the province of your architect, one reason more why he and the interior decorator, whether professional or amateur, should continually confer while building or rebuilding a house. for coal fires we have a variety of low, broad grates; as well as reproductions of colonial grates, which are small and swung high between brass uprights, framing the fireplace, with an ash drawer, the front of which is brass. if you prefer the _old_, one can find this variety of grate in antique shops as well as "franklin stoves" (portable open fireplaces). if your rooms are heated with steam, cover the radiators with wooden frames in line with the period of your room cut in open designs to allow heat to come through, and painted to match the woodwork of the room. see plate xix. let the fireplace be the centre of attraction in your room and draw about it comfortable chairs, sofas and settles,--make it easy to enjoy its hospitable blaze. chapter xii treatment of bathrooms sumptuous bathrooms are not modern inventions, on the contrary the bath was a religion with the ancient greeks, and a luxury to the early italians. what we have to say here is in regard to the bath as a necessity for all classes. the treatment of bathrooms has become an interesting branch of interior decoration, whereas once it was left entirely to the architect and plumber. first, one has to decide whether the bathroom is to be finished in conventional white enamel, which cannot be surpassed for dainty appearance and sanitary cleanliness. equally dainty to look at and offering the same degree of sanitary cleanliness, is a bathroom enamelled in some delicate tone to accord in colour with the bedroom with which it connects. plate xv this illustration speaks for itself--fruit dishes and fruit, candlesticks, covered jars for dried rose leaves, finger bowls, powder boxes, flower vase, and scent bottles--all of venetian glass in exquisite shades. [illustration: _venetian glass, antique and modern_] some go so far as to make the bathroom the same colour as the bedroom, even when this is dark. we have in mind a bath opening out of a man's bedroom. the bedroom is decorated in dull blues, taupe and mulberry. the bathroom has the walls painted in broad stripes of dull blue and taupe, the stripes being quite six inches wide. the floor is tiled in large squares of the same blue and taupe; the tub and other furnishings are in dull blue enamel, and the wall-cabinets (one for shaving brushes, tooth brushes, etc., another for shaving cups, medicine glasses, drinking glasses, etc., and the third for medicines, soaps, etc.) are painted a dull mulberry. built into the front of each cabinet door is an old coloured print covered with glass and framed with dull blue moulding and on the inside of each cabinet door is a mirror. one small closet in the bathroom is large enough to hang bath robe, pajamas, etc., while another is arranged for drying towels and holds a soiled clothes basket. on the inside of both doors are full-length mirrors. the criticism that mirrors in men's bathrooms are necessarily an effeminate touch, can be refuted by the statement that so sturdy a soldier as the great napoleon had his dressing room at fontainebleau lined with them! this fact reminds us that we have recently seen a most fascinating bathroom, planned for a woman, in which the walls and ceiling are of glass, cut in squares and fitted together in the old french way. over the glass was a dull-gold trellis and twined in and out of this, ivy, absolutely natural in appearance, but made of painted tin. the floor tiles, and fixtures were white enamel, and a soft moss-green velvet carpet was laid down when the bath was not used. bathroom fixtures are to-day so elaborate in number and quality, that the conveniences one gets are limited only by one's purse. the leading manufacturers have anticipated the dreams of the most luxurious. window-curtains for bathrooms should be made of some material which will neither fade nor pull out of shape when washed. we would suggest scrim, swiss, or china silk of a good quality. when buying bath-mats, bath-robes, bath-slippers, bath-towels, wash-cloths and hand-towels, it is easy to keep in mind the colour-scheme of your rooms, and by following it out, the general appearance of your suite is immensely improved. for a woman's bathroom, venetian glass bottles, covered jars and bowls of every size, come in opalescent pale greens and other delicate tints. see plate xi. then there are the white glass bottles, jars, bowls, and trays with bunches of dashing pink roses, to be obtained at any good department store. glass toilet articles come in considerable variety and at all prices, and to match any colour scheme; so use them as notes of colour on the glass shelves in your bathrooms. here, too, is an opportunity to use your old bristol or bohemian glass, once regarded as inherited eyesores, but now unearthed, and which, when used to contribute to a colour scheme, have a distinct value and real beauty. plate xvi part of a room in a small suite where the furniture is all old and the majority of it empire in style. however, the small piano at once declares itself american empire. the beautifully decorative nameplate on its front reads, "geib & walker, 23 maiden lane, n.y." the date of piano is about 1830. the brown mahogany commode on the right has the lion's claw-feet, and pilasters are topped by women's heads in bronze. this piece was bought in france. it has the original marble top, dark pink veined with white. the knobs on drawers are bronze lions' heads, holding rings in their mouths. chairs are italian and between directoire and empire. the table, a good specimen, was also found in france. on the table is a french vanity mirror, louis xvi in time, very greek in design. the mirror is on both sides and turns on a gold arrow which pierces it. the bronze frame of mirror has a design so intricate in detail that it resembles lace work. the vase on the piano is empire and antique, decoration of green and gold. the flowers on table are artificial, a quaint victorian contrast. through the doorway one sees the end of an empire bed which came from an old château in brittany. note the same pilasters as on bureau, only that in this case the woman's head is gilded wood and two little feet of gilded wood appear at base of mahogany pilaster. a gilded urn rests on a mahogany post of bed against the wall, the only position possible for beds of this style. the head and foot board are of equal height and alike. few empire beds are now on the market. this one is used with a roll at each end and is covered with genuine empire satin in six-inch stripes of canary yellow and sage green divided by two narrow black stripes and a narrow white stripe between them. [illustration: _corner of a room in a small empire suite_] to-day a bathroom is considered the necessary supplement to every bedroom in an apartment or house, where the space allows, and no house is regarded as a good investment if built with less than one bath to communicate with every two rooms. yet among the advertisements in the new york city directory of 1828 we read the following naïve statement concerning warm baths, which is meant in all seriousness. it refers to the "arcade bath" at 32 chambers street, new york city. * * * * * "the warm bath is more conducive to health than any luxury which can be employed in a populous city; its beneficial effects are partially described as follows: "the celebrated count rumford has paid particular attention to the subject of warm bathing; he has examined it by the test of experiments, long and frequently repeated, and bears testimony to its excellent effects. 'it is not merely on account of the advantages,' says the count, 'which i happen to see from warm bathing, which renders me so much an advocate of the practice; exclusive of the wholesomeness of the warm bath, the luxury of bathing is so great, and the tranquil state of the mind and body which follows, is so exquisitely delightful, that i think it quite impossible to recommend it too highly, if we consider it merely as a rational and elegant refinement. the manner in which the warm bath operates, in producing the salutary consequences, seems very evident. the genial warmth which is so applied to the skin in the place of the cold air of the atmosphere, by which we are commonly surrounded, expands all those very small vessels, where the extremities of the arteries and veins unite, and by gently stimulating the whole frame, produces a full and free circulation, which if continued for a certain time, removes all obstructions in the vascular system, and puts all the organs into that state of regular, free, and full motion which is essential to health, and also to that delightful repose, accompanied by a consciousness of the power of exertion, which constitutes the highest animal enjoyment of which we are capable.' "n.b.: as the bath is generally occupied on saturday evenings and sunday mornings, it is recommended to those who would wish to enjoy the bath and avoid the crowded moment, to call at other times. the support of the public will be gratefully received and every exertion made to deserve it. for the proprietor, g. wright. "strangers will recognise the bathing house from the front being extended over two lots of ground, and the centre basement being of free-stone." * * * * * the bathtub then was the simple tin sort, on the order of the round english tub. to-day the variety of bathtubs as to size, shape, material and appointments is bewildering; tubs there are on feet and tubs without feet, tubs sunken in the floor so that one goes down steps into them, tubs of large dimensions and tubs of small, and all with or without "showers," as the purchaser may prefer. truly the warm baths so highly recommended in count rumford's rhapsody are to be had for the turning of one's own faucet at any moment of the day or night! the count rumford in question is that romantic figure, born of simple english parents, in new england (woburn, mass., 1753), who went abroad when very young and by the great force of his personality and genius, became the power behind the throne in bavaria, where he was made minister of war and field marshal by the elector, and later knighted in recognition of his scientific attainments and innumerable civic reforms. there is a large monument erected to the memory of count rumford in munich. he died at auteuil, france, in 1814. chapter xiii period rooms we use the term "period rooms" with full knowledge of the difficulties involved, in defining louis xiv, louis xv, louis xvi, directoire, jacobean, empire, georgian, victorian and colonial decorations. each period certainly has its distinctive earmarks in line and typical decoration, but you must realise that a period gradually evolves, at first exhibiting characteristics of its ancestors, then as it matures, showing a definite _new_ type, and, later, when the elation of success has worn off, yielding to various foreign influences. by way of example, note the chinese decoration on some of the painted furniture of the louis xvi type, the dutch influence on chippendale in line, and the egyptian on empire. one fascinating way of becoming familiar with history, is to delve into the origin and development of periods in furniture. the story of napoleon is recorded in the unpretentious directoire, the ornate empire of fontainebleau, while the conversion of round columns into obelisk-like pilasters surmounted by heads, the bronze and gilded-wood ornaments in the form of the sphynx, are frank souvenirs of egypt. every period, whether ascribed to england, france, italy or holland, has found expression in all adjacent countries. an italian louis xvi chair, mirror or applique is frequently sold in paris or london as french and empire furniture was "made in germany." periods have no restricted nationality; but nationality often declares itself in periods. that is to say, lines may be copied; but workmanship is another thing. apropos of this take the french empire furniture, massive as much of it is, built squarely and solidly to the floor, but showing most extraordinary grace on account of the amazing delicacy of intricate designs, done by the greatest french sculptors of the time and worked out in metal by the trained hands of men who had a special genius for this art. at no other time, nor in any other country, has an equal degree of perfection in the fine chiselling of metals so much as approached the standard attained during the louis[1] and the empire periods. if in your wandering, you happen upon a genuine bit of this work in silver or ormoulu, buy it. the writer once found in a new jersey antique shop, a rare empire bronze vase, urn-shaped, a specimen of the very finest kind of this metal engraving. the price asked for it (in ignorance, of course) was $2.50! the piece would have brought $40 in paris. but the quest of the antique is another story. when one realises the eternal borrowing of one country from another, the ever-recurring renaissance of past periods and the legitimate and illegitimate mixing of styles, it is no wonder that the amateur feels nervously uncertain, or frankly ignorant. many a professional decorator hesitates to give a final judgment. to take one case in point, we glibly speak of "colonial" furniture, that term which covers such a multitude of sins, and inspiring virtues, too! we have the colonial which closely resembles the empire, and we have what is sometimes styled the chippendale colonial, following the chippendale of england. our colonial cabinet-makers used as models, beautiful pieces imported from england, holland and france by the wealthier members of our communities. also a chinese and japanese influence crept in, on account of the lacquer and carved teak wood, brought home by our seafaring ancestors. it is quite possible that the carved teak wood stimulated the clever maker of some of the most beautiful victorian furniture made in america, which is gradually finding its way into the hands of collectors. some of these cabinet-makers glued together and put under heavy pressure seven to nine layers of rosewood with the grain running at every angle, so as to produce strength. when the layers had been crushed into a solid block, they carved their open designs, using one continuous piece of wood for the ornamental rim of even large sofas. the best of the victorian period is attractive, but how can we express our opinion of those american monstrosities of the sixties or seventies, beds in rosewood and walnut, the head-boards covering the side of a room, bureaus proportionately huge, following out the idea that a piece of furniture to be beautiful must be very large and very expensive! it is to be hoped that the lovely rosewood and walnut wasted at that time are to-day being rescued by wary cabinet-makers. the art of furniture making, like every other art, came into being to serve a clearly defined purpose. this must not be forgotten. a chair and a sofa are to sit on; a mirror, to _reflect_. remember this last fact when hanging one. it is important that your mirror reflect one of the most attractive parts of your room, and thus contribute its quota to your scheme of decoration. it is interesting to note that chairs were made with solid wooden seats when men wore armour, velvet cushions followed more fragile raiment, and tapestries while always mural decorations were first used in place of doors and partitions, in feudal castles, before there were interior doors and partitions. any piece of furniture is artistically bad when it does not satisfactorily serve its purpose. the equally fundamental law that everything useful should at the same time be beautiful cannot be repeated too often. period rooms which slavishly repeat, in every piece of furniture and ornament, only one type, have but a museum interest. if your rooms are to serve as a home, give them a winning, human quality, keep before your mind's eye, not royal palaces which have become museums, but _homes_, built and furnished by men and women whose traditions and associations gave them standards of beauty, so that they bought the choicest furniture both at home and abroad. in such a home, whether it be an intimate palace in europe, a colonial mansion in new england, or a victorian interior of the best type, an extraneous period is often represented by some _objet d'art_ as a delightful, because harmonious note of contrast. for example, in a louis xvi salon, where the colour scheme is harmonious, one gradually realises that one of the dominant ornaments in the room is a rare old chinese vase, brought back from the orient by one of the family and given a place of honour on account of its uniqueness. every one understands and feels deeply the difference between the museum palace or the period rooms of the commonplace decorator, and such a marvellous, living, breathing, palatial home as that "italian palace" in boston, massachusetts, created, not inherited, by mrs. john l. gardner. here we have a splendid example to illustrate the point we are trying to make; namely, regardless of its dimensions, make your home _home-like_ and like _you_, its owner. never allow any one, professional or amateur, to persuade you to put anything in it which you do not like yourself; but if an expert advises against a thing, give careful consideration to the advice before rejecting it. mrs. gardner's house is unique among the great houses of america as having that quality of the intimate palaces abroad,--a subtle mellowness which in the old world took time and generations of cultivated lovers of the rare and beautiful, to create. adequate means, innate art appreciation, experience and the knowledge which comes from keeping in touch with experts, account for the intrinsic value of mrs. gardner's collection; but the subtle quality of harmony and vitality is her own personal touch. the colour scheme is so wisely chosen that it actually does unite all periods and countries. one is surprised to note how perfectly at home even the modern paintings appear in this version of an old italian palace. be sure that you aim at the same combination of beauty, usefulness, and harmony between colour scheme and _objets d'art_. it is in colour scheme that we feel the personality of our host or hostess, therefore give attention to this point. always have a colour scheme sympathetic to _you_. make your rooms take on the air of being your abode. it is really very simple. what has been done with vast wealth can be just as easily done by the man of one room and a bath. know what you want, and buy the best you can afford; by best, meaning useful things, indisputably beautiful in line and colour. use your colonial furniture; but if you find a wonderful empire desk, with beautiful brass mounts and like it, buy it. they are of the same period in point of date, as it happens, and your louis xvi bronze candlesticks will add a touch of grace. the writer recalls a simple room which was really a milestone in the development of taste, for it was so completely harmonious in colouring, arrangement of furniture, and placing of ornaments. built for a painter's studio, with top light, it was used, at the time of which we speak, for music, as a steinway grand indicated. the room was large, the floors painted black and covered with faded oriental rugs; woodwork and walls were dark-green, as were the long, low, open bookcases, above which a large foliage tapestry was hung. on the other walls were modern paintings with antique frames of dulled gold, while a louis xvi inlaid desk stood across one corner, and there was an old italian oval table of black wood, with great, gold birds, as pedestal and legs, at which we dined simply, using fine old silver, and foreign pottery. this room was responsible for starting more than one person on the pursuit of the antique, for pervading it was a magic atmosphere, that wizard touch which comes of _knowing, loving_ and _demanding beautiful things_, and then treating them very humanly. use your lovely vases for your flowers. hang your modern painting; but let its link with the faded tapestry be the dull, old frame. to be explicit, use lustreless frames and faded colours with old furniture and tapestry. your grandmother wears mauves and greys--not bright red. if your taste is for modern painted furniture and vivid bakst colours in cushions and hangings, take your lovely old tapestry away. speaking of tapestries, do not imagine that they can never be used in small rooms and narrow halls. plate xiv shows an illustration of a hall in an old-fashioned country house, that was so narrow that it aroused despair. we call attention to the fact that it gains greatly in width from the perspective shown in the tapestry, one of the rare, old, painted kind, which depicts distance, wide vistas and a scene flooded with light. (an architectural picture can often be used with equally good results.) to increase size of this hall, the woodwork, walls and carpets were kept the same shade of pale-grey. the landscape paper in our colonial houses of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, often large in design, pushed back the walls to the same amazing degree. footnotes: [footnote 1: louis xiv, xv, and xvi.] chapter xiv periods in furniture periods in furniture are amazingly interesting if one plunges into the story, not with tense nerves, but gaily, for mere amusement, and then floats gently, in a drifting mood. one gathers in this way many sparkling historical anecdotes, and much substantial data really not so cumbersome as some imagine! to know anything at all about a subject one must begin at the beginning, and to make the long run seems a mere spin in an auto, let us at once remind you that the whole fascinating tale lies between the covers of one delightful book, the "illustrated history of furniture," by frederick litchfield, published by truslove & hanson, london, and by john lane, new york. there are other books--many of them--but first exhaust litchfield and apply what he tells you as you wander through public and private collections of furniture. if you care for furniture at all, this book, which tells all that is known of its history, will prove highly instructive. one cannot speak of the gradual development of furniture and furnishing; it is more a case of _waves of types_, and the story begins on the crest of a wave in assyria, about 3000 years before christ! yes, seriously, interior decoration was an art back in that period and can be traced without any lost links in the chain of evidence. from assyria we turn to egypt and learn from the frescoes and bas-reliefs on walls of ruined tombs, that about that same time, 3000 b.c., rooms on the banks of the nile were decorated more or less as they are to-day. the cultured classes had beautiful ceilings, gilded furniture, cushions and mattresses of dyed linen and wools, stuffed with downy feathers taken from water fowl, curtains that were suspended between columns, and, what is still more interesting to the lover of furniture, we find that the style known as empire when revived by napoleon i was at that time in vogue. even more remarkable is the fact that parts of legs and rails of furniture were turned as perfectly (i quote litchfield) as if by a modern lathe. the variety of beautiful woods used by the egyptians for furniture included ebony, cedar, sycamore and acacia. marquetry was employed as well as wonderful inlaying with ivory, from both the elephant and hippopotamus. footstools had little feet made like lion's claws or bull's hoofs. according to austin leyard, the very earliest assyrian chairs, as well as those of egypt, had the legs terminating in the same lion's feet or bull's hoofs, which reappear in the greek, roman, empire and even sheraton furniture of england (eighteenth century). the first assyrian chairs were made without backs and of beautifully wrought gold and bronze, an art highly developed at that time. in egypt we find the heads of animals capping the backs of chairs in the way that we now see done on spanish chairs. the pilasters shown on the empire furniture, plate xvi, capped by women's heads with little gold feet at base, and caryatides of a kind, were souvenirs of the egyptian throne seats which rested on the backs of slaves--possibly prisoners of war. these chairs were wonderful works of art in gold or bronze. we fancy we can see those interiors, the chairs and beds covered with woven materials in rich colours and leopard skins thrown over chairs, the carpets of a woven palm-fibre and mats of the same, which were used as seats. early egyptian rooms were beautiful in line because simple; never crowded with superfluous furnishings. it is amusing to see on the very earliest bas-reliefs egyptian belles and beaux reclining against what we know to-day as empire rolls,--seen also on beds in old french prints of the fourteenth century. who knows, even with the egyptians this may have been a revived style! one talks of new notes in colour scheme. the bakst thing was being done in assyria, 700 b.c.! sir george green proved it when he opened up six rooms of a king's palace and found the walls all done in horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green! also, he states that each entrance had the same number of pilasters. oh wise assyrian king and truly neutral, if as is supposed, those rooms were for his six wives! in furniture, the epoch-making styles have been those showing _line_, and if decorated, then only with such decorations as were subservient to line; pure greek and purest roman, gothic and early renaissance, the best of the louis, directoire and first empire, chippendale, adam, sheraton and heppelwhite. the bad styles are those where ornamentations envelop and conceal line as in late renaissance, the italian rococo, the portuguese barrocco (baroque), the curving and contorted degenerate forms of louis xiv and xv and the victorian--all examples of the same thing, _i.e._: perfect line achieved, acclaimed, flattered, losing its head and going to the bad in extravagant exuberance of over-ornamentation. there is a psychic connection between the _outline_ of furniture and the _inline_ of man. perfect line, chaste ornamentation, the elimination of the superfluous was the result of the greek idea of restraint--self-control in all things and in all expression. the immense authority of the law-makers enforced simple austerity as the right and only setting for the daily life of an athenian, worthy of the name. there were exceptions, but as a rule all citizens, regardless of their wealth and station, had impressed upon them the civic obligation to express their taste for the beautiful, in the erecting of public buildings in their city of athens, monuments of perfect art, by god-like artists, phidias, apelles, and praxiteles. chapter xv continuation of periods in furniture from greece, culture, borne on the wings of the arts, moved on to rome, and at first, roman architecture and decoration reproduced only the classic greek types; but, as rome grew, her arts took on another and very different outline, showing how the history of decorative art is to a fascinating degree the history of customs and manners. rome became prosperous, greedy, powerful and imperious, enslaving the civilised world, and, not having the restraining laws of greece, waxed luxurious and licentious, and chafed, in consequence, at the austere rigidity of the greek style of furnishing. we know that in the time of augustus cæsar the romans had wonderful furniture of the most costly kind, made from cedar, pine, elm, olive, ash, ilex, beach and maple, carved to represent the legs, feet, hoofs and heads of animals, as in earlier days was the fashion in assyria, egypt and greece, while intricate carvings in relief, showed greek subjects taken from mythology and legend. cæsar, it is related, owned a table costing a million sesterces ($40,000). but gradually the pure line swerved, ever more and more influenced by the orient, for rome, always successful in war, had established colonies in the east. soon byzantine art reached rome, bringing its arabesques and geometrical designs, its warm, glowing colours, soft cushions, gorgeous hangings, embroideries, and rich carpets. in fact all the glowing luxury that the _new_ roman craved. the effect of this _mésalliance_ upon all art, including interior decoration, was to cause its immediate decline. elaboration and _banal_ designs, too much splendour of gold and silver and ivory inlaid with gold, resulted in a decadent art which reflected a decadent race and rome fell! not all at once; it took five hundred years for the neighbouring races to crush her power, but continuous hectoring did it, in 476 a.d. then began the dark ages merging into the middle ages (fifth to fifteenth centuries). dark they were, but what picturesque and productive darkness! rome fell, but the carlovingian family arose, and with it the great nations of western europe, to give us, especially in france, another supreme flowering of interior decoration. britain was torn from the grasp of rome by the saxons, danes and normans, and as a result the great anglo-saxon race was born to create art periods. mahomet appeared and scored as an epoch-maker, recording a remarkable life and a spiritual cycle. the moors conquered spain, but in so doing enriched her arts a thousandfold, leaving the alhambra as a beacon-light through the ages. finally the crusades united all warring races against the infidels. blood was shed, but at the same time routes were opened up, by which the arts, as well as the commerce, of the orient, reached europe. and so the byzantine continued to contend with gothic art--that art which preceded from the christian church and stretched like a canopy over western europe, all through the middle ages. it was in the churches and monasteries that christian art, driven from pillar to post by wars, was obliged to take refuge, and there produced that marvellous development known as the gothic style,--of the church, for the church, by the church, perfected in countless gothic cathedrals,--crystallised glorias lifting their manifold spires to heaven,--ethereal monuments of an intrepid faith which gave material form to its adoration, its fasting and prayer, in an unrivalled art. there is one early gothic chair which has come down to us, charlemagne's, made of gilt-bronze and preserved in the louvre, at paris. any knowledge beyond this one piece, as to what carlovingian furniture was like (the eighth century) we get only from old manuscripts which show it to have been the pseudo-classic, that is, the classic modified by byzantine influence, and very like the empire style of napoleon i. here is the reason for the type. constantinople was the capital of the eastern empire, when in 726 a.d., emperor leo iii prohibited image worship, and the artists and artisans of his part of the world, in order to earn a livelihood, scattered over europe, settling in the various capitals, where they were eagerly welcomed and employed. even so late as the tenth to fourteenth centuries the knowledge we have of gothic furniture still comes from illustrated manuscripts and missals preserved in museums or in the national libraries. rome fell as an empire in the fifth century. in the eighth century, venice asserted herself, later becoming the great, wealthy, merchant city of eastern europe, the golden gate between byzantium and the west (eleventh to fifteenth centuries). her merchants visiting every country naturally carried home all art expressions, but, so far as we know, her own chief artistic output in very early days, was in the nature of richly carved wooden furniture, no specimens of which remain. chapter xvi the gothic period the gothic period is the pointed period, and dominated the art of europe from about the tenth to the fifteenth century. its origin was teutonic, its development and perfection french. at first, the house of a feudal lord meant one large hall with a raised dais, curtained off for him and his immediate family, and subdivided into sleeping apartments for the women. on this dais a table ran crossways, at which the lord and his family with their guests, ate, while a few steps lower, at a long table running lengthwise of the hall, sat the retainers. the hall was, also, the living-room for all within the walls of the castle. sand was strewn on the stone floor and the dogs of the knights ate what was thrown to them, gnawing the bones at their leisure. this rude scene was surrounded by wonderful tapestries hung from the walls:--woman's record of man's deeds. later, we read of stairs and of another room known as the _parloir_ or talking-room, and here begins the sub-division of homes, which in democratic america has arrived at a point where more than 200 rooms are often sheltered under one private roof! oak chests figured prominently among the furnishings of a gothic home, because the possessions of those feudal lords, who were constantly at war with one another, often had to be moved in haste. as men's lives became more settled, their possessions gradually multiplied; but even at the end of the eleventh century bedsteads were provided only for the nobility, probably on account of expense, as they were very grand affairs, carved and draped. to that time and later belong the wonderfully carved presses or wardrobes. carved wood panelling was an important addition to interior decoration during the reign of henry iii (1216-72). in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries england with flanders led in the production of mediæval art. hallmarks of the gothic period are animals and reptiles carved to ornament the structural parts of furniture and to ornament panels. favourite subjects with the wood carvers of that time were scenes from the lives of the saints (the church dominated the state) and from the romances, chanted by the minstrels. chapter xvii the renaissance following the gothic period came the renaissance of greek art which began in italy under the leadership of leonardo da vinci and raphael, who, rejecting the existing types of degraded decorative art, in italy a combination of the byzantine and gothic--turned to the antique, the purest greek styles of pericles' time. the result was another period of perfect line and proportion, called the italian renaissance, a great wave of art which swept over all europe, gaining impetus from the wise patronage of the ruling medicis. one of them (pope leo x with the co-operation of italy's reigning dukes and princes) employed and so developed the extraordinary powers of michael angelo, titian, raphael, andrea del sarto and correggio. by the end of the fifteenth century, classic greek art was engrossing the mind of western europe, classical literature was becoming the fashion and there was even an attempt to make latin the popular language. it was during the renaissance that palladio rebuilt the palaces of italy,--beautiful beyond words, and that benvenuto cellini designed in gold, silver and bronze in a manner never since equalled. from that same period dates the world-famous majolica of urbino, pesaro and gubbio, shown in our museums. so far as house-furnishing went, aside from palaces, there was but little that was appropriate for intimate domestic life. the early renaissance furniture was palatial, architectural in outline and, one might almost say, in proportions. the tables were impossibly high, the chairs were stiff, and the cabinets immense and formal in outline. it had, however, much stately beauty, and very lovely are certain old pieces of carved and gilded wood where the gilt, put on over a red preparation and highly burnished, has rubbed off with time, and shows a soft glow of colour through the gold. but as always, the curse of over-elaboration to please perverted minds, was resorted to by cabinet-makers who copied mosaics with their inlaying, and invented that form known as _pietra-dura_--polished bits of marble, agates, pebbles and lapis lazuli. ivory was carved and used as bas-reliefs and ivory and tortoise shell, brass and mother-of-pearl used as inlay. elaborate arabesque designs inlaid were souvenirs of the orient, and where the cabinetmaker's saw left a line, the cuts were filled in with black wood or stained glue, which brought out the design and so gave an added decorative effect. skilled artisans had other designs bitten into wood by acids, and shading was managed by pouring hot sand on the surface of the wood. hallmarks of the renaissance are designs which were taken from greek and roman mythology, and allegories representing the elements, seasons, months and virtues. also, battle scenes and triumphal marches. the insatiable love for decoration found still another expression in silver and gold plaques of the highest artistic quality, embossed and engraved for those princes of florence, urbino, ferrara, rome, venice and naples, who vied with one another in extravagance until the inevitable reaction came. plate xvii an example of good mantel decoration. the vases and clock are empire, the chairs directoire, and footstools louis xv. a low bowl of modern green venetian glass holds flowers. [illustration: _an example of perfect balance and beauty in mantel arrangement_] edmund bonneffé says that in the latter part of the renaissance, while the effort of the italians seems to have been to disguise wood, french cabinet-makers emphasised its value--an interesting point to bear in mind. * * * * * if we trace the renaissance movement in germany we find that it was albrecht dürer who led it. then, as always, the germans were foremost in wood carving; with holland and belgium they are responsible for much of the antique oak furniture on renaissance lines. the scandinavians have also done wonderful wood carving, which is easily confused with the early wood carving of the russians, for the reason that the swedes settled finland, and russia's ruric rulers (before the romanoff house,--sixteenth century) were from finland. in the sixteenth century metal work in steel, iron and brass reached its height in germany and italy. it is supposed that the elaborate mounts in furniture which were later perfected in france had their origin in iron corners and hinge-plates used, at first, merely to strengthen, but as the men who worked in metals became more and more skilful, the mounts were made with the intent of mere decoration and to draw attention to the beauty of the wood itself. before dürer turned germany's mind toward the greek revival of art, the craftsmen of his country had been following dutch models. this was natural enough, for charles v was king at that time, of holland, germany and spain, and the arts of the three countries, as well as their commerce were interchangeable. in fact it was the dutch painter, van eyck, who took the renaissance into spain when called thereto paint royalty. sculptors, tapestry weavers, books on art, etc., followed. that was the spanish awakening, but the art of spain during the sixteenth century shows that the two most powerful influences were moorish and italian. the most characteristically spanish furniture of that period are those cabinets,--"_vargueos_," made of wood ornamented on the outside with wrought iron, while inside are little columns made of fine bone, painted and gilded. much of the old spanish furniture reproduces german and italian styles. embossed leather put on with heavy nails has always been characteristic of spain, and in the seventeenth century very fine spanish mahogany and chestnut were decorated with tortoise-shell inlaid with ivory, so as to make elaborate pictures in the italian style. (see baron davillier on spanish furniture.). chapter xviii french furniture the classic periods in french furniture were those known as francis i, henry ii and the three louis,--xiv, xv, and xvi. one can get an idea of all french periods in furnishing by visiting the collection in paris belonging to the government, "mobilier national," in the new wing of the louvre. it is always necessary to consult political history in order to understand artistic invasions. turn to it now and you will find that charles viii of france held naples for two years (1495-6), and when he went home took with him italian artists to decorate his palaces. read on and find that later henry ii married catherine de medici and loved diane de poitiers, and that, fortunately for france, both his queen and his mistress were patronesses of the arts. so france bloomed in the sunshine of royal favour and greek influence, as few countries ever had. fontainebleau (begun by francis i) was the first of a chain of french royal palaces, all monuments without and within, to a picturesque system of monarchy,--kings who could do no wrong, wafting sceptres over powerless subjects, whose toil produced art in the form of architecture, cabinetmaking, tapestry weaving, mural decoration, unrivalled porcelain, exquisitely wrought silver and gold plate, silks, lovely as flower gardens (showing the "pomegranate" and "vase" patterns) and velvets like the skies! and for what? did these things represent the wise planning of wise monarchs for dependent subjects? we know better, for it is only in modern times that simple living and small incomes have achieved surroundings of artistic beauty and comfort. the marvels of interior decoration during the classic french periods were created for kings and their queens, mistresses and favoured courtiers. diane de poitiers wished--perhaps only dreamed--and an epoch-making art project was born. madame du barry admired and made her own the since famous du barry rose colour, and the sèvres porcelain factories reproduced it for her. but how to produce this particular illusive shade of deep, purplish-pink became a forgotten art, when the seductive person of the king's mistress was no more. if you would learn all there is to know concerning the sixteenth century furnishings in france read edmund bonneffé's "sixteenth century furniture." it was the henry ii interior decoration and architecture which first showed the renaissance of pure line and classic proportion, followed by the never-failing reaction from the simple line to the undulating over-ornate when decoration repeated the elaboration of the most luxurious, licentious periods of the past. one has but to walk through the royal palaces of france to see french history beguilingly illustrated, in a series of volumes open to all, the pages of which are vibrant with the names and personalities of men and women who will always live in history as products of an age of great culture and art. plate xviii a delightful bit of a room. the furniture, in line, shows a directoire influence. the striped french satin sofa and one chair is blue, yellow and faun, the brussels tapestry in faded blues, fauns and greys. over a charmingly painted table is a louis xv gilt applique, the screen is dark in tone and has painted panels. the rug, done in cross-stitch, black ground and design colours, was discovered in a forgotten corner of a shop, its condition so dingy from the dust of ages that only an expert would have recognised its possibilities. [illustration: _corner of a drawing room, furniture showing directoire influence_] the louis xiv, xv and xvi periods in furniture are all related. rare brocades, flowered and in stripes, bronze mounts as garlands, bow-knots and rosettes, on intricate inlaying, mark their common relationship. the story of these periods is that gradually decoration becomes over-elaborated and in the end dominates the greek outline. the three louis mark a succession of great periods. louis xiv, though beautiful at its best, is of the three the most ornate and is characterised in its worst stage by the extremely bowed (cabriole) legs of the furniture, ludicrously suggestive of certain debauched courtiers who surrounded the _grande monarch_. louis xv legs show a curve, also, but no longer the stoggy, squat cabriole of the over-fed gallant. instead we are entranced by an ethereal grace and lightness of movement in every line and decoration. here cabriole means but a courtly knee swiftly bending to salute some beauty's hand. so subtly waving is the curving outline of this furniture that one scarcely knows where it begins or ends, and it is the same with the decorations--exquisitely delicate waving traceries of vines and flora, gold on gold, inlay, or paint in delicate tones. all this gives to the louis xv period supremacy over louis xvi, whose round, grooved, tapering straight legs, one tires of more quickly, although fine gold and lovely paint make this type winning and beloved. from louis xvi we pass to the directoire, when, following the revolution, the voice of the populace decried all ostentation and everything savouring of the superfluous. the great napoleon in his first period affected simplicity and there were no longer bronze mounts, in rosettes, garlands and bow-knots, elaborate inlaying, nor painted furniture with lovely flowering surfaces; in the most severe examples not even fluted legs! instead, simple but delicately proportioned furniture with slender, squarely cut, chastely tapering legs, arms and backs, was the fashion. in fact, the directoire type is one of ideal proportions, graceful outlines with a flowing movement and the decoration when present, kept well within bounds, entirely subservient to the main structural material. one feels an almost quaker-like quality about the directoire, whether of natural wood or plain painted surface. with napoleon's assumption of regal power and habits, we get the empire (he had been to rome and egypt), pseudo-classic in outline and richly ornamented with mounts in ormoulu characteristic of the louis. the empire period in furniture was dethroned by the succeeding régime. when we see old french chairs with leather seats and backs, sometimes embossed, in the portuguese style, with small regular design, put on with heavy nails and twisted or straight stretchers (pieces of wood extending between legs of chairs), we know that they belong to the time of henry iv or louis xiii. some of the large chairs show the shell design in their broad, elaborate stretchers. the beautiful small side tables of the louis and first empire called consoles, were made for the display of their marvellously wrought pieces of silver, hammered and chiselled by hand,--"museum pieces," indeed, and lucky is the collector who chances upon any specimen adrift. chapter xix the periods of the three louis the only way to learn how to distinguish the three _louis_ is to study these periods in collections of furniture and objects of art, or, where this is impossible, to go through books showing interiors of those periods. in this way one learns to visualise the salient features of any period and gradually to acquire a _feeling_ for them, that subtle sense which is not dependent wholly upon outline, decoration, nor colour, but upon the combined result. french writers who specialise along the lines of interior decoration often refer to the three types as follows: period of louis xiv--heavily, stolidly masculine; period of louis xv--coquettishly feminine; period of louis xvi--lightly, alertly masculine. one soon sees why, for louis xiv furniture does suggest masculinity by its weight and size. it is squarely made, straight (classic) in line, equally balanced, heavily ponderous and magnificent. over its surface, masses of decoration immobile as stone carving, are evenly dispersed, and contribute a grandiose air to all this furniture. there was impressive gallantry to the louis xiv style, a ceremonious masculine gallantry, while louis xv furniture--the period dominated by women when "poetry and sculpture sang of love" and life revolved about the boudoir--shows a type entirely _intime_, sinuously, lightly, gracefully, coquettishly feminine, bending and courtesying, with no fixed outline, no equal balance of proportions. louis xv was the period when outline and decoration were merged in one and the _shell_ which figured in louis xiv merely as an ornament, gave its form (in a curved outline) and its name "rococo" (italian for shell) to the style. as a reaction from this we get the louis xvi period, again masculine in its straight rigidity of line, its perfectly poised proportions, the directness of its appeal to the eye, a "reflection of the more serious mental attitude of the nation." louis xvi had an aristocratic sobriety and was masculine in a light, alert, mental way, if one can so express it, which stimulates the imagination, in direct contrast to the material and literal type of louis xiv which, as we have said, was masculine in its ponderous magnificence, and unyielding over-ornamentation. so much for _outline_. now for the _decoration_ of the three periods. remember that the louis xiv, xv and xvi periods took their ideas for decoration from the greeks, via italy, and the extreme orient. a national touch was added by means of their sèvres porcelain medallions set into furniture, and the finely chiselled bronzes known as ormoulu, a superior alloy of metals of a rich gold colour. the subjects for these chiselled bronzes were taken from greek and roman mythology; gods, goddesses, and cupids the insignia of which were torches, quivers, arrows, and tridents. there were, also, wreaths, garlands, festoons and draperies, as well as rosettes, ribbons, bow-knots, medallion heads, and the shell and acanthus leaf. one finds these in various combinations or as individual motives on the furniture of the louis. plate xix shows the red-tiled entrance hall of a duplex apartment in new york. on the walls are two italian mirrors (louis xvi), a side table (console) of the same epoch, and two italian carved chairs. [illustration: _entrance hall in new york duplex apartment. italian furniture_] the backgrounds for these mounts were the woods finely inlaid with ivory shell and brass in the style of the italian renaissance. oriental lacquer and painted furniture, at that time heavily gilded. the legs of chairs, sofas and tables of the louis xiv period were cabrioles (curved outward)--a development of the animal legs of carved wood, bronze or gold, used by the ancient assyrians, egyptians and greeks as supports for tables and chairs. square grooved legs also appeared in this type. the same grooves are found on round tapering legs of louis xvi's time. in fact that type of leg is far more typical of the louis xvi period than the cabriole or square legs grooved, but one sees all three styles. other hallmarks of the louis xvi period are the straight outlines, perfectly balanced proportions, the rosettes, ribbon and bow-knot with torch and arrows in chiselled bronze. that all "painting and sculpture sang of love" is as true of louis xvi as of louis xv. in both reigns the colouring was that of spring-tender greens, pale blossoms, the grey of mists, sky-blues, and yellows of sunshine. during louis xv's time soft cushions fitted into the sinuous lines of the furniture, and as some frenchman has put it, "a vague, discreet perfume pervaded the whole period, in contrast to the heavier odour of the first empire." the walls and ceilings of the three louis were richly decorated in accordance with a scheme, surpassing in magnificence any other period. an intricate system of mouldings (to master which, students at the école des beaux arts, paris, must devote years) encrusted sidewalls and ceilings, forming panels and medallions, over-doors and chimney-pieces, into which were let paintings by the great masters of the time, whose subjects reflected the moods and interests of each period. the louis xv and xvi paintings are tender and vague as to subject and the colours veiled in a greyish tone, full of sentiment. that was the great period of tapestry weaving--beauvais, arras and gobelin, and these filled panels or hung before doors. it may be said that the period of louis xvi profited by antiquity, but continued french traditions; it was a renaissance of line and decoration kept alive, while the first empire was classic form inanimate, because an abrupt innovation rather than an influence and a development. one may go farther and quote the french claim that the colour scheme of louis xvi was intensely suggestive and personal, while the empire colouring was literal and impersonal. under louis xvi furniture was all but lost in a crowd of other articles, tapestry, draperies of velvet, flowered silks, little objects of art in porcelain, more or less useless, silver and ormoulu, exquisitely decorated with a précieuse intricacy of chiselled designs. the louis xvi period was rigid in its aristocratic sobriety, for although torch and arrows figured, as did love-birds, in decoration--(souvenirs of the painter boucher), everything was set and decorous, even the arrow was often the warrior's not cupid's; in the same way the torch was that of the ancients, and when a medallion showed a pastoral subject, its frame of straight lines linked it to the period. even if cupid appeared, he was decorously framed or pedestaled. to be sure, marie antoinette and the ladies of her court played at farming in the park of the petite trainon, at versailles; but they wore silk gowns and powdered wigs. to be rustic was the fad of the day (there was a cult for gardening in england); but shepherdesses were confined to tapestries, and, while the aristocracy held the stage, it played the game of life in gloves. there was about the interior decoration of louis xvi, as about the lives of aristocratic society of that time, a "penetrating perfume of love and gallantry," to which all admirers of the beautiful must ever return for refreshment and standards of beauty and grace. speaking generally of the three louis one can say that on a background of a great variety of wonderful inlaid woods, ivory, shell, mother-of-pearl and brass, or woods painted and gilded, following the italian renaissance, or lacquered in the manner of the orient, were ormoulu wrought and finely chiselled, showing greek mythological subjects; gods, goddesses and their insignia, with garlands, wreaths, festoons, draperies, ribbons, bow-knots, rosettes and medallions of cameo, sèvres porcelain, or wedgwood paste. among the lost arts of that time are inlaying as done by boule and the finish known as vernis martin. plate xx this large studio is a marked example of comfort and interest where the laws of appropriateness, practicableness, proportion and balance are so observed as to communicate at once a sense of restfulness. here the comfortable antiques and beautifully proportioned modern furniture make an ideal combination of living-room and painter's studio. [illustration: _combination of studio and living room in a new york duplex apartment_] tapestries and mural paintings were framed by a marvellous system of mouldings which covered ceilings and sidewalls. the colour scheme was such as would naturally be dictated by the general mood of artificiality in an age when dreams were lived and the ruling classes obsessed by a passion for amusements, invented to divert the mind from actualities. this colour scheme was beautifully light in tone and harmoniously gay, whether in tapestries, draperies and upholstery of velvets, or flowered silks, frescoes or painted furniture. it had the appearance of being intended to act as a soporific upon society, whose aim it was to ignore those jarring contrasts which lay beneath the surface of every age. chapter xx charts showing historical evolution of furniture louis xiv, 1643 to {compressed regularity {straight, square, 1715 { giving way in { grooved and very key-note { reaction to a { squat cabriole the grand { ponderous ugliness. { legs. audience rooms { { the regency and {the reign of woman. {cabriole legs of a louis xv, 1715 to { { perfect lightness 1774 { { and grace. key-note { { the boudoir { { {the transition style {legs tapering { between the bourbon { straight, rounded { interior decoration { and grooved. a { and that of { few square-grooved { the "directorate" { legs and louis xvi, 1774 to { and "empire," { a few graceful, 1793 { characterised by a { slender cabriole key-note { return to the classic { legs. the salon _intime_ { line which reflects { { a more serious turn { { of mind on part of { { the nation in an age { { of great mental { { activity. { {classic lines. {classic decorations with subjects taken from { greek mythologies. {winged figures, emblems of liberty; antique { heads of helmeted warriors, made like { medallions, wreaths, lyres, torches, { rosettes, etc. {besides the wonderful mounts of ormoulu, { designed by the great sculptors and painters { of the period, there was a great deal { of fine brass inlaying. {antique vases taken from ancient tombs were the first empire, { placed in recesses in the walls of rooms napoleon i, 1804 { after the style of the ancient "columbaria." to 1814 {every effort was made to surround napoleon i { with the dignity and austere sumptuousness { of a great roman emperor. as we have said, { he had been in rome and he had been in egypt; { the art of the french empire was reminiscent { of both. napoleon would outstrip the other { conquerors of the world. {some empire furniture shows the same fine { turning which characterizes jacobean furniture { of both oak and walnut periods. we refer to { the round, not spiral, turning. see legs of { empire sofa on which madame récamier reclines { in the well-known portrait by david (louvre). english furniture {gothic, through 14th century. the oak period {renaissance, 16th century. (including early {elizabethan, 16th century. jacobean) {jacobean or stuart, 17th century; james i, { charles i and ii, and james ii, 1603-1688. {late jacobean. the walnut period {william and mary, 1688. {queen anne, 1702. "mahogany" period {chippendale. {18th century. (and other imported {heppelwhite. { woods), or {sheraton { chippendale period. {the adam brothers. { {almost no furniture exists of the 13th { century. we get the majority of our gothic period, { ideas from illustrated manuscripts of through 14th century. { that time. the furniture was carved { oak or plain oak ornamented with { iron scroll work, intended both for { strength and decoration. renaissance or {the characteristic, heavy, wide mouldings elizabethan, { and small panels, and heavy round 16th century. { carving. {panels large and mouldings very narrow and { flat, or no mouldings at all, and flat { carving. the classic influence shown during jacobean or { the period of the commonwealth in designs, stuart period, { pilastars and pediments was the result of a 17th century. { classic reaction, all elaboration being { resented. walnut period, {the restoration brought in elaborate late 17th century. { carving. dutch influence is exemplified { in the fashion for inlaying imported from { holland, as well as the tulip design. { turned legs, stretchers, borders and spiral { turnings, characterized jacobean style. in the gothic period (extending { through 14th century), as { the delightful irregularity in { line and decoration shows, {tables, chests, presses (wardrobes), there was no set type; each { chairs and benches or piece was an individual creation { settles. and showed the personality { of maker. { during renaissance or elizabethan { period (16th century) {table chests, presses, chairs, types begin to establish { benches, settles, and small and repeat themselves. { chests of drawers. {inlaying in ebony, ivory, { mother-of-pearl, and ebonised { oblong bosses of the jewel type { (last half of 17th century). in the jacobean (17th century) { the tulip design introduced there was already a set type, { from holland as decoration. pieces made all alike, turned {turned and carved frames and out by the hundreds. { stretchers; caned seats and { backs to chairs, velvet cushions, { velvet satin damask and { needlework upholstery, the { seats stuffed. henry viii made england _protestant_, it having been roman catholic for several hundred years before the coming of the anglo-saxons and for a thousand years after. {queen elizabeth. protestant. { {"the elizabethan period." stuart. {james i. 1603. roman catholic. { "jacobean." {charles i. (puritan revolution), 1628. {oliver cromwell. 1649. puritan. { {commonwealth. stuart. {charles ii. (1660), restoration. roman catholic. { "jacobean." {james ii. (1686), deposition and flight. {william--prince of orange (holland), 1688. protestant. { who had married the english princess { mary and was the only available _protestant_ { (1688). protestant. --queen anne (1702-1714). chapter xxi the mahogany period it is interesting to note that the great fire of london started the importation of foreign woods from across the baltic, as great quantities were needed at once for the purpose of rebuilding. these soft woods aroused the invention of the cabinet-makers, and were especially useful for inlaying; so we find in addition to oak, that mahogany, pear and lime woods were used in fine furniture, it being lime-wood that grinling gibbons carved when working with sir christopher wren, the famous architect (seventeenth century). during the early georgian period the oak carvings were merely poor imitations of elizabethan and stuart designs. there seemed to have been no artist wood-carvers with originality, which may have been partly due to a lack of stimulus, as the fashion in the decoration of furniture turned toward inlaying. the period of william iii and queen mary and early georgian are characterised by _turned_ work, giving way to _flattened forms_, and the disappearance of the elaborate front stretcher on charles ii chairs. the coming of mahogany into england and its great popularity there gives its name to that period when chippendale, heppelwhite, sheraton and the adam brothers were the great creative cabinet-makers. the entire period is often called chippendale, because chippendale's books on furniture, written to stimulate trade by arousing good taste and educating his public, are considered the best of that time. there were three editions: 1754, 1759, and 1762. the work was entitled "the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director and useful designs of household furniture in the gothic, chinese and modern taste" (and there was still more to the title!). chippendale's genius lay in taking the best wherever he found it and blending the whole into a type so graceful, beautiful, perfectly proportioned, light in weight and appearance, and so singularly suited to the uses for which it was intended, that it amounted to creation. the "chinese craze" in england was partly due to a book so called, written by sir william chambers, architect, who went to china and not only studied, but sketched, the furniture, he saw there. thomas sheraton, we are assured, was the most cultivated of this group of cabinet-makers. the three men made both good and bad styles. the work of the three men can be distinguished one from the other and, also, it can be very easily confused. to read up a period helps; but to really know any type of furniture with certainty, one must become familiar with its various and varying characteristics. the houses and furniture designed and made by the adam brothers were an epoch in themselves. these creations were the result of the co-operation of a little band of artists, consisting of michael angelo pergolesi, who published in 1777, "designs for various ornaments"; angelica kauffman and cipriani, two artist-painters who decorated the walls, ceilings, woodwork and furniture designed by the adam brothers; and another colleague, the great josiah wedgwood, whose medallions and plaques, cameo-like creations in his jasper paste, showed both classic form and spirit. the adam brothers' creations were rare exotics, with no forerunners and no imitators, like nothing the world had ever seen--yet reflecting the purest greek period in line and design. one of the characteristics of the mahogany period was the cabriole leg, which is, also, associated with italian and french furniture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. as a matter of fact this form of leg is as old as the romans and is really the same as the animal legs of wood or bronze, used as supports for tripods and tables by assyrians, egyptians and greeks. the cabriole leg may be defined as "a convex curve above a concave one, with the point of junction smoothed away. on italian console tables and french commodes we see the two simple curves disguised by terminal figures." the rocaille (shell) ornament on the chippendale as well as the cabriole leg copied from italy and france, and the dutch foot from holland, substantiate our claim that chippendale used what he found wherever he found it irrespective of the stigma of plagiarism. there is a beautiful book by f.s. robinson in which the entire subject of english furniture is treated in a most charming fashion. now let us return a moment to the jacobean period. it was under charles i that couches and settles became prominent pieces of furniture. some of the jacobean chairs are like those made in italy, in the seventeenth century, with crossed legs, backs and seats covered with red velvet. other jacobean chairs had scrollwork carved and pierced, with central panel in the back of embroidery, while the seat was of cane. some of the jacobean cabinets had panels of ebony, the other parts inlaid with mother-of-pearl and ivory. the silver jacobean furniture is interesting and the best examples of this type are said to be those belonging to lord sackville. they are of ebony with silver mountings. yorkshire is noted for its jacobean furniture, but some famous rooms done in this style are at langleys, in essex, the seat of col. tufnell, where the ceilings and mantels are especially fine and the library boasts interesting panelled walls, once enlivened by stained glass windows, when this room was used as a private chapel for the family. jacobean carving was never ornate. twenty years later came the queen anne period. queen anne chairs show a solid splat, sometimes vase-shaped, and strap-work arabesques. most of the legs were cabriole, instead of the twisted turnings (on stuart lines) which had been supports for chairs, cabinets and tables. the queen anne chair legs terminated when cabriole, in claws and balls or simple balls. settees for two were then called "love seats," and "pole-screens" belonged to this period, tall, slender poles with small, sliding screens. queen anne hangings were of rich damasks, silks and velvets, and the wainscot of rooms was painted some pale colour as an effective background to set off the dark, turned walnut or gorgeous lacquer made in red, green or black, and ornamented with gold. some of the queen anne pieces of this variety had hinges and lockplates of chased brass. another variety was of oak, veneered with walnut and inlaid. the very high ceilings of the queen anne period led to the use of "tall boys" or family bureaus, those many-storied conveniences which comprised a book-case above, writing desk in the middle, and drawers below. lockwood says in giving the history of chairs, in his "cabinet makers from 1750 to 1840": "extravagance of taste and fluctuation of fashion had reached high water mark due to increase of wealth in england and her colonies. from the plain, stately pieces of queen anne the public turned to the rococo french designs of early chippendale, then tiring of that, veered back to classic lines, as done by the adam brothers, and so on, from heavy chippendale to the overlight and perishable heppelwhite. then public taste turned to the gaudily painted sheraton and finally, took to copying the french empire." the american revolutionary war stopped the exportation of furniture to america, with the result that cabinet-makers in the united states copied chippendale and neglected all other later artists. when america began again to import models, sheraton was an established and not a transitional type. beautiful specimens are shown in the nichols house, at salem, mass., furnished in 1783. the furniture used by george washington when president of the united states in 1789, and now in the city hall, new york, is pure sheraton. (see colonial furniture, luke vincent lockwood.) sir christopher wren, architect, with grinling gibbons, designer and wood-carver, were chiefly responsible for the beautifully elaborate mouldings on ceilings and walls, carved from oak and used for forming large panels with wide bevels, into which were sometimes set tapestries. the italian stucco mouldings were also used at that time. the fashion for elaborate ceilings and sidewalls had come to england via italy and france. the most elaborate ones of those times were executed under charles ii and william iii, the ceilings rivalling those of louis xiv. william and mary (1687-1702) brought over with them from holland, dutch cabinet makers, which accounts for the marked dutch influence on the mahogany period, an influence which shows in a dutch style of inlaying, cabriole legs and the tulip design. a sure sign of the william and mary period is the presence of jasmine, as designed for inlaying in bone, ivory or hollywood. lacquer came to england via holland, the dutch having imported chinese workmen. the entire mahogany period, including the adam brothers, used the shell as a design and the backs of settees resembled several chair backs places side by side. a feature of the mahogany period were the knife-boxes and cases for bottles, made of mahogany and often inlaid, which stood upon pedestals constructed for the purpose, at each side of the sideboard. later the pedestals became a part of the sideboard. the urn-shaped knife-boxes were extremely graceful as made by adam, chippendale and heppelwhite. it is impossible to clearly define all of the work of the cabinet-makers of the mahogany or any other period, for reasons already stated. so one must be prepared to find chippendale sofas which show the shapes originated by him and, also, at times, show louis xvi legs and louis xv outline. chippendale's contemporaries were quite as apt to vary their types, and it is only by experience that one can learn to distinguish between the different artists, to appreciate the hall marks of creative individuality. the early chippendale was almost identical with queen anne furniture and continued the use of cabriole leg and claw and ball feet. the top of the chippendale chairs were bow-shaped with ends extending beyond the sides of the back and usually turned _up_. if turned down they never rounded into the sides, as in the case of queen anne chairs. the splats have an upward movement and were joined to chair seats, and not to a cross-rail. they were pierced and showed elaborate ribbon and other designs in carving. there were, also, "ladder backs," and the chinese chippendale chairs, with lattice work open carved and extending over entire backs. the characteristic chippendale leg is cabriole with claw and ball foot. the setting for chippendale furniture was a panelled dado, classic mantelpiece, architraves and frieze, and stretched over sidewalks, above dado, was silk or paper showing a large pattern harmonising with the furniture. the chinese craze brought about a fashion for chinese wall papers with chinese designs. this chinese fashion continued for fifty years. chippendale carved the posts of his bedsteads, and so the bed curtains were drawn back and only a short valance was used around the top, whereas in the time of william and mary bed curtains enveloped all the woodwork. still earlier in the elizabethan period bed posts were elaborately carved. in the eighteenth century it was the fashion to embroider the bed curtains. the chippendale china-cabinets with glass fronts, were the outcome of the fad for collecting chinese and french porcelain, and excellent taste was displayed in collecting these small articles within definite and appropriate limits. cabinets with glass doors were also used as receptacles for silverware. thomas sheraton (1760-1786), another great name in the mahogany period, admired louis xv and louis xvi and one can easily trace french influence in the "light, rhythmic style" he originated. sheraton's contribution to interior decoration was furniture. his rooms, walls, ceilings, over-doors, windows and chimney pieces, are considered very poor; which accounts for the fact that sheraton furniture as well as heppelwhite was used in adam rooms. sheraton made a specialty of pieces of furniture designed to serve several purposes, and therefore adapted for use in small rooms; such as dressing-tables with folding mirrors, library step-ladders convertible into tables, etc. the backs of sheraton chairs had straight tops and several small splats joined to a cross-rail, and not to the seat. the legs were straight. sheraton introduced the use of turned work on the legs and outer supports of the backs of chairs, and produced fine examples of painted furniture, especially painted satin-wood. he, also, did some very fine inlaying and used cane in the seats and backs of chairs which he painted black and gold. among those who decorated for him was angelica kauffman. heppelwhite chairs are unmistakable on account of their _shield_, _heart_ or _oval_ backs and open splats, which were not joined to the seat in the centre of backs. the most beautiful were those with carved prince of wales feathers, held together by a bow-knot delicately carved. they were sometimes painted. the legs of heppelwhite furniture were straight. we see in the book published by a. heppelwhite & co., a curious statement to the effect that cabriole chairs were those having stuffed backs. this idea must have arisen from the fact that many chairs of the eighteenth century with cabriole legs, did have stuffed backs. robert adam, born in 1785, was an architect and decorative artist. the adam rooms, walls, ceilings, mantels, etc., are the most perfect of the period; beautiful classic mouldings encrust ceilings and sidewalls, forming panels into which were let paintings, while in drawing-rooms the side panels were either recessed so as to hold statuary in the antique style, or were covered with damask or tapestry. it is stated that damask and tapestry were never used on the walls of adam dining-rooms. james adam, a brother, worked with robert. every period had its own weak points, so we find the adam brothers at times making wall-brackets which were too heavy with ram's heads, garlands, etc., and the adam chairs were undoubtedly bad. they had backs with straight tops, rather like sheraton chairs, and several small splats joining top rail to seat. the bad chairs by adam, were improved upon by sheraton and heppelwhite. the legs of adam furniture were straight. the ideal eighteenth century interior in england was undoubtedly an adam room with heppelwhite or sheraton furniture. sir john soane, architect, had one of the last good house interiors, for the ugly georgian style came on the scene about 1812. grinling gibbons' carvings of heavy fruits and flowers, festoons and masks made to be used architecturally we now see used on furniture, and often heavily gilded. william morris was an epoch maker in english interior decoration, for he stood out for the "great, simple note" in furnishings. the pre-raphaelites worked successfully to the same end, reviving classic simplicity and establishing _the value of elimination_. the good, modern furniture of to-day, designed with reference to meeting the demands of modern conditions, undoubtedly received a great impetus from that reaction to the simple and harmonious. chapter xxii the colonial period the furniture made in america during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was reproduced from english models and shows the influence of chippendale, sheraton, heppelwhite and the adam brothers. for those interested in these early types of american output, the sage and other collections in the metropolitan museum, new york, give a delightful object lesson, and there has been much written on the subject in case any data is desired. if some of our readers own heirlooms and plan reproducing colonial interiors of the finest type, we would advise making an effort to see some of the beautiful new england or virginia homes, which remain quite as they were in the old days; fine square rooms with hand-carved woodwork, painted white, their walls panelled in wood and painted the same white. into these panels were set hand-painted wall paper. the authors saw some made for a house in peabody, near salem, massachusetts, some time between 1760 and 1800, and were amazed to find that the colours were as vivid as when first put on. here let us say that the study of interior decoration throws a strong light on the history of walls. in gothic days the stone or wood of the feudal hall was partially concealed by tapestries,--the needlework of the women of the household, a record of the gallant deeds of men used as interior decoration. later of course, the making of tapestries became a great industry in italy, france and belgium, an industry patronised by kings and the nobility, and subsidised by governments. next we have walls sheathed with wood panelling. then during the late renaissance, painted portraits were let into these panels and became a part of the walls. later, the upper half, or two-thirds of the panelling, was left off, and only a low panelling, or "dado," remained. this, too, disappeared in time. landscape paper was the bridge between the panelled walls with pictures built into them, and the painted or papered walls with pictures hung on them. the paper which we have already referred to, is one of the finest examples of its kind, and while there is only enough for one side of a room, it is valued at $5,000. the design is eight feet high, each strip 22 inches wide, and there are eighteen of the original twenty strips. two breaks occur, numbers 16 and 18. the owner believes that the puritan attitude of her ancestors caused them to destroy the panels which showed nude figures engaged in battle. this paper is now the property of mrs. eliza brown of salem, massachusetts. it was found in her grandfather's attic in gloucester, and was given to mrs. brown by her grandmother. it was in an army chest belonging to judutham baldwin, a colonel of engineers in the revolutionary army, who laid out the forts in boston harbour. kate sanborn, in her book on "old wall papers" speaks of this particular paper. "paper from the ham house at peabody, massachusetts, now occupied by dr. worcester. shows tropical scenes. these scenes are quite similar to those of the pizarro paper and may have been the work of the same designer." (the so-called "pizarro in peru" paper is shown in plate 34 and 35 of the same book, and is in duxbury, mass.) pizarro's invasion of peru was in 1531. the colouring of mrs. brown's paper is white background with foliage in vivid greens, while figures of peruvians wear costumes of brilliant blues and vermillion reds, a striking contrast to their soft, brown skins. this paper is now in the market, but let us hope it may finally rest in a museum. chapter xxiii the revival of directoire and empire furniture the revival of directoire and empire furniture within the past few years, is attributed by some, to that highly artistic, and altogether illuminating publication, the _gazette do bon ton_--arts, modes and frivolities--published in paris by the librarie centrale des beaux arts, 13 rue lafayette and contributed to by the leading artists of paris--the ultra moderns. there was a time, fifteen or twenty years ago, when one could buy empire furniture at very low figures, for in those days there was many a chance to pick up such pieces. to-day, a genuine antique or a hand-made reproduction of an antique made sixty years ago, will command a large price, and even in paris one has difficulty in finding them in the shops at any price. empire furniture ceased to be admired in america when the public got "fed up" on this type by its indiscriminate use in hotels and other public buildings. the best designers of modern painted furniture are partly responsible for the revived interest in both empire and directoire. from their reproductions of the beautiful simple outlines, we, as a people, are once more beginning to _feel_ line and to recognise it as an intrinsic part of beauty. plate xxi a victorian group in a small portion of a very large parlour, 70 x 40 feet, one of the few remaining, if not the last, of the old victorian mansions in new york city, very interesting as a specimen of the most elegant style of furnishing in the first half of the nineteenth century. we would call attention to the heavy moulding of ceilings, the walls painted in panels (painted panels or wall paper to represent panels, is a victorian hallmark), beautifully hand-carved woodwork, elaboration of design and colon carpet, woven in one piece for the room; in fact the characteristic richness of elaboration everywhere: pictures in gilded carved frames, hung on double silk cords with tassels, heavily carved furniture made in england, showing fruits, flowers and medallion heads, and a similar elaboration and combination of flora and figures on bronze gas fixtures. heavy curtains of satin damask hung at the windows, held back by great cords and tassels, from enormous brass cornices in the form of gigantic flowers. also of the period is an immense glass case of stuffed birds, standing in the corner of the large dining-room. this interior was at the height of its glory at the time of the civil war, and one is told of wonderful parties when the uniforms of the northern officers decorated the stately rooms and large shaded gardens adjoining the house. as things go in new york it may be but a matter of months before this picturesque landmark is swept away by relentless progress. [illustration: _part of a victorian parlour in one of the few remaining new york victorian mansions_] chapter xxiv the victorian period gradually architecture and interior decoration drew apart, becoming two distinct professions, until during the victorian era the two were unrelated with the result that the period of victorian furniture is one of the worst on record. there were two reasons for this divorce of the arts, which for centuries had been one in origin and spirit; first, the application of steam to machinery (1815) leading to machine-made furniture, and second, the invention of wall-paper which gradually took the place of wood panelling and shut off the architects from all jurisdiction over the decoration of the home. with the advent of machine-made furniture came cheap imitations of antiques and the rapid decadence of this art. hand-made reproductions are quite another thing. sir richard wallace (of the wallace collection, london) is said to have given $40,000 for a reproduction of the _bureau du louvre_. fortunately, of late years a tide has set in which favours simple, well made furniture, designed with fine lines and having special reference to the purposes for which each piece is intended, and to-day our houses can be beautiful even if only very simple and inexpensive furniture is used. in the victorian prime, even the carved furniture, so much of which was made in england both for that country and the united states (see plate xxi), was not of the finest workmanship, compared with carvings of the same time in belgium, france, germany and austria. to-day victorian cross-stitch and bead work in chairs, screens, footstools and bell-pulls, artificial flowers of wax and linen, and stuffed birds, as well as bristol glass in blue, green and violet, are brought out from their hiding places and serve as touches of colour to give some of the notes of variety which good interior decoration demands. to be fascinating, a person must not be too rigidly one type. there must be moments of relaxation, of light and shade in mood, or one is not charmed even by great beauty. so your perfect room must not be kept too rigidly in one style. to have attraction it must have variety in both line and colour, and reflect the taste of generations of home lovers. the contents of dusty garrets may add piquancy to modern decorations, giving a touch of the unusual which is very charming. chapter xxv painted furniture painted furniture is, at present, the vogue, so if you own a piece made by the adam brothers of england, decorated by the hand of angelica kauffman, or pergolesi, from greek designs, now is the moment to "star" it. different in decoration, but equal in charm, is the seventeenth and eighteenth century painted lacquers of italy, france, china and japan. in those days great masters laboured at cabinetmaking and decorating, while distinguished artists carved the woodwork of rooms, and painted the ceilings and walls of even private dwellings. to-day we have reproductions (good and bad) of the veteran types, and some commendable inventions, more or less classic in line, and original in colouring and style of decoration. at times, one wishes there was less evident effort to be original. we long for the repose of classic colour schemes and classic line. in art, the line and the combination of colours which have continued most popular throughout the ages, are very apt to be those with which one can live longest and not tire. for this reason, a frank copy of an antique piece of painted furniture is generally more satisfactory than a modern original. if you are using dull coloured carpets and hangings, have your modern reproductions antiqued. if you prefer gay, cheering tones, let the painted furniture be bright. these schemes are equally interesting in different ways. it is stupid to decry new things, since every grey antique had its frivolous, vivid youth. one american decorator has succeeded in making the stolid, uncompromising squareness of mission furniture take on a certain lightness and charm by painting it black and discreetly lining it with yellow and red. yellow velour is used for the seat pads and heavy hangings, thin yellow silk curtains are hung at the windows, and the black woodwork is set off by japanese gold paper. in a large house, or in a summer home where there are young people coming and going, a room decorated in this fashion is both gay and charming and makes a pleasant contrast to darker rooms. then, too, yellow is a lovely setting for all flowers, the effect being to intensify their beauty, as when flooded by sunshine. another clever treatment of the mission type, which we include under the heading painted furniture, is to have it stained a rich dark brown, instead of the usual dark green. give your dealer time to order your furniture unfinished from the factory, and have stained to your own liking; or, should you by any chance be planning to use mission in one of those cottages so often built in maine, for summer occupancy, where the walls are of unplastered, unstained, dove-tailed boards, and the floors are unstained and covered with matting rugs, try using this furniture in its _natural_ colour--unfinished. the effect is delightfully harmonious and artistic and quite japanese in feeling. in such a cottage, the living-room has a raftered ceiling, the sidewalls, woodwork, settles by the fireplaces, open bookcases and floor, are all stained dark walnut. the floor colour is very dark, the sidewalls, woodwork and book shelves are a trifle lighter, and the ceiling boards still lighter between the almost black, heavy rafters. the mission furniture is dark brown, the hangings and cushions are of mahogany-coloured corduroy, and the floor is strewn with skins of animals. there are no pictures, the idea being to avoid jarring notes in another key. instead, copper and brass bowls contribute a note of variety, as well as large jars filled with great branches of flowers, gathered in the nearby woods. the chimney is exposed. it and the large open fireplace are of rough, dark mottled brick. a room of this character would be utterly spoiled by introducing white as ornaments, table covers, window curtains or picture-mats; it is a colour scheme of dull wood-browns, old reds and greens in various tones. if you want your friends' photographs about you in such a room, congregate them on one or two shelves above your books. chapter xxvi treatment of an inexpensive bedroom the experience of the author is that the most attractive, inexpensive furniture is that made by the leavens factory in boston. this furniture is so popular with all interior decorators that it needs no further advertising. order for each single iron bed two _foot boards_, instead of a head and a footboard. this the factory will supply upon demand. then have your bed painted one of the colours you have chosen as in the colour scheme for your room. say, the prevailing note of your chintz. have two rolls made, to use at the head and foot (which are now of equal height) and cover these and the bed with chintz, or, if preferred, with sun-proof material in one of the other colours in your chintz. by this treatment your cheap iron bed of ungainly proportions, has attained the quality of an interesting, as well as unique, "day-bed." plate xxii two designs for day-beds which are done in colours to suit the scheme of any room. these beds are fitted with box springs and a luxurious mattress of feathers or down, covered with silk or chintz, coverlet and cushions of similar material, in colours harmonising with beds. if desired, these lounges can be made higher from the floor. [illustration: _two styles of day-beds_] the most attractive cheap bureau is one ordered "in the plain" from the factory, and painted like the bed. if you would entirely remove the factory look, have the mirror taken off the bureau and hang it on the wall over what, by your operation, has become a chest of drawers. if you want a long mirror in your rooms, the cheapest variety is mirror glass, fastened to the back of doors with picture moulding to match woodwork. this is also the cheapest variety of over-mantel mirrors. we have seen it used with great success, let into walls of narrow halls and bedrooms and framed with a dull-gold moulding in the style of room. for chairs, use the straight wooden ones which are made to match the bureau, and paint them like the bed and bureau. for comfortable arm-chairs, wicker ones with chintz-covered pads for seat and back are best for the price, and these can also be painted. cheap tables, which match the bureau, when painted will do nicely as a small writing-table or a night-table for water, clock, book, etc. if the floors are new and of hard wood, wax them and use a square of plain velvet carpet in a dark tone of your dominant colour. or if economy is your aim, use attractive rag rugs which are very cheap and will wash. if your floors are old and you intend using a large velvet square, paint the edges of the floor white, or some pale shade to match the colour of the walls. or, use filling all over the floor. if you cannot afford either and must use small rugs, stain or paint your floors a dark colour, to be practical, and use only necessary rugs; that is, one before bed, bureau and fireplace. sofas are always expensive. that is one reason for advising that beds be treated like "day-beds." wall papers, at ten cents a roll, come in charming colours and designs, and with a few cheap french coloured prints, framed in passepartout, your room is attractive at once. if your prints are black and white use broad passepartout in same colour as the wall paper, only a tone deeper. if you use favourite photographs, suppress all margins and frame with narrow black passepartout. for curtains use one of the sixty-or seventy-cent chintzes which come in attractive designs and colours, or what is still cheaper, sun-proof material, fifty inches wide (from $1.10 to $1.50 a yard), and split it in half for curtains, edging them with a narrow fringe of a contrasting colour which appears in the chintz of chair-pads. another variety of cheap curtains is heavy cream scrim with straps (for looping back) and valance of chintz. these come cheaper than all chintz curtains and are very effective, suggesting the now popular and expensive combination of plain toned taffetas combined with chintz. use for sash curtains plain scrim or marquesette. let your lamps be made of inexpensive one-toned pottery vases, choosing for these still another colour which appears in the chintz. the lamp shades can be made of a pretty near-silk, in a plain colour, with a fringe made up of one, two or three of the colours in the chintz. if you happen to have your heart set on deep rose walls and your bedroom furniture is mahogany, find a chintz with rose and french blue, and then cover your arm-chair pads and bed with chintz, but make your curtains of blue sun-proof material, having a narrow fringe of rose, and use a deep rose carpet, or rugs, or if preferred, a dull brown carpet to harmonise with the furniture. a plain red wilton carpet will dye an artistic deep mulberry brown. they are often bought in the red and dyed to get this shade of brown. for attractive cheap dining-room furniture, buy simple shapes, unfinished, and have the table, sideboard and chairs painted dark or light, as you prefer. in your dining-room and halls, if the house is old and floors bad, and economy necessary, use a solid dark linoleum, either deep blue or red, and have it _waxed_, as an economical measure as well as to improve its appearance. in a small home, where no great formality is observed, well chosen doilies may be used on all occasions, instead of table cloths. by this expedient you suppress one large item on the laundry bill, the care of the doilies in such cases falling to the waitress. to make comfortable, convenient and therefore livable, a part of a house, formerly an attic, or an extension with small rooms and low ceilings, seems to be the special province of a certain type of mind, which works best when there is a tax on the imagination. when reclaiming attic rooms, one of the problems is how to get wall space, especially if there are dormer windows and very slanting ceilings. one way, is to place a dressing table _in_ the dormer, under windows, covering the sides of the dormer recess with mirror glass, edged with narrow moulding. the dressing-table is not stationary, therefore it can be easily moved by a maid, when the rooms are cleaned. chapter xxvii treatment of a guest room (where economy is not an item of importance) here we can indulge our tastes for beautiful quality of materials and fine workmanship, as well as good line and colour, so we describe a room which has elegant distinction and atmosphere, yet is not a so-called period room--rather a modern room, in the sense that it combines beautiful lines and exquisite colouring with every modern development for genuine comfort and convenience. the walls are panelled and painted a soft taupe--there are no pictures; simply one very beautiful mirror in a dull-gold frame, a louis xvi reproduction. plate xxiii in another suite we have a boudoir done in sage greens and soft browns. the curtains of taffeta, in stripes of the two colours. two tiers of creme net form sash curtains. the carpet is a rich mulberry brown, day-bed a reproduction of an antique, painted in faded greens with _panier fleuri_ design on back, in lovely faded colours, taffeta cushions of sage green and an occasional note about the room of mulberry and dull blue. electric light shades are of decorated parchment paper. really an enchanting nest, and as it is in a new york apartment, and occasionally used as a bedroom, a piece of furniture has been designed for it similar to the wardrobe shown in picture, only not so high. the glass door, when open, disclose a toilet table, completely fitted out, the presence of which one would never suspect. [illustration: _boudoir in new york apartment. painted furniture, antique and reproductions._] the carpet made of dark taupe velvet covers the entire floor. the furniture is louis xv, of the wonderful painted sort, the beautiful bed with its low head and foot boards exactly the same height, curving backward; the edges a waved line, the ground-colour a lovely pistache green, and the decoration gay old-fashioned garden flowers in every possible shade. the bureau has three or four drawers and a bowed front with clambering flowers. these two pieces, and a delightful night-table are exact copies of the clyde fitch set in the cooper hewitt museum, at new york; the originals are genuine antiques, and their colour soft from age. a graceful dressing-table, with winged mirrors, has been designed to go with this set, and is painted like the bureau. the glass is a modern reproduction of the lovely old eighteenth century mirror glass which has designs cut into it, forming a frame. for chairs, all-over upholstered ones are used, of good lines and proportions; two or three for comfort, and a low slipper-chair for convenience. these are covered in a chintz with a light green ground, like the furniture, and flowered in roses and violets, green foliage and lovely blue sprays. the window curtains are of soft, apple-green taffeta, trimmed with a broad puffing of the same silk, edged on each side by black moss-trimming, two inches wide. these curtains hang from dull-gold cornices of wood, with open carving, through which one gets glimpses of the green taffeta of the curtains. the sash-curtains are of the very finest cream net, and the window shades are of glazed linen, a deep cream ground, with a pattern showing a green lattice over which climb pink roses. the shades are edged at the bottom with a narrow pink fringe. the bed has a cover of green taffeta exactly like curtains, with the same trimming of puffed taffeta, edged with a black moss-trimming. the mantelpiece is true to artistic standards and realises the responsibility of its position as keynote to the room. placed upon it are a beautiful old clock and two vases, correct as to line and colour. always be careful not to spoil a beautiful mantel or beautiful ornaments by having them out of proportion one with the other. plate xxiv shows a mantel which fails as a composition because the bust, an original by behnes, beautiful in itself, is too heavy for the mantel it stands on and too large for the mirror which reflects it and serves as its background. keep everything in correct proportion to the whole. we have in mind the instance of some rarely beautiful walls taken from an ancient monastery in parma, italy. they were ideal in their original setting, but since they have been transported to america, no setting seems right. they belonged in a building where there were a succession of small rooms with low ceilings, each room perfect like so many pearls on a string. here in america their only suitable place would be a museum, or to frame the tiny "devotional" of some précieuse flower of modernity. chapter xxviii a modern house in which genuine jacobean furniture is appropriately set an original scheme for a dining-room was recently carried out in a country house in england by a woman whose hobby is illuminating. it will appeal to experts in the advance guard of interior decoration. the woman in question was stimulated for her task by coming into possession of some interesting jacobean pieces of furniture, of oak, squarely and solidly made, with flat carvings, characteristic of the period. plate xxiv a beautiful mantel, a beautiful mirror, beautiful ornaments, and a rare and beautiful marble bust by behnes, but because the bust is too large for both mantel and reflecting mirror, the composition is poor. [illustration: _example of lack of balance in mantel arrangement_] the large jacobean chest happened to be lined, as many of those old chests were, with quaint figured paper, showing a coat-of-arms alternating with another design in large squares of black and grey. this paper, the owner had reproduced to cover the walls of her dining-room, and then she stained her woodwork black (giving the effect of old black oak), also, the four corner cupboards, but the _inside_ of these cupboards--doors and all--she made a rich pompeian red and lackered it. the doors are left open and one sees on the shelves of the corner cupboards a wonderful collection of old china, much of it done in rich gold. at night the whole is illuminated with invisible electric bulbs. the gleaming effect is quite marvellous. the seat-pads on chairs, are made of hides, gilded all over, and on the gilt the owner has painted large baskets holding fruit and flowers done in gay colours. the long jacobean bench has a golden cushion with baskets painted on it in gay colours. a part of the wonderful gold china is used at every meal, and the rest of it being left on the shelves of the four cupboards with their pompeian red lining, when lit up, forms part of the glowing blaze of colour, concentrated in all four corners of this unique room. the jacobean library in this house has the same black oak effect for panelling and at the windows, hang long, red silk curtains, with deep borders of gold on which are painted gay flowers. this blaze of colour is truly jacobean and recalls the bedroom at knole, occupied by james i where the bed-curtains were of red silk embroidered in gorgeous gold, and the high post bedstead heavily carved, covered with gold and silver tissue, lined with red silk, its head-board carved and gilded. another room at knole was known as the "spangle" bedroom. james i gave the furniture in it to lionel, earl of middlesex. bed curtains, as well as the seats of chairs and stools, are of crimson, heavily embroidered in gold and silver. chapter xxix unconventional breakfast-rooms and sports balconies "sun-rooms" are now a feature of country and some town houses. one of the first we remember was in madrid, at the home of canovas del castillo, prime minister during the regency. déjeuner used to be served at one end of the conservatory, in the shadow of tall palms, while fountains played, birds with gay plumage sang, and the air was as fragrant as the tropics. for comfort, deep red rugs were put down on the white marble floors. which reminds us that in many spanish hand-made rugs, what is known as "isabella white" figures conspicuously. the term arises from the following story. it seems that queen isabella during the progress of some war, vowed she would not have her linen washed until her army returned victorious. the war was long, hence the term! in furnishing a conservatory or porch breakfast room, it is best to use some variety of informal tables and chairs, such as painted furniture, willow or bamboo, and coloured, not white, table cloths, doilies and napkins, to avoid the glare from the reflection of strong light. also, informal china, glass, etc. screens, if necessary, should have frames to accord with the furniture, and the panels should be of wood, or some simple material such as sacking or rough linen, which comes in lovely vivid, out-of-door colours. the bizarre and fascinating sports balconies overlooking squash courts, tennis courts, golf links, croquet grounds, etc., are among the newest inventions of the decorator. furnished porches we have all grown accustomed to, and when made so as to be enclosed by glass, in inclement weather, they may be treated like inside rooms in the way of comforts and conveniences. the smart porch-room is furnished with only such chairs, tables, sofas and rugs as are appropriate to a place not thoroughly protected from the elements, for while glass is provided for protection, a summer shower can outstrip a slow-footed servant and valuable articles made for indoors cannot long brave the effect of rain and hot sun. plate xxv in this case the house stood so near the road that there was no privacy, so the ingenious architect-decorator became landscape-gardener and by making a high but ornamental fence and numerous arbours, carried the eye to the green trees beyond and back to the refreshing tangle of shrubs and flowers in the immediate foreground, until the illusion of being secluded was so complete that the nearby road was forgotten. [illustration: _treatment of ground lying between house and much travelled country road_] for this reason furnish your porch with colours which do not fade, and with wicker furniture which knows how to contract and expand to order! the same rule applies to rugs. put your oriental rugs indoors, and use inexpensive, effective porch rugs which, with a light heart, you can renew each season, if necessary. the sports balcony is fitted out with special reference to the comfort of those who figure as audience for sports, and as a lounge between games, and each hostess vies with her friends in the originality and completeness of equipment, as well as in the costumes she dons in her commendable desire to make of herself a part of her scheme of decoration. a country place which affords tennis courts, golf links, cricket and polo grounds or has made arrangements for the exercise of any sports, usually makes special provision for the comfort of those engaging in them, more or less as a country club does. there is a large porch for lounging and tea, and a kitchenette where tea, cooling drinks and sandwiches are easily and quickly prepared, without interfering with the routine of the kitchens. there are hot and cold plunge baths, showers, a swimming pool, dressing rooms with every convenience known to man or woman, and a room given over to racks which hold implements used in the various sports, as well as lockers for sweaters, change of linen, socks, etc., belonging to those stopping in the house. where sports are a main issue, an entire building is often devoted to the comfort of the participants. we have in mind the commodious and exceptionally delightful arrangements made for the comfort and pleasure of those playing court tennis in a large and architecturally fine building erected for the purpose on the estate of the neville lyttons, crabber park, poundhill, england. if sport balconies overlook tennis courts or golf links, they are fitted out with light-weight, easily moved, stiff chairs for the audience, and easy, cushioned arm-chairs and sofas of upholstered wicker, for the participants to lounge in between matches. card tables are provided, as well as small tea tables, to seat two, three or four, while there is always one oblong table at which a sociable crowd of young people may gather for chatter and tea! if you use rail-boxes, or window-boxes, holding growing plants, be sure that the flowers are harmonious in colour when seen from the lawn, road or street, against their background of _house_ and the awnings and chintzes, used on the porch. the flowers in window-boxes and on porch-rails must first of all decorate the _outside_ of your house. therefore, before you buy your chintz for porches, decide as to whether the colour of your house, and its awnings, demands red, pink, white, blue, yellow or mauve flowers, and then choose your chintz and porch rugs as well as porch table-linen, to harmonise. in selecting porch chairs remember that women want the backs of most of the chairs only as high as their shoulders, on account of wearing hats. chapter xxx sun-rooms there are countless fascinating schemes for arranging sun-rooms. one which we have recently seen near philadelphia, was the result of enclosing a large piazza, projecting from an immense house situated in the midst of lawns and groves. the walls are painted orange and striped with pale yellow; the floors are covered with the new variety of matting which imitates tiles, and shows large squares of colour, blocked off by black. the chintzes used are in vivid orange, yellow and green, in a stunning design; the wicker chairs are painted orange and black, and from the immense iridescent globes of electric light hang long, orange silk tassels. plate xxvi shows how to utilise and make really very attractive an extension roof, by converting it into a balcony. an awning of broad green and white stripes protect this one in winter as well as summer, and by using artificial ivy, made of tin and painted to exactly imitate nature, one gets, as you see, a charming effect. [illustration: _an extension roof in new york converted into a balcony_] iron fountains, wonderful designs in black and gold, throw water over gold and silver fish, or gay water plants; while, in black and gold cages, vivid parrots and orange-coloured canaries gleam through the bars. iron vases of black and gold on tall pedestals, are filled with trailing ivy and bright coloured plants. along the walls are wicker sofas, painted orange and black, luxuriously comfortable with down cushions covered, as are some of the chair cushions, in soft lemon, sun-proofed twills. here one finds card-tables, tea-tables and smoking-tables, a writing-desk fully equipped, and at one end, a wardrobe of black and gold, hung with an assortment of silk wraps and "wooleys"--for an unprovided and chilly guest, in early spring, when the steam heat is off and the glass front open. even on a grey, winter day, this orange and gold room seems flooded with sun, and gives one a distinctly cheerful sensation when entering it from the house. of course, if your porch-room is mainly for mid-summer use and your house in a warm region, then we commend instead of sun-producing colours, cool tones of green, grey or blue. if your porch floor is bad, cover it with dark-red linoleum and wax it. the effect is like a cool, tiled floor. on this you can use a few porch rugs. black and white awnings or awnings in broad, green-and-white stripes, or plain green awnings, are deliciously cool-looking, and rail-boxes filled with green and white or blue and pale pink flowers are refreshing on a summer day. by the sea, where the air is bracing, and it is not necessary to trick the senses with a pretence at coolness, nothing is more satisfactory or gay than scarlet geraniums; but if they are used, care must be taken that they harmonise with the colour of the awnings and the chintz on the porch. speaking of rail-boxes reminds us that in making over a small summer house and converting a cheap affair into one of some pretensions, remember that one of the most telling points is the character of your porch railing. so at once remove the cheap one with its small, upright slats and the insignificant and frail top rail, and have a solid porch railing (or porch fence) built with broad, top rail. then place all around porch, resting on iron brackets, rail-flower boxes, the tops of these level with the top of the rail, and paint the boxes the colour of the house trimmings. filled with running vines and gay flowers, nothing could be more charming. window-boxes make any house lovely and are a large part of that charm which appeals to us, whether the house be a mansion in mayfair or a bavarian farm house. americans are learning this. the window and rail-boxes of a house look best when all are planted with the same variety of flowers. having given a certain air of distinction to your porch-railing, add another touch to the appearance of your small, remodelled house by having the shutters hung from the top of the windows, instead of from the sides. a charming variety of awning or sun-shades, to keep the sun and glare out of rooms, is the old english idea of a straw-thatching, woven in and out until it makes a broad, long mat which is suspended from the top of windows, on the outside of the house, being held out and permanently in place, at the customary angle of awnings. we first saw this picturesque kind of rustic awnings used on little cottages of a large estate in vermont, cottages once owned and lived in by labourers, but bought and put in comfortable condition to be used as overflow rooms for guests, in connection with the large family mansion (once the picturesque village inn). the art of making these straw awnings is not generally understood in america. in the case to which we refer, one of the gardeners employed on the estate, chanced to be an old englishman who had woven the straw window awnings for farm houses in his own country. the straw awnings, with window-boxes planted with bright geraniums and vines, make an inland cottage delightfully picturesque and are practical, although by the sea the straw awnings might be destroyed by high winds. chapter xxxi treatment of a woman's dressing-room every house, or flat, which is at all pretentious, should arrange a vanity room for the use of guests, in which there are full-length mirrors, a completely equipped dressing-table with every conceivable article to assist a lady in making her toilet, slipper-chairs and chairs to rest in, and a completely equipped lavatory adjoining. the woman who takes her personal appearance seriously, just as any artist takes her art (and when dressing is not an art it is not worth discussion) can have her dressing-room so arranged with mirrors, black walls and strong, cleverly reflected, electric lights, that she stands out with a cleancut outline, like a cameo, the minutest detail of her toilet disclosed. with such a dressing-room, it is quite impossible to suffer at the hands of a careless maid, and one can use the black walls as a background for vivid chair covers, sofa cushions and lamp shades. off this dressing-room should be another, given over to clothes, with closets equipped with hooks and shelves, glass cabinets for shoes and slippers, and the "show-case" for jewels to be placed in by the maid that the owner may make her selection. at the time of the louis, knights and courtiers had large rooms devoted to the care and display of their wardrobes, and even to-day there are men who are serious connoisseurs in the art of clothes. plate xxvii interior decoration not infrequently leads to a desire to chic the appearance of one's "out-of-doors." we give an example of a perfectly commonplace barn made interesting by adding green latticework, a small iron balcony, ornamental gate and setting out a few decorative evergreens. behold a transformation! [illustration: _a commonplace barn made interesting_] the dressing-table should be constructed of material in harmony with the rest of your furniture. it may be of mahogany, walnut, rose wood, satin wood, or some painted variety, or, as is the fashion now, made of silk,--a seventeenth and eighteenth century style (in vogue during the time of the louis). these are made of taffeta with lace covers on top, and in outline are exactly like the simple dotted-swiss dressing-tables with which every one is familiar,--the usual variety, so easily made by placing a wooden packing box on its side. in this case have your carpenter put shelves inside for boots, shoes and slippers. the entire top is covered with felt or flannel, over which is stretched silk or sateen, in any colour which may harmonise with the room. a flounce, as deep as the box is high, is made of the same material as the top, and tacked to the edges of the table-top. cover the whole with dotted or plain swiss. a piece of glass, cut to exactly fit the top of the table, is a practical precaution. a large mirror, hung above yet resting on the table, is canopied in the old style, with the same material with which you cover your dressing-table. if the table is made of the beautiful taffeta, now so popular for this purpose, as well as for curtains, it is, of course, not covered with swiss or lace, except the top, on which is used a fine, hand-made cover, of real lace and hand embroidery, in soft creams,--cream from age, or a judicious bath in weak tea. the glass top laid over this cover protects the lace. if the table has drawers, each can be neatly covered with the taffeta, as can the frame of any table. a good, up-to-date cabinet-maker understands this work as so much of it is now done. chapter xxxii the treatment of closets the modern architect turns out his closets so complete as to comfort and convenience, that he leaves but little to be done by the professional or amateur decorator. each perfectly equipped bedroom suite calls for, at least, two closets: one supplied with hooks, padded hangers for coats, and covered hangers for skirts, if the closet is for a woman; or, if it is for a man, with such special requirements as he may desire. in the case of a woman's suite, one closet should consist entirely of shelves. paint all the closets to harmonise with the suite, and let the paint on the shelves have a second coat of enamel, so that they may be easily wiped off. supply your shelves with large and small boxes for hats, blouses, laces, veils, etc., neatly covered with paper, or chintz, to harmonise with the room. those who dislike too many mirrors in a room may have full length mirrors on the inside of the closet doors. either devote certain shelves to your boots, shoes and slippers, or have a separate shallow closet for these-shallow because it is most convenient to have but one row on a shelf. where economy is not an item of importance, see that electric lights are placed in all the closets, which are turned on with the action of opening the door. the elaboration of closets, those with drawers of all sizes and depths, cedar closets for furs, etc., is merely a matter of the architect's planning to meet the specific needs of the occupants of any house. chapter xxxiii treatment of a narrow hall a long, narrow hall in a house, or apartment, is difficult to arrange, but there are methods of treating them which partially corrects their defects. one method is shown on plate xiv. the best furnishing is a very narrow console (table) with a stiff, high-backed chair on either side of it, and on the wall, over console, a tapestry, an architectural picture or a family portrait. on the console is placed merely a silver card tray. have a closet for wraps if possible, or arrange hooks and a table, out of right, for this purpose. keep your walls and woodwork light in colour and in the same tone. plate xxviii an idea for treatment of a narrow hall, where the practical and beautiful are combined. the hall table and candlesticks are an example of the renaissance of iron, elaborately wrought after classic designs. the mirror over table is framed in green glass, the ornaments are of dull gold (iron gilded). the venetian glass jar is in opalescent green, made to hold dried rose leaves, and used here purely as an ornament which catches and reflects the light, important, as the hall is dark. the iron of table is black touched with gold, and the marble slab dark-green veined with white. [illustration: _narrow entrance hall of a new york antique shop_] an interesting treatment of a long narrow hall is to break its length with lattice work, which has an open arch, wide enough for one or two people to pass through, the arch surmounted by an urn in which ivy is planted. the lattice work has lines running up and down--not crossed, as is the usual way. it is on hinges so that trunks or furniture may be carried through the hall, if necessary. the whole is kept in the same colour scheme as the hall. chapter xxxiv treatment of a very shaded living-room by introducing plenty of yellow and orange you can bring sunshine into a dark living-room. if your house is in a part of the country where the heat is great, a dark living-room in summer is sometimes a distinct advantage, so keep the colourings subdued in tone, and, therefore, cool looking. if, on the contrary, the living-room is in a cool house on the ocean, or a shaded mountainside, and the sun is cut off by broad porches, you will cheer up your room, and immensely improve it, by using sun-producing colours in chintzes and silks; while cut flowers or growing plants, which reproduce the same colouring, will intensify the illusion of sunshine. sash curtains of thin silk, in bright yellows, are always sun-producing, but if you intend using yellows in a room, be careful to do so in combination with browns, greens, greys, or carefully chosen blues, not with reds or magentas. try not to mix warm and cold colours when planning your walls. grey walls call for dull blue or green curtains; white walls for red or green curtains; cream walls for yellow, brown buff or apple green curtains. if your room is too cold, warm it up by making your accessories, such as lamp shades, and sofa pillows, of rose or yellow material. chapter xxxv servants' rooms whether you expect to arrange for one servant or a dozen, keep in mind the fact that efficiency is dependent upon the conditions under which your manor maid-servant rests as well as works, and that it is as important that the bedroom be _attractive_ as that it be comfortable. for servants' rooms it is advised that the matter of furnishing and decorating be a scheme which includes comfort, daintiness and effectiveness on the simplest, least expensive basis, no matter how elaborate the house. there is a moral principle involved here. in the case of more than one servant the colour scheme alone needs to be varied, for similar furniture will prevent jealousy among the servants, while at the same time the task of inventing is reduced to the mere multiplying of one room; even the wall paper and chintz being alike in pattern, if different in colour. the simplest iron beds, or wooden furniture can be painted white or any colour which may be considered more durable. in maids' rooms for summer use, a vase provided for flowers is sometimes an incentive to personally contribute a touch of beauty. that sense of beauty once awakened in a maid does far more than any words on the subject of order and daintiness in her own room or in those of her employer. chapter xxxvi table decoration for the young and inexperienced we state a few rules for table decoration. if you have furnished your dining-room to accord not only with your taste, but the scale upon which you intend living, be careful that the dining-table never strikes a false note, never "gets out of the picture" by becoming too important as to setting or menu. you may live very formally in your town house and very simply, without any ostentation, in the country, but be sure that in all of your experimenting with table decoration you observe above all the law of appropriateness. your decoration, flowers, fruit, character of bowl or dish which holds them, or _objet d'art_ used in place of either; linen or lace, china, glass and silver,--each and all must be in keeping. the money value has nothing whatever to do with this question of appropriateness, when considered by an artist decorator. remember that in decorating, things are classified according to their colour value, their lines and the purpose for which they are intended. the dining-table is to eat at, therefore it should primarily hold only such things as are required for the serving of the meal. so your real decoration should be your silver, glass and china, with its background of linen or lace. the central decoration, if of flowers or fruit, must be in a bowl or dish decorative in the same sense that the rest of the tableware is. flowers should be kept in the same key as your room. one may do this and yet have infinite variety. tall stately lilies, american beauty roses, great bowls of gardenias and orchids are for stately rooms. your small house, flat or bungalow require modest garden flowers such as daffodils, jonquils, tulips, lilies-of-the-valley, snapdragons, one long-stemmed rose in a vase, or a cluster of shy moss-buds or nodding tea-roses. a table set with art in the key of a small menage and on a scale of simple living, often strikes the note of perfection from the expert's point of view because perfect of its kind and suitable for the occasion. this appropriateness is what makes your "smart" table quite as it makes your "smart" woman. wedgwood cream colour ware "c.c." is beautiful and always good form. for those wanting colour, the same famous makers of england have an infinite variety, showing lovely designs. unless you are a collector in the museum sense, press into service all of your beautiful possessions. if you have to go without them, let it be when you no longer own them, and not because they are hoarded out of sight. you know the story of the man who bought a barrel of apples and each day carefully selected and ate those that were rotten, feeling the necessity of not being wasteful. when the barrel was empty he realised that be had deliberately wasted all his good apples _by not eating one_! let this be a warning to him who would save his treasures. if you love antiques and have joyously hunted them down and, perhaps, denied yourself other things to obtain them, you are the person to use them, even though the joy be transient and they perish at the hand of a careless man or maid-servant. remember, posterity will have its own "fads" and prefer adding the pleasure of pursuit to that of mere ownership. so bring out your treasures and use them! as there are many kinds of dining-rooms, each good if planned and worked out with an art instinct, so there are many kinds of tables. the usual sort is the round, or square, extension table, laid with fine damask and set with conventional china, glass and silver, rare in quality and distinguished in design. for those who prefer the unusual there are oblong, squarely built jacobean and italian refectory tables. with these one makes a point of showing the rich colour of the time-worn wood and carving, for the old italian tables often have the bevelled edge and legs carved. when this style of table is used, the wood instead of a cloth, is our background, and a "runner" with doilies of old italian lace takes the place of linen. in feudal days, when an entire household, master and retainers, sat in the baronial hall "above and below the salt," tables were made of great length. when used out of their original setting, they must be cut down to suit modern conditions. in krakau, poland, the writer often dined at one of these feudal boards which had been in our hostess's family for several hundred years. to get it into her dining-room a large piece had been cut out at the centre and the two ends pushed together. * * * * * for those who live informally, delightfully decorative china can be had at low prices. it was once made only for the peasants, and comes to us from italy, france, germany and england. this fact reminds us that when we were travelling in southern hungary and were asked to dine with a magyar farmer, out on the windy pasta, instead of their usual highly coloured pottery, gay with crude, but decorative flowers, they honoured us by covering the table with american ironstone china! the hungarian crockery resembles the brittany and italian ware, and some of it is most attractive when rightly set. when once the passion to depart from beaten paths seizes us it is very easy to make mistakes. therefore to the housekeeper, accustomed to conventional china, but weary of it, we would commend as a safe departure, modern wedgwood and italian reproductions of classic models, which come in exquisite shapes and in a delicious soft cream tone. if one prefers, it is possible to get these varieties decorated with charming designs in artistic colourings, as previously stated. for eating meals out of doors, or in "sun-rooms," where the light is strong, the dark peasant pottery, like brittany, italian and hungarian, is very effective on dull-blue linen, heavy cream linen or coarse lace, such as the peasants make. copper lustre, with its dark metallic surface; is enchanting on dark wood or coloured linen of the right tone. your table must be a _picture_ composed on artistic lines. that is, it must combine harmony of line and colour and above all, appropriateness. gradually one acquires skill in inventing unusual effects; but only the adept can go against established rules of art and yet produce a pleasing _ensemble_. we can all recall exceptions to this rule for simplicity, beautiful, artistic tables, covered with rare and entrancing objects,--irrelevant, but delighting the eye. some will instantly recall clyde fitch's dinners in this connection, but here let us emphasise the dictum that for a great master of the art of decoration there need be no laws. a careful study of the japanese principles of decoration is an ideal way of learning the art of simplicity. it is impossible to deny the immense decorative value of a single _objet d'art_, as one flower in a simple vase, provided it is given the correct background. background in decoration is like a pedal-point in music; it must support the whole fabric, whether you are planning a house, a room or a table. plate xxix shows how a too pronounced rug which is out of character, though a valuable chinese antique, can destroy the harmony of a composition even where the stage is set with treasures; louis xv chairs, antique fount with growing plants, candelabra, rare tapestry, reflected by mirror, and a graceful console and a settee with grey-green brocade cushions. [illustration: _example of a charming hall spoiled by too pronounced a rug_] chapter xxxvii what to avoid in interior decoration: rules for beginners we all know the saying that it is only those who have mastered the steps in dancing who can afford to forget them. it is the same in every art. therefore let us state at once, that all rules may be broken by the educated--the masters of their respective arts. for beginners we give the following rules as a guide, until they get their bearings in this fascinating game of making pictures by manipulating lines and colours, as expressed in necessary furnishings. * * * * * avoid crowding your rooms, walls or tables, for in creating a _home_ one must produce the quality of restfulness by order and space. as to walls, do not use a cold colour in a north or shaded room. make your ceilings lighter in tone than the side walls, using a very pale shade of the same colour as the side walls. do not put a spotted (figured) surface on other spotted (figured) surfaces. a plain wall paper is the proper, because most effective, background for pictures. avoid the mistake of forgetting that table decoration includes all china, glass, silver and linen used in serving any meal. in attempting the decoration of your dining-room table avoid anything inappropriate to the particular meal to be served and the scale of service. do not have too many flowers on your table, or flowers not in harmony with the rest of the setting, in variety or colour. do not use peasant china, no matter how decorative in itself, on fine damask or rare lace. by so doing you strike a false note. the background it demands is crash or peasant laces. avoid crowding your dining-table or giving it an air of confusion by the number of things on it, thus destroying the laws of simplicity, line and balance in decoration. avoid using on your walls as mere decorations articles such as rugs or priests' vestments primarily intended for other purposes. avoid the misuse of anything in furnishing. it needs only knowledge and patience to find the correct thing for each need. better do without than employ a makeshift in decorating. inappropriateness and elaboration can defeat artistic beauty--but intelligent elimination never can. beware of having about too many vases, or china meant for domestic use. the proper place for table china, no matter how rare it is, is in the dining-room. if very valuable, one can keep it in cabinets. useless bric-à-brac in a dining-room looks worse than it does anywhere else. your dining-room is the best place for any brasses, copper or pewter you may own. if sitting-room and dining-room connect by a wide opening, keep the same colour scheme in both, or, in any case, the same depth of colour. this gives an effect of space. it is not uncommon when a house is very small, to keep all of the walls and woodwork, and all of the carpets, in exactly the same colour and tone. if variety in the colour-scheme is desired, it may be introduced by means of cretonnes or silks used for hangings and furniture covers. avoid the use of thin, old silks on sofas or chair seats. avoid too cheap materials for curtains or chair covers, as they will surely fade. avoid too many small rugs in a room. this gives an impression of restless disorder and interferes with the architect's lines. do not place your rugs at strange angles; but let them follow the lines of the walls. avoid placing ornaments or photographs on a piano which is in sufficiently good condition to be used. avoid the chance of ludicrous effects. for example, keep a plain background behind your piano. make sure that, when listening to music you are not distracted by seeing a bewildering section of a picture above the pianist's head, or a silly little vase dodging, as he moves, in front of, above, or below his nose! avoid placing vases, or a clock, against a chimney piece already elaborately decorated by the architect, as a part of his scheme in using the moulding of panel to frame a painting over the mantel. in the old palaces one sees that a bit of undecorated background is provided between mantel and the architect's decoration. if your room has a long wall space, furnish it with a large cabinet or console, or a sofa and two chairs. avoid blotting out your architect's cleverest points by thoughtlessly misplacing hangings. whoever decorates should always keep the architect's intention in mind. avoid having an antique clock which does not go, and is used merely as an ornament. make your rooms _alive_ by having all the clocks running. this is one of the subtleties which marks the difference between an antique shop, or museum, and a home. avoid the desecration of the few good antiques you own, by the use of a too modern colour scheme. have the necessary modern pieces you have bought to supplement your treasures, stained or painted a dull dark colour in harmony with the antiques, and then use dull colours in the floor coverings, curtains and cushions. if you have no good _old_ ornaments, try to get a few good shapes and colours in inexpensive reproductions of the period to which your antiques belong. avoid the mistake of forgetting that every room is a "stage setting," and must be a becoming and harmonious background for its occupants. avoid arranging a louis xvi bedroom, with fragile antiques and delicate tones, for your husband of athletic proportions and elemental tastes. he will not only feel, but look out of place. if he happens to be fond of artistic things, give him these in durable shades and shapes. avoid the omission of a thoroughly masculine sitting-room, library, smoking-room or billiard-room for the man, or men, of the house. avoid the use of white linen when eating out of doors. saxe-blue, red or taupe linen are restful to the eyes. in fact, after one has used coloured linen, white seems glaring and unsympathetic even indoors, and one instinctively chooses the old deep-cream laces. granting this to be a bit précieuse, we must admit that the traditional white damask, under crystal and silver, or gold plate with rare porcelains, has its place and its distinction in certain houses, and with certain people. plate xxx shows a man's library, masculine gender written all over it-strength, comfort, usefulness and simplicity. the mantel is arranged in accordance with rules already stated. it will be noticed that the ornaments on mantel in a way interfere with design of the large architectural picture. [illustration: _a man's library_] avoid in a studio, bungalow or a small flat, where the living-room and dining-room are the same, all evidences of _dining-room_ (china, silver and glass for use). let the table be covered with a piece of old or modern brocade when not set for use. a lamp and books further emphasises the note of living-room. avoid the use of light-absorbing colours in wall papers if you are anxious to create sympathetic cheerfulness in your rooms, and an appearance of winning comfort. almost all dark colours are light-absorbing; greens, dull reds, dark greys and mahogany browns will make a room dull in character no matter how much sunlight comes in, or how many electric lights you use. perhaps the only dark colour which is not light-absorbing is a dark yellow. avoid the permanent tea-table. we are glad to record that one seldom happens upon one, these days. how the english used to revile them! in the simplest homes it is always possible at the tea hour, to have a table placed before whoever is to "pour" and a tray on which are cups, tea, cream, sugar, lemon, toast, cake or what you will, brought in from the pantry or kitchen. there was a time when in america, one shuddered at the possibility of dusty cups and those countless faults of a seldom-rehearsed tea-table! avoid serving a lunch in an artificially lighted room. this, like a permanent tea-table, is an almost extinct fashion. neither was sensible, because inappropriate, and therefore bad form. the only possible reason for shutting out god's sunlight and using artificial lights, is when the function is to begin by daylight and continue until after nightfall. if in doubt as to what is _good_, go often to museums and compare what you own, or have seen and think of owning, with objects in museum collections. chapter xxxviii fads in collecting in a new york home one room is devoted to a so-called _panier fleuri_ collection which in this case means that each article shows the design of a basket holding flowers or fruit. the collection is to-day so unique and therefore so valuable, that it has been willed to a museum, but its creation as a collection, was entirely a chance occurrence. the design of a basket trimmed with flowers happened to appeal to the owner, and if we are not mistaken, the now large collection had its beginning in the casual purchase of a little old pendant found in a forgotten corner of europe. the owner wore it, her friends saw it, and gradually associated the _panier fleuri_ with her, which resulted in many beautiful specimens of this design being sought out for her by wanderers at home and abroad. to-day this collection includes old silks, laces, jewellery, wax pictures, old prints, some pieces of antique furniture, snuffboxes and ornaments in glass, china, silver, etc. every museum is the result of fads in collecting, and when one considers all that is meant by this heading, which sounds so trifling and unimportant to the layman, it will not seem strange that we strongly recommend it as a dissipation! at first, quite naturally, the collector makes mistakes; but it is through his mistakes that he learns, and absolutely nothing gives such a zest to a stroll in the city, a tramp in the country, or an unexpected delay in an out-of-the-way town, as to have this collecting bee in your bonnet. how often when travelling we have rejoiced when the loss of a train or a mistake in time-table, meant an unexpected opportunity to explore for junk in some old shop, or, perhaps, to bargain with a pretty peasant girl who hoarded a beloved heirloom, of entrancing interest to us (and worth a pile of money really), while she lived happily on cider and cheese! it is doubtless the experience of every lover of the old and the curious, that one never regrets the expenses incurred in this quest of the antique, but one does eternally regret one's economies. the writer suffers now, after years have elapsed, in some cases, at the memory of treasures resisted when chanced upon in russia, poland, hungary, bohemia--where not! always one says, "oh, well, i shall come back again!" but there are so many "pastures green," and it is often difficult to retrace one's steps. then, too, these fads open our eyes and ears, so that in passing along a street on foot, in a cab or on a bus, or in glancing through a book, or, perhaps, in an odd corner of an otherwise colourless town, where fate has taken us, we find "grist for our mill"--just the right piece of furniture for the waiting place! know what you want, _really want it_, and you will find it some time, somewhere, somehow! as a stimulus to beginners in collecting, as well as an illustration of that perseverance required of every keen collector, we cite the case of running down an empire dressing-table. it was our desire to complete a small collection of empire furniture for a suite of rooms, by adding to it as a supplement to the bureau, a certain type of empire dressing-table. it is no exaggeration to say that paris was dragged for what we wanted--the large well-known antique shops and the smaller ones of the latin quarter being both ransacked. time was flying, the date of our sailing was approaching, and as yet the coveted piece had not been found. three days before we left, a fat, red-faced, jolly cabby, after making a vain tour of the junk shops in his quarter, demanded to know exactly what it was we sought. when told, he looked triumphant, bade us get into his cab, lashed his horse and after several rapidly made turns, dashed into an out-of-the-way street and drew up before a sort of junk store-house, full of rickety, dusty odds and ends of furniture, presided over by a stupid old woman who sat outside the door, knitting,--wrapped head and all in a shawl. we entered and, there, to our immense relief, stood the dressing table! it was grey with dust, the original empire green silk, a rusty grey and hanging in shreds on the back of the original glass. there was a marble top set into the wood and grooved in a curious way. the whole was intact except for a loose back leg, which gave it a swaying, tottering appearance. we passed it in silence--being experienced traders! then, after buying several little old picture frames, while madame continued her knitting, we wandered close to the coveted table and asked what was wanted for that broken bit "of no use as it stands." "thirty francs" (six dollars) was the answer. later a well-known new york dealer offered seventy-five dollars for the table in the condition in which we found it, and repaired as it is to-day it would easily bring a hundred and fifty, anywhere! as it happened, the money we went out with had been spent on unexpected finds, and neither we nor our good-natured cabby were in possession of thirty francs! in fact, cabby was rather staggered to hear the price, having offered to advance what we needed. he suggested sending it home "collect" but madame would not even consider such an idea. however, at last our resourceful jehu came to the rescue. if the ladies would seat themselves in the cab, he could place the table in front of them, with the cover of the cab raised, and madame of the shop could lock her door and mounting the box by the side of our _cocher_, she might drive with us to our destination and collect the money herself! he promised to bring her home safely again! as we had only the next day for boxing and shipping, there was no alternative. before we had even taken in our grotesque appearance, the horse was galloping, as only a paris cab horse can gallop, toward our abode in avenue henri martin, past carriages and autos returning from the _bois_, while inside the cab we sat, elated by our success and in that whirl of triumphant absorbing joy which only the real collector knows. this same modest little empire collection had a treasure recently added to it, found by chance, in an antique shop in pennsylvania. it was a mirror. the dealer, an italian, said that he had got it from an old house in bordentown, new jersey. "it's genuine english," he said, certain he was playing his winning card. it has the original glass and a heavy, squarely made, mahogany frame. strange to say it corresponds exactly with the bed and bureau in the collection, having pilasters surmounted by women's heads of gilded wood with small gilded feet showing at base. plate xxxi an end of a room containing genuine empire furniture, empire ornaments and a rare collection of empire cups, which appear in a _vitrine_ seen near the dull-blue brocade curtains drawn over windows. we would especially call attention to the mantelpiece, which was originally the empire frame of a mirror, and to a book shelf made interesting by having the upper shelf supported by a charming pair of antique bronze cupids. this plate is reproduced to show as many empire pieces as possible; it is not an ideal example of arrangement, either as to furniture in room or certain details. there is too much crowding. [illustration: _a collection of empire furniture, ornaments and china_] as the brother of the great napoleon, joseph bonaparte, king of spain and rome, passed many years of his self-imposed exile in bordentown, in a house made beautiful with furnishings he brought from france, it is possible this old mirror has an interesting story, if only it could talk! then, too, it was bordentown that sheltered a prince murat, the relative of joseph bonaparte. if it was he who conveyed our mirror to these shores, a very different, but as highly romantic a tale might unfold! for fear the precious ancient glass should be broken or the frame destroyed, we bribed a pullman-car porter to let us bring its six by four feet of antiquity with us, in the train! when you see a find always take it with you, or the next man may, and above all, always be on the lookout. it was from a french novel by one of the living french writers that we first got a clue to a certain obscure etruscan museum, hidden away in the carrara mountains, in italy. that wonderful little museum and its adjacent potteries, which cover the face of italy like ant-hills, are to-day contributors to innumerable beautiful interiors in every part of america. we recall a dining-room in grosvenor square, london, where a world-renowned collection of "powder-blue" vases (the property of mr. j.b. joel) is made to contribute to a decorative scheme by placing the almost priceless vases of old chinese blue and white porcelain, in niches made for them, high up on the black oak panelling. there are no pictures nor other decorations on the walls, hence each vase has the distinction it deserves, placed as it were, in a shrine. in the peter hewitt museum, new york, you may see an antique italian china cabinet, made of gilded carved wood, which shows on its undulating front, row after row of small niches, lined with red velvet. when each deep niche held its porcelain _chef d'oeuvre_, the effect must have been that of a gold screen set with gems! speaking of red velvet backgrounds, in the same museum, standing near the italian cabinet, is an ancient spanish one; its elaborate steel hinges, locks and ornaments have each a bit of red velvet between them and the oak of the cabinet. one sees this on gothic chests in england and occasionally on the antique furniture of other countries. the red material stretched back of the metal fret-work, is said to be a souvenir of the gruesome custom prevailing in ancient times, of warning off invaders by posting on the doors of public buildings, the skin of prisoners of war, and holding it in place with open-work metal, through which the red skin was plainly seen! at cornwall lodge, in regents park, london, the town house of lady de bathe (lily langtry) the dining-room ceiling is a deep sky-blue, while the sidewalls of black, serve as a background for her valuable collection of old, coloured glass, for the most part english. the collection is the result of the owner's eternal vigilance, when travelling or at home. a well-known paris collector, now dead, found in spain a bust which had been painted black. its good lines led him to buy it, and, when cleaned, it proved to be a genuine canova, and was sold by this dealer, a reliable expert, to an american for five thousand dollars! it had been painted during a revolution, to save it from destruction. the same dealer on another occasion, when in spain, found an old silk gown of lovely flowered brocade, but with one breadth missing. several years later, in an antique shop in italy, he found that missing gore and had it put back in the gown, thus completing the treasure which some ruthless hand had destroyed. chapter xxxix wedgwood pottery, old and modern many of our museums have interesting collections of old wedgwood. altogether the most complete collection we have ever seen is in the museum adjoining the wedgwood factories in staffordshire, england. the curator there, an old man of about seventy, loves to tell the story of its founding and growth. he began as a labourer in the potteries and has worked his way up to be guardian of the veterans in perfected types. many of the rare and beautiful specimens he has himself dug up in the grounds, where from time to time, since 1750, they were thrown out as broken, useless debris. the recovery of these bits, their preservation and classification, together with valuable donations made by english families who have inherited rare specimens, have not only placed at the disposal of those interested, the fascinating history of wedgwood, in a thrilling object lesson, but has made the modern wedgwood what it is:--one of the most beautiful varieties of tableware in the market to-day. josiah wedgwood is said to have been the first english potter, counting from the roman time to the first quarter of the eighteenth century, who made vases to be used for _mere decoration_. chelsea, worcester and derby were just then beginning to make fine porcelain. in wedgwood's day it was the rule for young men of title and wealth to go abroad, and the souvenirs which they brought back with them, such as pictures and vases, helped to form a taste for the antique, in england. then, too, books on greek art were being written by english travellers. josiah wedgwood had a natural bent for the pure line and classic subjects, but he was, also, possessed with the keen businessman's intuition as to what his particular market demanded. so he sat about copying the line and decorations of the antique greek vases. he reproduced lines and designs in decoration, but invented the "bodies," that is to say, the materials from which the potters moulded his wares. he is said to have invented in all, twenty varieties. we say that he reproduced greek designs, and so he did, but john flaxman, his chief decorator, who lived in rome, where he had a studio and clever assistants, studied the classics, imbibed their spirit and originated the large majority of wedgwood's so-called "greek" designs, --those exquisite cameo-like compositions in white, on backgrounds of pastel colours, which appeared as miniatures mounted for jewellery, medallions let into wall panels, and on furniture and carrara marble mantelpieces, wonderful works of art wrought of his "jasper" paste, which make josiah wedgwood outrank any producer of ceramics who has ever lived in any age. wedgwood's first vases were for use, although they were ornamental, too. those were the pots he made in which to grow bulbs or roots, and the "bough pots" which were filled with cut flowers and used to ornament the hearth in summer. mr. frederick rathbone, compiler of the wedgwood catalogue in 1909, a memorial to josiah wedgwood made possible by his great-granddaughter, says that during his thirty-five years' study of wedgwood's work, he had yet to learn of a single vase which was ever made by him, or sent out from his factory at etruria, which was lacking in grace or beauty. the etrurian museum, staffordshire, shows josiah wedgwood's life work from the early whieldon ware to his perfected jasper paste. josiah's "trials" or experiments, are the most interesting specimens in the museum, and prove that the effort of his life was "converting a rude and inconsiderable manufactory into an elegant art and an important part of national commerce." yet, although he is acknowledged by all the world to have been the greatest artist in ceramics of his or any period, remember pottery was only one of his interests. he was by no means a man who concentrated day and night on one line of production. he occupied himself with politics, and planned and carried through great engineering feats and was, also, deeply interested in the education of his children. when wedgwood began his work, all tea and coffee pots were "salt-glazed," plain, or, if decorated, copies of oriental patterns, which were the only available models, imported for the use of the rich. wedgwood invented in turn his tortoise shell, agate, mottled and other coloured wares, and finally his beautiful pale-cream, known as "queen's" ware, in honour of queen charlotte, his patron. it is the "c.c." (cream colour) which is so popular to-day, either plain or decorated. he invented colours, as well as bodies, for the manufacture of his earthenware, both for use and for decoration, and built up a business employing 15,000 persons in his factories,--and 30,000 in all the branches of his business. in 1896 the census showed 45,914 persons employed in the factories, and at that time the annual amount paid in wages was over two million pounds (ten million dollars). we must remember that in 1760, the only way of transporting goods to and from the wedgwood factory was by means of pack-horses. therefore josiah wedgwood had to turn his attention to the construction of roads and canals. as mr. gladstone put it in his address at the opening of the wedgwood institute at burslem, staffordshire, "wedgwood made the raw material of his industry abundant and cheap, which supplied a vent for the manufactured article and which opened for it materially a way to what we may term the conquest of the outer world." yet he never travelled outside his own country; always employed english workmen to carry out his ideas, and succeeded entirely by his own efforts, unaided by the state. his first patroness was catherine ii of russia, for whom he made a wonderful table service, and his best customers were the court and aristocracy of france, during that country's greatest art periods (louis xv and xvi). in fact wedgwood ware became so fashionable in paris that the sèvres, royal porcelain factory, copied the colour and relief of his jasper plaques and vases. it is claimed by connoisseurs, that the wedgwood useful decorative pottery is the only ceramic art in which england is supreme and unassailable. it has been said at the wedgwood works, and with great pride, that the copying of wedgwood by the sèvres factories, and the preservation of many rare examples of his work to-day, in french museums, to serve as models for french designers and craftsman, is a neat compliment to the english--"those rude islanders with three hundred religions and only one _sauce_"! plate xxxii in the illustration five of the four vases, four with covers and one without, are reproductions of old pharmacy jars, once used by all italian druggists to keep their drugs in. the really old ones with artistic worth are vanishing from the open market into knowing dealers' or collectors' hands, or the museums have them, but with true latin perspicuity, when the supply ceased to meet the demand, the great modern italian potters turned out lovely reproductions, so lovely that they bring high prices in italy as well as abroad, and are frequently offered to collectors when in italy as genuine antiques. [illustration: _italian reproductions in pottery after classic models_] chapter xl italian pottery about nine years ago, an american connoisseur, automobiling from paris to vienna, the route which lies through northern italy, quite by chance, happened to see some statuettes in the window of a hopeful, but unknown, potter's little shop, on a wonderful, ancient, covered bridge. you, too, may have seen that rarely beautiful bridge spanning the river brenta, and have looked out through broad arches which occur at intervals, on views, so extraordinary that one feels they must be on a gothic tapestry, or the journey just a dream! one cannot forget the wild, rushing river of purplish-blues, and the pines, in deep greens, which climb up, past ruined castles, perched on jutting rocks, toward snow-capped mountain peaks. the views were beautiful, but so were the statuettes which had caught our collector's eye. he bought some, made inquiries as to facilities for reproduction at these potteries, and exchanged addresses. the result was that to-day, that humble potter directs several large factories, which are busy reviving classic designs, which may be found on sale everywhere in italy and in many other countries as well as america. chapter xli venetian glass, old and modern if you have been in venice then you know the murano museum and its beguiling collection of venetian glass, that old glass so vastly more beautiful in line and decoration than the modern type of, say, fifteen years ago, when colours had become bad mixtures, and decorations meaningless excrescences. a bit of inside information given out to some one really interested, led to a revival of pure line and lovely, simple colouring, with appropriate decorations or none at all. you may already know that romantic bit of history. it seems that when the museum was first started, about four hundred years ago, the glass blowers agreed to donate specimens of their work, provided their descendants should be allowed access to the museum for models. this contract made it a simple matter for a connoisseur to get reproduced exactly what was wanted, and what was not in the market. elegance, distinguished simplicity in shapes, done in glass of a single colour, or in one colour with a simple edge in a contrasting shade, or in one colour with a whole nosegay of colours to set it off, appearing literally as flowers or fruit to surmount the stopper of a bottle, the top of a jar, or as decorations on candlesticks. it was in the museo civico of venice that we saw and fell victims to an enchanting antique table decoration--a formal italian garden, in blown glass, once the property of a great venetian family and redolent of those golden days when venice was the playground of princes, and feasting their especial joy; days when visiting royalty and the world's greatest folk could have no higher honour bestowed upon them than a gift of venetian glass, often real marvels mounted in silver and gold. we never tired of looking at that fairy garden with its delicate copings, balustrades and vases of glass, all abloom with exquisite posies in every conceivable shade, wrought of glass--a veritable dream thing! finally, nothing would do but we must know if it had ever been copied. the curator said that he believed it had, and an address was given us. how it all comes back! we arose at dawn, as time was precious, took our coffee in haste and then came that gliding trip in the gondola, through countless canals, to a quarter quite unknown to us, where at work in a small room, we came upon our glass blower and the coveted copy of that lovely table-garden. this man had made four, and one was still in his possession. we brought it back to america, a gleaming jewelled cobweb, and what happened was that the very ethereal quality of its beauty made the average taste ignore it! however, a few years have made a vast difference in table, as well as all other decorations, and to-day the same venetian gardens have their faithful devotees, as is proved by the continuous procession of the dainty wonders, ever moving toward our sturdy shores. in conclusion in bringing our book to an end we would reiterate four fundamental principles of interior decoration (and all decoration): good lines. correct proportions. harmonious colour scheme (which includes the question of background) and appropriateness. observe these four laws and any house, all interior decoration, and any lawn or garden, will be beautiful and satisfying, regardless of type and choice of colours. whether or not you remain content with your achievement depends upon your mental makeup. really know what you want as a home, _want it_, and you can work out any scheme, provided you have intelligence, patience and perseverance. to learn what is meant by _good line_, one must educate oneself by making a point of seeing beautiful furniture and furnishings. visit museums, all collections which boast the stamp of approval of experts; buy at the best modern and antique shops, and compare what you get with the finest examples in the museums. this is the way that _connaisseurs_ are made. index acanthus leaf accessories adam, james and robert alhambra amateur andirons angelo, michael (see michelangelo) antique "antiqued" apelles applique appropriate arabesques architectural picture architrave arras assyria athenian attic rooms awnings background bakst balance barrocco bathroom beauvais behnes belgium benares "bodies" bohemian glass boucher françois boudoir boule, andré charles bric-à-brac bristol glass brocotello byzantine cabriole cæsar, augustus carlovingian carpets (_see_ floor) ceiling cellini, benvenuto charlemagne charles i charles ii charles v chares viii charts _chef d'oeuvre_ chimney-pieces chinese "chinese craze" chintz chippendale cipriani, giovanni battista classic clocks closets cold colours collecting colonial colour commode composition connoisseur console correggio, antonio allegri cretonne (_see_ chintz) cross-stitch dado dark ages day-bed decoration decorative dining-tables directoire distinction dressing-room dressing-table du barry, madame du barry rose dürer, albrecht dutch egypt elimination elizabethan empire england _ensemble_ fads feudal fire-dogs (_see_ andirons) fireplace fixtures flaxman, john floors (_see_ carpets) flower-pictures flowers fontainebleau france francis i franklin stoves french frieze georgian germany gibbons, grinling gimp glass glazed linen gobelin gothic greek gubbio hallmark hangings henry ii henry iii henry iv henry viii heppelwhite holland homes hungarian inappropriateness iron work italian italian louis xvi ivy jacobean james i james ii james vi japan japanese kauffman, angelica key key note knife-boxes lacquer lamp shades landscape paper library, a man's light-absorbing colours light-producing lines living-room louis xiii louis xiv louis xv louis xvi lustre copper mahogany period majolica man's room (_see_ men's rooms) mantel marie antoinette marquetry mediæval art medici medici, catherine de medicine jars men's rooms metal work michelangelo middle ages mirrors mission furniture moors morris, william mouldings mounts napoleon i narrow halls new england oak period _objets d'art_ oriental ormolu outline over-doors painted furniture painted tapestry palladio, andrea panelling panier fleuri parchment paper shades for lights passepartout peasant china peasant lace pergolese, michael angelo pericles period rooms pesaro pharmacy jars (_see_ medicine jars) phidias photographs picture frames pictures _pietra-dura_ pilasters poitiers, diane de poland pomegranate pattern porcelain porch-room portuguese "powder-blue" vases praxiteles pre-raphaelites proportion pseudo-classic puritan queen anne queen elizabeth rail-boxes raphael refectory tables renaissance reproductions rocaille (_see_ shell design) rococo rolls, empire rome sarto, andrea del sash-curtains servants'-rooms sèvres porcelain shades for lights shell design (_see_ rocaille) sheraton silks slipper-chairs sofa cushions spain sports balconies stained glass straw awnings stuart sun-producing sun-proof sun-rooms table decoration table-garden tables tableware taffeta tapestry tea-tables textiles titian tone-on-tone tudor twin beds urbino valance values van eyck vanity-room _"vargueos"_ "vase pattern" vases venetian glass venice vernis martin victorian period vinci, leonardo da virginia homes vitrine wainscoting wall-papers walls warm colours wedgewood wicker furniture william and mary period window-boxes wren, sir christopher the end south kensington museum art handbooks. edited by william maskell. no. 3.--furniture ancient and modern. _these handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to the large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the museum at south kensington; arranged and so far abridged as to bring each into a portable shape. the lords of the committee of council on education having determined on the publication of them, the editor trusts that they will meet the purpose intended; namely, to be useful, not alone for the collections at south kensington but for other collections, by enabling the public at a trifling cost to understand something of the history and character of the subjects treated of._ _the authorities referred to in each book are given in the large catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the very numerous examples in the south kensington museum._ w. m. _august, 1875._ ancient and modern furniture and woodwork by john hungerford pollen with numerous woodcuts [illustration] _published for the committee of council on education_ by chapman and hall, 193, piccadilly london. dalziel brothers, printers, camden press, n.w. contents. chapter page i furniture ancient and modern 1 ii antique: egypt, nineveh and greece 4 iii the romans 17 iv byzantine art 29 v the middle ages 41 vi the fifteenth century 59 vii the renaissance in italy 66 viii renaissance in england, flanders, france, germany, ans spain 78 ix tudor and stuart styles 85 x furniture of the eighteenth century 103 xi changes of taste and style 116 appendix: names of the designers of woodwork and makers of furniture 133 index 140 list of woodcuts. page egyptian chair 4 assyrian chairs 7 greek chair 10 greek chairs 11 greek couches 13 greek mirror 14 greek chariot 15 pompeian interior 19 roman tripod 22 roman candelabra 23 roman candelabra 24 roman table 26 roman couch 27 roman ceremonial chair 28 roman _sella_ 28 roman kitchen utensils 30 st. peter's chair 35 the chair of king dagobert 43 anglo-norman bedstead 46 the coronation chair 49 interior of english mediæval bedroom 51 anglo-saxon dinner-table 52 dinner-table of middle-class, fifteenth century 53 table of fifteenth century 53 travelling carriage of fifteenth century; "tullia driving over the body of her father" 55 oriental panels 57 a royal dinner-table of the fourteenth century 58 french panel; fifteenth century 60 venetian cornice 68 portion of carved italian chest 69 venetian chair 71 italian bellows 72 another example 73 knife-case; 1564 76 carved panels 80 french table; sixteenth century 81 french panel; 1577 82 english panel; about 1590 86 french cabinet; sixteenth century 88 italian oak pedestal 90 venetian mirror-frame 91 german arm-chair; seventeenth century 93 english bracket; about 1660 97 english doorway; about 1690 98 venetian looking-glass 100 holy-water stoup 101 english dinner-table; 1633 102 italian distaff 106 roman _triclinium_ 117 bedstead; fifteenth century 118 the great bed of ware 119 bedstead at hampton court 120 mediæval room 120 cradle; fifteenth century 121 folding chair; fifteenth century 122 italian chair; sixteenth century 123 antique roman tables 125 folding table; english, 1620(?) 126 mediæval chest 127 roman carriages 130 english carriage; fourteenth century 131 state carriages 132 furniture, ancient and modern. chapter i. the study of a collection of old furniture has an interest beyond the mere appreciation of the beauty it displays. the carving or the ornaments that decorate the various pieces and the skill and ingenuity with which they are put together are well worthy of our attention. a careful examination of them carries us back to the days in which they were made and to the taste and manners, the habits and the requirements, of bygone ages. the kensington museum, for example, contains chests, caskets, cabinets, chairs, carriages, and utensils of all sorts and of various countries. some of these have held the bridal dresses, fans, and trinkets of french and italian beauties, whose sons and daughters for many generations have long gone to the dust; there are inlaid folding chairs used at the court of guido ubaldo, in the palace of urbino, and of other italian princes of the fifteenth century; buffets and sideboards that figured at mediæval feasts; boxes in which were kept the jesses and bells of hawks; love-tokens of many kinds, christening-spoons, draught and chess men, card boxes, belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries; carriages of the london of cromwell and hogarth, and of the dublin of burke; panelling of the date of raleigh; a complete room made for a lady of honour to marie antoinette. besides these memorials of periods comparatively well known to us, we shall find reproductions of the furniture of ages the habits of which we know imperfectly, such as the chair of dagobert, and various relics illustrating the old classic manners and civilisation, as they have come down to us from roman and greek artists, and brought to light by the discoveries at herculaneum and pompeii. the field through which a collection of old furniture stretches is too wide to be filled with anything like completeness; but the south kensington collection is already rich in some very rare examples, such as carved chests and cabinets, decorated with the most finished wood carving of flanders, france, and italy, as well as of our own country. as wood is the material of which furniture for domestic use has generally been made, there are, of course, limits to its endurance, and not much furniture is to be found anywhere older than the renaissance. objects for domestic use, such as beds, chairs, chests, tables, &c., are rare, and have not often been collected together. the museum of the hôtel de cluny, in paris, is the best representative collection of woodwork anterior to the quattro or cinque cento period--_i.e._ the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries. some carved and gilt carriages belonging to the last century are also there; and a set of carriages, carved and gilt, made for state ceremonials, used during the latter part of the last century and down to the days of the empire of napoleon iii. are, or were till the war of 1870, kept at the trianon at versailles. many cabinets and tables in boule work, vernis-martin work, and in marquetry by riesener, gouthière, david, and others, in the possession of sir richard wallace, were lately exhibited in the museum at bethnal green, and examples by the same artists from st. cloud and meudon are in the louvre in paris. a fine collection of carriages, belonging to the royal family of portugal, is kept in lisbon. these are decorated in the "vernis-martin" method. several old royal state carriages, carved and gilt, the property of the emperor of austria, are at vienna. in order to take a general review of the kinds, forms, and changes of personal and secular woodwork and furniture, as manners and fashions have influenced the wants of different nations and times, it will be well to divide the subject in chronological order into antique; egyptian, ninevite, greek, roman:--modern; early and late mediæval:--renaissance; seventeenth and eighteenth century work: to be followed by an inquiry into the changes that some of the pieces of furniture in most frequent use have undergone. chapter ii. antique: egypt, nineveh, and greece. considering the perishable nature of the material, we cannot expect to meet with many existing specimens of the woodwork or furniture of ancient egypt. there are to be found, however, abundant illustrations of these objects in the paintings and sculptures of monuments. the most complete are on the walls of the tombs, where we see detailed pictures of domestic life, and the interiors of houses are shown, with entertainments of parties of ladies and gentlemen talking, listening to music, eating and drinking. the guests are seated on chairs of wood, framed up with sloping backs, of which specimens are in the british museum; others are on stools or chairs of greater splendour, stuffed and covered on the seat and back with costly textiles, having the wooden framework carved and gilt, generally in the form of the fore and hind legs of tigers, panthers, and other animals of the chace, sometimes supported, as in the accompanying woodcut, on figures representing captives. [illustration] the british museum contains six egyptian chairs. one of these is made of ebony, turned in the lathe and inlaid with collars and dies of ivory. it is low, the legs joined by light rails of cane, the back straight, with two cross-bars and light rails between. the seat is slightly hollowed, and is of plaited cane as in modern chairs. another is square, also with straight back, but with pieces of wood sloped into the seat to make it comfortable for a sitter. small workmen's stools of blocks of wood hollowed out and with three or four legs fastened into them may also be referred to, and a table on four legs tied by four bars near the lower ends. the egyptians used couches straight, like ottomans; with head boards curving over as in our modern sofas, sometimes with the head and tail of an animal carved on the ends, and the legs and feet carved to correspond. these were stuffed and covered with rich material. the egyptians did not recline at meals. their double seats, [greek: diphroi], or bisellia, were such as were used by the greeks and romans. they had shelves and recesses, chests and coffers, made of pine or cedar wood, and of a material still used in egypt, the _cafass_--palm sticks formed into planks by thin pegs or rods of harder wood passing through a series of these sticks laid together. "of their bedroom furniture," says sir gardner wilkinson, "we know but little." they used (he tells us) their day couches probably, or lay on mats, and on low wooden pallets made of palm sticks. these last had curved blocks, which served for a pillow, forming a hollow to receive the head. examples in alabaster and wood are in the louvre and in the british museum. their materials for dress were of the most delicate and costly description. the robes of the ladies were often transparent, and the gold and silver tissues, muslins, and gossamer fabrics made in india and asia were probably also used in egypt. all these, as well as their jewels and valuables, imply corresponding chests and smaller coffers. small toilet boxes elegantly carved into the form or with representations of leaves and animals, are preserved in the louvre and in the british museum and other collections. they were generally of sycamore wood, sometimes of tamarisk or sont (acacia), and occasionally the more costly ivory or inlaid work was substituted for wood. larger boxes may also be seen in the louvre, some large enough to contain dresses. they are square, with flat, curved, or gable tops, painted on the surface, and generally lifted from the ground by four short legs or prolongations of the rails that form the framework. these boxes are dovetailed, and secured by glue and nails. their chariots and the harness of their horses were rich in proportion, the former painted, inlaid with ivory and gold, or with surface gilding, containing cases for their bows and arms, and made of wood filled in with the lightest materials, perhaps canvas stiffened with preparations of lac in the japanese manner, and put together with a skill that made the carriage-makers of egypt famous in their day. it will be sufficient to add that the great jewish kings had their chariots supplied from egypt. solomon paid about £75 of our money for a chariot, and of these he kept (for war purposes alone) a force of fourteen hundred, with forty thousand horses. mummy cases of cedar, a material readily procured and valued for its preservative qualities, are to be seen in many collections, and examples can be examined in the british museum. they are richly decorated with hieroglyphic paintings executed in tempera, and varnished with gum mastic. the furniture of nineveh is not so elaborately or completely represented as that of egypt, where the preservation of sculpture and painting was helped out by a climate of extraordinary dryness. but the discoveries of mr. layard have thrown on the details of ninevite domestic life light enough to give us the means of forming a judgment on their furniture. "ornaments," says mr. layard, "in the form of the heads of animals, chiefly the lion, bull, and ram, were very generally introduced, even in parts of the chariot, the harness of the horses, and domestic furniture." in this respect the assyrians resembled the egyptians. "their tables, thrones, and couches were made both of metal and wood, and probably inlaid with ivory. we learn from herodotus that those in the temple of belus in babylon were of solid gold." [illustration] [illustration] according to mr. layard, the chair represented in the earliest monuments is without a back, and the legs tastefully carved. this form occurs in the palace of nimrúd, and is sculptured on one of the bas-reliefs now in the british museum. often the legs ended in the feet of a lion or the hoofs of a bull, and were made of gold, silver, or bronze. "on the monuments of khorsabad and by the rock tablets of malthaiyah we find representations of chairs supported by animals and by human figures, sometimes prisoners, like the caryatides of the greeks. in this they resemble the arm-chairs of egypt, but appear to have been more massive. this mode of ornamenting the throne of the king was adopted by the persians, and is seen in the sculpture of persepolis." the woodcut represents such a chair, from a bas-relief at khorsabad. the lion head and lion foot were used by other oriental nations. the throne of king solomon was supported by lions for arms, probably in the same position as the horses in the khorsabad chair; and lions of gold or chryselephantine work stood six on each side on the six steps before the throne. the forms of furniture of a later date in the sculptures of nineveh at khorsabad are of an inferior style. "the chairs have generally more than one cross-bar, and are somewhat heavy and ill-proportioned, the feet resting upon large inverted cones, resembling pine-apples." all these seats, like the [greek: diphroi] and _sellæ_ of important personages in greece and rome, were high enough to require a footstool. "on the earlier monuments of assyria footstools are very beautifully carved or modelled. the feet were ornamented, like those of the chair, with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls." the tables seem in general to have been of similar form and decoration to the thrones or seats, the ends of the frame projecting and carved as in the woodcut above, only on a larger scale. the couches were of similar form, but made of gold and silver, stuffed and covered on the surface with the richest materials. the tables and the chairs were often made in the shape also found in greece and rome, with folding supports that open on a central rivet like our camp-stools, and like the curule chairs which were common not only in rome but throughout italy during the renaissance. a large piece of wood of pine or cedar is in the british museum. it is of a full red colour, the effect of time. cedar was probably most in use; but both in egypt and nineveh, as also in judæa under solomon and his successors, woods were imported from europe and india; ebony certainly, perhaps rosewood, teak, and indian walnut. ebony and ivory were continually used for inlaying furniture. of their bedroom furniture we can say little, nor do we know of what kind were the cabinets or chests made to preserve their dresses and valuables. it is probable, however, that these were occasionally as rich and elaborate as any of their show or state furniture. of hebrew furniture we can give few details. it is probable that the jews differed but little from the assyrians in this respect. the throne of solomon has been already noticed. in the story of judith the canopy and curtains of the bed of holofernes may have been taken by the chronicler from familiar examples at home, or may have been strictly drawn from traditional details. in the figurative language of the canticles, the bed of solomon is of cedar of lebanon, the pillars of silver, the bottom of gold. ordinary bedroom furniture is spoken of in the chronicles, when the shunamite woman, a person of great wealth, built for the prophet elias "a little chamber on the wall, and set therein a bed, a table, a stool, and a candlestick." ivory wardrobes are mentioned in the 45th psalm, but of what size or form we cannot determine. in the book of esther allusions are made to persian furniture decorations, white, green, and blue hangings fastened with fine linen to silver rings and pillars of marble. the beds were of gold and silver, &c. the bed of og, king of bashan, was nine cubits long by four, and was of iron: it was preserved as a trophy. as the chariots of solomon were made in egypt, and the artists employed on the temple came from tyre, it is not unreasonable to suppose that furniture was either made by foreign workmen, or that the hebrews borrowed freely the forms and decorations of surrounding asiatic nations. though specially and purposely jealous of any innovation or interference with religious rites and observances, we have no cause to think that they objected to the use of furniture or utensils such as they found first during the long sojourn in egypt, and afterwards in other countries. they are said in earlier times to have spoiled the egyptians with reference to the ornaments and jewels carried away at the migration. we know that moses was "learned in all the wisdom of the egyptians;" and two particular artists, and two only, are named in the book of exodus as qualified to execute the sacred vessels and utensils. whatever their technical qualifications were, these had been acquired in egypt. in any attempt to picture to ourselves the kind of furniture and objects of daily use apart from chariots, arms, &c., that surrounded the greeks in early ages, it will be necessary to bear in mind the close connection which that people must have had with the asiatic races, and the splendour and refinement that surrounded the wealthy civilisation of the oriental monarchies. they were so continually the allies or the rivals of the various states in asia minor, and pushed out into that fertile region so many vigorous colonies, that it cannot be doubted that the splendid stuffs, beds, couches, thrones, chariots, &c., used by greeks on the asiatic continent or in europe, had much of eastern character in form and method of execution; perhaps, at first, in decoration also. this woodcut represents a chair of assyrian character on a bas-relief from xanthus, in the british museum. [illustration] much that is oriental figures in poetic accounts of the arms, furniture, and equipments of the greek heroic ages. the chiefs take the field in chariots. these could have been used but in small numbers on ground so uneven as the rocky territories of the morea. the beds described by homer, the coverlids of dyed wool, tapestries, or carpets, and other instances of coloured and showy furniture, were genuine descriptions of objects known and seen, though not common. generally the furniture of the heroic age was simple. two beds of bronze of tartessus, one dorian and one ionian, the smallest weighing fifty talents, of uncertain date, were kept in the treasury at altis, and seen there by pausanias towards the end of the second century. the chariots differed little except in the ornamental carving, modelling, or chasing, from those of egypt. the oldest remaining models of greek furniture to which we can point are the chairs in which the antique figures in the syrian room at the british museum are seated. these are dated six, or nearly six, centuries before christ. they represent chairs with backs, quite perpendicular in front and behind. the frame-pieces of the seats are morticed into the legs, and the mortices and tenons are accurately marked in the marble, the horizontal passing right through the upright bars. these early pieces of furniture were probably executed in wood, not metal, which was at first but rarely used. the woodcuts show the different forms taken from antique bas-reliefs. [illustration] the chest or coffer in which cypselus of corinth had been concealed was seen by pausanias in the temple of olympia. it was made about the middle of the sixth century b.c. the chest was of cedar, carved and decorated with figures and bas-reliefs, some in ivory, some in gold or ivory partly gilt, which were inlaid on the four sides and on the top. the subjects of the sculpture were old greek myths and local legends, and traditions connected with the country. this coffer is supposed to have been executed by eumelos of corinth. the great period of greek art began in the fifth century b.c.; but those were not days favourable to the development of personal luxury among the citizens. an extreme simplicity in private manners balanced the continual publicity and political excitement of greek life. the rich classes, moreover, had little inducement to make any display of their possessions. the state enjoyed an indefinite right to the property of its members; the lawgiver in plato declared "ye are not your own, still less is your property your own." in sparta the exclusive training for war admitted of no manner of earning money by business. in athens the poorer class had so exclusively the upper hand of the rich that the latter had to provide the public with entertainments of sacrificial solemnities, largesses of corn, and banquets. "the demos," says the author of the "gentile and the jew," "understood the squeezing of the rich like sponges." greece was the paradise of the poor. it is therefore to be expected that the sculpture of the day, though employed sometimes upon the decoration of thrones or state seats, chariots, chests, looking-glasses, tripods, as the painting was on walls, vases, and movable pictures on panels, should have been employed mostly in temples and, with occasional exceptions, on objects of some public use. the chest described above was kept as a relic, and the elaborately carved thrones in the temples were those of the statues of gods and heroes. ivory and gold laid over a substructure of olive wood were the materials quite as frequently used by great sculptors as marble or bronze for statues which did not form parts of the actual decorations of their architecture. in later times these materials were used in sumptuous furniture. the greeks used couches for sleeping and resting upon, but not for reclining on at meals, till the macedonian period. we give two or three examples, from marbles: one of which resembles the modern sofa. women sat always, as in rome, sometimes on the couch at the head or foot, on which the master of the house or a guest reclined, generally on chairs. besides chairs like the one represented here, the greeks made arm-chairs; and folding chairs of metal. in the parthenon frieze jupiter is seated in a square seat on thick turned legs, with a round bar for a back, resting on short turned posts fitted into the seat. the arms are less high than the back; they are formed by slight bars framed into the uprights at the back, and resting on winged sphinxes. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] mirrors of mixed metal alloys, silver, tin, and copper, have come down to our times in great numbers. they were made occasionally in pure silver, and in gold probably among the greeks as they were in later times among the romans. the cases are of bronze, and engraved with figure designs of the highest character. there is, however, no proof that these were used as furniture in houses, as in rome. they are hand mirrors, and the description of them, as works of art, belongs rather to that of antique bronzes. the woodcut shows the usual type, with the richly ornamented handle. [illustration] designs of the greek couch, whether for sleeping or for reclining at meals, are abundant on tomb paintings, and sculptures, and on the paintings of vases. in the british museum we may see a large vase in the second vase room, on which a couch for two persons is arranged with a long mattress covered with rich material, lying within what appears to be a border of short turned rails with a cushion on each end, also covered with rich striped material. a long low stool decorated with ivory lies below the couch as a kind of step. the legs, as in many vase representations, are thick turned supports with lighter parts below, and a turned knob at the foot. on another vase dionysus reclines on a thick round cushion at the head of the couch, while ariadne sits on it. figures feasting or stretched in death on similar couches can be seen in two beautiful and perfect funeral chests in the ægina room. all these pieces of furniture seem made of or decorated with ivory, and furnished with coloured cushions or coverings of an oriental character. tripods were made of bronze in great number for sacred use, and probably also as the supports of brasiers, tables, &c., in private houses. the tables were of wood, marble, and metal; the supports being either lion or leopard legs and heads, or sphinxes with lifted wings, a favourite form in greek ornamentation. with regard to greek houses generally, their arrangements differed very little from the earlier houses of the romans. the bas-relief in the british museum--bacchus received as a guest by icarus--represents a couch with turned legs, the feet of which are decorated with leaf work; a plain square stool, perhaps the top of a box, on which masks are laid, and a tripod table with lion legs. the houses in the background are tiled. the windows are divided into two lights by an upright mullion or column, and a bas-relief of a charioteer driving two horses ornaments a portion of the wall, and may be intended for a picture hung up or fixed against the wall. the whole shows us an athenian house, decked for a festive occasion, and garlands and hangings are festooned round its outer walls. the greek chariot was of wood, probably similar to that of the egyptians. it had sometimes wheels with four strong spokes only, as in the woodcut. the chariot wheel of the car of mausolus, in the british museum, has six. the ninevite wheels have sometimes as many as twelve, as may be seen in the sculptured bas-reliefs of the narrow assyrian gallery of the british museum. [illustration] the woods used by the greeks for sculpture were ebony, cypress, cedar, oak, _smilax_, yew, willow, _lotus_, and citron. these materials were rarely left without enrichments of ivory, gold, and colour. the faces of statues were painted vermilion, the dresses, crowns, or other ornaments were gilt or made in wrought gold. chapter iii. the romans. the splendour that surrounded the personal usages of the earlier races of antiquity, the egyptians, ninevites, persians, greeks, and tuscans, was inherited by the romans. not only did they outlive those powers, but they absorbed their territory as far as they could reach it; they affected to take in their religions and deities to add to their own system; they drained the subject populations for slaves, and eagerly adopted from them every art that could administer to the magnificence and luxury of their own private life. they have left both written records in their literature and actual examples of their furniture, made in metal or of marble. the discovery of herculaneum and of pompeii has given us not only single pieces of furniture, but very considerable remains of houses, shops, streets, fora or open public places of assembly, theatres, and baths. it is in such evidences of roman social life that we shall find the materials for our present inquiry. the romans spent their earlier ages in unceasing struggles for independence and dominion: and so long as the elder powers of italy survived to dispute the growth of roman greatness, there could not be much expansion of private wealth or splendour in the houses of roman citizens. though surrounded by splendid social life among the etruscans, the roman people long remained exceptionally simple in personal habits. it was after the punic wars that oriental luxuries found their way into italy along with the carthaginian armies. tapestry is said to have been first brought to rome by attalus, the king of pergamus, who died b.c. 133 possessed of immense wealth, and bequeathed tapestries, generally used in the east from the early ages, to the roman citizens. when augustus became emperor the conquest of the world was complete. thenceforward military habits and simplicity of individual life were no longer necessary to a state that could find no political rivals. the great capital of the world absorbed like a vast vegetable growth the thought, the skill, and the luxuries of the whole world. nothing was too valuable to be procured by the great roman nobles or money-makers, and nothing too strange not to find a place and be welcome in one or other of their vast households. while this was so at rome in chief, it must be remembered that other capitals were flourishing in various countries, as wealthy, as luxurious in their own way and degree, only less in extent and means, and lacking that peculiar seal of supremacy that gives to the real capital a character that is never attained in subordinate centres of civilisation. antioch was such a centre in the east; alexandria in the south. both these great cities contained wealthy, refined, and luxurious societies. both were known as universities and seats of learning. antioch was the most debauched and luxurious; alexandria the most learned and refined. they did not exactly answer to the distinct capitals of modern kingdoms and states, such as we now see flourishing in europe, to london, paris, vienna, berlin, or st. petersburg, because no one supreme state or city predominates over them; and further still, no one draws the pick and choice of the intellect and refinement of the whole of europe to absorb them into itself as rome did in the old world. but, in those days, antioch and alexandria, one at the head of the wealth and splendour of asia, the other representing greek learning grafted on the ancient scientific and artistic traditions of egypt, must have contributed much to the general fusion of "ideas" and notions on art and personal manners and customs in the capital of the roman empire. the roman house was of traditional plan, and consisted generally of two or more square enclosures surrounded by arcades, open to the air in the centre, but which openings could be closed in summer or winter by awnings when the courts were not large enough to include a garden, as the inner enclosure usually did. the house had in front a _vestibulum_, an open space covered by a verandah-shaped roof, sometimes enclosed by lattices, sometimes open. an _ostium_ or lobby inside the entrance-door, deep enough to contain a small porter's lodge on one side, led to an inner door which opened on the _atrium_. this court had an opening to the air, and a tank for rain water was sunk in the middle. fountains with jets or falls of water were not uncommon, the ancients being well acquainted with the principle that water if brought from an elevation in pipes will force its way up to its natural level. inside the _atrium_ was the _nuptiale_, the nuptial bed, and here were kept in earliest times the _penates_, household or family divinities, and the family hearth, though these sacred emblems were banished in the imperial times to distant parts of the house, and statues between the columns that supported the central roof supplied their place. the _atrium_ was the general reception-room, like the hall in mediæval houses, but not the dining-room. to this succeeded an inner open court, with porticoes or corridors running round, supported on columns, and with a fountain or basin, shrubs and flowers in the centre, like the courts of the alhambra. this court provided four halls in the four corridors, which could be screened off by tapestries and curtains. the centre was shaded in summer by canvas or carpet awnings. in winter a wooden roof could be pushed over the open space. between the two halls or courts was a chamber called the _triclinium_, or dining-room. these rooms were roofed with timber richly painted and gilt. the roofs either hung on beams projecting from the walls, or were supported by pillars, or were carried up to a high opening, sloping back to the walls so as to admit more light to the rooms, alcoves, or screened portions furthest removed from the opening. occasionally they were covered in wholly with a testudo-shaped roof, and in such cases lighted, perhaps, by dormers, though it is not quite clear how light was provided for in such constructions. roman rooms were not floored with boards but paved with marble in large pieces, or in mosaic work made of small dies or squares. coarse specimens of such work manufactured in our own times are laid down in the museum at kensington, and fragments of the old work may be seen there on the walls. occasionally these mosaics represent the house watch-dog chained, or the fable of ganymede, or hunting scenes, sometimes finished with the utmost nicety. the _triclinium_ took its name from the three couches or sofas, on each of which three persons reclined during meals. later, and in sumptuous palaces, several dining-rooms were built out beyond the inner courts. the engraving, a reconstruction, will give a fair idea of the general character of a richly furnished roman house. first, is the _atrium_, into which smaller chambers open; next, the _triclinium_, to the left of which is a cabinet; and beyond is the _peristylium_, with its lofty colonnades. this last apartment was large and open; often planted with shrubs and trees, or containing statues, flowers in pots and vases, and surrounded by a corridor. as these courts were of various sizes they were, no doubt, in rome on a scale out of all proportion to those found at pompeii; were fewer or more in number, and rooms were added as the proprietor could acquire ground for building, often a difficulty in the older parts of the city. something of this ground plan survives in a few of the very ancient roman churches, as in that of s. pudenziana, formerly the house of the senator pudens, with vestibules, open courts, &c. [illustration] around the inner court, in the sumptuous roman houses and the country villas of the patricians, were built other rooms, dining-halls, no longer called _triclinium_ but _triclinia_ in the plural, as admitting more than the number of nine persons reclining on the conventional three couches, to dine at once. in the city itself room was probably wanting in private houses for such expansion, the houses being in streets already laid out. in the villas there was no such restriction. these halls were built to face different quarters of the compass and to be used according to the season. _verna_ and _autumnalis_ looked to the east, _hyberna_ to the west, _æstiva_ to the north. _[oe]ci_ were other rooms still larger; and glass windows were to be found in them. in a painting now in the kensington museum, n^{o.} 653, given by the emperor napoleon the third, glazed windows can be distinguished, divided by upright mullions and transoms of wood, such as were constructed in english houses in the seventeenth century. the sleeping-rooms, _cubicula_, were small closets rather than rooms, closed in general by curtains or hangings, and disposed about the sides of the rooms between the courts, or round the outer courts themselves. besides the living and sleeping chambers, there were store-rooms for various kinds of food. wearing apparel was kept in _vestiaria_, wardrobe rooms, fitted especially to store them in. it is doubtful whether the dresses were in chests: more probably in presses, or hanging on pegs. the ornamental woodwork in some of these rooms was rich in the extreme. the outer vestibule was protected by an overhanging balcony or by the projecting rafters of the roof of the first portion of the house, according as rooms were built over that portion or not. it was in some instances enclosed by carved or trellised woodwork. the doors were generally in two halves and could be closed with locks, which in the age of the empire were thoroughly understood, with latchets secured by a pin or with a wooden bar. the term _obserare_ was used when the security of a bar was added. the hinge was a pin or peg at the top and bottom which turned in a socket. metal hinges strapped over the wood frame were not unknown: and bronze hinges are in the collection of the british museum. the decoration of the door, which was of wood, consisted principally of bronze mounts. the doorposts were ornamented with carving, sometimes inlaid with tortoiseshell and other rich materials. the woodwork was painted. bedrooms were closed with doors; oftener by curtains. the windows were generally closed with shutters, hinged and in pairs. they were some six feet six inches above the level of the street, not beyond reach of the knocks and signals of friends outside. wooden benches were usually provided in the vestibule. besides the inlaid door frames, the ceilings of all the roman rooms were very richly decorated. in more simple constructions the wood joists of the floor above, or the structure of the roof when no room surmounted it, were shown and painted; but in richer houses the timbers were covered with boards, and formed into coffers and panels, painted, gilt, and inlaid with ivory. this splendid system of decoration dates from the destruction of carthage. curved bearers from the upper part of the walls were added to form one kind of ceiling (_camara_), for which vitruvius gives directions; and glass mosaics, like those used in the pavements, were inlaid on a plaster bed in the coffers. the cornices were of carved wood, or of plaster carved or modelled; the wood was always covered with a preparation of gesso, and gilt and painted like the walls. an examination of the remains of roman glass found at pompeii and elsewhere, and of which excellent examples may be studied in the kensington museum, seems to point to the use not only of mosaics made of dies, but of mouldings, borders, and panels moulded in coloured glass of magnificent hues, and with the finest stamped ornaments. these were occasionally gilt, or were made in relief, or with a coat of opaque white glass over the translucent material, which could be cut and modelled in the manner of cameos, and helped further to decorate the ceiling, always one of the most splendid features of the room. the walls, when not painted, were sometimes hung with mirrors of glass blackened, or of silver, or of slabs of obsidian. they were of various sizes, sometimes large enough to reflect persons at full length. in the case of portable pictures, frames were added round them. borders were certainly painted round frescoes. it is not to be supposed that paintings which could be exposed for sale, moved about, and hung up, could be finished round otherwise than by ornamental mouldings, or framework sufficient to protect and properly set them off. [illustration] among the ornamental pieces of furniture were tripods, three-legged frames, forming the supports of tables, of altars, of braziers, sometimes of pieces of sculpture. these were generally of bronze, and original pieces obtained in various parts of italy can be seen in the bronze room of the british museum. some of these much exceed the height of high modern tables. they are light, and ornamented on the upper ends with animal or other heads; some with the beginning of a hind leg about halfway down. they were, however, frequently movable, and, like the piece in the cut on the preceding page from an example in the british museum, were made to contract by folding; the stays which connect the legs internally slipping up and down them by means of loops. such pieces might serve as table legs, or would hold altar pans or common fire pans or support pots of flowers. [illustration] besides tripods the reception rooms were ornamented with candelabra on tall stands of most graceful form and proportions. it will suffice to point to more than a dozen of examples in the british museum; and the woodcuts are from examples in other collections. the stems are a fluted staff or a light tree stem, commonly supported on three animal legs spread at the base, and branching out on the tops into one, two, or more boughs or hooks, with elegant modelled decorations or ending in flat stands. one has a slight rim round the dish or stand, on which a candelabrum or wax candlestick could be placed. in other cases the lamps were hung by their suspensory chains to the branches described. other candelabra stands were of marble, six, eight, ten, or more feet in height, hybrid compositions of column caps, acanthus leaves and stems, on altar bases, &c., in great variety of design, of which engravings may be studied in the work of piranesi. casts, n^{os.} 93, 94 (antiques), are in the south kensington museum. we do not know in what kind of repositories or pieces of furniture the ancient romans kept their specimens of painting or their vases, some of which formed their most valued treasures. it is generally supposed that they were set on shelves fastened to the wall. on such shelves small images, boxes of alabaster or glass, and ornamental vases of all kinds were kept. craters, sculptured vases on a large scale and made of bronze or marble, were also mounted on pedestals and ranged as ornaments with the statues. bronzes and statues, pieces of sculpture that had fixed places, stood either along the walls of the reception rooms or under the eaves of the _compluvium_, whence light was obtained to set them off to advantage, and where turf, flowers, and fountains were in front of them. a vase or crater, nearly eight feet high, is in the hall of the british museum, brought from the villa of hadrian at palestrina; and in the entrance-hall of nero's house there was a colossus 120 feet high, and long arcades and a tank or basin of water. but objects on this scale scarcely belong to the descriptions of what might be found ordinarily in houses of the great patricians. sometimes a couch and a table of marble were placed close to the fountains in these delightful portions of the house. tables were of many varieties in rome, and enormous expenses were incurred in the purchase of choice pieces of such furniture. they were made of marble, gold, silver, bronze; were engraved, damascened, plated, and otherwise enriched with the precious metals; were of ivory, and of wood, and wood decorated with ivory; and in many other methods. engraved (p. 26) is a very beautiful table found at pompeii, and now at naples. tripods, terminal and other figures, made of bronze or marble; winged sphinxes, or leopards' and lions' legs, columns and other architectonic forms, were the supports on which these tables were fastened. some had one central support only, in a few instances finished with animal heads of ivory. _abaci_ were small tables with raised rims to hold valuables. many tables were of cedar and on ivory feet. horace speaks of maple, so also does pliny, as a favourite wood for tables: birds'-eye maple especially was much prized. the planks and disks that could be cut from the roots and the boles of trees that had been either pollarded or otherwise dwarfed in growth in order to obtain wavy grain, knotted convolutions, &c., were in request. veneers of well-mottled wood or of precious wood, small in scantling, were glued on pine, cedar, &c., as a base. these pollard heads, root pieces, &c., were bought at high prices, specially those of the _citrus_ or _cedrus atlantica_. [illustration] the point held to be desirable (says pliny) in the grain of tables was to have "veins arranged in waving lines or else forming spirals like so many little whirlpools. in the former arrangement the lines run in an oblong direction, for which reason they are called _tigrinæ_, tiger tables. in the latter case they are called _pantherinæ_, or panther tables. there are some with wavy, undulating marks, and which are more particularly esteemed if these resemble the eyes of a peacock." next in esteem to these was the veined wood covered or dotted, as it were, with dense masses of grain, for which reason such tables received the name of _apiatæ_, parsley wood. but the colour of the wood is the quality that was held in the highest esteem of all; that of wine mixed with honey was the most prized, the veins being peculiarly refulgent. the defect in that kind of table was _lignum_ (dull log colour), a name given to the wood when common-looking, indistinct, with stains or flaws. the barbarous tribes, according to pliny, buried the citrus wood in the ground while green, giving it first a coating of wax. when it came into the workman's hands it was put for a certain number of days beneath a heap of corn. by this process the wood lost weight. sea-water was supposed to harden it, and to act as a preservative. this wood was carefully polished by hand-rubbing. as much as £9,000 (a million of sesterces) was paid for one table by cicero. of two that had belonged to king juba, sold by auction, one fetched over £10,000. these were made of citrus (_thuya articulata_ or _cedrus atlantica_). we hear of two made for king ptolemæus of mauritania, the property of nomius, a freed man of tiberius, formed out of two slices or sections of the _cedrus atlantica_ four feet and a half in diameter, the largest known to pliny; and of the destruction of a table, the property of the family of the cethegi, valued at 1,400,000 sesterces. [illustration] the roman patricians and their ladies sat on chairs and reclined on couches when not at meals. in the _atrium_ under the broad roofed corridors, and in the halls not used for eating, were couches, such as the couch of which we give a woodcut, of bronze or of precious woods; the bronze damascened with ornaments of the precious metals, or of metal amalgam; the wood veneered or inlaid with marquetry or tarsia work of ivory, ebony, box, palm, birds'-eye maple, beech, and other woods. the chairs were of different kinds and were used for various occasions. the _atrium_ contained double seats, single seats, and benches to hold more than one sitter; chairs that either folded or were made in the form of folding chairs, such as could be carried about and placed in the chariot, _curules_. the woodcut shows the general fashion of a state or ceremonial chair; from the marble example in the louvre. [illustration] this woodcut is of the _sella_, a seat or couch, made of wood, with turned legs; it is intended, probably, for one person only, and has no need of a footstool. it has been covered with a cushion. [illustration] _scamnum_ was a bench or long seat of wood, used in poorer houses instead of the luxurious _triclinium_ of the men or arm-chairs of the women, for sitting at meals or other occasions. seats were placed along the walls in the _exedræ_ or saloons; marble benches in most cases, sometimes wooden seats; particularly also in the alcoves that were constructed in the porticoes of baths and public buildings, where lectures of philosophers were listened to. the romans had hearths in certain rooms. numerous passages in ancient writers, to which it is needless to refer, concur in showing that the hearth was a spot sacred to the _lares_ of the family, the altar of family life. it was occasionally made of bricks or stone, and immovable, on which logs could be heaped. it seems doubtful whether chimneys were used in the roman houses; probably occasionally. writers on roman antiquities speak of such rare constructions used, perhaps, as ventilators to the kitchen. the usual method of warming was by means of a brazier, of which an example found at cære, in etruria, is preserved in the british museum. it is a round dish on three animal legs, with swing handles for removing it. another, square in form, is reproduced in a casting in the south kensington museum collection, n^{o.} 70, standing on animal legs and damascened round the sides with gold ornaments. the romans had also kitchen braziers with contrivances for heating pans, water, wine, &c., by charcoal. n^{o.} 71 at south kensington is a casting of such a piece, having a round metal receptacle, like a small cask, on its end, and a raised horse-shoe frame, on which a pan could be placed, with fire space in the middle. these braziers were filled with charcoal heated thoroughly by the help of the bellows, to get rid of the noxious gases. it has been said that the dresses of the romans were preserved, as in mediæval castles, in a separate room or wardrobe, and this room must have been fitted with apparatus for hanging shelves and lockers. they had besides for keeping valuables, and usually placed in the sleeping-room of the master or mistress of the house, cupboards and chests of beech ornamented with metal, some large enough to contain a man. in these receptacles they conveyed their property to and from country houses, and on visits. enormous numbers of slaves moved to and fro with the family, and the chests were carried on men's shoulders, or in waggons of various shape and make. the most important action of the luxurious roman day was the dinner. couches were arranged for the guests, and the room was further provided with stools or low benches, side tables, and the movable table used for each course. these tables were put down and removed from the supports on which they stood. the side tables were of marble or of wood, covered with silver plates, inlaid, veneered, and ornamented in various ways; some were used for serving the dishes, others for the display of plate. sculptured objects of plate, partly ornamental, were put on the table and removed with the courses. petronius describes an ass of corinthian bronze with silver paniers as the centre piece of one course; sauces dropped from the paniers on luscious morsels placed beneath. a hen of wood with eggs within and a figure of vertumnus are also named by the same author as centre pieces. these were replaced on the sideboard or removed with the course in trays. [illustration] closely connected with the dining-room was, it need scarcely be said, the kitchen; and we give woodcuts of kitchen utensils, from the originals preserved at naples. mention should be made of tapestries and carpets before leaving the subject of roman house furniture. carpets, _tapete_, blankets, or other woollen coverlids for sofas or beds, were made at corinth, miletus, and a number of seats of fine wool manufacture. it is too large a question to go into in detail, and woven fabrics belong to a different class of objects fully described in another hand-book, upon textiles. these tapestries played a great part in the actual divisions of the roman rooms. bedrooms, it has been said, were often closed with curtains only, and the corridors and smaller rooms were closed at the ends and made comfortable by the same means. at the dinner detailed by petronius the hangings on the _triclinia_ are changed between pauses in the meal. the feelings consonant with the day or occasion were symbolized or carried out in these external decorations. mention is made by seneca of ceilings made so as to be moved, and portions turned by machinery; perhaps the changed panels showed different colours and decorations according to the day, and to the hangings which were used. the same author alludes to wood ceilings that could be raised higher or lower by machinery, "_pegmata per se surgentia_ et tabulata _tacite in sublime crescentia_," making no noise in the operation. these contrivances were reserved for dining-rooms, where the diversions were of the freest description and the guests prepared for any exciting or sensational interludes. the romans required some of their furniture for out-door use. besides the curule chairs and lofty seats which were carried into theatres or baths, and other places of public resort, they used litters. the sofas or couches were sometimes carried on the necks of six or more slaves, and served as litters. but special contrivances like the indian palanquins were made with or hung under poles, with curtains or shutters. stations of such conveyances for public use were established in rome. the subjects of the carving and ornamentation of roman furniture were the classic legends mainly derived from the greek mythology. roman house walls were, however, in later years profusely decorated with conventional representations of architecture, and panels richly coloured on which were painted figures of dancers, cupids, gods and heroes; sometimes commonplace landscapes and domestic scenes. their solid furniture was decorated with masks, heads of heroes, legs and feet of animals, and foliage, generally the leaves of the acanthus, of an architectonic kind. the great achievement of the romans in woodwork of a constructive kind was the machinery contrived for public shows, such as the cages shot up out of the sand of the arena of amphitheatres, of which the sides fell down, leaving at liberty the beasts wanted for fights or for the execution of criminals. of such constructions probably nothing in the middle ages, when timber abounded and the use of it was thoroughly understood, exceeds the following; a description by pliny of a device of c. curio, in africa, when celebrating the funeral games in honour of his father:-"he caused to be erected close together two theatres of very large dimensions and built of wood, each of them nicely poised, and turning on a pivot. before mid-day a spectacle of games was exhibited in each, the theatres being turned back to back, in order that the noise of neither of them might interfere with what was going on in the other. then, in the latter part of the day, all on a sudden, the two theatres were swung round and, the corners uniting, brought face to face; the outer frames too were removed (_i.e._ the backs of each hemicycle) and thus an amphitheatre was formed, in which combats of gladiators were presented to the view; men whose safety was almost less compromised than that of the roman people in allowing itself to be thus whirled round from side to side." the following woods were in use amongst the romans:-for carpentry and joiner's work, _cedar_ was the wood most in demand. _pine_ of different kinds was used for doors, panels, carriage building, and all work requiring to be joined up with glue, of which that wood is particularly retentive. _elm_ was employed for the framework of doors, lintels and sills, in which sockets were formed for the pins or hinges on which the doors turned. the hinge jambs were occasionally made of _olive_. _ash_ was employed for many purposes; that grown in gaul was used in the construction of carriages on account of its extreme suppleness and pliancy. axles and portions which were much morticed together were made of _ilex_ (_holm oak_). _beech_ also was in frequent use. _acer_ (_maple_) was much prized, as has been already stated, for tables, on account of the beauty of the wood and of the finish which it admits. _osiers_ were in use for chairs as in our own times. _veneering_ was universal in wood furniture of a costly kind. the slices of wood were laid down with glue as in modern work, and they used tarsia or picture work of all kinds. _figwood_, _willow_, _plane_, _elm_, _ash_, _mulberry_, _cherry_, _cork wood_, were amongst the materials for the bed or substance on which to lay such work. wild and cultivated _olive_, _box_, _ebony_ (corsican especially), _ilex_, _beech_, were adapted for veneering boxes, desks, and small work. besides these, the romans used the syrian _terebinth_, _maple_, _palm_ (cut across), _holly_, _root of elder_, _poplar_; horn, ivory plain and stained; tortoiseshell; and wood grained in imitation of various woods for veneering couches and other large pieces of furniture, as well as door frames, &c., so that this imitation of grains is not entirely a modern invention. woods were soaked in water or buried under heaps of grain to season them; or steeped in oil of cedar to keep off the worms. the _cedars_ of crete, africa, and syria were the best of that class of timber. the best _fir_ timber was obtained from the jura range, from corsica, bithynia, pontus, and macedonia. the romans had admirable glue, and used planes, chisels, &c. their saws, set in frames, had the teeth turned in opposite directions to open the seam in working. there are some curious historical records of the endurance of particular wood structures. the cedar roof of the temple of diana of ephesus was intact at the end of four centuries in pliny's time. her statue was black, supposed to be of ebony, but according to other authorities of vine, and had outlasted various rebuildings of the temple. the roof beams of the temple of apollo at utica were of cedar and had been laid 348 years before the foundation of rome; nearly 1,200 years old in the time of pliny, and still sound. the emperor philip celebrated the secular games (recurring every 100 years), with great pomp, for the fifth time in the year 248. we may consider this event, for our present purpose, as a convenient finish of the classic period of antique art, and of the reflections of it in the woodwork and furniture and the surroundings of private life. ten centuries had elapsed since romulus had fortified the hills on the banks of the tiber. "during the first four ages" (says gibbon) "the romans, in the laborious school of poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and government; by the vigorous exertion of these virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had obtained in the course of the three succeeding centuries an absolute empire over many countries of europe, asia, and africa. the last three centuries had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal decline." chapter iv. byzantine art. we may take as the next period for illustration the centuries that witnessed the break up of the old roman constitution and the gradual formation of a new order of society down to the end of the first ten centuries of our era. seven hundred and fifty years out of those ten hundred belong in great part to mediæval history. the misfortunes of italy, and the incessant state of war, invasion, and struggle in that peninsula were too destructive of personal wealth and the means of showing it in costly furniture to leave us any materials from thence for our present subject. the history of furniture and woodwork, as applied to civil and social uses, now belongs to such civilisation as took its origin and its form from constantinople. art of these centuries is called byzantine. [illustration] the woodcut is from the chair of st. peter in rome, the oldest and most interesting relic of antique furniture in existence; that is, of furniture made of wood and kept in use from the days of ancient rome. but it has had repairs and additions, and a description of it shall be referred to in another section. byzantine art is a debased form of the classic, but with a large mixture of greek; not of the old classic greek type which had long been exhausted, but of that asiatic greek which derived so much of its splendour from the rich but unimaginative decorations of persia. the objects actually executed at constantinople or by byzantine artists now remaining can scarcely be included in a treatise on furniture. they are mostly caskets and other small pieces executed in metal or in ivory. accounts of many interesting pieces of byzantine sculpture will be found in the "description of the ivories in the south kensington museum." amongst them the diptychs of the consuls are not only the most important, but the most interesting to a treatise on furniture, as we see in them consular seats and thrones of many varieties. we may select amongst other examples the following, which can be studied in the museum or referred to in that work. for instance, n^{o.} 368 (fully described in mr. maskell's "ivories") is one leaf of a consular diptych of anastasius paulus probus sabinianus pompeius. the consul is represented seated on a chair of very ornate character. it is like the old folding curule chairs of rome, but with elements both of greek and egyptian ornamentation, such as belong to the massive marble seats, supported by lions or leopards, with the heads sculptured above the upper joint of the hind legs. in the mouths of these lions' heads are rings for the purpose of carrying the chair, and the top frame is ornamented with little panels and medallions containing winged masks and portrait heads of the consul and his family or of members of the imperial family. on each side of the seat are small winged figures of victory standing on globes and holding circular tablets over their heads. these probably represent the front of the arms, and are supposed to have a bar stretching from the heads or the circular tablets to the back of the seat. this feature too is a continuation of types that are to be found on greek vases and in the chairs of both nineveh and egypt. a low footstool with an embroidered cushion on it is under the feet of the consul, and another cushion, also embroidered, covers the seat. this represents a chair of the sixth century. a seat still more like the curule chair, but with a high back, is represented in another ivory, n^{o.} 270, in the south kensington collection. this piece is a plaque or tablet with a bas-relief of two apostles seated. the chairs are formed of two curved and recurved pieces each side, which are jointed together at the point of intersection. one pair of these pieces is prolonged and connected by straight cross-bars, and forms a back. two dolphins, with the heads touching the low front pieces and the tails sloping up and connected with the back, form the arms. this belongs to the ninth century. the lyre back, a form not unknown in old greek and thence adopted among roman fashions, is also to be seen in chairs on ivories and in manuscripts. round cushions were hung on the back, others covered the seat. these are seen also figured in the mosaics of venice, and later of monreale in sicily which retained much of the byzantine spirit. the art of sicily continued longer subject to constantinople than that of most of its italian provinces, and venice preserved her old traditions far into the period of the european revival of art. the beds, as represented in manuscript illuminations, belong chiefly to religious compositions such as the nativity, or visions appearing to saints in their sleep. they are couches in the old roman form, or are supported on turned legs, from the frames of which valances hang down to the ground. sometimes a curtain acts as a screen at the head or on one side, but testers are wanting. chariots and carriages of all sorts remained more or less roman in type. there were a greater number of waggons or carriages for the conveyance of women and families than had been in use in ancient times. christianity had materially altered the social position of women, and they appeared in public or moved about with their families without the restraints which in the old roman society forbad their appearance in chariots and open carriages, and made the covered couch or closed litter the usual conveyance for ladies of rank in rome. several forms of chariots or carriages of this larger kind can be seen in the sculptures of the column of theodosius in constantinople. the art and the domestic manners and customs that had been in fashion in rome maintained themselves with some modifications in constantinople. the life there was more showy and pompous, but it was free from the cruelties and the corruption of the elder society. it was founded on the profession of christianity, and the numbers and magnificence of the religious hierarchy formed an important feature in the splendid social aspect of the greek capital. the games of the circus, without the cruelties of gladiatorial combats, were maintained. chariots were in constant use, much wealth was spent on their construction, and chariot races were kept up. furniture, such as chairs, couches, chests, caskets, mirrors and articles of the toilet, was exceedingly rich. gold and silver were probably more abundant in the great houses of constantinople than they had been in rome. as the barbarous races of the east and north encroached on the flourishing provinces of the roman empire, constant immigration took place to constantinople and the provinces still under its sway. families brought with them such property as could be easily moved, gold of course and jewels; and, naturally, these precious materials were afterwards used for the decoration of their furniture and dress. the ancient custom of reclining at meals had ceased. the guests sat on benches or chairs. at the same time the "triclinia aurea," or golden dining room, was still the title of the great hall of audience in the palace at constantinople. the term only served to illustrate the jealous retention of the old forms and names by the emperors and patricians. the last branch of the ancient empire did little for the arts of painting and sculpture, though it long preserved the old traditions of art, gradually becoming more and more debased with every succeeding generation, whilst outward splendour was increased because of the greater quantity of the precious metals that had accumulated or been inherited during so many centuries. the decay of art and skill in the old world was, however, counterbalanced by the rise of new societies, which were gradually being formed in various parts of the empire. these consisted partly of the races of huns, goths, saxons, and others, who had invaded italy and settled themselves in it, partly of the old municipal corporations, who defended their property and maintained their privileges in the great walled towns of italy. the cities profited to a great extent by this infusion of new blood; and became the parents of the future provinces of italy, so rich in genius and industry, so wealthy and powerful in peace and war. the most important of them was venice, and it is in venice that, in the later middle ages, we find the birthplace of most of the art with which the furniture and utensils of home and warlike use were so profusely decorated. we point to constantinople as the last stronghold of the old arts of the roman period, but it is because it was from the greeks that the new states borrowed their first notions of art. nearly all the early art we meet with throughout the west in manuscripts and ivories bears a byzantine character. a remarkable piece of monumental furniture has survived from these early centuries of the christian era, half byzantine and half western in character, the chair of st. maximian of ravenna, preserved in the treasury at ravenna, and engraved and described in the "arts somptuaires" of m. du sommerard. ravenna was the portion of the empire that most intimately connected the east with the west. the domed churches of san vitale, san giovanni in fonte, the tomb of galla placidia, the round church of santa maria, built by theodoric, together with the great basilica of saint apollinare in chiasse, and others of the latin form, unite the characteristics of the eastern and western architecture. what is true of architecture can also be pronounced as to painting, sculpture, textile fabrics, and all decoration applied to objects, sacred or domestic, that were in daily use. but events occurred in the declining state of the empire that went far to transfer what remained of art to northern europe. the sect of the iconoclasts, or image-breakers, rose into power and authority under the emperor leo the isaurian, who published an edict in 726 condemnatory of the veneration and use of religious images and paintings. during a century this principle was at work, and it caused the destruction not only of innumerable antique statues, such as those defaced in the parthenon of athens, but the loss of vast quantities of ivory and wood sculpture and precious objects of all kinds. many artists took refuge in western europe, and were welcomed in the rhenish provinces of the empire by charlemagne. how much ancient and domestic art in the form of bronze or other metal furniture, such as chairs, thrones, tripods, &c., whole or in fragments, survived the taking of constantinople by mahomet ii. we cannot conjecture. perhaps the royal palaces, or still more possibly the mosques which have been the banks and depositories of family treasures under mahometan rule, may contain valuable bronzes, ivories, and carved wood, relics of the luxurious life of the latter days of the greek empire, and such evidences may some day come to light. no doubt, however, much antique art and much that belonged to the first eight centuries of our era survived the ordinary shocks of time and war, only to be destroyed by the quiet semi-judicial action of a furious sect protected by imperial decrees, after the manner in which mediæval art suffered under the searching powers of fanatical government commissioners in our own country, in the sixteenth century. it is to the impulse which the lombard and frankish monarchs gave to art in western and northern europe by the protection of greek refugee sculptors and artists that we should trace the beginnings of the northern school called rhenish-byzantine. chapter v. the middle ages. we cannot easily determine on a date at which we can assign a beginning to mediæval art. it differs from the art that succeeded it in the sixteenth century in many respects, and from the late classic art that preceded it still more widely. that peculiar character which we call romantic enters into the art of mediæval times, as it does into the literature and manners of the same ages. it took a living form in the half religious institution of chivalry. the northern nations grew up under the leadership of monks quite as much as under that of kings. they lived in territories only partially cleared from forests, pushed their way forward to power pioneered by the great religious orders, and their world was one surrounded by opportunities of endless adventures. but this romantic standard, though it took its rise from the times in which the christians carried their lives in their hands, under the persecuting emperors, did not pervade europe for many centuries. classic art, in its decay, still furnished both forms and symbols, such, _e.g._, as that of orpheus, to the new societies, and the names of jupiter, mercury, and saturn, have survived as the titles of days of the week. the two art traditions overlapped each other for a while. mediævalism grew very gradually. we have just said that charlemagne welcomed byzantine artists to the rhine. it must be remembered, however, that the roman empire had been firmly planted beyond the alps, and that gaul produced good roman art in the second and third centuries. architecture, sculpture, bronze casting, and the numberless appliances of daily life were completely roman in many parts of france and britain. the theatres and amphitheatres of arles and orange and the collections in various museums are enough to show how extended this character was. it was not till the old traditions had been much developed or modified by oriental influences that a thorough mediæval character of art was established in italy, france, germany, and england. to the last it remained semi-classic in rome itself. we can give reference to few specimens of household furniture or to woodwork of any kind before the eleventh century, with a great exception to be noticed presently. ivories, in any form, belonging to these ages are rare. the best objects are byzantine. anglo-saxon ivories, though not unknown, are all but unique examples. ivory was probably rarely employed for any objects of secular use, unless on mirror cases, combs, or the thrones of kings; on horns, caskets, sword hilts, and the like. metallurgy in the precious metals and in bronze, including the gilding of bronze, was probably the one art that survived the departure, if it had not even preceded the invasion, of the romans in britain. it is scarcely probable that tin and copper ores would have been sought for from britain if manufactured ornaments of metal had not found their way in the first instance from this country to the south. be that, however, as it may, the art of metallurgy survived the downfall of such architectural and sculpturesque skill as had been attained in england under roman traditions; and that metal thrones, chairs, and other utensils were made here as in gaul can hardly be doubted. there is an interesting collection, lately bequeathed by mr. gibbs, of saxon ornaments in gold, bronze, and bronze ornamented with gilding and enamel, in the south kensington museum. these objects were dug up chiefly at faversham, a village in kent. most of these antiquities are _fibulæ_, brooches, and buckles, or portions of horse trappings, bosses, &c., and not recognisable as parts of bronze furniture, such as the chair of dagobert. but it is difficult to examine these personal ornaments and not believe that during the saxon occupation bronze thrones, tripods, mirrors, and other objects of household use were also made. the earliest example of mediæval furniture in the kensington museum is a cast of the chair known as that of dagobert, in the louvre. a full description and history of this chair is to be found in the large catalogue, n^{o.} 68: and we here give a woodcut of it. this work (it is said) was executed by a monk. [illustration] when we consider the rapacity of the barbarian inroads into italy and rome, and the amount of spoil carried bodily away from constantinople, rome, and the great municipal centres of italy, it is remarkable that so little precious furniture should have survived in other parts of europe. the goths under adolphus in the fifth century carried an immense plunder into gaul and spain. "when the treasuries, after the conquest of spain," says gibbon, "were plundered by the arabs, they admired, and they have celebrated, a table of considerable size, of one single piece of solid emerald [that is, glass], encircled with three rows of fine pearls, supported by three hundred and sixty-five feet of gems and massy gold, estimated at the price of five hundred thousand pieces of gold,"--probably the most expensive table on record. it is the value of the materials that has prevented the preservation of many such objects, while the chair of dagobert is of gilt bronze only. early mediæval art, included under the general name of gothic, continued down to the twelfth century full of romanesque forms and details. figures were clothed in classic draperies, but stiff and severe with upright lines and childish attempts to indicate the limbs or joints beneath. nevertheless, the work of these centuries, rude and archaic as it is, is full of dignity and force. the subjects were often sacred, sometimes of war or incidents of the chase. these last were commonly mixed with animals, lions and dogs, or eagles and hawks, or leaves of the acanthus and other foliage. throughout these ages the foliated sculpture, the paintings of books and carving of ivory, and no doubt of wood also, was, moreover, composed in endless convolutions, such as may be seen on sculptured stones in ireland and on the norwegian doors of the twelfth century. whether the different convolutions are formed by figures or dragons, or by stalks of foliage twined and knotted together in bold curved lines, symmetrically arranged, each portion is generally carefully designed and traceable through many windings as having a distinct intention and purpose. ornamental work was thus apparently conventional, but made up of individual parts separately carried out, and in some degree, though not altogether, realistic: a character gradually lost after the early thirteenth century till the new revival in the sixteenth. the tenth century was not favourable to the development of the requirements or comfort of personal life. towards the year one thousand a superstition prevailed over many parts of europe that the world would come to an end when the century was completed; and many fields were left uncultivated in the year 999. the eleventh century made a great advance in architecture and other arts, but down to the norman invasion our own country was far behind the continental nations in the fine arts; metallurgy only excepted. the anglo-saxons perhaps advanced but very slowly, as the century wore on to the period of the norman conquest; and manners remained exceedingly simple. early illuminations, though conventional, give us some details of anglo-saxon houses. they were of one story, and contained generally only one room. the addition of a second was rare before the norman conquest. the furniture of the room consisted of a heavy table, sometimes fixed; on which the inhabitants of the house and the guests slept. a bedstead was occasionally reserved for the mistress of the house. bedsteads when used by the women or the lord of the house were enclosed in a shed under the wall of enclosure and had a separate roof, as may be seen in many manuscripts. in the bayeux tapestry a bed roof is tiled, and the framework shut in with curtains. in many instances such a design represents only a tester with posts. otherwise beds of straw stuffed into a bag or case were spread on the table, and soldiers laid their arms by their heads ready for use in case of alarm. benches, some with lion or other heads at the corners, like elongated chairs or settles (with backs, for the lord and lady of the house), were the usual seats. thrones, something like that of dagobert, were the property of kings. king edward the confessor is seated on such a chair (metal, and in the roman shape) in the bayeux tapestry, and folding chairs of various forms, more or less following classical types, were used by great personages. benches were also used as beds; so were the lids or tops of chests, the sack or bag being sometimes kept in it and filled with straw when required. the tables were covered with cloths at dinner. stained cloths and tapestries, commonly worked with pictorial designs, were used to hang the walls of the house or hall. they were called wah-hrægel, wall coverings. personal clothing was kept in chests of rude construction. silver candlesticks were used in churches. candles were stuck anywhere in houses, on beams or ledges. with regard to carriages during the saxon and anglo-norman period, carts on two wheels were common for agricultural use, and served to transport the royal property. four-wheeled cars drawn by hand labour are used for carrying warlike stores in the bayeux tapestry. in the battle of the standard the standard of the english host was carried on a wheeled car or platform, and remained as the head-quarters or rallying point during action. the norman invasion of england caused a new advance in the luxury and refinement, such as it was, of daily life. the houses began to grow--upper rooms or rooms at the side of the great hall were added, called solars (solaria), the sunny or light rooms. these seem to have been appropriated to the ladies. in due time they added a parloir or talking room, a name derived from the rooms in which conversation was allowed in monasteries where silence was the general rule. in the upper rooms fireplaces were made occasionally, but not always chimneys. in the halls, when the upper room did not cover the whole under room or when an upper room was not constructed, fire was made in the centre of the floor. stairs were of wood. glass was all but unknown in the windows of houses, and wooden shutters kept out the weather. the houses of landowners in england were called manoir or manor. the furniture was simple and consisted of few objects. the table was on trestles; the seats were benches. _armaria_, armoires, cupboards or presses, either stood in recesses in the wall or were complete wooden enclosures. these had doors opening horizontally. the frames were not panelled. the doors were ledge doors of boards, nailed to stout cross bars behind, and decorated with iron hinges and clamps beaten out into scrolls and other ornaments. [illustration] bedrooms were furnished with ornamental bed testers, and benches at the bed foot. beds were furnished with quilts and pillows, and with spotted or striped linen sheets; over all was laid a covering of green say, badgers' furs, the skins of beavers or of martin cats, and a cushion. a perch for falcons to sit on was fixed in the wall. a chair at the bed head, and a perch or projecting pole on which clothes could be hung, completed the furniture of the anglo-norman bedroom. in the foregoing woodcut from willemin there is no tester, but carving on the posts, and the coverings are of the richest description. woodwork was decorated with painted ornament or with fanciful work on the hinges; and nails and clamps were applied to hold it together, rather than with sculpture, down to the fourteenth century; and in england, france, and germany, oak was the wood employed for furniture. both in england and in the countries which had retained old artistic traditions on the continent, such as italy, france, and spain (which profited by the skill of the moors in painted decoration), colour was used not less on walls and wood than on metal and pottery. tapestry was an important portion of the furniture of all houses of the richer classes. during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries mediæval art in europe reached its greatest perfection. the classic traditions were at last forgotten everywhere except in rome itself, where a chain lingered almost continuous between the old ideas and those which succeeded in the sixteenth century. elsewhere the feeling in sculpture, whether of wood or other materials, was in unison with the pointed architecture and reigned unchallenged. all sorts of enrichments were used in the decoration of furniture. a chest of the time of john is preserved in the castle of rockingham. it is of oak richly decorated with hammered iron plates, hinges, &c. the jewel chest of richard of cornwall was long preserved in the state treasury of aix-la-chapelle, and is now at vienna. it belongs to the first half of the century, and was left at aix when richard was crowned king of the romans. the body is of oak decorated with wrought-iron hinges, lock, and clamps, and with bosses of metal on which are enamelled heraldic shields. the construction of woodwork gradually became more careful and scientific. panelled framework came into use, though seldom for doors of rooms. with this method of construction the chests were put together that formed the chief article of furniture during two centuries in the mediæval sleeping, sitting, or private room. in the middle of the thirteenth century eleanor of provence was escorted on her journey to england by an army of ladies, knights, nobles and troubadours, from provence to the shores of the channel. kings were continually making progress in this manner through their dominions, like the indian governors of our own days, and carried their furniture and property in chests, called standards, on the backs of mules or sumpter horses. portable furniture and hangings were the principal objects of household use on such occasions. a precept in the twentieth year of the reign of henry the third directed that "the king's great chamber at westminster be painted a green colour like a curtain, that in the great gable frontispiece of the said chamber a french inscription should be painted, and that the king's little wardrobe should be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain." the queen's chamber was decorated with historical paintings. remains of similar wall decoration are in tolerable preservation still in one of the vaulted rooms of dover castle. till the fourteenth century candles were generally placed on a beam in the hall, whether in the castle of a king or baron. frames of wood with prickets were also suspended for the lighting of rooms, or were fixed to the sides of the fire-place when that was made in the wall and had a chimney constructed for it. more generally, as regards halls, the hearth was in the middle of the room and a lantern just above it in the roof acted as a chimney. iron chandeliers, or branches, were ordered to be fixed to the piers of the king's halls at oxford, winchester, and other places. though the royal table might be lighted with valuable candlesticks of metal, they were not in general use till a century later. besides the numerous rows of tallow candles pieces of pine wood were lighted and stuck into iron hasps in the wall, or round the woodwork at the back of the dais to give more abundant light. the wardrobe was a special room fitted with hanging closets, and in these clothes, hangings, linen, as well as spices and stores, were preserved. this arrangement was common in all large castles during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. great preparations were made in the bedrooms of queens of england to which they retired before the birth of children. henry the third directed that his queen's bedroom should be freshly wainscoted and lined, and that a list or border should be made, well painted with images of our lord and angels, with incense pots scattered over it; that the four evangelists should be painted in the chamber, and a crystal vase be made to keep his collection of relics. room panelling was introduced into england during the same reign. henry ordered a chamber at windsor castle to be panelled with norway pines specially imported; the men worked day and night. the boards were radiated and coloured, and two clear days only were allowed for the fixing and completion. [illustration] edward the first married a spanish queen, and household furniture was further developed under his reign in many particulars. pottery for the table was imported from spain, and oriental carpets were introduced; a luxury naturally borrowed from the extensive use of them by the moors in that country. italian artists had already been invited to england. master william, the florentine, was master of the works at guildford castle. john of st. omer was another foreign artist employed by henry the third. to the former of these we probably owe the introduction into this country of the method of gilding and tooled gold work, with which wood was decorated. specimens of the work are still discernible on the famous coronation chair (of which we give a woodcut, p. 49) in westminster abbey; made about the year 1300. the decoration and comfort of furnished houses during henry's reign was further promoted by the general use of tapestry. queen eleanor is traditionally and incorrectly said to have first brought this kind of furniture into houses; it was certainly adopted for churches at earlier periods, and hangings of various materials, stained or embroidered, were employed as far back as the anglo-saxon times. tapestries and cypress chests to carry them probably became more general in eleanor's reign. amongst the particulars collected in the history of the city companies and by the record commission are lists of the royal plate, showing that objects of personal use besides table plate were made in silver and gold. we find mention of pitchers of gold and silver, plates and dishes of silver, gold salts, alms bowls, silver hannapers or baskets, a pair of knives with enamelled silver sheaths, a fork of crystal, and a silver fork with handle of ebony and ivory, combs and looking-glasses of silver. edward had six silver forks and one of gold. ozier mats were laid over the benches on which he and his queen sat at meals. these were also put under the feet, especially in churches where the pavement was of stone or tiles. in the furniture of bedrooms linen chests and settles, cupboards and the beds themselves were of panelled wood. the next woodcut shows the interior of a well-furnished bedroom, from a manuscript life of st. edmund written about the year 1400. [illustration] chests served as tables, and are often represented with chess-boards on them in old illuminations, and husband and wife sitting on the chest and using it for the game, which had become familiar to most european nations. chests of later date than the time of edward, of italian make, still show the same use of the lids of coffers. as the tops of the coffers served for tables, and for seats they began in the thirteenth century to be furnished with a panelled back and arm-pieces at either end. this development of the chest was equally common in france. it does not seem to have been placed on legs or to have grown into a cabinet till a later period. the raised dorsal or back of the seats in large rooms was a protection from the cold, and in the rude form of a _settle_ is still the comfort of old farm and inn kitchens in this country; it became the general type of seats of state in the great halls, and was there further enlarged by a canopy projecting forwards to protect the heads of the sitters, panelled also in oak. in the fifteenth century in many instances this hood or canopy was attached to the panelling of the upper end of the hall, and covered the whole of that side of the dais. the backing and canopy were sometimes replaced by temporary arrangements of hangings, as in modern royal throne rooms, the cloth being called cloth of estate and generally embroidered with heraldic devices. panelled closets called _dressoirs_ or cupboards, to lock up food, were general in properly furnished rooms; a cloth was laid on the top at meals, with lights, and narrow shelves rose in steps at the back for the display of plate, the steps varying in number according to the rank of the persons served. tables used at meals were generally frames of boards, either in one piece or folding in the middle. these were laid on trestles, as in the woodcut from an early manuscript in the bodleian library, and could be removed as soon as the dinner was over, so that the company might dance and divert themselves. somewhat later, about the year 1450, the tables although still on trestles were made more solidly, even for the use of people of the middle class. [illustration] all houses, however, even of kings could not be completely or even comfortably furnished in such a manner, far less those of feudal lords, not princes or sovereigns. the kings moved incessantly to their various strongholds and manors in time of peace to collect dues and revenues, much of which was paid in kind and could only be profitably turned to account by carrying the court to different estates and living on their produce as long as it lasted. orders were continually sent to sheriffs to provide food, linen and other requisites, while hangings and furniture were carried by the train in its progress. much of the household belongings of persons of wealth was, therefore, of a movable kind. we engrave (p. 53) a very curious table standing on a pedestal shaped like a chalice, from a manuscript of the beginning of the fifteenth century. the ladies are playing at cards. [illustration] [illustration] a most oppressive privilege was exercised in france, which went beyond the legal right of the lord or owner to the rents of his estates whether paid in money, agricultural produce, or manufactures carried on in his towns or villages. this was the _droit de prisage_, a privilege of seizing furniture of all kinds by the hands of stewards and others for the use of the king. chairs, tables, and beds particularly were included in these requisitions. the _droit de prisage_ was modified at various times in consequence of the remonstrance of the commons at so oppressive an exaction; but as late as the year 1365 charles the fifth seized beds. in 1313 philippe le bel entertained the english king and his queen at pontoise with no other furniture than such as had been seized in this manner. a fire broke out in the night during their stay, the furniture was consumed, and the royal personages escaped in their shirts. it was not till 1407 that this privilege was finally abandoned. though the usual conveyance during the thirteenth century was a horse litter for women of rank, and men rode on horseback, yet covered and open carriages or waggons were not unknown in that and in the following century. a charette containing a number of maids of honour in attendance on anne of bohemia at her public reception in london in 1392, was upset on london bridge from the rush of the crowd to get a sight of the queen, and her ladies were not without difficulty replaced. these charettes, cars, or waggons were covered carts on four wheels, like country waggons of our days, panelled at the sides, and the tilt covered with leather, sometimes with lead, and painted. [illustration] we must not pass without a very brief notice the large constructions of roofs of wood begun as early as the twelfth, and continued and improved through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the period during which the finest efforts of mediæval gothic art were embodied all over the north and over parts of the south of europe. the older part of westminster hall dates from the reign of rufus, and the walls of the present building belong to that period, though faced at a later time. how the roof of the enormous space, sixty-five feet diameter, was at first constructed there is no evidence to show. it had, perhaps, a row of arches down the middle, like the great hall of the palace of blois, said to be of the thirteenth century, or huge kingposts supporting the ties between rafters, which in that case may have been as long as those of the later roof. the present roof, work of the fourteenth century, marks the beginning of a change in the style of architecture that accompanied and caused great changes in furniture and household woodwork. the ties are supported by curved braces that descend like arches on the stone corbels made in the wall to receive them. these braces take two flights, being tied back where they meet by hammer beams into a lower part of the rafter. the lower brace upholds another upright or collar post which supports the junction of these beams with the rafter, at its weakest part. a rich subdivision of upright mullions with cusped arch heads fills up the spandrels between these braces and the beams they support, and adds stiffness as well as decoration to the whole. such constructions were not only more scientific than those of older date, but they are more pompous and complicated, and have a greater apparent affinity with the architecture of the day. this architectural character, from the date of the change to the third period of pointed architecture, began to show itself in furniture and wood structure of every kind. until then a certain originality and inventiveness were preserved in the decoration both of architective woodwork and furniture, notwithstanding the strictest observance of the rules and unities of architectural law in buildings, ecclesiastical and civil. small sculpture, such as that on ivories and utensils made of metal, or that which decorated woodwork as well as stone, and the general forms of furniture, were designed without immediate imitation of architectonic detail. figure sculpture of great dignity remains in ivories of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, illustrative of the general character given to things of daily use which were not, probably, nearly so numerous as in a later age, and were each carefully elaborated for the person for whom they were made. we need go no further than some of the objects in the kensington museum, such as the statuettes and caskets of ivory, english and french work of that time. we can point to few large pieces of furniture, except the coronation chair, illustrating the fashions of this early period. examples of wooden movable furniture are extremely rare in this country. there are large semicircular cope chests in the cathedrals of wells, york, and other cities. these are merely chests or boxes in which the copes are spread out full size, one over the other, and the only decoration consists in the floriated ironwork attached to the hinges. [illustration] [illustration] we must not omit to remark that some examples of very beautiful oriental panelling of this period are to be seen in various collections. the woodcuts represent the fittings of a series of such panels from a mosque at cairo, now at south kensington, n^{o.} 1,051; and a single piece to show the detail. the delicacy of the carving and the apparent intricacy of the geometrical arrangement are very remarkable. [illustration: a royal dinner table, from a manuscript of the fourteenth century.] chapter vi. the fifteenth century. in discussing the great wood structures such as screens, house fronts, roofs, and other large pieces of mechanism, which developed in boldness and variety in the fifteenth century, we must not forget that the abundance of oak timber in the north of europe both suggested much of this timber art and admitted of bold features of construction from the size of the logs and the tenacity of the material. a large portion of england and perhaps an equal proportion of ireland were covered with dense forests of oak. the eastern frontier of france, great portions of burgundy, and many other districts in france, germany, flanders, and other northern countries, were still forests, and timber was to be had at low prices and in any quantity. spanish chestnut had been introduced probably by the romans into england. though churches, castles, and manors were built of stone or brick, or both, yet whole cities seem to have been mainly constructed out of timber. the london of the fifteenth century, like a hundred other cities, though abounding in noble churches and in great fortified palaces, yet presented the aspect of a timber city. the houses were framed together, as a few still are in some english towns and villages, of vast posts sixteen to twenty-four inches square in section, arching outwards and meeting the projecting floor timbers, and so with upper stories, till the streets were darkened by the projections. the surfaces of these posts were covered with delicate tracery, niches and images. in the streets at chester an open gallery or passage is left on the first floor _within_ the timbers of the house fronts. in the court of st. mary's guild in coventry, whole chambers and galleries are supported on vast arches of timber like bridges. oriels jutted out under these overhanging stories, and the spaces between the framing posts were filled in, sometimes with bricks, sometimes with laths and mortar, or parts (as the century wore on) more frequently with glass. in london and rouen, in blois and in coventry, these angle posts were filled with niches and statuettes or fifteenth century window tracery sunk into the surfaces. the dark wooden houses were externally a mass of imagery. in the great roofs of these centuries, such as the one spoken of at westminster, the hammer beams were generally carved into figures of angels gracefully sustaining the timber behind them with outstretched wings; and these figures were painted and gilt. a magnificent example remains intact in the church of knapton in norfolk. [illustration] the number of excellent workmen and the size and architectural character of so much of the woodwork of the day contributed to give all panelled work, no matter of what description, an architectural type; and furniture shared in this change. coffers and chests, as well as standards or stall-ends in churches, and bench-ends in large rooms and halls, were designed after the pattern of window tracery. the panel in the above woodcut from a french chest of this date, is a very delicate and beautiful example. little buttresses and pinnacles were often placed on the angles or the divisions between the panels. at south kensington, the buffet, n^{o.} 8,439 and the chest, n^{o.} 2,789, with other pieces are of this kind; also a grand cabinet of german make in the same collection. this last, n^{o.} 497, is of the rudest construction, but a few roughly cut lines of moulding and some effective ironwork give it richness and dignity that are wanting in many pieces more scientifically made and more decoratively treated. the quantity of tapestry employed in these centuries in fitting up houses and the tents used either during a campaign or in progresses from one estate to another was prodigious, and kept increasing. lancaster entertained the king of portugal in his tent between mouçal and malgaço, fitted up with hangings of arras "as if he had been at hertford, leicester, or any of his manors." as early as 1313, when isabel of bavaria made her entry into paris, the whole street of st. denis, froissart tells us, "was covered with a canopy of rich camlet and silk cloths, as if they had the cloths for nothing, or were at alexandria or damascus. i (the writer of this account) was present, and was astonished whence such quantities of rich stuffs and ornaments could have come, for all the houses on each side of the street of st. denis, as far as the châtelet, or indeed to the great bridge, were hung with tapestries representing various scenes and histories, to the delight of all beholders." the expense incurred in timber work on these occasions may be estimated from the long lists of pageants, and the scale on which each was prepared on this and like occasions. of the early italian furniture of the mediæval period there is at south kensington one fine specimen, a coffer of cypress, covered with flat surface imagery filled in with coloured wax composition. it dates from the fourteenth century. the better known italian furniture of the quattrocento or "fourteen hundred period," _i.e._ the fifteenth century, is gilt and painted. the richness of this old work is owing to the careful preparation of the ground or bed on which the gold is laid and the way in which the preparation was modelled with the tool. the old gold is, besides, both thicker and purer, more malleable, and less liable to suffer from the action of the atmosphere than the gold we now use for this purpose. the paintings executed on such pieces of furniture as offered suitable surfaces to the artist, boxes and coffers (and, for church uses, reliquaries), are equal to the finest works of that kind and of the same period. many artists worked in this way. dello delli was the best known in regard to such productions. his work became so entirely the fashion that, according to vasari, no house was complete without a specimen of it. andrea di cosimo was another. it need not be said that such men and their contemporaries had a number of pupils similarly employed. every piece of painted furniture attributed to dello delli cannot be warranted. there are, however, specimens which we believe to be from his hand in the kensington collection, and numbers of fronts and panels and fragments of great merit which illustrate his style. besides this kind of decoration, the venetians had derived from persia and india another beautiful system of surface ornament; marquetry, a fine inlay of ivory, metal, and woods, stained to vary the colour. the work is in geometric patterns only. it is found on the ivory boxes and other objects sculptured in that material, and attributed to italian as well as to byzantine sources. in the fifteenth century florence also came prominently to the front in the manufacture of these and other rich materials; as well as of ivory inlaid into solid cypress wood and walnut, known as certosina work. the style is indian in character, and consists in geometric arrangements of stars made of diamond-shaped pieces: varied with conventional flowers in pots, &c. the name certosina is derived from the great certosa, charterhouse, or carthusian monastery between milan and pavia: where this kind of decoration is employed in the choir fittings of the splendid church of that monastery. we are inclined to the belief (as already said) that the manufacture of geometrical work of this kind was originally imported from persia by the venetians. there are in the kensington museum some very interesting old chairs made for the castle of urbino, and part of the furniture of guidobaldo ii., whose court, like that of réné, king of provence, was the resort of troubadours, poets, and philosophers. these chairs are covered with geometric marquetry of white and stained ivory, &c., the very counterpart of the bombay work now brought to this country. that manufacture, in the opinion of dr. birdwood, was also of persian origin and thence found its way to bombay. the persians continued long into the last century the inlaying of ivory in walnut wood, and their geometric marquetry is still made. the forms of chairs in use in italy early in the fifteenth century were revivals of the old roman folding chair. the pairs of crosspieces are sometimes on the sides, sometimes set back and front, and in that case arm and back pieces are added. generally we may say that the fine italian furniture of that day owed its beauty to inlaying, surface gilding, tooling and painting. gilt chests and marriage trays, inlaid tables, and chairs are also to be seen at south kensington. as in italy, so in england, france, germany, and later in spain, the splendour hitherto devoted to the glory of ecclesiastical furniture, utensils, or architectural decoration was gradually adopted in the royal and other castles and houses. state rooms, halls of justice, sets of rooms for the use of the king or his barons were furnished and maintained. the large religious establishments also demanded the skill of artists and workmen, and to a greater extent north than south of the alps. many monastic houses in the north of europe were seats of feudal jurisdiction. these communities executed great works in wood, stall-work, presses, coffers, &c., as large and continuous societies alone are able to carry through tasks that want much time for completion. all this helped to encourage the manufacture of woodwork of the finest kind. hence the mediæval semi-ecclesiastical character maintained sway in every art connected with architecture and furniture longer in northern countries than in italy, where both old traditions and monumental remains recalled rather the glories of antique art, and where the revival of classic learning had begun. as regards english art it is certain that, partly from the influence of foreign queens, partly from foreign wars, and partly from the incessant intercourse with the rest of europe kept up by religious houses, many of the accomplishments of other countries were known and practised here by foreign or native artists. it is true that the wars of the roses, more bloody and ruinous than any experienced in this country, delayed that growth of domestic luxury which might have been expected from the then wealth of england. but when henry the seventh established a settled government, and from his time downwards, the decorations and the accumulation of furniture in houses, libraries, and collections of works of art rapidly increased. many of the books in the "king's library," and many pictures and movables still in possession of the crown, may be traced to that day. it is difficult, indeed, to imagine the england which leland saw in his travels. it must have been full of splendid objects, and during the reign of henry the feudal mansions, as well as the numerous royal palaces of windsor, richmond, havering, and others, were filled with magnificent furniture. mabuse and torrigiano were employed by the king, and this example found many imitations; artists, both foreign and english, made secular furniture, as rich and beautiful as that of the churches and religious houses which covered the country. taste in furniture, as in architecture, both in continental europe and in these islands had nevertheless passed the fine period of mediæval design. the "gothic" or pointed forms and details had become uninventive and commonplace. the whole system awaited a change. the figure sculpture, however, of the latter years of this century, though life-sized statues had lost much of the dignity and simplicity of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, was approaching the realization of natural form, which it attained in such excellence in the succeeding century. the ingenuity and raciness of the smaller figure carving both in stall-work of churches and on the tops and fronts of boxes and caskets, in panel-work of cabinets or doors, &c., during the last half of the fifteenth century are scarcely surpassed by the more academic and classical figure design of the sixteenth. carvers on all kinds of wood furniture and decoration of houses delighted in doubling their figures up into quaint and ingenious attitudes, and if the architecture was latterly tame, though showy and costly, imagery continued to be full of individuality and inventiveness. chapter vii. the renaissance in italy. there are few matters regarding art more worthy of consideration than the narrowness of the limits that bound human invention: or, to speak more exactly, we should say the simplicity of the laws and principles in obedience to which the imaginations of men are exercised. the return of the painters, sculptors, and architects to the old types of classical art after the reign of the gothic seems at first sight as if in the arts there could be nothing new under the sun: as if the imagination, so fertile in creation during many centuries since the establishment of christianity, had been utterly worked out and come to an end, and that there was nothing left but to repeat and copy what had been done ages before. there is, however, in reality more connection between classic and mediæval art than appears on the surface, and although all the great masters of the revival studied eagerly such remains of antique art as were discovered in italy during the early years of the renaissance, they only came into direct contact with or absolute imitation of those models occasionally; and the works of that age have a grace that is peculiarly their own, and an inventiveness in painting and sculpture, if not in architecture, that seems, when we look at such cities as venice and florence, inexhaustible. the renaissance began in italy many years before the year 1500. most changes, indeed, of manners or arts which are designated by any century are perhaps more correctly dated twenty years before or after its beginning, and in the notices which we are here putting together we are compelled to make divisions of time occasionally overlap each other. the revival of learning in italy was accompanied by other circumstances which had a powerful influence on the arts, and particularly on the sumptuary arts of the century. it has been already remarked that while the nations of europe were more or less convulsed with war it was not easy or possible for the inhabitants, even the wealthy, to do much in furnishing dwelling-houses with any kind of comfort. rich furniture consisted in a few costly objects and in hangings such as could be carried about on sumpter horses or in waggons, and, with the addition of rough benches, tables, and bedsteads, could make bare walls look gay and comfortable, and offer sufficient accommodation in the empty halls of granges and manors seldom lived in, for the occasions of a visit or a temporary occupation. churches indeed were in those ages respected by both sides in the furious contests that raged throughout europe. the violation of holy places was a crime held in abhorrence by all combatants, and the treasuries and sacristies, therefore, of churches were full of examples of every kind of accomplishment possessed by the artists of the day. they contained objects collected there during many generations, as was the case of shrines like that of the virgin del pillar in spain, of which the offerings so long preserved have been very lately sold and dispersed, and represented the art of many successive ages. but in private houses it was scarcely possible to have any corresponding richness, though in the instance of kings and potentates there was often much splendour. as in england the fifteenth century saw the close of a series of great wars and the establishment of one powerful government, so during its conclusion and the beginning of the next century a similar disorder gradually gave place to tranquillity in italy. the practices of painting gilt furniture of all kinds, and of modelling terra-cotta work on the wood, were not altogether new accomplishments or confined to the artists of one city. when, therefore, the french having been driven out of italy, the popes were in security in rome and the accomplished medici family reigned in florence, those states as well as urbino, ferrara, and other independent cities were free from the perpetual attitude of defence against foreign invasion; they could indulge their enthusiasm for classic art, and the impulse given to the study of it found a ready response, as great noblemen while building palaces and digging gardens came upon statues, frescoes, vases, bronzes, and many glorious remnants of antiquity. in the various italian states were artists well skilled and carefully trained, and there was no difficulty in finding distinguished names with whole schools of enthusiastic admirers behind them who, with these precious objects in their view, formed their style on the old classic models. we are to consider such acquirements here only so far as they came to be applied to secular woodwork (of which this cornice from venice is an example) and the objects of daily use; to coffers, chests, caskets, mirrors, or cabinets, sideboards of various kinds, seats, tables, carriages and furniture of every description. [illustration] the best artists of the day did not hesitate to give their minds to the making of woodwork and furniture in various materials and employed every kind of accomplishment in beautifying them. of this fine renaissance period there are so many examples in the south kensington collection, and some of them of such excellence, that the student need scarcely have occasion to travel beyond the limits of that museum to illustrate the quattrocento and cinquecento furniture and woodwork. many materials were employed by the renaissance artists. wood first and principally in making furniture, but decorated with gilding and paintings; inlaid with agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli and marbles of various tints; with ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl; and with other woods. they also made many smaller objects, such as mirror cases in iron, damascened or inlaid with gold and silver. for many years, however, mirrors continued to be of polished metal, the enrichment being devoted to the outer case. glass mirrors were not common till a somewhat later period. as the general material of furniture in the sixteenth century continued to be wood, its chief decoration was sculpture. the number of remarkable pieces of carved wood furniture belonging to this period in the museum is considerable. the most striking are the chests, cassoni, large coffers for containing clothes or ornamental hangings and stuffs that were kept in them when not in use. rooms, however large, of which the walls, floors, and ceilings are decorated, do not require many substantial objects in addition; and these chests, with a table and chairs placed against the wall, nearly complete the requirements of great italian halls and corridors. [illustration] the general form of the carved chests is that of a sarcophagus. they are supported on claw feet, and have masks, brackets, or caryatid figures worked into the construction as in the accompanying woodcut, leaving panels, borders, or other spaces for historic sculpture. the subjects are sometimes from scripture, often from the poems of ovid. they are carved in walnut wood, which is free in grain and very tenacious: and the work, like most of the old furniture carving, is helped out with gilding. sometimes the ground, at others the relieved carvings are touched or completely covered with gilding. most of these fine chests are in pairs, and probably formed parts of still larger sets, fours or sixes, according as they were intended for the wall spaces of larger or smaller rooms or portions of wall between two doors. carved chests commonly in use, and given to brides as part of their dowry or as presents to married couples, or simply provided as the most convenient objects both for receptacles and occasionally for seats, were often made at less cost in cypress wood. they are generally decorated with surface designs etched with a pen on the absorbent grain of that wood, the ground being slightly cut out and worked over with punches shaped like nail heads, stars, &c. cypress chests were especially used for keeping dresses or tapestries; the aromatic properties of that timber being considered as a specific against moth. this kind of chest, when intended to hold a bridal trousseau, was occasionally made with small drawers and receptacles inside for fans, lace, combs, or other feminine ornaments. allusions to cypress chests in england are numerous in the wardrobe and privy purse accounts of edward the fourth and his successors. the tables of this period are sometimes solid (as n^{o.} 162, which is covered with spirited designs of mythological subjects). dinner tables were "boards" fastened on trestles, according to the old usage already alluded to, and could be removed when the meal was over; or several could be laid together, as in our modern dining-room tables, to meet the demands of the noble hospitality exercised in those days. the italian chairs of the quattrocento period have been spoken of above. we have, however, another very rich and effective form of chairs usual in the sixteenth century, and which were in general use in venice. in these the seat is fastened into two planks, one before and one behind, as in the woodcut. the planks are richly carved, and a third plank is let in to form a back. the several portions, particularly the back, were sometimes sufficiently thick to admit of carving in massive relief. the flanks of the back piece are usually grotesque monsters, and the arms of the owner carved on a scutcheon in the centre. they seem to have been generally richly gilt. they also formed the decoration of a great corridor or hall, and were used without cushions. [illustration] the frames of pictures were bold and rich. those of the previous century had been mostly imitative of small gothic shrines, being generally for religious subjects and for use in churches or oratories. in the cinquecento period they were square panels, carved and richly gilt. there are in the kensington museum remarkable examples of frames made for mirrors, either for the sitting-rooms or saloons of the lady of the house, or for her bedroom. three of these are type pieces of such productions. n^{o.} 7695 is a square frame carved in walnut, standing on a foot, and meant to be carried about. from the daisies in relief on the foot it may perhaps be ascribed to marguerite of valois, and have been used in the court of provence. nothing in the collection surpasses the elegance and perfection of the ornamental work on the mouldings. the mirror itself is of polished metal. another is in a circular frame, n^{o.} 7694, shaped like a shield, and meant to be hung up. it was probably made for a duchess of ferrara. there are classical details of architectonic kind on the edges of the carving, which is highly finished. the mirror itself is of metal, and the back has figures on it in relief and is solidly gilt. the third of these, n^{o.} 7226, is larger. in design it is like a monumental mural tablet, with a carved rich finish on the four sides, and the mirror furnished with a sliding cover in the form of a medallion, containing a female head of singular nobleness and beauty. in this case the material is walnut relieved by broad surfaces of inlaid wood. we may also mention the superb soltykoff mirror, n^{o.} 7648. this is an example of metal work throughout, the case, stand, and sliding cover being of iron damascened with gold and silver in every variety of that costly process. [illustration] some of the richest pieces of carved walnut furniture belonging to this period are the bellows. as these are characteristic of the italian style of the period in furniture of various kinds, we give woodcuts of two examples in the south kensington collection. they are generally of walnut touched with gilding; and in the form still familiar to ourselves, which is as old as the classic times. [illustration] besides furniture carved in this way out of solid wood, there were other materials used and other methods of decorating household furniture. the tarsia or inlaid work has been alluded to. the first methods were by geometrical arrangements of small dies; but magnificent figure designs had been executed in inlaid wood in the early period of the renaissance, and before it. work of this kind was made in two or three woods, and much of it is in pine or cypress. the large grain is used to express lines of drapery and other movements by putting whole folds or portions of a dress or figure with the grain in one direction or another, as may be required. the picture is thus composed of pieces inclined together; a few bold lines incised and blackened give such outlines of the form as are not attainable by the other method, and slight burning with an iron is sometimes added to produce tone or shadow. "'tarsie' or 'tarsiatura,'" says mrs. merrifield, "was a kind of mosaic in woods. this consisted in representing houses and perspective views of buildings, by inlaying pieces of wood of various colours and shades into panels of walnut wood. vasari speaks rather slightingly of this art, and says that it was practised chiefly by those persons who possessed more patience than skill in design; that although he had seen some good representations in figures, fruits, and animals, yet the work soon becomes dark, and was always in danger of perishing from the worms and by fire. tarsia work was frequently employed in decorating the choirs of churches as well as the backs of seats and the wainscoting. it was also used in the panels of doors." another method of ornamentation dependent on material that came into use in this century was the pietra dura or mosaic panelling of hard pebbles. the work is laborious and costly. not only are the materials (agate, carnelian, amethyst and marbles of all colours) expensive, but each part must be ground laboriously to an exact shape and the whole mosaic fitted together, a kind of refinement of the old marble work called alexandrinum. besides being formed into marble panels for table tops and cabinet fronts, pietra dura was let into wood, and helped out with gay colours the more sombre walnut or ebony base of the furniture. vasari, speaking of particular pieces of furniture of his day, mentions a "splendid library table" made at the expense and by the order of francesco de' medici in florence. this table was "constructed of ebony," that is, veneered with ebony, "divided into compartments by columns of heliotrope, oriental jasper, and lapis lazuli, which have the bases and capitals of chased silver. the work is furthermore enriched with jewels, beautiful ornaments of silver, and exquisite little figures, interspersed with miniatures and terminal figures of silver and gold, in full relief, united in pairs. there are, besides, other compartments formed of jasper, agates, heliotropes, sardonyxes, carnelians, and other precious stones." this piece was the work of bernardo buontalenti. another piece of such work is described as a table "wholly formed of oriental alabaster, intermingled with great pieces of carnelian, jasper, heliotrope, lapis, and agate, with other stones and jewels, worth twenty thousand crowns." another artist, bernardino di porfirio of leccio, executed an "octangular table of ebony and ivory inlaid with jaspers." this precious manufacture has been patronised in the grand ducal factories down to recent times, and is continued in the royal establishments of the king of italy. a feature which was strongly developed in the sixteenth century furniture is the architectural character of the outlines. it has already been observed that in the fifteenth century, chests, screens, stall fronts, doors and panelling followed or fell into the prevailing arrangements of architectural design in stonework, such as window tracery, or wall tracery. but in the cinquecento furniture an architectural character, not proper to woodwork for any constructive reasons, was imparted to cabinets, chests, &c. they were artificially provided with parts that imitated the lines, brackets, and all the details of classic entablatures which have constructive reasons in architecture, but which, reduced to the proportions of furniture, have not the same propriety. these subdivisions brought into use the art of "joinery." the parts obviously necessary for the purpose of framing up wood, whether a box or chest, a door, a piece of panelling, or a chair, offer certain opportunities for mouldings or carvings; some are the thicker portions forming the frames, some the thin flat boards that fill up the spaces. to add a variety of mouldings, such as subdivide the roofs of temples or their peristyles, is, of course, to depart from the carpenter's province and work, and rather to take furniture out of its obvious forms for the express purpose of impressing on it the renaissance type. [illustration: knife case. dated 1564.] the artists of that time did this with the object of designing "in character," and special models, such as the old triumphal arches, and sarcophagi, at rome, were in view in these designs. on both arches and tombs sculptured bas-reliefs abounded. figures reclined over the arches, and were arranged in square compositions in the panels, for which the upper stories of the arches made provision. the renaissance cabinets fell into modifications of this ideal. a century later they grew into house fronts, and showed doors, arches, and balustrades inside, with imitative paved floors, looking-glasses set at angles of 45°, so as to make reflections of these various parts; and in this humorous fashion the inside of a walnut or ebony cabinet was turned into the model of an italian villa. again, in place of the running foliated borders and mouldings having a continuous design, or of compositions of foliage, animals, &c., forming in each arch moulding or cornice line a homogeneous line or circle, the renaissance arabesques introduced an entirely new method of decoration. in arabesque ornament all sorts of natural objects are grafted on a central stalk, or, as in the best work, on something like the stem of a candelabrum. the resources of this method are limited only by the fancy and skill of the artist, who grafts here a mask, there a leaf on his stem, and so on. the temptation is the license and discordance that come in when no unity is needed in a piece of ornament, and no continuous effort of mind required to think out and execute one definite idea in designing it. the central stem leads to an exact balance or reversal of one half of each element in the ornament, so that one half only of a panel or border has to be _designed_. in the hands of great artists this kind of ornamentation has been used with consummate grace. chapter viii. the renaissance in england, flanders, france, germany, and spain. in the foregoing sketch of the furniture, designs, and manufactures of central italy, we have described the history of contemporaneous furniture throughout europe. pope leo the tenth gave every encouragement to the reviving arts in rome, and left that capital the great nursery of art down to our day. to italy the great princes of europe sent the most promising artists of their dominions, or encouraged such resort. most of these men were architects and sculptors. classical learning and splendid living were both encouraged by henry the eighth. he is, probably, to be credited with the impulse given to the court and the country in the direction of the arts and accomplishments of italy. if jean de mabuse had been patronised by henry the seventh, his successor offered tempting terms to primaticcio to exchange the service of his brother king, francis, for his own. other artists, contemporaries of raphael and his scholars, found their way to england; to these we must add the great master of the german or swiss school, holbein. that the artists both of holbein's and of the italian schools designed furniture in this country we have proofs in the drawing for a panelled chimney-piece now in the british museum, and the woodwork of king's college chapel in cambridge. another piece of furniture of this date, showing the mixed character of italian and holbeinesque design, is the very fine "tudor" cabinet at south kensington. though the court of henry and the palaces of his wives were furnished with splendour, and works of art, especially those of the gold and silversmith, and jewellery, found their way from foreign parts to such great houses, the general manners of the country changed less in these respects than was the case in france and the more wealthy states and courts of germany. in the portrait pictures of henry and his family we see furniture of a renaissance character, but in the great monuments of the woodwork of the day the old style prevailed throughout the reign. the roofs, magnificent specimens of wood construction, were still subdivided, and supported by king posts, queen posts, hammer beams, arches connecting these portions and tracery panels in the spandrels, as in the two previous centuries. all parts were carved and coloured. the architecture of country houses began to change from the old form of a castle or a fortress to that of the beautiful and characteristic style to which we give the name of tudor. moats were retained, but still the principal features of the building were the depressed arches and perpendicular window mullions that had been long familiar in england, and were suggested by the wooden houses so general in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. the woodwork also and the panelling of halls and chambers retained the upright lines and mouldings forming the various "linen" patterns. leafwork and heads, busts of the reigning princes, or of heroes such as the cæsars, filled up the more ornamental sections, giving a certain classical element which was not fully developed till later: and most of the renaissance ornamentation of this reign has a flemish rather than an italian character. the woodcuts on the next page show a series of panels of different countries, many of which are to be found introduced with slight variations in english work of about the same period. flanders was in advance of this country in renaissance art. this remark extends to ornament of all kinds, whether of church woodwork, glass-painting, or domestic furniture. still the flemish work of this renaissance, or (speaking of england) this early tudor period retains a mixture of details of the pointed style that makes us sometimes doubtful how to characterise the style of individual pieces. we may point to sideboards and chests in illustration. belgium abounds in examples of this transition period. [illustration: english, 15th century.] [illustration: flemish, 16th century.] [illustration: french, 16th century.] [illustration: german, 15th century.] [illustration: italian, 16th century.] in france, the most advanced and most luxurious and cultivated of the transalpine courts, the renaissance art had advanced far beyond that of england. not only had francis the first and the medici princesses invited famous artists out of italy, but they aimed at imitating florentine luxuries and refinements as completely as they could. admirable schools of ornamental art, such as that of the limoges enamellers and carvers in ivory, were and had been long established in france. classic sculpture was produced of great merit in all materials. primaticcio and cellini founded new schools of architects, painters, and sculptors in france. they employed pupils, and the most promising found their way to rome and florence, associated themselves with the great masters then practising, and brought back all the instruction they could obtain. [illustration] jean goujon stands at the head of these french masters. besides being a sculptor and architect, there is little doubt of his having designed and even sculptured wood furniture. probably the carved woodwork of the king's bedroom and adjoining rooms in the old louvre are by his hand. bachelier, of toulouse, did the same, and pieces are attributed to him now in the kensington museum. philibert de l'orme was another artist in a similar field. both goujon and bachelier showed the influence of the great italian masters in their work. the table engraved (p. 81) is a very elegant example of french sixteenth century furniture. [illustration] [semper festina lente 1577 a. reid. del.] the woodwork in the renaissance houses--the panelling and fittings of the rooms--was designed by the architect, and was full of quaint, sometimes extravagant imagery. for example, the architectural and decorative plates of jacques androuet du cerceau will give some idea of the dependence of all these details on the architects of the day. this author published designs for marquetry or wood mosaics, as well as for all sorts of woodwork. a glance at the heavy cabinets of the later sixteenth century, of french origin, will show how completely great pieces of furniture fell into the same character of forms. shelves are supported on grotesque figures, while in the mouldings, instead of simple running lines worked with the plane, as in fifteenth century woodwork, we see the egg and tongue, acanthus leaves, dentils and other members of classical architecture, constantly recurring. the ornaments of french woodworkers show a fondness for conventional bands or straps interspersed with figures and other ornaments. the panel, of which we give a woodcut, is french, and dated 1577. it contains armorial bearings and a monogram, said to be of the aldine family. in 1577, however, aldus manutius the elder was dead, and his son did not live in france. germany and spain took up the renaissance art in a still more italian spirit than england or france. parts of italy as well as spain were under the same ruler; they both, as far as regards art, felt the influence of powerful imperial patronage. we are only concerned with their art here as it refers to woodwork. german wood carvers were more quaint, minute, and redundant as to decoration. something of the vigour, manliness, and inexhaustible sense of humour of the germans characterises their woodwork, as it does other art, of which ornament forms the main feature. the well-known "triumph of maximilian," though a woodcut only, may be taken as a type of german treatment. the great cities of the empire are full of carved woodwork, house fronts, and gables. timber was abundant. the imagery of the period, in wood as in stone, is intentionally quaint, contorted, humorous. it would be essentially ugly but for the inexhaustible fecundity of thought, allegory, and satire that pervades it. it should be added also that designers and architects had an immense sense of dignity, which we recognise immediately when we see their architectural compositions as a whole. depths and hollows, points of light, prominences and relative retirement of parts in their arrangements of carved ornament, were matters thoroughly understood; and they succeed in imparting that general agreeableness which we call "effect" to the mind of the observers. as regards spanish art we cannot do better than adopt the statements of señor j. f. riaño, who says that "the brilliant epoch of sculpture in wood belongs to the sixteenth century, and was due to the great impulse it received from the works of berruguete and felipe de borgoña. he was the chief promoter of the italian style, and the choir of the cathedral of toledo, where he worked so much, is the finest specimen of the kind in spain. toledo, seville, and valladolid were at that time great productive and artistic centres. as a specimen of wood carving of the italian renaissance period, applied to an object of furniture, the magnificent wardrobe by gregorio pardo (1549) outside the chapter house at toledo may be mentioned as one of the most beautiful things of its kind. these various styles of ornamentation were applied to the cabinets 'bufetes' of such varied form and materials which were so much the fashion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. the most characteristic of spain are such as are called 'vargueños.' these cabinets are decorated outside with fine ironwork, and inside with columns of bone painted and gilt. the other cabinets or escritoires belonging to that period, which are so frequently met with in spain, were to a large extent imported from germany and italy, _while others were made in spain in imitation of these_" (the italics are ours), "and as the copies were very similar it is difficult to classify them. it may be asserted, however, that cabinets of inlaid wood were made in great perfection in spain at the end of the sixteenth century, for in a memorial written by a maker of tapestry, pedro gretierez, who worked for queen isabella, he says, 'the escritoires and cabinets brought from germany are worth 500, 600, and 700 reales each, and those of the same kind made in spain by spaniards are to be had for 250 and 300 reales.' besides these inlaid cabinets others must have been made in the sixteenth century inlaid with silver. an edict was issued in 1594 prohibiting, with the utmost rigour, the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in order not to increase the scarcity of silver. the edict says that 'no cabinets, desks, coffers, brasiers, shoes, tables, or other articles decorated with stamped, raised, carved, or plain silver, should be manufactured.'" chapter ix. tudor and stuart styles. the list of reigns supplies more convenient dates than the beginning or the end of a century for marking changes of national tastes in such matters as furniture. the names of kings or queens are justly given to denote styles, whether of architecture, dress, or personal ornaments, and utensils of the household. society in most countries adopts those habits that are first taken up by the sovereign. in england, the reign of elizabeth was pre-eminently a period during which the tastes, even the fancies, of the queen were followed enthusiastically by her people. elizabethan is the name of the style of architecture gradually developed during her reign. italian taste, though not perhaps so pure as it had been a few years earlier, had become far more general; classical details, however, were mixed even more in england than in other countries (flanders excepted) with relics of older styles, the love of which was still strong in this country. the fireplaces and the panelling of our old houses, crewe hall, speke in lancashire, haddon hall in derbyshire, kenilworth castle, raglan castle, and many other old buildings, are thoroughly characteristic of this mixed classical revival. the fashion is quaint and grotesque, the figure sculpture being good enough to look well in the form of caryatid monsters, half men, half terminal posts or acanthus foliations, but not sufficiently correct or graceful to stand altogether alone. specimens, however, of very good work can be pointed out, and we give here some of the details of a panelled room brought lately from exeter, and now in the south kensington collection. we may say that the character of the woodwork throughout this period consists in actual architectural façades or portions of façades, showy arrangements wherever they are possible of the "five orders" of architecture, or of pedimental fronts. doorways and chimney fronts are the principal opportunities in interiors for the exercise of this composing skill. panelling remained in use in the great halls and most of the chambers of the house, but the linen pattern, so graceful and effective, went out of fashion. the angles of the rooms, the cornices, and spaces above the doors were fitted with groups of architectural cornice mouldings, consisting of dentil, egg and tongue, and running moulds, and sometimes room walls were divided into panels by regular columns. [illustration] heraldry, with rich carved mantlings and quaint forms of scutcheons (the edges notched and rolled about as if made of the notched edges of a scroll of parchment), was a frequent ornament. grotesque terminal figures, human-headed, supported the front of the dresser--the chief furniture of the dining-room and of the cabinet. table supports and newels of stair rails grew into heavy acorn-shaped balusters. in the case of stair balusters, these were often ornamented with well-cut sculpture of fanciful and heraldic figures. inlaid work also began to be used in room-panelling as well as furniture; bed heads and testers, chest fronts, cabinets, &c., were inlaid, but scarcely with delicacy, during the early elizabethan period. the art was developed during the reign of james, when, in point of fact, the larger number of the tudor houses were erected. when the tudor period was succeeded by that of the stuarts the same general characteristics remained, but all the forms of carving grew heavier and the execution coarser. the table legs, baluster newels, and cabinet supports, had enormous acorn-shaped masses in the middle. the objects themselves, such as the great hall tables, instead of being moveable on trestles, became of unwieldy size and weight. the general character of flemish work was much of the same kind and form. it is not easy to distinguish the nationality of pieces of flemish and english oak furniture of this period. the flemings, however, retained a higher school of figure carvers, and their church-stall work and some of their best things are of a higher stamp and better designed; and where figure sculpture was employed this superiority is always apparent. a good example of flemish panelling can be studied in the doorway at south kensington, n^{o.} 4329. their furniture is represented by an excellent specimen, amongst others, of this mixed period in the cabinet, n^{o.} 156. though large and heavy, and divided into massive parts, the treatment of ornament is well understood on such pieces. the scroll-work is bold but light, and the general surface of important mouldings or dividing members is not cut up by the ornamentation. the panels are very generally carved with graceful figure subjects, commonly biblical. as the years advanced into the seventeenth century flemish work became bigger and less refined. diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on the square, turned work was split and laid on, drop ornaments were added below tables and from the centres of the arches of arched panels; all these unnecessary ornaments were mere additions and encumbrances to the general structure. [illustration] our own later jacobean or stuart style borrowed this from the flemish. the flemings and the dutch had long imported woodwork into england, and it is to that commerce that we may trace the greater likeness between the late flemish renaissance carving and corresponding english woodwork, than between the english and the french. dutch designs in furniture, though allied to the flemish, were swelled out into enormous proportions. the huge wardrobe cabinets made by the dutch of walnut wood with ebony inlaid work and waved ebony mouldings are still to be met with. the panels of the fronts are broken up into numerous angles and points. in france the fine architectural wood construction of the style of philibert de l'orme and so many great masters maintained itself, and a number of fine cabinets and sideboards in various collections attest the excellence of the work. the cabinet on the opposite page (n^{o.} 2573 in the kensington museum) is of late french sixteenth century work, and combines the characteristics of the heavy furniture made in the north of europe with a propriety of treatment in the ornamentation of mouldings and cornices peculiar to french architects, who continued to design such structures for the houses they built and fitted up. the descendants of catherine de' medicis and their generation were trained by italian artists and altogether in italian tastes, and no great change occurred in france in woodwork or furniture till the sixteenth century had closed. in german and in italian furniture the principal changes were in the direction of veneered and marquetry work. the same vigorous quaintness continued to distinguish german decorative detail as has been already noticed. the italians carved wood during the later sixteenth and the whole of the seventeenth centuries with extraordinary grace and vigour. the next woodcut, a pedestal in oak, shows their power in hard material: and smaller objects, such as the frames of pictures, were cut out in great sweeping leaves, perhaps of the acanthus, showing an ease and certainty in the artist that look as if he were employed upon some substance more yielding than the softest wood. chairs were cut in the same rich style, and this luxurious carving was not unfrequently applied to the decoration of state carriages. venice maintained a pre-eminence in this perhaps in a greater degree than florence, though in the valley of the arno the willow, lime, sycamore, and other soft white woods were to be had in abundance, and invited great freedom in carving. [illustration] [illustration] we may now treat of an important epoch in the history of modern furniture. venice was the seat of the manufacture of glass. in the sixteenth century workmen had received state protection for the manufacture of mirrors, which till that time had been mere hand mirrors and made of mixed metals highly polished. gilt wood frames were extensively manufactured for these venetian looking-glasses, which found their way all over europe. besides gilt frames, gilt chairs, carved consoles, and other highly ornate furniture were introduced as the century went on, and most of this took its origin from venice. the woodcut represents a small frame, n^{o.} 1605, at south kensington. another remarkable class of gilt woodwork, for which florence and other cities had found trained carvers, was the framework of carriages. in england, france, germany, and italy carriages during the seventeenth century were stately, and certainly wonderful pieces of furniture. examples of these showy carriages exist still. there is a collection belonging to the royal family of portugal, now preserved at lisbon, one or two in the museum of the hôtel de cluny at paris, dating from the time of martin and painted by him, and there are a few carriages of old date at vienna and probably in some private houses. the state-coach of the speaker is an english example of the seventeenth century. germany differed less from italy even than france in wood carving, interior room fittings, and the frequent pedimental compositions containing grotesques, or heraldic achievements on a scale of sumptuous display. the german princes were many of them skilful and intelligent patrons of art, and made collections in their residences. a well-known piece belonging to the early seventeenth century is preserved in the royal museum at berlin. this is known as the pomeranian art cabinet. it is 4 ft. 10 in. high, 3 ft. 4 in. wide by 2 ft. 10 in. deep, made of ebony with drawers of sandal wood lined with red morocco leather, and is mounted with silver and pietra dura work, and fitted inside with utensils of various kinds. the chair, of which we give a woodcut, is german of about the same date. [illustration] in the west of europe, during the seventeenth century, marquetry was extensively used, and became the leading feature of furniture decoration. inlaying had long been in use; but the new marquetry was a picturesque composition, a more complete attempt at pictorial representation. it comes before us in old furniture under various forms, and many examples of it may be studied in different collections. in this country we may consider it mainly as an imported art of the reign of william and mary, when dutch marquetry furniture became the fashion in the form of bandy-legged chairs, upright clock fronts, secrétaires or bureaux, or writing cabinets which were closed in the upper and middle parts with doors, and other pieces that offered surfaces available for such decoration. the older designs on work of this kind represent tulips and other flowers, foliage, birds, &c., all in gay colours, generally the self colours of the woods used. sometimes the eyes and other salient points are in ivory or mother-of-pearl. in france, in the earlier marquetry designs, picturesque landscapes, broken architecture, and figures are represented. colours are occasionally stained on the wood. ivory and ebony were favourite materials; as also in germany and in italy. it is to be noted that as the vigour of the great sixteenth century movement died out, the mania for making furniture in the form of architectural models died out also; nor do we find it becoming a fashion again till quite modern times, under the gothic and other revivals at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century. the architectural idea was in itself full of grandeur, and it was productive of very beautiful examples in the sarcophagus-shaped chests or cassoni, and in cabinet work, though the façades of temples and the vaults and columns of triumphal arches in rome do not bear to be too completely reduced to such small proportions. with the introduction of marquetry into more general use we recognise not only a new or renewed method of decoration, but a changed ideal of construction. boxes, chests, tables, cabinets, &c., were conceived as such. they were made more convenient for use, and were no longer subdivided by architectural mouldings and columns, all so much extra work added to the sides and fronts. about the middle of the seventeenth century a kind of work altogether new in the manufactory of modern furniture made its appearance under the reign of louis the fourteenth of france. that king rose to a position in europe that no monarch of modern times had occupied before, and the great ministers of his reign had the wisdom to take special measures for the establishment of the various arts and manufactures in which either the italians or flemings excelled the french as well as other nations. colbert, his minister of finance, amongst his commercial reforms of learned societies and schools of art, founded in 1664 an "academie royale de peinture d'architecture et de sculpture." it was into this that the designers of architecture, woodwork, ornament or furniture, were admitted. he established also the famous factory of the "gobelins" for making pictorial tapestry. the place took its name from the brothers gobelin, flemings, who had a dyeing-house in the rue mouffetard. lebrun, the painter, was the first head of it. another important name is that of jean lepautre. he has left numerous designs of ornament behind him for panelling, mirror frames, carriages, &c. lepautre was a pupil of adam philippon. this artist, whose chief calling was that of a joiner and cabinet maker, has also left designs. to colbert is due the credit of pushing forward the renewal or completion of the royal palaces; especially the château of versailles. for the furniture of this palace we find the new material employed, namely, boule marquetry, which owes its name to the maker. the orthography of proper names was still often unsettled at that time, and we find the name variously spelt. the correct way seems to have been boulle; but we shall retain the more usual mode, both for the artist and for his work. andré charles boule was born in 1642, and made the peculiar kind of veneered work composed of tortoiseshell and thin brass, to which are sometimes added ivory and enamelled metal; brass and shell, however, are the general materials. boule was made head of the royal furniture department and was lodged in the louvre. a very interesting early specimen of this work is now at windsor castle, and other early pieces belong to sir richard wallace. the date attributed to the first makes it doubtful whether boule may not have seen the same sort of work practised in other workshops. this kind of marquetry has, however, been assigned by general consent to boule. in the earlier work of boule the inlay was produced at great cost, owing to the waste of valuable material in cutting; and the shell is left of its natural colour; in later work the manufacture was more economical. two or three thicknesses of the different material were glued or stuck together and sawn through at one operation. an equal number of figures and of matrices or hollow pieces exactly corresponding were thus produced, and by counter-charging two or more designs were obtained by the same sawing. these are technically known as "boule and counter," the brass forming the groundwork and the pattern alternately. in the later or "new boule," the shell is laid on a gilt ground or on vermilion. the brass is elaborately chased with a graver. besides these plates of brass for marquetry ornaments, boule, who was a sculptor of no mean pretensions, founded and chased up feet, edgings, bracket supports, &c., to his work in relief, or in the round, also in brass. the original use of these parts was to protect the edges and angles, and bind the thin inlaid work together where it was interrupted by angles in the structure. afterwards brass mounts, more or less relieved, were added to enrich the flat designs of the surfaces. classical altars, engraved or chased as mere surface decoration, would receive the addition of claw feet actually relieved. figures standing on such altars, pedestals, &c., were made in relief more or less bold. in this way boule's later work is not only a brilliant and rich piece of surface decoration, but its metallic parts are repoussé or embossed with thicknesses of metal ornament. in boule work all parts of the marquetry are held down by glue to the bed, usually of oak. the metal is occasionally fastened down by small brass pins or nails, which are hammered flat and chased over so as to be imperceptible. [illustration] in england, during the reign of charles the second and of james, french furniture was imported; the old tudor oak lingered in country houses. boule hardly found its way till the following century to england. splendid silver furniture consisting of plates embossed and repoussé, heightened with the graver and of admirable design, was occasionally made for the court and for great families. wood carving, in the manner of the school of sir christopher wren, as in the bracket here shown, was long continued in connexion with architecture and furniture. another style was carried to the highest pitch of technical execution and finish, as well as of truth of natural forms in the carving of grinling gibbons. this artist was english, but partially of dutch descent. he carved foliage, birds, flowers, busts and figures, pieces of drapery, &c., with astonishing dexterity. we find his work principally on mirror frames, wall panels, chimney pieces, &c. specimens may be seen over the communion table of st. james's church, westminster, and in the choir of st. paul's cathedral. the finest examples known are probably the carved work at petworth house in sussex, and at chatsworth. his material is generally lime and other white woods. the flowers and foliage of his groups or garlands sweep round in bold and harmonious curves, making an agreeable whole, though for architectural decorative carving no work was ever so free from conventional arrangements. his animals or his flowers appear to be so many separate creations from nature, laid or tied together separately, though in reality formed out of a block, and remaining still portions of a group cut in the solid wood. [illustration: a. reid pearson, s.c.] gibbons died in 1721. walpole mentions watson as having been his pupil and assistant at chatsworth. drevot of brussels and laurens of mechlin were other pupils: the former did not survive him. his school had many followers, for we find the acanthus carvings on mouldings, round doorways and chimney pieces, down to the middle of the eighteenth century, executed in england with a masterly hand. specimens of such work have been recently acquired in the kensington museum, the fruits of the demolition of old london, continually in progress. the border of this page represents one of these admirable pieces; a door and frame from a house in lincoln's-inn. nothing can surpass the perfect mastery of execution. all the work is cut clean and sharp out of wood which admits of no tentative cuts, and requires no rubbing down with sand paper, and in which errors are not to be repaired. lengths of these mouldings were worked off by hand, evidently without hesitation and without mishap. country houses abound with this fine though unpretending work, and give ample evidence of the existence of a school of fine workmen, carvers at the command of the architects of the day. we may here revert to an important addition to room furniture, which became european during this century. mirrors had been made from the earliest times in polished metal, but were first made of glass at venice. in 1507 andrea and dominico, two glass workers of murano, declared before the council of ten that they had found a method of making "good and perfect mirrors of crystal glass." a monopoly of the right of manufacture was granted to the two inventors for twenty years. in 1564, the mirror makers became a distinct guild of glass workers. the plates were not large: from four to five feet are the largest dimensions met with till late in the eighteenth century. they were commonly bevilled on the edges. the frames in soft wood (as in the woodcut, p. 100) are specimens of free carving during the seventeenth century. both in venice and in florence soft woods, such as willow or lime, were used. the mirror-plates were, at first, square or oblong. towards the end of the century we find them shaped at the top. in the eighteenth century they were generally shaped at the top and bottom. figures were sunk in the style of intaglio or gem cutting on the back of the glass and left with a dead surface, the silver surface of the mercury showing through as the mirror is seen from the front. the looking-glasses made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by colonies of venetian workmen in england and france had the plates finished by an edge gently bevilled of an inch in width, following the form of the frame, whether square or shaped in curves. this gives preciousness and prismatic light to the whole glass. it is of great difficulty in execution, the plate being held by the workman over his head and the edge cut by grinding. the feats of skill of this kind in the form of interrupted curves and short lines and angles are rarely accomplished by modern workmen, and the angle of the bevil itself is generally too acute, whereby the prismatic light produced by this portion of the mirror is in violent and too showy contrast to the remainder. [illustration] in england, looking-glasses came into general use soon after the restoration. "sir samuel morland built a fine room at vauxhall in 1667, the inside all of looking-glass, and fountains, very pleasant to behold. it stands in the middle of the garden covered with cornish slate, on the point whereof he placed a punchinello." at about the same period the house of nell gwynne, "the first good one as we enter st. james' square from pall mall, had the back room on the ground floor entirely lined with looking-glass within memory," writes pennant, "as was said to have been the ceiling." "la rue st. andré-des-arts," says savarin, speaking of paris in the seventeenth century, "eut le premier café _orne de glaces_ et de tables de marbre à peu près comme on les voit de nos jours." [illustration] during the seventeenth century, tapestry, the material in use for hanging and decorating the walls of splendid rooms in france, was made also in this country. factories were set up at mortlake, where several copies were made of the raphael tapestries, the cartoons of which were in this country; and in soho fields. sometimes tapestry was hung on bare walls; occasionally it was strained over the older panelled work of the days of the tudor and stuart sovereigns, the fruitful period of country house architecture in england. [illustration: an english table and chairs of the year 1633, from a woodcut of that date.] with a woodcut (on preceding page) of a bedroom holy-water vessel we finish the account of this period. chapter x. furniture of the eighteenth century. as the eighteenth century draws on, we arrive at furniture of which examples are more readily to be met with, and we are reminded of houses and rooms more or less unaltered which have come under general observation. the fashions were led in france. boule work grew into bigger and more imposing structures as the manufacture passed into the hands of a greater number of workmen. commodes or large presses were made with edgings and mounts, in the form of "egg and tongue" and other classic or renaissance mouldings. the tops were formed into one or three pedestals, to hold clocks and candelabra. other changes were introduced to carry out the taste for gilding which then prevailed, and the broken shell-shaped woodwork, popularly known as louis quinze work, began to be adopted for the frames of large glasses and the mouldings of room panels. the panels grew tall, were arched or shaped at the top, and occupied the wall space from the dado to the moulded and painted ceilings, in narrow panels. the fantastic forms of curve, emblems of the affected manners of the day, called rococo from the words _rocaille coquille_, rock and shell curves, were well calculated to show off the lustre of gilding. the gold was admirably laid on, thick and very pure, and both in bronze gilding and in the woodwork, maintains its lustre to the present time. the severe classical grandeur of the old roll mouldings of fireplace jambs, wall and door panels, of the former reign gave way everywhere to this lighter work. much early eighteenth century furniture was bombé, or rolled about in curious curves or undulations of surface, partly to display the skill of the cabinet-makers, and partly to show off the marquetry, which formed its only decoration. another step was the introduction of mechanical applications and contrivances. the tops of tables lift off, and the action causes other portions to rise, to open, and so on. it is to be remembered that bedrooms were often used as boudoirs or studies, and that furniture which could shut private papers up without requiring that they should be put away into drawers was convenient in such rooms. as the century advanced, it became customary to form a sort of alcove at the end of bedrooms in france. the centre portion contained the bed, hidden by curtains, the spaces between it and the two walls were shut in with doors, and formed dressing closets, which could be used while the rest of the room was shut off. the bedroom then became a reception room and was thrown open with other receiving rooms of the house. bureaux or mechanically shutting tables, writing desks, and the like, under this arrangement were a necessity for small rooms. a school of painters arose in the reign of louis the fifteenth who devoted themselves to the decoration of room woodwork and ceilings; charles delafosse, antoine coypel, jean restout, and many pupils. we must associate the names of these artists with those of the le pautre family. jean died before the end of the seventeenth century, but pierre took part in the later works of the louvre and of versailles under jules hardouin mansard, "surintendant des bastiments." juste aurèle meissonnier did still more to make this showy work popular. he designed all sorts of room furniture and woodwork. it is amongst the published works of these artists that we must seek the eighteenth century designs of french fashion. painted panels were inserted into the wood ceilings, over the tops of looking-glasses, and _dessus-portes_ or the short panels between the tops of doors and the line of cornice. these are generally in chiaro scuro, or light and shade only, and represent families of cupids. nymphs and fauns, shepherdesses, and the supposed inhabitants of a fanciful arcadia, formed the general subjects of room decorations. a process belonging to the same reign should be noticed, called after the inventor, vernis-martin, a carriage painter, born about the year 1706. by carriage painter we must understand a painter of heraldic ornaments, flower borders, &c. his varnish is a fine transparent lac polish, probably derived from japan through missionaries, who had resided there before the occurrence of the great massacres which closed japan to all but the dutch traders. the work which we commonly associate with his name is generally found on furniture such as tables or book cases, as well as on needle cases, snuff boxes, fans, and étuis, on a gold ground. the gold is waved or striated by some of those ingenious processes still in use amongst the japanese, by which the paste or preparation on which their gold is laid is worked over while still soft. one or two carriages beautifully painted in vernis-martin are kept in the hotel de cluny at paris. although it is popularly held that martin declared his secret should die with him, and that he kept his word, yet it is certain that he left imitators and pupils who painted and enamelled in his manner furniture of various kinds. in sir r. wallace's collection there are two pieces, coloured green and varnished, one a table and the other a cabinet or bookcase, of vernis-martin work. there is on these no ornament excepting the varnish and the gold mounts that are added at the edges. the most beautiful objects that bear his name are the small wares, such as fans, needle books, or snuff boxes. later in the century we meet with other french names, riesener, david, and gouthière, who gained great reputation, the two first as makers of marquetry, and the latter as a founder and chaser of metal furniture mounts, such as edgings and lock scutcheons. the history of french furniture is in general the history of that of other nations. the art of wood carving was still maintained in italy and applied, as in the instance of this distaff, to utensils of all kinds. in england we had, about the middle of the century, a school of carvers, gilders, and ornamenters following the extravagant style of the french. the most prominent name is that of thomas chippendale, who worked from the middle till towards the end of the century. he was descended from a family of carvers, and inherited the skill which had been general in his craft since the days of gibbons. we find much rococo carving on bed testers, round fireplaces, over doors, &c., in our english houses built during the reign of anne and the two first georges. other pieces of furniture, such as carved tables, wardrobe cabinets, chair backs or dinner trays, go by chippendale's name. they are in mahogany, and follow the architectural moulding lines often seen in the works of sir william chambers and the brothers adam. [illustration] among the room decorations of the century we may notice the shelves for holding chinese porcelain and imitations of chinese designs in delft pottery, a taste imported by william the third and the members of his court who had lived in holland. the chimney pieces at hampton court and elsewhere are provided with woodwork to hold these ornaments. hogarth paints them in his interiors, and the rage for purchasing such objects at sales became a popular subject of ridicule. to the early eighteenth century belongs a class of furniture of which the decorations consisted of panels of old chinese and japanese lac work; fitted, as the marquetry of the day was, with rich gilt metal mounts. in england it was the fashion to imitate the japan work, and such old furniture is occasionally met with: black, with raised figure decorations of chinese character done in gold dust. a great change is observable in the french furniture, panel carving and such decorations from the period of louis the sixteenth. several causes at the time combined to give art of this kind a new as well as a healthier direction. amongst these we may mention the discoveries made at herculaneum and pompeii. it is needless to say that the peculiar cause of the destruction of both those towns had preserved in them perfect memorials, in many forms, of the social life of antiquity. decorations, utensils and furniture of all kinds that were made of metal, and had resisted the action of damp and time, were recovered in fair condition. one result, both in france and england, was a return to a better feeling for classical style. room decorations and furniture soon reached the highest point of elegance which french renaissance art of a sumptuous kind has touched since the sixteenth century. the panelling of rooms, usually in oak and painted white, was designed in severe lines with straight mouldings and pilasters. the pilasters were decorated with well-designed carved work, small, close, and splendidly gilt. the quills that fill the fluted columns still seen round so many interiors were cut into beads or other subdivisions with much care. fine arabesque work in the style of the "loggie" of raphael was partly carved in relief, partly drawn and painted, or gilt, with gold of a yellow or of a green hue; the green being largely alloyed with silver. an example of the best work of this kind may be referred to in the beautiful room brought from paris and now preserved, reconstructed, at south kensington. the houses built for members of the brilliant court of queen marie antoinette were filled with admirable work in this manner, or in the severer but still delicate carved panelling in wood plainly painted. the royal factories of the gobelins and of sèvres turned out also their most beautiful productions to decorate rooms, furniture, and table service. in the former of these, tapestries were made for wall hangings, for chair backs, seats, and sofas. rich silks from the looms of lyons, and from those of lucca, genoa, and venice were also employed for this kind of furniture both in france and flanders, germany, italy, and spain, as well as in our own country. in all these matters france led the fashions. during this brilliant period, from 1774 to 1790, we meet with the names of several artists employed for painting the panelling of rooms, the lunettes over chimney fronts, and the panels of ceilings. fragonard, natoire, boucher (the director of the academy) are among the foremost of these. their history perhaps belongs rather to that of painters than of our present subject; but they are too much mixed up with eighteenth century furniture not to find mention even in a sketch like the present. other artists such as delafosse, lalonde, cauvet and salembier designed arabesques, decorative woodwork, and furniture. the designs of many of them are still extant: and cauvet dedicated a book of them to monsieur, the king's brother. four tables with silver-gilt mounts of his design were made for the queen's house of the trianon, and afterwards removed to the favourite residence of the emperor napoleon at st. cloud. robert and barthélemy were sculptors and bronze workers who made mounts for furniture, and engravers. meissonnier, oppenord, queverdo worked in the same way. hubert robert, a painter, helped micque in all the decorations of the trianon. two or three cabinet-makers have transmitted a great name, though little seems to be known of their history. of these riesener and david roentgen were _ébénistes_, or workers in fine cabinet making. the designation is taken from the ebony and other exotic woods, which had come into more general use in europe from the end of the seventeenth century subsequently to 1695, when the dutch settled in ceylon. the french obtained ebony from madagascar, but in very small quantities. after the settlements at ceylon we find it introduced into europe on a larger scale. there are green and yellow varieties but the black wood is the most valuable, and ceylon is the country in which the greatest quantities are produced. we still find in english houses much old carved ebony furniture, mainly chairs and cabinets, dating generally from the early years of the dutch occupation. riesener used tulip (_liriodendron tulipifera_), rosewood, holly (_ilex aquifolium_), maple (_acer campestre_), laburnum (_cytisus alpinus_), purple wood (_copaifera pubiflora_), &c. wreaths and bunches of flowers, exquisitely worked and boldly designed, form centres of his marquetry panels which are often plain surfaces of one wood. on the sides, in borders and compartments, we find diaper patterns in three or four quiet colours. these conventional sides or corners of diaper work help to give point to the graceful compositions that form the principal feature in his marquetry. chests of drawers and cabinets are sometimes met with in snake wood and other varieties of brown wood, of which the grain is waved or curled without marquetry. the name of riesener is to be found stamped sometimes on the panel itself, sometimes on the oak lining of the pieces of furniture made by him. a number of exceptional examples of riesener's cabinets are described in the appendix to the detailed catalogue of furniture in the south kensington museum. the best pieces are from the collection now belonging to sir richard wallace. the most imposing of these is the rounded bureau or secrétaire, made for stanislaus, king of poland. it is beautifully inlaid on the top, ends, and back with designs emblematic of the sciences, &c., and with bust heads. the letters s. r. are put upon a broad band of decoration that runs round the lower portion of the bureau. a similar piece of furniture with gilt bronze candle branches by gouthière, on the sides, is now in the louvre. both are signed. david roentgen was born at niewid near luneville, in which latter city he worked as a contemporary of riesener, but younger by some years in age. he also made marquetry in lighter woods and of rather a gayer tone than those of riesener. both of them often worked in plain mahogany, and in such cases trusted for the effectiveness of their pieces to the excellence of the mounts of chased and gilt metal by their contemporary, gouthière. in his light marquetry david used various white woods. pear, lime, and light-coloured woods were occasionally tinted with various shades by burning. this process, originally effected by hot irons, is better and more delicately managed by hot sand. only browns and dark ochrous yellows are obtained by this means, and the more delicately toned marquetry is without hues of green or blue. those tints, however, can be obtained by steeping the wood in various chemical solutions. as a maker of gilt bronze furniture mounts gouthière had a wide reputation. he belongs to the period of louis the sixteenth. with him riesener and david worked in concert; all their best pieces are finished with the mounts of gouthière. among examples in this country is the cabinet in the royal collection at windsor. no signature has been discovered on this piece, but the exquisite modelling of the flower borders, the metal mouldings and mounts, and the crown supported by figures of cupids that surmounts the whole, leave us in no hesitation as to its authorship. gouthière modelled and chased up similar work for carriages, and mounts for marble chimney pieces, such as that in the boudoir just above referred to. the gilding on these mounts is so good and has been laid on so massively that the metal has in general suffered no substantial injury down to our own times, and can be restored to its original lustre by soap and water. indeed, the fine old work dating from the two previous reigns by andré boule and other artists, after the designs of berain, has suffered little. the boule clocks, with arched glass panels in front and spreading supports and figure compositions on the top, have in most cases come down to us clothed in their original water gilding, easily to be cleaned though looking black when they have been long left to neglect. contemporaneous with riesener in france was the italian maker of marquetry, maggiolino. in florence, venice, milan, and genoa, cabinets and commodes of marquetry were produced. german cabinet-makers manufactured the same work through the earlier part of the century. bombé or curved furniture was also made by the germans with great, we may almost say with extravagant, skill. to maintain mouldings on the angles of these curved and waving surfaces is a feat in workmanship of difficult attainment, and german cabinet-makers seem to have taken delight in exhibiting such skill. the quaint work of the minute carvings in box and other hard woods, admirably carried out during the times of the immediate pupils of dürer and the school of well-trained artists who succeeded him, was no longer to be found. the desolating wars that swept over this part of europe during the days of louis the fourteenth and frederick the great seem to have exhausted the country, and worn out the ancient industry of the cities. guilds died away, the men who composed them being required for the exigencies of war, and the wealth of the inhabitants was so reduced that the leisure to enjoy and even the means to buy fine productions of art existed no longer. few collectors have done greater service to the study of english art than horace walpole; and few have had the opportunities he enjoyed a century ago, when he was able to fill strawberry hill with a collection of mediæval, renaissance, and later works of art of every description. a lively passage, alluding to the contract for the roof and the glazing of king's college chapel, cambridge, commemorates his value for these art traditions. "as much," he says, "as we imagine ourselves arrived at higher perfection in the arts, it would not be easy for a master of a college to go into st. margaret's parish, southwark, to _bespeak_ such a roof as that of king's college, and a dozen or two of windows so admirably drawn, and order them to be sent home by such a day, as if they were bespeaking a chequered pavement." a certain sort of revival of gothic design took place in england about this period: and later in the century feeble attempts at gothic woodwork were made here and there; but there was little national taste in furniture apart from a close imitation of french fashions. a still greater change was produced by sir william chambers, the architect of modern somerset house, who wrote a book on civil architecture and room decorations. another name connected with furniture has been already mentioned, that of thomas chippendale. he published his book of designs in 1764, containing complete sides of rooms, looking-glass frames, chimney fronts, &c. he and his contemporaries designed tables, cabinets and moveable furniture of every description, including carriages, on which, indeed, furniture designers of all periods were employed. chippendale and his sons or assistants produced frames and cornices for gilding so different from his well-made wardrobes, &c., that there must have been more than one of the family engaged in superintending these dissimilar kinds of objects. he is a representative maker. the son has been sometimes credited with the mahogany woodwork of which delicacy and exactness are the characteristics. satin wood came into fashion in england during the last half of the century. both cipriani and angelica kauffmann painted medallions, cameo ornaments and borders on table tops and fronts, harpsichord cases, &c., made of satin wood or coloured in the manner of the vernis-martin work. the former decorated carlton house. mathias lock, with whom was associated a cabinet maker named copeland, also published designs of furniture of every kind. a semi-classic pompeian or roman arabesque feeling runs through the ornamentation of these pieces of furniture. they are light in make, often elegant, and more or less follow the taste prevailing in france and italy. gillow, the founder of a respectable existing firm, belongs to this period; but, as yet, nothing has come to light regarding his early history or apprenticeship. another name connected both with furniture and decorative arts of all kinds was that of robert adam; he was of scotch extraction and had travelled in italy; and his brother john built many private houses; for example, the adelphi and portland place. furniture, carriages, sedan chairs, and plate were amongst the objects for which robert, perhaps both the brothers, gave designs. classical capitals, mouldings and niches, circles and lunettes, with shell flutings and light garlands, were favourite features in their façade ornaments. the sideboards, bust terms (or pedestals), urn-shaped knife boxes; the chairs, commodes, &c., were all designed to accord with the architectural decorations. polished-steel fire-grates belong to this period, and we believe to the authorship of the brothers adam. a cabinet maker named a. heppelwhite published in 1789 a large set of designs for every sort of reception room and bedroom furniture. we see in these the mahogany chairs with pierced strapwork backs, library and pedestal tables, mechanical desks and bureaux, which continued in fashion during the early years of this century. fanciful sashed glass doors closed in the bookcases; interrupted pediments and pedestals provided space for busts round the tops of these cases. fluted legs, and occasionally lion-headed supports, uphold the tables and chairs. knife cases to set on the sideboard, and urn stools for the breakfast table, are among these designs. tea chests and tea caddies indicate that tea was then coming into general use. thomas sheraton, another cabinet-maker, published towards the end of the century an extensive "dictionary" of his trade. his designs, like those just mentioned, embrace beds, sofas, &c. mechanical dressing and washing tables, very ingeniously contrived, were among his productions. we meet with these still; of spanish mahogany, and admirable workmanship. the structure of all these pieces was light and strong. time has had little effect on wood so well seasoned and on pieces put together in so workmanlike a manner. the french revolution put a complete stop to the old arts of domestic life in france. as in the sixteenth century, so in the eighteenth the new ideas rushed extravagantly in the direction of republican antiquity and roman taste and sentiment. it was under the empire, after the italian wars and the egyptian expedition, that the means and taste for expenditure upon civil furniture and decorations revived, with an assumption of classicalism. the art of the time however, inspired by the hard paintings of david, is but a dry and affected attempt at a fresh renaissance. in furniture mounts, chairs, &c., of supposed classical designs, it is known as the art of the "empire." this country copied the fashion as soon as the return of peace opened the continent to english travellers. furniture and room decorations were designed after classical ideals, and we see chairs and tables imitating bas-reliefs and the drawings on antique vases. it is probable that collectors, such as sir william hamilton and the members of the dilettanti society, sensibly influenced the prevailing style. james wyatt the architect, about the end of the last century, rebuilt or cleared out many of our mediæval churches and houses, and took to designing what he called gothic for room decoration and furniture. sir jeffrey wyatt or sir jeffrey wyattville (as he became) made great changes at windsor castle, under george the fourth. pugin designed some flimsy gothic furniture for the same palace. at a later period of his life, however, he did much, both as a designer and a writer upon art, to turn attention to the principles on which mediæval designs of all kinds were based. we are now, perhaps, returning to renaissance art in furniture, and it is certain that collections such as those lately exhibited by sir richard wallace; the exposition retrospective in paris in 1865; the loan exhibitions of 1862 in london, and that of gore house at an earlier period; and above all the great permanent collection at south kensington, must contribute to form the public taste. in the review which we have made of what may be called the household art of so many ages, it would be difficult to assign an absolute superiority to the artists of any one generation, considering what countless beautiful objects have been made for the personal use and enjoyment of men. the sculptured thrones of ivory and gold, the seats and couches of bronze overlaid with gold and damascened with the precious metals, the inlaid chariots, tables, chests, and jewelled caskets of antiquity; the imagery, the shrines, the stalls, and roofs of the middle ages; the wood sculpture, tarsia, pietra dura, damascening and the endless variety of objects produced during the days of leonardo, michel angelo, and raphael, down to the carving of gibbons, and the splendid work of boule, riesener and gouthière, are all in various ways excellent. we must not venture to call one class of productions finer than another where the differences are so great and such high perfection has been attained in each. every style and fashion when at its best has resulted from the utmost application of mind and time on the part of trained artists; and the highest art can never be cheap, neither can any machinery or any help from mechanical assistance become substitutes for art. beauty which is created by the hand of man is not the clever application of mechanical forces or of scientific inventions, but is brought to light, whether it be a cabinet front or the venus of milo, often with pain, always by the entire devotion of the labour, the intellect, the experience, the imagination and the affection, of the artist and the workman. chapter xi. changes of taste and style. it is interesting to trace the changes that the more common and necessary pieces of furniture have undergone during successive historic ages. the social life of ancient times, even of the middle ages which come so much nearer to us in point of years, differs from that of our own in its whole aspect. yet though personal habits have so greatly altered the general wants of men remain much the same. hence such objects as beds, chairs, tables, chests, dressers, wardrobes or cabinets, carriages or litters, have been always used and maintained a certain identity. with a summary of the changes of form and methods of decoration of a few of the principal objects of personal use we shall conclude. _bedsteads and couches._ beds served often in antiquity and in the middle ages, and have served at all times, almost as much for sitting or reclining by day as for sleeping on at night. to what has been already said on the subject of antique beds little need be added. the egyptian bed and the pillow or crutch, of wood or more valuable materials, have been described. examples of the crutch are numerous in the british museum and in the louvre. "the egyptians had couches," says sir g. wilkinson, "but they do not appear to have reclined upon them more frequently than modern europeans, in whose houses they are equally common. the ottomans were simple square sofas without backs, raised from the ground nearly to the same level as the chair. the upper part was of leather, or of cotton stuff, richly coloured, like the cushions of the fauteuils, and the box was of wood painted with various devices and ornamented with the figures of captives, who were supposed to be degraded by holding so humiliating a position. and the same idea gave them a place on the footstools of a royal throne." the bed, [greek: lexos], of the greeks was covered with skins, over the skins with woollen blankets; sometimes a linen cloth or sheet was added. the finest coverlids were from miletus, carthage, and corinth. these varied in the softness of their woollen texture and the delicate disposition of the colours. later greek beds had girths of leather or string; a mattress; and a pillow. the roman bed had the side by which it was entered open, the other was protected by a shelf. the mattresses were stuffed with herbs, in later times with wool or feathers. precious counterpanes embroidered with gold were occasionally used. canopies or frames for curtains, in one form or another, have always been necessary adjuncts to beds. testers were placed on cradles, with gauze curtains to keep off flies. beds on wheels were in use for the sick in classical and mediæval times: as also a low and portable bed, _grabatum_, with mats for bedding. this is the word used in st. john's gospel, translated "take up thy bed and walk." [illustration] besides beds, couches, and stools, used in antiquity, as in our own times, we find amongst the ancients the habit, unknown since, of reclining on the left elbow at meals. the romans called the conventional arrangement the _triclinium_. the accompanying woodcut represents the plan of a _triclinium_, the guest reclining on the left elbow and the faces of each directed from 1 to 3, 4 to 6, and so on. these numbers and positions indicated a sort of superiority, or a highest, middle, and lowest to every table. a passage from horace, often quoted, enumerates the guests in this order. fundanius, who was at the top, giving an account of a dinner to his friends, says: "i sat at the top, viscus thurinus next to me; varius, if my memory serves me, below him; vibidius along with servilius balatro, whom mæcenas brought as humble companions. nomentanus was above, and porcius below the host himself." the beds of the early middle ages in england had testers with curtains, often of valuable material. these slid on rings on an iron rod. sometimes the rod, with a frame to sustain it, was on one or on three sides of the bed, and the tester wanting. sometimes the beds were slung on uprights, as cots are at sea. no great expense was incurred in the framework till the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. the splendour of state beds, or those of great people, consisted in the curtains, which were occasionally taken down, and hung up in churches on festivals. in the illuminations of manuscripts and in pictures representing scenes in which there is a bed, we find the tester strained by cords to the sides of the room or to the ceiling, as in the accompanying woodcut. the curtains ran round this frame, as in our modern four-posters; but we see them hoisted out of the way during the daytime, not round a post, only raised beyond reach. [illustration] the finest examples of bedsteads that can be called mediæval are french, and only met with in fragments, or more or less complete. this is unfortunately the case also as regards early english bedsteads. we may refer the reader to the "mobilier français" of viollet le duc, for an idea of the sumptuous carved oak bedstead of the great palaces and hotels of france. it was a frame panelled down to the ground, often containing chests, drawers, presses, or other safe places under the sleeper. the back resembled more or less the reredos of an altar, or the great panelled presses that filled the sides of sacristies. four posts supported the canopy. a bedstead of the fifteenth century was long preserved at leicester, and said to have been slept on by richard the third. the under part of it formed his military chest, and the discovery of the treasure a century afterwards occasioned a barbarous murder. none of the coin found was of a later mint than his reign. it is also said by pennant that a stump bedstead still in berkeley castle is the same on which the murder of edward the second was committed. fine examples of tudor bedsteads are preserved there. in the town of ware in hertfordshire is, and has long been, an inn under the sign of the saracen's head, "in this," says clutterbuck, "there is a bed of enormous proportions, twelve feet square. the head is panelled in the elizabethan style of arched panels, and a date is painted on it--1460. [this, however, is not authentic.] it is of carved oak. the top is covered by a panelled tester, supported on baluster columns at the feet. the bases of these rest on a cluster of four arches or supports to each column." nothing is known of the original history of the bedstead. shakespeare alludes to it in twelfth night. [illustration] to the tudor and jacobean period of heavy oak furniture succeeded the custom of supplying the place of oak-panelled testers and headboards with rich hangings either of tapestry, cut genoa, or venice velvets and other costly materials, with ostrich feathers or other ornaments on the angles. the royal beds at hampton court admirably illustrate this stately fashion, as in the accompanying woodcut. more modern changes it is unnecessary to trace. [illustration] [illustration] couches for reclining or sitting upon were, in the middle ages, rather benches with cushions on them. the king conversing with a lady in her chamber is from a manuscript of about 1390 (the "romance of meliadus") in the british museum. in the seventeenth century we find the same ornaments that were used in chair backs extended to large frames so as to form them into couches, and the same plaited cane panels. in the last century, sofas were sometimes made in the form of several chair backs, with arms at each end, the backs being pierced work or framing made of bars in fancy shapes. this work was in mahogany or satin wood, or was painted after the fashion of vernis-martin work. in all cases such pieces were made to accord with suites of chairs, tables, &c. cradles have been made in many shapes. the most approved in antiquity was that of a boat, [greek: skaphos], or a shield; in either case they could be rocked. in the fourteenth century the men of ghent destroyed the house of the earl of flanders, according to froissart, and all his furniture including the cradle in which he was nursed, which was of silver. the cradle of henry the fifth is still preserved. it is in the form of a chest, much like the cradle in the kensington museum, n^{o.} 1769; and swings on posts, one at each end, standing on cross-bars to keep them steady: but there is no higher portion, as in the example in the museum, to support a tester. a hundred years later the shape seems to have become heavier. [illustration] _chairs._ in the ancient egyptian paintings at thebes, and elsewhere, chairs are minutely represented like the throne or arm chair of the greeks, each containing one person. occasionally they used stools and low seats raised a little above the ground. some sat cross-legged on the ground, though this is more rare, or kneeling on one knee. the men and women generally were apart, but in the same room, while conversing they sat, and did not recline. wilkinson gives a full description of the old egyptian chairs and stools. the classical curule chairs were made of ivory; sometimes of solid and entire elephants' teeth, which seems to have been the typical idea of the ivory chair; sometimes the ivory was veneered on a wooden base. the foot or point of the tusk was carved into a head or beak. it is from this curved chair of state that the later chairs were derived, of which the form remained popular in italy through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. the mediæval name was _faldistorium_, rendered "faldstool," a stool or seat to support the arms when kneeling, or to act as a chair when sitting. [illustration] the earliest type of the architectural thrones or chairs of the middle ages is the ancient chair of st. peter, at rome, of which a woodcut has been given in p. 35. a full description and plates of it will be found in the "vetusta monumenta" of the society of antiquaries for 1870. another famous chair, that of st. mark, is preserved at venice, in the treasury of st. mark's. anciently this chair, like that of st. peter in rome, was covered with plates of ivory, carved panels probably fitted into frame pieces of wood as a covering to the stone. as it is now seen, however, the work is of oriental marble. it is a rudely shaped arm chair, with high back sloping upwards in the form of a pediment, truncated and surmounted by a stone, cut into an imperfect circle or oval, and having an arm or volute like the reversed angle-volute of a column projecting from the lower part of each side. the chair of st. maximian at ravenna dates from the sixth century; this is described in mr. maskell's "ivories." a magnificent fourteenth century architectural chair of silver is preserved at barcelona. the supports represent window tracery. one large arch supplies the front support, being cusped, and these cusps are again subdivided. the two sides form each a pair of windows of two lights or divisions, with a circle above, the whole cusped and having trefoil leaves on the cusps. the back is open tracery work, representing three narrow windows, with two lights or openings each. they finish in three lofty gables, crocketed outside and divided into tracery within. [illustration] chairs in england during the mediæval period were sometimes made of turned wood. sometimes they were cleverly arranged to fold up, as in our own days: the engraving (p. 122) is from a beautiful manuscript of the fifteenth century. the chair known as that of glastonbury is a square board on two pairs of cross-trestles, with a square board for a back, held to the seat by sloping arm pieces, shaped out to receive the arms of a sitter. on the edges of the seat and back tenons protrude, long enough to pass through mortices in the leg and arm pieces, which are pegged to keep them firm. like the sixteenth century curule chairs these can easily be taken to pieces for travelling. during the reigns of elizabeth and james, high-backed chairs, richly cut and pierced, with wooden, afterwards with cane, seats were used and remained in use simplified and lightened during more than a century. the woodcut (p. 123) represents the fashion of chair common in italy about the year 1620: and from thence introduced into england. the use of marquetry was not confined to tables and cabinets. rich chairs were made in this material (rarely in boule) during the eighteenth century in france, italy, and holland, from whence they came to this country. light and very elegant yellow satin-wood marquetry chairs were also then in fashion. the use of mahogany for chairs, often delicately carved and admirably constructed, was general during the last century in england. the french carved chairs of the time of louis the sixteenth covered with silk all but the legs and framework, and painted white or gilt, were made to accord with the sofas and carved woodwork of the rooms. this example was followed in england, with certain national differences. _tables._ the ancient egyptian tables were round, square, or oblong; the former were generally used during their repasts, and consisted of a circular flat summit, supported, like the _monopodium_ of the romans, on a single shaft or leg in the centre or by the figure of a man intended to represent a captive. large tables had usually three or four legs, but some were made with solid sides; and though generally of wood many were of metal or stone; and they varied in size according to the different purposes for which they were intended. often they were three-legged, the legs in a concave shape. an antique marble table of græco-roman work is preserved at naples, supported by a centaur in full relief at one end, and a sea monster, scylla it is supposed, involving a shipwrecked mariner in the folds of her tail, with indications of waves, &c., round her body. other roman tables of larger dimensions had three, four, or five supports of sphinxes, lions, and the like. we give representations of three kinds of tables from paintings on vases; and another, on three marble legs, found at pompeii. [illustration] [illustration] in the middle ages, as has been before said, tables were generally folding boards laid on trestles and moveable. the general disposition of the dining table was taken from those of abbeys and convents, and may be seen continued in some of our own colleges to this day. the principal table was on a raised platform or floor at the upper end of the hall, and thence called the "high" table. the guests sat on one side only, as in the traditional representations of the last supper, and the place of honour was the centre, the opposite side being left for the service. the principal person sat under a canopy or cloth of estate, either made for the occasion, or under a panelled canopy curving outward and permanent. occasionally mediæval tables in england were of stone or marble. of the former material a table is preserved belonging to the strangers' hall at winchester; and a wooden one in the chapter-house at salisbury. the tops of some old english tables are made with two thicknesses, the lower pulling out on either side to rest on supports drawn from the bed. a table of this description is kept at hill hall, essex; and the woodcut represents a folding table of the time of elizabeth, long preserved at flaxton hall, in suffolk. during the last century mahogany tables with delicate pierced galleries round the edge, and similar work to ornament the bed or frame, were made by chippendale and his contemporaries. many of them are light and graceful pieces of construction. others were massively made with goat-footed legs that bulge well beyond the lines of the table top, which in these cases is often a slab of marble. the workmanship is admirable. mahogany had then supplanted the use of oak for large tables. [illustration] _chests, cabinets, and sideboards._ the wardrobe, both in the roman house and the mediæval castle, was a small room suitably fitted up and provided with receptacles. chests, coffers, and caskets were also in use, and implied moveability. in later days the renaissance chests were either mounted on stands or gave place to mixed structures; and cabinets of various forms that could be kept permanently in the hall or chamber became the fashion. they were large, important objects, were never moved or carried abroad, descended from father to son, and were the monumental objects, as the panelled superstructure of the fireplace was, of halls and reception rooms. these pieces have various forms. in dining halls or rooms occasionally so used, they were cupboards, dressers, or places with a small receptacle to hold food, and a flat top with perhaps a step or shelf above it to carry plate, candlesticks, &c. when placed in receiving rooms or to hold dresses they were cabinets or wardrobes; for the conveniences of writing they are bureaux, sécrétaires, or escritoires. [illustration] we have early notices of the use of cypress chests, perhaps cabinets as some of them are fitted with drawers, in this country. john of gaunt in his will, 1397, specifies "a little box of cypress wood;" probably something like the chest engraved from a manuscript of that date: out of which the servant is taking a robe evidently richly embroidered with armorial bearings. in the memoirs of the antiquities of great britain, relating to the reformation, we find an account of church plate, money, gold and silver images, &c., delivered to henry the eighth: "paid william grene, the king's _coffer-maker_, for making of a coffer covered with fustyan of naples, and being full of drawers and boxes lined with red and grene sarcynet to put in stones of divers sorts, vi. _li._ xviij. _s._ ij. _d._," by which we may gather something of its costly construction, "and to cornelys the locke smythe for making all the iron worke, that is to say, the locke, gymours, handels, ryngs to every drawer box, the price xxxvi. _s._ iv. _d._" the marquetry invented or brought to perfection by boule was displayed in greater magnificence on cabinets of various shapes than on any other pieces of furniture. the same may be said of the marquetry cabinets in wood executed during the eighteenth century in france by riesener and david, with the help of the metal mounts of gouthière and his contemporaries. in these fine pieces the interior is generally simple and the conceits of the previous century are omitted. japan cabinets obtained through the dutch were frequently imported into england. the hinges and mounts were of silver or gilt metal, richly chased. the bureau, escritoire, or office desk, called in germany kaunitz after a princely inventor, was a knee-hole table. these tall bureaux were of general, almost universal, use in england during the last century. _sideboards._ there are several old sideboards in the kensington museum, described under the names of _dressoir_ or _dressoir de salle à manger_ in the large catalogue. they are small cupboards and would be called cabinets but for the drawers half-way down, and the rows of the shelves on the top; and are of the sixteenth century date. according to willemin, the old etiquette of france, certainly that of burgundy, prescribed five steps or shelves to these dressers for use during meals for queens; four for duchesses or princesses; three for their children and for countesses and _grandes dames_; two for other noble ladies. in the middle ages cupboards or dressers were mere covered boards or shelves against a wall on which plate was set out, and were made of three or four or more stages according to the splendour of the occasion. the cupboard dresser of more modest pretensions was considered as a piece of dining-room furniture. it was ordinarily covered with a piece of embroidery. robert frevyll bequeaths, 1521, to his "son john a stone cobard in the hall." a manuscript inventory of henry the eighth names, "item, one large cuppbord carpet of grene cloth of gold with workes lyned with bockeram, conteyning in length three yards, iii. q'ters, and three bredthes." in the herald's account of the feast at westminster, on the occasion of the marriage of prince arthur, we find "there was also a stage of dyvers greas and hannes (degrees and enhancings of height) for the cuppbord that the plate shulde stande inn, the which plate for the moost part was clene (pure) goold, and the residue all gilte and non silver, and was in length from the closet doore to the chimney." and when in the next reign henry entertained francis at calais, a cupboard of seven stages was provided and furnished with gold and silver gilt plate. before concluding these remarks on dining-room furniture something may be said on painted roundels or wooden platters. though they have long ceased to be used for their original purpose, several sets still complete remain in country houses and collections of different kinds; and three sets are in the kensington museum. they are usually twelve in number: and all seem to be of the date of the late tudor princes. they were kept in boxes turned out of a block, and decorated with painting and gilding. their size does not differ materially, all the sets varying from 5-3/8 to 5-5/8 inches. there are, however, smaller sets to be seen which range from 2-3/4 to 5 inches in diameter. the top surface is in all instances plain and the under surface painted with a border of flowers, generally alternating with knots more or less artistically drawn in vermilion: "posyes" or a couple of verses are generally added. these platters were used in the sixteenth century as dessert plates, the plain side being at the top. leland speaks of the "confettes" at the end of a dinner, "sugar plate fertes, with other subtilties with ippocrass" (a sweet wine). earthenware plates though not unknown were still very uncommon in england before the reign of elizabeth. the dinner was served on plate in royal or very great houses, on pewter and wooden trenchers in more humble and unpretending households. specimens of the latter may still be seen in our old collegiate establishments. probably the earliest instance of the use of earthenware may be found in the time of edward the first, when some dishes and plates of that material were bought from a spanish ship. pitchers, jugs and the like had been for centuries commonly made. "porselyn" is mentioned in 1587: where we read of "five dishes of earth painted, such as are brought from venice" being presented to the queen on one of her progresses. _carriages._ [illustration] the shape and decoration of carriages have changed continually, but these changes have not always been in the direction of convenience and handiness for rapid motion. our space will not allow us to enter here upon a history of the chariots of ancient nations; egyptians, greeks, or romans. a detailed account of them will be found in the introduction to the large catalogue of furniture at south kensington. the woodcut represents the roman "biga," the original of which (in marble) is in the vatican; and the "pilentum," or covered carriage, from the column of theodosius. [illustration] we know but little of the period succeeding the destruction of rome and the extinction of classic customs. in the middle ages we find carts, like those now in use for agricultural purposes in france; a long frame with spreading rails balanced on one pair of wheels of large dimensions, drawn by a string of horses. the woodcut of a family carriage is from the well-known luttrell psalter, an illuminated manuscript of the early fourteenth century. such vehicles seem to have been clumsy enough and had no springs: nevertheless they were much ornamented with various decorations. they had roofs as a protection from the weather, with silk or leather curtains; and the interior was fitted with cushions. in the "squire of low degree" the father of the princess of hungary promises, to-morrow ye shall on hunting fare, and ride my daughter in a _chare_, it shall be covered with velvet red, and cloths of fine gold all about your head, with damask white and azure blue, well diapered with lilies new your pomelles (knobs) shall be ended with gold, your chains enamelled many a fold. the oldest kind of wheel-carriages known in england were called _whirlecotes_, and one of these belonged to the mother of richard the second. whirlecotes were used also at the marriage of katherine of arragon. coaches were probably first introduced from hungary. they seem to have been square, not differing greatly in outline from the state coaches of which numerous engraved plates can be seen; and were considered as too effeminate a conveyance for men in the days of elizabeth. the coach of henry the fourth of france may be studied in the plate by van luyken that represents his murder by ravaillac, 1610. it is four-wheeled, square, with a flat awning on four corner pillars or supports, and curtains. the centre descends into a kind of boot with leather sides. the accompanying woodcut represents the carriage of the english ambassador at rome in 1688: and we add also an engraving of a state carriage of about fifty years later, still in the possession of lord darnley. [illustration] [illustration] appendix. names of designers of woodwork and makers of furniture. only very meagre notices are to be found of the artists to whom we owe the designs of modern furniture. for a hundred and fifty years after the renaissance, furniture partook so generally, and the woodwork of rooms so entirely, of the character and followed so continually the details of architecture that the history of furniture-designers is that of the architects of the day. these found in the members of guilds of carvers, carpenters, or image sculptors admirable hands to carry out the ornamental details of their woodwork, such as chimney-pieces, &c., and who made sideboards, cabinets, chairs, and tables to suit the woodwork. we have space here only for the names; in the large catalogue a brief notice of almost every one of them is also given. ------------------------------+-----------------+--------------- |country in which | names of artists. | they worked. | date. ------------------------------+-----------------+---------------- a | | | | adam, j. (and r.) |england |1728-1792. | | agnolo, b. da |italy |1460-1563. | | agnolo, d. da | " |16th century. | | agnola, j. da | " | " " | | ambrogio, g. | " |17th " | | ards, w. |flanders |15th " | | asinelis, a. |italy |16th " | | b | | | | bachelier, - |france |16th century. | | baerze, j. de |flanders |14th " | | baker, - |england |18th " | | barili, a. |italy |16th " | | barili, g. | " | " " | | barili, s. | " | " " | | baumgartner, u. |germany |17th century. | | beaugreant, g. de |flanders |16th " | | beck, s. |germany | " " | | belli, a. a. |italy | " " | | belli, g. | " | " " | | berain, j. |france |1636-1711. | | bergamo, d. da |italy |1490-1550. | | bergamo, s. da | " |16th century. | | bernardo, - | " | " " | | berruguete, - |spain |1480-1561. | | bertolina, b. j. |italy |16th century. | | beydert, j. |flanders |15th " | | blondeel, l. | " |1495-1560. | | bolgié, g |italy |18th century. | | bonzanigo, g. m. | " | " " | | borello, f. | " |16th " | | borgona, f. de |spain | " " | | botto, b. |italy | " " | | botto, g. b. | " | " " | | botto, p. | " | " " | | botto, s. a. | " | " " | | boulle, a. c. |france |1642-1732. | | boulle, p. | " |17th century. | | brescia, r. da |italy |16th " | | bross, -de |france |17th " | | bruggemann, h. |germany |15th " | | bruhl, a. |flanders |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | brunelleschi, f. |italy |1377-1446. | | brustolone, a. | " |1670-1732. | | buontalenti, b. t. | " |16th century. | | c | | | | caffieri, ph. |france |17th and 18th | | centuries. | | cano, a. |spain |17th century. | | canova, j. de |italy |16th " | | canozii, c. | " | " " | | canozii, g. m. | " | " " | | canozii, l. | " | " " | | capitsoldi, - |england |18th " | | capo di ferro, brothers |italy |16th " | | carlone, j. | " |18th " | | carnicero, a. |spain |1693-1756. | | castelli, q. |italy |16th century | | cauner, - |france |18th " | | cauvet, g. p. |france |1731-1788 | | ceracci, g. |england |18th century. | | cervelliera, b. del |italy | " " | | chambers, sir w. |england |1726-1796. | | chippendale, t. | " |18th century. | | cipriani, g. b. | " | " " | | coit, - | " | " " | | collet, a. | " | " " | | copeland, - | " | " " | | cotte, j. de |france | " " | | cotte, r. de | " |1656-1735. | | cotton, c. |england |18th century. | | cressent, - |france | " " | | d | | | | davy, r. |england |1750-1794. | | dello delli |italy |14th and 15th | | centuries | | dolen, -van |flanders |18th century. | | donatello, - |italy |1380-1466. | | dorsient, a c.; c. oc. |flanders |16th century | | ducerceau, a. |france |1515-1585. | | dugar, e. |italy |16th century. | | du quesnoy, f. h. and j. |flanders |17th " | | f | | | | faydherbe, l. |flanders |1627-1694. | | filippo, d. di |italy |16th century. | | flörein, j. |flanders |15th " | | flötner, p. |germany |16th " | | g | | | | gabler, m. |germany |17th century. | | galletti, g. |italy |18th " | | garnier, p. |france | " " | | genser, m. |germany |17th " | | gervasius |england | | | gettich, p. |germany |17th " | | geuser, m. | " | " " | | gheel, f. van |flanders |18th " | | gibbons, g. |england |17th " | | giovanni, fra |italy |16th " | | glosencamp, h. |flanders | " " | | goujon, j. |france | " " | | h | | | | habermann, - |france |18th century. | | haeghen,-van der |flanders | " " | | hekinger, j. |germany |17th " | | heinhofer, ph. | " |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | helmont, -van |flanders |18th century. | | heppelwhite, a |england | " " | | hernandez, g. |spain |1586-1646. | | hool, j. b. van |flanders |18th century. | | huet, - |france | " " | | hyman, f. |england | " " | | j | | | | john of st. omer |england |13th century. johnson, t. | " |18th " | | juni, j. d. |spain |16th and 17th | | centuries. | | k | | | | kauffmann, a. |england |18th century. | | kiskner, u. |germany |17th " | | kuenlin, j. | " | " " | | l | | | | ladetto, f. |italy |18th century. | | lalonde, - |france | " " | | lawreans, - |england |17th " | | lecreux, n. a. j. |flanders |1757-1836. | | le moyne, j. |france |1645-1718. | | leopardi, a. |italy |1450-1525. | | le pautre, j. |france |1617-1682. | | le roux, j. b. | " |18th century. | | linnell, j. |england | " " | | lock, m. | " | " " | | loir, a. |france |1630-1713. | | l'orme, ph. de. | " |16th century. | | lunigia, a. da |italy | " " | | m | | | | macé, j. |france |18th century. | | maifeis, p. di |italy |15th " | | maggiolino, - | " |18th " | | magister, o. | " |16th " | | majano, b. da | " |15th " | | majano, g. da |italy |1432-1490. | | margaritone, - | " |1236-1313. | | marot, d. |france |1650-1700? | | marot, g. | " |17th century. | | marot, j. | " |1625-1679. | | martin, r. | " |1706-1765. | | martincourt, - | " |18th century. | | meissonnier, j. a. | " |1693-1750. | | mendeler, g. |germany |17th century. | | meulen, r. van der |flanders |1645-1717. | | minore, g. |italy |15th century. | | modena, p. da | " | " " | | moenart, m. |flanders |17th " | | montepulciano, g. da |italy |16th " | | moser, l. |germany |15th " | | müller, d. | " |17th " | | müller, j. | " | " " | | n | | | | newrone, g. c. |italy |16th century. | | nilson, - |france |18th " | | nys, l. de |flanders | " " | | nys, p. de | " | " " | | o | | | | oost, p. van |flanders |14th century. | | oppenord, - |france |18th " | | p | | | | pacher, m. |germany |15th century. | | padova, z. da |italy |16th " | | panturmo, j. di | " |1492-1556. | | pardo, g. |spain |16th century. | | pareta, g. di |italy | " " | | passe, c. de |france |17th " | | passe, c. de, the younger | " | " " | | pergolese, - |england |18th " | | perreal, j. |france |15th " | | philippon, a. | " |16th " | | picau, - | " |18th " | | picq, j. |flanders |17th " | | pigalle, - |england |18th " | | piffetti, a. p. |italy |1700-1777. | | plumier, p. d. |flanders |1688-1721. | | porfirio, b. di |italy |16th century | | q | | | | quellin, a. |flanders |1609-1668. | | quellin, a., the younger | " |1625-1700. | | quellin, e. | " |17th century. | | r | | | | raephorst, b. van |flanders |15th century, | | ramello, f. |italy |16th " | | ranson, - |france |18th " | | rasch, a. |flanders |15th " | | riesener, - |france |18th " | | roentgen, d. | " | " " | | rohan, j. de | " |16th " | | rohan, j. de | " | " " | | rosch, j. |germany |15th " | | rossi, p. de |italy |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | rovezzano, b. da |england |16th century. | | s | | | | salembier, - |france |18th and 19th | | centuries. | | sangher, j. de |flanders |17th century. | | schelden, p. van der | " |16th " | | schwanhard, h. |germany |17th " | | serlius, s. |france |16th " | | servellino, g. del |italy |15th " | | sheraton, th. |england |18th " | | smet, r. de |flanders |16th " | | stoss, v. |germany |1438-1533. | | syrlin, j. | " |15th century. | | syrlin, j., the younger | " |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | t | | | | taillebert, u. |flanders |16th century. | | tasso, d. |italy |15th and 16th | | centuries. | | tasso, g. | " | " " | | tasso, g. b. | " | " " | | tasso, m. d. | " |15th century. | | tatham, c. h. |england |18th " | | taurini, r. |italy |16th " | | thomire, p. ph. |france |1751-1843. | | tolfo, g. |italy |16th century. | | toro, - |france |18th century. | | torrigiano, - |england |1472-1522. | | toto, - | " |1331-1351. | | trevigi, g. da | " |1304-1344. | | u | | | | uccello, p. |italy |1396-1479. | | ugliengo, c. | " |18th century. | | v | | | | venasca, g. p. |italy |18th century. | | verbruggen, p. |flanders |17th " | | verbruggen, p., the younger | " |1660-1724. | | verhaegen, th. | " |18th century. | | voyers, - |england | " " | | vriesse, v. de |france |17th " | | w | | | | walker, h. |england |16th century. | | weinkopf, w. |germany | " " | | willemsens, l. |flanders |1635-1702. | | william the florentine |england |13th century. | | wilton, j. | " |18th " | | z | | | | zabello, f. |italy |16th century. | | zorn, g. |germany |17th " index. adam, robert and john, 112 alexandria, ancient centre of civilisation, 17 anglo-saxon houses, 44 antioch, ancient centre of civilisation, 17 architectural style in furniture, 94 art, classic, ends in third century, 34 " byzantine, 35 " mediæval, its growth, 41 " " its perfection, 47 " romanesque, long continuance, 42 " renaissance, 66 " classic, revived in eighteenth century, 107 " " early nineteenth century, 114 atrium, 18 attalus introduces tapestry, 17 bedrooms, english, fourteenth century, 50 " french, eighteenth century, 104 beds, byzantine period, 37 " norman, 46 " egyptian, greek, &c., 116 " mediæval, 118, 119 " at hampton court, 120 bellows, renaissance, 72 bombé furniture, 104, 111 boucher, 108 boule, 95 bureaux in marquetry, 93, 104 " or knee-hole, 128 byzantine period, 35 " wealth, 38 " artists welcomed by charlemagne, 41 cabinet, french, sixteenth century, 89 " japan, 128 cafass, egyptian wood, 4 candelabra, 23, 24 candles, anglo-saxon, &c., 45, 48 carriage, anglo-saxon, 45 " fourteenth century, 54, 131 " seventeenth century, 92 " the speaker's, 132 " lord darnley's, 132 caskets, byzantine, 37 ceilings in roman houses, 21, 31 chair, egyptian, 4, 121 " nineveh, 7 " greek, 10, 11, 14 " roman, 28, 122 " of st. peter, 35 " byzantine, 37 " at ravenna, 39, 122 " in bayeux tapestry, 45 " coronation, 49 " of guidobaldo, 63 " italian, fifteenth century, 63 " folding mediæval, 122 " of silver, at barcelona, 123 " the glastonbury, 123 " italian, seventeenth century, 124 " marquetry, 124 chambers, sir william, 106 chariots, hebrew, 9 " greek, 15 " roman, 130 " byzantine, 37 chest, greek, 11 " roman, 29 " of king john, 47 " fourteenth century, 51 " for copes, 56 " fifteenth century, 60 chest, italian, 61 " renaissance, 69, 71 chimneypieces, eighteenth century, 106 chippendale, 106 cipriani, 112 cluny hôtel, carriages there, 2 colbert, his patronage of art, 94 couches, egyptian, 5 " roman, 13 " mediæval, 120 coypel, antoine, 104 cradle, mediæval, 121 cubicula, 20 cypress chests, 70, 127 dagobert's chair, 43 david, 105 delafosse, 104, 108 dilettanti society, influence, 115 dining-room, byzantine, 38 diptych of anastasius, 36 distaff, 106 doorway, english, seventeenth century, 98 "droit de prisage," 54 ébénistes, fine cabinet makers, 108 ebony used seventeenth century, 108 egyptian furniture, 5 elizabethan style, 85 flemish furniture, seventeenth century, 87 fragonard, 108 french style prevalent in eighteenth century, 103, 105 furniture, use of a collection, 1 " byzantine, still perhaps in mosques and treasuries, 40 " sixteenth century, architectural, 75 " eighteenth century, 103 " bombé, explained, 104 german artists in england, sixteenth century, 78 " work, eighteenth century, 111 gillow, 113 glass windows in roman houses, 20 " mosaics, &c., 22 " venetian, 99 glue used by the romans, 33 gouthière, 105, 110 greek manners, simple, 12 " houses, 14 grinling gibbons, 97 " best examples of his work, 97 halls in roman villas, 20 hebrew furniture, 8 heppelwhite, 113 hogarth, paintings of chimneypieces, 106 holbein, his influence, 78 holy-water stoup, 102 house, roman, 18 " greek, 14 " how warmed in rome, 29 " anglo-saxon and norman, 44, 46 " of timber, fifteenth century, 58 iconoclasts, destruction by, 40 italian coffer at south kensington, 61 " artists, sixteenth century, 68 " " in france and england, 78, 89 " carved woodwork, sixteenth century, 89 " distaff, 106 japanese lac-work, 106 kauffmann (angelica), 112 kaunitz, a kind of bureau, 128 kitchen utensils, roman, 30 knife case, sixteenth century, 76 lac-work, chinese and japanese, 106 lalonde, 108 lares, 28 lebrun, first head of the "gobelins," 95 le pautre family, 104 litters, roman, 31 lock (matthias), 112 locks in roman houses, 21 louvre, egyptian boxes, 6 maggiolino, 111 mansard, 104 marquetry, venetian, 62 " seventeenth century, 92, 93 " boule, 95 meissonnier, 104, 108 metallurgy, british, 42 micque, 108 mirror, greek, 13 " renaissance, 69 mirror frames, sixteenth century, 71 " " venetian, 91, 99 " made in england, seventeenth century, 99, 100 mosaic, roman, pavements and on walls, 19 " or pietra dura, 74 natoire, 108 nero, colossus in his house, 25 nineveh furniture, 6 nuptiale, 18 [oe]ci, 20 oppenord, 108 ostium, 18 paintings and pictures in roman houses, 22 " in thirteenth century, of rooms, 48, 49 panelling for rooms, 49 " oriental, 57 " of a chest, 60 " english, sixteenth century, 79, 80 " french, sixteenth century, 84 " english, 86 pedestal, 90 penates, 18 peristylium, 20 persian furniture, 8 " marquetry, 63 picture-frames, renaissance, 71 pomeranian cabinet at berlin, 92 pompeii, value of discoveries, 16 porcelain given to queen elizabeth, 130 pottery, time of edward i., 49 pudens, ancient house of, 20 pugin, 114 queverdo, 108 religious houses, their woodwork, 63 " " safe generally from spoliation, 67 renaissance in italy, 66 " materials employed, 69 " in england, france, &c., 78 restout, jean, 104 riesener, 105, 108, 109 robert, 108 rococo furniture, 103 roentgen, 108, 109 roman habits, at first simple, 16 " house, 18 " couches in dining-rooms, 19, 27 " locks and hinges, 21 " tables, 25 " chairs, 28 " kitchen utensils, 30 roof of westminster hall, 55 room decorations, french, eighteenth century, 107 room of marie antoinette's time at south kensington, 107 roundels, 129 salembier, 108 scamnum, 28 sculpture, architectural, &c., fourteenth century, 56 " renaissance, 69 settle or seat, fourteenth century, 51 sheraton, thomas, 113 sideboards, 128 silks for furniture, eighteenth century, 107 stuart style of woodwork and furniture, 85, 96 table, egyptian, 124 " nineveh, 8 " roman, 25, 125 " " veneered, 27 " " great value, 27 " norman, 46 " furniture of, fourteenth century, 50 " fourteenth and fifteenth century, 53, 58, 125 " sixteenth century, 71 " of francesco de' medici, 75 " french, sixteenth century, 80, 81 " english, seventeenth century, 102 " long kept at flaxton hall, 126 tapestry first brought to rome, 17 " in roman houses, 30 " in england, fourteenth century, &c., 50, 61 " gobelin, 95 tarsia, 62, 73, 74 temple of diana, 33 theatre of c. curio, 32 tigrinæ tables, 26 triclinium, 18, 117 tripods, 22 tudor cabinet at south kensington, 78 " style, 85 vase from hadrian's villa, 25 venetian mirror-frame, 91 vernis-martin, 105 vestiaria, 20 walpole (horace), opinion on mediæval art, 111 wardrobe, old english, 49 " roman, 126 wars of the roses, evil consequences, 64 wood used in nineveh, 8 " " greece, 15 " " rome, for tables, &c., 26, 32 " " by riesener, 109 woodwork, english, in thirteenth century, 48 " " sixteenth century, 79 " germany, in sixteenth century, 83 " spanish, in sixteenth century, 84 " tudor and stuart, 86 wren, sir christopher, 97 wyattville, 114 the end. dalziel brothers, camden press, n.w. * * * * * transcriber's note _ _ represents italic print. ^ represents a superscript. the table of contents was erected by the transcriber, and placed in the public domain. sundry missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. this book, published in england, dates from 1875. some older, but still correct, spellings may be present. there is also some 16th century spelling. both hyphenated and un-hyphenated versions of some words appear in the text. 'borgoña' and 'borgona' both appear in the text, as do 'hôtel' and 'hotel'. english spelling 'rules' have only existed since the second half of the nineteenth century. illustrations which interrupted paragraphs have generally been moved to more convenient positions between paragraphs. an exception is the illustration of st. edmund's 'well-furnished bedroom' on page 51, referred to in the first part of the long paragraph beginning on page 50. it made sense to insert the illustration after 'the year 1400', as the following text began a new topic. page 21: 'valves' corected to 'halves'. 'v' would seem to be a misprint for 'h'. "the doors were generally in two halves and could be closed with locks,..." page 48: 'candesticks' corrected to 'candlesticks'. "though the royal table might be lighted with valuable candlesticks of metal,..." page 82: [illustration: semper festina lente = hurry slowly!] page 121: 'musuem' corrected to 'museum'. "... as in the example in the museum,..." transcriber's note: minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. obvious typos have been corrected. companion volume by the same author chats on old furniture _illustrated by 72 full-page plates._ contents chapter i. the renaissance on the continent ii. the english renaissance iii. stuart or jacobean (early seventeenth century) iv. stuart or jacobean (late seventeenth century) v. queen anne and early georgian styles vi. french furniture: the period of louis xiv. vii. french furniture: the period of louis xv. viii. french furniture: the period of louis xvi. ix. french furniture: the first empire style x. chippendale and his style xi. adam, hepplewhite, and sheraton styles xii. hints to collectors chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture books for collectors _with coloured frontispieces and many illustrations._ _large crown 8vo, cloth._ chats on english china. by arthur hayden. chats on old furniture. by arthur hayden. chats on old prints. by arthur hayden. chats on costume. by g. woolliscroft rhead. chats on old lace and needlework. by e. l. lowes. chats on oriental china. by j. f. blacker. chats on miniatures. by j. j. foster. chats on english earthenware. by arthur hayden. (companion volume to "chats on english china.") chats on autographs. by a. m. broadley. chats on old pewter. by h. j. l. j. massé, m.a. chats on postage stamps. by fred j. melville. chats on old jewellery and trinkets. by maciver percival. chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture. by arthur hayden. (companion volume to "chats on old furniture.") london: t. fisher unwin. new york: f. a. stokes company. [illustration: sideboard of carved oak. english, seventeenth century. (_in the victoria and albert museum._) _frontispiece._] chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture by arthur hayden author of "chats on old furniture," etc. with a chapter on old english chintzes by hugh phillips and seventy-three full-page illustrations new york frederick a. stokes company publishers (_all rights reserved._) to my old friend frederic arup i dedicate this volume in memory of a happy labour of love completed preface the number of works dealing with old english furniture has grown rapidly during the last ten years. not only has the subject been broadly treated from the historic or from the collector's point of view, but latterly everything has been scientifically reduced into departments of knowledge, and individual periods have received detailed treatment at the hands of specialists. museums and well-known collections, noblemen's seats and country houses have furnished photographs of the finest examples, and these, now well-known, pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations to volumes by various hands. it is obviously essential in the study of the history and evolution of furniture-making in this country that superlative specimens be selected as ideal types for the student of design or for the collector, but such pieces must always be beyond the means of the average collector. the present volume has been written for that large class of collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty and the subtlety of great masterpieces of english furniture, have not long enough purses to pay the prices such examples bring after fierce competition in the auction-room. the field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure and demands especial study. the character of the cottage and farmhouse furniture is as sturdy and independent as that of the persons for whom it was made. for three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns and in villages produced work unaffected by any foreign influences. linen-chests, bacon-cupboards, bible-boxes, gate tables, and other tables, dressers, and chairs possess particular styles of treatment in different districts. the eighteenth-century cabinet-makers scattered up and down the three kingdoms and in america found in chippendale's "director" a design-book which stimulated them to produce furniture of compelling interest to the collector. the examples of such work illustrated in this volume have been taken from a wide area and are such as may come under the hand of the diligent collector in various parts of the country. in view of the increased love of collecting homely furniture suitable for modern use, it is my hope that this book may find a ready welcome, especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque architectural details of old homesteads are being reproduced in the garden suburbs of great cities. it is possible that the authorities of local museums may find in this class of furniture a field for special research, as undoubtedly specimens of local work should be secured for permanent exhibition before they are dispersed far and wide and their identity with particular districts lost for ever. in regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and cottage furniture, the ideal arrangement is that followed at skansen, stockholm, and at lyngby, near copenhagen. in the former a series of buildings have been erected in the open air, in connection with the northern museum, gathered from every part of sweden, retaining their exterior character and fitted with the furniture of their former occupants. it was the desire of the founder, dr. hazelius, to present an epitome of the national life. similarly at lyngby, an adjunct of the _dansk folkemuseum_ at copenhagen, the life-work of hr. olsen has been given to gathering together and re-erecting a large number of old cottages and farmhouses from various districts in denmark, from iceland, the faroe islands, and from norway and sweden. these have their obsolete agricultural implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint styles of storage. the furniture stands in these specimen homes exactly as if they were occupied. it is a remarkable open-air museum, and the idea is worthy of serious consideration in this country. old cottages and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and the preservation of these beauties of village and country life should appeal to all lovers of national monuments.[1] [1] those interested in the method pursued in sweden and denmark and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our national cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find illuminating articles on the subject from the pen of "home counties" in the _world's work_, august, october, and november, 1910, and in the american _educational review_, february, 1911, in an article by lucy m. salmon. "old west surrey," by gertrude jekyll (longmans & co.), 1904, contains a wealth of suggestive material relating to cottage furniture and articles of daily use of old-style country life now passing away. in connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes is a subject never before written upon. a chapter in this volume is contributed by mr. hugh phillips, whose special studies concerning this little known field enable him to present much valuable information which has never before been in print, together with illustrations of chintzes actually taken from authentic examples of old furniture. a brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles associated with cottage and farmhouse furniture. some specimens of sussex firebacks are illustrated, together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks, candle-holders, and brass and copper candlesticks. the illustrations have been selected in order to convey a broad outline of the subject. my especial thanks are due to messrs. phillips, of the manor house, hitchin, for placing at my disposal the practical experience of many years' collecting in various parts of the country, and by enriching the volume with illustrations of many fine examples of great importance and rarity never before photographed. to messrs. a. b. daniell & sons i am indebted for photographs of specimens in their galleries. in presenting this volume it is my intention that it should be a companion volume to my "chats on old furniture," which records the history and evolution of the finer styles of english furniture, showing the various foreign influences on english craftsmen who made furniture for the wealthy classes. arthur hayden. contents chapter i page introductory note 25 the minor collector--the originality of the village cabinet-maker--his freedom from foreign influences--the traditional character of his work--difficult to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--oak the chief wood employed--beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--village craftsmanship not debased by early-victorian art--its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in sweden and in denmark--the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in great britain. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles 43 typical jacobean furniture--solidity of english joiners' work--oak general in its use--the oak forests of england--sturdy independence of country furniture--chests of drawers--the slow assimilation of foreign styles--the changing habits of the people. chapter iii the gate-leg table 83 its early form--transitional and experimental stages--its establishment as a permanent popular type--the gate-leg table in the jacobean period--walnut and mahogany varieties--its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--its adoption in modern days. chapter iv the farmhouse dresser 113 the days of the late stuarts--its early table form with drawers--the decorated type with shelves--william and mary style with double cupboards--the queen anne cabriole leg--mid-eighteenth-century types. chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard 137 the puritan days of the seventeenth century--the protestant bible in every home--the variety of carving found in bible-boxes--the jacobean cradle and its forms--the spinning-wheel--the bacon-cupboard. chapter vi eighteenth-century styles 155 the advent of the cabriole leg--the so-called queen anne style--the survival of oak in the provinces--the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--the early-georgian types--chippendale and his contemporaries. chapter vii the evolution of the chair 189 early days--the typical jacobean oak chair--the evolution of the stretcher--the chair-back and its development--transition between jacobean and william and mary forms--farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--the queen anne splat--country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton--the grandfather chair--ladder-back types--the spindle-back chair--corner chairs. chapter viii the windsor chair 243 early types--the stick legs without stretcher--the tavern chair--eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--the rail-back variety--chippendale style windsor chairs--the survival of the windsor chair. chapter ix local types 265 welsh carving--scottish types--lancashire dressers, wardrobes, and chairs--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex tables--isle of man tables. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. 285 the rushlight-holder--the dipper--the chimney crane--the scottish crusie--firedogs--the warming-pan--sussex firebacks--grandfather clocks. chapter xi old english chintzes. (by hugh phillips) 315 the charm of old english chintz--huguenot cloth-printers settle in england--jacob stampe at the sign of the calico printer--the queen anne period--the chippendale period--the age of machinery. index 343 list of illustrations sideboard of carved oak (english, seventeenth-century) _frontispiece_ chapter i--introductory note page chests (sixteenth century) 29 elizabethan chair 35 chest (seventeenth century) 35 interior of farmhouse parlour 39 interior of cottage 39 chapter ii monk's bench 53 oak chest with drawers underneath 53 joint stools 57 oak table 57 chest (restoration period) 63 early oak table (middle seventeenth-century) 63 small oak table (_c._ 1680) 65 jacobean chest of drawers (_c._ 1660) 65 chests of drawers 69 chest of drawers (cabriole feet) 73 william and mary table (_c._ 1670) 73 children's stools 77 rare bedstead (_c._ 1700) 77 chapter iii triangular gate table 87 oak side-table 87 small gate table (very early type) 91 gate table (middle seventeenth-century) 91 rare table with double gates 93 rare table with double gates and only one flap 93 gate-leg table (restoration period) 97 gate-leg table (yorkshire type) 97 gate-leg table with six legs ("barley-sugar" turning) 99 gate-leg table (ball turning) 99 collapsible table with rare =x= stretcher 101 primitive gate-leg table 101 william and mary gate-leg table 105 square-top gate-leg tables 105 mahogany gate-leg tables 109 chapter iv oak dresser (about 1680) 117 oak dresser (period of james ii.) 117 oak dresser (early eighteenth century) 119 oak dresser, urn-shaped legs (restoration period) 119 middle-jacobean dresser 123 william and mary oak dresser 127 oak dresser. square-leg type 127 unique dresser and clock combined 131 oak dresser. queen anne cabriole legs 135 lancashire oak dresser 135 chapter v bible-boxes. early examples 143 bible-boxes (middle seventeenth-century and ordinary type) 145 oak cradles 149 yarn-winder and spinning-wheel 151 buckinghamshire bobbins 151 chapter vi lancashire oak settles 159 cupboard with drawers 163 queen anne bureau bookcase 163 oak tables (early eighteenth century) 165 queen anne glassor china-cupboard 171 georgian corner-cupboard 171 oak tables 173 oak tables, with typical country cabriole legs 177 queen anne tea-table 181 oak revolving book-stand 181 country chippendale table 181 square mahogany flap-table 183 tripod table (_c._ 1760) 183 country chippendale and country adam tables 187 chapter vii oak arm-chairs (one dated 1650) 191 chestnut arm-chair and oak arm-chair (_c._ 1690) 191 yorkshire chair (restoration period) 197 cromwellian chairs 197 oak settle (_c._ 1675) 201 oak arm-chairs (one dated 1777) 201 oak chairs (_c._ 1680) in walnut styles 205 oak chairs, showing various transitional stages 209 chairs in queen anne style 213 country chippendale and hepplewhite chairs 215 oak settees in chippendale style 219 country chairs in chippendale and sheraton styles 225 grandfather chair 231 arm-chair and bacon-cupboard 231 spindle-back and ladder-back chairs 235 corner chairs 237 chapter viii chairs of earliest form with stick legs 247 oliver goldsmith's chair 251 chairs with fiddle-splat and cabriole legs 255 chippendale and hepplewhite windsor chairs 257 sheraton style windsor chairs 261 chapter ix chest, dated 1636 (welsh) 269 cupboard, dated 1710 (welsh) 269 elm wardrobe (welsh). oak dresser (lancashire) 273 flap-top table (hertfordshire type) 275 spindle-back chairs (lancashire) 275 oak chest of drawers (yorkshire type) 279 lancashire oak settle (_c._ 1660) 279 three-legged table (isle of man) 281 cricket tables (hertfordshire, south beds, cambridge, and essex) 281 chapter x rushlight-holders, scotch crusie, candle-dipper, pipe cleaner, etc. 289 queen anne pot-hanger, with original grate 291 kettle trivet 291 country firedogs and fire-grate (eighteenth century) 297 sussex iron firebacks 301 sussex iron firebacks and original wood pattern 303 grandfather clock and warming-pans 307 brass dial of thirty-hour clock 309 chapter xi--old english chintzes old trade card showing calico printers at work 319 huguenot printed chintz with portraits 319 hand-printed chintzes. queen anne period and chinese style 323 exotic bird and gothic styles (eighteenth century) 327 hand-printed chintz by r. jones (old ford) 331 hepplewhite period and victorian period designs 335 victorian chintz (in the collection of mrs. cobden unwin) 339 chapter i introductory note chapter i introductory note the minor collector--the originality of the village cabinet-maker--his freedom from foreign influences--the traditional character of his work--difficulty to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--oak the chief wood employed--beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--village craftsmanship not debased by early victorian art--its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in sweden and in denmark--the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in great britain. in regard to launching another volume on the market dealing with old furniture, a word of explanation is desirable, for nowadays of making books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the collector. in the present volume attention has been especially given to that class of furniture known as cottage or farmhouse. there is no volume dealing with this phase of collecting. prices for old furniture of the finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds, and for those not possessed of ample means the collection of superlative styles is at an end. singularly enough, the most native furniture and that most typically racy of the soil has not hitherto attracted the attention of wealthy collectors. the plutocrats who buy only the finest creations of chippendale, who have immediate private information when an exquisitely designed sheraton piece is found, who amass a mighty hoard of gilt stuart furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled collection of elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture made during a period of three hundred years for the common people. the finest classes of english furniture made by skilful craftsmen for wealthy patrons must always be beyond the range of the minor collector. every year brings keener zest among those interested in furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly difficult for persons of taste and judgment who cannot afford high prices to satisfy their longings. it is obvious that specimens of massive appearance finely carved in oak of the tudor age, or of elegantly turned work in walnut of jacobean days, must be readily recognised as valuable. sumptuous furniture tells its own story. it is unlikely nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning which imaginative writers are always telling us, will occur again--except on paper. popular enthusiasm has been awakened, and more often than not the possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or china attaches a value to it which is absurd. the publication of prices realised at auction has whetted the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert early nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into "queen anne," and who aver with equal veracity that ordinary blue transfer printed ware has "been in the family a hundred years." [illustration: chest. middle sixteenth century. gothic carving. solid wood ends, forming feet. made from six boards; with hand-forged nails and large lock, characteristic of gothic chests.] [illustration: chest. sixteenth century. lozenge panels, disc turning, and gothic brackets (rare). (_by the courtesy of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be in somewhat parallel case to english earthenware. a quarter of a century ago, or even ten years ago, collectors in general confined their attention mainly to porcelain. the rage was for worcester, chelsea, derby, or bow. with the exception of wedgwood and turner, the staffordshire potters had not found favour with the fashionable collector. nowadays toft dishes, staffordshire figures by enoch wood, vases by neale and palmer, and the entire school of lustre ware, have received attention from the specialist, and scientific classification has brought prices within measurable distance of those paid for porcelain. what earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and farmhouse furniture are to the elaborate styles made for the use of the richer classes. the french insipidities and rococo ornament of chelsea and derby and the oriental echoes of worcester and of bow are as little typical of national eighteenth-century sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and the chinese fretwork of chippendale or the satinwood elegances of sheraton. to staffordshire and to local potteries scattered all over the country from sunderland to bristol, from lambeth to nottingham, from liverpool to rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality and native tradition. similarly farmhouse furniture exhibits the work of the local cabinet-maker in various districts, strongly marked by an adherence to traditional forms and intensely insular in its disregard of prevailing fashions. it is as english as the leather black-jack and the home-brewed ale. contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers who drew their inspiration from foreign sources--from italy, from france, from holland, and from spain--small jobbing cabinet-makers in every village and town had their patrons, and when not making wagons or farm implements, produced furniture for everyday use. as may readily be supposed, there is in these results a blind naïveté which characterises a design handed down from generation to generation. this is one of the surprising features of the village cabinet-maker's work--its curious anachronism. the sublime indifference to passing fashions is astonishingly delightful to the student and to the collector. there is nothing more uncertain than to attempt with exactitude to place a date upon cottage or farmhouse furniture. the bacon-cupboard, the linen-chest, the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the windsor chair, were made through successive generations down to fifty years ago without departing from the original pattern of the charles i. or the queen anne period. oak chests are found carved with the gothic linen-fold pattern. they might be of the sixteenth century except for the fact that dates of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are carved upon them. whole districts have retained similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that of the asiatic rug-weaver, who makes the same patterns as his remote ancestors sold to the ancient greeks. the village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence of ages of oak, walnut, mahogany, and satinwood. his wood is from his native trees. his chairs come straight from the hedgerows. his history can be spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled here and there with elm and yew-tree and beech. the early days of primitive work go back to the marked class distinction between gentles and simples, and the end came only in the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the village craftsman was obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and machine made furniture. it may at first be assumed by the beginner that cottage and farmhouse furniture is throughout a weak and feeble imitation of finer pieces. but this is not so. the craftsmen who made this class of furniture formed for themselves special types which were never made by the london cabinet-makers. for instance, the jacobean gate-table, the lancashire wardrobe, the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles peculiarly their own. in many of the specimens found it will be seen that the village cabinet-maker displayed very fine workmanship, and there are clever touches and delightful mannerisms which make such pieces of interest to the collector. in early days of the villeins, furniture was limited to a stool, a table, and perhaps a chest. nor was the use of much furniture at the farm or in the cottage a feature in tudor and early stuart days. gorgeously carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the mansions of the wealthy, but one does not find its simpler counterpart made for cottages till nearly 1660. the few pieces essential to every dwelling-house may be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century--the chest, the table, the form, and the protestant bible-box. chests with scratched gothic mouldings, tables of the trestle type as used to-day, forms of the most simple construction, exist, and may be said to belong to the sixteenth century. bible-boxes became common during the early seventeenth century, and without change in their style were made till the late eighteenth century. in mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table was introduced. of early pieces we illustrate a few examples, though in connection with farmhouse and cottage, the early days afford a poor field, as the furniture of those days now remaining was mostly made for great families. the two sixteenth-century chests illustrated (p. 29) are interesting as showing the early styles. the upper photograph is of a middle sixteenth-century chest, with gothic carving and solid wood ends forming feet. this type of chest is made from six boards. the hand-forged nails show the rough joinery, and the large lock is characteristic of such gothic chests. the lower chest is also of the sixteenth century. it has lozenge panels, and is further ornamented by disc turning. the gothic brackets at the base are rare, and it is an interesting example. [illustration: elizabethan chair. this is of scandinavian origin, and was known in england before the roman conquest, being shown in mediæval mss. such designs survived the gothic styles. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: chest. seventeenth century. panels with early scratched mouldings (_i.e._, not mitred). mitreing came into general use about 1600.] that the chest remained in somewhat primitive form is shown by the illustration of a seventeenth-century specimen (p. 35). it will be observed that the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to say they are not mitred. the fashion of mitreing in cabinet-work came into general use about the year 1600, but minor examples of country furniture often possess scratched moulding at a much later date. on the same page is an elizabethan chair. this type is of exceptional interest. it has a long and proud history. they are, according to mr. percy macquoid, "of byzantine origin; their pattern was introduced by the varangian guard into scandinavia, and from there doubtless brought to england by the normans. they continued to be made until the end of the sixteenth century." these turned chairs are interesting as having spindles, which came into use at a much later period in the spindle-back chair. with the growth of prosperity and the increased use of domestic comforts, cottage furniture becomes a wider subject. carved oak bedsteads, simple four-posters, bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became more common. in eighteenth-century days there was quite an outburst of enthusiasm, and the small cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his craft and became ambitious. on the promulgation of chippendale's designs he made copies in elm and oak and beech for village patrons and essayed to follow hepplewhite and even sheraton. but this wave of success was followed by the competitive inroad made by factory-made cabinet-work, and during these last days the local cabinet-maker adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples of his forefathers. the village craft practically came to an end in the fifties, but it was a glorious end, and it is happy that it did not survive to produce bad work of atrocious design. the passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be like the disappearance of dialect. the modern spirit has entered into village life, the town newspaper has permeated the country-side and disturbed the old-world repose. the lover of english folk-ways and the simplicity of rural life may echo the line of wordsworth, "the things that i have seen i now can see no more." in the illustrations of two interiors shown on p. 39 it will be seen how happily placed the furniture becomes when in its old home. the atmosphere of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and restful, and the pieces of furniture had an added dignity. it seems almost sacrilege to tear such relics of bygone days from their ancient resting-place. but the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries have escaped his assiduous attention. the lower illustration shows the interior of a cottage with its original panelled walls. this cottage actually has tudor frescoes. [illustration: interior of farmhouse parlour.] [illustration: interior of cottage. with original panelled walls. this cottage has tudor frescoes.] the study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture has not been pursued in this country in so scientific a manner as in sweden and in denmark. the conservation of national heirlooms is a matter which must be speedily dealt with before they become scattered. it is a point which cannot be repeated too often. at skansen, stockholm, old buildings have, under state supervision, been re-erected, and with their furniture they afford a practical illustration of the particular type of life of the district of their origin. at lyngby, near copenhagen, a series of farmhouses similarly illustrate old types of homesteads from various localities in denmark, and from iceland and the faroe islands. by such a systematic and permanent record of farm and cottage life and the everyday art of the people it is possible to impart vitality to the study of the subject. the english method of museum arrangement in dry-as-dust manner, with rows of furniture and cases of china, is a valley of dry bones compared with such a fresh and vigorous handling and method of exposition as is followed in scandinavia. if old english furniture is worth the preservation for the benefit of students of craftsmanship or as a relic of bygone customs, there is undoubted room for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting it. a series of representative farmhouses could be re-erected at some convenient spot. there are many parks around london and other great cities which would be benefited by such picturesque buildings. before it is too late, and many of these beautiful structures have been destroyed to make room for modern improvements, and village life has become absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible to step in and preserve some of the most typical examples for the enjoyment of the nation. the real interest shown by the public in out-of-door object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great crowds at exhibitions at earl's court and the like, which flocked to tudor houses replete with old furniture, and villages transplanted in lath and plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly has been neglected from an educational point of view. the mountain farms and the homesteads of the men of the dales, fen farms, and stone cottages from the cotswolds, half-timbered farms from surrey, from cheshire, and from hampshire, dating back to early stuart days--are not these worthy of preservation? in the welsh hills, and nestling in the dips of the grampians and the cheviots, from wessex to northumbria, from the border country to the extremity of cornwall, from east anglia to the lakes, are treasures upon which the ruthless hand of destruction must shortly fall. or far afield in harris and in skye, or remote connemara, there are types which should find a permanent abiding place as national records of the homes of the men of the island kingdom. this should not be an impossible nor unthinkable problem to solve before such are allowed to pass away. the intense value of such a faithful record is worthy of careful consideration by the authorities, either as a national undertaking or under the auspices of one of the learned societies, such as the society of antiquaries, or the society for the protection of ancient buildings and monuments, interested in the safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us by our forefathers. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles chronology james i. (1603-25) =1606= second colonisation of virginia begun; raleigh's first colony in virginia was founded in 1585. =1611= the colonisation of ulster begun. publication of the _authorised version_ of the _bible_. =1620= the sailing of the _mayflower_ and the foundation of new england by the puritans. charles i. (1625-49) =1630= john winthrop and a number of puritans settle in massachusetts. =1633= reclamation of forest lands. =1634= wentworth introduces flax cultivation into ireland. =1635= taxes for ship money levied on inland counties. =1637= john hampden, a country gentleman, refuses to pay ship money. civil war (1642-49) =1642= battle of edgehill. formation of eastern association. norfolk, suffolk, essex, cambridge, and hertford unite for purpose of defence against the royalists. =1643= battles of reading, grantham, stratton, chalgrove field, adwalton moor (near bradford), lansdown, roundway down, bristol, gloucester, newbury, winceby, hull. =1644= battles of nantwich, copredy bridge, marston moor, tippermuir, lostwithiel, newbury. =1645= battles of inverlochy, naseby, langport, kilsyth, bristol, philiphaugh, rowton heath. =1648= battles of maidstone, pembroke, preston, colchester. the commonwealth (1642-58) =1649= battle of rathmines. storming of drogheda and wexford by cromwell. =1650= montrose defeated at corbiesdale and executed. battle of dunbar. =1651= battle of worcester. =1652= war with holland. =1656= war with spain. =1657= destruction of spanish fleet by blake. =1658= battle of the dunes. victory of english and french fleet over spain. interregnum (1658-60) =1659= rising in cheshire for charles. charles ii. (1660-85) =1672= _the stop of the exchequer._ charles refuses to repay the principal of the sums he had borrowed and reduces interest from 12 per cent. to 6 per cent. this resulted in great distress, felt in various parts of the country. james ii. (1685-88) =1685= insurrection of argyll in scotland. monmouth rising in west of england. revocation of edict of nantes. the expulsion of a large number of french protestant artisans. settlement of skilled silk-weavers and others in england. william iii. and mary (1689-94) william iii. (1689-1702) =1689= siege of londonderry. =1690= battle of the boyne. william defeats james, who flees to france. =1691= capitulation of limerick; 10,000 irish soldiers and officers joined the service of the french king. =1692= battle of la hogue, french fleet destroyed. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles typical jacobean furniture--solidity of english joiners' work--oak general in its use--the oak forests of england--sturdy independence of country furniture--chests of drawers--the slow assimilation of foreign styles--the changing habits of the people. to the lover of old oak, varied in character and essentially english in its practical realisation of the exact needs of its users, the seventeenth century provides an exceptionally fine field. the chairs, the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of sumptuous furniture made for the nobility and gentry in jacobean and elizabethan times. the designs may have been suggested by finer and early models, but the balance, the sense of proportion, and the carving, were the result of the village carpenter's own individual ideas as to the requirements of the furniture for use in the farmhouse. obviously strength and stability were important factors, and ornament, as such, took a subsidiary place in his scheme. but, although coarse and possessing a leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained craftsman's work, there is a breadth of treatment in such pieces which is at once recognisable. they were made for use and no little thought was bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated, they possess a considerable beauty. there is nothing finicking about this seventeenth-century farmhouse furniture. there is no meaningless ornament. produced in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began to evolve styles that are far removed from the average design of furniture made to-day under more pretentious surroundings. the gate table, with its long history and its amplification of structure and ornament, to which a separate chapter is devoted (chapter iii), is a case in point. it was extensively used in inns and in farmhouses and found itself in set definite types spread over a wide area from one end of the country to the other. its practicability caught the taste of lovers of utility. its added gracefulness of form, in combination with its adaptability to modern needs, has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. it is the happy survival of a beautiful and useful piece of ingenious cabinet-work. to-day one finds unexpectedly a london fashion lingering in the provinces years afterwards. a stray air from a light opera or some catch-phrase of town slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis has ceased. the fashions in provincial furniture moved as slowly. half a century after certain styles were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into country use. in speech and song the transplantation is more rapid, but in craftsmanship, the studied work of men's hands, the use of novelty is against the grain of the conservative mind of the country cabinet-maker. therefore throughout the entire field of this minor furniture it must be borne in mind that it is quite usual to find examples of one century reflecting the glories of the period long since gone. =solidity of english joiners' work.=--the love of old country furniture of the seventeenth century is hardly an acquired taste. old oak is at once a jarring note in a sheraton drawing-room with delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and satin coverings. but as a general rule, when it is first seen in its proper environment, in an old-world farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned windows, set squarely on an oak floor and beneath blackened oak beams ripe with age, it wins immediate recognition as representative of a fine period of furniture. it is admitted by experts, and it is the proud boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's work of this style--the seventeenth century at its best--stands unequalled for its solidity and sound practical adhesion to fixed principles governing sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued usage. of course, there were no screws used in those days, and little glue. the joints dovetailed into each other with great exactness and were fastened by the wooden pins so often visible in old examples. the modern copyist has a fine regard for these wooden pegs. he knows that his clients set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that they are well in evidence in his replicas. but there is yet a distinction which may be noticed between his pegs and the originals. his are accurately round, turned by machinery to fit an equally circular machine-turned hole. they tell their own story instantly to a trained eye, to say nothing of the piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little conflicting touches to denote its modernity. as an instance of the form of the sixteenth century continuing in use until mid-seventeenth-century days the illustration of an oak table (p. 63) brings out this point. the heavy baluster-like legs, only just removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the massive treatment belong to the days of james i., and yet such pieces really were made in cromwellian days. the rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse furniture is indicated by the monk's bench illustrated (p. 53). the back is convertible into a table top. the early plainness of style for so late a piece as 1650 is particularly noteworthy. this specimen is interesting by reason of its exceptionally large back. on the same page is illustrated a chest with two drawers underneath. this form is termed a "mule chest," and is the earliest form of the chest of drawers. these cromwellian chests with drawers continued to be made in the country for a hundred years, but in more fashionable circles they soon developed into the well-known jacobean chest of drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day. as an instance of this lingering of fashion the chest illustrated is dated 1701, quite fifty years after its first appearance as a new style. [illustration: monk's bench. _c._ 1650. with back convertible into table top. exceptionally large back. (note early plainness of style.) (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: oak chest with drawers underneath. termed a "mule chest." the earliest form of chest of drawers. this piece in style is middle seventeenth century, but is dated 1701.] =oak general in its use.=--the oak as a wood was in general use both in the furniture of the richer classes and in the farmhouse furniture of seventeenth-century days and earlier. inlaid work is unknown in furniture of this type. it was sparingly used in pieces of more important origin. the room shown at the victoria and albert museum from sizergh castle has inlays of holly and bog oak. and the suite of furniture at hardwicke hall made for bess of hardwicke was made by english workmen who had been in italy, the same persons who produced similar work at longleat. small panels with rough inlaid work are not uncommon in the seventeenth century in chests, bedsteads, and drawers. but the prevailing types of oak without the added inlays of other woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers' work for the farmhouse. the great oak forests, such as sherwood, furnished an abundance of timber for all domestic purposes, and up to the seventeenth century little other wood was used for any structural or artistic purpose. practically oak may be considered as the national wood. from the _harry grâce à dieu_ of henry viii. and the _golden hind_ of drake to the _victory_ of nelson, the great ships were of english oak. the magnificent hammer-beam roof of westminster hall is of the same wonderful wood. all over the country are scattered buildings timbered with oak beams, from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses and mills. the oak piles of old london bridge were taken up after six centuries and a half and found to be still sound at the heart. the mass of furniture of nearly three centuries ago has survived owing to the durability of its wood. to this day english oak commands great esteem, although foreign oak has taken its place in the general timber trade, yet there is none which possesses such strong and lasting qualities. it will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per square inch transversely to its fibres. =sturdy independence of country furniture.=--the hardness of the oak as a wood is one of the factors which determined the styles of decoration of the furniture into which it was fashioned. it was not easily capable of intricate carved work, even in the hands of accomplished craftsmen. the fantastic flower and fruit pieces of grinling gibbons and other carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the age of walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in than oak, was yet to come. the country maker, little versed in the subtleties of cabinet-work, contented himself with a narrow range of types, which lasted over a considerable period. this is especially noticeable in his chairs, and specimens are found of the same form as the middle seventeenth century belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth century. [illustration: early oak table. _c._ 1640. retaining elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having cromwellian style feet. brass handles added later.] [illustration: joint stools. height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins. height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. height, 1 ft. 5 ins. (about 1640.) (about 1660.)] the typical sideboard of the seventeenth century only varies slightly in form according to the part of the country from which it comes. the general design is always permanent. a large cupboard below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back from the front of the lower one, the sides of the upper ones sometimes canted off, leaving two triangular spaces of flat top at the ends of the bottom one. the whole is surmounted by a top shelf, supported by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned pillars. this is usually the design. the decoration is of the simplest, and presents nothing beyond the powers of the village carpenter. the mouldings are simple; there is slight conventional carving, frequently consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. a careful examination of such pieces is always interesting from a technical point of view. the framing of the panels is seen to be worked out by the plane, but the panels themselves more often than not have been reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. if viewed in a side light the surface is thus slightly varied, showing the differences in the planes of the various facets produced by the adze and giving an effect entirely different from the mechanical smoothing of a surface by the use of a plane. the framing of the front and ends of these sideboards is in detail exactly like the ordinary jacobean wall panelling or wainscot. the mouldings are all worked on the rails or styles, not mitred and glued on, no mitred mouldings being used except occasionally in the centre panel between the doors. the framing is mortised together and pinned with oak pins. the doors are usually hung on iron strap hinges, and the handles of the doors are of wrought iron. frequently the doors of the upper cupboards are hung on pivots, not hinges. such a sideboard belongs to the middle period of the seventeenth century, and is representative of a wide class used in farmhouses. it is easier to follow the various movements in the design of the seventeenth-century table than a century later, when more complex circumstances governed its use. the illustrations on p. 57 give early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression in design. the early oak table is a curious compound of design. it has retained the elizabethan bulbous form of leg and has the cromwellian foot. in date the piece is about 1640. the brass handle has been added later. the joint stools on the lower half of the page afford a picture of slowly advancing invention in turned work. the one on the left of the group is the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. its legs are seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but typically early jacobean in breadth of treatment. the two on the right are about 1660 in date. the left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of the strong, broad treatment (as in the table illustrated p. 63), brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness of form and balance that make furniture of this type so lovable. the smaller stool shows the ball-carving associated with the restoration period, and found in gate tables. a combination of these styles of turning is shown in the graceful oak table illustrated p. 65, in date about 1680. =chests of drawers.=--the conservative spirit of the minor craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles of everyday use. the merchant's account ledger with its green back and cross-stitched pattern in vellum strips, still in use, is to be found in the same style in holbein pictures of the days of the hanseatic league. brass and copper candlesticks have a long lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from very early examples. the evolution of ornament is especially interesting; the old stoneware bellarmine form still remains in the bearded mask at the lip of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth century. the two buttons at the back of the coattails continue long after their primary use to loop up the sword-belt has vanished. in america the early carved chests of the puritan colonists were followed by similar designs contemporary with our own jacobean style for a period well towards the end of the seventeenth century. the panels on chairs and chests have the same arcaded designs as found in elizabethan bedsteads and fireplaces. these become gradually crystallised in conventional form, and lockwood, the american writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the types coincident with our own jacobean styles into ten distinct patterns, until the advent of the well-known chests of drawers with geometric raised ornament laid on, which pieces of furniture in restoration days were set upon a stand. we have shown in the illustration (p. 53) the earliest form of the chest with drawers underneath. the stage transitional between this and the multifarious designs with bevelled panels in geometric design is exemplified by the chest, in date about 1660, illustrated (p. 63), having two drawers and a centre bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels on each side of this and also arcaded panels at the ends of the chest. this form was rapidly succeeded by the well-known chests of drawers on ball feet or on stand so much appreciated by collectors. we illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to cover the usual styles and to assist the beginner to identify examples coming under his observation. although it should be noted that as these chests of drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured nowadays by the hundred and out of old wood, so that great care should be exercised in paying big prices for them unless under expert guidance. the specimen appearing on p. 65 is a fine example, in date 1660, and when the ball feet are original, as in this example, the genuineness of the chest of drawers is undoubted. too often stands or feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that the brass handles are original. quite an industry is carried on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and handles from rare designs and carefully imparting to them signs of age, so that they may be used in made-up chests of drawers and tables. of types of stands, the two chests of drawers illustrated p. 69 are fair examples. the upper chest is a curious jacobean type with sunk panels and having an unusually high stand. there is a suggestion that this has been added later, as the foot is eighteenth-century in character. the lower chest is of the charles ii. type with sunk panels and having the arcaded foot of that period. it will be observed that in addition to the four drawers it has a drawer at the bottom. [illustration: oak table. _c._ 1650.] [illustration: chest. about 1660. with bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: small oak table. _c._ 1680. showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher. (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: jacobean chest of drawers. _c._ 1660. height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins. the ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine example.] the treatment of the stand or legs of these chests exercised the ingenuity of various generations of cabinet-makers. in the specimen illustrated p. 69, the eighteenth century is reached. the transition from passing jacobean styles into those of queen anne is clearly seen. the bevelled panels still remain, with added geometric intricacies of design, and a new feature appears in the fluted sides. but the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so definitely indicative of the eighteenth century. =the slow assimilation of foreign styles in furniture.=--farmhouse furniture almost eschewed fashion. in seventeenth-century days it pursued the even tenor of its way untrammelled by town influences. england in those days was not traversed by roads that lent themselves to neighbourly communication. a hundred years later wedgwood found the wretched roads in staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep in ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business, and william cobbett in his _rural rides_ leaves a record of surrey woefully primitive at hindhead, with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses took the lead and crept down, partly upon their feet and partly upon their hocks." from the days of james i. to those of james ii., from the first stuart sovereign to the last of that ill-starred house, the country passed through rapid stages of volcanic history. the opening years of the century saw the colonisation of ulster by the scots and the english settlers, and the sailing of the _mayflower_ and the foundation of new england by the puritans, nine years after the publication of the authorised version of the bible. under charles i. came the struggle between the despotic power of the crown and the newly awakened will of the people. parliamentary right came into conflict with royal prerogative. the smouldering fire burst into flame when john hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay ship money, which was levied on the inland counties in 1637, and the arrest of five members of parliament in 1642--hampden, pym, holles, haselrig, and strode--precipitated the country into civil war. for seven years a continual series of battles were waged by the contending forces. the eastern counties formed themselves into a martial association, and the king set up his standard at nottingham. from bristol to hull and from nantwich to newbury fierce engagements tore the country asunder. an irish army was raised for the king, and the scots under leslie crossed the border in the parliamentarian cause. with the execution of charles i. came other dangers; the sword was not sheathed, nor had revolution left a contented country-side. cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military districts, and under his rule england took her place at the head of the protestant states in europe. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. curious jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high stand. this stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.] [illustration: oak chest of drawers. charles ii. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and feet typical of the period.] with the death of the protector and the restoration of the stuarts, when charles ii. returned home, came an influx of foreign customs and foreign arts learned by expelled royalists in their enforced sojourn on the continent. london and the court instantly became the centre of voluptuous fashion. the pages of pepys's _diary_ afford instructive pictures of the last quarter of the century at whitehall with the merry monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and more intimate still are the word-portraits cleverly etched by the count de grammont in his _memoirs_ of the gay circle at court. and after charles came his brother james, nor were civil strife and court intrigue memories of the past. restlessness still characterises the closing years of the century. the insurrection of monmouth in the west of england was followed by the bloody assize of judge jeffreys. the air is filled with trouble, and blundering statecraft brings fresh disaster, culminating in the ignominious flight of the king. nor does this complete the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. a new era under william the dutchman brought new and permanent influences, and religious toleration and constitutional government became firmly rooted as the heritage of the people of this country. it is essential that a rough idea of the period be gained in order to appreciate the kaleidoscopic character of the events that rapidly succeeded each other. the paralysis of the arts during the civil war had not a little influence on the furniture of the period belonging to the class of which we treat in this volume. the wealth of noble and patrician families had been scattered, estates had been confiscated, and sumptuous furniture and appointments pillaged and destroyed, especially when it offended the narrow tastes of the puritan soldiery. some of the minor pieces no doubt found their way into humbler homes and served as models for simpler folk. with a dearth of aristocratic patrons there were no new art impulses to stir craftsmen to their highest moods, but in spite of war and disturbances affecting all classes, furniture for common use had to be made, and the ready-found types exercised a continued influence on all the earlier work. in regard to farmhouse furniture the following types represent in the main the seventeenth-century styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or dresser, the table and the chair in its various forms, the bible-box and the cradle. the jacobean chest of drawers, a development of the dower-chest, came in mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to the william and mary styles. the sideboard, a development of the bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in the middle of the century. it was a reflex of the grander furniture of the manor house and the nobleman's mansion. it is difficult to fix exact dates to jacobean furniture of this character. as a general rule it is safer to place it at a later date than is the usual custom. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. showing transition to queen anne type. cabriole feet, bevelled panels, and fluted sides.] [illustration: william and mary table. _c._ 1670. with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the changing habits of the people.=--the shifting phases of the restless seventeenth century make it exceedingly difficult, in spite of experts, to decide definitely as to the exact date of furniture. the country being in such an unsettled state obviously influenced the manufacture of domestic furniture. its natural evolution was broken and the restraint of the jacobean forms was in the main due to the conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture. the long list of battles given in the chronological table at the commencement of this chapter is advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval which was caused by the civil wars which raged from north to south, from east to west, and convulsed any artistic impulses which may have been in process of materialisation. it is obvious the class of table of the william and mary period, in date about 1670, illustrated (p. 73), with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork, belongs to a period far more advanced in comfort than the days when such a table as that illustrated p. 63 was the ordinary type. by the end of the century the growth of sea power and the astonishing development of trade brought corresponding domestic luxuries. the two children's stools illustrated (p. 77) must have come from a country squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's house. their upholstered seats emulate the grandeur of finer types. the rare form of oak bedstead illustrated on the same page is a survival of the early type. in date this is about 1700; not too often are such examples found, for enterprising restorers and makers have seized these old jacobean bedsteads and converted them into so-called jacobean "sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the wood. it requires some little imagination to conjure up what the daily meals were in the days of the early stuarts. there was the leather jack, the horn mug, and the long table in the hall where the farmer and his servants ate together. an old black-letter song, entitled "when this old cap was new," in date 1666, in the roxburgh "songs and ballads," has two verses which paint a lively picture:- "black-jacks to every man were fill'd with wine and beer; no pewter pot nor can in those days did appear; good cheer in a nobleman's house was counted a seemly show; we wanted not brawn nor souse when this old cap was new. we took not such delight in cups of silver fine; none under the degree of knight in plate drank beer or wine; now each mechanical man hath a cupboard of plate for show, which was a rare thing then when this old cap was new." the "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of the old song-writer. we fear he would have been shocked at the degeneracy of a later day, when in place of the mug that was handed round came the effeminate teacups. the change from ale, at breakfast and dinner and supper, to tea the beverage of the poor, would be a sad awakening from the ideals set up by the rollicking song-writer of restoration days. but such innovations must needs be closely regarded by the student of furniture. we wish sometimes that historians had spared a few pages from military evolutions and court intrigues to let us know what the parlours and bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. a rough résumé from macaulay's "state of england in 1685," wherein he quotes authority by authority, holds a mirror to seventeenth-century life. [illustration: children's stools, _c._ 1690.] [illustration: rare bedstead. _c._ 1700. survival of early type.] at enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital, was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference, which contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields, where deer wandered free in thousands. red deer were as common in gloucestershire and hampshire as they are now in the grampians. queen anne, travelling to portsmouth, on one occasion, saw a herd of no less than five hundred. agriculture was not a greatly known science. the rotation of crops was imperfectly understood. the turnip had just been introduced to this country, but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen with this in the winter. they were killed and salted at the beginning of the cold weather, and during several months even the gentry tasted little fresh animal food except game and river fish. in the days of charles ii. it was at the beginning of november that families laid in their stock of salt provisions, then called martinmas beef. the state of the roads in those days was somewhat barbarous. ruts were deep, descents precipitous, and the way often difficult to distinguish in the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each side. pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, lost their way between newbury and reading.[2] in some parts of kent and sussex none but the strongest horses could, in winter, get through the bog in which they sank deep at every step. the coaches were often pulled by oxen.[3] when prince george of denmark visited the mansion of petworth he was six hours travelling nine miles. throughout the country north of york and west of exeter goods were carried by long trains of packhorses. [2] _pepys's diary_, june 12, 16 8. [3] postlethwaite's "dictionary of roads." the capital was a place far removed from the country. it was seldom that the country squire paid a visit thither. "towards london and londoners he felt an aversion that more than once produced important political effects" (macaulay). apart from the country gentlemen were the petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with their own hands and enjoyed a modest competence without affecting to have scutcheons and crests. this great class of yeomanry formed a much more important part of the nation than now. according to the most reliable statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors, who with their families made a seventh of the population of those days, and these derived their livelihood from small freehold estates. such, then, were the chief differences dividing the life of the country from the life of the town. the london merchants had town mansions hardly less inferior to the nobility. chelsea was a quiet village with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog and gun wandered over marylebone. general oglethorpe, who died in 1785, used to boast that he had shot a woodcock in what is now regent street, in queen anne's reign. the days of the stuarts were not so rosy as writers of romance have chosen to have us believe. at norwich, the centre of the cloth industry, children of the tender age of six were engaged in labour. at bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for cart traffic, was built over vaults. goods were conveyed across the city in trucks drawn by dogs. meat was so dear that king, in his "natural and political conclusions," estimates that half the population of the country only ate animal food twice a week, and the other half only once a week or not at all. "bread such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a yeoman or a shopkeeper. the majority of the nation lived almost entirely on rye, barley, and oats." the change from these conditions to those we associate with the eighteenth century was not a sudden but a slow one. with the increase of average prosperity came the additional requirements in household furniture. it is impossible now to state accurately what the exact furniture was of the various classes of the community. many of the seventeenth-century pieces now remaining have been treasured in great houses and belong to a variety which in those days was regarded as sumptuous. now and again we catch glimpses of the former life of the men and women of those days. little pieces of conclusive evidence are brought to light which enable safe conclusions to be drawn. but the everyday normal character has too often gone unrecorded. we are left with court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary proofs of the more scholarly, but the simple annals of the poor are, in the main, unrecorded. in view of this series of queer and remarkable facts strung together to afford the reader a rough and ready picture of those dim days, one comes to believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the great yeoman class of the community. with this belief the collector very rightly regards it of sterling worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose sturdy stock has sprung a great race. chapter iii the gate-leg table chapter iii the gate-leg table its early form--transitional and experimental stages--its establishment as a permanent popular type--the gate-leg table in the jacobean period--walnut and mahogany varieties--its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--its adoption in modern days. the gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration by collectors. it has a charm of style and beauty of construction which afford never-ending delight to possessors of old examples. it is an inspired piece of cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the seventeenth century, and exhibits the supreme effort of the early jacobean craftsmen to break away from the square massive tables, the lineal descendants of the great bulbous-legged table of the elizabethan hall. dining-tables with the device of slides to draw out when occasion required, even in early days became a necessity. it is a note indicating the changing habits of the people. a table was no longer used for one purpose. the large table required a permanent place in a large room. but smaller houses fitted with minor furniture had their limitations of space, and so the ingenuity of a table that would close together and stand against a wall, or could be used as a round table for dining, was a welcome innovation. =its early form.=--the series of illustrations in this chapter afford a fairly comprehensive survey of the progress and differing character of the gate-leg table during the hundred years that it held a place in domestic furniture. it is difficult to say with exactitude which are the earliest forms, or whether the round table without the moving gates was a sort of transitional form prior to the use of the movable legs. it is quite possible that in his attempt to invent something more convenient than the heavy square dining-table the progressive cabinet-maker of the middle seventeenth century did strike the half-way form. but on the other hand it must be admitted that there is the possibility that the gate-leg table came first, and that the types with three legs and half circular tops stand by themselves as later types. on the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution, that the three-legged table with fixed legs and half round top came first. [illustration: oak side table. _c._ 1660. plain style. the precursor of the gate-leg table.] [illustration: triangular gate-leg table. _c._ 1640. fine example. with arcaded spandrils and gate. this is the next stage of development to above table. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] the two tables illustrated on p. 87 belong to this three-legged type. the upper one is half circular at the top and the three legs are stationary. this particular table is in date about 1660, and although in this instance it is obviously later than other forms we illustrate having gate-legs, yet by the theory we have advanced above, it belongs to a type prior to the use of a gate. the lower one is a fine example, in date about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table. the top is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at right angles to the stretcher. the arcaded spandrils are an interesting and rare feature. =transitional types.=--not only is the feeling towards the gradual establishment of this new form of table shown in its construction, first with four legs until it developed into a table with twelve legs and double gates, but the styles of ornament used in the turning differ greatly in character. the leg is capable of wide and differing treatment. there is the urn leg, a rare and early type, the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel turned leg, and the straight leg. in regard to the stretcher similar varieties occur. sometimes it is entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it varies from the early survival of the gothic trestle to the rare cross stretcher of the late collapsible table. in some types of yorkshire tables the stretchers are splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. the feet differ in no less degree from the usual jacobean type to the scroll or spanish foot at a later date. in the early eighteenth century there is the interesting series of queen anne flap tables which have gate-legs. some have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg. these belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity became noticeable in english cabinet work. it is this picturesque and endless stream of designs which appeals to the collector. it is quite worthy of study to follow the difference in the cabinet-work of these gate tables. the long line of craftsmen who fashioned them added here and there not only touches of ornament that were personal, but invented details of construction as improvements to existing forms. a very early type with urn legs and having plain gates is that illustrated p. 91. it is small in size and belongs to the first half of the seventeenth century. the survival of the gothic trestle feet of an earlier type is noteworthy. the table on the same page has the trestle ends still retained. there is still the single leg at each end, as in the example above. the gates are square and plain and the legs are ball turned, a combination representing an early type. the size of this piece is small and its date is about 1650 or somewhat later. =its establishment as a popular type.=--the varied improvements and the slightly differing characteristics make it perfectly clear, when examined in detail, that the gate table in various parts of the country had firmly established itself and had won popular approval as a permanent type. in the search for tables of this form, however wide the net is spread by those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way places, and by the small army of trade collectors who scour the country for the purpose of unearthing something rare and unique, the story is always the same. in the most remote districts such tables are still found: the growth of the use of this gate-leg form permeated every part of the country. it was copied and recopied, native touches were added, and the old leading lines followed by generation after generation of craftsmen. it had as great a vogue during the long period of its history as the styles of chippendale chairs had at a later date, when every country cabinet-maker was seized with the desire to produce minor chippendale in oak or beech or elm. [illustration: small gate table. very early type. length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. urn legs with plain gates with survival of gothic trestle feet.] [illustration: gate table. middle seventeenth century. early example. height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. square gates and turned leg indicate early type. trestle ends still retained. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: rare table. with double gates. egg and reel turning. turned stretchers. (examples such as this are worth £18 to £35 owing to rare form.)] [illustration: rare gate table. with double gates with only one flap and having turned stretchers. tables with one flap are rare and usually have two gates. {_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the jacobean period.=--essentially the flower of the popular creations of the jacobean furniture-designer, the gate table must always stand as reminiscent of the days of charles i. and charles ii. no picture of this period is considered artistically complete unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque lines adding a technical touch of correctness to interiors. the portrait of herrick, the parson-poet of devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it appears on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet beside a fine gate-leg table. stage tradition is equally sure on the same point. a company of swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete without a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing wine from flagons. without doubt the finest examples are to be found from the year 1660 to the end of the reign of charles ii. a new impetus had been given to furniture-making in restoration days. the country had settled down in tranquillity and the domestic arts began again to thrive in natural manner following the earlier motives of the days of charles i. the recent civil wars had arrested their development, and now they burst forth again with renewed youth. ripe examples of the best period may be assigned to the last three or four decades of the seventeenth century. these, it should be explained, are in oak. we illustrate (p. 93) a particularly pleasing specimen with double gates which belongs to this finest period. there are, it will be observed, twelve legs, and the stretchers are finely turned with what is known as the egg-and-reel pattern. as a matter of fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form, bring from £15 to £35, and they are rapidly being gathered into the folds of collectors. another rare form is shown on the same page. this, too, has double gates, and the stretchers are similarly turned. there is only one flap to this table, and it will be observed that it makes another variation from accepted styles in having a rectangular instead of a circular top. tables with one flap are always rare, and when found they usually have two gates. it will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in following changing forms all through the period. on p. 97 a table is illustrated with two gates on one stretcher. this in date is about 1660. the table below, on the same page, exhibits florid turning in the legs. the stretchers across the two legs are half way up and are the yorkshire form of splat stretcher. this type is found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. the difference in structure is noticeable in two tables shown on p. 99. the one has six legs and the other eight legs. the first has finely turned legs and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the "barley-sugar" pattern. among its exceptional features are the legs being only six in number, the gates being hinged to stretcher, two legs thus being dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two central stretchers. this is a rare piece and in date is about 1670. the gate table on the same page with eight legs is a good example of ball turning. this is a type which survived well into the eighteenth century. [illustration: gate table. _c._ 1660. rare form. two gates on one stretcher. length, 3 ft. 10 ins.; width, 3 ft.] [illustration: gate table. exhibiting florid turning and yorkshire type of splat stretchers. examples are found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. length, 4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: gate table. fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers. exceptional features: only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher, two legs thus dispensed with). additional bar across two central stretchers. rare example. date 1670.] [illustration: gate table. good example of ball turning. a type which survived well into the eighteenth century. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: collapsible table with rare x stretcher. _c._ 1660. the top folds over. fine example. (_in the collection of lady mary holland._)] [illustration: primitive gate-leg table. seventeenth or early eighteenth century. gates at one end. made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning.] as exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the poles, and yet not far removed in point of time, the two tables illustrated, p. 101, make a curious contrast. the upper one, in date about 1660, is a slender, graceful example, with the unusual =x=-shaped stretcher. it will be seen from the illustration that the two stretchers when closed fit flat with the legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table practically collapsible. the lower table, of late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, is a somewhat primitive form, with the gates at one end. this has obviously been made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning, as the shaping of the legs is strongly suggestive of the rude fashioning of the shafts of a farm wagon. =walnut and mahogany varieties.=--as the mid-jacobean period is left behind, and walnut is the chief wood used in ornamental turned work, so the character of the gate table begins to incline towards the technique more suitable to walnut than to oak. the turning, more easily done in the former wood, becomes more intricate. hence some examples appear which are practically types of the walnut age. but, in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival throughout the william and mary and queen anne periods, wherein country makers clung to the oak form and employed oak still in its manufacture. the william and mary gate table illustrated (p. 105) is constructed with one gate. it is small in size, practically being an ornamental or occasional table. it has a fine character, and the "barley sugar" pattern is deeply turned. side by side with this is a small square-topped gate table with the pillar-leg, denoting a reversion to early type. the stretcher is of the old trestle form. both these pieces, on account of their small size and well-balanced construction, show that considerable attention was being paid to symmetry. such specimens can readily be transplanted to more modern surroundings, and yet in some subtle manner harmonise with later furniture. they share this peculiarity with objects of oriental art of the highest type. old blue nankin and old lac cabinets, although anachronisms amid furniture of a later date, possess the property of being in sympathy with their new environment, much in the same manner as an old persian rug becomes a restful acquisition in a luxurious western home. some of the forms are so rare as to be almost unique. it is seldom that so interesting a piece is found as the table illustrated (p. 105) with the scroll feet in spanish style. it has only one gate, and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. the lock is shown at the front in the photograph. the adjacent table has a corrupted form of the spanish foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the flapper of a seal. this also has one gate; in date this piece is about 1680. [illustration: early gate table. with square top and pillar leg. stretcher: old trestle form. top, 2 ft. 4 ins. × 1 ft. 10 ins. william and mary gate table. fine character deep-turning "barley sugar" pattern with only one gate. top, 2 ft. 6 ins. × 2 ft. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: gate table with square top. _c._ 1680 having one gate and corrupted form of carved spanish foot.] [illustration: gate-leg table. _c._ 1660. with one gate. top lifts up to form box. the feet are in spanish style.] the days of mahogany, with chippendale in his prime and hepplewhite, ince and mayhew, robert manwaring, matthias lock, william shearer, and a crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany into intense prominence. this was the golden age of furniture design. an outburst of enthusiasm, following the architectural triumphs of the brothers adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a level as high as that in france, had swept over the country. in spite of the rich profusion of new design being poured out in illustrated volumes and in executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived. in form it was the same, but the richness of the new wood was too enticing for the cabinet-maker not to employ. accordingly we find examples in mahogany. in the chippendale period =x=-shaped, cluster-leg, gate tables are found, and turning was used in this cluster-leg form. the ripe inventiveness of such a design as the gate-leg table was too evident to escape the adoption by famous makers. when ingenuity of construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not likely to be discarded in fashionable furniture. on p. 109 two specimens of this period are shown. the upper one is of somewhat unusual type, having a cupid's bow underframing. it is seen that the spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth century. the lower table is again a rare form. it is probably early in date for mahogany, being about 1740. the spanish foot is employed, but in a coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive of a golf club. =its utility and beauty.=--it is a natural question that one may ask as to the reason that the gate table had such a prolonged life. it passed through several strong periods of fashionable styles that were overthrown in turn by newer designs. the reason is not far to seek. it survived because the public could not do without it. there must have been a continuous demand, unchecked by the excitements of contemporary substitutes. but apparently there was nothing to take its place, or which could permanently supplant it. its utility is undoubtedly one of its most marked features. this alone affected its stability as a possession with which the farmer's wife and the cottager would not part. customs long established in the country were not easily discontinued. mother, daughter, and granddaughter clung to the old and practical form of table. nowadays there are families in the shires whom nothing would induce to sell their old gate tables. partly this is for love of the old home, but mainly is it the common-sense attitude which rebels against the sale of any piece of furniture which is in constant use. many objects long gone into disuse, but really valuable from an artistic point of view, are readily dispensed with. the cottager imagines that if he disposes of a mere ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy something useful he has effected a good "deal." [illustration: mahogany gate table. unusual type. with "cupid's bow" underframing. spanish foot surviving into eighteenth century. height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.] [illustration: mahogany gate table. rare form. probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740. use of spanish foot dying out. diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins. × 4 ft. 4 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] so much for its utility. its beauty is a quality which has appealed to persons of higher artistic instincts. it is not the quaintness, because there are scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is it altogether the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that is a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry of form and ingenious form of construction, enhanced by the wide range of decorative treatment, which irresistibly appeal to the lover of the beautiful. these manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg table with great vitality. its hold of the people was not relaxed till the age of the factory-made furniture. the banalities of the early-victorian period, which destroyed taste in persons of finer susceptibilities than the common folk, supplanted the old historic form, and it was made no more. =its adoption in modern days.=--after william morris and his school had preached the revival of taste and the return to the simple and the beautiful, and ruskin with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love for homespun into men's minds, there came newer ideals which, with gradual dissemination, have grown into a great modern movement which has become so overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has almost swung the other way. it has now become almost a truism that the person of taste to-day sees nothing good in anything that is not old. with this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions, if they could not procure the old, had copies made for them of some of the most beautiful styles suitable for modern requirements. in this there was always the great morrisian principle in view that the highest art must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came about that the gate table was revived and came gloriously into its own again. to-day, as in the seventeenth century, there is no more popular form of table, and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing hundreds of these tables. the life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore, shown to be an interesting one. it is one of our oldest forms, and its construction nowadays, save that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly similar to that in the days when oliver cromwell was establishing our power as a voice in europe, when james ii. had an eye towards the supremacy of our navy, and when later our troops fought in flanders. chapter iv the farmhouse dresser chapter iv the farmhouse dresser the days of the late stuarts--its early table form with drawers--the decorated type with shelves--william and mary style with double cupboards--the queen anne cabriole leg--mid-eighteenth-century types. the various types of dresser associated with farmhouse use are interesting as being apart from the sideboard, a later fashion belonging to furniture of a higher type. it was not until the late days of chippendale, and after, that the side table began to be designated a sideboard, which later became a receptacle for wine, with a cellaret, and had a drawer for table-linen. the sideboard is not a modern term, for the word is found in dryden and in milton. in the late eighteenth-century days the sideboard had a brass rail at the back, and was ornamented by two mahogany urns of massive proportions. usually these were used for iced water and for hot water, the latter for washing the knives and forks. the adam sideboard with its severe classical lines, and sheraton's elegant bow fronts and satinwood panels decorated with painting, belong to the later developments of the sideboard as now known. the dresser is something more homely. it is indissolubly connected with homeliness and with the farmhouse and the country-side. in its various forms it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings more or less incongruous. the dresser in its more primitive form requires the necessary environment. it loses its charm when placed in proximity to pieces of more pretentious character. the cupboard dresser, or the type with open shelves, is less decorative than some of the forms without the back. that is to say, it requires the exactly suitable accompaniment to prevent its simple lines from being eclipsed by furniture of a higher grade. the dresser is, therefore, especially desirable to the collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room is an incongruity and its presence in the dining-room is more often than not an unwarrantable intrusion. =the days of the late stuarts.=--it will be seen that the early types have fronts finely decorated with geometric designs panelled in the same fashion as the jacobean chests of drawers, such as that illustrated p. 69. the split baluster ornament is a noticeable feature in this style, and the fine graceful balance of the panels with the drawers with drop brass handles is an attractive feature beloved by connoisseurs of the late stuart period. the decoration in the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse in character as the fronts of the contemporary chests of drawers. this variety is indicative of the personal character imparted to the work of the old designers. it is rare to find two examples exactly alike. they differ in details, much in the same manner as the brass candlesticks of the same period, which possess the same charm of individuality. [illustration: oak dresser. about 1680. with finely decorated front. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: oak dresser. fine example of the period of james ii.] [illustration: oak dresser of unusual type. early eighteenth century. with arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides. height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2 ins.] [illustration: early oak dresser. about 1660. with urn-shaped legs. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] of this particular type of oak dresser the two examples illustrated (p. 117) have characteristics which are common to the class. the geometric front panels, the laid-on moulding, and the jacobean leg--in most cases the back legs of these side dressers are square--should be intently noticed. in regard to the number of the legs, this is governed by the length of the dresser. in the lower example it will be seen that there are six legs and that the stretcher is continued round three sides. in this example the legs begin to show indications of the late-jacobean style of more delicate turning. in the upper example the legs are bolder. these are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of similar design offer more sumptuous decoration and belong to furniture more suitable for the manor house than for the farm or cottage. an earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated p. 119, exhibits a less ornate appearance and has the split urn-shaped legs in front and flat legs at the back. the split legs are found sometimes in gate tables, but when such is the case it may safely be conjectured that these tables are not of english origin, as the split leg did not find great favour with the english cabinet-makers. before passing to later examples it should be observed that this particular form of dresser is most frequently found without a top with shelves. examples there are which, as we shall show, have the original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note this feature in examining these jacobean dressers, for there are a great number in the market to which later tops have been added, as suitable to more modern requirements, or as likely to prove more attractive to those collectors not familiar with the dresser in its earlier form. originally in early dressers with shelves there is no back, that is to say, the shelves showed the wall behind them. this deficiency has been obligingly supplied by later hands. the dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional stages had been passed through, is shown in the early eighteenth-century piece illustrated (p. 119). this is of the early days of the eighteenth century, that is to say, in the reign of queen anne. it is here seen that the dresser is a set piece of furniture possessing attributes instantly marking it as having been carefully designed with a due observance as to the purpose to which it was to be put. the shelf at the bottom was evidently intended for use; the arched formation below the drawers has been planned in that manner to admit of utensils placed there being taken out and replaced with ease. one can only conjecture what may have stood there, maybe a barrel of cider, or perhaps only a breadpan. =the decorated type with shelves.=--the back with shelves was a useful addition, which, as will be seen in the earlier examples leading up to this later development, had borne several experiments in the way of cupboards. in this particular specimen the broken or serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a noticeable feature, and always adds a grace and charm to the dresser when employed by the cabinet-maker. another example in which this is effectively used is illustrated on p. 123. [illustration: dresser. early jacobean. length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. dresser. earliest decorated type. date about 1670. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] to return to the early-jacobean types: two interesting pieces are illustrated together (p. 123). that on the left, with four legs and stretcher, has three drawers, and the upper portion or back is ornamented by a primitive scalloped design suggestive of the country hand. the other, on the right, has six legs and four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning to receive detailed treatment in regard to spacing of the shelves, and a small cupboard on each side fills the growing need of cupboards and drawers, a rapidly growing taste in english furniture for domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex. about this time nests of boxes and drawers in lac work from the east began to be imported into this country in the better houses, first as articles of great luxury and beauty, on account of their colour and fine gold work, and later as being something new and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation they afforded for the treasures the housewife wished to put away from the prying eyes of her curious neighbours. as time went on, the art of the cabinet-maker became more intricate. it is not the place here to enter into the minutiæ of the development of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the late eighteenth century brought such furniture, apart from points in relation to beauty of design, to great constructive skill. the age was one of hidden contrivances and intricately cunning mechanism concealing secret drawers or receptacles. such pieces were never made for farmhouse use; but the germ of the idea is ever present in all furniture with indications of locked drawers and cupboards. this is the note of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and no lock to guard their possessions. =william and mary style with double cupboards.=--the variety with double cupboards are interesting as giving a date to the dressers in which they are found. it is usually accurate to place such pieces in the william and mary period, that is to say from the year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century. the tendency in this class of furniture is to cling tenaciously to older forms, especially in certain portions of the cabinet-work which presented difficulties to the local cabinet-maker. the legs retained their early-jacobean character even when associated with much later styles. this is noticeable in the william and mary example illustrated (p. 127). the arcaded doors are inlaid, the canopy is decorated, the underwork beneath the drawers belongs essentially to the "orange" period of design in its feeling. that the dresser could be made an ornamental piece of furniture and found its place as an important possession in the farmhouse, bright with an array of china, or pewter, or even silver, is amply shown by the two examples illustrated together of which the foregoing is one. the other oak dresser has at the top, where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks. it is of the square-leg type and the arcaded work below the drawers gives distinction to its lines; it possesses also the broken or serpentine ends to the shelves. these curves and simple touches of ornament all contribute to make such dressers pleasing in character and representative of native work attempting with strong endeavour to produce artistic results suitable to their environment. [illustration: william and mary oak dresser. date _c._ 1689. decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs. height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.] [illustration: oak dresser. square leg type; with original mug hooks. height, 6 ft.; length, 4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.] =the queen anne cabriole leg.=--it is not to be expected that the long-continued triumph of the cabriole leg of the eighteenth century would leave the dresser without making its mark thereon. the exact curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the hands of a novice, who rarely if ever gets the correct balance in conjunction with the rest of the construction. accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this tells its own story. it is as though the cabriole leg were a sudden afterthought. this touch of representative want of repose is shown in the specimen illustrated (p. 135). in date this is about 1740, and is a somewhat rare form, having double cupboards. a unique dresser and clock combined is illustrated (p. 131). the form of the dresser, it will be seen, is quite different from other specimens. the back is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small drawers. the legs are circular and tapered, terminating in circular feet. in the centre of the dresser is a clock of the familiar grandfather form in miniature. this clock is not an addition to the dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made with it. the illustration shows the size of the door of the clock-case, with its hinges not cut down or in any way interfered with, and the lock on the other side is in the centre of the panel. it is obvious that no later hand has tampered with this fine example, and it stands as a remarkable dresser and unique in form in its construction with this clock. =mid-eighteenth-century types.=--in the lancashire dresser illustrated (p. 135) the top is reminiscent of early types. the cupboard has removed its position to the middle, a departure from all earlier forms. this is a very characteristic example, and the ample drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition from the old form of dresser through its varied stages to the later modern variety of the kitchen dresser, devoid of poetry and lacking interest to the collector, and yet to the student having traces of its ancient lineage. the eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer no great departure. they aim at being capacious and massive. they make no pretensions to approach the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better houses. they supply an undoubted want in the farmhouse for storage. there were cordials and home-made wines and much prized linen and a bright array of silver and sheffield plate and pewter, and no doubt tea services or porcelain from the new english factories of worcester, derby, bow, or maybe plymouth or bristol, to be shielded from breakage. the farmer's wife and the farmer's daughters were less than human if they did not follow the new fashions in some degree, more or less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud possessors of tea services and dinner services somewhat more delicate than the old delft and coarse staffordshire ware. the cupboards had ample accommodation for these more valuable accessories of the farmhouse parlour. the cabinet-maker therefore developed on lines exactly suitable for the country clients whom he served. [illustration: unique dresser and clock combined. the clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser, and was made for it. (_in the collection of d. a. bevan, esq._)] the late forms show this marked tendency to provide innumerable drawers and cupboards, in the farmhouse dressers contemporary with chippendale. many examples are found which are practically elongated chests of drawers; the old characteristics of the dresser are absent, the back has disappeared altogether. there is no top with shelves. eight large drawers and two capacious cupboards give great storage room in a piece often 9 feet in length. there is nothing finicking in this type of furniture. it stands for homely comfort and love of domestic order. we may be sure that the good dame who used this lower piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks, was a person of frugal habits and love of the old farmstead. we may safely assume that she had a well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day. in conclusion it may be said that a good deal has been talked about welsh dressers, as though they were a type absolutely apart from any other. the differences are not great, as the carving, in which the welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is absent in pieces of furniture such as the dresser. then there is the normandy dresser, a much-abused term: a considerable number of these, and others, too, from brittany, have been imported and the terms have become trade descriptions. but in the main the english dresser has passed through the phases we have described, and the outlines herein suggested may be filled in by the painstaking collector. in the chapter dealing with local types there is an illustration of a lancashire dresser (p. 273) which adds one more example to the gallery of dressers we give as types in this chapter. [illustration: oak dresser. date about 1740. with early double cupboards. legs in queen anne style. height, 6 ft. 7 ins.; width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.] [illustration: lancashire dresser. middle eighteenth century. top reminiscent of early types. ample drawer accommodation. transition to modern dresser. deeply cut panels. cupboard in middle as distinct from earlier forms at sides. height, 7 ft. 2 ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.; depth, 2 ft.] chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard the puritan days of the seventeenth century--the protestant bible in every home--the variety of carving found in bible-boxes--the jacobean cradle and its forms--the spinning-wheel--the bacon-cupboard. the authorised version of the holy bible, "translated out of the original tongues and with the former translations diligently compared and revised," by his majesty's command, found a place in every household in stuart days. the letter of the learned translators "to the most high and mighty prince james, by the grace of god, king of great britain, france, and ireland, defender of the faith," &c., retains its place in modern editions. it is an historic document worthy of preservation, and perhaps those who have forgotten its terms may be glad to have their memory refreshed. it is of surpassing moment to all who recognise the protestant derivation of the bible as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings which inspired the translators under king james in their fulsome dedication to the modern solomon. "great and manifold were the blessings, most dread sovereign, which almighty god the father of all mercies bestowed upon us the people of england, when first he sent your majesty's royal person to rule and reign over us. for whereas it was the expectation of many, who wished not well unto our _sion_, that upon the setting of that bright occidental star, queen elizabeth, of most happy memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness would so have overshadowed this land, that men should have been in doubt which way they were to walk; and that it should hardly be known who was to direct the unsettled state; the appearance of your majesty, as the sun in its strength, instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists, and gave unto all that were well affected exceeding cause of comfort; especially when we beheld the government established in your highness and your hopeful seed, by an undoubted title, and this also accompanied by peace and tranquillity at home and abroad." it is, as we affirm, an interesting document as showing the puritan tendencies at a time when much was in the melting-pot and the first of the stuarts, with his broad scots accent and his ungainly ways, came down to st. james's from the north. compare the above literary dedication to james the first with the word-portrait painted by green the historian, and one may draw one's own inferences. "his big head, his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety legs, stood out in as grotesque a contrast with all that men recalled of henry or of elizabeth as his gabble and rodomontade, his want of personal dignity, his buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry, his contemptible cowardice. under this ridiculous exterior, however, lay a man of much natural ability, a ripe scholar with a considerable fund of shrewdness, of mother-wit, and ready repartee." =the protestant bible in every home.=--himself a theologian, james influenced his contemporaries. "theology rules there," said grotius of england only two years after elizabeth's death. there was an indifference to pure letters and persons were counted fine scholars who were diligent in the study of the bible. the language of the people became enriched with this study, which extended to all classes. john bunyan, the son of a tinker at elstow, learned his intense prose from the bible. the peasant absorbed the bible till its words became his own. with the puritan movement came the production of men of serious type, and with it too came the disappearance of the richer and brighter life and humour of elizabethan days. it was a literary movement and a religious movement which penetrated to the lower classes and often left the upper classes and gentry unmoved. in dealing with this and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the people, the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly evident in the plethora of bible-boxes belonging to those in this period of biblical study, to whom shakespeare and ben jonson were unknown and spenser's _faerie queene_ and milton's _comus_ were sealed books. it would almost seem that in many cases the bible was the only book which was read and treasured. it was incorporated in the home life. it served as a register to record the names and dates of birth and death or marriage of members of the family. some of these family registers have been most valuable in tracing details in biography where parish registers have failed to supply the necessary information. =the variety of carving found in bible-boxes.=--we give a series of illustrations indicating some of the interesting details of carving to be found on such boxes, where, as in work intended for a treasure-chest to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal has gone to the elaboration of ornament. these seventeenth-century relics of a wave of religious enthusiasm are the crude puritan likenesses, belonging to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles and ivory carved madonnas and saints of the italian renaissance. they both, though poles asunder in realisation, represent the instinctive love of man for ornament in connection with his religious emotions. savage races with another ritual produce religious and ceremonial woodcarving representative of their best. here, then, is the puritan craftsmanship, mainly of provincial origin and found scattered over various parts of the country, following _motifs_ executed by the same hands as jacobean chairs and dressers, but bearing rich touches of ornament, betraying much originality, within the limited scope of jacobean design. the carving has nothing of the humour or strong bold relief of the miserere seats of the palmy days of the woodcarver in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century in details that might well have been applied to the bible-box. the ambition of the puritan woodcarver never reached figure-work, or he might have represented biblical scenes if his abhorrence of graven images had not demoralised his fancy. some of the early boxes have bold carving. we illustrate a fine example (p. 143) of the time of james i., about 1600. the design is floral, which embodies the well-known conventional rose. illustrated on the same page is another carved box of unusual pattern with floriated design. it was a frequent practice to treat the front of the box as though it were continuous and the pattern leaves off at the ends much in the same manner as modern wallpaper. in the box above it will be seen that the front is panelled and the design is confined to the circumscribed area. [illustration: carved oak bible-box. fine example. time of james i. about 1600. length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.] [illustration: carved bible-box of unusual pattern. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: bible-box of very rare pattern. about 1650. this type always had the same kind of clasp.] [illustration: bible-box of usual pattern commonly found.] another piece with very rare pattern, in date about 1650, has a bold type of carving in the two semicircles stretched across the front. this use of semicircles occurs in types usually found. the example illustrated (p. 145) has incised carving or "scratch." it will be seen that there is never an attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies of the refined craftsman. among the various types of "scratch" boxes the use of circles and heart-shaped ornament is constant. the locks found on this type of box are always of the class as shown in the illustration, and the clasp is well known. in the collection of bible-boxes the novice must carefully learn the exact limitations of the school of woodworkers in this minor field. the touch of the foreign craftsman should be easily recognisable, with its piquancy and real artistic feeling. these puritan bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some touch of romance to them or whet the appetite of the collector they are frequently described as "lace-boxes," though it is very doubtful if such boxes were ever used for storing lace. sometimes similar boxes with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks. =the jacobean cradle.=--the specimens of this type of furniture always exhibit, in the oak variety associated with farmhouse use, a plainness as a noticeable factor. they are usually panelled, but the panel has received no carved ornament and is especially simple. of course they always have rockers. in the examples illustrated the slight variation in these rockers will be observed. sometimes they are plain and sometimes they have slight ornamental curves. the only other ornament may be found in the turned knobs at the foot and sometimes at the head. sometimes there are fine knobs on the hood. the hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a naïve attempt at symmetrical design. these cradles have long been familiar objects in cottagers' homes, but are now being displaced by modern wicker cradles. the picture _a flood_ (1870), by sir john e. millais, shows one of these cradles floating in a flooded meadow. the baby is crowing with delight, and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle. the holes in the example illustrated (p. 149) are intended to receive a cord stretched across the cradle to protect the occupant. [illustration: oak cradle. with shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.] [illustration: oak cradle. with shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. holes on each side to fasten rope to protect occupant.] [illustration: yarn-winder and spinning-wheel.] [illustration: buckinghamshire bobbin's. turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins from each other. (_in the collection of the author._)] =the spinning-wheel.=--to this day the spinning-wheel is used in scotland, in the highlands. the wool or yarn winders are usually in windlass form with six spokes. the turning upon these winders and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the spindle-back chairs. there is in buckinghamshire bobbins a similar turning, individual in character and exhibiting considerable artistic beauty. in spinning-wheels there is considerable scope for the use of fine touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear to the housewife. bone sometimes was used in the turned knobs. the making of these spinning-wheels was undertaken by persons desirous of winning the esteem of those who used them. many of them have come down as heirlooms in families and have not been held as objects of art, to be regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday use. the use of the spinning-wheel was not confined exclusively to the farmer's wife. in early days great ladies were adepts at spinning. by the time of george iii. it was employed by the ladies of titled families. mrs. delany, when staying with the duchess of portland at bulstrode, writes: "the queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught me at my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give her a lesson afterwards; and i must say she did it tolerably for a queen." this letter, dated 1781, goes to prove two things, that spinning was a real task still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable amusement. had it been the latter mrs. delany would not have used the expression "caught me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates that the occupation was somewhat of a menial one. in regard to the buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes finely carved in bone, those illustrated (p 151.) indicate the character of the cottagers' treasures in the pillow-lace-making districts. the patterns of these bobbins are not repeated. individual touches are given to these bobbins by the village turners which are not duplicated. in use, the bobbin has to be identified by some mark, and beads of different colours are employed, which are affixed by means of a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration. =the bacon-cupboard.=--another class which it is convenient to place among miscellaneous objects is the bacon-cupboard. the illustration (p. 231) shows the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and drawers beneath. the position held by the bacon-cupboard in the farmhouse is shown by the growing dignity in the character of these cupboards. the gradual growth and development are shown in many specimens of the queen anne period, frequently of lancashire origin. such pieces, with classic pilasters, broken cornice, and bevelled panels and drawers beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers belonging to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture. the development of capacious cupboards for various domestic uses is noticeable in this class of furniture up to early nineteenth-century days. chapter vi eighteenth-century styles chapter vi eighteenth-century styles the advent of the cabriole leg--the so-called queen anne style--the survival of oak in the provinces--the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--the early-georgian types--chippendale and his contemporaries. the dawn of the eighteenth century practically commenced with the reign of queen anne. the times were troublous. as princess, in the days of william the dutchman and her sister mary, she was forbidden the court as john churchill, then earl of marlborough, designed to overthrow william and place anne on the throne. "were i and my lord marlborough private persons," william exclaimed, "the sword would have to settle between us." at the death of mary the princess anne, together with the marlboroughs, was recalled to st. james's. at the death of william, in 1702, anne came to the throne. only just in her thirty-seventh year, she was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk from westminster hall to the abbey, and was carried in an open chair. during the coronation ceremony she was too infirm to support herself in a standing position without assistance. the age of anne is remarkable for its restless intrigues. court plots were rife when queen anne "mrs. morley" in her private letters to the duchess of marlborough, who was "mrs. freeman," finally broke with the overbearing duchess and made abigail hill, one of the marlborough creatures, her chief confidant. the protestant whig party favoured the long war in the low countries and in spain, although conducted by a tory general, marlborough, who, by the way, did not take the field in flanders till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so great a military career, wherein he never fought a battle in which he was not victorious. the greatness of marlborough is indisputable. his fond love for his wife runs like a gold thread through the dark web of his life. his wife had, during a large part of anne's reign, despotic empire over anne's feeble mind. "history exhibits to us few spectacles more remarkable," says lord macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man who, when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of policy, could carry them into effect only by inducing one foolish woman, who was often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was more foolish still." [illustration: lancashire oak settle. _c._ 1760. length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.] [illustration: lancashire queen anne settle. showing transition into later type of modern settee. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] to us now, with the secret springs of history laid bare, there is much to marvel at, much to deplore as trivial. in regard to matters of high state and the suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully hidden from public gaze. but of the life of the people, especially the life in the country districts, the picture is somewhat blurred. men of letters flocked to the town--the town was london. provincial life lies behind a curtain. there were spanish doubloons coming up from bristol and prize-money from the wars was scattered inland from the ports. scotland was united to england by the act of union. "i desire," said the queen, "and expect from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another, and so that it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people." this wish has been amply fulfilled and the union has become something more than a name. never have two peoples different in thought, in tradition, and in established law become so completely welded together. but the war of the spanish succession must have drained english blood as it taxed english pockets. "six millions of supplies and almost fifty millions of debt," wrote swift bitterly. the tide of marlborough's success was undoubtedly secured by the outpouring of english lives. stalwart levies of men from the shires went to join the strange medley of the forces of the allies commanded by marlborough. dutchmen, danes, hanoverians, würtembergers, and austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his troops. he launched them with calm imperturbability against his opponents at malplaquet, for example, where with a pyrrhic triumph he lost twenty-four thousand men against half that number of the french behind their entrenchments. it is little wonder that the war was unpopular in the country, where the spanish succession and the "balance of power" were only symbols for so much pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. bonfires might be lit for blenheim, but many a village mourned those who would never return. in spite of this intermingling of england with european politics, the general life of the people remained untouched from outside influence in regard to arts and manufacture. cut off from intercourse with france, the grandeur of the art of louis quatorze was as far removed from early eighteenth-century england as though boulle and jean bérain and lepaute were in another continent and the château of versailles in the fastnesses of the urals. it is true that louis xiv. presented two wonderful cabinets to the duke of monmouth, exquisite examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry, but such pieces were beyond the capabilities of any english craftsman to emulate. the chief innovations of the early eighteenth century followed the dutch lines familiarised in the preceding days of william and mary. oak remained in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the fashionable world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally mahogany. corner cupboards were introduced early in the reign of anne, and hooped chairs, familiar in engravings of flemish interiors, came into general use. fiddle-splat chairs were also common in the first half of the eighteenth century. in regard to feet, the ball-and-claw, and club foot were introduced. caning of chairs went out of fashion till the end of the century. shell and pendant ornament on knees of chair-legs became marked features, and, above all, the cabriole leg to chairs and tables is associated with the early years of the reign, and the term "queen anne" is always applied to such pieces. [illustration: cupboard with drawers. _c._ 1700. with "swan head" pediment. pedestal at top for delft or china. round beadings to drawers.] [illustration: queen anne bureau bookcase. farmhouse oak variety. emulating a finer walnut or mahogany piece.] [illustration: fine example oak table. _c._ 1720. well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting. exemplary of professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.] [illustration: oak table. _c._ 1720. with hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine queen anne piece, exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker. height, 2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the cabriole leg.=--this form of leg, swelling into massive proportions where it joins the seat, and curving outwards and tapering to a ball-and-claw foot or a club foot, lasted till end of chippendale period, roughly, for nearly half a century. it assumed various forms until it was supplanted by the straight leg, and the stretcher, which had disappeared with the use of the cabriole leg, again came into use. examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations to various types of furniture in this chapter. at first its use did not interfere with the employment of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher disappeared. the lancashire queen anne settle illustrated (p. 159) shows the stretcher joining the front leg to the back. in the settle illustrated above, in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have vanished. =the so-called queen anne style.=--fashions slowly adopted in cabinet design do not readily arrange themselves in exact periods coinciding with the reigns of individual sovereigns. but it is convenient to affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute their general use to a particular reign. the innovation of the square panel with broken corners and ornamental curves at top is found in queen anne settles. the departure from the square panel and line of the curved and broken top is exhibited in the second great seal of anne, commemorating the union with scotland. it is reminiscent of the dutch influence, and is found in sussex firebacks of an earlier period. the straight lines of early-jacobean cabinet-work were rapidly undergoing a change; the square wooden back of the chair was shortly to be replaced by fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-georgian days, became pierced and fretted and carved under the genius of chippendale's hand. the two settles illustrated (p. 159) show several interesting points. the panels are typical of the love of the curved line, which hogarth defined as the line of beauty. in the upper one the arms still retain the old jacobean form in this farmhouse example. the ball foot still clings to the earlier form. the seat is sunk to receive a long cushion. in the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion and the curved =s= arms upholstered show the transition into the later type of modern settee. the curved outline finds similar expression in the hood of grandfather clock-cases and in the shape of metal dials. a cupboard with drawers illustrated (p. 163) has what is known as a "swan head." the panels to the doors have similarly novel features in their structure. it will be observed that there is a square pedestal at the top of this piece, which was intended as a stand for a delft or chinese jar. the drawers of this cupboard have round beadings. the typical instance of curved design with not a single straight line, not even the back legs, which are bowed, is the grandfather chair with the high back, upholstered all over. the cabriole legs with ball-and claw-feet, the =c=-shaped arms, the scroll upholstered wings, and the oval back, depart from the rectilinear; even the underframing of the seat is bow-shaped. similarly, the walnut arm-chairs of the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. the arms always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had broad splats with curling shoulders, and often a broad bold ribbon pattern making two loops to fill up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved shell at the point of intersection. big pieces of furniture, such as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment, and smaller objects, such as mirrors, had the arched or broken top; and when these dressing mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the straight front and became convex. under the dutch influence, in the first period of english veneer work, from about 1675 to 1715, very fine cabinets and bureaus and chests of drawers were made. walnut was the wood employed, with the panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony, mahogany, sycamore, and other coloured woods. figured walnut was beloved by the cabinet-maker beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of decoration. bandings of herring-bone inlay and rounded mouldings to drawers are very characteristic. bureaus and important pieces had birds and flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine dutch models. picked walnut, especially exhibiting a fine feathered figure, was used as veneer, and with these and other glorious creations of the walnut school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be said to have been in full swing. =the survival of oak in the provinces.=--the foregoing descriptions apply to fashionable folks' furniture. such fashions did not come into usage in the farmhouses and in the cottages. oak was still employed without being displaced by the walnut of the town maker. oak was in the main more suitable for the particular class of furniture which was likely to receive less delicate care than the writing-cabinets and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more fastidious people. tea-drinking had become the luxury of the great world of society, and had hardly come into general use in the country till late in the reign of anne, though by 1690 it had gained considerable favour in london. coffee was introduced slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides and in poetical satires appear in the late seventeenth century against coffee and coffee-houses. in 1674 the "women's petition against coffee" complained that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts whence that unhappy berry is said to be brought; that the offspring of our mighty ancestors would dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and on a domestic message a husband would stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee." the prejudice against coffee, and especially against coffee-houses, was lasting, and coffee failed to establish itself as a national beverage. the labouring classes declined to be weaned from their ale and other stronger drinks. the spaniards brought chocolate from mexico; roger north, attorney-general to james ii., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate houses, perhaps more on account of the political clubs gathered there than against the beverage itself. "the use of coffee-houses," says he, "seems much improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses, for the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where gaming is added to the rest, as if the devil had erected a new university, and those were the colleges of its professors." [illustration: queen anne glassor china-cupboard. spun glass doors. heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery. georgian corner cupboard. late eighteenth century. broken architraves and cushion top. having original hinges. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: small oak table. 1700-1720. height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4 ins. graceful proportion with cabriole leg.] [illustration: oak table. showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.] the varying phases of town life, of which the above quotations give a passing glimpse, found little reflex in the sturdy unchanging life of the provinces. generation after generation, men farmed the same lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent; tillers of the ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields, living by the sweat of their brow. they were content with simpler pleasures, which centred round the alehouse and the village green, or maybe the village church, if the hunting rector and the studious vicar were not too heedless of the fate of their flock. but other influences were soon to be at work to break the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered. wesley founded the methodist movement. whitefield began his sermons in the fields and looked down from a green slope on several thousand colliers grimy from the coalpits near bristol to see, as he preached, tears "making white channels down their blackened cheeks." later again, hannah more drew sympathy to the poverty and crime of the agricultural classes. =the influence of walnut on cabinet-making.=--if oak was the wood which the country joiner loved best, he was not without some sympathetic leaning towards the effects which could be produced in the softer walnut. such styles accordingly began slowly to have a marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture in early-georgian days. it was not easy to produce curved lines in the refractory oak, tough and brittle, but the village craftsman essayed his best to please his patrons whose taste had been caught by the newer fashions observed in the squire's parlour when paying rare visits. in the two examples illustrated of farmhouse cupboard and bureau bookcase (p. 163) it will be seen that here is the country maker definitely trying his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. this is even more noticeable in regard to some of the tables actually found in farmhouses belonging to as early as the first quarter of the eighteenth century. the two specimens illustrated (p. 165) exemplify this tendency to imitate the designs of trained workers. the country touch always betrays itself in the cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. the upper table has less _naïveté_ than most examples found. there is a balance in its construction rarely found in provincial work. the legs, always the stumbling-block to the less experienced artificer, are here of exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club feet. the lower table shows a less capable treatment of the cabriole leg. the hoof foot and the carved knee have obviously been copied from a fine queen anne model. in the underframing of both tables there is an experiment in ornament and form rarely attempted except in the highest flights of the country maker, and as such these two fine examples must be regarded. [illustration: oak table. showing clumsy corners and indicating the _naïveté_ of the country cabinet-maker.] [illustration: oak table. showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.] =the early georgian types.=--treating of the early-hanoverian period from the death of queen anne in 1714, and including the reigns of george i. from 1714 to 1727 and george ii. from 1727 to 1760, furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of construction. at the final outburst the fine masterpieces of creation of the great schools of design during the last half of the eighteenth century, embodied the life-work of chippendale, the brothers adam, hepplewhite, sheraton, and many others. this period from 1750 to 1800 was the golden age of design in england. it has had a far-reaching effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day schools of designers, whose adaptations and lines of progress are based upon the finest flower of the eighteenth-century styles. the massive walnut chairs with deep underframing and broad hoop backs departed from the solid splats of the anne style and endeavoured to become less squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work, coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. settees, arm-chairs and single chairs in this style came as the final efforts of the walnut school. the graceful ribbon designs interlacing each other in knots, and the flowing carving in mahogany of chippendale, put a period to all dullness and heavy design. with the new style and the new wood a splendid field was opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick appreciation of these opportunities signalised their work as of permanent artistic value. among more important pieces, though still falling under the category of farmhouse styles, may be mentioned the queen anne glass or china cupboard, and the georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. 171. the former has heavy bars, which mark the early type prior to tracery, and it has spun-glass doors. porcelain factories at bow, worcester, and derby brought such cupboards into more general use after the middle of the century. staffordshire earthenware tea and coffee services were found in great numbers in farmhouses and cottages. after the days of delft and stoneware came the prized china services of the housewife. pewter was largely used, but the number of ale-jugs of toby form, or cider-mugs with rural subjects to suit the tastes of the users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste, once exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the country districts. the georgian corner cupboard shows the broken architraves and cushion top. the hinges should be noticed as being original. =chippendale and his contemporaries.=--at first using the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite as he found it, but reduced to slightly more slender proportions to be in symmetry with his less massive backs to chairs, chippendale came to the straight line. he employed it in the legs of tables and in the seats of chairs, in the bracket supports, and in the top rail of his chairs. chippendale in his day, made the first straight top rail to the chair. it is interesting to note the phases of changing design in country-made furniture prior to his time, and the sudden mastery of form which became the common inheritance of all after his and other contemporary design-books were promulgated broadcast. [illustration: queen anne tea table. _c._ 1710. with scalloped edge for cups. height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.] [illustration: oak revolving book-stand. _c._ 1720. rare form. diameter of top, 2 ft.; height, 2 ft. 8 ins. (_in the collection of miss holland._)] [illustration: country chippendale table. leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and ball foot. accuracy in straight joinery. failure in curved work. top, 2 ft. 7 ins. × 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.] [illustration: square mahogany flap table. _c._ 1730. height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1 in. round cross stretcher. rare form.] [illustration: tripod table. _c._ 1760. chippendale style, probably unique. elaborate rococo work. (_in the collection of harold bendixon, esq._)] in the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of passing away. the two examples illustrated (p. 173) clearly indicate this. the upper one, of the time of queen anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine proportion under due subjection, and is a delicate example of fine cabinet-work. the lower one sees the leg losing its cabriole curve, but still rounded and still possessing the club foot. even more interesting are the two tables illustrated (p. 177). the country maker was slow to adopt the cabriole leg when it was fashionable, but when it became unfashionable he was equally loth to depart from his accustomed style. these clearly point to the transition between the cabriole leg and the straight leg of chippendale, and are about 1760 in date. the forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century date are extremely varied in character, denoting the rapidly changing habits of the people. the queen anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for cups, marks the note of preciosity creeping into country life. a revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in date, is another rare piece. the adjacent table (p. 181) is country chippendale. the exaggerated knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the failure of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate though he might be in straight joinery. the "cupid's bow" underframing is interesting in combination with the rest of the design. the tripod table offered difficulties of construction and is not often found. the example illustrated is probably unique in form. in date it is about 1760, and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate rococo work. sometimes, though not often, mahogany was used in farmhouse examples. the table illustrated (p. 183) is an instance of the use of this wood instead of oak. it is about 1730 in date, and exhibits an unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of originality by the maker. it is, as will be seen, a square-topped table with flaps. elaboration of a high order was happily not often attempted by the country workman, or the results with his limited experience would have been disastrous. instead of a fine series of really good, solid, and well-constructed furniture made for practical use we should have had a wilderness of failures at attempting the impossible. a copy of a fine chippendale side-table illustrated (p. 187) is a case in point. there is the usual want of balance in the poise of the leg, but the carving is of exceptional character. the table beneath, with its long and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the adam style. the beaded decoration on the legs, the classic fluting and the carved rosette claim distant relationship with the classic inventions of robert adam. the wood is pinewood, and as an example it is of singular interest. the rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences bearing on the class of furniture of which this volume treats will perhaps induce the collector to scrutinise more carefully all pieces coming under his notice, with a view to arriving at their salient features in connection with the native design of more or less untutored craftsmen. [illustration: elaborate table. country attempt to imitate fine chippendale side table. note the want of balance in leg.] [illustration: pinewood country-made adam table. note the unusually long leg.] chapter vii the evolution of the chair [illustration: oak arm-chair. date _c._ 1675. with elaborate scroll back.] [illustration: oak arm-chair. date 1650. with scratched lozenge.] [illustration: chestnut arm-chair. date 1690.] [illustration: oak arm-chair. date 1690.] (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._) chapter vii the evolution of the chair early days--the typical jacobean oak chair--the evolution of the stretcher--the chair-back and its development--transition between jacobean and william and mary forms--farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--the queen anne splat--country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton--the grandfather chair--ladder-back types--the spindle-back chair--corner chairs. in order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of the chair from its earliest forms to the latest developments in sumptuous upholstery, it would be necessary to make an extended survey of furniture, dating back to early classic days. to enumerate the manifold varieties belonging to various countries and to trace the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with the advance in civilisation, would be of sufficient interest to occupy a whole volume. man, as a sitting or lounging animal, has grown to require more elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the modern tendency has been towards comfort and luxury. in regard to english furniture the intense contrast between the days of elizabeth and those of victoria is at once noticeable. according to lord macaulay in his comparison between the manners of his day and those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class dwelling-house of the nineteenth century was equal to that of a rich merchant in the time of elizabeth. in general this may be true, though not as regards the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of the tudor house. in many details the differences are most noteworthy. the wide gulf dividing the modern world from the days of the armada may be realised by reflecting on such an astounding fact that queen elizabeth possessed at one time the only pair of silk stockings in her realm, which were presented to her by mistress montague, "which pleased her so well that she would never wear any cloth hose afterwards." the sturdy character of the yeomen of the days of the tudors is exhibited in their furniture. the illustrations of this chapter in regard to the chair and its structural development indicate the slowly acquired tastes, running some decades behind the fashionable furniture, strong with foreign influences, which had come into more or less general use. "england no longer sent her fleeces to be woven in flanders and to be dyed in florence. the spinning of yarn, the weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was spreading rapidly from the towns to the country-side. the worsted trade, of which norwich was the centre, extended over the whole of the eastern counties. farmers' wives everywhere began to spin their wool from their own sheep's backs into a coarse homespun." the rough and wattled farmhouses were being replaced by dwellings of brick and stone. the disuse of salt fish and the greater consumption of meat marked the improvement which was taking place among the countryfolk. the wooden trenchers in the farmhouses were supplanted by pewter, and there were yeomen who could boast of their silver. carpets in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched flooring of rushes. even pillows, now in common usage, were articles of luxury in the sixteenth century. the farmer and the trader deemed them as only fit "for women in child-bed." the chimney-corner came into usage in elizabethan days with the general use of chimneys. the mediæval fortress had given place to the grandeur of the elizabethan hall in the houses of the wealthy merchants. the rise of the middle classes brought with it in its wake the corresponding advance of the yeomen and their dependents. visions of the new world "threw a haze of prodigality and profusion over the imagination of the meanest seaman." =early days.=--of farmhouse types that can authoritatively be attributed to tudor days there are few, but the succeeding age of the stuarts is rich with examples of undoubted authenticity. many of them are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance to each other, owing to the narrow range of _motifs_ in the carved panels. there is a fixed insularity in these early examples, and the same traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional lozenge design retained their hold for many generations. the oak arm-chair of a farmhouse kitchen made in the days of charles i. was still followed in close detail in the days of george iii., as dated examples testify, and it would puzzle an expert, without the date to guide him, to say whether the piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century work. it may be added that as a general rule there is a marked leaning towards generosity in imparting age to old furniture. it is now very generally recognised that, like wine, it gains prestige with length of years. it therefore grows in antiquity according to the fancy of the owner or the imagination of the collector. among the early forms of chairs falling under the category of farmhouse furniture may be noticed examples of rough and massive build, eminently fit to serve the purpose for which they were designed. ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand as rude monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in fashioning them and following tradition to suit his client's tastes. in regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be said to be any type falling under the heading of cottage or farmhouse chairs. we have already illustrated (p. 35) an early form of elizabethan days, but such examples are rare. practically cottagers had only stools in common use. it was not until about 1650 that a simplified form of the well-known variety of the chairs of the jacobean oak period came into general use. [illustration: yorkshire chair. date 1660. late example, with ball turning in stretcher.] [illustration: cromwellian chairs. date 1660. with indication of transition to charles ii. period. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the typical jacobean oak chair.=--the seventeenth century offers a wide field of selection, and many examples exist which undoubtedly were in use in farmhouses at that period. the arm-chair illustrated p. 191, with the initials "w.i a.", is evidently made for the farmhouse. it is noticeable for its complete absence of ornamental carving except a thinly scratched lozenge. in date this is from 1650 to 1700, and if made for a wealthier person at that date it would be richly carved. the adjacent chair shows the next advance in type. it is a superior farmhouse chair of the period. it has a carved top with scroll cresting. the holes in the seat, it should be observed, originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was supported. the wooden seat is an addition made in the eighteenth century. the two other chairs illustrated on the same page are later examples, in date about 1690. one of these is fashioned of chestnut. the form of these backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane chairs of the time of charles ii. and james ii. but these fashions influenced the proportions only of farmhouse chairs. in arriving at the date of such specimens as these the bevelled panel is an important factor in determining the late period. cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse in early days, although ropes were sometimes used to support cushions, as we have shown. but as a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its worn surface marked by generations of owners who found it protective against the cold flagged or rush-strewn floor and the draughts in days prior to carpets and rugs. =the evolution of the stretcher.=--in making a study of the evolution of the chair the stretcher is an important factor. for obvious reasons, as explained above, no early chairs were made without the stretcher across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of british oak to stand rough wear and tear. gradually, keeping time with the march of comfort, the front stretcher begins to leave its old position near the floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the front legs. it still had a use, and a very important one: it added considerable strength and solidity to the chair, and is nearly always found in chairs intended for use. in the series illustrated herein there are only few examples without the front stretcher. later it took another form, as the illustrated specimens in this chapter show: it united the two side stretchers, and crossed the chair underneath in the centre at right angles to the side stretchers. its purpose in adding stability to this class of furniture was evidently never lost sight of. at first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid foot-rest; later, when partly utilitarian in adding to the strength, it became suitable for ornamentation, although in the class of furniture here under review such ornament never took an elaborate form, there are examples slightly differing in character from chairs intended for the use of the wealthier classes, and these are evidently a local effort to keep in touch with prevailing taste. [illustration: oak settle. with back panel under seat made from older oak chest. date 1675.] [illustration: oak arm chair. date 1675. with bevelled panels.] [illustration: oak arm chair. date 1777. with initials a.s. c.b.] finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate tables, are a feature of a certain class of local chairs, such as those illustrated on p. 197. this kind of chair without arms is rather more decorated and conforms more to the styles of furniture made for higher spheres than the farmhouse. the upper chair with its light open back and ornate decoration is a yorkshire type, and the ball turning in the stretcher shows the transition period to charles ii. the other two are cromwellian chairs, but showing indications of the next period. in date they are all three about 1660. =the chair-back and its development.=--another point in connection with the ordered progress of the chair-maker is the gradual development of the back of the chair. at first it was straight upright, and no attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back of the sitter. types such as the arm-chair with square panel (p. 191) and the upright settle with the five panels illustrated on p. 201 indicate this feature of discomfort. the next stage is a slight inclination in the back, still possessing a flat panel. this angle, while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was an attempt to offer greater comfort than before. this style, in a hundred forms, with the minimum of inclination in the back, continued for a very considerable period. it is found in the nearly straight-backed chairs of derbyshire and yorkshire origin, with the turned stretchers, and it actually in later days became almost upright in the series of chairs following the later stuart types with cane back and cane seat, noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance to the _prie-dieu_ chair of continental usage. the settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the settle made for use by fashionable folk with delicately panelled back. very often, in cottage furniture, chests and other pieces are broken up to make into smaller furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a later design. often it is found that the underframing of an old gate table made in the seventeenth or eighteenth century is from an earlier chest. in the present instance it will be seen that the back panels of the settle have been made from an older chest, which bears the inscribed initials, still visible, "i.e." in date this settle is about 1675, and is contemporary with the square-backed chair illustrated on the same page. here the panel in back projects, that is, it is slightly bevelled forward. the bevelling of the panel is always a sign that a chair is later in date than the year 1670. illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair having the initials "a.s.c.b." and the date 1777 carved on it. it is a striking instance of the adherence to old time-honoured form by the local cabinet-maker, with touches that, even although the date were not present, would tell their own story. this dull wood proclaims a message in accents no less sure than the sturdy yeoman's to lady clara vere de vere, and as a chair in date _anno domini_ 1777 may afford to "smile at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious and fashionable furniture. it is like a rich vein of dialect running in some old country song ripe with phrase of saxon days. it seems incredible that this survival of early-jacobean days should have been put together by a village craftsman true to convention and exact in seat and arms and stretcher. but it was not done unthinkingly. here is a chair, astounding to note, made when sheraton was creating his new styles to supplant chippendale, and when hepplewhite stood between the two masters as a _via media_. and the back of this village chair has two distinct features translated from hepplewhite's school--the wheatear crest and the panel with its broken corner! [illustration: oak chairs. date about 1680. showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs then being fashioned in walnut. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =transition between jacobean and william and mary forms.=--the rapid growth of the finer specimens of furniture made in walnut brought a new note into the farmhouse variety. the elegance and grace of the newer styles were at once evident. in the same manner as the grandiose splendour of elizabethan woodcarving was succeeded by a less massive style in oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in farmhouse examples, so in turn jacobean lost favour. walnut lent itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and greater delicacy claimed the popular favour of fashionable folk. the cane seat and the cane back at once indicate this new taste. the use of cushions became general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a feature in the later years of the seventeenth century. oak still remained the favourite wood of the country craftsman, in spite of its more refractory qualities. but when the walnut styles became so firmly established that clients demanded furniture in this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found pliable enough to conform to the more slender touches and the finer turning considered desirable. walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany, and it will be shown later how farmhouse furniture followed the dictates of fashion in days when the outburst of splendid design by chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser known men, spread far and wide new principles in the art of furniture-making and brought country furniture another stage in its evolution. farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique and design of the walnut age. the love for the native oak was so pronounced that country makers did not desert this wood and essayed to produce effects by its employment that were exceedingly difficult and oftentimes unsuccessful. the three chairs illustrated p. 205 show this transition style, about the year 1680, struggling with technical difficulties and affording a fine series of points in the evolution of design. =farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair.=--farmhouse furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work in the back or in the seat. but the craftsman, while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back in adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his inability to work in cane by substituting thin vertical splats to give the necessary effect of transparency. the three chairs illustrated show each in varying degree the quaint compromise made between the technique of oak and the technique of walnut, and the attempt to reproduce the walnut designs. the arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the older jacobean chair in its turned legs and uprights, but these have assumed a more slender proportion. the front stretcher is in the newer manner. the sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. there should be no difficulty for the amateur correctly to assign a date to such a piece. the process of reasoning would be somewhat as follows:--the lower half of the chair is jacobean, but the front stretcher suggests the charles ii. period, borne out by the open back, which removes it from the cromwellian period, and the details of the top rail with its curved top indicate that the country maker had seen the tall straight-back chairs of the william and mary period with the cane-work panel. [illustration: oak chairs. with cresting rail, of charles ii. period, retained and perforated arch centre peculiar to walnut designs. with elaboration in turned legs, and uprights, of william and mary period retained, and having queen anne splat of 1710. with sunk seat for squab cushion, turned uprights and legs and curious back, showing transition from lath back to splat back.] the middle chair more closely approaches the upright chair of the charles ii. period. there is a straight top-rail, supplemented by a lunette, giving the top a character of its own. this specimen is exceptionally interesting. the right-hand chair in its seat and legs is pronouncedly jacobean. but the back with the three splats and the coarsely carved top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman following in oak the more graceful curves of the worker in walnut of the days of charles ii. it will be seen that these three chairs, each in varying manner, evade the difficulties of the light cane-back by the substitution of thin rails, and, as will be seen from the illustration of three other chairs (p. 209), the next stage of walnut design with fiddle-shaped splat offered equal problems to the makers of cottage furniture. sometimes they eliminated the splat altogether, while adopting other points of design found in chairs with the queen anne splat of 1710. in every case the fondness for old established styles is exhibited in the fact that the country cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these and appears too conservative or too timid to break wholly away from tradition. in consequence, his work, with patches of newer design welded on to the old, is quaintly incongruous. there is thus an absence of "thinking out" the design as a whole. the minor maker thought out the parts as he went along. some of his results are extraordinary in their characteristics: they resemble that freak of fashion termed "harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one pattern and the saucers of another. bearing in mind these unfailing proclivities of the maker of cottage and farmhouse furniture, the collector should not find it difficult to recognise the country hand at once. now and again one is struck with the extraordinary ingenuity of some of the work, or one is charmed with the faithfulness with which designs have been translated from the golden bowl to the silver, or, to be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm and beech. but one is never amazed at the delicacy of proportion, the balanced symmetry, or the fertility of invention--these attributes belong to cabinet-makers on a higher plane. of three chairs illustrated on p. 209, that on the left in the legs and seat shows the moribund jacobean style. the stretcher indicates the oncoming of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting rail is of the charles ii. period. its retention is curious, and the perforated arched centre is peculiar to designs found in walnut; its use in oak by the maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too hard a wood to employ for such a design. [illustration: queen anne chair. entirely oak form except back and splat.] [illustration: queen anne chair. in oak, with strong inclinations towards walnut styles.] illustration: queen anne chair. walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.] [illustration: queen anne arm-chair. with shaped front, walnut design executed in oak. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: country chippendale chair, style merging into hepplewhite. less pronounced cupid's bow top.] [illustration: two chairs country hepplewhite style made entirely in oak. left-hand chair with prince of wales's feathers.] [illustration: types of cottage chairs in oak. having features of the three styles--queen anne, chippendale, and sheraton. two chairs queen anne style. chair country chippendale style.] the middle chair shows an equal admixture of styles. the elaboration in the turned legs and uprights belongs to the william and mary period and the splat is the queen anne fiddle pattern of 1710. the seat begins to show another form in having the middle sunk for the use of a squab cushion. the right-hand chair parts with the underframing below the seat, which gives a touch of lightness to the construction. the turned legs and uprights have departed from the coarse early-jacobean style and perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their character. the back shows the transition from the lath back (such as in the chairs simulating the cane-work) to the splat back. it is an interesting and rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new forms by isolated makers. this specimen came from ireland and evidently possesses native touches of originality which defy the connoisseur to determine its exact date. =the queen anne splat.=--the fiddle-shaped splat of 1710 marks a turning-point in the construction of the chair. the walnut chairs with caned backs of the time of james ii. and the early days of william iii. were carved richly, and sometimes there was a splat dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in caned-back examples, is curved and plain. the general tendency in the reigns of william and mary, especially towards the close of the period, was one of economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear. the queen anne smooth splat of fiddle form rapidly became popular. this anglo-dutch style became acclimatised here, and is characteristic of the homely examples of the queen anne period. in walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out carving. in oak such elaboration was well-nigh impossible. it was therefore natural that in the farmhouse examples the plain dutch splat would readily find favour as more easily executed. by the time that the fiddle splat had become popular the stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to disappear. the splat plays an important part as indicating sharp variations in design--walnut with open carving, intricate and floriated; walnut with the plain fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in oak; mahogany, with the advent of chippendale, with the splat again open, carved with graceful ribbon-work. the arm-chair illustrated p. 213 is a remarkable instance of intermingling of styles. the front legs are in jacobean style, and are continued in the same manner as the usual type of oak chair as supports for the arms, but an original touch and naïve departure is in the curve given to this upright from the seat upwards. the seat is shaped like that of the windsor chair. the arms are somewhat stiff for the back with its cupid's-bow design, which has a sprightliness and grace making it a thing apart. the whole is not unpleasing. it is a remarkable instance of the attempted assimilation of several diverse styles by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas of his own. the oak form is rigidly retained in all except the back and splat of queen anne days. [illustration: country-made oak settee with double back in chippendale style. the shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse varieties.] [illustration: country-made oak settee in chinese chippendale style. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] the adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved splat and its cabriole legs, marks the transition between william and mary and queen anne. the top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of the immature country cabinet-maker. it is an attempt to approach a fine model with insufficiency of skill by the maker. the use of the cabriole leg either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman. the delicacy of balance required in order to preserve the harmony of the whole has proved too subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the practised eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim their origin. the broad splat and the straight square front and the bold cabriole leg of the queen anne type in walnut were often copied in oak. the example of the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated p. 213, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has faithfully copied detail for detail from some fine original in walnut. his is in oak for more strenuous usage. the adjacent arm-chair is of the queen anne style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found in such pieces. the maker here has not been so successful in catching the bold lines of his original. there is a sense of something lacking in the curves of the back. the touches of his own that he has added in the arms, reverting to an earlier jacobean type, reveal the unpractised hand. =country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton.=--a word in passing may be said in regard to the unique character of furniture of these types. it is obvious that factory-made furniture turned out by the hundred pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits or demerits of design or workmanship. it is this personal note, the love of a craftsman in his creation, that appeals to the collector, whether it be of persian rugs or of old brass candlesticks. it is absent in art produced in a wholesale manner. blunderingly as the village craftsmen went to work, they often stumbled into great things, and they always produced original results. prior to the publication of the design-books of the great eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making, the furniture of certain localities began to assume a character of its own, the result of long tradition, and designs such as the dragon found in welsh carving became established. the term "unique" is peculiarly appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for rarely are two pieces found to be exactly alike. not only did different makers add novel features, but the same craftsman apparently did not repeat himself. the permutations of form governing furniture are illimitable, associated as they are with so many details of construction. to take the chair--the leg, its shape, and the design of its turning; the style and character of the work on the stretcher; the form of the seat; the decoration and formation of the front; the back, its length, and the variety of splats and panels; and the top rail with its variations--these are only the salient features in which differences appear. such modifications of design and piquant touches of personal character appeal to the collector, who loves the foibles and fanciful moods of the native craftsman, be he ever so humble. chippendale published his "director" in 1754, and it became a working guide to all ambitious craftsmen. ince and mayhew, cabinet-makers of broad street, golden square, had issued "household furniture" in 1748, and hepplewhite & co. followed later with the "cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of ornament were related to the chaster classic models, and in 1794 came sheraton with his "drawing book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. a rough generalisation shows the chippendale school holding sway from 1730 to 1780, the hepplewhite school from 1775 to 1795, and the sheraton school from 1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of the brothers adam in their classic revival. what had previously been tradition came very speedily into line with current modes. fashion, as we have shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon village ideals. but the output of these great illustrated volumes, with working drawings, undoubtedly had a wide-reaching influence. the last quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense outburst of interest in the arts of interior decoration. a great amount of finely designed and beautifully executed furniture belongs to those days, and the echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and in satinwood is seen in the farmhouse and cottage furniture, which came singularly close upon the heels of fashion. chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is being largely collected. we illustrate a sufficient number of types to show that this class of design known as "cottage chippendale," has peculiar charms of its own. the arm-chair illustrated p. 225 is in elm, and is in the style chippendale employed in his rich mahogany creations in 1760. the fine interlaced carving of the back is graceful and well proportioned. the adjacent chair, in elm, still follows the chippendale style. the seat is rush, and the maker has confined himself to his own limitations and avoided in the splat the too intricate work of more sumptuous models. he has arrived at a very finely balanced result. the heart cut out of the splat is frequently found in cottage examples, suggesting that some of the more ornate examples may have been made as wedding presents for young couples just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the village cabinet-maker himself had thoughts in that direction, and such work was destined to equip his own home. the illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain wooden seat, has a somewhat intricate ribbon-like pattern terminating in the prince of wales's feathers. the heart is present in the design at the base of the splat, cut out in fretwork. the arm-chair on the right, with its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an instance representing the adaptations of sheraton styles in the provinces. another page of chairs in oak (p. 215) shows the influences at work in moulding the character of the styles of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century farmhouse furniture. of the three chairs at top of p. 215, the left-hand one is in chippendale style merging into hepplewhite. the cupid's bow at the top rail has become less pronounced. the other two chairs on right are typically hepplewhite in character. the prince of wales's feathers, so often associated with hepplewhite's own work, are embodied in the splat of one. [illustration: elm chair. country chippendale style. 1760.] [illustration: elm chair, country chippendale style.] [illustration: beech chair. country chippendale style.] [illustration: oak chair, country chippendale style. with dropped seat.] in the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the chippendale type. the other two chairs have features of three styles--the queen anne, the chippendale, and the sheraton. it is this piquancy and incongruous combination of styles adjacent to each other in point of time, but having little other relationship, which make the provincialisms of the cabinet-maker of exceptional interest. at times more ambitious attempts were made in oak, following the lines of the chippendale style in mahogany. these have pronounced features always recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety of furniture. two examples are illustrated, p. 219. the upper example of country-made oak settee, with double back, at once indicates that it is provincial by the shaped underframing, which is never found in other classes of furniture. the lower example of farmhouse oak settee is clearly in chippendale's chinese style. a reference to the "gentleman and cabinet maker's directory," published by thomas chippendale in 1754, shows that this chinese style adopted by the local maker is very far removed from the series of delicate fretwork designs illustrated by chippendale in his volume. it is true that the old designer of st. martin's lane sent forth his work with the sub-title stating that it was "calculated to improve and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances of persons in all degrees of life." the great master cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far and wide, evidently had in mind the formation of a new style. he builded better than he knew. the importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated. it was subscribed for in yorkshire, in devon, in westmorland, and in ireland, and straightway minor men looked upon these delightful inventions and began to follow to the best of their ability the ideals set forth by chippendale the dreamer. that he was an idealist in this book of designs is naïvely explained in his preface: "i frankly confess that in the executing many of the drawings my pencil has but faintly copied out those images that my fancy suggested, and had they not been published till i could have pronounced them perfect, perhaps they had never seen the light." but chippendale was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a designer. he has a lingering doubt that after all, perhaps, the country cabinet-maker and those who bought the book for use might not be able to carry out his designs. evidently this had struck others too. perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a design-book mere fanciful work that was too far above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. he meets this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon honour, with which he winds up his preface, which is a pretty piece of eighteenth-century advertising:-"upon the whole, i have given no design but what may be executed with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman, though some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them (especially those after the gothic and chinese manner) as so many specious drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanic whatsoever. i will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance, and inability, and i am confident i can convince all noblemen, gentlemen, or others, who will honour me with their commands, that every design in the book can be improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the execution of it, by--their most obedient servant, thomas chippendale." enough has been said to prove that "country chippendale" is not a misnomer. it is equally true that the hepplewhite style was disseminated in like fashion in the provinces. it must be remembered that these trade catalogues, as they really were, brought out somewhat in rivalry with each other by the great london designers and cabinet-makers, were the only literature the country makers had to indicate town fashions. these volumes therefore served a double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and in stimulating the art of the country designer. that they were in part intended to be educational is shown by the preface to the "cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide," published by a. hepplewhite & co., cabinet-makers. we quote from the preface of the third edition, "improved," 1794. the preface opens with a lament that owing to "the mutability of all things, but more especially of fashions," foreigners who seek a knowledge of english taste and workmanship may be misled by the "labours of our predecessors in this line of little use." "the same reason in favour of this work will apply also to many of our own countrymen and artisans, whose distance from the metropolis makes even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements acquired with much trouble and expense." "in this instance we hope for reward; and though we lay no claim to extraordinary merit in our designs, we flatter ourselves they will be found serviceable to young workmen in general, and occasionally to more experienced ones." in view, therefore, of the books of design we have enumerated, it is obvious that the country designer had a new field open to him, and now and again he made ample use of his opportunities. during the last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite an outburst of literature on furniture, much of it forgotten and much of it waiting to be disinterred by patient research; and with the dissemination of these fine designs some of the most perfect examples of country-made furniture began to exhibit touches of skill of the practised hand. =the grandfather chair.=--from the illustration given on p. 231 it will be seen that the type known as the "grandfather" has a humble lineage. it will be found with the same wings and curved arms and plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook of the farmhouse. the specimen we illustrate does duty as a bacon-cupboard as well as a chair. usually such pieces have the cupboard opening at the back, but in this instance the cupboard opens in front. [illustration: country grandfather chair.] [illustration: arm-chair and bacon-cupboard. opens at foot. this type usually opens at back.] as early as the opening years of the eighteenth century there were upholstered chairs of a somewhat similar type to the so-called "grandfather" with scrolled arms or wings. the example we illustrate is representative of those which may be met with in the country farmhouse. =ladder-back types.=--the ladder-back chair belongs to the northern half of england, and similarly the spindle-back chair is found in the same locality. the windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly confined to the southern half of the country. these are points which become noticeable after years of systematised research, and although nowadays these three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat scattered, their real home and place of origin is as indicated. another feature of interest is that both ladder-back and spindle-back varieties, with but slight differences, are found on the continent. it will be observed that this class of chair has a rush seat. this feature it has in common with the spindle-back chair. the rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. it comes with an air of _naïveté_ and rustic simplicity. one recalls the long lines of green rushes by the river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and moorhen with their punt, and adding another human touch to the lonely angler. they are pursuing a calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found occupation for generations of men plying curious trades, of which the plaiting of osiers into baskets and the thatching of cottage roofs may be numbered among the decaying industries. indeed, this latter art and the making of birch and heath brooms may be almost said to be extinct. a good artisan who can thatch in the old artistic style is much sought after. of course ricks have still to be thatched, but the picturesque skill of masters of this old-world craft is absent, and corrugated iron sheets have found favour in lieu of the old style. the ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes, decorated with horizontal supports, ladder fashion. these are capable of the most pleasing variation. the perfection of form of this type is seen in the arm-chair illustrated p. 237. the well-balanced proportion of the ladder rails is a test as to the excellence of the design. they are not meaningless ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create a new style. the two examples illustrated on page 235 show other types of the ladder-back chair. the left-hand one shows the later stages in the development of the design, and its top rail is of the sheraton period. the right-hand one, with arms, is composite in its character, and is in date about 1820, and exhibits a touch of the sheraton slenderness of style in the splats and the round turning of arms. both examples show the quaint survival of the queen anne foot. the ladder-back form survived the eighteenth century and lasted down to within fifty years ago, when it became merged into that of the windsor chair. [illustration: ladder-back type of chair. showing empire influence in curved back. dated 1820-1830.] [illustration: spindle-back nursing chair with rocker. three rows of spindles.] [illustration: spindle-back chair. two rows of spindles.] [illustration: ladder-back chairs with rush seat. both chairs showing quaint survival of the queen anne feet. late eighteenth century, with top rail in sheraton style. later form of splat with turned ends. dated 1820.] [illustration: country barber's chair.] [illustration: ladder-back chair. perfect specimen in regard to style.] [illustration: oak corner chair.] [illustration: ladder-back form of corner chair with rush seat. probably lancashire. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the spindle-back chair.=--the spindle-back chair is of long lineage. as early as the reign of charles i. this type was known. there is still treasured in america the chair of governor carver, with simple turning in legs and back, which practically consisted of upright posts rounded and having slight ornament. the back was set with "spindles." the older types of these chairs had thick upright posts, the back and back legs being two posts and the front legs, continued upward beyond the seat, forming supports for the arms. these posts are often six or seven inches in circumference, and belong to early-jacobean days. the type found its way to america in puritan days and has continued to be a favourite. hickory wood was used for american specimens, and considerable attention has been paid to this form of chair and its varieties, the differing heights of the posts and the number of the spindles and their character, by american collectors. in england examples are not easily found of early date. the examples illustrated (p. 235), a nursing chair on rockers and an ordinary spindle-back chair, are of eighteenth-century days, and are sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but these two represent the style when it had become of more general use. practically it was not until the eighteenth century that such types were commonly used in cottages and farmhouses. these turned chairs, turned in every portion but the rush seat, lend themselves to the above-mentioned two styles of treatment. their upright posts forming the open back can be treated with vertical splats divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the ladder form, receive horizontal splats. the complete simplicity of this attitude towards the back absolved the homely cabinet-maker from dangerous experiments. avoiding curved backs, he had not to face the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat. altogether it was a very satisfactory solution, and in practice resulted in the production of a wide range of chairs, differing in slight details but well within the range of the local workman's art. the unassuming simplicity of this class of chair made its appeal to madox-brown, who held that simplicity and utility were the two desiderata, united with soundness of construction, for domestic furniture. veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine lovers of the artistic. "let us be honest, let us be genuine in furniture as in aught else," were his words. "if we must needs make our chairs and tables of cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany or rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is; it will not lack dignity if it be good of its kind and well made." accordingly he put his theories into practice and designed some furniture. in a chair in the possession of mr. harold rathbone he has employed the rush seat and used spindles to decorate the back, and in another chair in the same collection he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style, coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect. =corner chairs.=--among interesting types of chairs often with lingering traces of the jacobean style and additional features of splats that may be regarded as standing on the threshold of the chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class alone. the illustrations on p. 237 show some typical examples. the chair with the double tier is the oak adaptation of chippendale with the retention of the old jacobean form of support for the arm. these chairs with this added tier are often used as country barber's chairs. the rush-seated corner chair on the same page, probably made in lancashire, is suggestive of the ladder-back form, and there are indications in its construction that it is subsequent to the hepplewhite period. with these notes relative to the evolution of the chair, and with carefully selected illustrations of types likely to be of use to the collector, enough has been said to whet the curiosity of the reader to study the matter for himself. it requires keen and discriminating judgment to allocate specimens with passing exactitude as to time and place. the taste for the subject must be natural and not acquired. training alone will give the eye the readiness to detect false touches and modern additions. the search for bargains goes on apace, and those who enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces. to those with endless patience, forbearing under disappointment, and having plenty of leisure, the search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote mrs. battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game." chapter viii the windsor chair chapter viii the windsor chair early types--the stick legs without stretcher--the tavern chair--eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--the rail-back variety--chippendale style windsor chairs--the survival of the windsor chair. the windsor chair in its early form is coincident with the early years of the eighteenth century. its history and development therefore exhibit traces of the various styles in furniture which ran their courses throughout the century. it is essentially a chair which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it is bound up with the country farmhouse, the country inn, or in the metropolis with the chocolate-houses and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in the eighteenth century. there is more than a strong suggestion that the type originated in the country. the first forms have a similarity to the easily made three-legged stools. the seat is one piece of wood into which holes are bored to admit the legs. the origin of the term "windsor chair," according to a story largely current in america, is that george iii., the farmer king, saw a chair of this design in a humble cottage near windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered some to be made for the royal use. the chair had a singular vogue in america, and it is stated that george washington had a row of windsor chairs at his house at mount vernon, and jefferson sat in a windsor chair when he signed the declaration of independence in 1776. =the stick legs without stretcher.=--obviously this is the earliest type, and the illustrations of these primitive forms (p. 247) show the simplicity of the joinery. the chair on the left with its almost straight top rail suggests a probable date. it was not till 1768 that chippendale made the first straight top rail in english furniture. the seat is of the saddle-form. the spindles at the back in the lower row taper at each end. it will be observed in all the types we illustrate in this chapter that the arms extend in one piece around the chair. nor has every example the saddle seat. on the same page is illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having the stick legs set at an angle towards the centre of the chair. whatever interest attaches to this early type, from a collecting point of view, they cannot compare in beauty with the finer varieties of a later period, with cabriole leg and with pierced splat, displaying a pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no two of which are always quite alike. [illustration: windsor chairs. earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the tavern chair.=--it was dr. johnson who declared that a tavern chair was the throne of human felicity. undoubtedly the eighteenth century found the need of a comfortable chair for club meetings at taverns and alehouses. the country inn to-day has its windsor chairs, many of them of great age. nor were chairs of this type always with arms. there are many plainer chairs without arms and having what is termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often than not across this back there is a rail put transversely to strengthen it. many of these chairs were made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. they employed any wood that happened to be in their workshop at the time; in consequence the variety of woods in which these chairs are found is great. sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and the arms are fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree. the curved horseshoe rails and back are more often than not constructed from the ash. =eighteenth century pleasure gardens.=--there is no doubt that we owe the considerable output of windsor chairs in the middle of the eighteenth century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts of london and other great towns. these semi-rural resorts began to be in great demand as a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers. the nobility and persons of fashion had bath and tunbridge wells to fly to for country air and open-air recreation. the citizen and mechanic, the society beau, and the politician, crowded to ranelagh gardens, to vauxhall, to sadler's wells, and to hampstead, to enjoy sunny afternoons and summer evenings in the open air, or to spend sundays. it was the eighteenth-century diversion similar to the nineteenth-century crystal palace and the twentieth-century earl's court. to quote mr. percy macquoid in his lordly work on english furniture, "so great were the numbers of visitors to these places that attention was called to their increase in one of the contemporary weekly journals, where a calculation was made that on sundays alone two hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens situated on the northern side of london; and as half-a-crown per head was probably the least sum expended by them, it can be no exaggeration to state that £20,000 on a fine sunday was taken at these places of amusement. many cheap chairs must have been required at such places of entertainment." between the year 1760 and the end of the century the windsor chair was being made for general country use. "the backs and arms of these," continues mr. macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew, held together by a number of slender uprights and a perforated splat of the same tough and pliant wood; the seats were generally invariably of elm, as yew cut into a superficies of any size is liable to split; the legs and stretchers were generally of yew." [illustration: oliver goldsmith's chair. wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high back. bequeathed by oliver goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, dr. hawes. (_bethnal green museum._)] =the rail-back variety.=--we have alluded to the use of the rail placed across the back from the top rail to the seat, crossing the uprights. it is not an elegant device, but it was used as a means of strengthening the back. it seems almost unnecessary, although possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough usage. later, when the fiddle splat began to be employed, this transverse rail--sometimes there were two used--was discontinued. an historic example of the chair with transverse rails is that which was once in the possession of oliver goldsmith. there is no doubt about the authenticity of this, as it was bequeathed by the poet to his medical attendant, dr. hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of the royal humane society. goldsmith told his farmer friends at his cottage at edgware that he should never in future spend more than two months a year in london, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was negotiating the sale of the lease of his temple chambers. this chair (illustrated p. 251) has a rather small shaped seat, curved arms, a top rail that is of exceptional interest considering the date, which is, say, from 1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. this was at the commencement of the hepplewhite period, which lasted till 1790. the year 1768 was, as we have already said, the date at which chairs with straight top rails, designed by adam and executed by chippendale, were first made. the turned legs are interesting, showing the hoofed foot, and the turned stretcher retains an earlier form. the chair is of soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. it is preserved at the bethnal green museum, with the distinctive label on the stand: "oliver goldsmith's chair." =the splat back and the cabriole leg.=--it is here that the windsor chair assumes a character essentially charming and attracts the admiration of connoisseurs of styles that are peculiarly english. the splat back is a feature only found in english varieties of the windsor chair. in america a great deal of attention has been paid to old types, and there the pliant hickory wood is used in the making of chairs of this form; but the splat back is never used in america, and when found by collectors there the piece is attributed to english manufacture. the splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date of the chair. from 1740 to 1770 the form with cabriole legs and with finely ornamented fiddle splat was at its best. we illustrate a sufficient number of specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well balanced these chairs had become. in contemplating pieces remarkable for the highest style, it must be admitted that their artistry and their simple unaffected sense of comfort do make a direct appeal to those who are willing to recognise fine qualities in minor furniture. the two chairs illustrated (p. 255) differ slightly in details of construction. that on the left has the plain urn splat, a survival of the queen anne type. the seat is finely shaped and the legs are cabriole form. the top rail is almost straight, and is ornamented at the two ends with turned discs. the three stretchers are turned, and in the adjacent chair the stretchers are similar, save in a slight variation in the pattern of the turning. but here the splat is perforated with an intricate design suggestive of the lines of chippendale; the top rail is a departure in form, imparting a distinctiveness which lifts the chair from the ordinary type. [illustration: windsor chair. with plain fiddle splat of queen anne type, chippendale top rail and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.] [illustration: windsor chair. with pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: chippendale windsor chairs. chippendale splats. the type of splat indicates the date of windsor chairs.] [illustration: hepplewhite windsor chair. exceptionally fine legs back and front. urn back. probably welsh carving.] [illustration: hepplewhite period windsor chair. with wheel back, in yew. (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] =chippendale style windsor chairs.=--the page of chairs (p. 257) tells its own story. the beautiful sweep of the curved back is always a sign of the old and true form. later imitations or replicas seem somehow to lose this effect. it has been suggested that the back of this style was produced by the village wheelwright in horseshoe form, but possibly that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than real. it has also--collectors are often fond of inventing theories to fit little-known facts--been asserted that the wheel-back variety, which is of somewhat more modern growth, is due to the same origin. this wheel is fretted with six triangular openings. one chair on this page has the wheel unperforated. in the examination of the details of the four examples there is nothing of great importance to differentiate them from each other in construction. the two at the top are suggestive of chippendale in the ornament employed in the splat. the lower two incline more to the slightly later hepplewhite period. of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright rails at the lower portion and six in the upper portion of the back, in comparison with sixteen and eight in the other chairs. the legs of this chair are exceptionally fine both back and front. the work in the splat is slightly suggestive of welsh carving, especially that style associated with welsh love-spoons. following the influence of chippendale and hepplewhite came the style of sheraton, which after 1790 began to affect the character of some forms of minor furniture. that this was a very real factor is often shown most unexpectedly in cottage and farmhouse pieces. the satinwood and the painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties of his employment of colour, were of course too far removed from the simple cabinet-work of the country maker to have the least effect upon him, even if he ever saw them. but the slenderness and elegance of the sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces. so that it is quite within reasonable surmise to attribute certain forms to the sheraton school, or rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century mannerisms. on p. 261 two examples are illustrated showing this influence. the one with the horseshoe back is devoid of the splat, which had now disappeared. the turned legs begin to show signs of modernity. the other has the top-rail familiar in later forms of cottage chair. the turned rails for the arms and the type of turning in the legs show signs of decadence. the fine days of the old windsor chair were coming to an end. [illustration: windsor chair. horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher. sheraton style.] [illustration: windsor chair. curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. sheraton style, pierced fiddle splat.] =the survival of the windsor chair type.=--apart from the love of the simple form and especially well-conceived design of the windsor chair, which have made it at once the especial favourite of artists and lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical approval of generations of innkeepers, who to this day store hundreds of chairs for use at village festivals. what we have said in regard to the popularity of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree to the windsor chair. the industry of turning the legs and rails of this type of chair is still carried on in buckinghamshire. until recent years much of this turning was done by hand by villagers in the district surrounding high wycombe, where the parts are sent to be finished and made up. to this day some of the old chair-makers use the antiquated pole lathe. but the chairs have departed from their old stateliness. it is true that they have survived, almost in spite of themselves. they are not now the objects of beauty they once were. but they have, by reason of modern requirements, found a fresh field of usefulness. will it be supposed that the modern office chair is in reality a windsor? an examination will at once show this, even in the latest american types. the saddle-shaped seat is there, the straight turned legs, and the back is the same except that the upper extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has become broader as a properly-formed rest for the tired clerk's back. a perusal of a few catalogues of up-to-date office furniture will establish this. here, then, is the last stage of the country windsor chair. the twentieth-century windsor has come to town and graces the head cashier's private office in a bank or the senior partner's room of a firm of stockbrokers. chapter ix local types chapter ix local types welsh carving--scottish types--lancashire dressers, wardrobes, and chairs--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex tables--isle of man tables. the charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse furniture lies in the wide area over which it is found. those who have given especial attention to collecting it have learned instinctively to differentiate between the work of various localities. some well-defined types of cottage furniture are only to be found in certain counties, and nowhere else. take for example the ladder-back and the spindle chairs. the latter are usually found in the northern half and the former in the southern half of england. it is obvious that craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines more or less apart from outside influence, must establish designs peculiarly identified with their field of labours. the sturdy insularity of the british peasant, and his uneasy reception of foreign suggestion, have had a very pronounced influence upon his methods of work. he has the defects of his qualities, the stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit of mind and in his daily pursuits. a close study of the thoughts, and as far as is recorded the written ideals, of the rural labouring population exhibit an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging tenaciously to old customs. the country songs more often than not express disapproval of innovations and call up the memories of slowly vanishing customs. the farm hands recall wistfully the old style of shearers' feasts and harvest homes, when great festivities with song and dance and old country sports enlivened the company. in yorkshire this was termed the mel supper, in kent the kern supper, and in parts of the north of england it was called the churn supper. annual feasts were given to labourers such as the wayzgoose or bean feast, which later name remains to this day. the good old days is a refrain not confined to the cottager in his relation with the farmer. the farmer, imbued with the same wistful regard for the vanished past, bewails the may day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century english squire. we get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion of seclusion which invaded the farmhouse in "a farmer's boy," by robert bloomfield. he laments that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost its former joviality. this was written in 1798. "the aspect only with the substance gone." evidently the mug that passed around was becoming a thing of the past. "the self-same horn is still at our command, but serves none now but the plebeian hand." the picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of prevailing fashion, "yields up the custom that he dearly loves" is pathetic. the long table and dining in common together had seemingly vanished. "the _separate_ table and the costly bowl" touch the rustic poet's pride. he italicises the word "separate." [illustration: chest. dated 1636. with welsh inscription on lid. (standing on table of later date.)] [illustration: welsh cupboard. with typical coarse style of carving. should be 1650 at latest. inscribed i.s. 1710.] this loving regard for the past is natural at a time when the rural population jealously feared the oncoming of the age of machinery, which threatened to supersede many of their local industries and finally succeeded in so doing. the obstinate adherence to old forms was possibly part of a nervous fear of the unknown future. the love for existing forms of furniture was therefore part of this apprehensive retention of tradition. not only was the resistance of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices prevailed against the adoption of designs belonging to rival counties. to this day the staffordshire clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to the ceiling when not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the cottager in the south with no such mechanical device. in edinburgh, in the narrow closes, there is a kind of gallows projecting from the windows. these apparently minor details which find their embodiment in articles of everyday use, fascinate and hold the attention of the acute collector of cottage furniture. the same local types apply to the art of the potter and are well known to collectors. there are sussex "tygs" and nottingham "bears" and sunderland and newcastle jugs and mugs. bristol had its characteristic earthenware, and the lowestoft china factory was strongly suffolk in its homely inscriptions with a touch of dialect. =welsh carving.=--wales is famous for the abundance of the oak farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this day in families who have held the same homestead sometimes for centuries. one of the most noticeable features is the elaboration of the carving and its native representation, coarsely carved, without foreign influence, of birds and beasts and heraldic monsters which largely figure in the decorative panels of chests, and especially dressers. so popular was oak that it might almost be advanced that there never was any mahogany in wales. but it is indisputable that the great outburst in carved mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of chippendale and the publication of his _director_, never penetrated wales, although it led to the foundation of a remarkable school of woodcarving on the new lines in ireland, known as irish chippendale, a study of which can be made in mr. owen wheeler's volume on old furniture. the intense love of the welsh woodcarver for intricacy is hardly less than that of the sturdy swiss craftsmen environed by mountains. perhaps the long winters and the solitary life influence the development of individual character in the applied arts. the welsh love-spoons of wood, linked together and exhibiting delicate pierced work and minute carving of no mean order, are among other attractive specimens of native art. ironwork of fine quality is also to be found in wales. [illustration: lancashire dresser. about 1730-1750. oak inlaid with mahogany.] [illustration: elm wardrobe (welsh). about 1670.] (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._) [illustration: flap-top table. rare hertfordshire example. diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: lancashire spindle-back chairs.] a carved oak chest of welsh origin, dated 1636, with welsh inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. 269). the table on which it stands is of a later date. the carving in this piece is delicate and the middle panel is typical of the representation of birds and foliage. the welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the coarse woodcarving associated with welsh farmhouse art. in style this really belongs to a date not later than 1650. but it is dated 1710 and bears the initials "i.s." this is an interesting example, showing how middle-jacobean styles lingered in country districts remote from outside influence until the early eighteenth century. an elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date, shows another type, but still retaining the coarse character of its carving and its well-filled panels and uprights (illustrated p. 273). =scottish types.=--scotland has antiquities of her own which are closely allied to those of all the gaelic races. as with welsh carved farmhouse furniture, there is a marked leaning towards coarse style. as a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display much carving. the spinning-wheel is still found in farmhouses, and is still used in harris and the outlying islands. sometimes these old highland spinning-wheels come into the market with the smooth surface worn by generations of workers, a surface impossible to reproduce. the scottish ironwork is especially interesting. perhaps the most curious of the scottish antiquities is the crusie. this is undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. it consists of a shallow trough with a spout in which the wick stands, the oil being contained in the trough (see illustration, p. 289). =lancashire furniture.=--the especial characteristics of lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to solid structure and a very noticeable reticence in carving. well-balanced as a rule, and possessing good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors of furniture designed for modern use. a queen anne oak dresser illustrated (p. 135) shows this lancashire sturdiness at its best. this style of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with lancashire cabinet work. a lancashire dresser, the date of which is from about 1730 to 1750, shows the oak dresser inlaid with mahogany. the carved pediment and the carved underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an unusual specimen (p. 273). a typical lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. 279), showing the jacobean style in the carved work and in the arms. in date this is about 1660. it will be noticed that the front of the seat has a row of holes, which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later addition, were intended for ropes to support a cushion, much in the same manner as the iron laths of a modern bedstead. on the same page is illustrated an oak chest of drawers of yorkshire origin, in date about 1770. its plain lines suggest the hepplewhite types of subdued character. in regard to spindle-back chairs, lancashire offers distinctive varieties. two examples are illustrated (p. 275) as indicating this local type. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. _c._ 1770. yorkshire type. height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.] [illustration: lancashire oak settle. _c._ 1660.] [illustration: isle of man table. showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle shoes.] [illustration: "cricket" table. _c._ 1700.] [illustration: "cricket." _c._ 1750. (these types are found in hertfordshire, south bedfordshire, south cambridge, and essex.)] =three legged tables.=--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex have produced a type of tables termed colloquially "cricket tables," possibly because the three legs are suggestive of three stumps. the term is a foolish one and not very appropriate. a very interesting flap-top table with the three flaps to turn down, illustrated (p. 275), is a very rare hertfordshire example. this is small in size, having only a diameter of two and a half feet. two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the other, of slender form, in date about 1750, are typical of this class of table. a very interesting table is a specimen from the isle of man having three carved legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes. sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see chapter x.). norfolk and suffolk used to have a class of oak furniture of quaint type, less cumbersome than the welsh. a type of sheraton windsor chair, often inlaid with brass, used also to be found there. on the whole, those localities which are removed from important towns are the richest in cottage furniture, for example, wales, devonshire, cumberland, northumberland, and parts of yorkshire. in places, where the prosperity of the peasants is of long standing, the cottage furniture has been maintained whole almost until the present day. altogether the study of local types affords considerable scope for critical study. it is essential that such pieces should be identified and classified before it is too late. rapidly all cottage and farmhouse furniture is being scattered over all parts of england. collectors transfer furniture from the north to the south, and the rural treasures of the peasant have been brought to towns and dispersed to alien districts. the education act of 1870 and the halfpenny newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of the cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute on rustic seclusion. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. the rushlight-holder--the dipper--the chimney crane--the scottish crusie--firedogs--the warming-pan--sussex firebacks--grandfather clocks. the everyday iron utensils and implements of the cottages were simple. it is one of the curious features of the english peasantry that just as they clung to their oak of generations back when mahogany was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously to ironwork of almost mediæval character when other metals were in fashionable everyday use. thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire for the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks, but remained firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders in iron, the same types which his ancestors had used, and the firedogs and firebacks of earlier type remained to decorate his hearth. thus ironwork and rarely brasswork form the sum total of the metal portion of cottage furniture. we will deal with these various utilitarian objects one by one. it must be remembered that the country farmer was not familiar with ready-made candles, and it probably no more entered his head to purchase candles in a town than it occurred to him to do other than bake his own bread. the cottager therefore made his candles for himself. if he were well-to-do and could afford to entertain his friends in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate his table with candles of symmetrical form. in which case he would use a candle-mould, and the wax bought in towns would serve for this purpose. but he was not always so rich, and perhaps he was happiest of all with the faintly glimmering rush dips which his forbears used. these afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting. they burned and spluttered like a torch or flickered faintly as the tallow grew thin. their form closely resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a cigarette. they were made in the following manner: the thin wirelike rushes which grew by the water's edge were gathered and stripped of their green surface till only the soft white pith remained. this served as a wick. the wax was then melted over a fire in a trough or candle-dipper, of which an illustration appears (p. 289). across this long receptacle the pith wicks were laid till the wax soaked into them. they were then taken out for the wax to cool and were dipped once or twice afterwards in order to form their outer coating. by such a primitive process a kind of thin taper was formed. it was not parallel along its sides, but bulged and narrowed throughout its length in primitive manner. [illustration: rushlight holders. showing rush fixed ready for lighting. scotch crusie. with holder. rushlight holders. showing forceps for holding rushlight.] [illustration: suffolk pipe cleaner. the long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron rack and put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly cleaned. candle-dipper. (_in the collection of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: queen anne pot-hanger. with original grate. same date. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: kettle trivet. brass and iron. dated about 1770.] such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would naturally not fit the socket of a candlestick, and the only receptacle would be a scissor-like mechanism with jaws capable of clasping it at any point. thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use, as illustrated (p. 289). the illustrations show two rush-holders with the rushlights affixed in position ready for lighting, and one showing how the jaws or forceps clip the rushlight. in practice about an inch or an inch and a half was above the clip and the rest below. a rushlight some twelve to fifteen inches long would burn half an hour, and it had to receive constant attention, being pushed upwards every five minutes. but it must be remembered that the persons who used this primitive form of light did not use it for reading nor for a long period at a time. they usually went to bed early after sunset. in regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form was without the accompanying candle-socket, but when the use of tallow dip candles became prevalent, later forms are found, as illustrated, with the candle-socket in addition to the holder for the rushlight. the scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions like a small sauceboat, which was used for lighting purposes, and was often suspended, as in the one illustrated (p. 289), from a crane or hanger. this crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given by a floating wick, much in the same manner as classic examples, to which the shape bears a distant resemblance. the firedogs were always simple, doubtless the product of the local blacksmith. where they had hooks along the backs they held crossbars to prevent the logs falling into the room. the dates of these, as of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible to fix, owing to the survival of the earlier types even so late as the middle of the nineteenth century. =the chimney crane.=--a most important part of the cottager's fireplace was his chimney crane. these were of two kinds, the pot-hook and the swing-arm variety. the pot-hook hung in the chimney from a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which might be lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at a level with the flames. the swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was made to fit very large fireplaces, where the fire might not invariably be in the same spot on the hearth. this type was used in the kitchens of the better farmhouses. its end was fixed to the wall of the hearth, and the pot could be swung backwards and forwards and sideways, besides being raised or lowered to the fire. the pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs to days when man first learned to cook his food. frequently in this country early examples are dug up. there are fine specimens to be seen of the late celtic period at the owens college museum, at the northampton museum, at the liverpool museum, at the pitt rivers museum at farnham, at the victoria and albert museum, and elsewhere. "pot-hooks and hangers" is an english phrase denoting the beginning of things academic, and the french phrase _pendre la crémaillère_ (literally to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference to what we term a "house-warming" party on settling in a new abode. another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker. this was a kind of thick frying-pan having a lid, which protected the dough from the heat when it was held over the smouldering ashes. the tops of these are often incised with quaint patterns, the impress of which appears on the cake. kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages, possibly relics from better houses or having belonged to the more prosperous farmer. they are not wholly of iron, being partly of brass. the specimen illustrated (p. 291) is of late eighteenth-century days. =the warming-pan.=--there is an especial charm in the old brass warming-pan of the farmhouse and the treasured highly-polished ornament of many a proud cottager to-day. many modern-made warming-pans from holland and elsewhere have found their way into the possession of unsuspecting collectors. but fine old english warming-pans are interesting, and summon up memories of careful housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in ancient old-world inns. on fine examples inscriptions may be found, and the incised work of the pattern on the brass covers is often individual in character. of the examples illustrated (p. 307) one has an incised inscription around the edge, "the lord only is my portion." the other has a dotted geometrical pattern with a star-like design of conventional floral incised work. it is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife has often obliterated much of the fine work of some of these designs. the warming-pan offers in itself a complete field for the collector. he can compare the work of seventeenth-century dutch examples, with their quaint religious inscriptions and their finely embossed and engraved ornamentation, with english specimens of the same date. that the warming-pan was in use in elizabethan days is proved by references in shakespeare. it has a long history, from sir john falstaff, when bardolph was bidden to put his face between the sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to mr. pickwick--to quote sergeant buzfuz, "don't trouble yourself about the warming-pan--the warming-pan! why, gentlemen, who does trouble himself about a warming-pan?" =sussex firebacks.=--the fireback was usually part of the cottager's belongings, though perhaps only one would figure in his house, where possibly his only hearth was in his living-room. these were cast and forged in various parts of the country, and large numbers appear to have been made in sussex, which is, or rather was, the greatest hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers' ironwork. some highly interesting specimens of these are to be herein illustrated. the records of the sussex iron industry go back to a very early date, and the town of lewes, in the thirteenth century, raised taxes by charging a toll on every cartload of iron admitted. under edward iii. the sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes and twenty-nine thousand nails for the english army in its campaign in scotland. the local rhyme- "master hogge and his man john they did cast the first cannon"-is not without reason, as in bodiam castle and elsewhere are mortars of sussex work of fifteenth-century style. in the sixteenth century a considerable number of firebacks was made, some with the royal arms and with the royal cipher, "e.r.," and bearing dates and sometimes makers' names. [illustration: country firedogs. eighteenth century.] [illustration: fire grate. eighteenth century.] the earliest form was stamped with the _fleur-de-lys_ or with portions of twisted cable to form some sort of symmetrical design. we are enabled, by the kindness of mr. c. dawson, f.s.a., of lewes, to reproduce some sussex firebacks from his collection. an example of the first half of the sixteenth century, illustrated (p. 301), shows the rope-like border impressed on the sand mould, and the field impressed with repetitions of a _fleur-de-lys_ from a single stamp. another interesting fireback is the "royal oak" design, with the initials "c.r." this is commemorative of the escape of charles ii. from pursuit by cromwell's ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree. it will be observed that this specimen has a moulded edge, which is from a single wood pattern carved in one piece. amidst the oak foliage will be seen three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty bears a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied by the score nowadays), in which the crown finds a place in the stretcher. one fireback illustrated (p. 303) shows an ironmaster with his hammer at his forge. the adjacent piece has the tudor rose surmounted by the royal crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than the "royal oak" example. all the foregoing specimens are native in their conception of design. they approximate closely to the jacobean carved panel with its narrow range of subjects, and have a relationship to stuart needlework with its royal symbolism. later came the dutch influence, most marked in its effect upon the shape, height, and character of these firebacks. this became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century, and in the illustrations (p. 303) of two wooden patterns from which the firebacks were made at ashburnham, sussex, this is clearly shown. the designs are ornate and represent either some scriptural or mythological subject. the woodcarving is of a style strongly under dutch influence, and the tall proportions suggest gravestones (indeed, in sussex there are headstones made of iron, with pictures and inscriptions). the mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand and the employment of wooden patterns to form the mould into which the molten metal was to run is familiar to any foundry in casting iron. in regard to the early examples with the twisted cable rim, it is conjectured that pieces of twisted rope were actually laid on the wet sand to produce this pattern--that is, before the use of carved wooden patterns such as are illustrated. in regard to the bolder "cable twist" pattern, it is believed this was produced by impression of pieces of rope stiffened with glue, and twisted around iron rods. [illustration: sussex iron fireback. first half of sixteenth century. rope-like border impressed on sand mould. the field impressed with repetitions from a single _fleur-de-lys_ stamp.] [illustration: sussex iron fireback. the royal oak design, commemorative of the restoration. late seventeenth century. moulded edge and carved in one piece from a single pattern. (_in the collection of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] [illustration: sussex firebacks. tudor rose surmounted by royal crown. dated 1650. depicting ironmaster at his forge. (very rusty and worn.)] [illustration: original wooden patterns. dutch influence. eighteenth century. from which firebacks were made at ashburnham, sussex. (_by the courtesy of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] the size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger than the resultant fireback, owing to the shrinkage of the metal on cooling. this diminution in design is a factor in the potter's art, when figures in some cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions when moulded in the clay prior to firing. firebacks have attracted a considerable amount of interest. there are many collectors, and a great deal of close study has been applied to the subject. country museums in the vicinity of the weald of sussex and kent contain many notable examples, especially those of lewes, hastings, brighton, rochester, maidstone, and guildford. in the first mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful examples of sussex firebacks. especially interesting in connection with the sussex ironworks is the illustration (p. 309) of a clock face made by a local maker, beeching of ashburnham, in the late seventeenth century. this brass dial of a thirty-hour clock, with single hand and alarum, is ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry as carried on in sussex. there is a cannon with diminutive figures holding the match. there are cannon-balls, and a liliputian fireback with a crown on it. men with pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry. it was not until 1690 that the minute numerals were placed outside the minute divisions in clock faces, so that this face, having the minute numerals absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle, presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century. =grandfather clocks.=--a volume on cottage and farmhouse furniture would be incomplete without some reference to grandfather clocks. at the beginning of the eighteenth century this type of clock had become popular. the early brass-bracket clock known as "cromwellian," varying from six to ten inches in height, had a spring. with the use of the long pendulum and revolving drums, around which catgut is wound to support the heavy weights, these unprotected parts required a wooden case. the "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks from which the pendulum and weights hung unprotected) lasted till about 1680, when the first grandfather type with wood case came into use. the early examples with cases exhibiting fine marquetry are outside the scope of the class of furniture now under consideration. in such specimens there is frequently a round or oval opening covered with glass in the centre of the panel. in earlier types the metal dial is square, and later it became lunetted at top, and the wood case had a corresponding curve. in clocks made for great houses there were chimes, and their works were by well-known town makers. but in cottage examples, instead of the eight-day movement, more often than not the clock only ran for twenty-four hours. there is little attempt at ornament in these plain oak varieties. the case is soundly constructed, and sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted by brass ball finials, as in the finer examples. as a rule the country cabinet-maker confined himself to an ornamental scrolled head. in later examples the metal dial--and these come at the beginning of the nineteenth century--is painted with some rustic scene with figures, and frequently there is a revolving dial showing the days of the month. [illustration: warming-pans. finely decorated with incised work. one with inscription, "the lord only is my portion." (_by the courtesy of mr. s. g. fenton._)] [illustration: grandfather clock. with oak case. made by j. paxton, st. neots. height, 6 ft. 10 ins.] [illustration: brass dial of thirty-hour clock. single hand and alarum. late seventeenth century. ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry, as carried on at ashburnham, sussex. (_in the collection of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] the entire head covering the dial is often removable in old clocks to which there is no hinged door, as in later made examples. these country grandfather clocks are much treasured by their owners, and have been handed down in families for generations. owing to the indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and tempting offers, many have left their old homes. the demand has been great, and thousands of "grandfather" clocks have been made during the last twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases with plain panels have received the unwelcome attention of the modern restorer and have been carved to please a popular whim for carved oak panels. in regard to dates of grandfather clocks the records of the clockmakers' company give a list of makers of the eighteenth century, enabling the period to be fairly accurately fixed. the walnut cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed to the period 1690-1725, that is william and mary and queen anne, frequently belong to a quarter of a century later. the case-makers clung more closely to old designs than did the clockmakers. hence the case very often is of apparently older style than the works, though both were made contemporaneously. in addition to this, new clocks were put in older cases, or _vice versa_, which, like putting new pictures in old frames, adds to the gaiety of collecting. in general the london clock-cases are only roughly indicative, in comparison with the company records, of contemporary styles of furniture. in country-made pieces the wood cases are anything from twenty to forty years behind london fashions. for example, the arched top occurs after 1720 in london, and after 1735 in the provinces. in the _director_ of chippendale and in sheraton's and hepplewhite's books of designs there are illustrations of clock cases. the progression of styles of eighteenth-century grandfather clock cases is from plain oak to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral, "seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter decades of the eighteenth century inlaid mahogany cases, and many of these have finely veneered panels. in many country clocks oak cases are veneered in mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather cases are plain oak. the example illustrated (p. 307) indicates the plain type of solidly made provincial piece. the clock was made by j. paxton at st. neots. the mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never found in cottages. there are no chippendale styles in this field for the collector to search for. the plainness of the country style has happily in many instances preserved them from alien hands. an interesting revival, chiefly on account of expense, is found in the dutch clock, with china face painted with flowers, which the cottager bought in early and middle nineteenth-century days. this form of clock reverted to the unprotected pendulum and weights, and is an object-lesson in what the style of english clock was before the use of a long wooden case. but these dutch clocks are interesting rather than valuable, and have not yet claimed the attention of collectors. chapter xi old english chintzes chapter xi old english chintzes by hugh phillips the charm of old english chintz--huguenot cloth-printers settle in england--jacob stampe at the sign of the calico printer--the queen anne period--the chippendale period--the age of machinery. the present chapter has been added with perhaps some justification, since it seemed to the writer that such a subject as old english chintzes might appropriately take its place beside the equally homely craft of the rural cabinet-maker. for the chintz is the _tapisserie d'aubusson_ of the peasant--it covers his chairs and drapes his windows, giving warmth and wealth of colour to the otherwise barren appearance of his cottage. further, it reflects his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which shine prominently on the glazed surface of the cloth are those flowers which are always to be found in his garden. chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative fabric known to the village upholsterer. when persons of wealth hung their windows with silk brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework and damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was supplying his modest _clientèle_ with these homely patterns printed upon common cloth. these unassuming fabrics were as much cherished by the cottagers as anything which they possessed. the classical ornament of expensive silks they did not understand, and the freely treated birds and flowers which figured on chintz represented the alpha and omega of beauty in textile design. so great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the cottagers that to-day, in districts less penetrated by modern advance, the rural populace will not extend their affections to the up-to-date designs of upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig patterns of their ancestors. there is much wisdom in the conservative taste of the peasant, for the old chintz of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was of the highest artistic merit. in the heyday of its fame the fabric was exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons, and there are abundant records of the popularity of old english chintzes upon the continent. for, at its best periods, the chintz was not a base imitation of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance, occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or moulded composition to genuine woodcarving. on the contrary, the designing of chintzes is an art of distinction, governed by canons which bear little relationship to other decorative textile crafts. for where the silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns which will appear in his transverse threads, the printer of cloths can wander unrestrained into designs of wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate or too rich to stamp upon his cotton. indeed, his art stops little short of that of the painter of pictures. [illustration: old trade card showing calico printers at work. "jacob stampe living at ye sighn of the callico printer in hounsditch prints all sorts of callicoes lineings silkes stuffs new or ould at reasonable rates." (_from old print at british museum._)] [illustration: english printed calico. about 1690. with contemporary portraits. (_by courtesy of mr. t. d. phillips._)] a glance at the illustrations will more closely confirm this, for such designs could not be imitated by any other textile process, the multitudinous twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches of colour being only possible to the printer. interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the history of the art in england is even more fascinating. from the obscurity of a small local craft it became one of our great national industries. of its earliest history in england we know nothing, and a search among old documents fails to reveal any traces of chintz-printing before the renaissance. there are several vague references to the subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none of them disclose any solid information. thus the question of who was the first chintz-printer remains an unsolved riddle. it appears, however, that in the seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration of foreign workmen of dutch and french nationalities who were well versed in the art of cotton-printing--then well established upon the continent. these people came over in gradually increasing numbers, their arrival culminating in the huge influx of foreigners about 1650 to 1700. the majority of them were by trade silk-weavers and printers. their departure was a serious blow to france, for they transferred to england what had been great national industries in france. settling in and about london, the refugees peaceably recommenced their work, and soon the weaving of silks in spitalfields and the printing of chintzes in richmond, bow, and old ford became a source of great prosperity to this country. on p. 319 is an illustration of a seventeenth-century trade card of one of the chintz-printers, or, as they were then called, calico-printers. here we see in a most lucid manner the process by which chintzes were produced in the time of james ii. the inscription runs: "jacob stampe living at ye sighn of the callico printer in hounsditch prints all sorts of callicoes lineings silkes stuffs, new or ould, at reasonable rates." a printer is standing at a table upon which is stretched a length of cloth, which falls in folds on the floor. he holds in his hand a wooden block, which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. the other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike the wooden block and stamp the colour firmly into the threads of the material. behind him is an apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour, preparing the blocks for his master to use. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. queen anne period.] [illustration: hand-printed chintz. chinese style. middle eighteenth century.] by so clumsy a process very delicate work could not be produced, and, indeed, the few examples of this period which remain are very heavy in character. one of these, which has been lent by mr. j. d. phillips, the owner, is illustrated on p. 319. it belongs to the end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to the william and mary period of english furniture, being contemporary with the pieces illustrated on pp. 77, 117 in the earlier chapters. it will be seen that this example contains two portraits in costume of the late stuart period, possibly intended for portraits of william and mary. their portraits are of frequent occurrence on lambeth delft of this period. the printer has only produced the outline, the colour being added by hand with a brush, for at this date the printing of colour by the successive application of blocks had not been mastered. the black ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as coarsely as though it had been dabbed on with a stencil. the material is a rough hand-woven canvas. printed cloths of the period of charles ii. and james ii. and william and mary are exceedingly rare and seldom met with, as, owing to their roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent owners. a few, however, are to be found on walnut chairs under the coverings of later date. often, indeed, one meets a chair covered in victorian horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive coverings of many generations of owners, including perhaps the material in which it was first upholstered. as the seventeenth century wore on and we enter upon the early years of the eighteenth century--the days of queen anne--the chintz-printers became more prosperous. their work, owing to its increasing delicacy, met with great public approval, and it began to supplant woven silks for the purposes of curtains, coverings, and dresses. thus the silk-weavers of spitalfields found a declining market for their goods and soon came into friction with the printers. much bad feeling ensued, and eventually their quarrels resulted in the distribution of defamatory literature which is to-day most amusing. the weavers circulated the curious "spittlefields ballad" against "calico madams," or the ladies who wore chintz dresses. the spittlefields ballads or the weaver's complaint against the callico madams our trade is so bad that the weavers run mad through the want of both work and provisions, that some hungry poor rogues feed on grains like our hogs, they're reduced to such wretched conditions, then well may they tayre what our ladies now wear and as foes to our country upbraid 'em, till none shall be thought a more scandalous slut than a tawdry callico madam. when our trade was in wealth our women had health, we silks, rich embroideries and satins, fine stuffs and good crapes for each ord'nary trapes that is destin'd to hobble in pattins; but now we've a chince for the wife of a prince, and a butterfly gown for a gay dame, thin painted old sheets for each trull in the streets to appear like a callico madam. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. exotic-bird style. middle eighteenth century.] [illustration: hand-printed chintz. gothic style. late eighteenth century.] the poet in several long stanzas warms in his indignation, and finally directs his verse against the male friends of all fair wearers of chintzes, suggesting that- "it's no matter at all if the prince of iniquity had 'em, or that each for a bride should be cursedly tied to some damn'd callico madam." it is not surprising that the weavers should find it difficult to set their productions against those of the cloth-printers, for the chintzes of this period are surpassingly beautiful. one of them is illustrated on p. 323. here the material is no longer a rough canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to the thin smooth chintz cloth which has survived till to-day. a delicate pattern of intertwining stems winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of finely cut outline and brilliant colours. old chintzes of this period may be recognised by their lightness and by the long thin designs of intermingling flowers of indian type. these were all more or less borrowed from the marsupalitan printed cloths brought over by the india trading companies, and the flowers and colourings of this date are nearly always very closely copied from eastern originals, the cornflower and carnation being among those most frequently met with. the ill-feeling between the printers and weavers was of long duration, and eventually took the form of open riots and street demonstrations similar to those of to-day. on one occasion, in 1719, they went from spitalfields to westminster and protested against the popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be forbidden. on the return journey they manifested their feelings by tearing off the chintz gowns of various ladies whom they met upon the route. evidently parliament pandered to these labour riots, for in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by act of parliament, but this legislation was of short duration; the act was soon repealed and the fascinating material became the rage once more. the next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing is about 1760, in the middle of the period of chippendale furniture. this is the golden period of its printing. technically and artistically the hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. colour-work by superimposed blocks was in full swing, and the designer had, in the works of contemporary artists, a wider field for the selection of subjects suitable for his fabric. among the many varieties of chintzes which we find at this date the most prominent are the gothic and chinese designs to suit the current taste in furniture, and the exotic bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. about 1760. by r. jones, of old ford, london.] the formation of the designs has changed considerably by this time and we no longer find the intertwining or serpentine form as in the queen anne chintzes. the flowers and objects to be printed are now massed together and represented as little disjointed islands floating in mid-air. by this distinctive feature they may easily be recognised. one of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated on p. 327. here a pheasant is resting under a palm-tree upon a small island of densely packed foliage. the whole idea of the design is taken from the chinese porcelain of the period. the bird, the flowers, and every object portrayed come from the east and are drawn in the manner constantly seen upon the _famille rose_ dishes and vases of the period. these exotic bird patterns are not exclusively found upon chintzes, for the collector of english porcelain will be familiar with them in the early productions of the bow and worcester factories. another feature which one notices in printed fabrics at this date is the buff ground. the cloth is white, and the pattern is printed upon it in this state so that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers may have every advantage of transparency. the buff background is then printed in afterwards, leaving a thin margin around the design. in this manner great richness and depth is given to the colours without undue harshness, which would be the result if they were exhibited upon a white background. the illustration on p. 323 shows a chintz in the chinese manner, designed to conform with the oriental furniture of chippendale. here again we see the detached islets of vegetation, but instead of exotic birds we have chinese vases containing flowers, and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the then little-known species from the east greatly treasured in england. the carnations and foliage will be readily recognised as copies from chinese paintings. one might illustrate a very large number of these chinese chintzes, but space will only permit one example. this particular specimen is probably unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz printed about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained his house. the roll (about twenty yards long) has been carefully preserved and handed down from generation to generation, so that its original colours and soft glaze remain intact. a chintz in the gothic manner is illustrated on p. 327. it differs slightly from the others in that the island formation is combined with serpentine foliage. in the centre is a patch of ground upon which are the ruins of a gothic church. the artist, however, has not forgotten to please those patrons who might prefer the chinese style, and therefore he has quietly added the incongruous elements of prunus flowers in the foreground and palm-trees in the background. at first this quaint admixture may appear a bad art, but it must be remembered that at this quaint period the whole principle of decorative design was upset by the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of detail outweighed the greater considerations of line and proportion. we find a similar treatment of design later on in many spode plates, especially in blue transfer-printed subjects. [illustration: printed chintz. hepplewhite period.] [illustration: printed chintz. victorian period.] in the third quarter of the eighteenth century we enter upon a new era in the history of chintzes. we may appropriately call it the age of machinery, for from this date the mechanical processes came in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the position of a comparatively small craft to that of a huge national industry. the great manufacturing towns in the north, such as manchester, were rising in importance, and lancashire was forming the basis of its gigantic cotton trade. following these trade movements, the old industry of cloth-printing gradually left its centre in london and was developed on a larger scale in the north of england. in spite of this great commercial spirit which seized the printing of textiles, hand-block printing did not pass away, for it has survived till to-day as the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and chintzes produced in this manner, even during the nineteenth century, are always good. mechanical roller work, however, was responsible for a large output of work which is little worthy of preservation, and in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed chintz which, to say the least, is not reminiscent of the fine handwork which preceded it in the mid-eighteenth century. the earliest machine-work was carried out by means of engraved copper plates applied to the cloth in a printer's press. one of these is illustrated on p. 331. it is exceedingly fine in its details, and very few old specimens of this pattern are in existence. in several places are inserted the printer's name and date, "r. jones, old ford, 1761." the design is doubtless borrowed from the _toiles de jouy_, printed by a bavarian at jouay, near versailles, about this time. the drawing, however, is finer than any specimens of his work which have come to the author's notice. a shepherdess is tending to her flock amid a classical ruin while she is listening to the music of a flute. in another portion of the design, a cock and hen are mourning for the loss of one of their brood which has been carried off by an eagle. this design is worthy of interest for its superior quality, as it must have been produced for some very fine house. there is another specimen printed in red in the victoria and albert museum. the one which is illustrated here was found upon an exceedingly fine chippendale bedstead. during the hepplewhite and sheraton periods of furniture the chintz ceases to have its pattern detached and grouped. architectural details with figures disappear, and once more the designer returns to flowers as his subject for illustration. the foliage, however, now takes the form of vertical stripes, being contained within lace-like ribands placed at even distances. on p. 335 is an illustration of a chintz about 1790 in which these features will be noticed. in the nineteenth century we find the chintz covered with disjointed sprigs, as though the flowers had been plucked and cast upon the cloth. their outline is softened by a margin of dots. an illustration of this style is shown on p. 335. [illustration: printed chintz. from the calico printing factory at sobden, in lancashire. printed in 1831 under the direction of richard cobden. (_in the collection of mrs. cobden unwin._)] one need not pursue the history of chintzes further, for to do so would entail a discussion of modern methods. suffice it to say that in the nineteenth century we come across the hideous black grounds, the base imitation of woven designs, leopard skins, and other inartistic perversions. we must rather bid adieu to this beautiful art ere it has begun to decline. it will afford the reader much pleasure if he should form a collection of old specimens and frame them around his walls, for then he will fully appreciate their charm. in examining his own collection the author has spent many a pleasant hour, for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most articulate relics which have come down to us. they breathe the spirit, the feelings, and the ideals of the periods wherein they were made. they show lucidly the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. so delectable are their soft, faded colours, so fascinating are the designs, and above all, so enchanting is the old-world musty scent which always clings to them, that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's affection from them. index adam style table, 186 america, the windsor chair acclimatised in, 246 america, spindle-back chairs, 239 america, carved chests of puritan colonists, 60 america, types coincident with jacobean, 60 anachronism in country makers' work, 204 anne, queen, chintz printing in time of, 325 anne, queen, style--cabriole leg, advent of, 167 anne, queen, chests of drawers, 67 anne, queen, scandal at court of, 158 anne, queen, so-called style, 167 back--the chair, and its development, 203 bacon cupboards, 154 ball and claw foot, introduction of, 162 "barley sugar" turning, illustrated, 105 bedfordshire tables, 283 bedstead, jacobean, illustrated, 77 bevel of panel indicating date, 204 bible-boxes, 34, 139-154 bloomfield, robert, quoted, 268 bobbins, buckinghamshire, 153 brittany dressers, 134 broken corners, queen anne style, 167, 169 buckinghamshire bobbins, 153 bureau bookcase and cupboard, 176 bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, 169 byzantine types of furniture existent in elizabethan days, 37 cabriole leg, advent of the, 167 cabriole leg (queen anne period), 129 cambridge tables, 283 candle dipper, the, 288 cane-back chairs, 203, 207 cane-back chairs, late stuart, 199 cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208 caning in chairs out of fashion, 162 chairs- america, windsor chair, types of, 246 back, the, its development, 203 caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208 caned chairs, late stuart, 199, 203, 207 caning out of fashion, 162 charles ii. period styles, 211 chippendale styles, 179 chippendale, windsor styles, 254 corner chairs, 240 country chippendale, hepplewhite and sheraton, 221 cupid's bow top rail, 218 cushions, their use with, 199, 207 derbyshire chairs, 203 elizabethan turned chairs, 37 evolution of the chair, 189-241 fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162 fiddle splat, queen anne style, 217 fiddle splat, windsor, at its best, 254 "fiddle-string" backs, 249 goldsmith, oliver, his chair, 253 grandfather variety, 168, 230 hepplewhite country styles, 221 hepplewhite windsor chairs, 254 horseshoe back, windsor, 259, 260 jacobean, typical form, 196 ladder-back chairs, 233 lancashire rush-bottom chairs, 241 lancashire spindle back chairs, 278 modern office-chair, derivation of, 260 prince of wales's feathers in back, 227 ribbon-back, introduction of, 179 rush-bottomed chairs, 233 shell ornament employed, 167 sheraton country styles, 221 sheraton windsor chairs, 259, 260 spindle-back chairs, 234 splat, queen anne, the, 217 straight-backed chairs, 203 stretcher, evolution of the, 200 tavern chairs, 249 wheel-back windsor chairs, 259 woods used, windsor chairs, 249, 250 charles ii. chests of drawers, 62 charles ii. period, impetus given to furniture design, 95 charles ii. period, styles of chairs, 211 chests, gothic, 34 chests, sixteenth century, 34 chests, welsh carving, 277 chests of drawers, 60 chests of drawers, charles ii. period, 62 chests of drawers, queen anne style, 67 children's stools, jacobean, illustrated, 77 chimney crane, the, 294 china and glass cupboards, 180 chinese designs in chintzes, 333 chinese style of chippendale, 227 chintz printing becomes a national industry, 321 chintzes, old english, 317-341 chippendale and his contemporaries, 180 chippendale clock cases, 312 chippendale quoted, 227, 228 chippendale, ribbon designs of, 179 chippendale style, provincial, 221 chippendale style windsor chairs, 254 chocolate houses, polemic against, 170 chronology, seventeenth-century, 45-48 claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, 162 clock and dresser combined, 129 clocks, grandfather, 306 club foot, introduction of, 162 cobbett, william, quoted, 67 coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, 170 coffee, women's petition against, 170 corner chairs, 240 cottage furniture and earthenware compared, 31 country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, 211 country chippendale, hepplewhite and sheraton, 221 country furniture, its sturdy independence, 24 country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, 50 cradles, 148 cromwellian chests with drawers, 52 crusie, the scottish, 277, 293 cupboard, the bacon, 154 cupboard, welsh carving, 277 cupboards, corner, introduction of, 162 cupboards and drawers, taste for, 125 "cupid's bow" underframing, 107, 185 "cupid's bow" top rail of chair, 218 cushions, their use with chairs, 199, 207 delany, mrs., quoted, 153 denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38 derbyshire chairs, 203 design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, 222 _director_, by chippendale, a working guide, 223 drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, 130 drawers, chests of, 60 drawers, chests of, charles ii. period, 62 drawers, chests of, queen anne style, 67 dresser and clock combined, 129 dressers, farmhouse, 115-135 dressers- brittany, 134 lancashire, 134 normandy, 134 welsh, 133 dutch artisans print early english chintzes, 321 dutch influence early eighteenth century, 168, 170 earthenware and cottage furniture compared, 31 eighteenth-century dressers, 130 eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, 249 eighteenth-century styles, 157-187 elizabethan turned chairs, 37 english chintzes, old, 317-341 english farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, 42 english joiners' work, its solidity, 51 essex tables, 283 exotic bird patterns in chintzes, 333 "farmer's boy" (robert bloomfield) quoted, 268 farmhouse furniture (english), desirability of its preservation, 42 farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, 208 farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, 208 feet- arcaded foot, charles ii. period, 62 ball, 62; illustrated, 65 claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, 162 club foot, its introduction, 162 hoof foot, the, 176 scroll or spanish foot, 104, 203 spanish foot, the, 104, 203 spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, 105, 109 trestle, in gothic style, 90 fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162 fiddle splat, queen anne style, 217 fiddle splat windsor chair at its best, 254 "fiddle-string" backs, 249 firebacks, sussex, 296 firebacks, sussex, fine examples exhibited, 305 firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, 294 food of country population, seventeenth century, 81 foreign styles, slow assimilation of, 67 french artisans print early english chintzes, 321 gate-leg tables, 85-112 gate-leg table, double gates, 96; illustrated, 93 gate-leg table, established as a popular type, 90 gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, 105 geometric panels, chests of drawers, 61; dressers, 121 georgian styles, early types, 179 gibbons, grinling, the style of, 56 goldsmith, oliver, his chair, 253 gothic brackets to chests, 34 gothic chests, 34 gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89 grandfather chair, the, 230 grandfather chair, curved lines of, 168 grandfather clocks, 306 grandfather clock combined with dresser, 129 great seal of queen anne, showing style of ornament, 168 hardwick hall, suite at, 55 hepplewhite clock cases, 312 hepplewhite influence on village work, 207 hepplewhite quoted, 229, 230 hepplewhite style, provincial, 221 hertfordshire tables, 283 hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, 168 hoof foot, the, 176 horseshoe-back windsor chairs, 130, 257, 260 incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, 211 inlaid work rarely employed, 55 inlaid work with walnut, 169 inlaid work, woods used, 169 irish chippendale, 272 ironwork, miscellaneous, 287-313 ironwork, scottish, 277 isle of man tables, 283 jacobean cradles, 148 jacobean dressers with geometric panels, 121 jacobean furniture, typical styles, 49 jacobean oak chair, typical form, 196 jacobean period, its characteristics, 95 jacobean period, late styles of, 115 jacobean style, its transition to william and mary, 207 jacobean sussex firebacks, 299, 300 joinery, the solidity of english, 51 jones, r., of old ford, chintz printer, 337 kettle trivet, the cottager's, 295 lacquer employed in clock-cases, 312 ladder-back chair, the, 233 lancashire chintzes, 337 lancashire dressers, 134 lancashire furniture, 278 lancashire queen anne settle, 167 lancashire rush-bottom chair, 241 legs- "barley sugar" turning illustrated, 105 cabriole leg, introduction of the, 167 egg and reel turning, 43; illustrated, 93 eight legs (gate table), 99 elizabethan bulbous leg, 60 jacobean straight-turned leg, 60 jacobean, various forms of turning, 89 queen anne cabriole leg, 129 six legs, gate table, illustrated, 99 split urn leg, illustrated, 91, 119 straight leg again in vogue, 180 urn-shaped leg, 60 urn-shaped splat, 121; illustrated, 91, 119 linen-fold pattern on chests, 32 local types, 33 local types of furniture, 267-284 london and the vicinity, chintz printed in, 322 longleat, oak furniture at, 55 lyngby (near copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, 41 macaulay quoted, 158 macaulay, "state of england in 1685" quoted, 76 mahogany gate-leg tables, 103 mahogany styles, their gracefulness, 179 mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, 104 marlborough, duchess of, and her intrigues, 158 marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, 169 marquetry, woods used in, 169 minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, 212 modern office-chair, derivation from windsor type, 263 more, hannah, and the agricultural classes, 175 morris, william, his influence on furniture, 111 "mule" chests, 52 norfolk, oak furniture, 283 normandy dressers, 134 normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, 37 north, roger, quoted, 170 oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, 212 oak, general in its use, 55 oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, 207 oak the chief wood employed, 33 office-chair, derivation from windsor type, 263 oriental patterns in chintzes, 333 panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, 204 panels, sunk, jacobean style, 62 patterns, wood, used for firebacks, 300 people, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, 72 pepys's _diary_, quoted, 79 pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, 249 pot-hook, the, 294 pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, 294 prince of wales's feathers, 227 provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, 50 queen anne, cabriole leg, 129 queen anne dressers, 122 queen anne flap tables, 89 queen anne period, the splat of the, 217 restoration period, chests of drawers, 62 ribbon designs, introduction of, 179 roads in provinces, bad state of, 79 rush-bottom chair, the, 233 rushlight holder, the, 288 scandinavian origin of elizabethan chair, 37 scotland, union with, proclamation by queen anne, 161 scottish types of ironwork, 277 "seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, 312 settle, lancashire form, 278 settle, queen anne style, 167 seventeenth-century, chronology of, 45-48 seventeenth-century settle (lancashire), 278 seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, 56 seventeenth-century styles, 49-82 seventeenth-century styles, types of, 72 shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, 167 sheraton clock-cases, 312 sheraton influence on country makers, 234 sheraton influence in windsor chairs, 259 sheraton style, provincial, 221 sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, 56 sixteenth-century chests, 34 sizergh castle, oak room at, 55 spanish foot, its use, 104, 107 spanish succession, war of the, 161 spindle-back chair, the, 234 spindle-back chairs (lancashire), 278 spinning-wheels, 153 spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, 326, 330 splat, the queen anne, 217 staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, 31 stands for chests of drawers, 67 stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, 38 stools, children's jacobean, illustrated, 77 straight-backed chairs, 203 stretcher, evolution of the, 200 stretcher, yorkshire splat form, 96 suffolk oak furniture, 283 sussex firebacks, 296 sussex ironworks, the, 295, 296 "swan head" to cupboard, 168 sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38 swift quoted, 161 tables- adam style, 186 arcaded spandrils, illustrated, 179 bedfordshire types, 283 cambridge types, 283 collapsible form (charles ii.), 103 cross stretcher, =x= form, 103 cupid's bow underframing, 107; illustrated, 109 elizabethan bulbous-leg form, 60 essex types, 283 flap tables (queen anne), 89; (georgian), illustrated, 183 gate-leg, 85-112 gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89 hertfordshire types, 283 isle of man table, 283 scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, 181 scalloped underframing, illustrated, 73 sixteenth-century style, 52 spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, 179 stretchers, splat form, 89; illustrated, 97 tea-table, queen anne style, 185 three-legged, 283 underframing, cupid's bow, illustrated, 109 various local types, 283 yorkshire type, 89 tapers, how made by cottagers, 288 tavern chair, the, 249 tea-drinking becomes national, 170 tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, 249 tea-table, queen anne style, 185 three-legged tables, 283 transition from jacobean to william and mary styles, 207 trestle in gate-leg table, 89 triangular gate form, 86; illustrated, 87 tripod tables, 185 turning, various patterns in jacobean leg, 89 union with scotland, 161 varangian guard introduce byzantine furniture into scandinavia, 37 veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, 169 village cabinet-maker, originality of, 32 wales, prince of, feathers in chair back, 227 walnut gate-leg tables, 103 walnut in general use, 207 walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, 169 walnut supplanted by mahogany, 207 warming-pan, the, 295 wardrobe, lancashire type, 278 welsh carving, 272 welsh dressers, 133 wesley and the methodist movement, 175 whitefield and the colliers, 175 wheel-back windsor chairs, 257 william and mary dressers, 126 william and mary gate-leg tables, 104 william and mary period, finely turned work, 75 william and mary style, its development from jacobean, 207 windsor chair, the, 243-263 windsor chair, the, sheraton influence, 259 windsor chair, its survival, 260 windsor chairs, chippendale style, 254 wood patterns used for firebacks, 300 woods employed in farmhouse furniture, 33 woods used in windsor chairs, 249, 250 woods used in walnut marquetry, 169 women's petition against coffee, 170 yorkshire chairs, 203 yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, 96 unwin brothers, limited, the gresham press, woking and london. volumes for collectors by the same author chats on old furniture companion volume to "chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture" _press notices, first edition_ "mr. hayden knows his subject intimately."--_pall mall gazette._ "the hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_athenæum._ "a useful and instructive volume."--_spectator._ "an abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed history."--_daily news._ "mr. hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_scotsman._ "a book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual merit."--_vanity fair._ "mr. hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the collector."--_saturday review._ chats on english china _press notices, first edition_ "a handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_st. james's gazette._ "all lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."--_daily news._ "it gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know about the principal varieties of english ware. we can warmly commend the book to the china collector."--_pall mall gazette._ "one of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are very accurately given."--_queen._ chats on english earthenware (companion volume to "chats on english china") "complementary to the useful companion volume, in this 'chats' series, on english china which mr. hayden issued five years ago."--_times._ "is a compendious account of our native english faïence, abundantly illustrated and accurately written."--_guardian._ "a thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."--_truth._ "it is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with no little charm of style."--_lady's pictorial._ "mr. hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking care in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of reference."--_connoisseur._ "the volume has been written as a companion to mr. hayden's 'chats on english china' in the same series, and those who recall the admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way inferior."--_nation._ "the illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and the publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions of typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous handbook. the illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."--_manchester guardian._ "mr. hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that will give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the admiring but ignorant."--_liverpool courier._ chats on old prints a practical guide to collecting and identifying old engravings. "mr. hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on his theme."--_daily telegraph._ "any one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this book the very thing for him."--_literary world._ "these 'chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive illustrations."--_morning leader._ scanned images of public domain material from the internet archive. colonial homes and their furnishings [illustration: plate i.--dodge-shreves doorway. built in 1816.] colonial homes and their furnishings by mary h. northend _with numerous illustrations_ boston little, brown, and company 1917 _copyright, 1912,_ by little, brown, and company. this book is dedicated to one through whose constant encouragement and wise advice i owe my success in the field of literature preface the wonderfully good collection of antiques for which salem is noted was of great interest to me, being owned by personal friends who kindly consented to allow me for the first time to go through their homes and pick out the cream of their inheritance. if the readers are half as interested in these objects as i have become,--growing enthusiastic in the work through the valuable pieces found,--they will enjoy the pictures of colonial furnishings, many of which cannot be duplicated in any other collection of antiques. family bits, wonderful old lowestoft, and other treasures are included, all brought over in the holds of cumbersome ships, at the time when the commerce of salem was at high tide. to mr. charles r. waters, mrs. nathan c. osgood, mrs. henry p. benson, mrs. william c. west, mrs. nathaniel b. mansfield, miss a. grace atkinson, mrs. walter c. harris, dr. hardy phippen, mrs. mcdonald white, and mr. horatio p. peirson, as well as many others in my native city, i owe acknowledgment for their kindness in opening their houses and letting me in, as well as to mrs. george rogers of danvers, mrs. d. p. page, dr. ernest h. noyes, and mrs. charles h. perry of newburyport, mrs. walter j. mitchell of manchester, mrs. prescott bigelow and mrs. william o. kimball of boston, mrs. a. a. lord of newton, mrs. charles m. stark of dunbarton, n.h., and the late mr. daniel low. the work was commenced at first through ill health and the desire for occupation, and has met with such good results through an interest in the story of antiques, that i have to-day one of the most valuable collections of photographs to be found in new england. mary h. northend. august 1, 1912. contents chapter page preface vii i. old houses 1 ii. colonial doorways 16 iii. door knockers 29 iv. old-time gardens 41 v. halls and stairways 54 vi. fireplaces and mantelpieces 63 vii. old-time wall papers 79 viii. old chairs and sofas 92 ix. sideboards, bureaus, tables, etc. 105 x. four-posters 119 xi. mirrors 132 xii. old-time clocks 145 xiii. old-time lights 159 xiv. old china 172 xv. old glass 194 xvi. old pewter 210 xvii. old silver 223 list of plates i. dodge-shreves doorway. built in 1816 _frontispiece_ facing page ii. the warner house, portsmouth, n. h. built in 1718 8 iii. middleton house, bristol, r. i. built about 1808 9 iv. indian hill farm, west newbury, mass. begun soon after 1650 12 v. andrew house doorway, 1818 13 vi. gardner house doorway, 1804 22 vii. doorway of nathan robinson house, 1804 23 viii. sixteenth century knocker, lion type. striker, of first type; georgian urn type, in use on modern houses; mexican knocker of the hammer type; hammer type knocker, eighteenth century, charles p. waters house 32 ix. eagle knocker; eagle knocker, rogers house, danvers, mass.; medusa head, elaborate early type; garland type of knocker 33 x. whittier garden, danvers, mass. 46 xi. peabody garden, danvers, mass. 47 xii. saltonstall hallway, about 1800 54 xiii. hallway, lee house, 1800 55 xiv. hallway, tucker house, about 1800 60 xv. hallway of wentworth house, 1750 61 xvi. historic fireplace at ipswich, mass. 64 xvii. old fireplace in wentworth house, portsmouth, n. h. 65 xviii. first hob grate in new england, waters house; mantel glass and fireplace, showing decoration of floral basket 70 xix. middleton house steeple top andirons, and bellows; southern andirons, atkinson collection 71 xx. cupid and psyche paper, safford house 80 xxi. venetian paper in wheelwright house, newburyport 81 xxii. roman ruins paper, lee mansion, marblehead 86 xxiii. adventures of telemachus paper, nymphs swinging 87 xxiv. queen anne fiddle back; queen anne, stuffed chair; dutch chair, carved; empire lyre-backed roundabout, on chippendale lines, 1825 92 xxv. chippendale, lord timothy dexter's collection, h. p. benson; french chair, showing empire influence; flemish chair; banister-back chair 93 xxvi. chippendale armchair, showing straight, square legs; chippendale chair; chippendale, one of a set of six, showing rosette design; chippendale armchair with cabriole legs, ball and claw feet 96 xxvii. empire sofa; cornucopia sofa; sofa in adams style, about 1800 97 xxviii. sheraton, mahogany frame, about 1800; sheraton, with solid arms, and straight, slender legs; sheraton, about 1790. note the graceful curve of the arms 100 xxix. sheraton, about 1800; sofa, about 1820; sofa, about 1820, with winged legs 101 xxx. sheraton night table; block front bureau desk, owned by dr. ernest h. noyes, newburyport, mass.; cellarette, 1790, owned originally by robert morris 106 xxxi. dressing glass, with petticoat legs; empire bureau, 1816 107 xxxii. chest of drawers, 1710; six-legged high chest of drawers, about 1705 108 xxxiii. dressing table, with brass feet; bureau and dressing glass 109 xxxiv. block front bureau desk, owned by nathan c. osgood. one of the best specimens in new england; oak paneled chest, about 1675 112 xxxv. secretary, showing shell ornamentation; highboy with shell ornamentation and ball and claw feet, 1760; highboy with shell ornamentation 113 xxxvi. dressing table, 1760; mahogany commode, collection of nathan c. osgood. 116 xxxvii. sheraton sideboard; simple form of sheraton sideboard, with line inlay around drawers and doors. date, 1800 117 xxxviii. bedstead in middleton house, 1798 120 xxxix. sheraton type in kittredge house; four-poster, about 1825 121 xl. field bedstead, slept in by lafayette, in stark mansion. owned by mrs. charles stark, dunbarton, n. h. 124 xli. sheraton four-poster; four-poster showing decided english characteristics 125 xlii. girandole in george ropes house, 1800; girandole, 1800; constitution mirror, 1780 134 xliii. picture mirror, showing dawn, in adams house, 1703; english georgian mirror, 1750; two-piece looking glass, 1750 135 xliv. oval mirror, showing acanthus leaves. once on cleopatra's barge. the first pleasure yacht built in america. mirror, 1710, resting on ornamental knobs; mirror, 1810, in dudley l. pickman house 140 xlv. mirror, 1770; lafayette courting mirror, osgood collection; empire mirror, 1810 141 xlvi. willard banjo clock, 1802; banjo clock, 1804; willard banjo clock, 1802 150 xlvii. english grandfather's clock, william dean howells; collection of old clocks, property of mr. mills, saugus, mass.; grandfather's clock, formerly owned by president franklin pierce. property of mrs. charles stark 151 xlviii. general stephen abbot clock; terry shelf clock, 1824; english clock, with ball ornamentation 158 xlix. whale oil lamps with wicks; mantel lamps, 1815; paul and virginia candelabra 159 l. astral lamps, 1778; english brass branching candlestick, showing lions 164 li. colonial mantel lamp; single bedroom brass candlestick; sheffield plate candlesticks 165 lii. pierced, or paul revere, lantern; old hand lantern; english silver candlestick; brass branching candlestick, chippendale, 1760 170 liii. peacock plate of delft, very rare; decorated salt glaze plate, about 1780 171 liv. liverpool pitcher, showing salem ship; old chelsea ware; canton china teapot; wedgewood, with rose decoration. very rare 176 lv. gold luster pitcher; staffordshire pitcher, with rose decoration; peacock delft pitcher; jasper ware wedgewood pitcher, blue and white 177 lvi. the shepherd toby. one of the rarest tobies; english toby, very old; very old toby showing cocked hat 190 lvii. venetian and english decanters; toddy glasses, about 1800; english glass with silver coasters. very old 191 lviii. russian glass decanter and tumblers. note the exquisite cutting on this decanter 200 lix. english cut glass decanter, about 1800; typical red bohemian glass decanter; american glass bottle, jenny lind, about 1850 201 lx. bohemian glass. the center one is rare, showing figure of peacock, in red and white; english cut glass wineglasses, 1790; english glass decanters. very fine and rare 208 lxi. pewter half-pint, pint, and quart measures. one hundred years old; three unusual shaped pewter cream jugs; german pewter, whorl pattern 209 lxii. old silver coffee urn with pineapple finial; sheffield plate teapot, formerly owned by president thomas jefferson; tall silver pitcher, of flagon influence 226 lxiii. several old silver pieces; collection of salem silver, almost all inherited; wonderfully fine silver bowl with chasing 227 chapter i old houses there is an indescribable charm surrounding colonial houses, especially if historic traditions are associated with them. many of an early date of erection are still to be found throughout new england towns, where the puritan and the pilgrim first settled, and not a few have remained in the same families since their construction. some are still in an excellent state of preservation, though the majority show weather-beaten exteriors, guiltless of paint, with broken windows and sagging sills, speaking forcibly of a past prosperity, and mutely appealing through their forlornness for recognition. these are not, however, the first homes built by the colonists, and, indeed, it is doubtful if any examples of the earliest type are still standing. these were rude cabins built of logs, kept together by daubings of clay thrust into their chinks, and showing roofs finished with thatch. great chimneys were characteristic of all these cabins, built of stone, lengthened at the top with wood, and best known by the name catted chimneys. in the rude interiors of the old-time fireplaces hung soot-blackened cranes, while on cold, cheerless nights the blaze of logs on the hearths "made the rude, bare, raftered room burst, flowerlike, into rosy bloom." the next type was the frame house, built large or small according to the means of the owner, and constructed through the influence of governor john endicott, who sent to england for skilled workmen. generally, these dwellings were two stories in height, the more pretentious ones showing peaks on either side to accommodate chambers, and their marked superiority over the first type soon resulted in their adoption throughout new england. in design they bore some resemblance to the dutch architecture of the period, the outcome doubtless of many of the early settlers' long sojourn in holland. many of the frames were of white wood brought from the mother country in the incoming ships, and the low ceilings invariably present were crossed with the heavy beams of the floors above, projecting through the timbers. the lean-to, characteristic of some houses of this type, did not come into vogue until about the middle of the seventeenth century, and its adoption is generally believed to have been for the use of the eldest son of the family, who, according to the law of england, would inherit the homestead, and until such inheritance, could remain, with his family, beneath the ancestral roof. the third type, the gambrel-roofed house, was at the height of its popularity about the time of the revolutionary war, and continued in favor until the tide of commercial prosperity sweeping through the land brought in its wake the desire for more pretentious dwellings. then came into fashion the large, square, wooden mansion, later followed by that of stately brick, excellent examples of both types being still extant. like the egyptian isis who went forth to gather up the scattered fragments of her husband osiris, fondly hoping that she might be able to bring back his former beauty, so we of to-day are endeavoring in new england to gather and bring into unison portions of the early homes, that we may eventually restore them to their original charm and dignity. outwardly these dwellings appear much as they did when built, more than a century ago, but inwardly sad changes have been wrought, leaving scarcely a trace of their old-time beauty. yet beneath this devastation one versed in house lore can read many a tale of interest, for old houses, like old books, secrete between their covers many a story that is well worth while. among the carefully preserved specimens, none of the earlier type is more interesting than the pickering house at salem, massachusetts, built in 1660, more than a hundred years before the revolution. the land on which it stands is part of the twenty acres' grant which was a portion of governor's field, originally owned by governor endicott, and conveyed by him to emanuel downing, who, in order to pay for his son george's commencement dinner at harvard, disposed of it to john pickering, the builder of the home, in 1642. in design, the dwelling is gothic, a popular type in the elizabethan period, and closely resembles the peacock inn at rouseley, england. the timbers used in its construction were taken from a near-by swamp, and when it was first built it showed on the northern side a sloping roof affording but a single story at that end. in 1770, the then owner, timothy pickering, decided to raise this end to make room for three chambers, and the new portion was built to conform exactly with the old part, the windows equipped with the same quaint panes, set in leaded strips, which were finely grooved to receive the glass, on which the lead was pressed down and soldered together. it was found when the weatherboards were ripped off that the sills were sound, and it was decided to continue to use them, feeling they would last longer than those that could then be obtained. two of the peaks found to be leaky were removed at this time, and they were not replaced until 1840, when colonel timothy pickering's son, john, had reproductions set in place. the house has never been out of the pickering family, and, with one exception, has descended to a john pickering ever since its erection. distinctly a new england landmark is the colonel jeremiah page house at danvers, massachusetts, erected in the year 1750. it occupies a site that at the time of its construction was on the highway between ipswich and boston, now broadened at this point and known as danvers square. originally, it consisted of four rooms, but these were later moved back and a new front added, the ell being replaced by a larger one. from a historic point of view, the roof is probably the most interesting feature of this old home, for here occurred the famous tea-party that lucy larcom has forever immortalized. during the troublous times of 1775, when all good patriots scorned the use of tea, colonel page demanded that it should not be drunk beneath his roof. mistress page had acceded to his request, but she did not promise that she would not drink it on his roof, so with a few friends she repaired one afternoon to the rail-enclosed roof, and here brewed and distributed the much liked beverage. the secret of the tea-party did not leak out until after her death, when one of the party, visiting at the house, asked to be taken to the roof, at the same time relating the, till then unknown, experience. antedating the page house some twenty-five years is the home of the stearns family on essex street, salem, erected by joseph sprague, a prominent old-time merchant, whose warehouse occupied the present site at the corner of north and federal streets. this dwelling is of spacious dimensions, excellently proportioned, and it is especially interesting from the fact of its unusual interior arrangement, which provides on each floor for three rooms at the back and only two at the front. the original owner was captain of the first uniformed company of militia organized in salem, april 22, 1776, and he was also the first american to spill his blood in the revolution, receiving a slight wound at the time of leslie's retreat, while scuttling his gondola so it should not fall into the hands of the enemy. another fine old home is the cabot house, also in salem. this dwelling, erected in 1745 by one joseph cabot, is considered by experts to be of the purest colonial type, and it has proved a subject of unusual interest to any number of artists and architects. no modern touch has been allowed to mar the old-time aspect of the whipple house at ipswich, massachusetts, built in 1760, and which remains wholly unchanged from its original construction. it stands to-day almost alone in its picturesque antiquity, its huge central chimney, tiny window-panes, plain front door, guiltless of porch, with iron knocker, steep-pitched roof with lean-to at the back nearly sweeping the ground,--all betokening its age. little wonder it is the haunt of tourists, for it presents a picture in its old-time beauty that modern architecture can never duplicate. in the historic town of marblehead, in massachusetts, is one of the most interesting of old-time homes,--the colonel jeremiah lee mansion, built in 1768, and considered at the time of its erection the finest house in the colonies. it was designed by an english architect at a cost of ten thousand pounds, and the timber and finish used in its construction were brought from england in one of the colonel's ships. it stands well to the front of the lot of which it forms a part, with scarcely any yard space separating it from the sidewalk, and it boasts a handsome porch supported by finely carved pillars, approached by a flight of steps. the broad entrance door, with its brass latch and old-time knob, swings easily upon its great hinges into a spacious hall that extends the length of the dwelling, affording access to the finely finished interior apartments. equally as interesting as these old homes are several houses in new hampshire, one of the most prominent being the stark mansion at dunbarton. this was built in 1785 by major caleb stark of revolutionary fame, and it is approached to-day through the original tree-lined avenue, a mile in length. in construction it is of the mansion type, two stories in height, with gambrel roof, twelve dormer windows, and a large, two-storied ell. its entrance door is nearly three inches through, with handsome, hand-made panels, and it swings on wrought-iron hinges two feet either way. it is adorned with a knocker and latch that were brought from england by the major. ever since its erection, this house has been occupied by a member of the stark family, and the present owner, charles morris stark, boasts the distinction of being of revolutionary stock on both sides of the family, his mother being a lineal descendant of robert morris, the great financier of the revolution. [illustration: plate ii.--the warner house, portsmouth, n. h. built in 1718] another interesting colonial home is the warner house at portsmouth, occupying a corner section on one of the city's main thoroughfares. this fine dwelling was erected by captain macpheadris, a wealthy merchant who came to this country from scotland, and it is built of dutch bricks that were imported from holland, with walls eighteen inches thick. it stands firmly on its foundation, a magnificent specimen of early construction; and its gambrel roof, lutheran windows, quaint cupola, and broad simplicity of entrance door, suggest the old-time hospitality that was so freely dispensed here. after the captain's death, the house came to his daughter, mary, who had married hon. jonathan warner, a member of the king's council until the outbreak of the revolution, and it is by his name that the fine old home is known. two miles from portsmouth, at little harbor, is the old home of governor benning wentworth, built in 1750. in general, this dwelling is two stories in height, with wings that form three sides of a hollow square, though it boasts no particular style of architecture, appearing to be rather a group of buildings added to the main structure from time to time. it is screened from the roadway by great trees, and on the north and east faces the water. originally it had fifty-two rooms, but some of these have been combined, so to-day there are but forty-five. the cellar is particularly large, and here in times of danger the governor hid his horses. after the governor's death, his widow married john wentworth, and it was during the occupancy of sir john and his wife that washington was entertained here. typical of the wooden mansion type, that succeeded in favor the gambrel-roofed dwellings, is the house now known as the endicott house, at danvers, massachusetts. this building, constructed about 1800, was purchased about 1812 by captain joseph peabody, a salem merchant, and grandfather of the present owner, as a place of refuge for himself and family during the embargo. in design, it is most imposing, and the front now shows a wide veranda, with the entrance dignified by a porte-cochã¨re, supported by high columns, between each two of which a great bay tree is set. sweeps of smooth lawn afford an attractive setting, and great trees, here and there, bestow protecting shade. the dwelling is surrounded by beautiful gardens, the most interesting from a historic point of view being the old-fashioned posy plot laid out at the time of the erection of the house. [illustration: plate iii.--middleton house, bristol, r. i. built about 1808.] not unlike in type to this fine home is "hey bonnie hall" in rhode island, the residence of the misses middleton. built in 1808, it stands to-day in all its original beauty, the pure white of its exterior admirably set off by the great green sweeps of sward, dotted with fine trees, that surround it on all sides. it was erected from plans of russell warren, who designed the white house at washington, and it is renowned not only for its beautiful colonial architecture, but also for the wonderful collection of old-time furniture and objects of art that it contains. in type, it is very similar to a maryland manor, with projecting wings, the service portion in a separate building connected with the main house by a covered passage, after the southern fashion. in this passage is the well room, so called from the fact that a well of pure spring water is located here. in length the house is one hundred and forty feet, its front just enough broken to avoid monotony, and its spaciousness affording an air of comfort. two corinthian columns, as high as the house itself, support the roof over the entrance porch, and on either side are well-protected verandas, overlooking beds of old-fashioned flowers and smooth stretches of sward. in front lies the harbor, and beyond is the picturesque town of bristol, affording a most pleasing prospect. [illustration: plate iv.--indian hill farm, west newbury, mass. begun soon after 1650.] unlike these latter-day types, in fact unlike any set design, is the low, rambling house at west newbury, massachusetts, known as indian hill, and so called from the location that it occupies. in appearance, this dwelling is most picturesque, resembling in design a castle, and it is as historic as it is interesting. the site that it occupies is the last reservation of the indians in the neighborhood, the land having been sold by old tom, the indian chieftain, to the town, and the deed of the sale being still preserved by the present owners. viewed from any angle, the house presents a series of pictures, each equally as interesting as the other, and its irregular roof lines, gables and bays, quaint, diamond-paned windows, and chimneys adorned with chimney pots, are further embellished by the flowering vines of a rambler rose, perhaps the finest in the country. while the house can be seen from the road, it is only when one drives under the archway into the courtyard, bounded on three sides by barn, stables, and house, that he can realize its true worth. [illustration: plate v.--andrew house doorway, 1818.] salem, fortunate in specimens of early construction, is also fortunate in examples of latter-day types, and here are to be found several of the fine brick dwellings, built at the time of her greatest commercial prosperity. one of these is the andrews house, located on washington square, and one of the three dwellings erected in 1818. its brick exterior gives no hint of its age other than the softening dignity that time bequeaths, and it stands to-day, tall and broad, its gray-faced bricks brightened by white trimmings, and its beauty emphasized by a fine circular porch supported by white columns, topped with a high balustrade. at one side is a charming old-fashioned garden, laid out in prim, box-bordered beds, and all about its fence inclosure flowering vines clamber. complete, the dwelling cost forty thousand dollars,--a large sum for the time of its erection. every brick used in its construction was first dipped into boiling oil to render it impervious to moisture, and all the framework is of timbers seasoned by long exposure to the sun and rain. on one brick is cut the date of erection, the work of the master builder under whose supervision the dwelling was erected. the great pillars of the side porch, overlooking the garden, are packed, so the story goes, with rock salt--not an uncommon process at that time--to keep out dampness and to save the wood from being eaten by worms. some years previous to the erection of this dwelling, mr. nathan robinson had constructed on chestnut street a brick dwelling, considered by connoisseurs to be one of the finest specimens to-day extant. the porch, at the front, is wonderfully fine, and has attracted the attention of any number of students and architects, who have made a careful study of it. and so we might go on and on, singling out particularly good specimens here and there, but when all is said and done, it is undeniable that all old houses afford interesting study. architects of the present are coming to appreciate their worth, and into many modern homes features of early construction are being incorporated. naturally, to the antiquarian, nothing can ever take the place of these bygone specimens, and as he paces the main thoroughfares of historic cities, now lined with stores, he sees in fancy the stately homes with their fragrant garden plots, which modern demand has superseded. pausing on the curbing near the old state house in boston, what an array of bygone dwellings in fancy can be conjured, and how many of the old-time dignitaries can be recalled. so vivid is the picture that one might almost expect to see old thomas leverett saunter by, or perchance hear the rattle of wheels as the carriage of dr. elisha cook lumbered on its way. it is a pleasant picture to contemplate, and the lover of the old breathes a sigh of regret at the passing of such picturesqueness. chapter ii colonial doorways no type of architecture to-day holds such a distinctive place in the minds of architects and home builders as does that of the colonial period. this is especially true concerning the porch or doorway, for this feature, affording as it does entrance to the home, called for most careful thought, that it might be made harmonious and artistic, and expressive of the sentiment which it embodies. the straight lines and ample dimensions which characterized it required skill to arrange properly, and, considering the limitations of the period in which it was constructed, the results obtained were remarkable. these porches and doorways were designed at a time when our country was young, and the builders were not finished architects like the designers of to-day; but they were planned and built by men who were masters in their line, and who taxed their skill to the utmost that results might be artistic and varied, individualizing each home so that the entrance porch should express both hospitality and refinement. in the holds of the cumbersome ships that plied between the new country and the motherland were placed as cargoes, pillars, columns, and bits of shaped wood, all to be used in the construction of the new home, and incidentally in the porch. it was no easy task to devise from these fragments a complete and artistic whole, and to the ingenuity of the builders great credit is due. in contour and construction, these porches differ greatly. those found in new england depict a stateliness that savors of puritanical influence, while those in the south convey, through their breadth, an impression of the cordiality which is characteristic of that section. some are semicircular, others square; a few are oblong, and some are three-cornered, fitting into two sides of the entrance, and in each case giving to the dwelling a congruous appearance that is refreshing to contemplate in an age like ours, when so many different periods are combined in a finished whole. all these porches show a harmony of form and proportion that gives just the right effect, and many are embellished by wonderful wood carving. the grecian column, in its many forms, lends itself in a great degree to artistic effects, often bestowing an originality of finish that is most pleasing, and one that differs in every respect from the modern broad veranda, and the stately porte-cochã¨re. the art of hand carving reached its highest state of perfection about the year 1811, during which period the best types of porches were erected. the results are shown not only in the capitals of the columns and on the architrave, but on the pediments and over the entrance door as well. a good example of the decoration of the architrave is seen on the old assembly house on federal street, in salem, massachusetts, where the carving takes the form of a grapevine, with bunches of the hanging fruit, and also over the door of the kimball house, in the same city, where samuel mcintyre, one of the most noted wood carvers, lived. it can be well and correctly said that the colonial porch embodied not only the characteristics of the period in which it was built, but the personality of the owner as well. should the unobservant person feel that this statement is far-fetched, let him take a stroll through some tree-shaded street of an old new england village, and the truth of the assertion is readily revealed. though the house itself may be old and battered, and fast falling into decay, yet the porch greets one with a simple welcome that breathes of former hospitality, and, in admiration of this feature, the shabbiness of the rest of the exterior sinks into oblivion. broadly speaking, porches are divided into three types or classes. the first belong to the period beginning with the year 1745 and continuing until the year 1785, a space of time marked by stirring events, culminating in the revolutionary war, and the birth of the new republic. houses of this period are of the gambrel-roofed type. the second class adorn the succeeding type of dwelling,--the large, square, colonial house, built by the merchant prince, whose ships circumnavigated the globe, and who filled his home with foreign treasures; while the third type is that which ornamented the brick mansion which came into vogue about 1818. as many of these were erected during the commercial period, they cannot, strictly speaking, be called colonial; they belong rather to the washingtonian time, and reflect in their construction the gracious hospitality of that day. porches of varied colonial types are found in most of the new england cities and towns, in the middle states, and in the south, and particularly fine examples can be seen in salem, massachusetts. there is about all of these a dignity and refinement that is unmistakable, bespeaking a culture that is felt at once, and a stranger wandering through salem's streets cannot help but be impressed with the fact. adorning the three-storied houses with their flat roofs, they give an artistic touch to what would otherwise be plain exteriors. from step to knocker, from leaded glass to the arched or square roof of the doorway, there is a plainness and simplicity which betokens art, but of such a quiet, unpretentious type that by the untrained eye it is hardly appreciated, though to the architect it brings inspiration and affords study for classic detail, the result of which is shown in the modified colonial homes of to-day. romance and history are strangely intermingled in these old-time porches and doorways. under their stately portals has passed many a colonial lover, doffing his cocked hat to his lady fair, who, with silken gown, powdered hair and patches, sat at the window awaiting his coming. those were salem's halcyon days, when the tide of life ebbed and flowed in uneventful harmony, free from the disturbing elements of latter-day life. to attempt even a brief description of each and every doorway would be a herculean task. rather, it is better to depict the different types, studying with critical eye the various examples. one is the semicircular entrance, with its rounded front, a type shown in many a new england home. the andrew porch, numbered among the finest in the city, belongs to this class. under this doorway passed the late war governor, john andrew, during visits to his uncle, john andrew, builder of the dwelling, that he always coveted for his own. the dwelling was one of three built in 1818 on three sides of a training field, which is now the common. the fine elm trees that characterize the common were planted in the same year. the other two houses were the john forrester dwelling and the nathaniel silsbee house. the andrew porch shows straight columns, and a roof topped with a balustrade; the simplicity of outline renders it most attractive. [illustration: plate vi.--gardiner house doorway, 1804.] another porch of the same type is that of the john gardiner house on essex street, built in 1804. here is an entrance considered by good judges of architecture to be one of the best examples of its type, characterized by perfect symmetry of outline. numbered among its features are quaint indentations in the door head. this dwelling was formerly the home of captain joseph white, one of the worthy and noted salem merchants. other porches of similar contour, though differently ornamented, are to be found on chestnut street. [illustration: plate vii.--nathan robinson house doorway, 1804.] it is only when one carefully studies doorways such as these, contrasting them with latter-day porches, which are often little more than holes in the wall, fitted with a cheap framing and entirely out of keeping with the exterior, that their worth is viewed in the true light, and the opportunity to turn to the old-time types for inspiration is appreciated. perhaps the most puritanical of all the doorways are the simple narrow ones that generally stand at one side of the house, although sometimes they are used as the main entrance. these show either fluted side pilasters, or severely plain columns, surmounted by a pediment. the door is always dark in coloring, trimmed with a polished brass knocker and often with a brass latch. one of the most elaborate of these is that of the dwelling known as the cabot house on essex street. this house was designed in 1745 by an english architect for joseph choate, and later came into the possession of joseph cabot. another notable entrance is that of the lord house on washington square. this is a side entrance, and is said to be one of the finest of its type in salem. this house was at one time occupied by stephen white, a man of worth, who was falsely accused of the murder of his uncle, and who engaged as counsel daniel webster. while this case was in progress, webster brought his son, fletcher, to the white home, where he met and fell in love with the daughter of the house, later making her his bride. thus were romance and law strangely intermingled! the house was afterwards the home of nathaniel lord, one of the most brilliant jurists of his time. the inclosed porch is another phase of old salem doorways. there are several interesting examples of this type still to be seen here, perhaps the most noted being the one on charter street, on a three-story, wooden building, about a century and a half old, low of stud, with square front, standing directly on a shabby little by-street, and cornered in a graveyard. this porch, inclosing the entrance door, is lighted by small, oval windows, one on either side, affording glimpses up and down the street. it has been graphically described by a silent, dark-browed man, who, with two women, came to the dwelling in the dusk of an evening in 1838, and, lifting the old-time knocker, announced his arrival. the door was opened by elizabeth peabody, who graciously admitted nathaniel hawthorne and his sisters, showed them into the parlor, and then ran up-stairs to tell her sister sophia of the handsome young man--handsomer than lord byron--who had just arrived. as the door closed behind him that evening, hawthorne shut out forever the dreary solitude of his life, and we read that he came again and again to the old home, where he played the principal part in one of the most idyllic of courtships, ending in his marriage two years later with the fair sophia. this dwelling he made the scene of _dr. grimshawe's secret_, and the old porch has taken on a dignity and historic interest that will live forever. but perhaps one loves to dwell longest on the doorway of the assembly house on federal street, for it is full of vivid memories. it is an oddly shaped porch, beautifully carved, and under its portals the daughters of salem's merchant princes passed, holding in their slender hands the skirts of their silken gowns, as they gayly mounted the broad stone steps. on the evening of october 29, 1784, lafayette was entertained in this old home, and five years later, washington, who had just been inaugurated as the first president of the united states, came here. concerning his visit, he wrote in his diary: "between 7 and 8 i went to an assembly, where there were at least a hundred handsome young ladies." with one of these, the daughter of general abbot, washington opened the ball, and for her later, as he did not dance, he secured as a partner general knox. other types of porches still seen in salem include the dutch porch, quaint and comely in its construction, an excellent example of which is seen on the whipple house on andover street, while surrounding the common on washington square are many rare and picturesque porches of various dates of erection. considered by experts to excel them all is the porch that adorns the pierce-jahonnot house on federal street. this dwelling was erected by mr. pierce, of pierce and waitte, merchants, in the year 1782, and beside the main entrance it boasts a fine example of the narrow doorway at one side. in the early spring, crocuses clustering about the base of the porch add a touch that is decorative and charming, and the box-bordered garden beds, just in front, filled with masses of pure white bloom, complete a wholly delightful setting. there is about this particular doorway a touch of sentiment felt by every salemite. it is a piece of architecture of which any one might feel proud, and in its beauty and dignity it stands distinctive in the midst of many fine bits. it is the mecca of architects, who delight in the exquisite blending of doorway and entrance. there is a touch of the old witchcraft days connected with a doorway at number 23 summer street, that resembles in type the one immortalized by hawthorne. more than two hundred years ago, this porch was the site of an event that culminated in tragedy. bridget bishop, the first victim of the terrible delusion of 1692, kept a tavern here, and in her gay light-heartedness, she scorned the dictates of the church and insisted upon wearing on sabbath day a black hat and a red paragon bodice, bordered and looped with different colors. her boldness in defying the rigid doctrines made the dignitaries suspicious of her, and at her trial, when one witness told of meeting her before the site of the present doorway where his horse stopped, and the buggy he was driving flew to pieces,--she of course having bewitched it,--was condemned to death. individual types found throughout the city show a variety of construction and ornamentation, and many of these are most unique, although they do not belong to any special period. prominent among these is the pineapple doorway on brown street court, an excellently proportioned and finely adorned entrance, which, through the remoteness of its location, is rarely seen by tourists. the dwelling of which it is a part was built in 1750 by captain thomas poynton, and this feature, unlike the old benjamin pickman porch on essex street, which shows a codfish, has nothing about it suggestive of new england. the pineapple, which is set in a broken pediment, was brought over from england in one of the captain's own ships, and in the days of his occupancy it was kept brightly gilded, its leaves painted green. many of the doorways show an innovation in the presence of the climbing vine, which winds its tendrils about the pillar supports, emphasizing their beauty. it is not definitely known whether the early owners encouraged the vine-covered porch or not, but they probably did, as they delighted in the vine-covered summer-house, which was a feature of nearly every old-time garden. while salem may hold a prominent rank in attractive porches, many fine examples are to be found in philadelphia, and though these specimens differ radically in design, they are most attractive. one is to be seen on independence hall on chestnut street, while others are found on churches and houses. these doorways illustrate a phase of architectural construction totally different from the porches of new england and those of the south, yet they combine features of the other types, while at the same time displaying a certain definite style of their own which gives to them as great distinctiveness as characterizes salem porches. if the twentieth-century architect desires studies of truly attractive doorways, the seaport towns of new england will afford him excellent models. there is enough variety here in porches which are still preserved to give him any number of models from which to devise an entrance that will serve its purpose in every sense of the word. for the home builder, it will not be amiss to carefully consider the best type of porch before he goes to the architect to develop his plans; he can be assured that study will develop ideas that will give to his home an individuality that will embody his ideas and personality. chapter iii door knockers there is no more decorative feature of the entrance door than the old-time door knocker, especially if in conjunction with it are used a latch and hinge. it possesses a dignity and charm that is most attractive, and when shown in brass, brightly burnished, it forms a most effective foil for the dark or polished surface of the wood. door knockers have been in use, save for short periods during the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, since their invention, early in the world's history, although they were most freely used during the romanesque, the gothic, and the renaissance periods. for easy identification they may be divided into three classes, the first characterized by a ring, the second by a hammer, and the third by human figures and animals' heads. the first two types show a much larger surface of plate than the third, and the designs employed are often most elaborate. door knockers in use during the medieval period were perhaps the most carefully designed, while those of the renaissance period showed the most fanciful treatment. it must be remembered, when considering the ornamental qualities of both these types of knockers, and comparing them with latter-day productions, that they were made at a time when designers were practically unknown, artists being employed to draw patterns which were worked out by assistants under the supervision of master smiths, which method resulted in a greater diversity of treatment. iron was at first used in the construction of knockers, partly on account of its inexpensiveness, and the results secured from this seemingly ugly material were both artistic and beautiful. later, brass came into favor for the purpose, and it has since remained the principal knocker material, as no better substitute has been found. brightly polished, a brass knocker undeniably adds to the decorative attractiveness of any door. during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, knockers were used on all classes of houses. these for the most part were very elaborate in design, showing a wonderful delicacy of workmanship, and they were in many instances larger than those found on modern colonial homes. except for the period during the seventeenth century, as above mentioned, door knockers remained in favor until the middle of the nineteenth century, when a wave of modernity, sweeping the length and breadth of the land, brought in its wake an overthrow of colonial ideas and furnishings. modern doors, plain of surface, replaced the finely paneled old-time ones, and with their coming disappeared the knocker and the latch. probably the principal cause of this was the demolition of many of the old landmarks, and the substitution of dwellings of an entirely different architectural type. this innovation for a second time consigned the knocker to oblivion, and many there were who, not realizing its artistic value, cast it into the scrap heap. others, with a veneration for heirlooms, packed the knockers away in old hair trunks under the eaves of the spacious attic, together with other antiques of varying character. no doubt the greatest number were saved by the wise and far-sighted collector, who, realizing the artistic beauty of the knocker, felt that it would in time come to its own again. quietly he purchased them and stored them away, awaiting the day of their revival, and his foresight was amply repaid when the modified colonial house came into vogue, demanding that the knocker should again be the doorway's chief feature. many of those now shown are genuine antiques, while others are reproductions, but so carefully copied that only to one who has made a study of antiques is the difference discernible. [illustration: plate viii.--16th century knocker, lion type, striker of first type; georgian urn type, in use on modern house; mexican knocker of the hammer type; hammer type knocker, 18th century, charles p. waters house.] old door knockers vary as to size according to the date of their construction. many are of odd design, having been made to fit doors of unusual shapes, and the ornamentation is as varied as the shapes. the most elaborate knockers depict such ideas as medusa's head, garlands of roses, and, in many cases, animals' heads, while the simple ones show oval or plain shapes, with border decorated with bead or fretwork. [illustration: plate ix.--eagle knocker; eagle knocker, rogers house, danvers, mass.; medusa head, elaborate early type; garland type of knocker.] the shape of the knocker is of great assistance in classification, as is the metal used. the most common type has the striker round or stirrup-shaped. this is either plain or ornamented with twisted forms, with wreathing or masks, and the plate is formed of a rosette or lion's head. in the second type, the striker is hammer-shaped, the handle often showing a split and straplike formation, while the plate and knob are plain. this is an early type, as is shown from the fact that specimens still exist that are not unlike byzantine and saracenic forms. it is to this type that the exquisite iron-chiseled knockers of henry ii and louis xiv belong. the lyre or elongated loop drawn down to form the striker constitute the third style. masks, snakes, dragons, and human figures belong to this class, and, on account of the elaborate workmanship employed, these are often found in brass and bronze. this type shows ornamentation lavished on the striker, while the plate is very plain. the greatest difference noted in all these classes is that in the third type the escutcheon or plate by which the knocker is fastened to the door is of little importance, while in the first two types it is the leading motive. during the gothic period, the design was diamond-shape, richly decorated with pierced work, and while this same motif was retained in the making of the renaissance knocker, it was frequently varied by the double-headed or some similar style. what is correct concerning the design of the medieval knocker holds good in that of to-day. no door knocker ever designed was ugly, even at the time of the earliest manufacture, when so little was known concerning architectural construction. there is a fine individuality in the style of all knockers, and singularly enough one fails to find duplicates of even the most admirable specimens. another fact that seems strange is that reproductions often sell for as much as genuine antiques. it would seem that the price of the old knocker would be high, on account of its historical value, and yet this type of knockers sells at a lower price than present-day specimens. old brass examples can be purchased as low as two dollars and fifty cents, while large and elaborate ones bring only ten dollars. this is not on account of their true value not being known, but because there is, as yet, comparatively little demand for them; and their sale at the best is limited, for where a person could use twenty candlesticks, two knockers would suffice for door ornamentation. there is an important phase of the copied specimens that must be taken into consideration, and that is that they have no historic value. this fact has made reproductions of no appeal to either the collector or the antiquarian, unless there is some special interest in the model from which they have been copied. whether a knocker is a reproduction or a genuine antique can often be told by examining the plate and noting if it is forged to the ring or flat plate. if so, it is a fine piece of workmanship and a genuine antique; otherwise, it is spurious. the best place to purchase genuine old knockers is in the curio shops, where only such things are for sale. even in this event, it is well to know the earmarks, for if one is anxious for a real antique, he should be posted on the characteristics, as a spurious specimen is apt to find its way even here. the door knockers in general use to-day are the georgian urn or vase, the thumb latch, and the eagle. such designs as medusa's head, and the head of daphne with its wreath of laurel leaves are also sometimes found. the lion with ring has always been more popular in england than in our country, and, indeed, during the revolutionary war and for fifty years after, it was not even tolerated here, being superseded by the eagle, which came into vogue about 1775. the garland knocker, which belongs to the early type, is still sometimes found to-day. one such specimen is shown on a modern colonial home at wayland, massachusetts. this originally graced the doorway of one of salem's merchant prince's homes, but it was purchased by a dealer in antiques at the time of the decline in favor of the knocker, later finding its original resting place, from which it has only recently been removed. another rare and unusual knocker is shown on a house on lynde street, salem, massachusetts. this is of mexican type, and has been on the house since its erection. it was painted over some years ago by an owner who cared little for its worth, and it was not until a comparatively short time ago that it was discovered to be a fine example of a rare type. the horseshoe knocker, a specimen of the hammer class, is a prized relic of many old homes. like all true colonial specimens, it is made of wrought iron, painfully hammered by hand upon the forge in the absence of machinery for working iron, as even nails had to be hammered out in those early times. this is one of the quaintest and most original knockers, and is after the pattern of the earliest designed. subsequent specimens were more elaborate, colonial craftsmen bestowing upon them their greatest skill. among the most ornate were the purely greek or georgian vases or urns, eagles in all possible and impossible positions, heads of medusa, ariadne, and other mythological ladies, and italian renaissance subjects, such as nymphs, mermaids, and dolphins, with ribbons, garlands, and streamers. not a few of these knockers have wonderfully interesting histories. scenes have been enacted about them, which, could they be but known, would make thrilling tales. take, for instance, the knocker on the craigie house at cambridge, massachusetts. how many men of letters from all over the world have lifted the knocker to gain admittance to our late loved poet's home, and think what stories such visits could furnish! on the whittier homestead at amesbury, massachusetts, is still to be seen the knocker which was on the door during the poet's life. this is of eagle design, probably chosen on account of its patriotic significance. another interesting knocker formerly graced the house wherein the "duchess" lived, on turner street, in salem, many times lifted by hawthorne, who was a frequent visitor to this dwelling, and who forever immortalized it in his famous romance, _the house of seven gables_. this is now replaced by another of different design. considered to be one of the oldest knockers in this section is that on the door of the may house at newton, massachusetts. be that as it may, it is certainly unique. the plate shows a phoenix rising from the plain brass surface, while the knocker has for ornamentation a medieval head. this knocker has attracted the attention of antiquarians throughout the country, who have given it much study in attempts to find out the period in which it was made. thumb latches are not so common as the hammer and ring class. two of these specially unique show wonderful cutting. one is found on the front door of the waters house on washington square, salem, being brought from the john crowninshield dwelling, while the other is seen on the side porch of this same residence, having been placed there at the time of the building's erection in 1795. england is the seat of most of the old-time knockers, although they are still found in almost every part of the globe. threading the narrow by-streets of london, one finds many historic specimens replaced by simple modern affairs. some have become the prey of avaricious tourists, while others, because of their owners' little regard for their value, have been relegated to ash heaps and thrown away. this is true of the knocker made famous by dickens in the _christmas carol_. on the polished surface of this, scrooge was said to have thought he saw reflected the face of marley "like a bad lobster in a dark cellar." later he spoke of it as follows: "i shall love it as long as i live. i scarcely ever looked at it before. what an honest expression it has in its face. it is a wonderful knocker." clasped hands holding a ring of laurel is the form of the knocker still seen on the door of the famous dr. johnson house, and, as one gazes at it, he can in fancy see david garrick and sir joshua reynolds ascending the steps, and if he pauses a moment longer he can no doubt even hear the metallic ring of the knocker, as it responds to the vigorous raps that they give. the most beautiful knocker left in london is the one shown on the outer gate of the duke of devonshire's house at piccadilly. the design here, as unique as it is beautiful, shows an angelic head with flowing hair. chapels and cathedrals in england have many examples of this type of door decoration, one being a knocker handle with pierced tracery seen on stogumber church in somerset. the history of door knockers is practically unwritten, and little is known concerning their make. the revival of antiques is responsible for their present popularity, and gives them an importance in house ornamentation little dreamed of a few years ago. to be sure, the coming of electric bells has precluded their necessity, but, on account of their ornamental value, it is doubtful if they ever become obsolete. the variety of design, the many artistic shapes to which they can be adapted, and, more than all, their decorative qualities, make them particularly valuable. chapter iv old-time gardens there was a restful charm and dignity surrounding the garden of olden times that is lacking in the formal ones of to-day. this effect was gained partly from the prim box borders and the straight, central path, and partly from the stateliness of the old-fashioned flowers. gardens formed a distinctive feature in the colonists' home grounds, from the time of their landing on unknown soil. at first they were very small, and consisted mostly of wild flowers and plants that had been brought from their homes in england and holland. the early settlers brought with them to this new land a deep love for floriculture, and the earliest garden plots filled with flowering plants, though rude in construction, saved the house mother many a heartache, reminding her as they did of the beautiful gardens in the motherland left behind. we find in the earliest records of the new settlers allusions to flowers, and reverend francis higginson speaks of the wild flowers which he saw blossoming near the shore. he considered them of enough importance to record in his diary on june 24, 1629, writing "that wild flowers of yellow coloring resembling gilliflowers were seen near the shore as they sighted land, and that as they came closer they saw many of these flowers scattered here and there, some of the plots being from nine to ten feet in size." four of the men who went ashore on the twenty-seventh of that month found on the headlands of cape cod single wild roses. later on he tells again of the number of plants found growing, giving their names. these facts have enabled people in later years to locate the same flowers growing near the same places as when they were first discovered. governor bradford also considered the flowers of importance, and in his historical account of the colonies of new england, he tells us that "here grow many fine flowers, among them the fair lily and the fragrant rose." on governors island in boston harbor were rich vineyards and orchards, as well as many varieties of flowers. governor winthrop, inserting a clause in the grant, said that vineyards and orchards should be planted here; that this was complied with is shown from the fact that the rent in 1634 was paid with a hogshead of wine. following the growth of colonist gardens, we find that john josslyn arrived in boston four years later, in 1638, and that soon after his arrival he visited his brother's plantation in black point, maine. he made a careful list of plants that he found here, each one of which he carefully described and sent in part to england, and it is interesting to note that in those days, the colonists in the spring gathered hepaticas, bloodroot, and numerous other wild flowers. his description of the pitcher plant is graphic: "hollow leaved lavender is a plant that grows in the marshes, overgrown with moss, with one straight stalk about the bigness of an oat straw. it is better than a cubic high, and upon the top is found one single fantastic flower. the leaves grow close to the root in shape like a tankard, hollow, tight, and always full of water." the whole plant, so he says, comes into perfection about the middle of august, and has leaves and stalks as red as blood, while the flower is yellow. mr. josslyn also speaks of the fact that shrubs and flowers brought from england and holland by the puritans as early as 1626 were the nucleus of old-fashioned gardens, and that woadwaxen, now a pest covering acres of ground and showing during the time of blossoming a brilliant yellow, was kept in pots by governor endicott, while the oxeye daisy and whiteweed were grown on governor endicott's danvers farm. he also tells us of the gardens with "their pleasant, familiar flowers, lavender, hollyhocks, and satin." "we call this herbe in norfolke sattin," says gerard, "and among our women, it is called honestie and gillyflowers, which meant pinks as well, and dear english roses and eglantine." the evolution of the garden commenced at this time, and from then until fifty years ago the old-fashioned garden was in vogue. there was much sameness to this kind of garden; each one had its central path of varying width, generally with a box border on either side, while inside were sweet-smelling flowers, such as mignonette, heliotrope, and sweet alyssum. vine-covered arbors were the central feature, and at the end of the walk stood a summer-house of simple proportions, sometimes so covered with trailing vines as to be almost unseen. it was here on summer afternoons that our grandmothers loved to come for a social cup of tea, knitting while breathing in the sweet-scented air, permeated with the fragrance of single and double peonies, phlox, roses, and bushes of syringa. tall hollyhocks swayed in the breeze, holding their stately cups stiff and upright, and there were tiger lilies, as well as the dielytra, with its row of hanging pink and white blossoms, from which the children made boats, rabbits, and other fantastic figures. in some of the old-time gardens, the small, thorny scotch roses intermingled with the red and white roses of york and lancaster. little wonder that the perfume of their blooms was wafted through the air, although they were hidden among the taller roses, and there was no visible trace of their presence. one walked along the broad sidewalks of the old-time cities, expecting to find at every turn a garden of flowers. not even a glimpse did they obtain, for the gardens of those days were not in view, but hidden away behind high board fences which have now in many cases been changed for iron ones, thus giving to the public glimpses of the central arbor and the long line of path with brilliant bloom on either side. one reason that the gardens in the olden days were hidden from view was that the houses, more especially the salem ones, were built close to the sidewalk, and there was no chance for flowers in front or at either side. [illustration: plate x.--whittier garden, danvers, mass.] [illustration: plate xi.--peabody garden, danvers, mass.] most of the noted old gardens have long since become things of the past, but a few are still left to give hints of the many that long ago were the pride of new england housewives. the estate of the late captain joseph peabody at danvers, massachusetts, was at one time famed for its old-fashioned garden. this lay to the right of the avenue of trees that formed the driveway to the house. these trees were planted in 1816 by joseph augustus peabody, the elder son of the owner. the garden proper was hidden from view, as one passed up the driveway, but lay at the front of the house. in its center was a large tulip tree, which still stands, said to be one of the oldest and largest in the country. one of the unique features of the grounds, and one that has existed since the days of captain peabody's occupancy, is a small summer-house, showing lattice work and graceful arches. its top is dome-shaped, surmounted by a gilded pineapple. there is, however, another historic summer-house on this estate. it was formerly on the elias hasket derby property, and was built about 1790. this was purchased by the present owner of the estate, who had it moved to her grounds, a distance of four miles, without a crack in the plaster. it was built by samuel mcintyre, and is decorated with the pilaster and festoons that are characteristic of his workmanship. four urns and a farmer whetting his scythe adorn the top. originally a companion piece was at the other end, representing a milkmaid with her pail. this latter figure was long ago sold by the former owner and placed with a spindle in its hand on the sutton mills at andover, massachusetts, where it stood for many years until destroyed by fire. the house itself contains a tool room on the lower floor, while at the head of the staircase is a large room, sixteen feet square, containing eight windows and four cupboards. it is hung with japanese lanterns, and the closets are filled with wonderful old china. its setting of flowers is most appropriate. at oak knoll in danvers is still left the garden that the poet whittier so much loved. it stands at the side of the house, bordering the avenue that leads from the entrance gate. the paths have box borders, and inside is a wealth of bloom, the central feature being a fountain which was a gift from whittier to the mistress of the home. it was here he loved to come during the warm summer afternoons to pace up and down, doubtless thinking over and shaping many of his most noted poems. the garden has been carefully tended, and it shows to-day the same flowers that were in their prime during his life. another fine example of a box-bordered, old-time garden is seen at newburyport, massachusetts, on the estate of mrs. charles perry. here the colonial house stands back from the main road, with a long stretch of lawn at the front. passing out of the door at the rear, one comes upon a courtyard with moss-grown flagging that leads directly to the garden itself, fragrant with the incense of old-time blooms. at indian hill, the summer home of the late major benjamin perley poore at west newbury, much care has been given to the gardens to keep the flowers as they were in the olden days. a feature of this estate, in addition to the gardens, is a shapely grove of trees at the rear of the mansion, that took first prize years ago as being the finest and best-shaped specimens in the county. many of these trees were named for the major's friends, and they bear names well known to new englanders. more than a century ago, when salem was the trade center of the world, her gardens were renowned. these gardens were at the rear of the dwellings, and it was here that the host and his guests came for their after-dinner smoke, surrounded by the flowers that they loved. the first improvements in garden culture were made by one george heussler, who, according to captain jonathan p. felt, came to america in 1780, bringing with him a diploma given him by his former employers. previous to this period he had served an apprenticeship in the gardens of several german princes, as well as in that of the king of holland, and was, in consequence, well qualified for the work. the first experience he had in america in gardening was at the home of john tracy in newburyport, where he worked faithfully for several years. ten years afterwards he came to salem to take charge of the farm and garden of elias hasket derby, senior, at danvers, and later worked in other gardens in the city of salem, where he lived until his death in 1817. from the records we glean that on october 21, 1796, mr. heussler gave notice that he had choice fruit trees for sale at mr. derby's farm, while a newspaper of that date informs us that the latter gentleman had recently imported valuable trees from india and africa and that he had "an extensive nursery of useful plants in the neighborhood of his rich garden." his son, e. hersey derby, had a garden of great dimensions at his estate in south salem, or, as it was then called, south fields. this was in 1802, and for a long time the fame of this rare and beautiful garden was retained. both of the derby gardens were worthy of attention, and it is said by those in authority that in the derby greenhouse the first night-blooming cereus blossomed. this was in 1790, and the flower was the true _cereus grande flora_, not the flat-leaved cactus kind that is now cultivated under that name. it was largely the influence of the beautiful derby gardens that gave to salem its impetus for fine garden culture. who knows how many romances have been enacted in the old-fashioned gardens of long ago! they were fascinating places for lovers to wander and in their vine-clad summer-houses many a love-tale was told. the sight of an old-time garden recalls to-day the early owners, and in imagination one can hear the swish of silken skirts as the mistress of the home saunters down the central path to take tea with friends in her beloved arbor. there were warm friendships among neighbors in those days, and the summer season was marked by a daily interchange of visits; and so the old-time garden is fraught with memories of bygone festivities and perchance of gossip. after the close of commerce, the derby street houses, formerly occupied by the old merchants, gradually became deserted, and new houses were sought in different parts of the town, farther removed from shipping interests. chestnut street was the location of many of these new homes, and here the beautiful old-fashioned gardens were shown at their best. these were usually inclosed, and were reached by a side door, opening directly into a veritable wealth of bloom. among the extensive gardens cultivated here was a smaller one containing a greenhouse. this was owned by john fiske allen. mr. allen was an ardent lover of flowers, and was always interested in adding some new and rare specimen to his collection. from caleb ropes in philadelphia he purchased seed of the _victoria regia_, the water lily of the amazon. these plants blossomed for the second time in our country on july 28, 1833, the grounds being thronged with visitors during the time of their blossoming. this fact was called to the attention of william sharp, who had illustrations made for a book on the subject. the following year an extension was made to the greenhouse, and more seed was planted, which had come from england, and, in addition, orchids and other plants were grown. the humphrey devereux house stands almost directly across the street from the allen house. this garden, under the care of the next owner, captain charles hoffman, became famous, for here the first camellias and azaleas in this country were planted. one of the former plants is still seen in a greenhouse in salem. captain hoffman had a well-trained gardener, named wilson, whose care gave this garden a distinctive name in the city. this garden is now the property of dr. james e. simpson, and it shows like no other the direct influence of olden times. there is the same vine-clad arbor for the central figure, and the plants which are grown behind box borders are the same that grew in our grandmothers' time. this scheme has been carefully carried out by the mistress of the house, who is passionately fond of the old-time blossoms. in the garden of the cabot house on essex street, the first owner of the house imported tulips from holland, and, during the time of their blossoming, threw open the garden to friends. the later owners improved the garden by adding rare specimens of peonies and other plants, and have kept the same effects, adding to the gardens' beauty each year. while the old-fashioned garden has gone into decline, yet the modern-day enthusiast has brought into his formal gardens the flowers of yesterday. the artistic possibilities of these have appealed so strongly to the flower lover that they have been restored to their own once more. the box border is practically a thing of the past, having been replaced by flower borders of mignonette and sweet alyssum, which afford a fine setting for the beds. like pictures seem these old-fashioned gardens, framed with thoughts of days long gone by, and one unconsciously sighs for those days that are gone, taking with them the sweet odor of the flowers that grew in our grandmothers' time. chapter v halls and stairways the colonial hall as we have come to think of it--dignified and spacious, with characteristics of unrivaled beauty--was not the type in vogue in the first years of the country's settlement, but rather was the outgrowth of inherent tendencies, reflecting in a measure the breadth and attractiveness of the english hallway. the earliest dwellings were built for comfort, with little regard for effect, and they showed no hallways, only a rude entrance door giving directly upon the general and often only apartment. sometimes this door was sheltered on the outside by a quaint closed porch, which afforded additional warmth and protection from the driving storms of rain or snow; but it was never anything more than a mere comfort-seeking appendage, boasting no pretentions whatever to architectural merit. crude, indeed, such entrances must have seemed to the stern puritan dwellers, in comparison with those of their ancestral abodes; and it is not to be wondered at if in secret they sometimes longed for the hallways of their boyhood, where, after the evening meal in the winter season, the family was wont to gather about the roaring fire, perchance to listen to some tale of thrilling adventure. the first american hall came in with the building of the frame house, erected after the early hardships were over, and the colonists could afford to abandon their rude cabin domiciles. this was really little more than an entry, rarely characterized by any unusual features, but it served as a sort of introduction to the home proper, and was dignified by the title of hallway. the hall in the old capen house at topsfield, massachusetts, belongs to this type. [illustration: plate xii.--saltonstall hallway, about 1800.] later came the more pretentious hall, typical of the gambrel roof house, that enjoyed so long a period of popularity. this was generally a narrow passage, with doors opening at either side into the main front apartments, and with the staircase at the end rising in a series of turns to the rooms above. the first turn often contained in one corner a small table, which held a candlestick and candle used to light a guest to bed, or a grandfather's clock, the dark wood of its casing serving as an effective contrast to the otherwise light finish of the apartment. not infrequently the hall was solidly paneled, and a built-in cupboard or like device was sometimes concealed behind the paneling; or, as in a dwelling in manchester, massachusetts, it contained an innovation in the form of a broad space opened between two high beams, halfway up the staircase, arranged, no doubt, for the display of some choice possession, and showing beneath a motto of religious import. [illustration: plate xiii.--hallway, lee house, 1800.] in the better class of houses of this period, the hallway sometimes extended the width of the dwelling, opening at the rear on to the yard space. this type was the forerunner of the stately attractive hall that came into vogue in the last half of the eighteenth century, and continued in favor during the first years of the nineteenth century, with the advent of the wooden and brick mansion. belonging to the earlier class are the warner and stark halls in new hampshire. the former is paneled from floor to ceiling, the white of the finish now mellowed to ivory tones, and serving to display to advantage the fine furnishings with which it is equipped. at the rear it opens upon a grassy yard space, shaded by tall trees, thought to be the site of the old slave quarters, long since demolished. the walls show several adornments, among the most interesting being the enormous antlers of an elk, which, tradition tells, were presented to the builder of the dwelling by some of the indians with whom he traded, as an evidence of their friendship and good will. the latter hall is of similar type, entered through a narrow door space and continuing the width of the dwelling; it ends at the rear in a quaint old door that shows above its broad wooden panels a row of green bull's eyes, specimens of early american glass manufacture, still rough on the inside where detached from the molding bar. this door gives upon an old-time garden plot, fragrant with the blooms of its original planting, and preserving intact its early features. rare bits of old furniture are used in the equipment of this hall, and the paneled walls are hung with family portraits. when unwearied toil had made living considerably easier, and many of the merchants had amassed fortunes, there sprang up, in both the north and the south, those charming colonial mansions that were the fit abode of a brave race. they demanded hallways of spacious dimensions, and into favor then came the broad and lofty hall, embodying in its construction the highest development of the colonial type. quite through the center of the house this hall extended, from the pillared portico and stately entrance door, with its fan lights and brazen knocker, to another door at the rear, through the glazed upper panels of which tantalizing glimpses could be obtained of tall hollyhocks and climbing roses growing in the old-fashioned garden just without. [illustration: plate xiv.--hallway, tucker house, about 1800.] in a measure this hall was a reproduction of the english type, particularly in its spaciousness of dimension. unlike this type, however, it lacked the dominant influence of the fireplace, and in its construction it showed several independent features, all tending to emphasize the attractive dignity suggested in the broadness of outline. often an elliptical arch spanned the width at about one third the length, generally serving to frame the staircase, and tending to make dominant the attractiveness of this feature. this was usually little more than a skeleton arch, being a suggestion, rather than a reality, sometimes plain, and sometimes slightly ornamental. this feature is shown in the lee hall at salem, and in the main hall of the old governor wentworth house at little harbor, new hampshire. this latter hall is particularly interesting, not only for its beauty of construction, but also for its historic associations. under its arch, framing the fine old staircase, men prominent in the history of the state and country have passed, and on the walls and over the door are still seen stacks of arms, thirteen in number, the muskets of the governor's guard, so long dismissed. [illustration: plate xv.--hallway, wentworth house, 1750.] the most important feature of all these halls was the staircase, and in its construction the greatest interest was centered. generally it ascended by broad, low treads to a landing lighted by a window of artistic design, and continued in a shorter flight to the second floor apartments. it was always located at one side, and generally near the rear, to allow the placing of furniture without crowding. the balusters were usually beautifully carved and hand turned, with newel posts of graceful design; and sometimes even the risers showed carved effects. the cap rail was usually of mahogany. hard wood was sometimes used in the construction of the staircase, the treads in this event being dark and polished, while soft wood painted white was also much used. the finish of the walls in this type of hall varied. some were entirely paneled, others showed a quaint landscape paper above a low white wainscot, and still others showed hangings of pictorial import, framed like great pictures. to the last-named class belongs the lee hall at marblehead, considered to be one of the finest examples of its type extant. black walnut is the wood finish here, and the hangings, designed by a london artist, are in soft tones of gray, beautifully blended, and represent scenes of ruined greece, each set in a separate panel, handsomely carved. occasionally, to-day, a staircase of the spiral type is found,--a type that possesses certain satisfying characteristics, but which never enjoyed the popularity of the straight staircase. some few of the staircases in the old derby street mansions at salem are of this type, as is the staircase at oak knoll, in danvers, the poet whittier's last residence. the common name for this type of staircase was winder. a large number of representatives of the finest type of the colonial hall are scattered throughout the north and south, and their sturdiness of construction bids fair to make them valued examples indefinitely. one particularly good example is shown at hey bonnie hall, in bristol, rhode island, a mansion built on southern lines, and suggesting in its construction the hospitality of that section. here the hall is twenty feet wide; the walls are tinted their original coloring, a soft rich green, that harmonizes perfectly with the white woodwork and the deep, mellow tones of the priceless old mahogany of the furnishings. a well-designed, groined arch forming a portion of the ceiling, and supported at the corners by four slender white pillars, is one of the apartment's attractive adjuncts, while the dominant feature is the staircase that rises at the farther end, five feet in width, with treads of solid mahogany and simple but substantial balusters of the same wood on either side. the upper hall is as distinctive as the lower one, and exactly corresponds in length and width. wonderful old furnishings are placed here, and at one end is displayed a fine bit of architectural work in a fanlight window, overlooking the garden. one wonders, when viewing such a hall as this, how this type could ever have been superseded in house construction, but with the gradual decline in favor of the colonial type of dwelling, it was abolished, and in place of its lofty build and attractive spaciousness, halls of cramped dimensions came into vogue, culminating in the entry passage typical of houses built toward the middle of the nineteenth century. happily, present-day house builders are coming to a realizing sense of the importance of the hallway, and are beginning to appreciate the fact that, to be attractive, the hall must be ample, well lighted, and of pleasing character. with this realization the beauty of the colonial hall has again demanded attention, and in a large number of modern homes it has been copied in a modified degree. chapter vi fireplaces and mantelpieces it is a far cry from the fireplaces of early times to those of the present, when elaborate fittings make them architecturally notable. we read that in the middle ages, the fire in the banquet hall was laid on the floor in the center of the large apartment, the smoke from the blazing logs, as it curled slowly upward, escaping through a hole cut in the ceiling. later, during the renaissance period, the fire was laid close to the wall, the space set apart for it framed with masonry jambs that supported a mantel shelf. a projecting hood of stone or brick carried the smoke away, and the jambs were useful, inasmuch as they protected the fire from draughts. from this time, the evolution of the fireplace might be said to date, improvement in its arrangement being worked out gradually, until to-day it is numbered among the home's most attractive features. it is interesting to note, in reference to these latter-day specimens, that many of them are similar in design to those of the renaissance, louis sixteenth, and colonial periods. not a few of the early fireplaces were of the inglenook type, a fad that has been revived and is much in evidence in modern dwellings; and many of them followed certain periods, such as the queen anne style and the elizabethan design. several, too, were topped with mantels, features practical as well as ornamental, which are almost always associated with the fireplaces of to-day. many of the old mantels were very narrow, prohibiting ornamentation with pottery or small bits of bric-a-brac; they were so built, because the designers of early times considered them sufficiently decorative in themselves without any additional embellishment, and their sturdiness and architectural regularity seem to justify this opinion. mantels and fireplaces of early renaissance type show in detail an elegance that is characteristic of all the work of that period, the italian designers being masters in their line. in the baronial halls of merrie england, we find huge fireplaces, wide enough to hold the yule log, around which, after the chase, the followers gathered to drink deep of the wassail bowl. such pictures must have lingered long in the minds of the colonists in their new surroundings, and to us they are suggestive of the squire in "old christmas," who, seated in his great armchair, close by the fire, contentedly smoked his pipe and gazed into the heart of the flickering flames, filled with the joy of his ancestral possessions. [illustration: plate xvi.--historic fireplace at ipswich, mass.] life with the early colonists was a stern reality. the climate here was far more rigorous than that of the motherland, and a home and a warm fire were the two necessities first demanded. logs from the near-by forest afforded the former, while rocks taken from the clearings supplied the latter. the fireplaces of those days were perhaps the largest ever built in any land, some ten feet or more in depth, and broad enough to hold the logs which were stacked just outside the cabin door. the rude stones which formed the fireplace were piled wall fashion, the largest at the bottom and the smallest on top, the chinks between made strong by daubings of clay. later, the builders gave a more finished effect to this feature, and the hearths were then extended many feet into the single large apartment, while on either side were placed rude, home-made benches with high backs, to shield the inmates from the cold felt outside the circle of the fire's warmth. [illustration: plate xvii.--old fireplace in wentworth house, portsmouth, n. h.] at the rear of the fireplace was arranged a huge backlog, to afford protection to the stones, and also to throw the heat into the room. this was often of unseasoned timber, that it might last the longer, two feet in diameter, and eight feet or more in length. firedogs were used to hold the smaller logs, while creepers were employed for the smallest of all, and to start the fire, small pine boughs and small timbers were heaped high, flint and tinder serving to ignite them. once started, the fire was kept indefinitely, being carefully covered at night or piled with peat; above the blaze swung the soot-blackened crane, with its various pots and kettles. such was the early colonial kitchen, the fireplace its dominant feature, the light from its glowing logs throwing into relief the sanded floor, bare, unplastered walls, and the rafters overhead. with the coming of prosperity, these rude log huts gave way to timber houses, two stories in height, and with their advent the better type of colonial fireplaces came into vogue. [illustration: plate xviii.--first hob grate in new england, waters house; mantel glass and fireplace, showing decoration of floral basket.] dating as far back as the earliest fireplaces are found fire sets, as they were sometimes called, comprising the hearth accessories necessary for an open fire. the oldest of these sets, which were in use long before coal was burned as fuel, consisted usually of a pair of andirons, a long-handled fire shovel, and a pair of tongs. in some cases more than one set of andirons was included, for in the great, cavernous fireplaces of the colonists' log cabins, the high supports used for the heavy forestick and logs were not suitable for the smaller wood, and creepers had to be set between the large andirons to hold the short sticks in place. bellows were often found beside the fireplace in those times, but the poker was rarely if ever included in fire sets, previous to the introduction of coal as a fuel. in material and design these fire sets, particularly the andirons, differed widely. iron, steel, copper, and brass were the metals most commonly used for their construction, although in other countries even silver was occasionally made into fire irons. as for design, they ranged from the very simplest and most unpretentious styles up through the quaint dogs' heads to the grotesque figures and elaborately wrought pieces to be found among good collections of antique hearth accessories. andirons for kitchen use were as a rule very plain and substantial. sometimes they were merely straight pieces supported by short legs and having uprights of either plain or twisted metal, topped by small knots of some sort. they were probably most commonly made of iron, and not a few were rudely hammered and shaped on the pioneer blacksmith's anvil. it is consequently little to be wondered at that many of the andirons once used in colonial kitchens give one the impression of having been designed for strength and utility rather than for ornament. the better class of andirons in use during the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth centuries were for the most part of graceful, but, at the same time, simple and dignified designs. the finest ones were of brass, which was kept brightly polished by the energetic housekeeper. short knobs or uprights were often placed a few inches back of the main uprights and served the double purpose of holding the forestick in place and of protecting the shining brass. occasionally andirons were made in rights and lefts with the shanks curving outward from the short knobs where they joined the straight, horizontal supports. [illustration: plate xix.--middleton house steeple top andirons, and bellows; southern andirons, atkinson collection.] among other popular andiron designs of this period were the twisted flame, the urn topped, the queer iron and brass dogs with claw feet, the colonial baluster, and the steeple topped. of these, the steeple-topped andirons were perhaps the rarest, while the colonial baluster pattern with ball tops was, without doubt, the most popular and commonly used. a good example of the style of andirons which came into favor during the latter half of the eighteenth century is found in the hessian design. they take their name from the fact that the upright of each iron is cast in the form of a hessian soldier, posed as if in the act of marching. since this particular pattern first made its appearance immediately after the close of the american revolution, it is not difficult to comprehend its significance, for it is a well-known fact that the patriotic colonists heartily hated the hired allies in the employ of king george of england who had fought against them. this humbling of the hessian to service among the flames and ashes, although only in effigy, seemed to afford the americans a great deal of satisfaction, if the great popularity of these andirons stood for anything. probably no finer collection of colonial hearths is to be found anywhere than in salem. the derby street mansions even now show wonderful bits of the skill which has made salem a name synonymous of the best in the architectural world. mcintyre designed many of these, following in some cases the style of the decorator, adams. many of the mantels show a wonderful harmony of contour, capped by a simple shelf, for the most part unadorned. one such is seen in the gove house on lynde street, its straight, simple lines affording dignity and grace that are most attractive. the decoration is the head of washington, fixing the period of its construction about the time of the revolution. other popular decorations were the eagle, which came into favor at the same period as the washington decoration, baskets of flowers, wonderfully delicate in their carving, garlands, and many such designs, in all of which mcintyre shows a versatility that, considering the limitations of his day, is truly remarkable. while many of the mantels were of wood, some few were of marble. two such of special interest are to be found, one in the thomas sanders's house on chestnut street, and the other in hon. david m. little's residence on the same thoroughfare. the former shows an exquisite design, supported on either side by caryatids, gracefully carved; and the latter, of the same period, is practically of the same design. a third marble mantel is found in the home of the salem club, formerly the residence of captain joseph peabody. this mantel is of florentine marble and was imported by the captain in 1819. it is particularly beautiful in its finish, and has served as an inspiration for many similar mantels to be found in new england. belonging to the early type is the quaint fireplace found in the hallway of the robinson house on chestnut street. this apartment was formerly the kitchen, and the fireplace in its original condition was discovered in the process of remodeling. upon investigation, it was found to be a composite of three separate fireplaces, built one within the other, and culminating outwardly in a small grate; and when opened, it showed portions of the old pothooks. it was restored to its original aspect, appearing to-day as it was first constructed, its narrow mantel adorned with rare bits of pewter. in what was formerly the home of mrs. nathaniel b. mansfield in salem, is a curious mantel, which was first owned by mr. fabens. it is one of the rarest bits of mcintyre's work, decorated with his best wrought and finest planned carving. another fine mantel is in the home of hon. george von l. meyer at hamilton, massachusetts. this is as historic as it is beautiful, and was part of the original equipment of the crowninshield house in boston. many of the later style fireplaces, more especially of the better class, showed firebacks. these were of iron, and were designed to keep the back of the fireplace from cracking. some of these old firebacks had flowers for ornamentation, while others showed decoration in the form of family coats-of-arms. in the pickering house on broad street, salem, is a quaint fireback which was made in the first iron foundry at saugus, now lynn. this has on the back the initials of the then owners of the dwelling, john and alice pickering, inscribed as follows, "j. a. p. 1660." this same alice pickering was very fond of dress, and an old record of 1650 tells that she wore to church a silken hood. for this offense she was reprimanded and brought before the church, but was allowed to go when it was learned that she was worth two hundred pounds. by the beginning of the eighteenth century, fireplaces had come to be considered of great decorative importance, and in an account written in 1750 isaac ware says of them: "with us no article in a well-furnished room is more essential. the eye immediately falls upon it on entering the room, and the place for sitting down is naturally near it. by this means it becomes the most prominent thing in the furnishing of the room." the popularity of the fireplace was somewhat checked in 1745 through the invention of the franklin stove, which immediately came into favor. these stoves were constructed of iron, with trimmings of rosettes and railing and knobs of varying size; in appearance they were very similar to the small, open fireplace with andirons for burning logs. as heat producers, however, they were a decided improvement over the old-time hearth, which in many cases smoked abominably, and sent much of the heat up the chimney instead of into the room. the new stoves proved economical, and there was but little waste of heat through the pipes connecting them with the chimneys. in the dining room of harriet prescott spofford's house at newburyport is one of these stoves, before which whittier delighted to sit during his frequent visits to this old home. it is a fine specimen of its kind, and as interesting in its way as the quaint room which it graces. for many years this dwelling served as an inn, kept by one ebenezer pearson, being one of the favorite resorts for pleasure parties, and in the old-time dining room much brilliant parrying of wit took place, as distinguished visitors amiably chatted over their teacups. later in the eighteenth century, another form of heating came into vogue. this was the fire frame, which appeared about thirty years after the invention of the franklin stove, and in type was something of a compromise between the open fireplace and the stove, possessing certain characteristics of each. it was so arranged that it could be used in a fireplace that had either been filled in with brick, or finished with a fireboard, and in appearance was very similar to the upper part of a franklin stove. unlike the stove, however, it rested directly upon the fireplace hearth, instead of being raised from the floor. when coal first came into use, a salem man saw it burn, and so impressed was he with its worth that he told dr. george perkins of lynde street about it. the doctor immediately ordered a barrel of the fuel to be brought down in a baggage wagon from boston, and he also ordered a new-fangled stove of the hob grate order. the trial took place in the living-room of his home, and the neighbors gathered to watch it burn. so great was the success of the venture that a load of coal was ordered, and it landed at the north river wharf, where the water was then so deep that vessels could easily come to pier there. the cargo consisted of from one hundred and sixty to one hundred and seventy tons, considered an enormous load at the time. the first coal burned in a stove was in wilkes-barre, pennsylvania, where judge jesse fell, in the main room of the old tavern, in february, 1808, started the first coal fire. previous to that time coal had been burned in open forges, under a heavy draught, by a few blacksmiths, but it had never been adapted for household purposes, and the discovery that it could be used changed it from a useless thing to something of great value. in 1812 colonel george shoemaker discovered coal in the susquehanna valley, and he took twelve tons of it to philadelphia to sell. he disposed of two tons, but was compelled to give the rest away, as people considered him a fraud, proving that the use of coal was not general at this period. the hob grate came into use in 1750, a few years after the advent of the franklin stove, and it proved especially valuable for the burning of coal, when that product became popular. at first it was known as "cat stone," but later was called hob grate, by which name it is known at the present time. fenders of brass or iron were generally used with these grates, a small one placed close to the fire to prevent the ashes from falling over the hearth, and a larger one arranged around the entire fireplace. although hob grates were popular in northern houses, they were much more frequently used in the south. tiles were little used in america until the hob grate era, when they seem to have come into vogue. they were used to surround both hob grates and franklin stoves. some of them showed decorations of religious subjects, while others, like a set in a salem house, told in pictures the story of ã�sop's fables. there is a tiled fireplace still in existence in the saltonstall-howe house at haverhill, massachusetts, a dwelling originally owned by dr. saltonstall, the first medical practitioner in the city. this fireplace, in the dining-room, shows a double row of tiles, depicting a series of scriptural events, and it is equipped with a fender of ancient hammered brass, a family heirloom. the date of the fireplace can be definitely determined without knowledge of the time of the erection of the house from the fact of the absence of a mantel above. another similar fireplace adorned with quaint dutch tiles is shown in the pickering house living-room. like the saltonstall one, this fireplace has a beautiful, ancient fender of brass and a pair of bellows that were made by rev. theophilus pickering, a preacher in essex, massachusetts, who succeeded the rev. john wise. the first hob grate ever placed in a salem home is to be seen in the waters house on washington square. it is topped with one of mcintyre's famous mantels, showing that the original fireplace was brought down to be used with the grate. elias hasket derby, one of salem's most famous merchants, had a beautiful estate where market square now stands. the house, which was a marvel of elegance, stood in the center of the square, surrounded with terraced gardens that swept to the water's edge. after his death the house was too large and elegant to be kept up, and it was torn down and the land sold. the timbers of the house, the wood carving, and mantels were purchased by salem house owners, one hob grate finding its way to the old henry k. oliver house on federal street. this dwelling, which was built in 1802 by captain samuel cook for his daughter, who married mr. oliver, shows old-time fireplaces in many rooms, one of brass being found in the parlor. this was the first of its kind ever placed in a salem home, and it has a grate, on either side of which are brass pillars about three feet in height, with brass balls on top. a brass band extends from pillar to pillar below the grate, and the fender is also of brass. the mantel above is elegantly carved, and came from the elias hasket derby mansion. a soapstone fireplace with grate is shown in the general stephen abbot house on federal street, where general abbot, who served under washington, entertained the latter during his visit to salem. behind this fireplace is a secret closet, large enough to conceal three men, where, during troublous times, slaves were hidden. with the advent of the furnace, many beautiful fireplaces were closed up, or taken away to be replaced by modern ones that lacked in every respect the dignity and grace of the colonial specimens. happily this state of affairs was of short duration, and to-day the fireplace in all its original charm is a feature of many homes. to be sure, it is now a luxury rather than a necessity, but it is a luxury that is enjoyed not only by the wealthy classes, but by those in moderate circumstances as well, who appreciate the great decorative advantages of this feature. surely there is nothing more homelike than the warm glow of blazing logs, and it is a delight to sit before the sputtering flames, and enjoy the warmth and glow, as did our ancestors in the long ago. chapter vii old-time wall papers the records of many old-time features are scanty in detail, and, in consequence, their meaning is differently and often wrongly interpreted. even one who has spent years in delving into the past secures facts that differ materially from those obtained by some one else who has spent a like time in research, and thus accounts of varying dependency are propounded for reference. this is especially true in tracing the origin of the old picture wall papers that, with the revival of colonial ideas, are again coming into vogue. one may prate about the papers of to-day, but they cannot compare either in style or in effect with these early types, which show designs patiently and carefully worked out by men who were masters of their craft, and who, while lacking the advantages afforded the designers of the present, nevertheless achieved results that have never been surpassed. this fact is especially noteworthy, and it is wholly to the credit of these old-time craftsmen that their products are to-day an inspiration to architects and home builders who are seeking the best in the way of interior decoration. when wall papers first came into use is uncertain, for various authorities with apparently good reason set different times. china claims the honor of having originated them, as does japan, while holland boasts the distinction of having first introduced them into other lands. we know for a certainty that wall papers fashioned in strips three feet long and fifteen inches wide were made in holland centuries ago and introduced into england and france, and latter-day specimens, of similar type, are to be found in the homes of the colonists in our own land. the printing of these decorative wall papers was at first done from blocks, much as books were printed in early times. while it may not have been block printing, a unique wall hanging of like type was to be seen until within the last few years in a colonial house on essex street, at salem--the lindall-andrews dwelling, built in 1740 by judge lindall. this wall paper, printed and hung in squares, adorned the parlor at the left of the hallway, and before its removal a reproduction was made by bumstead for a descendant of the first owner to use on the walls of a room in her summer home. dr. thomas barnard, minister of the first church, who succeeded in arranging for a compromise at the time of leslie's retreat, lived in this dwelling during his pastorate, and on the walls of the hallway he caused to have painted by one bartol of marblehead, father of dr. cyrus bartol, a series of wonderfully realistic pastoral scenes, that have never been removed and are still to be seen, although their brightness has been dimmed by time. pictorial wall paper did not come into general favor in europe until the eighteenth century, the period that marked the adoption of the long roll still in vogue. to be sure, this type had been used much earlier by the chinese, but machinery for its fashioning was not invented until the latter half of the eighteenth century. up to this time, wall paper was made in small squares and laboriously hung,--a fact that made it expensive and accordingly prohibitive to all but the wealthy classes. jackson of battersea in 1744 published a book of designs taken from italian scenes and bits of sculpture. these were pictures done as panels and printed in oils, and resulted in the adoption of printed wall paper throughout england. from that time on, as their cost grew less, wall papers were extensively used in the motherland, which fact accounts for the general adoption of this type of wall hanging by the colonists, as the new land grew richer, and square, substantial homes were built. in the early days of the colonies, there were few mechanics who were able to furnish settings for the new homes, and consequently the home builders were forced to depend on foreign lands for most of their furnishings. among these, wall hangings were not included, due partly to the fact that there was no place for them in the rude cabins of early times, and partly because they were not then in general use. wall papers were first brought to this country in 1735, though, owing to their expensiveness, they were not used to any extent until many years later. the frugal housewife preferred to paint the walls either in soft gray tones, with a mixture of gray clay and water, or with yellow paint, ornamented with a hand-painted frieze of simple design, often supplemented by a narrow border stenciled above the chair rail. the earliest examples of this work depicted the rose, the poppy, the violet, or the pink, followed later by depictions of human interest, such as indians, wigwams, forest scenes, etc. this idea has been carried out in the recently renovated kimball house at georgetown, massachusetts, where the mistress of the home has used for wall adornment hand-painted friezes of soft-tinted flowers and emblematic designs. later, wall papers were brought here in quantities, and while a number of these rare old hangings have been removed and replaced by others of modern type, yet there are many left, each rich in memories of bygone days. the stories connected with them will never be known, save the legends which have been handed down from generation to generation, and which the present grandames love to repeat, as they sit at twilight by the open fire, and the roaring of the logs recalls to mind the olden days. much of the wall paper brought here was made to order from accurate measurements, and much was carefully selected in accordance with previous instructions. often special patterns were purchased for a new home by a young lover, and into their selection went fond and happy thoughts of the bride-to-be. even to this day one occasionally finds, stored away in some old attic, rolls of priceless paper which had been brought here years ago and never used. to the student and dreamer such a discovery is rich in association, and even to the practical home maker it is fraught with suggestions. there is something genuine about it, a touch of quaintness and simplicity that, for lack of a more accurate term, we call colonial. from one such attic, not so very long ago, were brought to light rolls of rare old paper, which had been hidden away under the eaves for forty years. upon investigation this was found to be the don quixote pattern, one of the three rarest types known, depicting the story of this quaint character from the time of his leaving his home accompanied by his faithful squire, sancho panza, to the time of his return, a sadder and wiser man. the scenes are worked out in soft gray tones, wonderfully blended, providing a harmonious and attractive ensemble. on the walls of a third-story room in the andrew house on washington square, salem, is shown a wonderful wall paper, representing an old-time english hunt. in the first picture of the series the soft green of the trees furnishes a contrasting background for the red coats of the hunters who, on prancing steeds, with yelping hounds grouped about, are ready for the start. then follow the run over hill and dale, past cottages where wondering peasants gape in open-mouthed admiration at the brilliant train as it flashes by, and the bringing of the fox to bay, ending with the luncheon upon the greensward, showing the huntsmen and their ladies fair enjoying a well-earned repast. [illustration: plate xx.--cupid and psyche paper, safford house.] when this dwelling was first built, the parlor, at the right of the hallway, was papered in a rare old hanging, that was removed when defaced, the owners at the time giving little thought to its value. in the room, since its erection, has hung a great, handsomely framed mirror, occupying an entire panel space. behind this mirror, a short time ago, when the room was to be repapered, a panel of the first wall covering was discovered, as distinct in coloring and detail as the day it was placed there. it is one of twelve panels,--consisting of twenty-six breadths each five feet seven inches long by twenty inches wide, fifteen hundred blocks being used in its printing,--depicting the marriage of cupid and psyche, psyche's lack of faith, and the sad ending of the romance, and is a pattern that is numbered among the most noted designed. the panel found here has been preserved, and the old mirror hung in place hides it from view. such papers are a keen delight to lovers of the colonial, for they convey their meaning clearly and attractively in well-chosen and harmonious coloring. contrasted with present papers, depicting designs figured or flowered, they show their worth, and it is little wonder that architects have discovered their fascination, and are having old ideas in new dress depicted on the walls of many modern dwellings. the colonists understood harmony in home decoration, and their wall hangings as well as their furniture were carefully chosen. they purchased papers to suit their apartments, and the colors were selected with a view to the best effect, so that the soft white of the woodwork might be in keeping with their pictorial value. consistency is the keynote of the colonial interior, and it is this feature that has given to homes of this type that touch of distinction that no other period of architecture possesses. [illustration: plate xxi.--venetian paper in wheelwright house, newburyport.] the old wall papers all represent foreign scenes, those of france and england predominating, the latter in a greater degree than the former, though the french papers were more highly finished than the english. when the colonist became prosperous, and the newest fashions of the motherland were eagerly copied, wall papers of both types were imported; many of these are still preserved, showing shadings done by hand with the utmost care, and colorings of lovely reds, blues, and browns, all produced by the use of from fifteen to twenty sets of blocks. [illustration: plate xxii.--roman ruins paper, lee mansion, marblehead.] one of the most exquisite of french papers is shown in the knapp house at newburyport, massachusetts, built by a revolutionary hero, at the time of the erection of the lee mansion at marblehead. this paper is thought to have been fashioned in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, and in type it is like that found on the hall of the "hermitage," andrew jackson's residence near nashville, tennessee. it is produced in wonderful shades of soft green, red, peacock blue, and white, all undimmed by time, and it represents scenes from fã©nelon's "adventure of telemachus," a favorite novelty in paris in 1820. [illustration: plate xxiii.--adventures of telemachus paper, nymphs swinging.] other fine examples of this type of paper, which have never been hung, are still preserved in the home of major george whipple at salem, having been imported about 1800. these show different scenes, including representations of gateways and fountains, with people in the foreground. natural scenes were favorite themes with many designers, one such example being a venetian scheme still shown on the walls of the wheelwright house in newburyport, a fine, colonial dwelling, built a hundred years ago by an ancestor of william wheelwright, whose energies resulted in the first railroad over the andes. this paper is found in the drawing-room, and another, illustrative of a chariot race, is shown in one of the chambers. the bay of naples was another favorite theme with designers; in fact, it was numbered among the best-liked subjects. its faithfulness of detail and exquisite coloring are no doubt responsible for this popularity, and then, too, no other subject could better bear repetition. other favorite views were scenes of france, more particularly of paris, and these types were in great favor during washington's administration and that of john adams, though later they lost caste. the new landscape papers suggest the old ones, though they are unlike them in tone and character, except in cases where specimens have been taken as models and copied with faithful exactness. such instances, however, are rare. the best examples of old specimens of this type date from twenty-five years prior to the revolution up to about fifty years afterwards. fine examples of such paper are still to be seen at the lee mansion at marblehead, now the home of the marblehead historical society. these, like many others, were made to order in england by accurate measurements, proof positive of this fact being gleaned a few years ago when the panel between the two windows in the upper hall was peeled off, and on the back was found the following inscription, "11 regent street, london. between windows, upper hall." they are all excellently preserved, and constitute probably the most remarkable set in america. for the most part, they are done in gray, outlined in black, and depict old roman ruins, set like framed pictures, in alternation with strange heraldic devices, like coats of arms. in some of the rooms the papers are in sepia tones, showing castellated scenery, sailboats gliding over lakes, and peasant figures loitering along the shore. another interesting wall paper is found at hillsboro, new hampshire, in the home of governor pierce, father of franklin pierce, fourteenth president of the united states, which is now used as an inn. the room that it adorns is set apart, and the pattern depicts galleys setting sail for foreign lands, while to the music of the harpsichord, the gentry dance upon the lawn. in its prime this estate was one of the show places of hillsboro, with beautiful gardens surrounding the house, and interesting features in the way of peacocks that proudly displayed themselves to the gaze of admiring guests. unlike these old-time papers, and yet equally as distinctive, is the wall covering in the hall of the warner house at portsmouth, new hampshire. this is a series of paintings, extending the length of the staircase, and constituting the most unique wall adornment in the country. ever since the hall was finished, there has been displayed at the staircase landing, in the broad spaces at either side of the central window, life-sized paintings of two indians, highly decorated and finely executed, thought to be representations of fur traders of early times; but the rest of the series was lost to view for a long time until about sixty years ago, when the hall was repaired. during the process of renovation, four coats of paper that had accumulated were removed, and as the last coat was being torn off, the picture of a horse's hoof was disclosed. this led to further investigation, and soon a painting of governor phipps, resplendent in scarlet and yellow, seated on his charger, was brought to light, followed by the representation of a lady carding wool at a colonial spinning-wheel, who had been interrupted in her task by the alighting of a hawk among chickens. next came a scriptural scene, that of abraham offering up isaac, followed by a foreign city scene, and several other sketches, covering in all an area of between four and five hundred square feet. the entire paintings to-day are presented in their original beauty, and they lend to the fine hall an atmosphere of interesting quaintness. but whatever their type, the old wall hangings are always attractive. sometimes it is the subject that most strongly appeals, again it is the coloring, or it may be the effect, but in any event each and every one serves the purpose for which it was intended, and a room hung with old-time wall paper is undeniably beautiful, affording a setting that modern effects rarely equal. chapter viii old chairs and sofas there is a charm about old furnishings that cannot fail to appeal to all lovers of the quaint and interesting, and a study of their characteristics is a diversion well worth while. old-time cabinet-makers understood the value of bestowing upon details the same consideration they gave main features, and, as a result, their work shows that harmony that gives to it an interest not found in later types, and which, more than anything else, has helped bring it into prominence in the equipment of modern dwellings. while this is true of all colonial fittings, it is especially true of the chair, for this article more than any other depicts the gradual betterment of rudely formed beginnings culminating in the work of the three master craftsmen, chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton, whose designs, even to-day, serve as an inspiration to high-class cabinet-makers. in the early days of the colonies, chairs were scarce appurtenances, and the few used, generally not more than three in number in each home, and known as forms, were very rudely constructed, being in reality stools or benches, fashioned after the english designs then in vogue. later, these developed into the high-backed settles, which are so much used in a modified form to-day. [illustration: plate xxiv.--queen anne, fiddle back; queen anne, stuffed chair; dutch chair, carved; empire lyre-backed roundabout on chippendale lines, 1825.] by the middle of the seventeenth century, chairs had come into more common usage, the type then in favor being strong and solid of frame, with seat and back covered with durable leather or turkey work. generally, the legs and stretches were plain, though sometimes the legs and back posts were turned. specimens of the turned variety, which are the first seats that really could be termed chairs, are very scarce to-day, the best examples being found at pilgrim hall at plymouth, in the home of hon. john d. long at hingham, massachusetts, in the heard house at ipswich, massachusetts, and in the waters collection at salem, where one specimen shows a covering which is a reproduction, having been fashioned to exactly match in design and texture the original one it replaced when that one wore out. the year 1700 marked the introduction of the slat-back chair, which enjoyed a long period of popularity. the number of slats at the back, characteristic of this type, varied with the time of making, the first specimens showing but two, while later types showed five. these chairs were solid and strong of frame, and in pennsylvania were made curved to fit the back, affording a comfortable support. they included, in addition to ordinary chairs, armchairs, and it was to an armchair of this make that benjamin franklin affixed rockers, thus inventing the first american rocking-chair and inaugurating a fashion that has never waned in popularity. this first rocking-chair and its contemporaries, which did not antedate the revolutionary war by any great number of years, had rockers that projected as far in the front as they did at the back,--a peculiarity that makes them easily recognizable to-day. later, this objection was remedied, and the present type of rocking-chair came into fashion. [illustration: plate xxv.--chippendale, lord timothy dexter's collection, h. p. benson; french chair, showing empire influence; flemish chair; banister-back chair.] from 1710 to 1720 the banister-back chair was much used, though it never enjoyed equal favor with the slat-back type. instead of the horizontal slats typical of the earlier model, the banister-back chair showed upright spindles, usually four in number, and generally flat, though sometimes rounded at the back. its seat, like that of the slat back, was of rush, and it was fashioned of either hard or soft wood, and almost always painted black. one interesting example of this make is found at "highfield," the ancestral home of the adams family at byfield, massachusetts, having been brought here in the early days of the dwelling's erection by anne sewall longfellow, who came here the bride of abraham adams, and who brought the chair herself from her old home across the fields that divided the two estates, so that no harm would befall it. it has been carefully treasured by her descendants, and to-day occupies its original resting place by the side of the wide old fireplace, where, on the night before the battle of bunker hill, leaden bullets used in that historic encounter were cast. slightly later than these types came the dutch chair, sometimes severely plain in design, and again pierced and curiously carved. one excellent example of this model, formerly owned by moll pitcher, the famous soothsayer of lynn, who told one's fate by the teacup at her home at high rock, is now preserved in a chestnut street dwelling at salem, and shows the straight legs and straight foot of the best class of the dutch type, and the usual rush seat. most dutch specimens found their way to dutch settlements, though many were brought to new england direct from northern holland. easy chairs which came into style not long after the slat-back model, proved the most comfortable type yet invented, and served as a welcome variation from the straight and stiff-backed chairs up to that time in favor. they were stuffed at back and sides, and covered with patch or material of like nature. owing to the amount of material which was used in stuffing and covering them, their cost was considerable, varying from one to five pounds, according to the style and quality of covering used. the most common and popular chairs of the eighteenth century were those of the windsor type, manufactured in this country as early as 1725, and deriving their name from the town in england where they originated. the story of their origin is most interesting. the reigning george of that day, the second of his name, saw in a shepherd's cottage a chair which he greatly admired. he bought it to use as a model, thus setting the stamp of kingly approval on this type, and bringing it into immediate favor. it is not related what color he had his chairs painted, but the general coloring employed was either black or dark green, though some chairs were not painted at all. the finish of the back of this type was varied to suit different fancies, some few having a comblike extension on top as a head-rest, while others had a curved or bowlike horizontal top piece, like a fan. these types originated the names comb back and fan back, by which windsor chairs of these types are known. american manufacturers in general copied the english styles, though they also developed several variations. many american windsors, particularly the fan backs, are equipped with rockers, the date of their manufacture coming after the revolution. [illustration: plate xxvi.--chippendale arm chair, showing straight, square legs; chippendale chair; chippendale, one of a set of six, showing rosette design; chippendale arm chair with cabriole legs, ball and claw feet.] but windsor chairs, popular and fine as they were, by no means were the best type developed in this century, for this period marked a great change in the history of cabinet-making, resulting in the development of wonderful designs, exquisitely blended and finished. first on the list of the new master craftsmen was chippendale, who in 1753 issued his first book of designs, and whose models were given first consideration for more than thirty years. then, in 1789, followed hepplewhite, and two years later came sheraton, while lesser lights, such as the brothers adam, manwaring, ince, and mayhew, all contributed their share to the betterment of chair manufacture. the chair seems to have been chippendale's favorite piece of furniture, and in its design he has blended the finest points in french, dutch, and chinese patterns. his first chairs showed dutch influence, and for these he used the cabriole leg, greatly improving its curving, with the dutch or ball-and-claw foot, the latter more frequently than the former. his chair seats were broad and flat, and in his backs he disregarded the usual dutch types, his uprights generally joining the top at an angle, and his top piece being usually bow-shaped. his backs were a little broader at the top than at the bottom, and he used the central splat carved and pierced. next, his chairs showed louis the fifteenth characteristics, notably in the splats, which were often handsomely carved and pierced. during this time he produced his ribbon-back chair, though his best chairs, showing this influence, were upholstered armchairs, with legs terminating in french scroll feet. later, he introduced in his chairs gothic and chinese features, even though the backs still preserved the dutch and french features. finally, the details of the several features became much mixed, and at length resulted in a predominance of chinese characteristics. most of his chairs were done in mahogany, which was a favorite wood in his day, and his skill is especially displayed in the wonderful carving which is typical of much of his work. not only are his chairs excellently proportioned, but they are so substantially built that even to-day, after more than one hundred and fifty years' usage, they show no sign of wear. [illustration: plate xxvii.--empire sofa; cornucopia sofa; sofa in adams style, about 1800.] not a little of his work found its way to new england homes, many fine specimens at one time gracing the dwelling of "lord" timothy dexter, newburyport's eccentric character, who made his fortune by selling warming pans to the heathen, who used the covers for scooping sugar, and the pans for sirup. his home was filled with quantities of beautiful furniture, including many excellent chippendale chairs. hepplewhite, the second of the master cabinet-makers, succeeded chippendale in popular favor in 1789, and his furniture, while much lighter and consequently less durable than that of his predecessor, showed a beauty of form and a wealth of ornamentation that rendered it most artistic. he employed not only carving of the most delicate and exquisite nature, but inlay and painting as well, introducing japanning after the style of vernis-martin work. the shield or heart-shaped back is one of the characteristics of his chairs, though he also used oval backs and sometimes even square backs. they are all very graceful and delicate, with carved drapery, and many of the shield-shaped type show for decoration the three feathers of the prince of wales, hepplewhite being one of the prince's party when sentiment ran strong during the illness of george iii. other decorations employed by him were the urn, husk and ear of wheat. the wood he generally used was mahogany, though occasionally he made use of painted satinwood. [illustration: plate xxviii.--sheraton, mahogany frame, about 1800; sheraton with solid arms and straight, slender legs; sheraton, about 1790. note the graceful curve of the arms.] following close upon the heels of hepplewhite came sheraton, the last of the three great masters in cabinet-work. his designs were delicate, but strong, and generally his chair backs were firmer than those of hepplewhite. when he had exhausted other forms of decoration, he indulged his fancy for brilliant coloring, mixing it with both inlay and carving. later he embellished his work with the white and gold of the french style, finally employing features of the napoleonic period, such as brass mounts and brass inlay. his last seats show the influence of the empire type, which came into vogue in the early days of the nineteenth century, and the curved piece which he brought in about 1800 served as a model for nearly a century, though it was not adorned with the brass mounts that he had intended. his greatest glory as a constructor lies in his skillful workmanship and his excellent choice of woods,--satinwood, tulipwood, rosewood, applewood, and occasionally mahogany, being his selection; and as a decorator in the color and arrangement of his marquetry, as well as in the fact that he never allowed consideration of ornament to affect his work as a whole. among the chairs he fashioned was one that has come to be known in this country as the martha washington chair, from the fact that a specimen of this type was owned at mount vernon. several excellent examples of his chairs are found at "hey bonnie hall," in bristol, rhode island, one of them being the chair in which john adams is said to have died. chairs of all types are found in any number of old-time homes, those in salem being as representative as any, for to this old seaport more than to any other, in proportion, rare furnishings were brought. many of the pieces are of historic interest, such as the old-time chair of flemish make, brought over in the ship _angel gabriel_, which was wrecked off the coast of maine; much of its cargo was recovered, including this old chair, which was later brought to salem in another ship. another fine old specimen is the armchair, for many years the prized possession of hawthorne, and an heirloom in his family, which he presented to the waters family, in whose possession it now is. with the passing of sheraton, empire models held full sway, and, while some of these were comfortable and graceful, the majority were massive, stiff, and extreme in style. early nineteenth-century chairs manufactured in america are of this type, some of them of rosewood, some of mahogany, and some painted, while many are of mahogany veneer. but while chairs were the most common seats in the colonies, they were not the only ones, for old-time homes were supplied with sofas as well. to be sure, these did not come into use until many years after the advent of the chair, the time of their appearance being about the year 1760; the majority shown are the work of the master cabinet-makers. sheraton models are those most commonly found here, though the earliest specimens are of chippendale manufacture, excellent examples of his work being still found, many of them characterized by louis xv features. a special design of chippendale's much in favor was "the darby and joan" sofa, in reality a double seat, which model, as well as many others that became very popular, was never shown in his catalogue. [illustration: plate xxix.--sheraton, about 1800; sofa, about 1820; sofa, about 1820, winged legs.] sheraton sofas came in vogue about 1800, their graceful designs and handsome carving making them at once favorites. many of these showed eight legs, though later, when his designs became heavier and more elaborate, only four legs were used. the coverings of these later specimens were generally haircloth, fastened with brass nails. the brothers adam also made some of the sofas found here, their designs showing a peculiar slanting or curved leg which is known as the adam leg, and which is also characteristic of some of sheraton's pieces. about 1820 what was known as the cornucopia sofa came into style, the carving at the arms showing horns of plenty, which design was often repeated in the top-rail, while the hollow made by the curve of the decoration was filled with hard, round pillows, known as "squabs." contemporaneous with this type was the empire sofa, with winged legs and claw feet, often covered with haircloth. one example of this model, exquisitely carved, is in the possession of a salem family. but whatever their type or characteristic, the old-time chair and sofa are distinctive, and it is a tribute to their worth that in the equipment of modern homes designers are reverting to them for inspiration. likewise it is with relief that we welcome them, after so long harboring the ugly monstrosities that followed in favor the empire types. chapter ix sideboards, bureaus, tables, etc. the present interest in antiques has brought into prominence the old-time furnishings, and as a result ancient hiding places have been forced to give up their treasures, and hitherto little appreciated relics are now reinstated with all their original dignity. the architect of the twentieth century is responsible in a great measure for this, for in his zest to give to modern homes the best that could be afforded, he has seen fit to revert to early types for inspiration; and with the revival in favor of these specimens, genuine antiques have come to be appreciated, and their value has correspondingly increased. included among these old-time pieces are chests, which in early days did service for numerous purposes. in america they were first fashioned by workmen who came to this country from foreign lands, through the efforts of the first governor, john endicott, many of them being employed on plantations, where much of their work was done. these chests were made of the wood of forest trees, which then grew so plentifully, and are rude and simple in construction, in striking contrast to the rich, hand-carved, mahogany chests, which many of the colonists brought from the motherland, packed with their clothing, and which, later on, were shipped here in large numbers. old inventories frequently mention both these types of chests, those manufactured here generally being spoken of as "owld pine chests." they were principally used in the chamber and at one side of the fireplace in the general room, the larger ones to hold family necessities, such as the homespun clothing and anything else that needed to be covered, while the smaller ones served as receptacles for the skeins of wool from which the handy housewife fashioned the family wearing apparel. such chests were an intimate part of the home life in those early times, and viewing their quaintness it is not hard to picture the scenes of which they were a part, when the house mother, in her homespun gown, busily spun at her old clock wheel, drawing the skeins from the chest at her side, while the little ones, seated on rude benches before the open fire, carefully filled the quills for the next day's supply. mayhap the eldest daughter fashioned on the big wheel, under her mother's guidance, her wedding garments, weaving into them loving thoughts of the groom-to-be, while the song in her heart kept time to the merry whirr of the wheel. of the larger type of the "owld pine chest" is the treasured specimen at georgetown, known for many generations as the magic chest, and so called from the feats it is said to have performed in the early days of its history, such as walking up and down stairs, and dancing a merry jig when a deacon sat upon its lid. it stands to-day quiet and demure, giving no hint of its former hilarious tendencies, though it is no longer used for its original purpose,--the storing of meal for the family use. [illustration: plate xxx.--sheraton night table; block front bureau desk, owned by dr. ernest h. noyes, newburyport, mass.; cellarette, 1700, owned originally by robert morris.] with the betterment of financial conditions, the rude pine chests went out of fashion, and in their stead beautiful hand-carved specimens were brought from foreign countries. many of these show exquisite coloring, any number of examples being still preserved; sometimes they were placed in the chamber, but more frequently on the landing at the head of the stairs. [illustration: plate xxxi.--dressing glass with petticoat legs; empire bureau, 1816.] chests with drawers were in fashion as early as 1650, according to the old records, many of them handsomely carved, and all showing little egg-shaped pieces upon the drawers. some of the finest of these old chests are shown in the waters collection at salem. generally they were fashioned of oak, and a frequent characteristic was a lid on top which lifted off, allowing for the packing of large articles, while the drawers at the front were used for storing smaller things. sometimes chests are found constructed on frames, but not often. this type was probably fashioned to hold linen, being the forerunner of the high chest of drawers which came into vogue in the later days of the seventeenth century. up to some time after 1700, chests continued in general use, though it is doubtful if they were made in any great quantity after 1720. the number of legs found on these chests varies with the time of making, some showing six, while others have but four. [illustration: plate xxxii.--chest of drawers, 1710; six-legged high chest of drawers, about 1705.] with the advent of the high chest of drawers, other woods than oak, such as walnut and cherry, and later mahogany, became popular; the use of these woods produced a marked change in chest designs, notably in the massiveness of build. many specimens of both types are found throughout new england, one very fine example of the early type showing the drop handle, which is a characteristic of the early chest, being included in the nathaniel b. mansfield collection. another of the later type, now in the pickering house, carefully stored away that no harm may befall it, shows on one side the initials of colonel timothy pickering, who used it during his army days. [illustration: plate xxxiii.--dressing table with brass feet; bureau and dressing glass.] dressing tables were made to go with these chests, following the same lines of design, though constructed with four rather than six legs. these came to be designated as "lowboys" in distinction from the chests mounted upon high legs, which were known as "highboys." examples of both were found in the old general abbot house at salem, until a few years ago; while a highboy, showing bandy legs, a characteristic of the earliest high chest, is a prized possession in the benson home, also at salem. many highboys and lowboys show inlay work, one of the former, of english manufacture, being found in the warner house at portsmouth, while another, of different style, is shown in the osgood house at salem. lowboys were made to correspond with every style of the high chest, and frequently they were constructed of maple, beautifully marked, after the fashion of the chests made of walnut and cherry. highboys sometimes took the form of a double chest, showing drawers extending almost to the floor, and mounted on varied-style feet, frequently of the claw-and-ball type. these, as well as lowboys, continued to be regularly used until well into the last quarter of the eighteenth century. hepplewhite's book of designs, published in 1789, shows models for chests of drawers extending almost to the floor, but it is not probable that they were made in any number after this date. [illustration: plate xxxiv.--block front bureau desk, owned by nathan c. osgood, esq. one of the best specimens in new england; oak paneled chest, about 1675.] the desk occupied a prominent place in new england homes in the early days of the colonies, though not to the extent of the other and more necessary articles of furniture. it varied in size and design according to the period of its manufacture, the earliest type being little more than a box that locked, with flat or sloping top, and placed on the table when used. this type was often ornamented with rich carving, and sometimes it was arranged upon legs, with a shelf beneath. the form in common use about 1700 was known as the "scrutoir," being in reality a desk resting on a chest of drawers; the sloping front opened on hinges, and afforded a writing desk. one example of this type, fitted with ball feet, and showing secret drawers and many cupboards, is found in the ropes house in salem, being an inheritance from the original owner, general israel putnam. another of equal interest is in the home of mrs. guerdon howe at haverhill. this originally belonged to daniel webster, who was at one time a law partner of mr. howe's grandfather. this desk, which was brought to the house after the death of webster, is filled with old and interesting letters. [illustration: plate xxxv.--secretary, showing shell ornamentation; highboy with shell ornamentation and ball and claw feet, 1760; highboy with shell ornamentation.] the earliest "scrutoirs" were of foreign manufacture, chiefly english, but by 1710 they were being made in this country. these early american "scrutoirs" are very plain in form, generally made of cherry, though occasionally one is found constructed of walnut. after the first quarter of the eighteenth century, american manufacturers improved their output, and made some very handsome specimens of the type known as bureau desks. one excellent example of the very early bureau desk of foreign make is found in the possession of the alden family, having been brought to this country in the _mayflower_ by john alden himself. by 1750 the desk in its various forms had come to be considered an important part of the household equipment, and in their manufacture many woods were employed, such as mahogany, cherry, apple, and black walnut, sometimes solid, and sometimes veneered. the following thirty years saw the advent of many new styles, two of which were more dominant than the rest; one of these was the development of the early "scrutoir," and the other the forerunner of the bookcase desk or secretary. during this period chippendale designed several desk models, the most notable of which was probably his secretary, characterized by chinese fret designs in the glass doors, and an ingenious arrangement of secret drawers. in 1790 hepplewhite followed with his designs, many of which were severe in contour, being wholly straight in front and arranged with two glass doors above, sometimes fancifully framed. then sheraton's desks and secretaries came into favor; many of his models showed practical features and beautiful finish, and after 1793 were generally characterized by inlay work, with the lower portion consisting of a cupboard instead of the usual drawers. [illustration: plate xxxvi.--dressing table, 1760; mahogany commode, collection of nathan c. osgood, esq.] during these latter days of the eighteenth century, beautiful secretaries were manufactured in this country, ranging in form from the very plain to the very elaborate, but after 1800, when some few french empire desks found their way here, serving as models for american manufacturers, the domestic output became less graceful, depending for beauty on the grain of the veneering used. many of all these types of desks are found throughout new england, one particularly good specimen being shown in the noyes house at newburyport. this belongs to a period antedating the revolutionary war, and shows the oval which is characteristic of its type. among its features are paneled doors one and one half inches thick. though the date of their introduction was not until well along in the eighteenth century, sideboards are prominent among the old-time furnishings, and in the highest state of their development they were articles of beauty and utility. in reality they are a development of the serving table, which came into vogue in the first half of the eighteenth century, and in form are a combination of the serving table and its accompanying pieces. at first they were little more than unwieldy, unattractive chests of drawers, gradually developing to their best form, with carved front, slender legs, and other details. in their construction, mahogany was chiefly used, inlaid with satinwood, holly, tulip, and maple, and veneered occasionally with walnut; and they showed in their finished lines the best work of the skilled craftsman. the last type of the old sideboard showed empire characteristics, being more massive than graceful, but yet containing features of marked beauty. while chippendale is often credited with having made sideboards, no record of this fact is found among his designs, though he makes frequent mention of several large tables, which he calls sideboard tables. no doubt, many of the sideboards credited to him were made by shearer, a designer to whom belongs the credit of originating the sideboard, and who included in his designs pieces with curved and serpentine fronts, a style which was later perfected by hepplewhite. there is no doubt that hepplewhite made sideboards, for in his book of designs he shows a sideboard model, with a deep drawer at each end and a shallow one in the center, as well as four different designs in the table form, without the drawers, which are similar to chippendale's work. hepplewhite's sideboards are characterized by square legs, often ending in the spadefoot, the ends sometimes square and sometimes round, the front swelled, straight, or curved, affording a great variety to his work. generally his sideboards are made of mahogany, and almost invariably they are inlaid, though occasionally they show carving. sheraton also designed sideboards, and while in general appearance they somewhat resemble hepplewhite's designs, in many respects they are superior. they were equipped with any number of devices, such as cellarets, closets for wine bottles, slides for the serving tray, and racks for plates and glasses, and many of them are lavishly ornamented with inlay work, though few show carving. [illustration: plate xxxvii.--sheraton sideboard; simple form of sheraton sideboard, with line inlay around drawers and doors. date 1800.] examples of all these types are found in the colonies, one of hepplewhite design showing the fine inlay work and graceful proportions typical of his pieces and originally owned by governor wentworth, being in the possession of a salem family. another, of sheraton make, is preserved in the stark home, having been brought here from the governor pierce house at hillsboro. another of like make is found in the howe house, having originally belonged to an ancestor of the present owner, governor john leverett, governor of massachusetts during the time of king philip's war. shortly after 1800, the style of sideboard greatly changed, becoming more massive, with the body placed nearer the floor, and the legs shorter. french empire styles influenced the manufacture in this country to a great extent, though carving and the grain of the wood were still depended upon for ornament, rather than the french features. the best examples of this type are to-day found in the south; 1820-1830 saw the advent of a plainer model, being in reality an adaptation of one of sheraton's types; in the following years other variations were made, all showing the heaviness of the empire style in a more or less degree, until about 1850, when the architectural merits of the sideboard disappeared. intimately associated with the sideboard is the table which probably shows more variety in design than any of the other old-time furnishings. from the table board or top used in 1624, square, oval, or round in contour, evolved the butterfly table popular about 1700, many examples of which are found throughout connecticut. these followed in form the outline of a butterfly, and were supported by pieces of wood shaped much like the rudder of a ship. other types popular here were the dutch table, the hundred-legged table, the dish-top table, and the tea table. the first table used in this country was the table top, which was literally a board made separate from its supports, which was taken off and placed at one side of the room after meals. this showed different forms, and was known by different names, one called the chair table, and so constructed that when not in use it served as a seat, being probably the most unique. it was invariably fashioned with drawers. included in the later designs were writing tables fashioned by sheraton, showing elegant carving at the back, the most decorative of these, known as the "kidney" based table, being used either for writing or as a lady's worktable. another model of sheraton's was a worktable known as the pouch table, arranged with a bag of drawn silk. these were often fitted with drawers and a sliding desk, which drew forward from beneath the table top. the dining table of this period showed the pillar and claw style with central leg fixed to a block, on which the table hinged. this principle received the support of the english people for many years, and sheraton tables of this make had four claws to each pillar, and castors of brass. so much did sheraton designs resemble those of french artisans that only close inspection will decide as to which cabinet-maker a certain piece belongs. following this type came the telescopic table, showing extensions fitted through slides moving in grooved channels. other later tables were card tables, which closed and could be stood against the wall when not in use, the pie-crust table of the dutch style of make, and the table with scalloped moldings carved from solid pieces of wood, with legs terminating in claw-and-ball feet. tables of empire design often have brass feet and lyre supports, while others show the rope carving and acanthus leaf. popular types of the later days of the eighteenth century were pembroke tables, small and of ornamental design, with inlaid tops and brackets to supply the two side flaps, as well as pier tables, circular or serpentine in shape. chapter x four-posters at no time since the days of the renaissance has interest been so keen in interior decoration as it is at the present day, not only as regards the main living rooms of the home, but the sleeping apartments as well. this has resulted in a revival of old-time features, and the chamber fittings of the present in many cases are similar in type to those of early times, when purely classical designs were in vogue,--models that have never been surpassed in beauty by later designers, though many a fine piece of furniture has been made since then by expert cabinet-makers. early specimens showed a delicacy of touch and a mastery of thought that gave to them a lasting place in the world of architecture, and while the coming historian may dilate upon twentieth-century models, he cannot make any comparison that will in any way be derogatory to these wonderfully fine old pieces. in early days, labor was a very different problem from what it is to-day, years being often spent in the making of a single specimen of furniture, and, indeed, in some countries, a workman has been known to have spent his whole life in the fashioning of a single piece. taking these points into consideration, one cannot wonder that early century pieces are still as perfect as they were the day that they left the makers' hands, and it is with regret that he views the hurry and rush of modern times resulting in the practical abolition of hand carving, and the introduction of machinery that has helped in the deterioration of the art. reproductions, as they are made to-day, while in many cases very beautiful, cannot equal in finish the originals fashioned at a time when art was the first consideration. fortunately, many genuine antiques are still in existence, and present interest for the most part centers in their types and periods of manufacture. with so many periods and so many makers, it is not surprising that mistakes in these respects are sometimes made, especially as regards the bedstead. for the best of these, one need not search farther back than the seventeenth century, for the most valuable specimens were made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many of these to-day bringing from two to three hundred dollars apiece. of course, these fine beds were not the first beds used here, though no doubt the earlier types, as well as these later specimens, were imported from england, along with the other household furnishings. if any bedsteads were made here, they were undoubtedly simple and unpretentious, along the lines of the settle and board tables. the articles of furniture devised by people of different countries for comfort in sleep vary according to climate and the progress of civilization. the bed of our primeval ancestors consisted of dried mosses and leaves, with a canopy of waving leaves above. later, through the need of shelter from the frost and protection from crawling insects, a rude structure consisting of a framework of poles, covered with branches, was substituted. probably the first authentic representation of a bed is found on ancient egyptian tombs, depicting a long, narrow receptacle, suited for but one person. greek and roman beds, representations of which have also been found, are of the single type, resembling in shape the flemish couches made in the latter half of the seventeenth century, while the greek thalamos, another type, showed a framework of great beauty, curiously carved, and decked with ivory, gold, silver, and precious stones. roman luxury outvied that of greece, as is shown by specimens that have been found in pompeii, and the hangings of the bed, while receiving special attention, seemed to be less highly prized than the frame, probably on account of the mildness of the climate. the eleventh century saw the half-savage people of northern europe building beds into the walls of their rooms, and fitting them with doors and sliding panels to insure against the cold. these cupboard couches are reproduced in a modified form in many summer homes to-day, being arranged like steamer berths. after the norman conquest, beds of this type came into favor in england, though they were quickly superseded by a great oaken bed with roofed-over top. this was arranged in the center of the room, and heavily curtained for protection against the wind that blew in through the cracks of the poorly hung doors and the unglazed windows, closed only by loosely fitted shutters. many of these beds were of prodigious size, the most historic, "the great bed of ware" to which shakespeare alludes, being twelve feet square, built of solid oak, and finished with the most elaborate carving imaginable. this bed is known to have furnished sleeping accommodations for twelve persons at one time, and it has stood for nearly four centuries in an ancient inn, located in the town of ware. in style, this is a four-poster, and doubtless marks the induction of this, the most expensive but the most popular bed of its day. [illustration: plate xxxviii.--bedstead in middleton house, 1798.] old-time four-posters consisted, as do those we see to-day, of four posts, supporting a tester, and connected laterally by sidepieces which were almost always undecorated, as the bedspread was supposed to fall over the sides of the bed and cover them. a headboard was considered almost indispensable, although it is absent in some cases. it was usually rather low and decorated with carving, more or less elaborate. the footboard was sometimes used, but was quite often omitted in the older specimens, and seems to have come into favor later on, as an additional detail. when the posts were lowered, the footboard rose into prominence, but this was not until after the first quarter of the nineteenth century had elapsed. many of the beds had a canvas bottom, held in place either by iron rods or ropes, or sometimes by both. it was "sackcloth and ashes" at house-cleaning time in those days, for either kind required the united strength of several muscular arms to put it together. the hair mattress was unknown at that period, and in its place was used brown linen sacking filled with straw and buttoned at one side, so that the straw could be easily removed at any time. this formed the lower strata of the bed, and above it were laid innumerable feather beds, piled one above the other, so high that often steps were necessary assistants in getting into bed. [illustration: plate xxxix.--sheraton type, in kittredge house; four-poster, about 1825.] in colonial homes, where bedrooms were fireless, curtains and hangings were important accessories of the bed to shield the sleeper from drafts. these were often made of linen, handspun by some member of the household, and while many were white, some were in colors. one of these, of blue and white homespun pattern, edged with hand-made ball fringe, has been in constant use for generations, and as yet shows not the slightest sign of wear. it is now owned by a fortunate salem woman. [illustration: plate xl.--field bedstead, slept in by lafayette, in stark mansion. owned by mrs. charles stark, dunbarton, n. h.] many of these hangings were made of chintz and hand-embroidered linen, and in homes of limited means they were also made of patch, following the style of the quilt. blankets were likewise home-made, of handspun wool, adorned with roses in each corner, which gave them the name of rose blankets. a blue and white homespun counterpane added the finishing touch, and often the hangings of the bed were of this same material, the curtains being drawn back loosely so that, on cold nights, they could be permitted to fall about the bed. often both counterpane and hangings were finished with a hand-made netted fringe, varying in width from five to eight inches. while beds were a scarcity in the rude homes of our early ancestors, still they were sometimes brought here from over the seas, as is proven from an account written by rev. robert crowell in his _history of essex_, in which he speaks of two bedrooms in darius cogswell's house. these were divided off from the main room by handsome curtains that were stretched the whole way across, and, in the bed reserved for visitors, the guests of the night lay inclosed with curtains to exclude the night air; these, when drawn in the morning, allowed one to peer through the cracks in the shrunken logs at the world outside. most of our ancestors, however, were content with much simpler beds than this, for mere frames, with curtains and valances, were most frequently used, the beds stuffed with straw or feathers plucked from live geese, or poultry, and laid on the floor. among these early types are "cupboard" or "presse" bedsteads, frequently mentioned in the inventories from which we gather much of our information. these, when not in use, were fastened up against the wall, proving valuable space savers where space was limited. bunks were another type of the early bed in use here, one specimen, used in early days for slaves who were in the family, being still shown at the adams house at byfield. possibly the early settlers may have used a bed that is still in fashion among the kentucky mountaineers, known as "wild bill." this is a one-poster, rather than a four-poster, and occupies a corner of the loft in a log cabin. the side and end of the cabin serve for headboard and one side of the bed; saplings nailed to the solitary post that runs from roof to flooring supply footboard and sidepiece; springy poles, running crosswise, uphold the home-made straw mattress and feather bed. doubtless the rest of the mountaineer who uses this is sweet, but to one unused to it, it seems a diabolical bed! when life in the new country became easier, furniture of all kinds was brought here from england, much of it of the queen anne period. this comprised, among other details, four-posters made of black walnut, this wood having superseded english oak in popular favor during the preceding reign of william and mary. panelings and moldings that had done duty during the jacobean period were retained in all their splendor, and to these were added the new feature of the claw-and-ball foot. our oldest beds belong to this period, unless we consider presse bedsteads or cupboard bedsteads, already spoken of, as real beds. the dutch name for such contrivances was "slaw-bank," and they might be said to be the forerunner of the latter-day folding bed. mahogany was first used in england in the year 1720, and therefore it belongs to the georgian period. four-posters of this material, as constructed in the early days of their popularity, had slender and delicate posts, which were sometimes fluted and sometimes carved. in these earlier specimens the headboards were simply made and left undecorated. at this time great advance in the designing of furniture was made, for cabinet-makers published books of designs, and chippendale, who was doubtless the greatest english exponent of his craft, designed beds with footpieces and sidepieces, carefully paneled and carved. he used tall and slender posts, and carving of the most elaborate nature. genuine chippendale beds are rare in america, and they are not common in england, seeming almost as if he had executed this piece of furniture less frequently than any other. we have, however, beautiful specimens which were modeled after chippendale designs. in english furniture making, the brothers adam held the supremacy from 1775 until the end of the century. they endeavored to restore the simply classical styles of greece and rome, with greek ornamental figures, such as the acanthus, urns, shells, rosettes, and female heads. they made a smaller bed than the chippendale pattern, with lower posts and less abundant carving. hepplewhite's influence culminated some ten years later than that of the brothers adam. he designed four-posters of attractive delicacy, used carved rosettes and a delicately carved beading by way of decoration, and delighted to place an urn-shaped section, lightly festooned with drapery, on the post where the sidepiece joins the standard. [illustration: plate xli.--sheraton four-poster; four-poster showing decided english characteristics.] sheraton was the last of the noted cabinet-makers of the georgian period, commencing to publish his designs in 1790. they were distinguished for the use of inlaid work, and later on he developed painted designs. in his work he introduced many light woods, such as whitewood, satinwood, and sycamore, which, when painted green, was termed harewood. the trend of sentiment at that time seemed to be toward simplicity and delicacy. the last great change in the old four-poster was made, curiously enough, in deference to napoleon, for it was through his influence that ancient roman decorations, such as the laurel wreath and the torch, were revived. england had her mental reservations regarding this type, however, and by the time the fashion reached america it simply lowered the bedposts. it was the beginning of the end, however, and forty years later came the renaissance of black walnut, and with it the relegation of the old four-posters to attic and storehouse, or else to the chopping block. saddest of all, their owners were glad to see them go, on account of the difficulty of putting them together. in the revival of colonial fittings, the four-poster has again been restored to favor, and in many modern homes the old four-poster is the chamber's most pleasing feature. there are some wonderfully fine old four-posters in america. one of these, in the howe house at haverhill, showing slender posts, surmounted by the ball and eagle, is made of brass. originally it belonged to the first owner of the dwelling, dr. nathaniel saltonstall, a contemporary of george washington, and a descendant of sir richard saltonstall. it has never been out of the family since its importation, the present owner being the widow of the first owner's great-grandson. historic through the fact that it once graced the chamber of oliver wendell holmes is the exquisite four-poster now in a salem house. this is characterized by a richness of design that is most attractive, and the hangings are in keeping with the exquisiteness of the whole. in this same dwelling is another old poster, this time of the low type, that came into vogue about 1825. this shows but little of the carving that is a feature of the older types. other fine old four-posters can be found in salem. one is of hepplewhite make, showing the slender posts and fluting of his type, while another is considered one of the best specimens in new england, with a drapery of patch that is probably all of a hundred years old. at dunbarton, new hampshire, in the old stark mansion, is a fine example of the field bedstead, standing exactly as it did when lafayette occupied it so many years ago, and still known by the name then given to it, the lafayette bed. in the middleton house at bristol is a most interesting four-poster, done in white, the gift to a bride of long ago. lately this has been repainted exactly as it was when first placed in the house, the design depicted, that of the bow and arrow, showing as clear and dainty as when first traced. in another chamber in this same old home is another four-poster that was brought direct from leghorn. both of these rare specimens have been in the family since the building of the homestead. examples of these fine old beds are growing scarcer and rarer each year, and their value is correspondingly increasing. some years ago they could be had almost for the asking, but with their revival in favor, their worth has increased. they depict an era that is associated with the best in the way of design and craftsmanship, and not a few of them have historic associations that render them particularly notable. chapter xi mirrors the heavily freighted ships that came into the harbor in the days of salem's commercial prosperity brought in their holds many valuables, including mirrors, several of which are to-day found in salem homes. not a few of these are ancestral heirlooms, closely interlinked with interesting family histories, and their depths have reflected the faces of many old-time belles. even in the earliest days of the colonies, mirrors formed a part of the household accessories, for our puritan ancestors, scorning as they did all pretence of personal vanity, did not forbear to glimpse their appearance before they wended their way to service on sabbath morn. proof positive of their use at this time is to-day in existence in the form of inventories that list the prices and tell odd, descriptive stories concerning them, as, for instance, a record of 1684 that speaks of "a large looking-glass and brasses valued at two pounds, five shillings." the origin of the mirror is shrouded in mystery and the time of its invention uncertain, but there is no doubt that rude reflectors were made to serve the purpose in south europe and asia, at least three hundred years before the christian era. these were made of metal, varied in shape, and they were considered necessary toilet accessories. all were highly polished, and several showed handles elaborately wrought. small mirrors of polished iron or bronze were used by the early chinese, who wore them as ornaments at their girdles, attached to a cord that held the handle or knob. who knows but these may have been forerunners of the "vanity case" in use to-day! small circular placques of polished metal known as pocket and hand mirrors came into vogue between the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries. these, too, were worn at the girdle, and placed in shallow boxes covered with a lid. the cases were of ivory, beautifully carved with representations of love, romance, and, less frequently, of the hunt. looking-glasses when first used were fastened to the wall like panels, but in the fifteenth century they became movable. these earlier mirrors show a great variety of shapes, and were made of different kinds of polished metal. the venetians undoubtedly made the first looking-glasses, having been the ones to discover the art of coating plates of glass with an amalgam of tin foil and mercury. for over a century they guarded their secret well, and it was not until 1670 that the art became known in england through the keenness of an englishman named lambert. salem merchants sent their ships to venetian ports, and an occasional mirror of this make is found here. one of these is owned in salem. it is about a foot and a half in length, its frame of gilt surmounted by a cornice and gilt pineapple, with claw feet. the introduction of glass mirrors gave rise to a new industry,--the making of mirror frames. in this occupation, cabinet-makers found a new vent for their skill, since by far the larger number of frames were made of wood. of course, there were a few odd frames made, such as those of glass fitted together at the joints with gilt molding, but the majority were of wood. the different styles are characteristic of certain periods or designers, and it is upon the frame rather than upon the glass that one must rely for value, as well as for date of manufacture. previous to the revolution, the colonists manufactured little furniture, and were dependent upon england, holland, spain, and france for their house furnishings, including mirrors. many beautiful specimens thus found their way here, and many are still to be found in colonial homes. one such is owned in salem. this is a bilboa glass, an especially fine type, one of several still preserved in new england, principally in marblehead. there is a popular legend that these old glasses were brought from the bay of biscay by sailors for sweethearts at home, though some authorities insist that they were imported from italy and paid for with dried fish. however this may be, they are certainly excellent illustrations of the early craftsmen's skill. the distinctive feature of the bilboa glass is a column of salmon-colored marble on either side of the gilt frame. this marble is glued or cemented in small sections to the wood, and in some cases strips of marble form the border around the frame. it is ornamented on top by a broken arch surmounted by an urn. grotesque and grinning heads top the columns, and a narrow bead molding surrounds the glass and decorates the lower part in scroll design. [illustration: plate xlii.--girandole in george ropes house, 1800; girandole, 1800; constitution mirror, 1780.] the earliest type of looking-glasses came into vogue in the first half of the eighteenth century, during the reign of queen anne of england. the frames of simple wood gave little hint of the extravagant decorations that were to follow, the only ornamentation being gilded wooden figures and squat urns, which were occasionally used. [illustration: plate xliii.--picture mirror showing dawn, in adams house, 1703; english georgian mirror, 1750; two-piece looking-glass, 1750.] owing to the extreme difficulty of making large pieces of glass, and also because it was not deemed prudent to waste the smaller pieces, many of the queen anne mirrors were made of two pieces of glass arranged so that one plate overlapped the other. later, these parts were joined by strips of gilt molding. several of these mirrors are still in existence, one of the earlier type being owned by mrs. walter l. harris of salem, showing a simple glass with gilt figure ornament. one of the finest mirror designers was chippendale, who wrought out chinese patterns, his schemes showing a wonderful weaving of birds, flowers, animals, and even human beings. one design, typical of his work, shows a flat wooden frame cut in graceful arches, with a gilded eagle perched on top with outspread wings. gilt rosettes and flowers, as well as ornaments strung on wire, were frequently used by him, and are considered characteristic of his type. it was customary for the frames to rest on a pair of mirror knobs, which were fitted to the lower edge of the frame and screwed firmly to the wall. these knobs were often made of brass, but the most fashionable ones were of copper overlaid with battersea enamel, and framed in rings of brass. among the most quaint designs which were carried out on these mirror knobs were heads of prominent persons such as washington, lafayette, and lord nelson. bright-colored flowers and landscapes, the american eagle, and the thirteen stars, representing the original colonies, were also frequently used, as were the queer designs of the funeral urn and weeping willow, that seemed to especially appeal to our ancestors' taste. by the year 1780 american mirror manufacturers had evolved a style peculiarly their own, and the glasses made at that time were known as constitution mirrors. the frames were not unusual in design, generally being made of wood, in more or less elaborate shapes, but they were original in their decoration, especially in their tops. these generally were graced by the american eagle, the newly chosen emblem of the republic, executed either in plaster covered with gilt, or in wood. a good example of the constitution type is shown in the lord house at newton. the top shows the usual eagle decoration, though the cornice is overhanging, fixing the date of manufacture early in the nineteenth century. this mirror is especially historic, having belonged to the brilliant revolutionary hero, henry knox, general washington's most intimate friend. another handsome mirror of the same period is one that was originally in the harrod mansion at newburyport. it was one of the few things saved when the house was burned at the time of the great fire in 1812. this mirror now hangs in the home of a lineal descendant of the harrod family in salem. it is in perfect condition, and shows the eagle top and draped sides. the overhanging cornice came into vogue early in the nineteenth century. a mirror characteristic of this date is shown in the living room at "highfield," the byfield home of the adams family, built by abraham adams in 1703. it has a gilt frame of the ordinary picture type, and on account of its association is most interesting. a specimen of the same period is shown in the lord house at newton. this is decorated with the figure of a goddess sitting in a chariot drawn by two rams. the frame is of fine mahogany, with handsomely carved columns, simply ornamented. [illustration: plate xliv.--oval mirror, showing acanthus leaves, once on cleopatra's barge, the first pleasure yacht built in america; mirror, 1710, resting on ornamental knobs; mirror, 1810, in dudley l. pickman house.] other types of mirrors popular in the days of our forefathers were the mantel mirrors that came into favor early in the eighteenth century, first in england and later in america. their greatest period of popularity was from 1760 until the commencement of the nineteenth century. many of these glasses were oval in shape, though the majority consisted of three panels of glass separated only by narrow moldings of wood. this style was probably originated by some economical cabinet-maker who, in order to avoid the heavy expense which the purchase of large plates involved, designed these. they were most favorably received upon their introduction, and many of the old glasses to be found at the present day are of this style. one of the most valuable of these three-piece mantel glasses is that in the drawing-room of the pierce-nichols house on federal street at salem, the frame of which has attracted the attention of antiquarians all over the country. it was made for a bride, who in 1783 came to be mistress of this old home, and it shows a finish of gold and white harmonizing admirably with the surrounding white woodwork, exquisitely carved by samuel mcintyre, the noted wood-carver. its principal features are slender, fluted columns twined with garlands, which fancy is repeated in the decorations of the capitals. above the glass are two narrow panels, one of white ornamented with gilt, and the other of latticework over white. just beneath the overhang of the cornice is a row of gilt balls, a form of decoration that came into style during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and which continued to characterize a certain class of mirrors for several decades. late in the nineteenth century mirrors known as bull's-eyes and girandoles came into vogue. these were circular in form, the glass usually convex, and they were made by chippendale, the adam brothers, and others. the fact of their being convex rendered them impractical for common use, though it allowed for elaborate framing, and they were employed rather for ornament than for use. looking up the old definition, we find these glasses alone have the right to be called mirrors, and that all else save "circular convex" should, properly speaking, be termed looking-glasses. one good example of this type was in the george house at rowley, massachusetts, now demolished. it showed a heavy gilt frame, surmounted by an eagle. originally, there were shown in hamilton hall, at salem, two fine examples of girandoles, with glass pendants, which in the midst of lighted candles reflected myriad sparkles. interesting, indeed, would be the tales they could tell of fair ladies in powder and patches, and courtly gallants who in the long ago gathered in this famous hall to tread the measures of the minuet! these girandoles were the gift of mr. cabot, and they are now replaced by simpler examples, the originals having been given to the saltonstall family, in whose possession they still are. of the late colonial looking-glasses, there are two general types, the earlier dating back to about 1810 and characterized by an overhanging cornice, beneath which pendant balls or acorns are frequently found, with frames of wood carved and gilded, or painted. further decoration is found in a panel beneath the cornice ornamented with various designs, such as a horn of plenty, floral subjects, or classical scenes. in the later type, the cornice has disappeared, and the frame as a rule is more simply ornamented. the upper panel, however, has been retained, and almost invariably it shows a painting of some sort. until within a comparatively few years, it was not a difficult matter to secure mirrors of this type, but the recent fad for collecting old furniture has caused many of the best specimens to be purchased, and, in consequence, really good colonial mirrors are rapidly becoming scarce, and one is a treasured possession. the kittredge house at north andover, massachusetts, shows several fine examples of this later type, and other examples are to be found in the lord house at newton, and in several salem residences. these show a great variety of panels, ranging from pastoral scenes to horns of plenty, and from ships to simple baskets of flowers. it is interesting to note, in connection with these old-time mirrors, the influence of the period reflected in the framing, and also how graphically the frame depicts the social life of its date of manufacture, and the country in which it was designed. there is a marked flamboyancy in the venetian designs of the early eighteenth century, changed in the middle of the same century to a heavy splendor and inartistic grandeur. england, slightly earlier, gave examples of fruit which many think were designed by gibbon, but which materially lack the freedom of his work. scrolls and angles, arabesques and medallions, belong to the second half of the eighteenth century. many such came to new england, and one of these mirrors is still seen in a salem home. its decorations hint of the influence of the renaissance, and it shows medallions decorated with grotesque figures on either side of the upper panel. [illustration: plate xlv.--mirror, 1770; lafayette courting mirror, osgood collection; empire mirror, 1810.] perhaps as interesting as any of the old mirrors is the lafayette mirror, one excellent example of which is seen in the osgood house at salem. this is small in size, surmounted with a painting of lafayette, and is one of a great number designed in compliment to the beloved frenchman's visit to salem in 1784. it is known as the courtney mirror. many of the fine old specimens to be seen in salem were brought to new england at the time of the old seaport town's commercial glory, about the period of the revolution, and previous to the restrictions following the war of 1812. these were halcyon days in salem, "before the great tide of east india trade had ebbed away, leaving derby street stranded, its great wharves given over to rats and the slow lap of the water among the dull green piles." probably there are few of these old-time mirrors but have been connected with interesting traditions and events, and it seems a pity that their histories have never been compiled, but have been allowed to pass unrecorded, leaving the imagination to conjure up scenes of joy and sorrow that have been reflected in their depths. still, for all their unwritten stories each and every one possesses a glamor of mystery that makes the work of collecting them most fascinating. the personal note so prevalent in nearly all workmanship of past centuries is particularly noticeable in the looking-glass, and perhaps it is this very attribute more than anything else that lends so great a degree of charm and attractiveness to them. chapter xii old-time clocks there is something quaintly pathetic about an old colonial clock. its sociability appeals to all home lovers, as it cheerily ticks the hours away, with a regularity that is almost human. the first clocks, if so they might be called, were composed of two bowls connected by an opening through which water trickled, drop by drop, from one to the other. next came a simple contrivance consisting of a greased wick tied into knots. the smoldering of the lighted wick determined the flight of time. the first clock, which was made in 807, was given as a present to the emperor claudius. it was a small clock of bronze inlaid with gold, and was fitted with twelve small doors. each one of these opened at a given time, and allowed tiny balls to roll out, differing in number according to the hour represented. promptly at the strike of twelve, toy horsemen came prancing out, and closed every open door. this was a marvel of clock-making that attracted a great deal of attention. in 1335, a monk, peter lightfoot by name, constructed a wonderful clock, which he presented to glastonbury abbey. during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, many and varied kinds of clocks were made, and we are assured that this was a successful venture, even in the early ages, from the fact that in 1500 a clock-makers' union was formed. to one who is interested in the history of clocks, there is no better place to view them than in europe, where the most skilled clock-makers lived during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. marseilles, exeter, and westminster abbey are the homes of some of the most wonderful clocks in the world. some of the most beautiful of these were made by chippendale and sheraton, the former manufacturing specimens that stood nine feet high and measured twenty-five inches across. on the door, was placed a reliable thermometer, while on the inner circle, the signs of the zodiac were marked, the outer circle showing the movable features by means of a sliding ring. the manufacture of clocks in america began early in the eighteenth century. among the earliest clock-makers was one benjamin bagnall, who learned his trade in england and settled in boston in 1712. a record of a meeting of the selectmen of the town on august 13, 1717, reads: "that mr. joseph wadsworth, william welstead, esq., and habijah savage, esq., be desired to treat with mr. benjamin bagnall about making a town clock," and according to the record in september of that year he was paid for it. the earliest bagnall clock on record is of the pendulum type, in a tall case of pine; on the inside of the lower door was written: "this clock put up january 10, 1722." another, very similar to this type, belongs to the new england historical genealogical society of boston. the case, though plain, is handsome and unusual, being made of solid black walnut. most of the cases, however, were made of pine, veneered. the use of this wood was characteristic of old american-made cases, while those of old english make were veneered on oak. a particularly fine bagnall clock is in the hosmer collection at hartford, connecticut. it is a black walnut veneer on pine. a peculiarity of the bagnall make is the small dial, only twelve inches square. above the dial is an arched extension, silvered and engraved with the name of the maker. samuel bagnall, son of benjamin, has left a few good clocks, thought to be equal to the work of his father. the clocks of enos doolittle, another colonial maker, are not numerous enough to give him a prominent place among the great manufacturers. nevertheless, he deserves much praise for the few good clocks which he has left behind. one of them is at hartford, doolittle's native town. the case is of beautifully carved cherry, ornamented with pilasters on the sides of the case and face; the top of the case is richly ornamented with scrolls and carvings. a circular plate above the dial has the legend "enos doolittle, hartford." [illustration: plate xlvi.--willard banjo clock, 1802; banjo clock, 1804; willard banjo clock, 1802.] there were many small clock-makers in colonial days, one, we might say, in every town, who left a few examples of their work; but none of them left the number or quality produced by the great clock-makers, the willards. benjamin willard, who had shops in boston, roxbury, and grafton, made a specialty of the musical clock, which he advertised as playing a tune a day and a psalm tune on sundays. aaron willard, a brother, made tall, striking clocks. one of his productions, owned by dr. g. faulkner of boston, has run for over one hundred and twenty years. on the inside of the case is written: "the first short timepiece made in america, 1784." it is a departure from the ordinary aaron willard clock, because it is so short. the case of mahogany stands only twenty-six inches high; and there are scroll feet, turning back. a separate upper part, with ogre feet, which can be lifted off, contains the movements. simon willard, another brother, in 1802 patented the "improved timepiece" which later was known as the "banjo" because of its resemblance in shape to that instrument. the "banjo" which willard manufactured had a convex glass door over the face, a slim waist with brass ornaments running parallel to the curve of the box, and a rectangular base, which was sometimes built with legs for a shelf, sometimes with an ornamental bracket on the bottom, in which case the clock was intended for the wall. the construction of these clocks was simple; the works were of brass, and capable of running eight or nine days. there was no strike, but this clock was a favorite, because of its accuracy. hardly less famous than the willards was eli terry, born april, 1773, in east windsor, connecticut. before he was twenty-one, he was recognized as having unusual ingenuity at clock-making. he had learned the trade from thomas harland, a well-known clock-maker of the times, had constructed a few old-fashioned hanging clocks and sold them in his own town. he moved to plymouth and continued to make clocks, working alone till 1800, when he hired a few assistants. he would start about a dozen movements at a time, cutting the wheels and teeth with saw and jack-knife. each year he made a few trips through the surrounding country, carrying three or four clock movements which he sold for about twenty-five dollars apiece. felt tells in his annals that "in 1770, joseph hiller moved from boston to salem and took a shop opposite the courthouse on the exchange." later on, in 1789, we learn that samuel mullikin made an agreement to barter clocks for both english and west indies goods, and also in exchange for country produce. so popular did they become that we learn that in 1844 there were in salem ten clock-makers and eleven jewelers all working at this trade. while the colonists still imported many of their clocks, yet in 1800 clock-making had become such a thriving industry that wooden cases were constantly being made, the manufacture of the works being a separate field. [illustration: plate xlvii.--english grandfather's clock, william dean howells; collection of old clocks, property of mr. mills, saugus, mass.; grandfather's clock, formerly owned by president franklin pierce. property of mrs. charles stark.] one of the most interesting is a tall grandfather's clock, showing the moon above the face, at the stark house in dunbarton. this clock formerly stood in the old governor pierce mansion at hillsboro. it is very handsome, showing fine inlaid work on the case. varied in shape and size were the numerous clocks which were found in colonial homes in new england. they ranged from the tall grandfather's clock to the smaller wall and bracket pieces. one kind that was in use, though rarely seen to-day, is the table clock, a type highly prized by the colonists, and recorded as a fine timekeeper. by the early nineteenth century we find the making of american clocks had become so universal that they were to be found not only in many new england houses, but throughout the south and middle states as well. many of the rarest and oldest were at the plantation manors of virginia and kentucky as well as in new england. there are to-day in many houses colonial clocks valued not only for their worth, but for association's sake. one of these is in the home of mr. john albree at swampscott, massachusetts. it is considered one of the oldest of its kind in the united states, and was brought from england in the year 1635 by one john albree, and has been in the family ever since. it is known as the weaver's clock, and has one hand only. these clocks are very rare, only a very few being known of. singularly enough, few people, even those who are the most interested in clocks and their making, know much about their early history and construction. the purchase of a clock at the present time means not only the case, but the entire works as well. it was, however, far different in the early days, at least while the tall clocks were so popular. transportation was difficult, so the clock peddlers contented themselves by slinging half a dozen clock movements over the saddle and starting out to find purchasers. after the works were purchased, and the family felt they had twenty pounds to spare, they called in a local cabinet-maker, and often the whole of the amount went into the making of the case. naturally, a certain-shaped case was made to fit a certain movement, so that definite types of clocks were found, but it must be remembered that the case gave no indication of the period of the maker of the movements. [illustration: plate xlviii.--general stephen abbot clock; terry shelf clock, 1824; english clock, with ball ornamentation.] one of the first types of clocks made in america was the wall clock. this was set on a shelf through which slits were cut for the pendulum and weight cords to fall. these were known as "lantern," "bird cage," or "wag-at-the-wall," later replaced by the more imposing "grandfather," which served a double duty as timekeeper and as one of the "show pieces" of furniture. the first known terry clock was made in 1792. it was built with a long, handsome case and with a silver-plated dial, engraved with terry's name. this clock, just as it was when eli terry set it going for the first time with all the pride which he must have had in his first accomplishment, is now in the possession of the terry family. there was an interesting clock of this type in the general stephen abbot house on federal street, salem, and another is still in the possession of mr. henry mills of saugus, massachusetts. terry introduced a patent shelf clock, with a short case. this made the clock much more marketable, because it was short enough to allow of easy transportation and at the same time offered the inducement of a well-made and inexpensive case. the patent shelf clock was a surprise to the rivals of terry, because this change in construction had produced an absolutely new and improved model,--an unheard-of thing in clock making. the conservatism before shown by the colonial makers had stunted the growth of clock improvements in many ways, hence terry's new invention produced a sensation. the change was such as to allow the play of weights on each side and the whole length of the case. the placing of the pendulum, crown wheel, and verge in front of the wheels, and between the dial and the movement, was another space-saving device, as was also the changing of the dial wheels from the outside to the inside of the movement plates. the escapement was transferred by hanging the verge on a steel pin, instead of on a long, heavy shaft inside the plates. this allowed the clock to be fastened to the case in back, making the pendulum accessible by removing only the dial. thus terry fairly revolutionized small-clock making, by introducing a new form, more compact, more serviceable, and cheaper than any of the older makes. in 1807 terry bought an old mill in plymouth and fitted it up so as to make his clocks by machinery. about this time several waterbury men associated themselves to supply terry with the materials, if he would make the clocks. with this steady income from machine-made clocks, and the profits from extra sales, he made, in a very short time, what was then considered quite a fortune. in 1808 he started five hundred clocks at once,--an undertaking which was considered foolhardy. people argued that there weren't enough people in the colonies to buy so many clocks, but nevertheless the clocks sold rapidly. in 1810 terry sold out to seth thomas and silas hoadley, two of his head workmen. the new company was a leader in colonial clock manufacturing for a number of years, until competition brought the prices of clocks down to five and ten dollars. all these years terry had been experimenting, and in 1814 he introduced his pillar scroll top case. this upset the clock trade to such an extent that the old-fashioned hanging, wooden clocks, which hitherto had been the leading type, were forced out of existence. the shape of the scroll top case is rectangular, the case, with small feet and top, standing about twenty-five inches high. on the front edges of the case are pillars, twenty-one inches long, three quarters of an inch in diameter at the base, and three eighths at the top, having, as a rule, square bases. the dial, which takes up a half or more of the whole front, is eleven inches square, while below is a tablet about seven by eleven inches. the dial is not over-ornamental and has suitable spandrels in the corners. the scroll top is found plain as well as highly carved, but always the idea of the scroll is present. terry sold the right to manufacture the clock to seth thomas for a thousand dollars. at first they each made about six thousand clocks a year, but later increased the output to twelve thousand. the clocks were great favorites and sold easily for fifteen dollars each. another conservatism of the colonial clock-makers was the sharp division which they made between the use of wood and brass in the manufacture of the movements. the one-day clocks were made of wood throughout, and this prevented their use on water or even their exportation, because the works would swell in the dampness and render the clock useless. the eight-day clocks were made of brass, but the extra cost of the movements sufficient to make the clock run eight days excluded many people, who had to remain content with the one-day clock. it was not till 1837 that it occurred to any of these ingenious makers of timepieces to produce a one-day clock out of brass. to chauncey jerome, the first exporter of clocks from america to england in the year 1824, the honor was reserved of applying the principle of the cheap wire pinion to the brass, one-day clock. thus began the revolution of american clock manufacturing, which has placed this country before all the world as a leader in cheap and accurate watch and clock making. the whirr and bustle of hundreds of factories of to-day, which manufacture watches and clocks at an output of thousands per year, is a strong contrast to the slow and laborious construction of the old colonial clocks. and not only is there a contrast in their manufacture, but when one compares the finished products of the year 1700 and 1900 side by side, one is conscious of conflicting emotions. there is naturally a decided feeling of admiration for the artistically designed timepiece of the twentieth century on the one hand, and, on the other, an irresistibly sentimental sensation when standing before a dignified, ancient, tall clock, on the door of which one reads:- "i am old and worn as my face appears, for i have walked on time for a hundred years, many have fallen since my race began, many will fall ere my race is run. i have buried the world with its hopes and fears in my long, long march of a hundred years." chapter xiii old-time lights since the introduction of gas and electric light, the old-time lamp has ceased to be a necessity, though in many instances it still does service as the receptacle for the gas jet or electric bulb. likewise, candlesticks and candelabra are still in use, not, of course, as necessities, as they were a century ago, but yet doing efficient service in the homes of people who realize that the soft glow of the candle affords an artistic touch that nothing else can give. undeniably, there is a peculiar fascination about candlelight that few can resist, and in whatever room it is used, that room is benefited through its attractiveness. it is only when harking back that one realizes the strides that have been made in house lighting. in the early days, when the country was new, the only light was firelight, candlewood, or pine torches. to be sure, there was always the punched lantern, hung on the wall ready for use at a moment's notice, but this was for outside rather than inside lighting. the earliest artificial light used by the colonist was candlewood, or pine torches. these torches were cut from trees in near-by forests, and were in reality short sections of dry, pitch-pine log from the heart of the wood, cut into thin strips, eight inches in length. the resinous quality of the wood caused these little splinters to burn like torches, hence their name. the drippings from them were caught on flat stones, which were laid just inside the fireplace; and to make a brighter light several torches were burned at one time, their steady flame, combined with the flickering blaze of the roaring logs, casting into the room just enough light by which to accomplish the simple tasks which had to be performed after nightfall. even this rude means of lighting was not available in some homes, for it is not uncommon to read in old chronicles of lessons being learned by the light of the fire only. while such a state of affairs would be looked upon as a calamity to-day, it was not without compensation, for the merry flames of the huge logs, as they flickered and danced on the hearth, cast a cheerful light on the closed shutters, and against the brown walls, much to the delight of the little ones, who, seated on rude benches close at hand, threw hickory shavings into the fire to make it flame faster, or poked the great backlog with the long iron peel to make the sparks fly upward. candlewood fagots were in use throughout new england until the early part of the eighteenth century, and it was customary each fall to cut enough wood to supply the family demand for a year. in some northern states, these fagots were commonly used until 1820, while in the south they are used in a few sections even to-day, being often carried in the hand like a lantern. when candles were first used here, they were imported from england, but their cost was so high that they were prohibitive save for festive occasions. the scarcity of domestic animals in the new land barred their being killed save for meat, and thus was lost an opportunity for candle making that was seriously felt. some people, including governors winthrop and higginson, in 1620 sent to england for supplies of tallow or suet to make their own candles, but the majority had to be content with candlewood. these first candles were fashioned without wicks, being provided instead with pith taken from the common rush and generally known as rush light,--a lighting which possessed disadvantages, inasmuch as it burned but dimly and lasted but a short time. even in 1634 we find that candles could not be bought for less than fourpence apiece,--a price above the limited purses of the majority. fortunately, the rivers were abundantly stocked with fish, and these were caught and killed, and their livers tried out for oil. this oil, which was crude, was principally used in lanterns, the wicks being made of loosely spun hemp and tow, often dipped in saltpeter. [illustration: plate xlix.--whale oil lamps with wicks; mantel lamps, 1815; paul and virginia candelabra.] the earliest lamp was a saucer filled with oil, and having in the center a twisted rag. this rude form of wick was used for over a century. then came the betty lamp, a shallow receptacle, in form either circular, oval, or triangular, and made of pewter, iron, or brass. filled with oil, it had for a wick the twisted rag, which was stuck into the oil and left protruding at one side. this type came into use before the invention of matches, and was lighted by flint and steel, or by a live coal. a most unique specimen of the early lamp is seen in a salem home. it stands about six inches high, with a circumference of about twelve inches, and is an inch thick. it is made of iron, showing a liplike pitcher, while at the back is a curved handle. it is arranged to be filled with oil, and the wick is the twisted rag, which rests on the nose. tradition relates that this lamp was used at the time of the witchcraft delusion, to light the unfortunate prisoners to jail. when whale-fishing became the pursuit of the colonists, an addition to the lighting requisites was discovered in the form of sperm secured from the head of the whale. this proved very valuable in the manufacture of candles, which gave a much brighter light than the older type. so popular did this oil become that in 1762 a factory was established at germantown, at that time a part of quincy, to manufacture sperm oil from its crude state; and candles made from this oil were later sold in salem by one john appleton. at this period, candle making was a home industry, being included in the fall work of every good housewife. at candle season, two large kettles, half filled with water, were hung on the long iron crane over the roaring fire in the kitchen, and in this the tallow was melted, having to be scalded twice before it was ready for use. across large poles placed on the back of two chairs, smaller ones, known as candle rods, were laid, and to each one of these was attached a wick. each wick in turn was dipped into the boiling tallow and then set away to cool. this way of making candles was slow and tedious, and it required skill to cool them without cracking, though an experienced candle-maker could easily fashion two hundred a day. bayberry candles, so much in favor to-day, were also made in early times. the berries were gathered in the fall, and thrown into boiling water, the scum carefully removed as it formed. at first a dirty green color was secured, but as the wax refined, the coloring changed to a delicate, soft green. candles of this type were not so plentiful as those of tallow, for the berries emitted but little fat, and they were therefore carefully treasured by their makers. to-day these candles are the most popular of all makes, emitting a pungent odor as they burn, but their cost sometimes makes them prohibitive. instead of the housewife always attending to this tedious task, it was sometimes performed by a person who went from house to house, making the winter's supply of bayberry candles. it was customary for every housekeeper in those days to have quantities of these in her storeroom, often as many as a thousand. with the increase in sheep, many were killed, and the tallow obtained used for candle making. such candles were provided with wicks made from loosely spun hemp, four or five inch lengths being suspended from each candle rod. the number of wicks used depended largely on the size of the kettle of boiling water and tallow. first the wicks were very carefully straightened, and then dipped into the tallow, and when cold this process was repeated until the candle had attained the right shape. great care had to be exercised in this respect, and also that the tallow was kept hot, the wicks straight, and that the wicks were not dipped too deep in the boiling tallow. in drying, care was taken lest they dry too quickly or too slowly, and also that a board was placed underneath to catch the drippings. these drippings, when cool, were scratched from the board and used over. the introduction of candle molds lessened the task of candle making to a great extent, and, in addition, secured a better-shaped candle, and one that burned longer than the old dip type. with their advent came into vogue professional candle-makers, men who traveled all over the country, taking with them large molds. in two days' time, so rapidly did they work, they could make the entire stock for a family's winter supply. these candles, when complete, were very carefully packed away in wooden boxes to insure safety from mice. they were a jolly set of men, these candle-makers, who pursued the work for love of the roving life it afforded, as well as for the money it netted. they came equipped with the latest gossip, and their presence was a boon to the tired house mother, whose duties did not allow of much social intercourse. ordinarily, candles were very sparingly used, but on festive occasions they were often burned in great quantities. at hamilton hall, in salem, built at a cost of twenty-two thousand dollars, this mode of lighting was a feature, and in the early part of the nineteenth century, when the hall was the scene of the old assemblies, it was lighted by innumerable candles and whale-oil lamps, so many being required to properly illumine it that it took john remond, salem's noted caterer of that period, several days to prepare them for use. in those days, informal parties were much in vogue, commencing promptly at six and closing promptly at twelve, even if in the midst of a dance. the dances then enjoyed were of the contra type, waltzes and polkas being at that day unknown. the gentlemen at these gay assemblies came dressed in roger de coverley coats, small-clothes, and silken stockings, while the ladies were arrayed in picturesque velvets and satins, the popular fabrics of the period. [illustration: plate l.--astral lamps, 1778; english brass branching candlestick, showing lions.] candlesticks seem always to have been considered a part of the house furnishings in america, for we find accounts of them in the earliest records of the colonies. many of these were brought from england, and in colonial dwellings still standing we find excellent specimens still preserved. the first candlesticks extensively used here were rudely fashioned of iron and tin, being among the first articles of purely domestic manufacture found in new england. later, with the building of more pretentious homes, candlesticks made of brass, pewter, and silver came into vogue, the brass ones being the most commonly used, as well as candelabra, and in the homes of the wealthier class were found brass wall sconces that were imported from london and france. [illustration: plate li.--colonial mantel lamp; single bedroom brass candlestick; sheffield plate candlesticks.] a particularly fine pair of these sconces is found in the osgood house on chestnut street, salem. here the brass filigree work is in the form of a lyre encircled with a laurel wreath, and surmounted by the head of apollo. the tree branches curve gracefully outward from the wreath and below the lyre. in the early part of the eighteenth century, snuffers and snuffer boats, as the trays in which the candlesticks rested were known, came into use. these were sometimes of plain design, and sometimes fanciful, made either of brass or silver. pewter was also used for this purpose, and later it became a favorite metal for the manufacture of hall lamps and candlesticks. [illustration: plate lii.--pierced, or paul revere lantern; old hand lantern; english silver candlesticks; brass branching candlesticks, chippendale, 1760.] lanterns next came into style and were a prominent feature of the hallway furnishing. many of these were gilded and many were painted, and their greatest period of popularity was during the first part of the eighteenth century. about 1750 the first glass lamps came into favor. these were not like those of a later period, being very simple in form, and not particularly graceful. in 1782 a frenchman, named argand, introduced the lamp which still bears his name. this marked the beginning of the lamp era, and while at first these lamps were so high in price that they could only be afforded by the wealthier classes, later they were produced at a more reasonable figure, when they came into general use. the last half of the eighteenth century marked the adoption of magnificent chandeliers, many of which are still preserved. one such is found in the warner house at portsmouth, in the parlor at the right of the wide old hall, a room wherein have assembled many notable gatherings, for the hon. jonathan warner was a generous host. this specimen is among the finest in the country, and is in keeping with the other fine old-time fittings. about the beginning of the nineteenth century, candelabra and lamps with glass prisms were much used, some of them very simple in design, being little more than a plain stick with a few prisms attached, while others were very elaborate. many of these candlesticks and candelabra are still preserved, together with the other old-time lights. in a jamaica plain home are some very valuable specimens of lighting fixtures that once stood on the mantel in the sprague house on essex street, salem, having been brought to this country by the first owner at the time the dwelling was being furnished for his bride. with fashion's decree that lamps and candelabra should be hung with cut-glass prisms, they attained great popularity, and sets of three came to be regular ornaments of the carved mantelpieces. these sets consisted of a three-pronged candelabrum for the middle, and a single stick on either side. the stand was of marble, while the standards were of gilt. at the base of each candle a brass ornament, like an inverted crown, supported the sparkling prisms, which jingled and caught rainbow reflections at every slight quiver. in the lamps, frequently the side portions were of bronze, the lamp for holding the oil being surrounded by prisms which depended from the central standard. the flaring chimneys of ground glass softened and shaded the light, while they also kept it from flickering in case of sudden draughts. up to the year 1837, flint and steel were the only mode of ignition, and their long association with old-time lights makes them an intimate part of them. at first both flint and steel were very crudely made, but later on, some of the steels were very ornamental. with them was used a tinder box, with its store of charred linen to catch the tiny flame as it leaped toward the steel, and this, too, must be considered in the review of old-time lights. examples of these and the old forms of lighting are found in every part of new england and throughout the south, though perhaps the largest collection in any single section is found in salem, the home of excellent examples of all things colonial. as one views them, he cannot but be impressed with their quaintness, and while no doubt he is thankful for the strides in science that have made possible the brilliant illumination of the present, yet in his heart he must acknowledge that the present lights, though in many instances undeniably beautiful, lack the charm of the old-time types. chapter xiv old china china constituted an important part of the household equipment in colonial days, and while not as antique as pewter and wooden ware, it outrivaled both in beauty and popular favor. its daintiness of coloring, variety of make, and exquisiteness of texture afforded a welcome change from the somber-colored and little varied ware hitherto used; and its fragility proved of wondrous interest to the careful housewife, causing her to bestow upon it her tenderest care and to zealously guard it against harm, since it was her delight to boast that her sets were intact. to-day it is equally appreciated, and it is displayed on the shelves of built-in cupboards, with all the pride of possession exhibited by its original owners. [illustration: plate liii.--peacock plate of delft, very rare; decorated salt glaze plate, about 1780.] old cupboards are somehow always associated with old china in this country, and in most instances they are worthy of the admiration in which they are held. in colonial times, cupboards formed a decorative feature of the house furnishings, and they were fashioned with as much regard for shape and finish as the rooms in which they were to be placed. in time they came to be considered almost indispensable adjuncts, and with their increase in favor, their development became marked. perhaps the finest type is that with the shell top, some excellent examples of which are still preserved, notably in the brown inn at hamilton and in the dummer house at byfield, massachusetts. [illustration: plate liv.--liverpool pitcher, showing salem ship; old chelsea ware; canton china teapot; wedgwood, with rose decoration. very rare.] [illustration: plate lv.--gold luster pitcher; staffordshire pitcher with rose decoration; peacock delft pitcher; jasper ware wedgwood pitcher. blue and white.] of all the old wares used here, salt glaze is most rarely found, most collections including not even a single specimen. this is probably due in a great measure to its fragility; it is not owing to its scarcity of import, as large quantities of this ware were brought here in early times. examples now found are principally of staffordshire manufacture, made between 1760 and 1780, though much of the ware that was made about 1720, belonging to the so-called second period, was shipped here. a study of all forms of salt glaze is of interest, but that of english manufacture is of most importance to american collectors, for it is that type that the colonists imported, and with which american collections are most closely associated. the process of salt glaze manufacture was known in england as early as 1660, and a familiar legend as to its origin was that it was accidentally discovered through the boiling over of a kettle of brine, the salt running down the outside of the earthen pot, and, when cold, hardening upon it, forming a glaze. this theory has been discredited by later scientists, and it is not unlikely that it was the invention of some imaginary individual, but however that may be, the ware in itself is of unusual attractiveness, and records show that upon its introduction into staffordshire, it superseded in favor the dull lead glaze. the first ware finished by this method was coarse and brown, a type that remained in vogue until the early years of the eighteenth century, when a gray ware was produced. some of this latter found its way to america, but the type most familiar here is that manufactured in the closing years of the eighteenth century,--a ware with a white or nearly white body, thin and graceful in contour, and characterized by a very hard saline glaze. pepper pots, soup tureens, plates, and pitchers were among the most common pieces manufactured, though teapots in various shapes, bottles, vases, etc., were also made. some of these pieces have a plain center and decorated border, while others show an entirely decorated surface. [illustration: plate lvi.--the shepherd toby, one of the rarest tobies; english toby. very old; very old toby, showing cocked hat.] another output of the staffordshire factories, now much valued here, are the old toby jugs, many excellent examples of which were brought here and have been carefully preserved. in their way they are as interesting as the finest china bits, their gay coloring and quaint shape affording a striking contrast to the delicately tinted and daintily shaped lowestoft and like wares. the first tobies were in reality scarcely more than hollow figures to which a handle had been attached, but as time went on they grew more and more like mugs, and while at first the cap or hat lifted off, forming a cover, the succeeding style had the hat incorporated into the mug. tobies are broadly classed as staffordshire, and while this is probably true of a large portion, dutch and german tobies as well as french ones are not uncommon. a supposed example of the last named is included in the page collection at lynn, and is known as the napoleon toby. it is thought to be french from the fact that the likeness of the little corporal is not a caricature. english potters delighted to depict bonaparte, but they seldom gave him the attractive countenance of this jug. they made him tall and thin, or short and abnormally fat, and they decked him in queer clothes, and labeled him "boney." this jug depicts napoleon in a very pleasant guise, suave of countenance and very well dressed. there is a smoothness of texture and finish about the work which marks it as distinct from the english tobies, which unfortunately frequently lacked these desirable qualities. english tobies are sometimes classified as young and old tobies. the terms are expressive, for the young toby is a figure standing, as if full of vigor and life, with a jovial, happy-go-lucky expression, while the old toby is represented seated, with a worldly-wise face that has the appearance of having experienced life to the fullest. both types always carry a mug in one hand, or both hands, from which a foaming liquid is about to issue. the coloring of the old toby is principally yellow, while the young toby is a combination of brown and yellow. of course, both these colorings are varied with others. tobies show considerable variety in modeling and decoration. some are jovial in appearance, others placid, and still others leering. in fact, every kind of a toby is represented, except a dry one. in addition to depicting the figures of human beings, some tobies represented animals, and not a few were in the form of teapots. the latter were generally finished in blue, with a band of green and a bit of copper luster, and in height they varied from twelve to eighteen inches. although these drinking mugs were made in many factories, none bear hallmarks, save those made at bennington, and, in consequence, those are more highly prized by connoisseurs. a unique specimen among the output of this factory has no mug in the hand, the arms being arranged close to the body, which has the appearance of having no arms at all. delft ware, which is at the present time enjoying great favor among collectors, made the country where it originated famous, and its history is in reality the history of holland's commercial rise. besides its age, old delft has the charm of individuality. as the designs were handworked, the ware lacks the precision in drawing that later stamped pieces have, and shows softened outlines instead of sharply defined pictures. nor is old delft ware so intense in coloring as its descendants of to-day. comparing them side by side on a plate rail, or hanging on the wall, old delft is told by its soft, beautiful blue. then there is the charm of association. coming from a nation of thrift and exemplary housekeeping, delft, much more than fragile glass, aristocratic china, or curious foreign objects, appeals to the collector as a cheerful, comfortable, homelike thing to collect. there are undoubtedly many good specimens in this country to-day, but many more are inaccessible. connecticut, as well as new england generally, has considerable, for the merchant princes who brought so many other treasures to eastern ports brought also delft. how much more of this charming old ware is hidden under peaked roofs of story-and-a-half farmhouses in some of the old dutch settlements along the hudson and on long island, is unknown, but perhaps we shall know in another generation or so. among our specimens we find more of the english than the dutch delft. the latter, which is the original ware, took its name from the town of delft, where the ware was first produced, and which, for several centuries, continued to be the chief center of the delft industry. although it was probably made as early as the latter part of the fifteenth century, but little is known of it until about one hundred years later. its origin was an attempt on the part of dutch potters to imitate, in a cheaper form, chinese and japanese wares. at that time were made large importations of eastern wares, and holland, as the only european power allowed a port by japan, had a great variety of types to copy. the first potteries were established at delft about the year 1600, and almost from its inception the industry was protected by a trust. for nearly one hundred and fifty years, the protection of this trust or "guild of st. luke" made delft an important manufacturing center, giving employment to nearly one twelfth of its inhabitants. the best examples of this old dutch delft are beautiful copies of chinese and japanese porcelain, which are hardly distinguishable from the oriental. a fact worth noting in connection with the rapid rise and great popularity of delft is that the combination or guild which was instrumental in the prosperity of the industry was also at least partly responsible for its downfall. in holland, an independent maker could not flourish, but the progressive english made it very well worth while for workmen to emigrate. there was another and perhaps more potent factor in the decline of the dutch delft industry; the very success of delft potters became their ruin. the market was glutted with their products, and there ceased to be the same demand for it as formerly. gradually, the english ware, made of better clay, although cheaper in price, supplanted the dutch ware, even in holland, and as early as 1760 the struggle for existence began among the dutch potteries. of the thirty establishments existing in the beginning of the century, only eight were working in 1808, and most of these soon after stopped. the most common pieces made, in point of numbers, were the delft plates. some excellent examples of these are found in the page collection at newburyport, one, a peacock plate, being a good example of dutch delft in one of its most popular patterns. another shows the design of a basket of flowers, and this same adornment is on an old english platter, a piece that deserves not only a compliment to its beauty, but also a tribute to its dutch-english durability, since within a few years it has been used to hold all of a new england boiled dinner. delft tile was produced almost as commonly as plates, although at first it was used to illustrate many designs essentially dutch, and also religious subjects. it is on record that the _boston news letter_ of 1716 advertised the first sale of "fine holland tile" in america, and in that same paper, three years later, is a notice of "dutch tile for chimney." from that date on, all through the century, one may find recurring advertisements of chimney tiles, on the arrival of every foreign ship. they must have been imported in vast numbers in the aggregate, and they were not expensive, yet they are rare in new england. americans have always been patrons of delft ware, and as a result a representative lot of the very best types is found here, and while it is to be regretted that the old tiles are not included in any great numbers in this list, yet those preserved are eminently satisfactory. an english writer has said that controversy always makes a subject interesting. lowestoft was already so enchanting a topic that the searchlight of exposition was scarcely needed to reveal additional charms. of the several wares that have been labeled lowestoft, there seem to be four distinct varieties. there is the simon-pure, soft-paste, lowestoft china, made and decorated in the town of lowestoft; there is the so-called lowestoft, which is purely oriental, being both made and decorated in china; there is probably ware made in china and decorated in lowestoft; and there is probably ware made in holland and decorated in lowestoft. all of these may bear the printed name of the town, since members of the company which traded in them resided at that place. doubt has been cast upon every one of these four wares, but the first two, at least, seem to be cleared of all uncertainty. for the last half of the eighteenth century, a factory existed at lowestoft. this is true, beyond the shadow of a doubt. it was, however, a small factory, employing at its best but seventy hands, and having but one oven and one kiln. it is simply impossible that great quantities of hard-glaze porcelain should have been brought from overseas, to be decorated, and then fired in this one small kiln. if the whole output charged up to lowestoft had been really hers, the factory must needs have been the largest in england, which it certainly was not. the first ware produced was of a dingy white, coarse, and semi-opaque. the glaze was slightly "blued" with cobalt, and speckled with bubbles and minute black spots, which seemed to show careless firing. when viewed by transmitted light, the pieces had a distinctly yellowish tinge. there was never any distinctive mark, as in the case of crown derby. about 1790 a change for the better took place in the character of the ware. certain french refugees, driven from their own country by the lawlessness of the great revolution, began to come into england. one of these men, who was named rose, obtained employment at the lowestoft works, where he soon became head decorator, and introduced taste as well as delicacy of touch into the product. underneath many lowestoft handles will be found a small rose, which denotes that the work was done by him. the rose is his mark, but before this was known, people supposed that it merely represented the coat of arms for lowestoft borough, which was the tudor rose. roses set back to back appear on the highest grade of lowestoft china; and at its best the ware was finer than any sent out by bow and chelsea. the lowestoft red is of a peculiar quality, varying from carmine to ashes of roses, and often approaching a plum color. roses and garlands of roses in these lovely hues of pink and purple distinguish this china. dainty and familiar are the flowers and sprigs in natural colors, with delicate borders in color and gold. a familiar style of decoration was that of the dark blue bands, or dots, or other figures, heavily overlaid with gold and often with coats of arms. this ware is a hard-paste porcelain, and was doubtless made and decorated in china. the fact that some of it bears the mark of "allen lowestoft," and that mr. allen was manager of the lowestoft works at this time, proves nothing beyond the fact that when the dealer sent his order to china to be filled, he ordered his name marked on the bottom. small quantities of undecorated ware may have been brought from china and holland to be painted, but we have no record of any such transactions; the duty was heavy, and the amount of such ware imported must have been inconsiderable. china was doing this same work for other countries, and it is only reasonable to suppose that the managers of the lowestoft factory sent the greater part of their orders to china to be filled by chinese workmen upon chinese material. this also explains the failure of the company. it is recorded upon good authority that the ruin resulted partly from the sharp competition with the staffordshire wares, but was precipitated in 1803 by the wreck of one of the vessels carrying a cargo of porcelain, and by the burning of the rotterdam warehouse by the french army. rotterdam, where lowestoft ware was stored, was the seat of an immense commerce between holland and china. it seems but natural that their trade in common delft wares should lead the lowestoft company into communication with wholesale importers of chinese porcelain, from whom they could purchase large supplies; and should also lead them into the establishment, in england, of a more highly remunerative branch of their business, through underselling the dutch east india company. it was customary for the dutch firms to send over to their foreign settlements shapes and designs obtained from european sources, to be reproduced by native hands. the lowestoft people did what all other merchants had done before them, and through the same channel forwarded to china the designs of coats of arms, english mottoes, and initials that were to be printed upon the porcelain which they had undertaken to supply. and so the great conflagration of the lowestoft controversy was furnished with fuel, and there is no knowing where it will end, because conclusive proof is so slight in each case and the partisans so eager and aggressive. meantime, our grandmother's sprigged china remains a joy and a delight, whether or no we dare to call it genuine lowestoft. there is no mystification about crown derby, but the old ware, which along with lowestoft was beloved of the colonists, is as distinctive as any, and fortunate indeed is the individual who can boast of having in his possession a specimen. the works of derby were established by a french refugee, named planche, who had been sojourning in saxony until the death of his father, when he came to derby in 1745, bringing with him the secret of china manufacture, as he had learned it in saxony. we have reason to suppose that he made in derby many china figures of cats, dogs, shepherdesses, falstaffs, minervas, and the like, which william duesbury, who was an expert enameler in london, colored for him. unfortunately, none of this early output of the factory was marked, and in consequence it has become sadly confused, not only with the work of bow and chelsea, but with that of lowestoft as well. after 1770, a mark was adopted, and the ware after that date is easily distinguishable. william duesbury bought out planche's interest in the derby works, though he did not dispense with planche's services. keenly artistic, with a taste at once discriminating and appreciative, duesbury combined a winning personality with his intellectual gifts. he possessed the faculty of securing the services of potters of unusual worth, and throughout his management, which continued until his death in 1796, he maintained in his output a standard of pure english art work of the highest order. prominent in the group of potters in his employ stands the name of william billingsley, who was connected with the factory from 1774 to 1796. at derby he established his reputation as a painter of exquisite flowers, and his work is characterized by a singularly true perception of intrinsic beauty and decorative value, being original and unhampered by traditional technique. the rose was his favorite flower; he invariably painted the back of a rose in his groups, and his justly famed "billingsley roses" are exceedingly soft in their treatment. another favorite of his is the double-flowered stock, either yellow or white, and always shaded in gray. in 1785 duesbury associated with himself his son, the second william duesbury, and then followed the most successful period of the work, being in reality the crown derby epoch _par excellence_. after the death of the elder duesbury, the second william duesbury became sole owner of the derby works, but failing health compelled him to take michael kean into the firm as partner. after the death of the younger duesbury, kean assumed control of the whole works, but his mismanagement soon resulted in the sale of the factory to robert bloor in 1810. this marked the commencement of a new dispensation, and after this date the trademark became "bloor-derby." for a time things went on in the old way, but soon bloor, in his eagerness to amass a fortune, yielded to temptation and began to put on the market ware that had been accumulating in the storehouse for sixty years, and which planche and the duesburys had considered of inferior quality and discarded. this ware he decorated with so-called japan patterns, to hide defects and, to make a bad matter worse, he used for coloring the flowing under-glaze blue, which was wholly unsuited to the soft glaze of the delft ware, and was sure to "run" in the glost oven. the train of ruin was now well laid, and by 1822 bloor was forced to resort to auction sales in the factory, in order to dispose of his output. the result was an utter loss of reputation for factory and product, and before the manufacture had reached the century mark of its existence, derby china was relegated to the past. many beautiful specimens of crown derby were imported to this country, one of the finest being in mrs. william c. west's collection at salem, showing the head of bacchus with grapevine and wreath decoration, the whole beautifully colored. expressive of the greatest heights which english pottery reached, is the ware of wedgwood, and a review of his achievements forms the most interesting chapter in the history of england's ceramic art. of a family of potters, josiah wedgwood early exhibited the traits which later made him so justly famous, and a review of his life from the age of eleven years, when he was put to work in the potworks, as a thrower, until his death in 1795, covering a period of fifty-four years, is a review of the most remarkable story of progressiveness in a chosen profession ever recorded. during the early days of his pottery making, about five years after his apprenticeship had expired, wedgwood became associated with thomas whieldon, a potter who had attained considerable success in the manufacture of combed and agate wares, and the period of their partnership, which ended in 1759, was of benefit to both. one of wedgwood's first successes was made at this time, in the invention of a green glaze which whieldon used with excellent effect on his cauliflower ware. with the expiration of this partnership, wedgwood returned to burslem, where he soon purchased an interest in the ivy works, where he worked independently, and laid the foundation for many of his future successes. among other things he experimented in perfecting the coarse cream wares then on the market, and six years after his coming to the ivy works he succeeded in producing his first real achievement, "queen's ware." the success of this ware was most pronounced, and its popularity caused wedgwood to realize that a division of labor which would allow him to look after the creative part and supply some one else to care for the commercial side of the undertaking was most important. in 1768, thomas bentley was taken on for this purpose, and at the new works, to which wedgwood had previously removed, and known as the bell house or brick house, the new rã©gime went into effect. the popularity of queen's ware had netted him enough to allow him to make finer productions, and after the finish of several schemes, in 1769, he removed to the famous factory known as etruria, where his finest work was accomplished, and at which place he remained until his death. the several wares he manufactured are as varied as they are beautiful, and, in addition, he possessed the power to reproduce in a remarkable degree. this is best exemplified in his replica of the famous portland vase, which is so perfect that it has often deceived even connoisseurs. an amusing incident is related in connection with one of his reproductions, a delft piece of a dinner set, which had become broken, and which he fashioned and sent to the owner by a messenger. the messenger started for his destination, which was but a short distance, but he did not appear again for a week. upon his return, wedgwood questioned him, and learned that the family was so delighted with the reproduction that they had kept the messenger, feasting him the entire time. while old wedgwood in all its forms is appreciated in this country, for some reason or other cream ware and jasper ware are especially favored among american collectors. fine pieces of both are included in the rogers collection at danvers, the jasper piece being an especially fine specimen. a review of old china would not seem complete without including the luster wares, several excellent examples of which are in american collections. silver-tinted comes first in point of rarity, though the rose-spotted sunderland luster is a close second in this respect, and really commands a higher price. originally, silver luster was a cheap imitation of silver, and first specimens were lustered inside as well as out, to further increase the deception. when the ware became common, and the deception was well known, silver luster was used only on the exterior of vessels in decorations, and occasionally in conjunction with gold luster. after 1838, which year marked the introduction of electroplating, silver luster declined in favor, and shortly after the completion of the first half of the nineteenth century ceased to be manufactured. numberless beautiful articles were made of this ware, including quaint candlesticks, teapots, cream jugs, bowls, salt cellars, and vases. copper and gold luster are likewise shown in a variety of attractive forms, and these, unlike silver luster, were never made as shams. wedgwood is credited with having first made the copper-and gold-lustered wares, but authentic proof of this is lacking. jugs were often lustered with gold and copper, the latter usually characterized by bands of brilliant yellow or colored flowers, sometimes printed and sometimes painted. the gold luster was especially fine, and it is this type, together with copper luster, that is most commonly found. excellent specimens of gold-lustered ware are found in a collection at lynn, one piece of exceptional interest having been secured at the time of the civil war by a party of northern soldiers while devastating a southern plantation. chapter xv old glass of all the old-time wares, glass, until recently, has been most rarely collected, and in consequence, whereas specimens of silver and pewter are comparatively abundant, examples of glass are scarce. there are several reasons for this, the principal being its fragility; and then, too, the date of its manufacture is very uncertain. to be sure, the shape and finish of a glass piece determines in a measure the period of its make, but it is not proof positive, any more than are the traditions handed down in families as to the time of purchase of certain specimens. yet, notwithstanding all this, the price of old glass is constantly increasing, and within the last few years has almost doubled. the first glass made was of a coarse type, crude in shape, and of greenish coloring, with sand and bubbles showing on its surface, detracting from its finish. examples of this type are very scarce to-day, bringing prices wholly at variance with their attractiveness. up to the eighteenth century, all glass was very expensive, making it prohibitive to all but the wealthy classes, but since that time its cost has been greatly reduced, and beautiful specimens, of exquisite design, can now be purchased at prices within the means of almost every one. of course, these later specimens do not possess the quaintness of old-time pieces, and to the collector they are of no interest whatever. the fad of collecting has brought into favor the old types, and throughout the country the regard for old glassware is constantly increasing, although it will be some time before it comes into prominence here in the same measure that it has in england. [illustration: plate lvii.--venetian and english decanters; toddy glasses, about 1800; english glass with silver coasters. very old.] while the origin of glass is not definitely certain, yet specimens are in existence which are known to have been made before the coming of christ, such as the celebrated portland vase, a roman product, now seen in the british museum. after the decline of glass making in rome, the craft was gradually taken up in venice and bohemia, the output of the former country ranking among the finest made, and including, among other things, the exquisite venetian drinking cups, which are unrivaled in beauty. [illustration: plate lviii.--russian glass decanter and tumblers; note the exquisite cutting on this decanter.] so important was the craft considered in these early times that manufacturers received great attention from the government, were dubbed "gentlemen," and were looked upon with awe by the common people. naturally, great secrecy surrounded the plying of the craft, and this secrecy led to the circulation of mysterious tales. one legend was that the furnace fire created a monster called the salamander, and it was firmly believed that at stated intervals he came out of the furnace, and carried back with him any chance visitor. people who glanced fearfully into the furnace declared that they saw him curled up at one side of his fiery bed, and the absence of any workmen was at once attributed to this monster's having captured him. the early green glass of the rhine and holland, while made by german-speaking people, cannot be considered as characteristic of german glass. these people lived on either side of the mountains which gird bohemia on three sides, and divide that kingdom from silesia, saxony, and bavaria respectively, and the glass they made was painted in beautiful colors, the finer kind being engraved in the upland countries, where water was abundant. gilding was also much employed by them, and we learn that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries this decoration was fixed by a cold process; that is, by simply attaching the gold leaf by means of varnish. this form of decoration was only lasting when applied to the sunken parts of the glass. very little of this glass was used in the section where it was manufactured, nearly the whole product being exported to austria, germany, italy, the east, and even to america. the industry was popular in bohemia, for it furnished labor to a part of the population, helping to keep them from want, and it procured for the rich landowners a revenue from the use of their woods. the factories, which were rudely built, were located in the center of forest tracts, and they produced, in addition to ordinary glass pieces, articles that were intended to be highly worked or richly engraved, also colored glass, decorated with gilding and painting. long experience in the manufacture of colored glass had made these workmen expert in this branch, and any advice they needed, they obtained from men of information who made their living by seeking out and selling secrets concerning processes and improvements in glass manufacture. all capital required was advanced by rich lords, who were eager to insure the success of industries established upon their premises. glass cutting and luster making were regarded as special trades, being carried on in huts beside small streams; and engraving, gilding, and painting likewise formed separate branches, all paid by the very lowest wages. products of all the factories were collected by agents from commercial houses, and by them distributed among the various markets. comparison between the bohemian product and the older glass upon the market resulted strongly in favor of the former. it was clear, white, light, and of agreeable delicacy to the touch, and no other glass as purely colorless was made until the modern discovery of flint glass, made by the use of lead. through the invention of one gasper lehmann, improved engraving on bohemian glass became possible, opening a field for decorative art that hitherto had been undreamed of. with his pupil george schwanhard, he improved designs, and the world went engraved-glass mad. nothing but this type would sell, and as material became scarce, venetian pieces, already a hundred years old, were brought into requisition and engraved. at the commencement of the seventeenth century, some of the bohemian manufacturers were producing vases of various shapes enriched with engraved ornaments, representing scenes, and frequently portraits. some of the former type are shown in the wonderful collection owned by mr. w. j. mitchell at manchester, massachusetts. with the pronounced popularity of the bohemian engraved vases, artists in other countries began decorating their ware in like fashion, those of france employing interlaced flowers. these were etched on, rather than engraved, however, and cheapened the ware; in other countries the results obtained were no better, all failing to compare with the bohemian specimens, for the art of engraving here had been learned from long experience by workmen who were experts in their line. many bohemian pieces showed an original decoration in the way of ornamentations in relief on the outside, while the art of cameo incrustation was also first used by bohemian workers, who sometimes varied it to obtain odd and pleasing effects by engraving through an outer casing of colored glass into an interior of white, transparent, or enameled glass. one such specimen, a salt cellar, is shown in the mitchell collection. [illustration: plate lix.--english cut class decanter, about 1800; typical red bohemian glass decanter; american glass bottle, jenny lind, about 1850.] ruby coloring was a characteristic of many fine bohemian pieces, and its acquirement was a source of despair to any number of workers, it being hard to hit on just the right combination to produce the desired shade. so important did this feature become that we learn of one kunckel, an artist, being given sixteen hundred ducats by the elector of brandenburg to assist in attaining perfection in this shade of coloring. the ware of this type was made in the last half of the seventeenth century, and specimens were the admiration of all beholders. [illustration: plate lx.--bohemian glass. the center one is rare, showing figure of peacock in red and white; english cut glass wineglasses, 1790; english glass decanters. very fine and rare.] it is a ware that possesses a strange attraction. no other type of glass is more a favorite with collectors than this, and no other encourages the amateur to greater endeavor in its pursuit, no matter how discouraging it may be at first. then, too, no matter how large the collection may be, it is never monotonous, for the various specimens show a great diversity of form and ornamentation. the collection of bohemian glass shown at the mitchell house at manchester, contains some wonderful examples of the art, including decanters with long and slender stems, odd salt cellars in frames of silver, bonbon dishes, and numerous other pieces, some in the rare ruby coloring, and others in white and gilt. other fine pieces are found at the nichols house on federal street, salem, and in the atkinson collection, also at salem, while at andover, at the old kittredge house, many rare bits are to be seen. all of these specimens are heirlooms, those in the kittredge house having been in the family since the home was erected, in the latter part of the eighteenth century. while examples of all types of glass are to be found in america, perhaps the most common specimens are of english make, brought to the new country after business had become firmly established, along with the other fine household equipments. among these are many fine decanters and tumblers of various designs, particularly interesting from the part they shared in the long accepted belief that glass drinking vessels of every kind, made under certain astronomical influences, would fly to pieces if any poisonous liquid was placed in them; and also that drinking glasses of colored ware added flavor to wine, and detracted materially from its intoxicating quality. some of these drinking glasses, known in england as toddy glasses, were the forerunners of our present tumblers. english collections, of course, include much earlier specimens of the ware than do american, for it was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century, when the seaport towns of new england were at the height of their prosperity, that sea captains brought here from england and other ports all kinds of glass. some of the finest of this found its way to salem, and in the waters house, on washington square, are stored some of the rarest of these specimens. these have all been collected by mr. fitz waters, who has devoted years in research of old-time things, and they represent not only the different periods of manufacture, but the output of the different countries as well. included are many engraved pieces, decanters which cannot be duplicated, and rare and wonderful bits, such as toddy glasses and numberless other glasses of varying kinds, many of them beautifully engraved with delicate tracery and the tulip of holland. many beautiful wine glasses and tumblers can be classified by their name, such as the white twist stem, made between 1745 and 1757,--the twisted appearance of the stem being the result of a peculiar process,--the baluster stem, and the air twist stem, some of the latter showing domed feet. several of the best types of glasses are shown in the west collection in salem. the cutting of the stems of several of these fix the date of manufacture at about 1800, while others of unusual shapes show bird and shield designs, also the wreath and flower. it is by the design more than anything else that the date of manufacture is fixed, determining the choiceness of the piece, and the money it should bring. while england has furnished most of the pieces shown here to-day, yet in the northend collection in salem are several fine russian specimens. these are deeply cut, and were brought to this country from russia by one john harrod about the year 1800. for many years they were stored in the old harrod house at newburyport, finding their way to their present abode when the harrod dwelling was dismantled, the owner being a descendant of this family. one piece, which is most unusual, is a deep punch bowl with a cover. curiously enough, the first industrial enterprise undertaken in america was a factory for the manufacture of glass bottles. it was built very early in the history of the virginia colony, and stood about a mile from jamestown, in the midst of a woodland tract. later, other factories were erected, many of them manufacturing glass beads to be used in trading with the indians. the oldest glass plant still doing business, which has been continuous since its beginning, is located at kensington in philadelphia, having been established in 1711. to many it may be still unknown that bohemian glassware has been manufactured in this country, and at a very early period. from mannheim, in germany, in the year 1750, came a certain baron steigel, whose parents had dubbed him william henry. he laid out, in pennsylvania, the village which bears the name of his native place, and there he established ironworks and glassworks, and deeded a plot of ground to the lutheran congregation, in consideration of their annual payment, forever, of one red rose. the glasshouse was dome-shaped, and so large that a coach-and-six could enter at the doorway, turn around inside, and drive out again. he brought skilled workmen from the best factories in europe, and made richly colored bowls and goblets, which have the true bohemian ring, and which are now in the possession of local collectors. his works did not continue for any length of time, as he failed in business about five years after he started, but the old steigel house is still standing in the heart of the town, distinguished by the red and black bricks of which it is built. and there still, in the month of june, is often celebrated the feast of roses, one feature of which is the payment of a great red rose by a church officer to the baron's descendants. but of all the old glass made here, perhaps the bottles form the most interesting portion. for the first seventy years of the nineteenth century, fancy pocket flasks and bottles were manufactured in the united states. the idea of the decorations probably came, in the first place, from the fact that english potters were decorating crockery with local subjects, in order to catch the american trade. this glassware, however, was wholly the result of our own enterprise. the objects here shown were blown in engraved metal molds, which had been prepared by professional mold cutters. colors and sizes vary too much to be a test of age. the scarred base and the sheared neck are the surest sign of age. in all the older forms, the neck was sheared with scissors, leaving it irregular and without finishing band; also, the base always showed a rough, circular scar, left by breaking the bottle away from the rod which held it while the workman was finishing the neck. smooth and hollow bases were made between 1850 and 1860 by means of an improvement called a "snap" or case, which held the bottle. at the same time, a rim was added to the mouth. the designs were worked out in transparent white, pale blue, sapphire blue, light green, emerald green, olive, brown, opalescent, or claret color. twenty-nine of these historic flasks bear for ornament some form of the american eagle; nineteen different designs display the head of washington, and twelve the head of taylor. their shapes varied with the passing of time. the very earliest were slender and arched in form, with edges horizontally corrugated; then came in vogue oval shapes, with edges ribbed vertically. the next pattern was almost circular in form, with plain, rounded edges; and at this time some specimens show a color at the mouth. then appeared the calabash, or decanter form, no longer flattened and shallow, as the others had been, but almost spherical, with edges that showed vertical corrugation, ribbing, or fluting; with long, slender neck, finished with a cap at the top; with smoothly hollowed or hollowed and scarred base. these were superseded by bottles arched in form, deep and flattened, having vertically corrugated edges, a short and broad neck, finished with a round and narrow heading, and a base either scarred or flat. last of all appeared the modern flask shape, also arched in form, with a broad shoulder, a narrow base, plainly rounded edges, and a return to the flattened and shallow type of the earliest manufactures. the neck had a single or double beading at the top, and the base was either flat or smoothly hollowed. all the kossuth and jenny lind bottles were made about 1850. the taylor or taylor and bragg bottles belong to the period of the mexican war, and were probably blown in 1848. one of these bears taylor's historic command, "a little more grape, captain bragg," as delivered at the battle of buena vista. another has a portrait of washington upon one side, and that of taylor upon the other, with the motto, "gen. taylor never surrenders." this shows the circular, canteen shape. one of the very oldest forms known to have been decorated in this country is the one which bears in relief a design of the first railroad, represented by a horse drawing along rails a four-wheeled car heaped with cotton bales and lumps of coal. this picture runs lengthwise of the bottle and bears the legend "success to the railroads" about the margin of the panel. this could not have been produced earlier than 1825. some of the washington designs belong to earlier periods, as do the eagle and united states flag. most of the masonic decorations belong between 1840 and 1850. the log cabin designs are connected with the notable harrison "hard cider" campaign of 1840, as are the inkstands made in the form of log cabins, cider barrels, and beehives. the dark brown whisky bottles in the shape of a log cabin are souvenirs of the same period of political excitement, and were made by a new jersey glass firm for a certain liquor merchant in philadelphia. the jackson bottles belong to the period of the stormy thirties. the "hero of new orleans" is represented in uniform, wearing a throat-cutting collar which entirely obscures his ear. a connecticut firm, in the late sixties, sent out a bottle of modern shape, decorated with a double-headed sheaf of wheat, with rake and pitchfork, having a star below. at about the same time a firm in pittsburg put upon the market a highly decorated flask, similarly modern in outline, having upon one side an eagle, monument, and flag; upon the reverse, an indian with bow and arrow, shooting a bird in the foreground, with a dog and a tree in the background. some bottles of unknown origin were decorated with horns of plenty, vases of flowers, panels of fruit, sheaves of wheat, a masonic arch and emblems, ship and eight-pointed star, and a bold pikes peak pilgrim with staff and bundle to celebrate the passage of the rocky mountains. among the early curio bottles shown are numerous fancy designs in the form of animals, fishes, eggs, pickles, canteens, cigars, shells, pistols, violins, lanterns, and the like. to this class belongs the moses bottle, which also goes by the name of santa claus. it is of clear and colorless glass, with a string fastened about the neck and attached to each end of a stick which crosses the top. should the collector enlarge his fad so as to take in bottles from foreign lands, he would find that his collection would gain much in beauty. in the metropolitan museum of new york there is a very comprehensive exhibit of rare venetian glass bottles and vials, which was the gift of james jackson jarves. these are the most brilliant and elegant types of their kind, graceful and refined, dainty and ethereal. chapter xvi old pewter there is a charm about old pewter that is well-nigh irresistible to the collector of antiques, its odd shapes, mellow tints, and, above all, its rarity, luring one in its pursuit. in the days when it was in general use,--after the decline in favor of the wooden trencher,--it was but little valued, and our forbears quaffed their foaming, home-made ale from pewter tankards, and ate their meals from pewter dishes with little thought of the prominence this ware would one day attain, or the prices it would command. to-day pewter represents a lost art, and the tankards and plates and chargers which our ancestors used so carelessly are now pursued with untiring energy, and, if secured, are treasured as prizes of priceless worth. intrinsically, the metal is of little value, being nothing more than an alloy of tin and lead, with sometimes a sprinkling of copper, antimony, or bismuth, but historically it is hugely interesting. like many other old-time features, records of its early history are scanty, affording but little knowledge of its origin, though proving beyond a doubt that it was in use in very early times. when it was first used in china and japan,--those countries to which we are forced to turn for the origin of so many of the old industries,--it is impossible to ascertain, but it is certain that pewter ware was made in china two thousand years ago, and there are to-day specimens of japanese pewter in england, known to be all of eleven hundred years old, these latter pieces being very like some shown in the museum of fine arts in boston. some old chroniclers claim that the ware was used by the phoenicians and early hebrews, and all agree that it was manufactured, in certain forms, in ancient rome. proof positive of this fact was gleaned some years ago, when quantities of old pewter seals of all shapes and sizes were discovered in the county of westmoreland, in england, where they had evidently been left by the roman legions centuries before. it is indeed deplorable that, owing to their making excellent solder, all these seals should have been destroyed by enterprising tinkers in the neighborhood. as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, pewter was produced in quantities, in france, germany, holland, and switzerland, and a very little in italy and spain. the year 1550 marked the period of the most showy development in the first-named country, of which francis briot was the most celebrated worker. his most noted productions were a flagon and salver, with figures, emblems, marks, and strapwork. these exquisite pieces were cast in sections, joined together, and then finished in the most careful manner, in delicate relief. briot was followed by gasper enderlein, swiss, and by the year 1600 the nuremberg workers entered the field with richly wrought plates and platters. france continued to hold high rank in pewter manufacture until 1750, after which time the quality of her output considerably deteriorated. in the sixteenth century the trade sprang up in scotland, many excellent pieces of the ware being produced here, and during the seventeenth century dutch and german pewter came to the fore, being considered, during this period, the best made. nuremberg and ausberg were the centers of the industry in germany, while in scotland, edinburgh and glasgow appear to have been the chief trade centers. the ware made in spain never seems to have attained any great degree of perfection, and records of its progress in this country are extremely scarce. barcelona seems to have been the center of the industry, but just when or where the craft had its inception, research has been unable to disclose. certain it is that no trace of any corporation or guild has been found prior to the fifteenth century. english pewter dates back as far as the tenth century, though few pieces are now in existence that antedate the seventeenth century. here, as in other european countries, the ware was at first made solely for ecclesiastical purposes, its manufacture for household use not becoming popular until many years later. from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, the ware gradually grew in importance through northern europe, though domestic pewter was used only by the clergy and nobility up to the fourteenth century. just when it became popular for table and kitchen use is not definitely known, though it is certain that it supplanted wooden ware some time in the fifteenth century. pewter reached the height of its popularity during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though its use for household purposes continued throughout the eighteenth and the first part of the nineteenth centuries. in the sixteenth century the artistic quality of the ware was greatly improved, for by an act of james vi the ware was divided into two grades, the best to be marked with a crown and hammer, and the second with the maker's name. specimens of this century are to-day extremely scarce, those few examples that do remain being for the most part found in museums or in old english castles, where they have remained in the same family from generation to generation. no doubt, specimens would have been more plentiful had not the greater part of the church plate in england and scotland been destroyed during the reformation. after 1780 pewter was but little used among the wealthy classes, except in their kitchens and servants' quarters, where it held sway for a considerable length of time. in fact, in some of the larger establishments, it continued to be used regularly until within the last thirty-five years, and even now it is used in the servants' hall in two or three of the large old country houses. it lingered longest in the taverns and inns, and in the london chop-houses, being used in the last named until they were forced out of business through the introduction of coffee palace and tea rooms. english pewter differs materially from that made in other countries, the workmen employing designs characterized by a sturdiness and sedate dignity that raised the ware above that made in other lands. almost every conceivable domestic utensil was made of pewter as well as garden ornaments, and it is interesting to note, in connection with the latter, that several urns were designed by the brothers adam. the history of pewter making in england might almost be said to be that of the london guild or worshipful company of pewterers, so closely is the ware allied with it. for a long time this company or guild controlled the manufacture and sale of the ware in england, and during the days of its greatest influence it did much to improve the quality. at one time it attempted to make general the employment and recording or marks, but the rule was not enforced, and an excellent opportunity of insuring the exact date of manufacture of a certain piece was thus lost. several private touch marks were registered at pewterers' hall, but these, together with important records that the company had compiled, were destroyed in the great london fire of 1666. very few pieces now in existence bear any of these touch marks, though occasionally a piece will be found that shows the regulation london guild quality mark, a rose with a crown. the touch mark was the mark of the maker. this was generally his name alone, though sometimes his name was combined with some device, like an animal or flower. scotland boasted a guild at edinburgh that at one time enjoyed a fame second only to that of the celebrated london company. touch plates of the pewterers that were registered here are no longer in existence, and, indeed, much of the pewter made in this country bears no mark at all. the usual hallmark was a thistle and a crown, though there were several local marks that were frequently used, which are sometimes found on scotch pieces. france, too, had its guilds, but they were abolished by turgot on the ground that the free right to labor was a sacred privilege of humanity. gradually the influence of all the guilds was less keenly felt, and in time the majority were abolished. after this the quality and use of pewter steadily declined, and with the coming into favor of china and other ware, pewter grew to be considered old-fashioned, and its use was discontinued during the first years of the nineteenth century. [illustration: plate lxi.--pewter half-pint, pint and quart measures, one hundred years old; three unusual-shaped pewter cream jugs; german pewter, whorl pattern.] the old-time metal played a prominent part in the first colonial households in america, it being in many cases the only available ware, but after a time, as the population and strength of the young colonies increased, it had to give way, as in england, to the introduction and steadily increasing popularity of china. during the seventeenth century several english pewterers came to america to find employment, settling principally in boston, salem, and plymouth county, and during the eighteenth century the manufacture of the ware here became quite common. it is interesting to note that the greater part of the american-made pieces bear the name of the maker. english and continental pewter was also extensively used here, and, in consequence, american collections of the present include specimens from these countries. most of the pieces now preserved belong to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, though there are some few pieces which are of earlier manufacture. the value of pewter, like all other antiques, varies, and a piece is really worth what one can obtain for it. in england, the highest prices are paid for sixteenth-century pewter, while in our own country the product of the eighteenth century is that most sought after, and the best prices are paid for pieces of this period. ecclesiastical pewter is rare here, and therefore is valuable, but it does not hold such high favor in the collector's regard as do the simple pieces that once graced the quaint dressers in colonial homes. the fad for pewter has been productive of much imitation ware. this is especially true of certain types which are particularly popular, and, indeed, were it not for this demand, it would hardly pay to imitate the old metal, even at the prices now paid for the same. it costs considerable to make up spurious bits that are almost entirely like the old-time pieces, in composition, and, besides, they must be put through several processes to make them look old. consequently, it is safe to assume that at the present time the number of imitation pieces on the market is comparatively small, and in this country there are really few pieces that are entirely counterfeit. to be sure, plain pieces of the genuine metal are sometimes ornamented to increase their value, but lately collectors seem to regard plain pieces with the greatest favor, and this form of counterfeiting will no doubt soon disappear. to-day, in america, there is one manufacturer, and perhaps more, who is reviving some of the original forms and producing pewter reproductions which are being put on the market as such. for the modern colonial dining-room these are especially attractive, serving in every particular the purpose of decoration, but to the collector they are of no interest. america boasts of several fine collections of this ware, especially in the new england states, where the chief ports for the trade were located. the bigelow collection at boston includes, besides plates and platters, rare bits of odd design, many of them characterized by markings. one such piece is a hot-water receptacle, showing a shield decoration on which are marked the initials "h. h. d." and the date "1796." the lid is ornamented with two lines and the initials "r. g." several quaint lamps are other prized possessions in this collection, some of them made about 1712, and most of them of american manufacture. one of them, the smallest of the group, is marked "n. y. molineux." tankards of the "tappit hen" type are also preserved here, though they are not precisely the same shape as the measures of scotch make which went by that name; other pieces included in the collection are cream jugs, milk pitchers, spoons, forks, a water urn, and several odd tankards. equally as interesting is the caliga collection at salem. here are to be seen quantities of this rare old ware, worked up into almost every conceivable device, and several of the pieces are numbered among the choicest in the country. a squatty little teapot with wooden handle is among the most interesting specimens, and its history is in keeping with its quaintness. it was secured by mr. caliga in a little german town during his residence abroad, and soon after it came into his possession, it was much sought after by a collector, who offered a large sum of money for its acquirement. mr. caliga refused to part with it, and later he learned that it was indeed a very rare piece, being a part of a set which the collector was endeavoring to obtain for the duke of baden, who owned one of the three pieces, the would-be purchaser having the second. this teapot has for a hallmark an angel; a quaint sugar bowl of like design, also in this collection, shows a crown and bird. an odd pewter lamp, known as a jewish or seven days' lamp, is included in this collection, the receptacle for oil being in the lower portion. there are two large pewter plates, also, one of which has the royal coat of arms in the center, and is surrounded by the whorl pattern. these plates measure about twenty inches across, and one has the hallmark of three angels on the back. perhaps the rarest bit of pewter in existence to-day is that owned by a massachusetts lady. it is of japanese manufacture, and is a family heirloom, through generations back. it first came into possession of the owner's ancestors in 1450; even at that date it had a history, and, indeed, its battered sides speak eloquently and forcibly of a past. it is said to have been the possession of a french nobleman, who, for some cause or other, was compelled to flee from his native land, and who sought refuge in england, where he met and married an english girl. the precious bit remained with his descendants until the year above mentioned, when the last of his race, dying without issue, bequeathed the old relic to his dearest friend, of whom its present owner is a direct descendant. but whatever its type and origin, the old ware is always interesting. to be sure, even at its best it is plain, relying on its form for its pleasing appearance, but no other metal better repays its owner for the care expended upon it. no doubt it costs an effort or two to keep it bright and shining, but who does not feel repaid for the time and energy expended, when the slow gleams of silver-like hue that gradually appear on the surface greet one in appreciation, like the smile of an old friend! chapter xvii old silver there is a widespread and growing interest in all old silver, especially in such pieces as can be traced back to colonial origin. salem, whose commercial prosperity was well established by the middle of the seventeenth century, has some wonderfully good pieces of colonial silver, many of which are family heirlooms. the early american silverware, like our early furniture and architecture, is thoroughly characteristic of the tastes and mode of life peculiar to that period in america. it is simple in design and substantial in weight, thus reflecting the mental attitude of the people. social conditions here would not warrant any imitation of the magnificent baronial silver which was then being made and used in england. many of the pieces in these collections come to us hallowed by a hundred associations and by traditions recalling the lives of our forefathers in all their manifold phases. the sight of the silver communion service recalls the early history of our new england churches, and reminds us of the devotion of the people to the institutions about which revolved both the social and political life. only the identity of the maker is revealed by the hallmark on american silver. there is no trace of the date letter, so prevalent upon english pieces of the same period, although various emblems appear, which were used as trademarks, peculiar to the owner. in cases where the crown appears above the initials, it was merely a passing fad to copy the mark of certain english silversmiths who enjoyed royal patronage. the business of making silverware in the colonies seems to have been profitable from the first. the earliest silversmith of whom we have any record is john hull, born in 1624 and dying in 1683, who amassed much wealth through his appointment as mintmaster for massachusetts in the old days of the pine-tree shillings. his name, together with that of his daughter betsey, has been immortalized by hawthorne. that captain hull did not have a monopoly of his trade is proved by the fact that a beaker, which was presented to the dorchester church in 1672, was made by one david jesse. also, a certain jeremiah dummer, brother of governor william dummer, was apprenticed to john hull, to learn the silversmith's trade, in 1659, and sent out much work stamped with his own name. he also taught his trade to his brother-in-law, john cony, who engraved the plates for the first paper money that was ever made in america. most famous of all new england silversmiths was paul revere. besides the historic associations connected with his name, his works are most attractive in themselves, showing an exquisite finish and great beauty of workmanship; there are no certain marks to distinguish his work from that of his father, as each used the stamp "p. revere." of the many silversmiths of new york, none are so early in point of time as these new england men whom i have mentioned. not until the middle of the eighteenth century did a certain george ridout come over from london, and set up business "near the ferry stairs." he has left us beautiful candlesticks, marked with his name, and by these he is remembered. at about the same time richard van dyck, tracing his lineage to the knickerbockers, made very handsome flat-chased bowls, and myer myers, seemingly of similar origin, set his stamp upon finely proportioned pint cans, having an ear-shaped handle and a pine-cone finial. at a later date, shortly subsequent to the revolution, a silversmith named tragees made beautiful sugar bowls with urn-shaped finials; and cary dunn, who held a position in the custom house, designed exquisitely engraved teapots, having the cover surmounted by a pineapple as the emblem of hospitality. these early makers stamped their names plainly upon their work, so that the task of approximating their age is thus rendered easy. in most families silver spoons of various patterns have been preserved for generations. some of these were brought from england with other treasures of family silver, and are excellent examples of seventeenth-century ware. up to that time, teaspoons had been made with very deep round or pear-shaped bowls and very short handles. toward the middle of the seventeenth century, they assumed more nearly their present form, having handles twice as long as they had previously possessed, and bowls oval or elliptical. the new style was sometimes dubbed the "rat-tail spoon," in derisive comment upon its long and slender handle. it will be observed that many of our earliest teaspoons were no larger than the present after-dinner coffee spoons. it is probable that no other type of spoon possesses the interest, not to say the money value, of the old apostle spoons, which came into fashion in the sixteenth century. at that time it was an english custom for the sponsors to present these spoons, as baptismal gifts, to the children for whom they made themselves responsible. a wealthy godparent would give a complete set of thirteen, but a poor man generally contented himself with giving simply the one spoon which bore the figure of the child's patron saint. the complete set consisted of the "master" spoon and twelve others. the "master" spoon has upon the handle a figure of christ, holding in one hand the sphere and cross, while the other hand is extended in blessing. a nimbus surrounds the head, in all these spoons. each apostle is distinguished by some emblem. saint paul has a sword, saint thomas a spear, and saint andrew a cross. saint matthias carries an ax or halberd, saint jude a club, saint bartholomew a butcher's knife, and saint philip a long staff with a cross in the t. saint peter appears with a key, saint james the greater with a pilgrim's staff, saint james the less with a fuller's hat, and saint matthew with a wallet. saint john has one hand raised in blessing, while the other holds the cup of sorrow. whole sets of these spoons are very rare. in fact, there are said to be but two whole sets in existence, with another set of eleven. one of these sets sold in 1903 for twenty-four thousand five hundred dollars, while another set of less ancient date brought five thousand three hundred dollars. a single apostle spoon, bearing upon its handle a figure of saint nicholas, and upon its stem the inscription, "saint nicholas, pray for us," sold in london for three thousand four hundred and fifty dollars, a few years ago. this is said to be the highest price ever paid for one single spoon. the oldest hallmarked apostle spoon is dated 1493, while the most modern of which we have any record bears the date of 1665. it is probable that the custom of giving these baptismal presents began to go out of fashion at that period. other spoons of great interest, although not so old as the earliest apostle spoons, are the curious little "caddy spoons," which came into vogue with the first popularity of tea drinking more than two centuries ago. the tea was at first kept in canisters, whose lids served as a measure. then came into use the quaint and dainty tea caddy, with its two-lidded and metal-lined end compartments, and a central cavity to be used as a sugar bowl. a favorite and poetic custom of the old sea captains, upon visiting china, was to have their ships painted upon china caddies by chinese artists, as gifts for wives or sweethearts at home. now since the sugar bowl was a part of the tea caddy, the use of the caddy spoon or scoop became immediately popular. all of these spoons have very short stems and handles, with bowls of fanciful design, perforated, or shell-shaped, or fluted. a few were made like miniature scoops, with handles of ebony; while others were perfect imitations of leaves, the leaf stem curling around into a ring, to make the handle. in this country, caddy spoons came into use after the revolution. until very recently, they have been neglected by collectors, and were to be bought at a low figure; but all that is changed, and the price is from fifteen dollars upward in most cases, besides which the purchaser must take his chances as to the genuine worth of his bargain, as many imitations are being put upon the market. it is no proof of genuine worth that the spoon may be bought in an antique shop on a quiet street of some sleepy old seaport town. this is just the spot likely to be chosen for perpetrating a fraud. the most common counterfeit is made by joining a perfectly new bowl to the handle of a genuine georgian teaspoon that bears an irreproachable hallmark. the unusual length of handle betrays the cheat, which can be further proved by the presence of a flattened spot similar to a thumb print, where the bowl joins the handle. still another fraudulent specimen has a false hallmark. these counterfeits were probably made outside of this country, perhaps not even in england. the hallmark is the stamp of a head that bears no particular resemblance to george iii, for whom it is possibly intended; a lion that may, perhaps, be near enough in design to pass for the royal british brute; and signs and letters, half-effaced, which, in conjunction with the king's head and the lion, make up an imitation of the birmingham hallmark. of course it would not deceive, for an instant, the experienced buyer in a good clear light; but the shops are often darkened to a kind of twilight, and the inexperienced amateur detects nothing wrong about the spoon, which is usually made after some uncommon and attractive style. as this fraud is of recent date, no examination would be necessary for spoons known to have been in a certain family for some years. these spoons were made of wedgwood ware, china, glass, agate, or tortoise-shell, as well as of silver. there are beautiful silver ones in the shape of a hand or of a flower. in two cases, i have seen the spoon made to match the caddy. one of these sets was of decorated china, and the other of tortoise-shell set in silver. another spoon, which passed out of date with the caddy ladle, was the so-called caudle spoon. it might be well to explain to the present generation that caudle was a preparation of wine, eggs, and spices which was commonly fed to invalids, in the latter part of the eighteenth century. the caudle spoon, perforated or entire, but with a longer handle and smaller bowl than the caddy spoon, was employed to stir the mixture. it is now obsolete, as is the snuff spoon, another relic of the whimsical customs of yore. there was a season when it was stylish to carry a snuffbox, and to take a pinch one's self, now and then, or to offer it to a friend. the snuff spoon was used to avoid dipping the fingers into the powder, which would of course stain both finger nails and cuticle. as the caddy was the companion piece of the caddy spoon, so the caudle bowl is associated with the caudle spoon. a salem specimen stands six inches high, and has a capacity of three pints. it has two handles, and is embellished by a broad chasing at the base, and by fluted chasing about the body. the caudle cup used with it is severely plain, but has a good outline. tankards both with and without covers were in common use, toward the close of the seventeenth century. in size, they varied from a capacity of one quart to three. they were often fitted with a whistle, by the blowing of which the butler's attention could be called to the fact that the tankard needed filling. from this custom arose the old saying, "let him whistle for it." the singular expression, "a plate of ale" comes from the fact that in old inventories, tankards are listed as "ale plates." the largest salem specimen has a capacity of one quart only, and is beautifully chased around the body and upon the cover in a rose-and-pineapple design. this chasing is much worn, not only by the passage of time, but also by the pitiless polishing of the methodical new england housekeeper. this is a straight-sided tankard, with a well-curved top, which necessitates a long and tapering thumb piece. the handle is large and well-tapered, extending well above the rim. all these specimens belong to the revolutionary epoch. [illustration: plate lxii.--old silver coffee urn with pineapple finial; sheffield plate teapot, formerly owned by thomas jefferson; tall silver pitcher, of flagon influence.] the style of silver made and used in this country during the first half of the nineteenth century is well typified by the sugar, creamer, and teapot contained in an old-time collection. the teapot and sugar bowl are adorned with a pineapple finial. this style was originated by cary dunn of new york at the close of the revolution, and won immense popularity. the pineapple, which is its most notable decoration, has always been accepted as the emblem of hospitality; while the primrose pattern about base and body is neat and tasteful. the lines in these designs are less severely simple than in some, but are excellent, nevertheless. [illustration: plate lxiii.--several old silver pieces; collection of salem silver, almost all inherited; wonderfully fine silver bowl.] another favorite style of this same period is shown in a graceful little pitcher in another collection, having for sole ornament a rosette where the handle joins the body. rosettes were high in favor in the early part of the nineteenth century, and were shown in the furniture of that day as well as in the silverware. another charming pitcher which stands upon three legs is a veritable prize, literally as well as figuratively. during the war of 1812, our salem privateers seized many a valuable cargo. among the confiscated treasures was this dainty little silver pitcher, handsomely engraved, and bearing the coat of arms of a prominent english family. in the division of the confiscated goods, this article fell to an ancestor of the owner, who received it by inheritance. another interesting bit of silver, belonging to the same period as the pitcher, is a cruet stand. fifty years ago these were in common use upon the tables of our ancestors. fashion has relegated them to the sideboard or to the top shelf, where the old-fashioned, high silver cake basket keeps them company in exile. to the same period belongs the teapot showing a rosette bowl, and mushroom-shaped finial, which was among the bride's presents at a wedding in 1804, while the sugar and creamer included in the same collection belong to a later date, as they were bridal presents received in 1867. the beauty of the lines in these two specimens falls far short of the standard set by american manufacturers of colonial times. still in use and highly prized is the wonderful old bowl which is in another collection. for many years this bowl was lost, and though diligent search was made for it, it was not discovered until one day the owner and some friends, riding through a rural district, stopped at a well in a farmhouse yard for a drink. close at hand a pig was eating from a peculiar-looking receptacle, which, though blackened and mud-stained, yet showed an interesting contour. negotiations were entered into with the house owner for the purchase of this receptacle, and it was secured for twenty-five cents. when polished, it was found to be the long-missing bowl, which has since then been called the hog bowl. other specimens still preserved include a tall sugar bowl, mounted upon a standard, which is more than a hundred years old, as are the tongs used with it, with their delicate acorn-cup pattern. in the larger piece, the rings which form the handles pass through the mouth of a dog's head, upon each side. the feet which support the standard suggest the work done in the furniture of that day by chippendale, sheraton, and their followers. to the latter days of the eighteenth century belong an endless yet interesting variety of patterns of porringers, salvers, sugar bowls, perforated baskets for loaf sugar, tea and coffee pots, and innumerable table utensils. another article which is now found but rarely is the nutmeg holder or spice box. the interior of the lid was roughed for use as a grater, and few were the "night caps" but had a final touch added through its use. while the usefulness of the spice box and the snuffbox has long since passed away, yet they are treasured because of the pictures they bring to the mind's eye of the old days of the georges. no product of the present can outvie the charms of such old silver. all things colonial, whether house or accessory, are distinctive, and to the designers and craftsmen of that period the world owes a debt that no amount of tribute can ever wholly repay. colonial is synonymous of the best, and objects created during its influence are always of a higher degree of perfection than the best of other periods. looking about for a reason for this, we are confronted with the realization that the work of that time was carefully planned and carefully finished, craftsmen giving to their output the best their brains could devise, and allowing no reason, however urgent, to interfere with the completion of a certain object as they had originally planned it to be. therein lies the real reason of the superiority of things colonial. later-day artisans sacrificed quality to quantity; they complied with the demand of public opinion, and as that demand became more urgent, carelessness of detail became more marked. the simplicity of the colonial era gave way to the highly decorative and often ugly ornamentation characteristic of late nineteenth-century manufacture, and it was not until a few craftsmen found courage to revive colonial features that the beauty of that type of construction was truly appreciated. to-day, colonial influence is again dominant, and it is a relief to note that in modern homes it is usurping in favor its hitherto prized successors. it is only to be hoped that its influence will be lasting, for surely of all types it is the most worthy of emulation. index abbot, general, 25. house, 78, 109, 153. adam brothers, 98, 103, 128, 140, 215. adams, abraham, 95, 138. family, 95, 138. john, 88. the decorator, 69. albree, john, 152. alden, john, 111. allen, john fiske, 51. house, 51, 52. of lowestoft, 182. amesbury, mass., 37. andirons, 67-69. andrews, john, 21, 101. house, 13, 21, 84, 85. "angel gabriel" (ship), 102. appleton, john, 163. architects, english, 8. architecture, dutch, 2. gothic, 4. architrave, decoration of, 18. argand, mons., 168. assembly house, 18, 24. atkinson collection, 200. ausberg, germany, 212. austria, 197. bagnall, benjamin, 147. samuel, 148. barcelona, spain, 213. barnard, dr. thomas, 81. bartol, dr. cyrus, 81. bavaria, 196. bay of biscay, 135. bedrooms, 122, 125. beds, accessories of, 124. adam, 128. antique, 120. bunk, 126, 127. carved, 27. chippendale, 127, 128. cupboard, 122, 126. egyptian, 121. field, 131. flemish, 121. folding, 127. four-poster, 123-131. "great bed of ware," 122, 123. greek, 121. hangings, 124. hepplewhite, 128, 130. inlaid, 128. mahogany, 127. oak, 122. paneled, 127. "presse," 126, 127. primeval, 121. queen anne, 126. roman, 121. sheraton, 128. "slaw-back," 127. "wild bill" or one-poster, 126. benson house, 109. bigelow collection, 219. billingsley, william, 187. roses, 187. bishop, bridget, 26. black point, maine, 43. blankets, home-made, 124. bloor, robert, 188. bohemia, 196, 197. boston, mass., 5, 43, 71, 74, 147, 148, 149, 217, 219. bottles, 203, 205-209. arched, 206. bases of, 205. calabash, 206. canteen, 207. circular, 206. curio, 209. decorated, 207-209. designs on, 206. flask, 207. jackson, 208. jenny lind, 207. kossuth, 207. liquor, 208. moses, 209. oldest american, 207. oval, 206. rim of, 206. santa claus, 209. signs of age in, 205. spherical, 206. taylor and bragg, 207. venetian, 209. bow, england, 183, 186. bradford, governor, quoted, 42. bricks, dutch, 9. gray-faced, 13, 14. briot, francis, 212. bristol, r. i., 12, 60, 101, 131. brown inn, 173. bumstead, 6, 80. byfield, mass., 95, 126, 138, 173. cabins, log, 2. cabot, mr., 141. house, 7, 22, 53. joseph, 7, 22. caliga collection, 220. cambridge, mass., 37. candelabra, 167, 169, 170. candle, 231. bowl, 232. cup, 232. spoon, 231. candles, 159, 160-165. bayberry, 164. dip, 165. makers, 166. making, 163, 164, 165. molds, 165. sperm, 163. suet, 161. tallow, 161, 165. wickless, 161. candlesticks, 159, 167. brass, 167. iron, 167. pewter, 167. silver, 167. tin, 167. cape cod, 42. capen house, 55. carving, art of, 18. ceilings, low, 3. raftered, 66. cellar, large, 10. chairs, arm, 94, 98. banister-back, 94. brass mounted, 101. carved, 95, 98, 99, 100. chinese type, 98, 99. chippendale, 97, 98. comb back, 97. dutch, 95, 98. early colonial, 93. empire type, 101, 102. fan back, 97. forms, 93. french types, 98, 100. heart-back, 100. hepplewhite, 97, 99, 100. inlaid, 100. japanned, 100. louis the fifteenth type, 98. martha washington, 101 painted, 95, 97, 102. ribbon-back, 98. rocking, 94. rush seated, 95. settles, 93. sheraton, 97, 100, 101. shield-back, 100. slat-back, 94. stuffed easy, 96. turned, 93. windsor, 96, 97. chandeliers, 169. chelsea, england, 183, 186. chests, 105-110. drop handle, 109. hand-carved, 107. highboys, 109, 110. imported, 106, 107. legs of, 108. linen, 108. lowboys, 109, 110. "magic," 107. mahogany, 106. on frames, 108. "owld pine," 106, 107. size of, 106. use of, 106. with drawers, 107. chimney pots, 19. chimneys, catted, 2. central, 7. china, empire of, 80, 181, 184, 185, 211, 229. china, 172, 216. caddies, 229. cream ware, 191. crown derby, 182, 186-188. delft, 177-180, 185. jasper, 191. lowestoft, 175, 181-185. luster, 191. salt glaze, 173, 174. staffordshire, 173-176. toby jugs, 175-177. wedgwood, 189-191. chippendale (designer), 92, 97, 98, 99, 112, 114, 127, 128, 136, 140, 146, 236. choate, joseph, 22. "christmas carol," 22. claudius, emperor, 145. clocks, american, 146, 148, 150, 151, 153-157. bagnall, 147. banjo, 149. "birdcage," 153. cases, 151. chippendale, 146. construction of, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156. doolittle, 148. first, 145. grandfather's, 151, 153. hangings, 150. "lantern," 153. makers' union, 146. making in salem, 150. musical, 148. of europe, 146. one-day, 157. patent shelf, 153, 154. pillar scroll top case, 155. sheraton, 146. striking, 148. table, 151. terry, 150, 153. "wag-at-the-wall," 153. wall and bracket, 151, 153. water, 145. weaver's, 152. wick, 145. willard, 148, 149. coal, discovery of, 75. first use of, 74. cogswell house, 125. collections, atkinson, 200. bigelow, 219. caliga, 220. hosmer, 147. mansfield, nathaniel b., 109. metropolitan museum, 209. middleton, 11, 131. mitchell, 199-200. page, 175, 180. rogers, 191. waters, 93, 102, 108, 202. west, 189, 202. colonial products, superiority of, 236, 237. columns, corinthian, 12. grecian, 17. plain, 21, 122. common, salem, 21, 25. cook, captain samuel, 77. dr. elisha, 15. cony, john, 225. counterpane, homespun, 125. craigie house, 37. crowell, rev. robert, 125. crown derby, 182. "bloor-derby," 188. decline of, 188. early output of, 186. epoch par excellence, 187. factory, 186, 187, 188. crowninshield house, 38, 71. cupboards, colonial, 1, 72. shell-top, 173. cupola, 9. danvers, mass., 5, 10, 19, 44, 46, 49, 60. delft, holland, 178, 179. delft ware, best examples of, 179. decline of dutch, 179, 180. dutch, 177, 178, 179, 180. english, 178, 180. first potteries, 179. old, 177. origin of, 178. plates, 180. tiles, 180. derby, elias hasket, farm, 47, 49, 50. elias hersey, 50. house, 77, 78. desks, bookcase, 112. bureau, 111. chippendale secretary, 112. french empire, 113. hepplewhite secretary, 112. "scrutoir," 110, 111. sheraton secretary, 112. devereux, humphrey, house, 52. dexter, "lord" timothy, house, 99. dickens, charles, quoted, 39. doolittle, enos, 148. doorways, narrow, 22, 25. pineapple, 27. downing, emanuel, 4. george, 4. "dr. grimshawe's secret," 24. dressing tables, 109. duesbury, william and son, 186, 187, 188. duke of baden, 220. duke of devonshire's house, 39. dummer, governor william, 225. house, 173. jeremiah, 225. dunbarton, n. h., 8, 130, 151. dunn, cary, 226, 233. dutch architecture, 2. east india company, 185. ware, 177, 178, 179, 180. east windsor, conn., 150. edinburgh, scotland, 212, 216. elector of brandenburg, 200. elizabethan period, 4. embargo, the, 11. enderlein, gasper, 212. endicott, governor john, 2, 4, 44, 105. farm, 44. house, 10. england, 2, 3, 8, 9, 35, 39, 41, 43, 64, 80, 82, 86, 128, 134, 135, 136, 139, 142, 147, 152, 157, 161, 167, 174, 183, 185, 201, 202, 203, 211, 214, 215, 217, 221, 223, 226, 230. etruria factory, 190. exeter, england, 146. fabens, mr., 71. faulkner, dr. g., 149. "feast of roses," 205. fell, judge jesse, 75. felt, captain jonathan p., 49. felt's annals, quoted, 150. fenders, 75, 76, 77. fireback, 71-72. firedogs, 66. fire frames, 73-74. fireplace, accessories, 65, 66, 67. brass, 77. colonial, 64, 65. construction of, 65. elizabethan, 64. gove, 70. inglenook, 64. louis sixteenth, 64. modern, 63, 64. of middle ages, 63. of renaissance, 63, 64. queen anne, 64. robinson, 71. soapstone, 78. tiled, 76. fire sets, 66, 67. flint and steel, 170. floor, sanded, 66. forrester house, 21. france, 80, 86, 135, 167, 212. franklin, benjamin, 94. stores, 73, 74, 75, 76. gardens, 11, 13, 41. allen, 51, 52. at indian hill, 48. at oak knoll, 47. cabot, 53. captain peabody's, 46. derby, 50. features of old-fashioned, 44, 45. humphrey devereux, 52. location of, 45, 46, 51. mrs. perry's, 48. nucleus of, 43. of george heussler, 49, 50. salem, 49. gardiner house, 21. george house, 141. george ii, 96. george iii, 69, 100, 230. georgetown, mass., 83, 107. georgian period, 127. gerard, quoted, 44. germantown, mass., 163. germany, 197, 212. gibbon (designer), 143. glasgow, scotland, 212. glass, baluster stem, 202. beads, 203. blown, 205. bohemian, 195, 197-199, 204. bonbon dishes, 200. bottles, 203, 205-209. bowls, 203, 204. cameo incrusted, 199. choiceness determined, 103. colored, 197, 201. cutting of, 198. decanters, 200, 201, 202. drinking, 201. english, 201. engraved, 196, 197, 198, 202. etched, 199. factories, 197, 198, 204. first made, 194. french, 199. gilded, 196, 197. goblets, 204. green german, 196. historic flasks, 206. legend of, 196. making in rome, 195. origin of, 195. painted, 196, 197. portland vase, 192, 195. ruby colored, 199-200. russian, 203. salt cellar, 199, 200. toddy, 201, 202. tumblers, 201-202. vases, 198, 199. venetian, 195, 198. white twist stem, 202. wine, 202. glastonbury abbey, 146. gothic architecture, 4. gove house, 70. governor's field, 4. island, 42. grafton, mass., 148. "guild of st. luke," 179. hallway, capen house, 55. colonial, 54. eighteenth and nineteenth century, 56, 57. entry, 61. finish of, 59. "hey bonnie hall," 60, 61. lee, 58, 60. old english, 55, 58. paneled, 56, 57, 59. papered, 59. spacious, 57, 58. stark, 56. warner, 56, 57, 90-91. wentworth, 58, 59. hamilton, mass., 71. hamilton hall, 141, 166. hangings, bed, chintz, 124. linen, 124. patch, 124, 130. harland, thomas, 150. harris, mrs. walter l., 136. harrod house, 138, 203. hartford, conn., 147, 148. harvard college, 4. haverhill, mass., 76, 129. hawthorne, nathaniel, 24, 26, 37, 102, 224. heard house, 93. hearth accessories, 66, 67. hepplewhite (designer), 92, 97, 99, 100, 110, 112, 114, 115, 128. "hermitage," 87. heussler, george, 49. "hey bonnie hall," 11, 60, 61, 101. higginson, governor, 161. rev. francis, quoted, 41. "highfield," 95, 126, 138. high rock, mass., 95. hillsboro, n. h., 89, 90, 115, 151. hinges, wrought-iron, 9. hingham, mass., 93. "history of essex," 125. hoadley, silas, 155. hoffman, captain, 52. holland, 2, 9, 41, 43, 80, 96, 135, 177, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 196, 212. holmes, oliver wendell, 130. hosmer collection, 147. "house of seven gables," 37. houses, abbot, general, 78, 109, 153. albree, 152. allen, 52. andrews, 13, 21, 84, 85. assembly, 18, 24. bell or brick, 190. benson, 109. brick, 3, 13, 14, 19, 56. brown inn, 173. cabot, 7, 22, 53. capen, 55. cogswell, 125. colonial, 7. craigie, 37. crowninshield, 38, 71. derby, 77, 78. devereux, humphrey, 52. devonshire's, duke of, 39. dexter, 99. dummer, 173. endicott, 10. finest, 8. forrester, 21. frame, 2, 55. gambrel-roofed, 3, 10, 19, 55. gardiner, 21. george, 141. gove, 70. hamilton hall, 141, 166. harrod, 138, 203. heard, 93. "hermitage," 87. "hey bonnie hall," 11, 60, 61, 101. "highfield," 95, 126, 138. historic, 5, 6, 8, 12. howe, 111, 115, 129. "indian hill," 12, 48. johnson's, dr., 39. kimball, 18, 83. kittredge, 142, 201. knapp, 87. lee, 8, 58, 60, 87, 89. lindall-andrews, 80, 81. little, 70. log cabin, 2. long, 93. lord, 22, 138, 139, 142. mansfield, 71. mansion, 3, 8, 10, 19, 56. maryland manor, 11. may, 37. meyer, 71. middleton, 131. mount vernon, 131. nichols, 200. noyes, 113. oak knoll, 47, 60. of 52 rooms, 10. oliver, 77. osgood, 109, 143, 168. page, 5, 6. pickering, 4, 5, 72, 76, 109. pierce, 89, 115, 151. pierce-jahonnot, 25. pierce-nichols, 139. robinson, 71. ropes, 111. salem club, 70. saltonstall-howe, 76. sanders, 70. silsbee, 21. southern, 12. sprague, 169. stark, 8, 56, 115, 130, 151. stearns, 6. steigel, 204. warner, 9, 56, 90, 109, 169. waters, 38, 77, 202. wentworth, 10, 58. wheelright, 88. whipple, 7, 25, 87. white house, 11. whittier, 37, 47, 60. howe, mrs. guerdon, 111. house, 111, 115, 129. hull, betsey, 224. john, 224. ince (designer), 98. "indian hill," 12, 48. indians, 203. ipswich, mass., 5, 7, 93. ironworks, american, 204. italy, 135, 197, 212. ivy works, burslem, 190. jackson, andrew, 87. of battersea, 81. jacobean period, 127. jamaica plain, mass., 169. james vi, 214. jamestown, va., 203. japan, 80, 179, 211. jarves, james jackson, 209. jerome, chauncey, 157. jesse, david, 224. johnson's, dr., house, 39. josslyn, john, quoted, 43. kean, michael, 188. kensington, philadelphia, 203. kimball house, 18, 83. king philip's war, 116. kitchen, colonial, 66. kittredge house, 142, 201. knapp house, 87. knockers, antique, 35. brass, 22, 30, 33, 34. disappearance of, 31. eagle, 35, 36, 37. english, 9. fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 30. garland, 35. georgian urn, 35, 36. gothic, 33. historic, 37. horseshoe, 36. invention of, 29. iron, 7, 30, 33, 36. lion and ring, 35. london, 38-39. may house, 37, 38. medieval, 33. mexican, 36. plate or escutcheon, 33, 34. price of, 34. renaissance, 33, 37. reproductions of, 34. thumb latch, 8, 22, 35, 38. types of, 29. knox, general, 25. henry, 138. kunckel (artist), 200. lafayette, general, 24. lamps, betty, 162. glass, 168. unique specimen, 162. whale-oil, 166. wick, 162. with glass prisms, 169, 170. lanterns, 162. gilded, 168. painted, 168. larcom, lucy, 6. latches, thumb, 8, 22, 35, 38. lean-to, 3, 7. lee, colonel jeremiah, house, 8, 58, 60, 87, 89. leghorn, italy, 131. lehmann, gasper, 198. leslie's retreat, 7, 81. leverett, governor john, 115. thomas, 15. lightfoot, peter, 146. lights, candelabra, 167, 169. candle, 159, 160, 161, 163-166. candlewood, 159, 160, 161. chandeliers, 169. electric, 159. fire, 159, 160. from flint and steel, 170. gas, 159. lamp, 162, 169. lantern, 162, 168. pine torch, 159, 160. rush, 162. lindall, judge, 80. lindall-andrews house, 80, 81. little, hon. david m., house, 70. little harbor, n. h., 10, 58. london, 167, 214, 215, 225. london guild or worshipful company of pewterers, 215. long, hon. john d., 93. house, 93. longfellow, anne sewall, 95. lord, nathaniel, 23. house, 22, 138, 139, 142. lowestoft, 181, 186. coat-of-arms, 183. controversy, 185. decoration of, 183, 184. factory, 182, 184, 185. first ware, 182. holland, 182. oriental, 181. red, 183. luster ware, 191. copper, 192, 193. gold, 192, 193. jugs, 192. silver-tinted, 192. sunderland, 192. lynn, mass., 72, 95, 175, 193. macpheadris, captain, 9. mary, 9. mcintyre, samuel, 18, 47, 69, 70, 71, 77, 140. manchester, mass., 56, 199, 200. mannheim, germany, 204. pa., 204. mansfield, mrs. nathaniel b., 71. collection, 109. mantlepieces, 63, 64, 70. in little house, 70. marble, 70. narrow, 64. oliver house, 77. renaissance, 64. salem club, 70. sanders house, 70. manwaring (designer), 98. marblehead, mass., 8, 60, 81, 87, 135. historical society, 89. marseilles, france, 146. maryland manor, 11. "mayflower," the, 111. mayhew (designer), 98. may house, 37. merchant princes, 19. metropolitan museum, 209. mexican war, 207. meyer, hon. george von l., 71. middleton, moses, 11. collection, 11, 131. house, 131. militia, first company of, 7. mills, henry, 153. mirrors, adam, 140. bilboa, 135. bull's-eye, 140. chippendale, 136, 140. constitution, 137. "courtney," 143. frames, 134. girandole, 140, 141. glass, 134. knobs, 137. lafayette, 143. late colonial, 141, 142. mantel, 139-140. metal, 133, 134. origin of, 133. paneled, 141, 142, 143. queen anne, 136. venetian, 134, 142. with cornice overhanging, 138, 141. mitchell collection, 199-200. money, first paper, 225. mount vernon, 131. mullikin, samuel, 150. museum of fine arts, boston, 211. myers, myer, 225. nashville, tenn., 87. newburyport, mass., 48, 49, 73, 87, 88, 99, 113, 138, 180, 203. new england historical genealogical society of boston, 147. newton, mass., 37, 138, 139, 142. nichols house, 200. north andover, mass., 142. noyes house, 113. nuremberg, germany, 212. oak knoll, 47, 60. "old christmas," 65. old tom, indian chieftain, 12. oliver, henry k., house, 77. osgood house, 109, 143, 168. page, colonel jeremiah, 6. collection, 175, 180. house, 5, 6. mistress, 6. panels, hand-made, 9. parties at salem, 167. peabody, captain joseph, 11, 46, 70. elizabeth, 24. joseph augustus, 46. sophia, 24. peacock inn, 4. pearson, ebenezer, 73. perkins, dr. george, 74. perry, mrs. charles, 48. pewter, 71, 162, 167, 168, 194, 210. american, 217. chargers, 210, 219. collections of, 219, 220. composition of, 210. development in france, 212. dutch, 212. ecclesiastical, 213, 218. english, 213, 215, 217. flagon, 212. french, 216. german, 212. guilds, 215, 216. historic teapot, 220. household, 213, 214, 219. imitation, 218-219. in rome, 211. in sixteenth century, 214. japanese, 211, 221. lamps, 219, 220. marks on, 214-221. old, 211. origin of, 211, 213. plates, 210, 219, 221. rarest in existence, 221. salver, 212. scotch, 212, 216. seals, 211. spanish, 213. tankards, 210, 219. use discontinued, 216. value of, 217. where used, 213-214. pewterer's hall, london, 215. philadelphia, pa., 28, 51, 75, 208. phipps, governor, 90. pickering, alice, 72. house, 4, 5, 72, 76, 109. john, 4, 5, 72. rev. theophilus, 76. timothy, 5, 109. pierce, franklin, 89. governor, 89. house, 89, 115, 151. mr., 25. pierce-jahonnot house, 25. pierce-nichols house, 139. pilasters, fluted, 22. pilgrim hall, 93. pillars, carved, 8. packed with salt, 14. pitcher, moll, 95. planche, mons., 186, 188. plants and flowers, 41, 42. azaleas, 52. camellias, 52. night-blooming cereus, 50. oxeye daisy, 44. peonies, 53. pitcher plant, 43. tulips, 53. _victoria regia_, 51. whiteweed, 44. wild, 42. woadwaxen, 44. plymouth, conn., 155. county, 217. mass., 93. poore, major benjamin perky, 48. porcelain, chinese, 179, 185. japanese, 179. lowestoft, 184. porch, andrews, 21. assembly house, 24. circular, 13, 17, 21. construction of, 17. contour, 17. dutch, 25. gardiner, 21. hand-carved, 17, 18, 24. historic, 20, 24. inclosed, 23, 54. lord, 22. middle states, 9. new england, 17, 19, 28. oblong, 17. philadelphia, 28. pickman, 27. pierce-jahonnot, 25-26. robinson, 14. side, 14, 22, 23. southern, 17, 19. square, 17. three-cornered, 17. types of, 19, 20. portland vase, 195. replica of, 192. portsmouth, n. h., 9, 10, 90, 109, 169. poynton, captain thomas, 27. putnam, general israel, 111. quincy, mass., 163. redmond, john, 166. reformation, the, 214. revere, paul, 225. revolution, the, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 19, 35, 69, 89, 94, 97, 113, 135, 143, 226, 229, 233. rhode island, 11. ridout, george, 225. robinson, nathan, 14. house, 71. rogers collection, 191. rome, italy, 211. roof, flat, 20. gambrel, 8, 9. pitched, 7. thatched, 2. ropes, caleb, 51. house, 111. rose (potter), 183. mark, 183. rotterdam, china warehouse at, 184. rouseley, england, 4. rowley, mass., 141. roxbury, mass., 148. salem, mass., 4, 6, 7, 11, 13, 18, 20, 23, 24, 25, 28, 36, 38, 46, 49, 60, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 77, 80, 84, 93, 95, 101, 102, 108, 109, 130, 132, 138, 139, 141, 143, 150, 153, 162, 164, 166, 168, 169, 189, 200, 202, 203, 217, 220, 223, 232. salem club, 70. saltonstall, dr. nathaniel, 76, 130. family, 141. sir richard, 130. saltonstall-howe house, 76. sanders, thomas, house, 70. saugus, mass., 72, 153. saxony, 186, 196. schwanhard, george, 198. sconces, in osgood house, 168. wall, 167. scotland, 9, 212, 214. sharp, william, 52. shearer (designer), 114. sheraton (designer), 92, 97, 100-102, 112, 128, 146, 236. shoemaker, colonel george, 75. sideboards, 113, 114. chippendale, 114. empire, 116. hepplewhite, 114. inlaid, 115. shearer, 114. sheraton, 115. silesia, 196. silsbee house, 21. silver, american, 223, 224. baronial, 223. beaker, 224. bowls, 225, 226, 232, 233, 234, 235. caddy, 229, 232. cake basket, 234. candle bowl, 232. candlesticks, 225. cans, 226. chased, 232, 233. communion service, 223. creamer, 234. cruet stand, 234. english, 224. engraved, 226, 232. hallmarks on, 224, 226, 230, 231. "hog" bowl, 235. of paul revere, 225. pitcher, 233. plates, 225. snuffbox, 232, 236. spice box, 236. spoons, 226-232. table utensils, 236. tankards, 232, 233. teapots, 226, 233, 234. tongs, 235. simpson, dr. james e., 52. snuffer boats, 168. snuffers, 168. sofas, 97, 102. adam, 103. chippendale, 103. cornucopia, 103. darby and joan, 103. empire, 104. haircloth, 103. louis xv, 103. sheraton, 103. spain, 135, 212, 213. spofford, harriet prescott, 73. spoons, "apostle," 227, 228. "caddy," 228, 229, 231, 232. candle, 231. imitations, 230, 231. "rat-tail," 226. snuff, 231. teaspoons, 226. sprague, joseph, 6 house, 169. staffordshire factories, 173, 175, 184. staircase, 55, 59. balusters, 59. "hey bonnie hall," 61. "oak knoll," 60. spiral, 60. winder, 60. stark, charles morris, 9. major caleb, 8. house, 8, 56, 115, 130, 151. state house, boston, 15. stearns house, 6. steigel baron, 204. house, 204. stogumber church, somerset, 39. stoves, "cat stone," 75. franklin, 73, 74, 75, 76. hub grate, 75, 76, 77. summer house, 44. on peabody estate, 46-47. susquehanna valley, 75. sutton mills, andover, 47. swampscott, mass., 152. switzerland, 212. tables, butterfly, 116. card, 118. chair, 117. dining, 117, 118. dish-top, 117. dutch, 117, 118. empire, 118. hundred-legged, 117. kidney, 117. pembroke, 118. pie-crust, 118. pied, 118. pouch, 117. sheraton, 117. table-top, 117. tea, 117. telescopic, 118. writing, 117. terry, eli, 150, 153, 154, 155. family, 150. thomas, seth, 155, 156. tiles, 76, 180, 181. tobies, bennington, 177. dutch, 175. french, 175. german, 175. napoleon, 175, 176. old, 176. staffordshire, 175. teapot, 177. young, 176. topsfield, mass., 55. tracy, john, 49. tragees (silversmith), 226. trees, on derby farm, 50. on indian hill, 48. on peabody estate, 46. turgot, mons., 216. van dyck, richard, 225. vineyard and orchard, 42. wall papers, "adventures of telemachus," 87. "bay of naples," 88. block printing of, 80, 81. chariot race, 88. "cupid and psyche," 85. "don quixote," 84. english, 86, 87. english hunt, 84. foreign scenes, 86, 88. french, 86, 87. importation of, 82. landscape, 88, 89. made to order, 83, 89. origin of, 80. panels of, 81. parisian views, 88. picture, 79, 81. roll, 81. roman ruins, 89. squares of, 81. venetian scenes, 88. walls, painted, 81-83, 90, 91. thick, 9. unplastered, 66. ware, isaac, quoted, 72. ware, wooden, 213. warner, hon. jonathan, 10, 169. house, 9, 56, 90, 109, 169. war of 1812, 143, 234. warren, russell, 11. washington, george, 10, 25, 88, 130, 138. quoted, 25. washingtonian period, 19. waterbury, conn., 155. waters, fitz, 202. collection, 93, 102, 108, 202. house, 38, 77, 202. wayland, mass., 35. webster, daniel, 23, 111. fletcher, 23. wedgwood ware, 189. cream, 191. jasper, 191. portland vase, 192, 195. queen's ware, 190. wedgwood, josiah, 189, 190, 191, 192. well room, the, 12. wentworth, governor benning, 10, 115. house, 10, 58. sir john, 12. west, mrs. william c., 189. collection, 189, 202. westminster abbey, 146. westmoreland county, england, 211. west newbury, mass., 12, 48. wheelwright, william, 88. house, 88. whieldon, thomas, 189. whipple, major george, 87. house, 7, 23, 87. white, captain joseph, 22. stephen, 23. white house, washington, 11. whittier, john greenleaf, 47, 73. garden, 47. house, 37, 47, 160. wilkes-barre, pa., 75. william and mary, 127. willard, aaron, 148. benjamin, 148. simon, 149. windows, bull's-eye, 57. diamond paned, 13. dormer, 9. fanlight, 61. leaded, 5. lutheran, 9. windsor, england, 96. winthrop, governor, 42, 161. wise, rev. john, 76. witchcraft days, 26. woods used, apple, 101, 112. cherry, 108, 111, 112, 148. forest trees, 106. hard, 59, 95. harewood, 129. holly, 114. mahogany, 59, 61, 99, 100, 101, 102, 106, 108, 112, 114, 115, 127. maple, 109, 114. oak, 108, 147. pine, 147. rosewood, 101, 102. satinwood, 100, 101, 114, 129. soft, 59, 95. sycamore, 129. tulip, 101, 114. walnut, 60, 108, 111, 112, 129, 147. white, 2, 129. yule log, 64. transcriber's note: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. the old furniture book [illustration: hall in king hooper house. _danvers mass._] the old furniture book with a sketch of past days and ways by n. hudson moore author of "the old china book" _with one hundred and twelve illustrations_ _second edition_ [illustration] new york frederick a. stokes company publishers copyright, 1903, by frederick a. stokes company _all rights reserved_ _published in october, 1903_ "to a lady who shall be named later." illustrations frontispiece--hall in "king hooper" house, danvers, mass. chapter i figure 1. old oak bedstead 2. olive-wood chest 3. old oak chest 4. chest with one drawer 5. oak chest on frame (english) 6. spanish leather chair 7. turned chair with leather cover 8. english chair (1680) italian chair (same period) 9. cane chair, flemish style 10. turned and carved arm-chair chapter ii 11. dutch furniture, called "queen anne" 12. carved kas 13. marquetry chairs 14. screen, cradle, and church stool 15. ebony cabinet 16. bed chair 17. marquetry desk chapter iii 18. kitchen, wayside inn, sudbury, mass. 19. chippendale chairs 20. chippendale chair 21. carved cedar table 22. chippendale chairs 23. chippendale candle, tea and music stands 24. chippendale card-table 25. chippendale marble-topped table 26. chippendale chair-backs and mirror-frame chapter iv 27. room in whipple house, ipswich, mass. 28. chippendale, sheraton, and hepplewhite chairs 29. adam chairs 30. hepplewhite chairs 31. hepplewhite card-table 32. hepplewhite settees 33. sheraton chairs 34. sheraton desk 35. sideboard 36. sofa, sheraton style 37. sheraton sideboard 38. sheraton sideboard 39. empire sofa 40. empire sofa 41. pier-table 42. empire sideboard 43. empire work-table chapter v 44. kitchen at deerfield, mass. 45. william penn's table 46. rush-bottomed chairs 47. connecticut chest 48. mahogany desk 49. corner cupboard 50. banquet-room, independence hall, philadelphia 51. windsor chairs 52. wall-paper 53. bed at concord, mass. 54. bed at mount vernon 55. bed at somerville, n. j. 56. carved oak bedstead chapter vi 57. room in whipple house, ipswich, mass. 58. carved and gilded and mahogany mirror-frames 59. mahogany desk and chest of drawers 60. combined bookcase and desk 61. field bed 62. low four-post bed 63. french bed 64. highboy 65. corner cupboard 66. inlaid and lacquered table and chair 67. lacquered table 68. mahogany bureau 69. american-made chairs 70. american-made rosewood card table chapter vii 71. bedroom of anne of austria at fontainebleau 72. bed of louis xiv at versailles 73. chairs of the period of louis xiv 74. tapestry furniture 75. commodes of the time of louis xv 76. garderobe period of louis xv 77. bedroom of marie antoinette at the little trianon 78. chairs and table of louis xvi style 79. encoignure, period of louis xvi 80. bed of josephine at fontainebleau 81. bed of napoleon at grand trianon 82. room at fontainebleau with historic table 83. empire reading and writing desk chapter viii 84. organ in st. michael's church, charleston, s. c. 85. spinet 86. harpsichord 87. cristofori piano 88. harp 89. bass viol 90. glass harmonica 91. geib piano 92. nuns piano 93. upright piano chapter ix 94. tall-case clocks, english 95. three centuries of clocks.--lantern, portable, and willard or banjo clocks 96. tall-case clocks, english and american 97. mantel clocks chapter x 98. kitchen of whipple house, ipswich, mass. 99. handles, escutcheons, etc. 100. feet contents. chapter page i. old oak, old leather, turkey work, etc. 1 ii. dutch furniture 28 iii. chippendale 48 iv. adam, sheraton, empire 73 v. colonial and later periods 95 vi. colonial and later periods--_continued_ 128 vii. french furniture 148 viii. musical instruments 173 ix. clocks 197 x. handles, feet, stuffs, etc. 222 index 237 the old furniture book. chapter i. old oak, old leather, turkey work, etc. with the revival of interest in all "antiques," which is so widely spread at this time, any of us who chance to own an old piece of furniture feel an added degree of affection for it if we can give it an approximate date and assign it to a maker or a country. there is much good old furniture in the united states, chiefly of spanish, dutch and english make, though there are constant importations of other makes, notably french, since it is recognized on all sides that americans are becoming the collectors of the world. our public museums are gradually filling with works of art presented by broad-minded citizens, while the private galleries are rich and increasing every day. to keep pace with these possessions, furniture from old palaces and manor-houses is being hauled forth and set up again in our new world homes. indeed, whole interiors have been removed from ancient dwellings, and the superb carvings of other days become the ornaments of modern houses, like the gilded oak panels from the hotel montmorency which were built into the deacon house in boston, or like mrs. gardiner's venetian carved wood which decorates her palace in the boston fens. oak panelling, like everything else, passed through various periods and styles. in queen elizabeth's time the panels were carried to within about two feet of the cornice; then, after some years, there came a division into lower and upper panelling, the upper beginning at about the height of the back of a chair from the floor. pictures became more common, and they were frequently let into the upper panelling, and then it was discarded altogether, only the lower half or dado being retained. this, too, after some years, became old-fashioned, and the board known as skirting, or base-board, was all that was left of the handsome sheathing which extended from the floor almost to the ceiling. this old oak panelling was entirely without polish or varnish of any kind, and grew with years and dust almost black in colour. sometimes it was inlaid with other woods, and often it was made for the rooms where it was placed. where the panels are carved, they are generally bought in that state and set in plain framework by the household joiner. if, however, the frame is carved and the panels plain, they were made to suit the taste and purse of the owner of the mansion. oak panelling took the place of the arras, tapestry hangings, and crude woodwork of earlier times. of course it was adopted by the rich and luxurious, for it rendered more air-tight the draughty buildings. [illustration: figure 1. old oak bedstead.] the oldest furniture was made of oak, more or less carved, whether of spanish, italian, dutch, or english make. the multiplication of objects which we consider necessary as "furnishings" were pleasingly absent, and chests used as receptacles for clothes or linens, for seats by day and beds by night, with a few beds also of carved oak, and tables, made up the chief articles of domestic use. even the very word "furniture" itself is of obscure origin and was used formerly, as now, to describe the fittings of houses, churches, and other buildings. there are a few terms applied to furniture referring either to its decoration or process of manufacture with which it is well to become acquainted. they are given here in the order of their importance. _veneering_ is the process of coating common wood with slices of rare and costly woods fastened down with glue by screw presses made to fit the surface to be covered. it was first used in the reign of william and mary, in the last decade of the seventeenth century. until that time furniture had been made of solid wood. veneer of this early period, particularly burr-walnut veneer, was about one sixteenth of an inch thick, and was sometimes applied to oak. chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton used mahogany and satin-wood both solid and for veneers. when used as veneers they were all hand-cut, as they are in all high-class furniture to-day. it was not till the late georgian period that machinery for cutting veneer was first used, and slices were produced one thirty-second of an inch in thickness. most of the cheaper kinds of modern furniture are veneered. _marquetry_ is veneer of different woods, forming a mosaic of ornamental designs. in the early days of the art, figure subjects, architectural designs, and interiors were often represented in this manner. _rococo_, made up from two french words meaning rock and shells, _roequaille et coquaille_, is a florid style of ornamentation which was in vogue in the latter part of the eighteenth century. _buhl_, or _boulle_, is inlaid work with tortoise-shell or metals in arabesques or cartouches. it derived its name from boule, a french wood-carver who brought it to its highest perfection. _ormolu_ refers to designs in brass mounted upon the surface of the wood. this metal was given an exceedingly brilliant colour by the use of less zinc and more copper than is commonly used in the composition of brass, and was sometimes still further made bright by the use of varnish and lacquer. _baroque._ this word, which was derived from the portuguese _baroco_, meant originally a large irregular pearl. at first the term was used only by jewellers, but it gradually became technically applied to describe a kind of ornament which became popular on furniture early in the nineteenth century, after the rage for the classic had passed. it consisted of a wealth of ornament lavished in an unmeaning manner merely for display; and scrolls, curves, and designs from leaves were used to cover pieces, making them lack beauty and that grace which comes from pure and simple lines. _lacquer_ is coloured or opaque varnish applied to metallic objects as well as wood. the name is obtained from "resin lac," the material which is used as the base of all lacquers. in the east indies the whole surface of wooden objects, large and small, is covered with bright-coloured lacquers. the japanese lacquers are the finest that are made. they excel in the variety and exquisite perfection of this style of work, and under their skilful manipulation it becomes one of the choicest forms of decorative art. the most highly prized lacquer is on a gold ground, some specimens of which reached europe in the time of louis xv. _japanning._ this style of treating wood and metal derives its name from the fact of its being an imitation of the famous lacquering of japan, although the latter is prepared with entirely different materials and processes, and is in every way much more durable, brilliant, and beautiful than any european "japan work." this latter process is done in clear transparent varnishes, or in black or colours, but the black japan is the most common. by japanning a very brilliant polished surface may be secured, which is more durable than ordinary painted or varnished work. it is usually applied to small articles of wood, to clock-faces, papier-maché, etc. _joined_ furniture. all the parts are joined by mortise and tenon, no nails or glue being used. this method prevents the parts from warping or springing, as so much of the modern machine-made furniture does. figure 1 shows an ancient carved-oak bed of the time of queen elizabeth, with grotesque carvings on the headboard in renaissance style, which is said to have been introduced into england by holbein. this bed has an interesting history. it belongs to the herricks of beaumanor park, and came to them from professor babington, of st. john's college, cambridge, england. he inherited it from his father, whose ancestors kept the "blue boar" inn at leicester, where richard iii slept the night before the battle of bosworth field, in august, 1485. this has always been called "king richard's bed," and many learned antiquaries have waxed eloquent for and against this assumption. mr. henry shaw, author of "specimens of early furniture," published in 1836, says it is a good specimen of the modern four-poster of elizabeth's time, the more ancient beds being without foot-posts. in fact the earlier beds were mere couches. as more luxury was demanded they grew larger, counterpanes were made of the richest materials, gorgeously embroidered with the arms and badges of their owners, and from their great cost and imperishable character descended from one generation to another. they provided employment, too, for the lady of the castle and her bower maidens, who had no end of leisure which had to be filled in some way, and which dragged along for many a long year, broken only by the chance visit of a wandering hawker or my lord's return from the wars. hollingbourne manor, in kent, is one of the old mansions still standing which was built in queen elizabeth's time. the manor was originally owned by sir thomas culpeper, and his initials appear in many places about the house. in the great hall the fireplace has an iron back with the initials "t. c." and the date 1683 wrought in it. the present owner, mr. gerald arbuthnot, has preserved the old-time atmosphere as much as possible, and in connection with home-made tapestry the "needle-room" is especially interesting. in that room the four ladies culpeper, daughters of that john, lord culpeper, who was exiled for his devotion to king charles, spent so much of their time making tapestry that one of the sisters became blind from the effects of her close application. among the pieces of the handiwork of the four sisters preserved is a magnificent altar-cloth which they presented to the parish church. for two centuries and a half a needle left by the fingers of the worker remained sticking in the corner of the cloth, but it was stolen about two years ago by some one of a party of antiquarians visiting the manor. [illustration: figure 2. olive-wood chest.] in mr. shaw's book already quoted are many items concerning these great and handsome beds, which were often the finest pieces of furniture in the castle or manor, and from the safe seclusion of which the king or great lord received the homage of his vassals. the bed and bedstead were sometimes classed separately, but in many inventories the former word covers the bedstead and all its furnishings. the fittings of the bed were well in keeping with the fine carved woodwork, and were of softest feathers or down. sheets of linen, and rugs or blankets of fine wool, were covered by a cloth woven of samite, damask, or heavy with gold threads. richard, earl of arundel, in 1392, left to philippa, his second wife,---"a blue bed marked with my arms and the arms of my late wife, also the hangings of the hall, which were lately made in london, of blue tapestry with red roses, with the arms of my sons, the earl marshall, lord charlton, and mons. willm. beauchamp; to my son richard, a standing bed called "clove"; also a bed of silk embroidered with the arms of arundel and warren quarterly; to my dear son thomas, my blue bed of silk embroidered with greffins; to my daughter margaret my blue bed." not many earls had so great a store of worldly goods. in 1434 joanne, lady bergavenny, devises---"a bed of gold swans, with tapettar of green tapestry, with bunches and flowers of diverse colours; and two pair of sheets of raynes; a pair of fustian, six pairs of other sheets; six pairs of blankets; six mattrasses; six pillows; and with cushions and bancoves that longen with the bed aforesaid." this was only one bed of six specified by this lady, several being of velvet, silk, and one of "bande kyn," a rich and splendid stuff of gold thread and silk, still farther enriched with embroidery. before the cloth spread or counterpane the covering was of fur. it was also the fashion in these primitive times to name the beds, like that specified "clove" in the earl of arundel's inventory, sometimes with the names of flowers, sometimes with those of the planets or of birds. the beds were surmounted with testers or canopies of rich silk edged with fringes, and suspended from the rafters of the room by silk cords. there were side-curtains also, and much carving on the headboard, while the foot-posts, as we have said, are wanting in the earliest beds, prior to the year 1500. mr. shaw goes on to say that there are very few beds still extant which date before elizabethan times, and that the most ancient he met with was of the time of henry viii., and belonged to a clergyman of blackheath who bought it out of an old manor-house. the posts and back are elaborately carved in gothic style, but the cornice is missing. of elizabethan times there are several noted beds extant, the finest of them being known as the "great bed of ware" mentioned by shakespeare in "twelfth night." it is seven feet high and ten feet square. there is one in the south kensington museum, london, more richly carved than the one we show, and having in addition a carved foot-board. this bed is dated 1593. [illustration: figure 3. old oak chest.] the curtains and hangings which have in our day become mere ornaments were during the elizabethan period most necessary. windows unglazed, and rude walls unplastered, or at best hung with tapestry, permitted drafts to wander through the sleeping-rooms, so that the curtains were closely drawn at night for actual protection. at best in many a castle or dwelling of the wealthy but one bed would be found, and that belonged to the lord and lady, the rest of the family taking their rest on rugs or cushions bestowed on the floor, or on chests or settees, or even on tables. there are also found, though rarely, oak tables of this period, or perhaps a little later, heavily carved along the sides, and with ponderous turned legs and plain stout braces. these tables, perhaps the earliest approach to a sideboard, are so long that they have six legs, the top seldom being less than twelve feet in length. one we refer to was found recently in an old barn in england, where it had lain since the neighbouring manor-house had been pulled down in 1760. while its condition was good,--that is, needing no restoring,--it had become nearly black and almost fossilized from exposure. it is now used as a sideboard by the vicar of the parish who found it in its lowly estate, and on it stand pewter and plate, also antiques from the neighbourhood. such treasures can seldom be found here, certainly not any that have lain concealed since 1760. after the elizabethan period the next one of importance may be called jacobean. james i. encouraged his people to use chairs instead of stools. it was not long before settles, lounges, and "scrowled chairs," the latter inlaid with coloured woods, crowded out the stools of former days, and the idea of enriching the useful became the interest of the skilled workman, and utility was no longer the measure of value. stools, to be sure, were still used, but they had heavy cushions of brocade, or worked stuff, or velvet, and were hung around with a rich fringe and with gimp, fastened with fancy nails. the arm-chairs of this period, a fashion introduced from venice, had the legs in a curved x shape across the front, and chairs are still extant which were used by james i. himself. these chairs, which are all somewhat similar in design, were rendered still more comfortable by a loose cushion which could be adapted to the inclination of the sitter. the bedsteads of the period were also smothered in draperies, the tester trimmed with rows upon rows of fringe, the head-boards, carved and gilded, being about the only woodwork allowed to show. as we have said, the earliest wood used, at least in northern england, seems to have been oak. at the close of the sixteenth century there was furniture decorated with inlays of different coloured woods, marbles, agate, or lapis lazuli. ivory carved and inlaid, carved and gilded wood, metals and tortoise-shell, were used also in making the sumptuous furniture of the renaissance. the greatest elegance of form and detail was observed during this century, and it declined noticeably all over europe, during the seventeenth century. the framework became heavy and bulky and the details coarse. silver furniture made in spain and italy was used in the courts of the french and english kings. then came the carved and gilded furniture which received its greatest perfection in italy, though it was made throughout europe till late in the eighteenth century. [illustration: figure 4. chest with one drawer.] second only to the bed in importance as an item of household furnishing was the chest, a seat by day, a bed by night, and a storehouse of valuables always. it usually stood at the foot of the bed, possibly so that it could not be pilfered at night without the owner's knowledge. some chests, heavily made, provided with locks and bound with iron, held all the worldly wealth of the owner, as well as his papers and deeds. before the time of james i. bills of exchange were not used, and the actual coin passed in all transactions. italy was the first country to establish banks, the money-dealers of florence practising banking as early as the thirteenth century. holland followed their example, and in 1609 the bank of amsterdam was founded, but kept in its coffers the actual coin paid in, being merely a repository for safe keeping. england had no bank until the seventeenth century, when this business was undertaken by the goldsmiths of london. the bank of england was not founded until 1694. it can be easily seen how necessary a part of the household goods a stout chest for valuables was, especially in remote parts of the country, where access to the cities was not easy. not alone in houses was the chest a necessary article; one or more were a part of every church's furniture, and in them were kept the vestments, church linen, the plate, and other valuables. there is a lawsuit mentioned in the court records of new amsterdam, where one of two sisters living at jericho, long island, about 1647, sues a neighbour for coming into their house and breaking into her chest, which was in her bedroom, and stealing from it several measures of wheat which were stored therein, as well as some coins which were in the till. the wearing-apparel of the family also was kept in these chests, and for years before her marriage the daughter of the house was employed in filling one up with linen spun and woven through all the different processes from the flax, the size and fullness of the chest often proving quite a factor in the marriage negotiations. the chests of the jacobean time, enriched with mouldings, panellings, and drop ornaments, are by no means unknown in america. they are furnished with drawers, cupboards, and then drawers above, making them massive and useful pieces of furniture. they stand upon large round legs, and the handles to drawers and cupboards are drops. in italy marriage chests were beautifully painted, often by famous masters, and sometimes gilded as well. in holland the chests were carved or inlaid; and many of these, owing to the commercial relations between england and holland, found their way into the former country and thence to america, in addition to those brought directly from the low countries. chests were used as trunks by travelers long before shakespeare's time, and he makes a chest play an important part in "cymbeline." in the early days of the american colonies, when the settlers sent back to england for comforts not procurable in america, these were generally despatched in chests for safe keeping and to preserve their contents. the following letter shows a lady's desire to get hold of her property which had been unduly detained. lady moody was a member in 1643 of the colony of massachusetts, but, "being taken with the error of denying baptism to infants, was dealt with by many of the elders," as she persisted in her "error" she was persuaded by friends, in order to avoid further trouble, to move to the new netherlands. this she did, and it is noted by the rev. thomas cobbett, of lynn, that "lady moody is to sitt down on long island, from under civil and church watch, among the dutch." [illustration: figure 5. oak chest on frame. _english._] later she became a warm friend of the younger winthrop, and many letters passed between them. the following was written in 1649: "wurthi sur: my respective love to you, remembering and acknowledging your many kindnesses and respect to me. i have written divers lines to you, but i doubt you have not received it. at present being in haste i can not unlay myselfe, but my request is y^t you will be pleased by this note, if in your wisdom you see not a convenienter opertunity to send me those things y^t mr throgmorton bought for me, and i understand are with you, for i am in great need of y^e, together with mark lucas's chest and other things. "so, with my respective love to you and your wife and mrs locke remembered, hoping you and they with your children are in helth, i rest; committing you to y^e protection of y^e almighty. pray remember my necessity in this thing. deborah moody." chests are to be found in the well-settled as well as in out-of-the-way corners, and of dutch, english, and american make. the dutch, broadly speaking, are more common in the neighbourhood of new york, albany, and other places settled by these pioneers from holland, while the english-made ones, many of them, are to be found in new england, and scattered over the eastern states as well, since in the past year i have seen two fine ones, both found in the western part of new york state. the very earliest chests which were among the effects of our first settlers are very plain affairs, hardly more than boxes mounted on simple sawed legs. they were all furnished with locks, and generally with rude handles, and we can well conceive the motley array of household and personal "stuff" which came over in them. elder brewster's chest is in the memorial hall at plymouth, and is just such a plain box on legs as has been described. though there were many oak chests undoubtedly brought over during these early years, there were also many of pine, and, being plain and cheap receptacles, more easily damaged than if of harder wood, they gave way to better and more ornate pieces as soon as the family fortunes warranted it. in flanders were made many fronts of chests only, quite elaborately carved, and sent to england, there to be fitted with the other parts. among the guilds the chest-makers bore an important part, as chests, particularly of churches, were sometimes fastened with two locks, and the lock plates were often very highly and handsomely wrought. of later years chests of every degree of elegance and beauty have found their way to america; some covered with carving of the florid style of the renaissance, some still showing traces of the fine gilding with which they were covered. even some of historic interest are owned here, such as the carved chest of olive-wood said to have belonged to the stuarts, and brought to this country by a member of the family who fled to virginia after the beheading of charles i. it remained in the possession of a family named stuart till recently, and was bought by its present owner, miss c. f. marsh, of clermont-on-the-james. this chest, though restored as to its feet, is remarkable on account of the decorations on the inside of its lid, which are unusual in that place, and from the fact that they are done in burnt work as well as carving. a portrait of james i. occupies the centre, and there are carved panels on either side depicting the "judgment of solomon." on the top of the lid the arms of the stuarts are burnt in, while the front is decorated with panels of castles and warriors, and above the middle panel are the british lions supporting the royal arms. this chest is about six feet in length, twenty-four inches high, and twenty-two inches wide. the plantation on which it was found belonged to captain john smith in 1610. its real value was quite unknown to those who possessed it. it was sold at auction, and was bought by a german farmer for a feed-box, on account of its strength. he carted it home, and was so satisfied with his bargain that he was quite unwilling to sell. it is made of eight-inch planks of olive-wood, cut several centuries ago in palestine. nor is this the only chest of this description in the country. in memorial hall, philadelphia, is one very similar to it (figure 2), but in a perfect state of preservation, with the original ball feet and more ornate twisted wrought-iron handles. the style of decoration on the two chests is quite similar, they are both made of olive-wood, but the wrought-iron handles are much handsomer on the philadelphia chest than on the stuart one. it has, however, no carving on the inside of the lid; the four panels of carving are enclosed with a moulding; but the lions rampant are very well done, and there are figures in cavalier costume on the panels. while, of course, elegant chests like these are most uncommon, it is the less ornate specimens which prove the most interesting, because there is more likelihood of our becoming possessed of them. figure 3 represents a good specimen of one of these early chests. it is of english make, entirely of oak, the boards of the bottom being as heavy and solid as lead. the top is a heavy plank of oak with a fine grain. the chest is panelled within and has one till. the lock is modern, and some nails have been driven to hold the chest together, for the back legs as well as the sides are worm-eaten. this chest is three feet nine inches long, twenty-eight inches high, and twenty inches wide, and is in good condition save for the nails. its date is about the last quarter of the seventeenth century. it was found in new york state and belongs to mr. w. m. hoyt of rochester. while oak and pine were the most common materials for these chests, olive-wood was sometimes used, as we have seen, and sometimes the panels were of cedar, and the ornaments of some of the softer woods, like pine or maple, coloured and stained to imitate ebony. american walnut came into use late in the seventeenth century, but, although used in furniture and popular as a veneer, it was not used for chests. cypress wood was also in demand as a material for chests, the aromatic smell keeping off the pest of housekeepers, the moth. in summer time the heavy woollen tapestries and woollen clothes of the family were stowed away, and the former, at least, from their cost and the labour expended upon them, had to be carefully protected. [illustration: figure 6. spanish leather chair.] the roughest sort of a chest was called a "standard," and in it were packed the more perishable movables and furniture; and in moving from one residence to another these standards were carried by pack-horses or on rude carts. chinese chests of teak-wood, lacquer, or cedar are very rarely met with, though you will sometimes see them in old homes in england, where some ancestor of the family followed the sea. the inventory of the estate of colonel francis epes, of henrico county, virginia, dated october 1, 1678, is a long and varied one. the first article recorded is "one foure foot chest of drawers seder sprinkled new, but damnified £1-10.0." further along are mentioned- --"one middle size calve skin truncke with drawers. one old leather truncke with lock and key ... one old middle size chest with lock and key. one small old chest with lock and key. two other old chests without keys and one without hinges." quite a number of chests and trunks for one family when it is noted that they had chests of drawers also. when the rev. samuel sewall, so well-known from his voluminous diary, returned from a trip to england in 1689, he brought with him on the ship "america" a trunk for each of his three children, with their names and the dates of their births carved thereon. presumably these trunks did not come over empty. he brought also a sea-chest, a barrel of books, a large trunk marked h. s. with nails, two smaller trunks, a deal box of linen, a small case of liquors, and a great case of bottles. he slept on a feather bed laid above a straw bed on the voyage, and was comfortably covered with a bedquilt. american oak was used, however, in many american-made chests. some of the early chests, particularly those found in the united states, stand flat on the ground. others have legs, sometimes formed by the continuation of the stiles, as those parts of the chests are called which hold the panels on the sides. the two boards which occupy the top and bottom of the sides and back and front are called the rails. the upper rails in some of the chests of early make have a row of carving on them which adds still further to the beauty of the chest, and in some instances the stiles are also carved. ordinarily, however, the stiles are plain or with but a slight moulding, and the rails are quite plain. geometric patterns in arched, diamond, or square form were early employed, each maker copying industriously the patterns used by other makers and only occasionally having the originality to design for himself. after the legs formed by the continuation of the stiles came legs made in the shape of great balls such as were used on much dutch furniture and were copied by the english makers. the great dutch _kas_, or chest, was a very large and ornamental piece of furniture, carved, painted, or decorated in marquetry. such pieces are unusual now, most of them having been gathered in by collectors or museums, the dutch towns along the hudson, as well as albany and schenectady, having been pretty well picked over. the evolution of the bureau from the chest is an interesting study, and shows plainly the different periods through which the useful and homely "kist" passed before it emerged into such an ornamental thing as the carved and decorated highboy. the first step in its upward career was taken when a drawer was added below the chest proper. this came as early as the last half of the seventeenth century, those chests belonging to the first half being without drawers. sometimes this single drawer was divided, and the very earliest specimens had the runners on which the drawers moved on the sides, and not on the bottom, as came later. the sides of the drawer were hollowed out in a groove, and a stout runner was affixed to the side of the chest. such a chest is shown in figure 4. with the appearance of drawers came a difference in ornamentation, and mouldings in great variety were used, beading and turned drops also coming in for use. these patterns were merely the familiar mouldings used in wainscots and panellings put to the purpose of adorning the chests. the early chests without drawers ran in the neighbourhood of five feet long and twenty-four inches high. as the drawers were added, the chests naturally rose in height, and to prevent their becoming too bulky they decreased in length. a nice example of one of these early oak chests, mounted on turned legs and with curved strainers, is shown in figure 5. it is in a fine state of preservation and has the original brass escutcheons. it was evidently intended as a receptacle for valuables, as both drawer and chest are made to lock. it belongs to the waring galleries, london. two drawers followed one, the chest portion still retaining its prominence, and in this simple way the chest of drawers grew from the box-like affair of 1600 and later. by 1710 chests were looked upon as "old," and so advertised for sale, although they continued to be made until the middle of the eighteenth century. they were too useful to be abandoned by a people who were obliged to be often on the move, and who needed some stout receptacle in which to carry their household and personal goods. there are chests which are peculiar to certain localities, notably in new england, which were doubtless made by a single cabinet-maker, his workmen and apprentices. they are almost entirely confined to these localities, and are therefore of less interest to the collector in general than such pieces as are more widely distributed. under this head comes that style of receptacle known as the hadley chest, and the connecticut chest shown in chapter v. the dutch chests were often of pine, painted, only the choicest ones being of walnut. one inventory records a "chest brought from havanna,"--probably spanish. after matters became a little less anxious for the early settlers, personal comfort began to be thought of more, and such colonists as had brought no chairs began to send for them to england or have them made in america. every ship from england took out fresh comforts, and the dignitaries of the colonies had substantial household gear. tables, chairs, beds, and carpets,--these latter not for floors, but for use as table-covers,--are mentioned with great frequency in the inventories, and the settlers' house, albeit many of them boasted of but four rooms, had more than a modest degree of luxury. [illustration: figure 7. turned chair with leather cover.] the new haven colony--as indeed did all the colonies--had, as her chief officers, men used to the best that england afforded, and the following inventory speaks for itself. john haynes, governor of connecticut, in 1653 left an estate at hartford valued at £1,400. in his hall, one of the most esteemed parts of the house at this period, were,- 5 leather and 4 flag-bottomed chairs 1 table and 3 joined stools 1 tin hanging candlestick 7 cushions 1 firelock musket 1 matchlock do. 1 carbine 1 rapier 1 pr. cob-irons 1 iron back 1 gilded looking-glass 1 smoothing-iron --the whole valued at £8 13_s._ 10_d._ the parlor had velvet chairs and stools, also turkey-wrought chairs, and a green cloth carpet valued at £1 10_s._ there were also curtains of say, curtain rods and "vallants," many napkins, as these were necessary from lack of forks, and much holland bed and table linen. there were many chests and "lean-to" or livery cupboards. "the men's chamber," had "a bedstead with two flock beds; one feather boulster, one flock do.; one blanket; one coverlet." his best rooms had feather beds. in the cellar were many brewing-vessels and wooden-ware, while the kitchen had a complete "garnish" of pewter, but not a single piece of crockery. brass candlesticks, iron possnets and porringers, and the useful brass warming-pan were here also. theophilus eaton, also governor of connecticut, left in 1657 an inventory of goods of even greater value. even earlier than this, rich furniture was imported by those who could afford it, and in 1645 a mistress lake, sister-in-law of governor winthrop the younger, sent to england for the furnishings for her daughter's new house. there were many items in the list, and among them were only one- --"bedsteede of carven oak; 2 armed cheares with fine rushe bottums; three large & three small silvern spoons, & 6 of horne." as late as 1755 "armed cheares" were highly esteemed, and joseph allison, of albany, n. y., bequeathed two to his second son, a walking-cane to his firstborn, and to his youngest son some clothes. chairs, stools, and cushions are mentioned in many inventories as being covered with "set work;" this was heavy woolen tapestry much after the fashion of oriental rugs, and most durable. it is rather unusual to find no mention of leather chairs in inventories, for they were used in america late in 1600, and chairs covered with "redd lether," as well as with spanish leather, are of frequent occurrence. lion gardiner was one of the chief proprietors of easthampton, l. i., in 1653, where he passed the last ten years of his life "rummaging old papers" and in other peaceful pursuits. the inventory of his estate is set out fully and seems scant enough. 2 great bookes several bookes 4 great cheirs 15 peeces of pewter 13 peeces of hollow pewter 4 porringers & 4 saucers 5 pewter spoons a stubing how a broad how a little how horses cattle swine clothing bedding 2 pastry boards cooking utensils a cickell a cheese press a churn it was this same lion gardiner who, after the pequot war, bought from the indians the island monchonock, embracing thirty-five acres of hill and dale. the price paid was a large black dog, a gun, some powder and shot, a few dutch blankets. this is the place which we know to-day as gardiner's island. the "great cheirs" mentioned in the inventory were, no doubt, either turkey-work or leather, and seem to be the only articles of this kind of furniture possessed by him. [illustration: figure 8. english chair. _c. 1680_] [illustration: italian chair. _same period._] in 1638, in london, a man named christopher took out a patent for decorating leather, which somewhat reduced its cost. up to this time all leather was imported from spain or holland. figure 6 is a fine example of a portuguese or spanish leather chair, as they were variously called, and shows well the splendid and ornamental leather as well as the rich carving seen particularly on the front brace. the leather is fastened to the frame with large brass nails, and that part of the oak frame which is exposed is turned work. on many of these chairs there are three little metal ornaments on the curved top. in this example two are lost. besides the carving on the front brace, a pattern which was often adopted and copied by english and dutch cabinet-makers, this chair shows well that form of foot which came to be known as the "spanish foot." it is seen on all makes of furniture, and with some variations of form, but always turns out at the base, and has the grooved work so conspicuous in figure 6. there is no doubt that this was an exceedingly popular style of chair, for there are many examples almost exactly like this in many collections. this particular one is in the boston museum of fine arts. another style of leather chair is shown in figure 7, and its solidity is a great contrast to the spanish chair previously shown. the woodwork is turned, and the heavy underbracing shaped, while the second bracing is a feature peculiar to this chair itself. the date of this piece is probably about 1650, or a little later,--about the same date as similar turned pieces which are covered with turkey work. the leather on the seat is so old and worn that it seems as if it had never been renewed, while the back is much fresher and looks comparatively new. the seat of this chair is so high from the floor that a footstool was a necessity, and in the old inventories the item of "low stools," or "foot-banks" appears with some frequency. this chair is of about the same period as the spanish leather chairs. many leather chairs are found in the united states, both north and south, and are probably of english make. some inventories mention them as "old," as early as 1667, and many were in use in different parts of the country. but while most of our early new england colonists were grappling with the serious business of life, almost content if they could scrape together enough to eat and to wear, and a substantial roof to cover them, in england life was taking a more ornamental aspect. charles ii., indolent and fond of luxury, came to the throne in 1660. two years later he married catherine of braganza, a portuguese princess, and both of them introduced a more elegant style of living; his french and her spanish training leading them to require more comforts than had hitherto been known in england. [illustration: figure 9. cane chair, flemish style.] among other things which were exported from holland was cane furniture of a superior quality. it became very much the fashion, and was in spanish or flemish styles, both of which were copied or adapted by english cabinet-makers. some of this furniture found its way to america, and there are pieces to be found showing all three styles, flemish, spanish, and english adaptation. in figure 8 is shown an example of the english treatment of the spanish style, at least as to foot; while the flat underbrace is english, the curved back and bandy leg are quite dutch. the carving on the top is very beautiful, and the knees of the front legs carved, not with the usual shell, but with heads, and below these an oval with moulding. this chair is in the south kensington museum, london, and dates from about 1680. the wood is walnut, and the scrolls and foliage on the back stand out in high relief; the seat, originally as now, is covered with a rich brocade, with fine brass nails and a fringe. the second chair is one of about the same period, of very beautifully carved oak, and not restored. the arms are missing, but show the places where they originally were. it has lost its feet, but the exquisite carving on the underbrace and top is still quite intact and quite italian in style. this chair is at the waring galleries, london. a very splendid example of the flemish treatment of the same style is shown in figure 9, the oak woodwork being carved and turned, and the foot turning out in true flemish style. the date of the chairs shown in both figures 8 and 9 is prior to 1700. the wealthy people of charles ii.'s time all indulged in these chairs. before that period stools had been in general use, and only the master, mistress, or guest of honour occupied the few chairs possessed in a household. in new england centres like salem, boston, or new haven, even before the time of charles ii., there was in some of the houses comfort as we understand it. mr. george lamberton, of the new haven colony, sailed in 1646 to england upon business in the "great ship." she was never heard from again, and her loss crippled the little colony almost beyond belief. mr. lamberton's inventory shows a variety of items. he had as many as eighty napkins; bedding and table, chimney and board cloths in proportion; feather and down beds with their accompanying hangings. these with more than a dozen cushions to make soft the stiff chairs and settles, silver plate, four chests, ten boxes and trunks, eleven chairs, five stools, and three tables, both round and square, made up comfortable furnishings for a house with probably not more than four rooms. the colonists were not only "plain people," but there were those who came, shortly after the first settlement, who brought with them the household goods and clothes to which they had been accustomed. the "journal of the pilgrims at plymouth" tells not only of the stress of living and the struggle with indians and forest creatures. there was time to reprehend the frivolities of women's wear, and the pastor's wife was the chief offender in the matter of over-gay apparel. she was a young widow when mr. johnson married her, and brought goodly estate and personal belongings to her second husband. she continued to wear the clothes she had brought with her, and the chief exceptions were taken to the cork-soled shoes she wore, and the whalebone in the bodice and sleeves of her gown. both the pastor and his wife seem to have been more than reasonable, since they were willing to reform the cut of their garments as far as they could "without spoiling of them." [illustration: figure 10. turned and carved arm chair] while the general habit of the puritans was to keep their houses and apparel extremely plain, yet here and there among them bits of comfort and elegance would crop out. among the stiff and straight-backed chairs, one with stuffing would be found, while in the more luxurious and easy-going south they were not so rare. the covering probably was "sett work or turkey work;" but then, too, brocade ones were found, and such a chair as is shown in figure 10 would be an ornament in any home. it is a fine example of walnut-wood, turned and carved with bannister back and stuffed seat. the covering has been restored, but is of a pattern which was of the period. the out-turned flemish foot is more ball-like in shape than is often seen, but it has the bowed knees which are so familiar. yet, if the chairs were none too comfortable, there were few families in any of the settlements that did not own at least one feather bed. if not feathers, then "flock beds" were used, that is chopped rags, or feathers and flock mixed, or, as a last resort, the down from the brown soft, cat-tails which grew plentifully in every marsh was utilized instead of more costly material. chapter ii. dutch furniture. miss singleton, in her exhaustive book "furniture of our forefathers," says that probably the first pieces of furniture that were landed on the shores of the hudson came in the ship _fortune_, and were brought by hendrich christiansen, of cleep, who founded a little settlement of four houses and thirty persons in 1615. a little later came the _tiger_, _the little fox_, and the _nightingale_, all bringing colonists and their household furniture. the early dutch settlers were better fitted to start an infant colony than their new england brothers. the dutch were ever colonizers and knew just how to plan and prepare a settlement. the trouble with the indians was not so constant as it was with the new england colonies, although on one occasion new amsterdam was almost wiped out. on the whole, the dutch seem to have treated the indians more wisely, buying the lands of them and having the purchase further confirmed by grants. in new amsterdam the settlers were comfortably fixed, comparatively speaking, long before the new england colonists were, for they had a sawmill in operation as early as 1627, the machinery for which had been sent from holland, and which was worked by wind-power. [illustration: figure 11. dutch furniture, called "queen anne".] the dutch settled at albany and its neighbourhood and around schenectady, as well as those at new amsterdam, had many creature comforts. in 1643 albany was a colony of about one hundred persons living in about thirty rough board houses. by 1689 the number of inhabitants had increased to 700 and the houses to 150. during the next ten years the improvements were rapid and wonderful; gardens grew, filled with flowers and fruit; the class of houses improved; wealthy merchants came to such a rich market (of furs chiefly); and the dutch city grew apace, and the fine beaver-skins which were so plenty bought luxuries for the pioneers. that luxury is not too strong a word to use is shown by the splendid carved kas shown in figure 12, which now belongs to the albany historical society, and is a piece of furniture which may date back as far as the last quarter of the seventeenth century. it is made of walnut, and stands over eight feet high, with cupboard and shelves. while this chest was of unusual beauty, there was a certain solidity and ponderous character observable in most of the dutch furniture. it is characteristic of the people themselves and is noted in everything belonging to them. their very ships had long, high-sounding names, _the angel gabriel_, _the van rensselaer arms_, _king david_, _queen esther_, _king solomon_, _the great christopher_, _the crowned sea-bears_, and brought in their flat hulks fine goods from all quarters. [illustration: figure 12. carved kas.] the dress of the portly dutch _vrouw_ was in unison with her cleanliness and love of thrift, for her gown--whether of cloth, or her very bettermost one of silk--was cut short enough to well clear the ground, and showed her shoes with shining buckles, and her bright-coloured stockings, often clocked with her favorite flower, the tulip. the hair was drawn back from the brow, smoothed and flattened and covered with a cap which, among the wealthy, was bordered with flanders lace, and in any case was fluted, plaited, and snowy white. the practical education which the dutch women always obtained in their own country sharpened their judgment, and the laws which permitted her to hold real estate and carry on business in her own name, even if a married woman, gave her an added independence. it was no unusual thing for women to engage in business on their own account and to carry it on without the aid or interference of the men of the family. at home in the low countries, the women had sold at the market, beside the produce of the gardens and poultry yards, the products of their own industry as well,--laces, linen, cloth of wool, etc., and as early as 1656 they sought and obtained permission to hold their market in the new country as they had in the old. curaçao provided for them many luxuries, such as "lemons, parrots, and paroquettes," besides a variety of liquors. the women grew flax in their own door-yards for the finest linen, and every house had its spinning-wheel. hospitality was dispensed at these homes, supper being a favorite meal, and as "early to bed and early to rise" was a national motto the guests were expected to come early and to leave early also,--nine o'clock verging on riotous dissipation. madam steenwych was noted for her suppers, which were more substantial than the waffles and tea which was the usual menu. in 1664, after her husband's death, she married dominie selyns. at this time she had in her living-room twelve russia leather chairs, two easy-chairs with silver lace, one cupboard of fine french nut-wood, one round and one square table, one cabinet, thirteen pictures, one dressing-box, cushions, and curtains. her chairs with silver lace may have well been like the handsome pair of marquetry ones shown in figure 13. the seat of the side chair is entirely gone, but the arm-chair yet retains a portion of its cover of wool plush, no doubt the original one, since some of the stuffing protrudes, and it is dried sea-kale instead of hair. the wood is maple with an inlay of satin-wood. these chairs belong to the museum connected with cooper institute, new york, which is being carefully gathered by the misses hewitt. property had become valuable, and loss had been sustained by fire, so in august, 1658, 250 leather fire-buckets for public use were ordered from holland, together with hooks and ladders. in addition each household was required to have a certain number of buckets of their own, which were to be kept hanging under the back stoop. in 1686 a rich dutch burgher in new amsterdam owned a house of eight rooms over cellars filled, no doubt, with choice liquors and schnapps, and the rooms above set out with chairs and tables, cabinets, cupboards and a "great looking-glass." ornaments were there, too,--alabaster images and nineteen gaily decorated porcelain dishes. nor was the house suffered to want for thorough cleansing, as there were thirteen scrubbing and thirty-one rubbing brushes, twenty-four pounds of spanish soap, and seven other brushes. with an increase of prosperity our dutch housewives lost no whit of their notions of cleanliness, for here is a housecleaning described, presumably by a victim, a hundred years later. "the husband gone, the ceremony begins. the walls are stripped of their furniture; paintings, prints, and looking-glasses lie in huddled heaps about the floors; the curtains are torn from their testers, the beds crammed into windows; chairs and tables, bedsteads and cradles crowd the yard; and the garden fence bends beneath the weight of carpets, blankets, cloth cloaks, old coats, under-petticoats, and ragged breeches. this ceremony completed, and the house thoroughly evacuated, the next operation is to smear the walls and ceilings with brushes dipped into a solution of lime called whitewash; to pour buckets of water over the floor and scratch all the partitions and wainscots with hard brushes charged with soft soap and stone-cutter's sand." even these thrifty pioneers did not all accrue many goods, for 1707, when hellegonda de kay, of new york, came to make her will, she was obliged to leave her "entire worldly estate" to one daughter. it consisted of one indian slave. the dutch wife had an equal interest with her husband in disposing of household goods and furniture. she was always consulted, and sometimes she even signed the will with her husband. the wives of the english settlers, whether quaker or puritan, did not have the rights of their dutch sisters in the ownership of household goods. the wife's dowry passed into her husband's hands at marriage, and remained there until his death, as the inventory of the estate of alexander allyn of hartford, conn., who died in 1708, testifies. "_estate that deceased had with his wife elizabeth in marriage (now left to her)._" "one round table; bed with furnishings; chest of drawers; two trunks; a box; books; earthenware; glasses; pewter platters; plates; bason; porringers; cups; spoons; tinware; a fork; trenchers; four chairs; nine pounds in silver money; table-cloths; napkins; towels; a looking-glass; a chest; a silver salt; porringer; wine-cup and spoon; a brass pot; an iron pot; two brass skillets and hooks." the following extract from a will drawn in 1759 by a man eighty years old shows the friend's point of view as to whom the household stuff belonged. he wills to his wife as long as she liveth, unless she marries again (she was seventy years old at the time), "two good feather beds and full furniture, and all my negro bedding; and all my grain, either growing or cut, or in store at the time of my decease; and all my flax and wool, and yarn and new cloth and cattle hides, leather, and soap, and meat, and all other provisions which i have in store in my house, either meat or drink, and all my negro men and one of my negro women, such of them as she shall choose, and my negro girl named priss; and if i should chance to dye when i have cattle a-fatting my wife shall have them for the provision of herself and family, at my wife's disposal." no doubt the feather beds and "negro bedding," as well as the "new cloth," had been made by the patient fingers of this wife of fifty years' standing; but she must forfeit all this fruit of her labour should she marry again. the dutch system seems preferable. in another inventory, that of charles mott, also a long island quaker, dated 1740, the eldest son has the house and homestead, "together with the negro boy jack and one feather bed." the sole provision for his wife was "four pounds a year" to be paid to her by the eldest son "so long as she remains my widow." he seems to have put a premium on her filling his place, and that quickly. possibly our dutch settlers were more notable house wives than their sisters in new england or the south. in the latter region the mistress did not contribute with her own hands to the cleanliness of her home, but she had onerous duties in overlooking the work of sometimes over a hundred negroes, seeing to their food, clothes, and shelter. our new england wives were still suffering from indian depredations, and the young housewives whose doors were driven thick with nails to repel the deadly tomahawk, as mistress david chapin's was at chicopee in 1705, would probably not have risked her "goods" out of doors, as did the dutch housewives at albany. [illustration: figure 13. marquetry chairs.] the dutch kitchen utensils seem numerous and varied. possets, pans, jack-spits, strainers and skillets were seen in inventories as well as the more familiar pots and kettles. the prosperous dutch at home had sent out and brought back many a rich argosy, and silks and tissues, porcelains and lacquers, carved ivory and fantastic carved wood, spices and plants had been brought to holland and found their way to america. there were many ships unloaded at new york filled with spoils from the east, which were eagerly bought up. there was a variety of moneys current,--beaver-skins; wampum; spanish pistoles, worth 17_s._ 6_d._; arabian chequins at 10_s._; "pieces of eight" (as the spanish reals were called), which, if they weighed 16 pennyweight (except those of peru) passed for 5_s._; and french crowns worth 5_s._ peruvian pieces of eight and dutch dollars were valued at 4_s._, and all english coin passed "as it goes in england." these were the values in 1705, but they varied somewhat, the currency being inflated by one governor, though his act created such a disturbance that he was obliged to withdraw it. the long island dutch seem to have had less rich belongings than those up the hudson and about albany. around jamaica and hempstead were stout clapboard and shingle houses, but the inventories are not lavish. daniel denton, writing in 1670 "a brief description of new york," says this about his dearly loved hempstead. "may you should see the woods and fields so curiously bedeckt with roses and an innumerable multitude of delightful flowers not only pleasing to the eye but smell. that you may behold nature contending with art and striving to equal if not excel many gardens in england." but he has little to say about the way of living, except that it is "godly." the records of new amsterdam, which are so wonderfully complete, show what a valuable assistant to these first settlers was the powerful west india company. by 1633 there were five stone houses containing the company's workshops; and as the land near at hand was poor,--"scrubby" the dutch farmers called it,--they spread out to the neighbouring new jersey, long island, gowanus, and east river shores and from 1636 to 1640 were busy with their settlements. by 1651 new amsterdam was prosperous enough to have a brick house so good and well built as to be worth 5,195 florins (about $2,100 of our money). in 1649 adam roelantsen, a general factotum of the west india company, whose name constantly appears in the town records, (as he was unfortunately addicted to strong waters, and under these conditions was very quarrelsome and aggressive,) owned the following house. it was a clapboard structure covered with a reed roof, and eighteen by thirty feet in size. it stood gable end toward the street, and at the front door was the usual "portal" with its wooden seats. outside of the frame the chimney of squared timber was carried up, while within the fireplace had a mantelpiece and the living room had "fifty-one leaves of wainscot." there was a bedstead or state-bed built in, but of the movables no record is left. in reading these old records it is noticed that matters moved quickly; not much time was spent in grief and repining; and to illustrate we give the experience of one woman whose career does not seem to have excited any comment among her contemporaries. in 1685 william cox married a young woman named sarah bradley, who had come from england with her father and brothers to settle in new amsterdam. she was said to have been handsome and dashing, and certainly she needed spirit to carry her through her subsequent career. four years after her marriage her husband met with the following accident, thus described by a political opponent. "mr. cox, to show his fine clothes, undertook to goe to amboy to proclaime the king, who, coming whome againe, was fairely drowned, which accident startled our commanders here very much; there is a good rich widdow left. the manner of his being drowned was comeing on board a cannow from capt cornelis' point at staten islands, goeing into the boate, slipt down betwixt the cannow and the boate, the water not being above his chin, but very muddy, stuck fast in, and, striving to get out, bobbing his head under, receaved to much water in. they brought him ashore with life in him, but all would not fetch him againe." the good rich "widdow" whom he left soon changed her loneliness for the pleasures of married life, this time with mr. john oort. he, too, made a brief stay, for by may 16, 1691, the widow sarah oort had the necessary license under colonial law for her marriage to no less a person than captain william kidd. they lived comfortably in a house left by sarah's first husband, mr. cox (who left her with an estate of several thousand pounds) till captain kidd set out on his notable voyage in the "adventure." the goods which mrs. oort had at the time of her marriage to captain kidd were the following: fifty-four chairs, of turkey work and double and single nailed; five tables with their carpets (covers); four curtained beds with their outfits; three chests of drawers; two dressing-boxes; a desk; four looking-glasses; two stands; a screen; a clock; andirons; fire-irons; fenders; chafing-dishes; (3) candlesticks of silver, brass, pewter, and tin; leather fire-buckets; over one hundred ounces of silver plate; and a dozen glasses. the screen, no doubt, was such a one as is shown in the same figure, no. 14, as the dutch cradle, which was used for many years in the pruyn family, of albany. the third object in the picture is what is known as a church stool, and was useful in keeping the good _vrouw's_ feet off the cold floors. this stool is painted black and is dated 1702. there is a lurid picture of the last judgment painted on it, and also a verse in dutch, which reads as follows: "the judgment of god is now at hand. there is still time; let us separate the pious from the wicked and entreat god for the joy of heaven." all these articles are now at the rooms of the historical society, albany. william kidd was executed in may, 1701, and, nothing daunted by her matrimonial ventures, sarah took as her fourth husband, in 1703, christopher rousby, a man of considerable influence in the colony. she lived until 1745, and left surviving her four children. while the houses were rough, some with but two rooms, yet articles even of luxury were there and offered for sale. as early as 1654 a casket inlaid with ebony was sold and brought thirty beavers and nineteen guilders. cornelis barentsen sued cristina capoens in 1656 for payment for a bed he sold her, payment to be made in fourteen days. the price was six beavers (about $57.00), which cristina seemed unable to pay, but which payment was ordered by the court. in june, 1666, the administrators of the estate of the late jan ryerson sold some "beasts" (horses, calves, and hogs), as well as furniture at public sale. "the payment for the beasts, also the bed, bolsters, and pillows," was to be made in "whole merchantable beavers, or otherwise in good strung seewant, beavers' price, at twenty-four guilders the beaver." here is the inventory of a bride who was married at new amsterdam in 1691, and although her husband was a man of consideration and some wealth it was deemed of sufficient importance to record. "a half-worn bed; one pillow; two cushions of ticking, with feathers; one rug; four sheets; four cushion-covers; two iron pots; three pewter dishes; one pewter basin; one iron roster; one schuryn spoon; two cowes about five years old; one case or cupboard, one table." august 31, 1694, jan becker's inventory entered at albany, new york, showed a long list. besides abundant household goods he had- "a silver spoon; 3 pr. gold buttons; 5 doz. & 10 silver buttons for shirts; & 2 silver scnuffies." [illustration: figure 14. dutch screen, cradle and church stool.] it is not difficult to picture in the mind how these old dutch houses looked when the living-room was made snug and warm of a winter's evening. at various places along the hudson and on long island there are still standing some of these old, low-ceiled, wooden houses, with sloping roof and great chimney. the furniture was generally of oak (particularly if it had been brought from home) and carved. the most important objects in the room are the mantelpiece and the bed, the former of carved wood, its ornate character significant of the wealth of the owner, and its size seldom less than the height of the room. the bed was frequently built in the room, a sort of bunk, hung with curtains often of bright chintz, though, judging from the inventories, "purple calico" curtains were immensely popular, just as this same fabric is beloved to-day by the pretty maid-servants one sees tripping through the quaint old streets of holland. there were stools; not many chairs; tables, one or two; each with its bright carpet or cover; racks on the wall for what delft the mistress had; and below it the treasured spoons. in the great kas, which took up a large portion of the room, was the linen, covers for tables, side-tables, shelves, etc., and all the napkins and choice belongings of the housewife. if this kas was carved oak it sometimes stood on a frame; sometimes it had ponderous locks. if it was painted or inlaid wood it might reach nearly to the floor, and then stand upon large ball feet. some of these kas were so large and heavy that it was almost impossible to move them, and there is the record of one _vrouw_ who upon moving from flatbush was obliged to abandon hers, leaving it behind her and selling it for £25: in the van rensselaer family is a marriage kas which goes back to the beginning of the eighteenth century. it was imported from holland by the parents of katherine van brugh, who wished their only daughter to have everything that money could buy, and during her early years it was being filled with linen and household goods woven under her father's roof. it was no light task to fill this great chest, for it stood seven feet high and proportionally wide. it is of carved oak, has many drawers and receptacles, and will hold the silver and finery of the mistress, while there are secret drawers for "duccatoons and jacobuses." the keyhole is concealed under a movable cover of carved wood, which looks like a part of the carving when dropped in place. the ponderous key is of iron and has many wards. if the family was quite well to do and owned a good stock of clothes, there would be one or more smaller cases, or chests, in which these were stored away. much furniture was made here by dutch workmen, who followed the fashions of their native land. they found abundant material, and more was brought into the country,--in devious ways sometimes, but still it came. the court records for new amsterdam for 1644 report a bark, _croisie_, of biscay, which was brought into the harbour as a prize by the ship _la garce_, being laden with sugar, tobacco, and ebony. the claim of the master of the _la garce_ was granted, and the goods sold. nearly always there was a little silver,--spoons, mugs, and a salt-cellar; and, as years passed on, much coin was beaten by some member of the family (for there were many dutch silversmiths) into tankards,--splendid heavy vessels, capable of holding a quart, with cover and thumb-piece, and showing the marks of the mallet on the bottom and inside, for all of these pieces of plate were hand-made. waiters and massive bowls were seen in nearly every family of easy circumstances, and they scarcely ever went out of the family, as it was a matter of pride to retain them. much of this fine old plate is treasured to-day by descendants of its former owners. it has survived better than the furniture, indestructible as that seemed. in 1739 lowrens claesen, of schenectady, had, among other property, a gold seal ring and a silver cup marked "l. v. v." myndert fredricksen of albany county, new york, blacksmith, left in 1703 a great silver tankard, a church book with silver clasps and chains, and a silver tumbler marked "m. f." a blacksmith in those days meant a worker in iron, and this one must have been prosperous, for he owned his house and land, and furniture as well as silver. but even if silver were lacking there were brass skillets and warming-pans, and pewter was the ordinary table furniture, which was scoured to a polish little short of silver. one or two pieces of brightly decorated delft ware was the crowning glory of the housewife's treasures, and far too precious for every-day use. so holes were drilled in the edge, and a stout cord passed through, so that it could be hung upon the wall. there was, of course, a clock also, and leather chairs. nicholas van rensselaer, of albany, who died in 1679, was a wealthy and important member of the colony of albany. his house had two beds, two looking-glasses, two chests of drawers, two tables, one of oak and one of nut-wood; also a table of pine, as well as six stools of the same; a sleeping-bunk or built-in bed, over twenty pictures, a desk, and, of course, brushes and kitchen utensils. these goods were disposed of through four rooms. not only were all the necessaries abundant, but some very elegant furniture came in with almost every ship, and even before 1700, ebony chairs, boxes and cabinets are mentioned in the inventories; but such splendid pieces as the cabinet shown in figure 15, with carved panels in the doors, and carved twisted legs, were only occasionally to be met with. the doors conceal shelves, and above are two drawers with drop handles. there are pieces similar to this to be found in the united states in private houses as well as in museums. this cabinet belongs to the waring galleries, london. children slept in trundle beds, which during the day were pushed under the large bed, often a four-post bedstead when not the sleeping-bunk. one thing was found in every house, rich or poor, and this was some means for striking fire. tinder and steel, with scorched linen, were an indispensable part of every household. sometimes it was necessary to borrow coals from a neighbour, and there were stringent town laws ordering that "fire shall always be covered when carried from house to house." in the "court records of new amsterdam" one of the earliest laws regulated the carrying about of hot coals, and several dutch _vrouws_ were hauled to court for breaking them. [illustration: figure 15. ebony cabinet.] the furniture in these houses was by no means all of dutch or domestic make. they had what they were able to get, and among painted kas and inlaid chests would be spanish chairs or stools, and english walnut beds with serge hangings, folding tables and turkey-work chairs. before the close of the seventeenth century there came direct to new york dutch ships from the orient, or from the low countries themselves, loaded with rich goods, among which was much furniture. styles had begun to change a little; the dutch were absorbing ideas from the chinese and copying and adapting forms and decorations. beautiful lacquer work was coming in, and splendid inlaid or marquetry work; not any more in two colours, as was the earliest style, but in a variety of colours and in divers patterns, and standing upon bandy legs with ball and claw, or what is known as the dutch foot, instead of the straight or turned leg. the inventories show how far east indian goods were coming in, and there is frequent mention of "east india baskets," boxes, trunks, and even cabinets. the most usual woods were black walnut, white oak and nut-wood, which was hickory. occasionally pieces were made of olive-wood, or of pine-wood painted black. ebony was used for inlay and for adornment for frames. looking-glasses were mentioned in nearly every list, the earliest coming from venice. by 1670 looking-glass was manufactured at lambeth, england, in the duke of buckingham's works, and was not now so costly as to be seen only among the wealthy. the cupboards were no longer uniformly made with solid doors, but glass was introduced, so that the family wealth of silver and china could be easily seen. by 1727 mahogany is mentioned occasionally in the inventories, and it could be bought by those who were wealthy enough to afford it. probably the spaniards were the earliest users of mahogany, followed by the dutch and english. furniture made of this wood is known to have existed in new york prior to 1700, and in philadelphia a little later. the old spanish mahogany was a rich, dark, heavy wood, susceptible of a high polish. it darkened with age and was not stained. the new mahogany, at least that which comes from mexico, is of a light, more yellow colour, and requires staining, as age does not darken it. it is light in weight. the mere lifting of a piece enables one to judge whether it is made from spanish wood. the carpets referred to in nearly every inventory were not floor-coverings, but table-covers,--small rugs, no doubt, but far too precious to be worn out by rough-shod feet walking over them. the floors were scoured white, and were strewn with sand which showed the artistic capacity of mistress or maid in the way it had patterns drawn in it by broom-handle or pointed stick. it was not until the middle of the century that carpets became at all common, and even then they are mentioned in the inventories as very choice possessions. there were "flowered carpets," "scotch ditto," "rich and beautiful turkey carpets," and persian carpets also. the colonists traded with hamburg and holland for "duck, checquered linen, oznaburgs, cordage, and tea,"--goods appreciated by the housewife, and which she could not make. [illustration: figure 16. bed chair.] the festivities indulged in by the dutch settlers were generally connected with the table; they played backgammon, or bowls when the weather was fine and they could go out of doors. the cards they used numbered seventy-three to the pack, and there was no queen, her place being supplied by a cavalier who was attended by a hired man, and they both supported the king. cards were not popular, however, except among the english settlers, and they followed the home fashions. after english rule had been dominant in the little city of new amsterdam for nearly fifty years the larger number of the families was still dutch, as a collection of wills made at that period testifies. what would be now domains worthy a prince--farms lying in nassau island, as long island was then called, vast tracts in new jersey, and thousands of acres between new york and albany--were divided by these wills. such names as killian van rensselaer, second lord of the manor; harmanus rutgers, philip schuyler, van cortlandt, provoost, etc., are signed to these documents but it is in the minor wills that we find the records of the lives of the main body of the people. a feather bed, one or more slaves, and the family bible are the bequests usually first specified, the bibles in some cases being very massive and ponderous affairs. jarminaye sieurs, widow, 1709, bequeaths to her daughter her bible with silver clasps, in addition to her gold rings and one half of her clothes. a grand-daughter, hilley veghten, gets a "silver cup with two ears," and other grandchildren, bearing such interesting names as reynier, simesse, and gretie veghten, get a silver spoon each. in 1711 a fond mother leaves to her daughter "the red and white worsted and linen stockings," besides two pillows, two coverlids, a bed and furniture. a hempstead yeoman is very careful to stipulate that his daughter shall have- "one feather bed, an iron pot, six plates, three platters, two basins, one drinking pot and one cupboard worth £3, and six chairs, six sheep, and one table." the price of the cupboard being specified shows that it was held in great estimation, and it must have been a handsome piece of furniture. only very occasionally do we find a record in the inventories of a "bed chair," yet such were sometimes found here early in the eighteenth century. one is shown in figure 16. it is carved on the top and inlaid, and covered with woollen plush,--not the original covering, which no doubt was turkey work. two hinges are shown on the front rail; the back lets down, and a leg unfolds to support it; while the legs and arms coming together make the centre firm. this unusual piece is at the museum connected with the cooper institute, is of nut-wood or maple inlaid with tulip-wood, with bandy legs and the well-known dutch feet. the dutch settlers had other elegances which are more rarely met with, such as walnut kas or chests, inlaid with plaques, or rather small saucers and plates of oriental china. these were tall, with doors opening their whole length, and stood on the great ball feet which are so familiar. one such cabinet is in the metropolitan museum, new york, and another is owned by mrs. pruyn of albany. in the former example the plaques display flowers and birds in various colours; in the latter are plain blue and white. [illustration: figure 17. marquetry desk.] of later manufacture were pieces of rich marquetry in vari-coloured exotic woods upon mahogany. the heavy foot was replaced by others, still turning out, to be sure, in the flemish fashion, but very ornate and beautiful, and still further embellished with ornaments in gilt. such a piece, massive in shape, but enriched with much ornament, is shown in the desk depicted in figure 17. it was never made for any of the humbler houses of the dutch settlers, but such a piece was worthy to stand in the study of a wealthy patroon or to belong to some "lord of the manor." this particular desk, a very perfect example of its class, belongs to the waring galleries, london. chapter iii. chippendale. in studying the various periods into which different makes of furniture may be divided, the accentuating of one point, say of ornaments or the structural peculiarities, is noted, not as being sharply defined, but as being a gradual growth. chippendale did not originate at first. indeed, he hardly adapted, for the east india trade had brought to market chinese designs which he used, and french furniture was so popular that he copied bodily in his book such designs as pleased him, although the term "french chairs," as employed at this time, referred to their being upholstered and not to the style or decoration. thomas johnson published a book about the middle of the eighteenth century, in which was a medley of french, gothic and chinese designs, many of which have a strong family likeness to chippendale's. there was also matthias lock, who began to publish his books as early as 1740, dedicated to such "nobility as would stand for him." these books included one on pier frames, girandoles, tables, etc., also, one on ornaments and sconces, all of which were characteristic of what was considered desirable at this time, and which style chippendale followed too. ince & mayhew published what they called a "universal system of household furnishing." they made many designs, over three hundred, and not only set forth the fine taste in which they were conceived, but gave the workmen directions for executing them. they positively ran wild on "chinese taste," their fretwork and combination of chinese and gothic being perfectly extravagant. like chippendale they designed terms, or as we should call them pedestals, for busts, toilet-tables, bookcases, many mirror-frames, and chairs most intricate in their carved backs, with ribbon-work, scrolls, and elaborate patterns in brass nails. [illustration: figure 18. kitchen, wayside inn, sudbury, mass. ] what were known as "overdoors" were very carefully designed by chippendale, ince & mayhew, robert manwaring, and later by the adam brothers. these overdoors were the wood or leadwork into which glass was set, to go above front doors. william halfpenny, carpenter and architect, as he called himself, published many works on furniture, temples, garden seats, windows, doors, obelisks, etc., beginning in 1719. among the many books are these two, "twenty new designs of chinese lattice and other works for staircases, gates, failings, etc.," and also, "chinese and gothic architecture." so fond were the halfpennys (for the son was later associated with the father) of chinese work that they seldom missed an opportunity of putting in a chinese figure. on their ceilings, above the chimney-pieces--everywhere that decoration could be crowded in,--one is apt to find a chinese mandarin with pigtail and umbrella. the originality of chippendale soon spoke for itself. he worked in so many styles, and has so grown in estimation, that his name is made to cover the greatest variety of designs. when he first came before the public his work met with much adverse criticism. isaac ware, a contemporary, writes of him thus: "it is our misfortune at this time to see an unmeaning scrawl of c's inverted and looped together, taking the place of greek and roman elegance even in our most expensive decorations." but the early extravagances of his designs were soon modified, and even they were touched with a grace which made them pleasing to the eye while wholly extravagant. his better and more familiar work is to-day the model upon which cabinet-workers rely, no one having arisen who can improve on his designs. thousands of pieces of furniture are called by his name, both in this country and england, which were not even contemporary with this maker and bear no resemblance either to his designs or to work known to be his. about the time that chippendale came on the field (1750) it had become the custom for architects and designers to publish catalogues of their designs. thomas chippendale, a progressive business man, was not behind his contemporaries, so in 1754 he published his catalogue, which he called "the gentleman's and cabinet-maker's director." it was a very successful publication, passed through several editions, and brought him added name and fame. it sold for £3 13_s._ 6_d._, and had fine copper-plate engravings. the title page of chippendale's "director," specifies designs for the following pieces of furniture: "chairs, sofas, beds and couches, china-tables, bason-tables and tea-kettle stands, frames for marble slabs, bureau-dressing-tables, and library-tables, library bookcases, organ cases for private rooms or churches, desks and bookcases, dressing and writing-tables with bookcases, toilets, cabinets, and clothes-presses. china-cases, china-shelves, and book-shelves, candle-stands and terms for busts, stands for china jars and pedestals, cisterns for water, lanthorns, and chandeliers, fire-screens, brackets and clock-cases, pier-glasses and table-frames, girandoles chimney-pieces and picture-frames, stove-grates, boarders, frets, chinese-railing and brass-work for furniture." [illustration: figure 19. chippendale chairs] at this period the best room or "saloon" was wainscotted chair high, and the remainder prepared for wall-paper, or battened for hangings of silk or tapestry. chippendale drew many beautiful designs, which he calls "borders for paper-hangings," and which were used as finishings at the top of the paper. some of them were also employed as patterns for carving, or work in stucco painted and gilded. it must be remembered that chippendale was par excellence a carver of wood, and so we find him working almost exclusively in "solid mahogany," as we have come to call it, which wood had been introduced into england about the time of raleigh (1595), though it was not used to any extent as a material for furniture until about twenty-five years before chippendale published his book. indeed it seems to have been used in america for this purpose quite as soon as in england, although there are in that country a few detached pieces of mahogany furniture made late in 1600, showing that some wood had been imported before raleigh caused it to be brought in more freely, along with "tabac" and the potato, which latter vegetable was first grown at sir walter's estate called "youghal," near cork, ireland. sir walter did not use the new wood in his own beautiful house, but had splendidly carved oak chimney-pieces and furniture made by men whom he brought from flanders for that purpose. at the time chippendale published his book he was about forty years old, as it is generally supposed that he was born about 1710. worcester is given as the place of his birth, and authorities state that other members of his family practiced the art of wood-carving before him, but the information about his early history is very scant. his shop was in st. martin's lane, london, and he employed as many as a hundred men, so it is rather strange that more authentic specimens of his handiwork have not survived. while mahogany was the wood which he used chiefly for his furniture, he employed a close-set pine for carving many of the beautiful floriated mirror-frames for which he was so justly celebrated. scrolls, flower and leaves, falling water, and a particular bird of his own fancy, with a long and prominent beak, were employed in the decoration of these mirrors, which were richly gilded, the ornament being entirely of wood without the addition of porcelain plaques or metal work, which was such a feature of the french furniture of this period, the influence of which is noticeable in many of chippendale's designs. it is true that he did not carry out some of his designs, notably such pieces as the state beds, etc., after the style of louis xv. one glance at the "director" will show how impossible these beds were. the top, supported on posts, rises like ossa upon pelion piled, with layers or terraces of carved figures of children, rock-work, and everything else, the whole crowned by groups consisting of several figures and animals. [illustration: figure 20. chippendale chair.] his designs for bedposts show the french influence, being fluted and wreathed with flowers. many stand flat on the ground without ornamental feet, and are plain on top to support a canopy or tester. most successful of all the furniture designed by this maker are the chairs, many of them decorated with graceful scroll-work and delicate garlands of flowers, though the styles with which we are most familiar are massive, heavy pieces with carving upon them, and either with or without solid underbraces. a unique piece is shown in figure 20. this chair is thought to have been imported into this country about 1760, but i should suppose it to be a very much earlier example of chippendale's work, while he was still content to copy, for the front legs show the bear's paw while the rear ones are the familiar dutch foot. it belongs to the south carolina college, at columbia, s. c. and was given to it by general preston about 1850. in his letter of presentation he calls it "the quasi throne of the colonial governors of south carolina," but beyond this its history is unknown. this chair is of solid mahogany as most of these chairs were, and shows about the edges of the carving traces of the chisel-marks, a not at all unusual feature in these old hand-carved pieces. the splat (_i. e._ the central part of the back) is plainly pierced. the term "cabriole", which we apply now to the leg, in chippendale's time referred to a chair having a stuffed back. it has generally been supposed that chippendale was the originator of the ball-and-claw foot, which is of two varieties, but he copied this style of decoration directly from the dutch. the foot in this chair is what is known as the "bear's paw", so called from the fur which is rudely carved above the foot. the other style being the "bird's claw." the chairs with cabriole legs were called bandy or bow-legged when they first came into use, about 1700, which is also about the time that easy-chairs were first used in bedrooms. up to that date chairs had been rather severe and of the nature of stools and settles. as writing became better learned there was a demand for dainty and ornamental desks for ladies' use, as well as library desks for men, and bookcases were also needed. in chippendale's book, "the gentleman's and cabinet-maker's director", while there are designs given for every imaginable piece of furniture, there is not a single illustration of the ball-and-claw or hoof foot; yet it is known by authentic pieces, coming down as late as 1780, and preserved in the south kensington museum, london, that such work was done by him. further than this, we are used to consider mahogany as pre-eminently the wood he worked in, yet in this same guide this wood is mentioned by him but once. "six designs of chairs for halls, passages, or summer-houses. they may be made either of mahogany or any other wood, and painted, and have commonly wooden seats." all this fine solid mahogany furniture made by chippendale, and by which his name is so firmly perpetuated, was regarded by him as merely commercial work. what he really took a pride in was very fussy, covered with upholstery, with an abundance of carving and gilding, and even metal work on the exposed parts. rosewood was used by him also, with elaborate carving which was sometimes embellished with gilt, or, in cases where great elegance was demanded, by brass, copper, or silver mounts richly chased. he turned out many pieces of soft wood japanned or painted, and decorated also with gilt and colours. little of this furniture ever came to america. it was made to order for the nobility and gentry, and its immense cost rendered it possible only for the very wealthy. among the two hundred copper-plate designs given in chippendale's book, quite a large portion of them are in what is known as "chinese taste," which had taken the world of fashion by storm. sir william chambers, who had travelled in china, is given the credit for having introduced this style into furniture and decoration, which was further adapted by chippendale and other makers, but it was already known before chambers's day. both chambers and robert adam, the best architects of their day, were scotchmen. chambers was born in 1726, and from his earliest years had a love for the sea. this induced him to make a voyage to canton, where he made innumerable notes and sketches of furniture, buildings, and gardens, which he made full use of later. in 1759 he published his book "the decorative part of civil architecture," which was most successful. he was appointed drawing-master to the prince of wales, afterward george iii., and managed to retain the royal favor for the rest of his life. he not only designed many houses for wealthy patrons and altered many others, but he was afterward appointed landscape gardener at kew, and knighted. the older chinese furniture which one sees in europe dates from the eighteenth century, and was made for and imported by the dutch; hence the medley of styles. elaborate bedsteads, tables, and cabinets were decorated with ivory figures in relief. there is furniture of this description in the united states, splendidly carved out of cedar and decorated with hundreds of tiny figures of men and women carved from ivory and set on. such a piece is shown in figure 21, the original of which is at memorial hall, philadelphia. not only was chinese furniture in wood and wicker brought from the orient, but the dutch, whom we have come to look upon as ready imitators, followed oriental styles not only in furniture but in pottery as well. chippendale specifies nine of his designs for chairs in chinese style as proper for a lady's dressing-room, especially if it were hung with an india paper. they were likewise recommended for chinese temples. these chairs commonly have cane bottoms with loose cushions, but if required may be stuffed and have brass nails. as early as 1711 addison comments on the motley confusion heaped up in a lady's library, where there were few books but "munkies, mandarins, and scaramouches" without end; and to keep these ornaments in countenance was also furniture made after chinese designs. [illustration: figure 21. carved cedar table.] besides these styles chippendale also used a modification of the gothic, notably in such places as the doors of cabinets, or the doors and the tops of bookcases. horace walpole, in his little gothic villa at strawberry hill, had awakened a still further taste for a revival of gothic designs; and everybody, to be in the mode, had their cabinet doors and bookcases with embattled tops and gothic tracery. of all the styles chippendale adopted and adapted, this one left the least enduring trace. more successful were his bookcases based on louis xv. style. they are of mahogany and have the rococo ornaments peculiar to this style. this work shows off gilding admirably. these bookcases with drawers and desk, as well as the bureaus, were used in bedrooms which were often boudoirs and studies as well. so a receptacle which could be quickly locked was quite necessary. in chippendale's catalogue are directions given for many small articles which were much in demand and highly fashionable when the book was written, but for which the present day and generation has no use. such were the charming little tea-caddies with brass handles and locks, stands for candles, or china jars or animals with which the drawing-rooms of those days were crowded. there were also carved brackets, decorated with the bird we have spoken of before, and exquisite foliated designs making graceful adornments for any room, and often neglected in sales where other and better-known examples of this period bring fabulous prices. when carved in pine these brackets are always gilded, but occasionally they may be obtained in walnut and mahogany. the designs for such pieces are largely original with chippendale, for their use had just become needed, and we must remember besides that it was chippendale's misfortune to live in a transition period, and that the rococo which preceded him, and by which his first work was influenced, died very hard. indeed his first style might be called rococo, and the designs swelled and bulged, were covered with meaningless and fantastic ornament, and ran riot through all styles and countries. it had for its chief merit the fact that it was executed with great delicacy and beauty and had a grace about it which was always pleasing. the two sides of a design are seldom alike, and the merit of such pieces is due purely to the skill of the carver. yet it was under his skilful hand that later the beauty of simplicity was once more proved, and he sought classic models for his inspiration. speaking himself of designs for french chairs he says, "for greater variety the feet and elbows are different." the moulding around the bottom of the edge of the rails also comes under his consideration, and he mentions spanish leather or damask as good material for covering chairs. he it was who exemplified the principle that each part of a piece of furniture should be adapted to its use, and that overloading an article with ornament did not necessarily add to its beauty. after his rococo period came the rage for chinese designs, and lastly the plain and solid style with which we are familiar. two very handsome chairs are shown in figure 22, the side chair showing an abundance of exquisite carving on the knees and in the splat. it is wonderful what variety he encompassed working in the small space and confined shape of this part of a chair. it will be observed that in all the chairs shown no two splats are alike. [illustration: figure 22. chippendale chairs.] all the construction of the chippendale furniture of the last period is remarkably solid and of the first order, and the wood is of a dark and rich mahogany. the best pieces of this period are those in which the originality of the designer had full play, and when he was not influenced by either the french or oriental taste. the furniture of this period, fine and free in design, was well adapted to the fashions and mode of life of the people for whom it was made. he retained the roomy character of the dutch furniture, which was needed for the style of dress affected by both sexes. the spanish furniture of oak, with cane work or leather, introduced by catherine of braganza, was not the only innovation brought to england by that lady, for evelyn says in his "diary" for may 30, 1662, "the queene ariv'd with a traine of portuguese ladies in their monstrous fardingals or guard-infantas ... her majesty in the same habit, her foretop long and curiously turn'd aside." in the next forty years fashions changed,--they changed slowly in those days,--and among other things laid at the door of "good queen anne" may be added the hoop-skirt. flowered and damask gowns were worn over it, and in the "spectator" of 1712 a number of gowns are advertised for sale, all the property of mr. peter paggen, of love lane, near eastcheap, london. among them is an "isabella-coloured kincob gown, flowered with green and gold; a purple and gold atlas gown with a scarlet and gold atlas petticoat edged with silver." a little later in the century a lady's gown was all ruffles and flounces, in fact "every part of the garment was in curl, and caused a lady of fashion to look like one of those animals which in the country we call a friesland hen." the reigns of the first two georges had hogarth for their illustrator, and in the set of drawings called "marriage à la mode" we see the hoods, skirts without trains, unruffled and often accompanied by a sack, or something between a cloak and a gown, and called a mantua. during the reign of george i. there was no queen to set the fashion, so it changed little. in 1735 caroline, queen of george ii. on the king's birthday appeared in a "beautiful suit made of silk of the produce of georgia, and the same was acknowledged to excel that of any other country." the ladies who accompanied her wore flowered silks of various colours, of a large pattern, but mostly with a white ground, with wide short sleeves and short petticoats. these gowns were often pinned up behind in fantastic fashion, and generally quite narrow. it was also _à la mode_ to wear gold or silver nets on the petticoats, and to face and guard the robes with them and even to wear them on sleeves. lady harcourt, a famous beauty of caroline's court, wore on one occasion a "white ground rich silk, embossed with gold and silver, and fine coloured flowers of a large pattern." what we know as a morning-gown they called, in the middle of the eighteenth century a nightgown, and we read of a "garnet-coloured lustring nightgown with a tobine stripe of green and white, trimmed with floss of the same colour and lined with straw-coloured lutestring." a gay garment truly. these were the styles in vogue when chippendale began to design and make furniture for his patrons, whom he desired to see among the most fashionable. while the ladies were so gay, the gentlemen were quite as elegant, with three-cornered hats, wigs and patches, embroidered waistcoats, with stiffened skirts to their coats, knee-breeches, silk stockings, and snuff-boxes. such modish people could not bestow themselves comfortably in chairs with arms, so chairs without arms, and tabourets, as they were called, were quite necessary for comfort. the fashionable ailment of the day, for men at least was gout, and we find designs for "gouty stools," in which the top could be raised or lowered as best suited the needs of the patient. his designs for sofas made these articles of great size; they ran from six feet nine inches to ten feet long. his ideas as to decoration seem amusing, for he mentions that the carvings on the sofa should be emblematic of watchfulness, assiduity, and rest. wine-coolers for which chippendale made many designs, sometimes had brass bands around them which had the effect of making them look very heavy and clumsy. coolers of this style were round or oval, but some of better design were oblong or square. numbers of beautiful little tea-tables, or tea-poys, as they were often called, were also made by chippendale, and what he called in his book of designs "candle stands" were no doubt sometimes put to this use, though their height--he says they should run from three feet six inches to four feet six inches, rendered the taller ones awkward. figure 23 shows a very beautiful example of one of these stands richly carved. the post is three feet seven and a half inches high, and the hexagonal top has a standing rim of very delicate carving. the little tea-stand next to it has also a slight rim, and some carving on the pedestal and feet. the music-stand is not a usual piece, and has a cupboard and drawer to contain the sheets. all three pieces are of mahogany and belong to the collection at memorial hall, philadelphia. many of these tables or stands made their way to america, for tea-drinking was a great resource for the ladies. as early as 1720 bohea tea was selling at philadelphia for thirty shillings a pound. its great cost prohibited its common use, and it was not until much later that it became common, so the greatest treat that could be offered to a neighbour was a drink of tea, particularly if the proud housewife could serve it out of a tiny porcelain cup without a handle, such cups being almost as great a rarity as the tea. the little rim which set up above the edge of the table was intended to prevent the tea furniture from falling off. these tables are occasionally seen in america in their simpler forms. there are special ones made to order for customers by chippendale, which are seldom allowed to leave the families for which they were originally made. there are two such tea-tables made in "chinese taste" with fretwork legs, sides to the table, and the little standing rim to protect the china. one of these tables was made for the great-grandmother of the present owner, by chippendale, and has come down in a state of perfect preservation. it is held in england, is thirty-nine and three-eighths inches high, the top is thirty-two by twenty-one and five-eighths inches. chippendale, in his book, gives very elaborate directions for preparing the wood from which this fretwork carving was to be made. in order to have it as strong as possible he advises the use of three thin sheets of wood glued together, the grain to run in opposite directions, and the fret carving to be made in this. he particularly recommends this use of glued wood for such pieces as china-cases, which were largely fretwork with pagodas on top and hanging ornaments at the sides. [illustration: figure 23. chippendale candle, tea and music stands.] card-tables were also made in great varieties and numbers by this same maker, and his graceful designs were copied by other and less well-known makers, so that these tables, at least in "chippendale style," are not uncommon. his card-tables were of two styles, with leaves which folded together on top when not in use, and a plain oblong table without leaves. as card-playing was one of the most fashionable pursuits of the day in england, which fashion was followed with becoming promptitude by us. it is seen that many of these tables were needed to accommodate the gay world. those most esteemed were the kind with leaves, which could seat a larger party than the oblong ones, and which, when not in use, could be folded together and set against the wall. both styles, when made by chippendale, were decorated only with carving. during the last half of the eighteenth century there were probably few families who did not own at least one card-table. gambling at cards had always been an amusement at courts, and there were many games in vogue. ombre had been introduced in the previous century by catherine of braganza, and quadrille was another favorite game of hers. pepys under date of february 17, 1666-7, alludes to the fact that catherine played not only on week days but on sundays as well. "this evening, going to the queene's side to see the ladies, i did find the queene, the duchesse of york, and another or two at cards, with the room full of great ladies and men, which i was amazed at to see of a sunday, having not believed it, but contrarily, flatly denied the same a little while since to my cosen roger pepys." the next reign, that of james ii., saw basset introduced, and it retained its popularity through several reigns and was still the mode when queen anne occupied the throne. it broke "into her hours by day as well as by night," and the drain on the privy purse was excessive, for the queen was a good loser. the cocoa-tree club, at no. 64 st. james street, london, was, during queen anne's reign, a regular gambling-den. walpole says: "within this week there has been a cast at hazard at the cocoa-tree, the difference of which amounted to £180,000." by george ii.'s reign cards were universal. the preface to the "court gamster" says: "gaming has become so much the fashion that he who in company should be ignorant of the games in vogue would be reckoned low-bred and hardly fit for conversation." the princess amelia sophia, daughter of george ii., was an inveterate snuff-taker as well as gambler. horace walpole, who was often invited to make one at her card parties, has left many graphic pictures of her. at bath the card-tables were one of the chief attractions, and the sums of money staked during a single night seem prodigious. but of all the georges, george iv. had the most reckless propensities. before he was twenty-one years old he had lost £800,000, one of his boon companions being that confirmed gamester, charles james fox. almack's was a famous gambling-club, opened in 1764. the gamesters began by pulling off their velvet and embroidered coats, putting on frieze garments, and pulling leather sleeves over their lace ruffles. high-crowned, broad-brimmed straw hats were worn to shade their eyes from the light, to keep their hair from being tumbled, and perhaps to conceal their emotions. [illustration: figure 24. chippendale card-table.] george ii. was still on the throne when chippendale published his "director," and in such a gambling age it is no wonder that he made many card-tables in order to please his patrons. not alone at court were they in demand, but one has only to read such transcripts of the times as jane austen's or miss burney's novels to find that nearly every country family sat down of an evening to a quiet hand at cards. following at a distance, but as well as they were able, the fashions set at court, americans too played cards, and chippendale's tables were sent across the ocean and were copied by colonial cabinet-makers, who by this time had become very successful workers themselves. contemporary letters, which describe the propensity of the ladies to play loo all day as well as all night were, no doubt, too extravagant. on the great plantations at the south, gambling was said to be a favorite diversion, and piquet, écarté, faro, hazard, and basset were played, as well as less exciting games. besides the tables with plain polished surfaces, some were covered with a green cloth. others had pockets to hold the counters, which were old silver spanish pieces or were made of mother-of-pearl. these tables were valued highly, the early ones being walnut, the later mahogany. in some of the inventories already quoted mention is made of various styles of playing-cards which were imported by the gross, as well as "pearl fish," which were the fashionable counters. in figure 24 a very beautiful chippendale card-table is shown. it is of mahogany, richly carved on the knees, and with a heavy carved moulding. it is unusual in having five legs, one of which moves out to support the second half of the top. the feet are ball-and-claw, and within the lid is lined with cloth, has depressions for counters, and also four flat panels, one at each corner, where the candlesticks stood. it belongs to miss sarah frost, rochester, n. y., and has been in her family over 100 years. most of chippendale's furniture presents certain characteristics that are easily mastered. first may be mentioned the ball-and-claw foot, and the cabriole leg which he adopted from the dutch, and which he used so freely before he introduced the straight leg. then the backs of his chairs are quite distinctive, whether the splats run up and down, or become cross-braces, or are elaborated into very ornamental ribbon-work. the top bar is generally extended on each end into what, for a better name, we will call "ears." chippendale never used inlay on any of his pieces, preferring to produce the decoration by carving. in his very ornate carvings we have mentioned the long-billed bird, the falling-water effect, and the familiar ribbon-work which is often introduced into backs with such good effect. there are a number of patterns for carving shown in the designs in his book, and used by him over and over again, with which we have become well acquainted. little carved bands were quite universally employed to decorate the rims of his card-tables, and in his fine chairs the front bar of the seat often had a shell or other ornament carved upon it. the very finest chairs by this maker are seldom found in america, though furniture was imported freely. in smith's "history of new york" for the year 1756, two years after chippendale published his work, there is the following statement: [illustration: figure 25. chippendale marble-topped table.] "in the city of new york, through our intercourse with europeans, we follow the london fashions, though by the time we adopt them they become disused in england. our affluence during the late french war introduced a degree of luxury in tables, dress, and furniture with which we were before unacquainted. but still we are not so gay a people as our neighbours at boston, and several southern colonies." this is the first time possibly that the descendants of the pilgrims have gone on record as a "gay people." when the seats of chippendale's pieces are stuffed, it will be noticed that the material is usually drawn over the rails, and sometimes adorned with gilt-headed nails set in a pattern or straight. see figure 19. he says in his catalogue that he considers this the handsomer fashion; but in some cases, where the seats were covered with set work or crewel work, they were set in the wooden frame. there are two such chairs made by chippendale and given by the fourth duke of marlborough in 1790 to an ancestor of the present owner. the seats of these ribbon-backed chairs were worked by the famous sarah, duchess of marlborough, and are still in a fresh and blooming state of preservation. these arm-chairs are very handsomely carved, and rest on large ball-and-claw feet. the carving is not confined to the knee alone, but runs down the leg to the end of the claw. these are owned in england. that quantities of this furniture are changing hands all the time is evident from reading the records of sales which go on at all the large auction rooms in europe. it is safe to say that fully half of it comes to america, and that it is possible to buy here choice specimens of the works of all the famous cabinet-makers. even the well-known battle abbey has been despoiled, and while much of the furniture was flemish and german, and not of particularly good quality, there were also some pieces of both chippendale and adam bros., the latter being represented by several mirrors. chippendale chairs of undoubted authenticity bring easily at these sales $200 each, while one of distinctly inferior quality sold for $335, owing to the authenticity of its history. at a sale of furniture held within the year at christie's, in london, a genuine surprise was furnished when a set of mahogany chippendale chairs brought $5,225. a few weeks later two chairs, apparently out of the same set, appeared at another sale, also at christie's and about an hour before the sale they were withdrawn. these chairs, says the catalogue, were given by a lady to the vicar and church wardens of a parish church in lincolnshire. the lady died, and her executors held that they were lent, not given, and the sale was stopped until the rightful ownership should be established by law. but there was also in the catalogue still another chair which was said to belong to the same set, yet which was of a different wood and more boldly carved. this chair brought but a little more than $100. the removal of the two previously mentioned chairs from the sale, and the whole mystery which surrounds them, has given rise to wild rumours, and all kinds of reports are circulated which makes one very cautious about buying at auctions. in fact catalogues at auctions are little to be relied on, as one will often find pieces heavy with inlay, or of undoubted american make, boldly marked chippendale, while sheraton is made to shoulder the baldest imitations of his style and design. it must always be a matter of regret that furniture-makers so rarely signed their work. if they had realized that individual specimens would bring as much as fine paintings, they would not have left their work clouded with an uncertain pedigree. [illustration: figure 26. chippendale chair-backs and mirror-frame] chippendale did not make sideboards. he made side or serving-tables but the sideboard was a later growth, due largely to three cabinet-makers who succeeded chippendale,--shearer, hepplewhite, and sheraton, all of whom, like chippendale, published catalogues of their designs. the nearest approach which chippendale made to a sideboard was a table with a shallow drawer for linen. he did not make any of those pieces of furniture with drawers and cupboards which are so often called by his name. it may be seen that on chippendale's title-page he refers to "frames for marble slabs." these were generally tables,--side or serving tables we should call them,--and they were elaborately carved on legs and edges. nor were they unknown in this country, for inventories as early as the middle of the eighteenth century refer to sideboard tables with marble tops, as well as marble-topped parlor tables. in figure 25 is shown an unusually elegant marble-topped parlor table. the profuse carving is in chippendale's very best style, not flamboyant, but elegant and graceful. on each of the long sides is a grotesque mask, and the legs, carved over the knees with shells and flowers in low relief, end in a ball-and-paw, the hair on the foot being most delicately carved. the wood is dark, rich mahogany; the marble top is of brown tint with light veinings. this fine piece is at memorial hall, philadelphia. to sum up, then, briefly, chippendale's peculiarities may be expressed as follows: he used the ball-and-claw foot with the cabriole leg: this was succeeded by the straight leg. the tops of his chairs are almost invariably prolonged into little ear-like ornaments. he never used inlay on his furniture. he used carving as ornament, generally worked in solid mahogany for his larger pieces, and in a close-set pine which was gilded for his smaller and ornamental pieces. many of the gold-frame looking-glasses have the glass pane divided by delicate ornament or pilasters. this was to save expense, as in this way several small panes of glass could be used instead of one large and more costly one. the glass made in england was in very thin plates, and the bevel was ground by hand, so that it followed every twist and turn in the convolutions of the frame which rested on it. strength, beauty, and adaptability to the use for which the piece was made, were the watchwords for chippendale's most characteristic furniture. it is true that during the early years of his work there was a large demand for everything french, to which he catered, yet he in time reversed this and caused the attention of the world to be drawn to england as the centre from which could be obtained the best designs in furniture. while chippendale sought for his effects largely in his use of carving and gilding, although we find little of this latter work in the pieces seen in america, he also took the greatest pains to select brilliant and elegant brocades, wrought stuffs, and hand-worked material for the upholstered parts of his furniture. nor did he neglect brass nails as a means of brightening up a piece, though both hepplewhite and sheraton used them more than he did. none of the furniture which we so fondly ascribed to his name is from the designs figured in his book, his use of brilliant metal mounts is practically unknown among us. he himself admired the beautiful louis xiv ribbon ornament which he lavished on so many chair backs, and he says "if i may speak without vanity, they are the best i have ever seen, or perhaps have ever been made." like his fellow-craftsmen, chippendale made cases for tall clocks, and some of them are odd and not in the least graceful or beautiful. one will have for ornament on the extreme top a crowing cock, life size, and rampant, the base on which he stands being a mass of ugly carving. another has what might be called a sunburst, with a star in its midst; others have allegorical figures. his designs for mantel clocks were much prettier and in better taste everyway. he used walnut as well as mahogany for the cases, and sometimes chinese panels, or panels painted with nymphs and goddesses, called in "french taste," were inserted. these decorations served, besides, to ornament the fire-screens which were popular pieces of furniture. he made designs for chimney-pieces or "over-mantels." these were filled in with glass. chippendale says: "chimney-pieces require great care in the execution. the embossments must be very bold, the foliage neatly laid down, and the whole properly relieved. the top may be gilt, as likewise some other ornamental parts." knowing the sturdy, plain characteristics of chippendale's furniture as we see it, this constant reference to gilt and the mass of over-decoration seems quite out of place. his beds were called canopy beds, chinese beds, dome beds, gothic beds with flat testers, field beds, tent beds, sofa beds with canopies, and the usual high four-posters. many beautiful clothes-presses were made by chippendale, either chest like affairs on four legs, or having drawers below and wardrobe above, some of these latter bearing a strong resemblance to the french pieces from which they were copied. scant mention is made of chippendale, in contemporary literature, but he has the distinction accorded to but few of having a large class of furniture design called by his name, instead of being designated by the period in which it was made. mr. clouston, in his book on "chippendale furniture" says that there were two chippendales, father and son, and alludes to the author of the "director" as "the elder mr. chippendale". the son, like many sons of great men, seems to have lost his identity in the reputation which has been gradually gathering about his father's name. he seems to have produced nothing of moment, and the family has sunk again into the obscurity from which one man had the genius to raise it. chapter iv. adam, sheraton, empire. the increased market offered to english merchants in the colonies, now more prosperous, produced in quick succession several cabinet-makers who worked in a different style from chippendale, and made much very handsome furniture. robert and james adam, by training and profession architects, turned their attention to furniture which would be appropriate in rooms of greek or roman style. their designs were all on classic lines, and were beautifully painted besides by the popular artists of the day, like angelica kauffmann and pergolese, who, like alma tadema in our day, did not hesitate to expend their art upon fine pieces of furniture. the adam brothers introduced the use of composition ornaments coloured and gilded, which were really a revival of the italian process of "gesso," and which they had learned during their years of study in italy. they designed many mantelpieces, also decorated in classic style, and had a decided influence in moulding the taste of their contemporaries and successors. satin-wood was introduced by them, or at least at this period, and was used for inlaying as well as for the manufacture of whole pieces of furniture. most of it, when used as the wood of the entire piece, is decorated with medallions of marquetry of some darker wood, as tulip, rosewood, or mahogany. the adam brothers did not make any furniture themselves, but had it made by popular makers under their personal direction. in figure 29 are shown three chairs of adam design. the side chair retains its original covering of a heavy wool plush, with classic figures stamped in it of wreaths and maces. its covering was also designed by adam. this chair and the arm-chair like it are very delicately carved in low relief with a small leaf pattern. the legs are fluted and end in a form of spade-foot. the arm-chair on the top is very richly carved, and the entire woodwork is gilded. the covering has been restored. these three chairs are in the museum connected with cooper institute. in 1764 robert adam published his book dedicated to george iii., and illustrated with most elaborate engravings by bartolozzi and other fashionable engravers. for this graceful act robert adam was appointed architect to the king, and his rise was rapid and brilliant. james adam had now completed his studies and was taken into partnership by his brother. in 1773 they began to publish engravings of their architectural works in serial parts. they continued to issue these until 1778, when the entire work was published under the title of "works in architecture by robert and james adam esquires." it contains quite as many designs for furniture as some of the so-called furniture catalogues. while the outlines of the furniture are very graceful and delicate, their beauty is much increased by the skilful and artistic paintings of angelica kauffmann and zucchi by which they are embellished. pergolese was brought from italy to add still further to the beauty of their work. john flaxman, at this time creating lovely classic designs in various kinds of wares for wedgwood, also contributed to their success, and many of his plaques and panels were set in their furniture to its further adornment. they were used not only in satin-wood, but in other furniture as well which was painted in the same colours as the wedgwood ware. whole rooms, walls, ceiling, and furniture were coloured to match, even the harpsichord and candle-stands being painted and decorated with wedgwood plaques. of the second book, furniture designs fill one volume, mirrors another, and girandoles a third. [illustration: figure 27. room in whipple house, ipswich, mass.] [illustration: figure 28. chippendale, sheraton, and hepplewhite chairs.] robert adam showed wonderful skill and aptitude in adapting classic forms to modern taste, and his pieces are never overloaded with ornament, but retain simple, graceful lines. he never considered any detail too small for his minute attention. besides designing the woodwork of his furniture he also drew the patterns for the stuffs to cover them; even the little silk cushions on the arms of the chairs had the same care bestowed on them as the backs and seat. when he designed a bed, the counterpane to go on it was also made under his direction or designed by him. a little bag to hang on a lady's arm was not too slight an object to be made beautiful by his artistic hand. he paid the greatest attention to having the covering for upholstered furniture appropriate to the style of chair it went on, but he allowed himself great latitude in gilding, and, as we have already said, in painting his furniture in colours. he also gave variety to his tables by the use of coloured marble tops. the adam brothers designed some of the interior fittings for "strawberry hill." they also built colzean castle, designed alnwick castle, and many other splendid homes. thomas shearer is a name not often heard in america, yet the book, "the london cabinet-maker's book of prices," published in 1788, contained many beautiful designs by him. this work provided more for the cabinet-maker himself than for the gentleman, to whom most of the previous works of this nature had been dedicated. there were many members of the london cabinet-maker's society, but only three made the illustrations to the book,--thomas shearer, hepplewhite, and a man named casement, who furnished but two. now, when there are so many banks and safe-deposit companies, we do not feel the need of secret drawers and repositories for storing our valuables. they were quite necessary a hundred years or more ago and much ingenuity was expended in concealing them from curious or prying eyes. we are also wont to consider recent times and conditions responsible for such shams and mockeries as folding beds, and articles of furniture that are not what they seem. in these early books of designs are not only folding beds, press-beds, and library bedsteads, but folding washstands and toilet-tables, as well as tables, toilets, and bureaus which concealed the mattress and bed furniture by day. some of these pieces were most elaborate and had intricate machinery to work them. a graceful, classical urn of wood, touched on the right spot, would open and disclose a basin and ewer, while a writing-table could be unfolded into a lady's dressing-table with folding glasses, and boxes for the necessary powder, pomatum, brushes and pins. [illustration: figure 29. adam chairs.] [illustration: figure 30. hepplewhite chairs.] to thomas shearer we are indebted for that useful article, the sideboard, which has assumed such a variety of forms, and among his designs were dressing, card, and tea-tables, of many styles, and various desks, but he designed no chairs. many of his pieces bear a close resemblance to those of sheraton. between the severity of the latest period of chippendale and the dainty designs of sheraton, shearer and hepplewhite find their place, though neither of them ever approached in beauty of design, or in popularity, chippendale who preceded them or sheraton who succeeded them. a. hepplewhite's book, "the cabinet-maker and upholsterer's guide, or repository of designs for every article of household furniture in the newest and most approved taste," was published in 1789 and contained three hundred designs for pieces of furniture which have been so often copied that they have grown familiar to us. his chairs are extremely pretty, but, unlike those of chippendale, who sought solidity and careful construction, hepplewhite's chairs were so faulty and fragile in construction that they broke easily. up to this time the splat had joined the back of the chair and served to make it much stronger, but hepplewhite never brought it down to the seat, usually having it curved and joining the side rails three or four inches above the seat. there are more pieces of hepplewhite furniture in america than one is aware of. his chairs are by no means uncommon, and are very easily recognized by their peculiar backs. his tables, with the delicate inlay and slender tapering legs, as also his sideboards, are frequently called by the name of his great successor, sheraton, and even in england the two makers are frequently confused. he had a specialty of his own,--that of japanned or lacquered furniture, and the patterns he most frequently employed were fruit and flowers on a black ground. paintings such as these were taught to young ladies as an accomplishment at school, and no doubt many of them tried their "prentice" hands on some nice old mahogany piece as soon as they got home. hepplewhite had another peculiarity in his preference for using a circle or some portion of it in his designs. on looking over his "guide" one will notice that a half circle was often used as the design for a sideboard, or table to be set against the wall. his small tables are nearly always round or a broad oval, and his chair-backs follow the same shape, so did his girandoles and tea-trays. for a central ornament to his chair backs he frequently carved three prince's feathers, or drooping ears of wheat, neither of which design is particularly pleasing. besides the circular he used also the shield-shaped back. in figure 30 are shown three of his characteristic chairs. the one on the left has the prince's feathers, and all of them show the slender leg which in two of them ends in the spade-foot. the dining-tables of this period, before the days of the extension table, had round, square, or octagonal tops, supported on a column which rested on a plinth having several carved feet. there were a number of variations of the arrangement of feet. in order to accommodate a large party several of these tables could be placed together, and when not in use could be placed against the wall to serve as side-tables. his easy chairs--and he made many of these, large and comfortable--he covered entirely with upholstery, no woodwork showing but the legs. (see figure 56). [illustration: figure 31. hepplewhite card-table.] in the hepplewhite and shearer pieces the noticeable feature of decoration is the inlay, often of two or three coloured woods and in a variety of designs. many kinds of wood were employed at this time in inlay or marquetry work, besides all the familiar ones shearer mentions,--"tulip, rose, snake, panella," etc., and later lilac-wood also was used. the husk pattern was very popular at this period for an inlay pattern, and wedgwood also used it frequently in his splendid jasper pottery. it resembles the husks of oats when ripe, the spreading of the two halves allowing the pattern to be used over and over again. in shearer's work, as well as hepplewhite's, a slender tapering leg is much in use, inlaid down about half its length, often with satin-wood or holly, and sometimes with ebony as well. many of the sideboards made in america were on english models, and they are veneered on pine, the back and drawers being made of this same wood. there are many variations of shape,--what are known as serpentine and swell fronts being quite usual, the handles being the oval ones which are so common on all varieties of pieces with drawers, and there is also a fan-shaped piece of inlay which will frequently be seen. the position of this is not always the same, it may be found in the corners of closets, and long bottle-drawers, or it may be inserted as a sort of brace between the bottom of the sideboard and the legs. hepplewhite was very fond of inlaying a band of holly or satin-wood around the legs of his pieces, three or four inches from the ground. it will be found on his sideboards, card-tables and desks, and is generally about an inch wide. his book was one of the most valuable ever given to english cabinet-makers. his individuality of shape is always pleasing, even if he did not concern himself about making his furniture structurally correct. he claims, and indeed with absolute correctness, "to unite elegance with utility and blend the useful with the agreeable." in figure 31 is shown one of a pair of card-tables, hepplewhite design, made of mahogany and inlaid with ebony and satin-wood. they belong to mr. william m. hoyt of rochester, n. y. like adam, hepplewhite made great use of satin-wood for whole pieces of furniture. he used his well-known and characteristic shapes in chair-backs and little sofas, cabinets and workstands, table stands, harpsichord cases, and commodes. satin-wood had been but recently introduced from the east indies and was instantly popular. even mantelpieces were made of it, to match the furniture, and there was a fancy to have the drawing-rooms and boudoirs very light and elegant. clothes had shrunk in dimensions, no more hoops and farthingales embarrassed their wearers, the stiffness was banished from coat-tails, and consequently the furniture had shrunk too. chairs were small and narrow, and window-seats, made in abundance by hepplewhite, were deservedly popular, and the coverings were in accord with the gaiety of the woodwork. figure 32 shows two hepplewhite settees with shield-shaped backs. the upper one is of mahogany with low relief carvings on the tops, and the lower of satin-wood, with cane seat and the woodwork beautifully painted. the elegance of this painted satin-wood has long been admired. unfortunately it has caught the popular taste, and it is now reproduced in such large quantities that it is freely offered for sale by dealers in our large cities. the pieces shown in our illustration are both fine specimens of the original maker and are owned by the waring galleries, london. [illustration: figure 32. hepplewhite settees.] [illustration: figure 33. sheraton chairs.] it was no longer necessary to make the legs of chairs of such stout proportions, and as the bodies of the chairs were lighter so the legs dwindled exceedingly and were given only a semblance of solidity by the use of the "spade-foot" so much affected by hepplewhite. their appearance of fragility was farther enhanced by groovings and flutings, but they are always pretty. although his characteristic chairs have shield-shaped or oval backs, he gives in his book eighteen designs of bannister-backed chairs, to be carried out in mahogany. the general dimensions given by hepplewhite for his chairs are as follows: "width in front, 20 inches; depth of seat, 17 inches; height of seat frame, 17 inches; total height, about 37 inches." he gives most definite directions about coverings. mahogany chairs should have the seats of horsehair, plain, striped, checkered, etc., according to taste; or cane bottoms with cushions which should be covered with the same material as the bed and window curtains. he was fond of the "duchess," which consisted of two barjeer or arm-chairs with a stool between them, all three pieces fitting together at pleasure and making a lounge from six to eight feet long. his press-beds vary little in appearance from wardrobes, but it was in smaller and daintier pieces that his particular talent found play. his knife-boxes are extremely elegant, particularly when in urn shape with a rod in the centre to prevent the top of the urn from being removed. all the handles and knobs on his larger pieces of furniture are round, but on sideboards frequently oval, his double chests of drawers have either french or block feet. tripod reading-desks, urn-stands, beautiful tea-trays, caddies and tea-chests are richly inlaid or painted. we find him not only making very ornate and richly inlaid card-tables, but "pembroke tables" as well, with either round or square tops. such tables have leaves, but, instead of the legs moving out to support the leaves, small arms come out from the table-frame. his writing-tables and desks have tambour tops, that is strips of wood pasted on cloth, so that they roll back into receptacles provided for them, and are filled with secret drawers and flat cupboards for deeds or papers. among his other small pieces which are distinguished by their grace are dressing-glasses, shaving-tables with glasses and without, "bason" stands, designs for brackets, fire-screens, wash-hand-stands, cornices, lamps, girandoles, and looking-glasses. his larger designs show dressing-tables and bureaus with curved and swell fronts, beds, four-posters, and field-beds with very graceful sweeps and much variety of design. his stuffed furniture is comfortable in the extreme, and the tall easy chairs with cheek pieces must have been well calculated to protect from searching draughts. many of these easy chairs found their way to america, and as their cost was not extortionate moderate homes enjoyed them as well as wealthy ones. after the revolution, in all the seaboard towns and the more settled places near cities, there was a still greater call for all styles and luxuries popular in england. indeed the former colonies presented very curious and marked contrasts, being, as it is tersely put, "rolling in wealth or dirt poor." in philadelphia there had been much style and "gentility" for many years. the english officers had, no doubt, brought some comforts with them, and they found others awaiting them. major andrés letter describing supper at the "mischianza," may 18, 1778, gives a vivid picture of the festivities of the times. [illustration: figure 34. sheraton desk.] --"at twelve, supper was announced, and the large folding-doors being suddenly thrown open discovered a magnificent salon of 210 feet long by 40 feet wide, and 22 in height, with three alcoves on each side which served for sideboards. fifty-six large pier-glasses ornamented with green silk artificial flowers and ribbands; one hundred branches with three lights in each trimmed in the same manner as the mirrors; eighteen lustres each with twenty-four lights suspended from the ceiling and ornamented as the branches. three hundred wax tapers disposed along the supper-tables, four hundred and thirty covers, twelve hundred dishes, twenty-four black slaves in oriental dresses with silver-collars and bracelets ranged in two lines, and bending to the ground as the general howe and the admiral appeared together." all the lustres, mirrors, etc., with which the room was adorned, were borrowed, says watson, from the townsfolk, and all were returned uninjured. eighty-four families kept carriages in 1772, and writing as late as 1802, dr. michaud calls philadelphia- --"at present the largest, the handsomest, and the most populous city of the united states. the streets are paved, and are provided with broad bricked footways. pumps, placed on each side of them at about one hundred yards from each other, supply an abundance of water." dolly madison, writing in 1791 of the fashions of the day in philadelphia, says: "very long trains are worn, and they are festooned up with loops and bobbin and small covered buttons, the same as the dress. the hats are quite a different shape from what they used to be. the bonnets are all open on the top, through which the hair is passed, either up or down as you fancy, though latterly they wear it more up than down; it is quite out of fashion to frizz or curl the hair." salem, in massachusetts, with her vessels touching at every port, was already becoming known for her luxury, her teak-wood as well as her mahogany furniture, her china and plate. enough of these still remain to show her importance and the elegance of her homes. but there was another side to this picture. here is the description of the home of a settler away from any of the large centres, charles rich, of vermont, member of congress, began housekeeping as late as 1791. all his household possessions were valued at $66.00. he writes: "i constructed at the mill a number of household articles of furniture which have been in daily use from that time to the present." the newest styles were of small importance in such surroundings as these, and luxuries passed slowly along pioneer roads; yet every ship coming to american ports brought furniture, stuffs, plate, and china to tempt the wealth of those who could afford them, and among such were pieces made by sheraton, the fashionable cabinet-maker who came on the scene late enough to profit by the designs of his predecessors. indeed he is most frankly pleased with his own skill and artistic taste, and in his long preface sets forth the merits of his own book and discredits all those before him. he considers his book much superior because he gives drawings in perspective. much of the book is a very dry dissertation on geometry. its second half gives descriptions of furniture, of the various styles, and the uses of the pieces. he says in his introduction: [illustration: figure 35. sideboard.] [illustration: figure 36. sofa, sheraton style.] "the design of this part of the book is intended to exhibit the present taste of furniture, and at the same time give the workman some assistance in the manufacturing part of it." sheraton's early furniture is distinguished by great elegance of design, fine construction, and graceful ornament. (see figure 33.) the legs of his pieces are slender and straight, as distinguished from the cabriole leg, but are generally enriched with flutings, and they taper pleasingly to the foot. while he uses carving, it is generally applied in low relief and does not interfere with the lines of construction. his preference is, like hepplewhite's, for ornamenting with inlay of woods of different colours and decorating with brass. the fine proportions of his early furniture, the simple shapes clearly defined, and its structural beauty where each part is doing its work, render it admirable in every way. a simple desk of sheraton pattern is given in figure 34. it is of mahogany, and the doors of the upper part open, revealing pigeon-holes and drawers. the flat top over the drawers opens out on rests, making a broad, flat desk top. the brasses and key-scutcheons are original, and the moulding of the drawers overlaps. after 1793 sheraton made little furniture, but gave his time chiefly to writing his furniture books. for the patterns used in his inlay he had recourse to classic models for his inspiration, like the adam brothers, who had done much to popularize this simplicity of design. sheraton used urns, rosettes, festoons, scrolls, and pendant flowers as his favorite decorations. the simple curves of which many of these are composed lent themselves admirably to inlay, and the harmony of the colours of the woods gave a grace to this form of ornament and suits it exactly to the furniture on which it finds a place. sheraton wrote several works on furniture and upholstery. the first one published in 1791, was "the cabinet-maker and upholsterer's drawing book." this was followed by "designs for household furniture" in 1804, and he had not completed his "cabinet-maker, upholsterer, and general artist's encyclopedia" in 1807. he gave directions for making, among other things, folding-beds, washstands, card-tables, sideboards, and many other pieces. he frequently employed the lyre as a design for his chair-backs, as well as supports for tables. in chairs it often has strings of brass; on the tables it takes heavier and more substantial form. sheraton's beds seem almost as impossible as chippendale's. he, too, made alcove, sofa, or couch beds. he also gave designs for "summer beds" made in two compartments (we should call them "twin beds,") but both are included under a frame or canopy, and the whole affair is very cumbersome and heavy. his chairs, tables, and sideboards are the pieces by which we know him best and in which he is most admirable. he says himself, in regard to drawing-room chairs, that many are finished in white and gold, or that the ornaments may be japanned, but that the french finish them in mahogany with gilt mouldings. sheraton made very dainty designs for tripod stands, fire-screens and ladies' desks, with tambour doors. also "bason"-stands with tambour doors and writing-desks with curved cylinder tops, which tops fell into the space behind the pigeon-holes and drawers. wash-hand tables had also these curved cylinder tops, and all furniture which was put to toilet purposes was so arranged that it would look like something else, and transform a bedroom into a boudoir. these cylinder-topped pieces were designed as early as 1792. [illustration: figure 37. sheraton sideboard.] in furniture, as in art, there are no absolutely abrupt changes, but one style is overshadowed by another as chippendale gradually overcame the rococo and stood for an individual style. hepplewhite influenced sheraton very much, although the latter declares in one of his books, published two years later than hepplewhite's, that the latter's designs have become quite antiquated. such a piece of furniture is seen in the sideboard-table or sideboard given in figure 35. it was undoubtedly made by one of these two men, and it is difficult to decide which. the form of foot is more common to hepplewhite than to sheraton, and the inlaid border of satin-wood is wider than he was wont to use. the brass rail at the back was used to support silver or porcelain dishes. the handles are original and the wood mahogany. this handsome piece belongs to the waring galleries, london. horsehair was used for covering by both makers, and in both cases gilt-headed nails put in a festoon were used to fasten it down. sheraton's first style was much the most pleasing. it was distinguished by a delicacy and an elegance which were entirely lost in his later designs, which were so strongly influenced by the empire style. the first illustration in his "cabinet maker's and upholsterer's book" is what he calls a "universal table," to be made of mahogany, and which at will may be converted into a dining-table, or, by pulling out a drawer, discover all the compartments necessary for storing kitchen condiments, such as sugar and spices, etc. the sofa depicted in figure 36 shows this merging into empire style, for the legs are heavier than those we are accustomed to, and the carved pineapple appears on the arm instead of the more delicate carving seen on earlier chairs and sofas. the covering is hair-cloth fastened down with brass nails. this sofa stood for many years in the old manse at concord, mass. it belonged to the rev. ezra ripley, who came to concord as pastor in 1778. times were unsettled and currency was depreciated, so that when his salary of five hundred and fifty pounds was paid it was found to be worth just forty pounds. to make up this deficiency dr. ripley did a man's work in the fields. for years he laboured at tilling the ground at least three days in a week and sometimes even more. he was an ardent man, and from his moral worth was often known as "holy ripley." this sofa, uneasy as it looks to modern eyes, perhaps seemed luxurious to him after a day at the plough. the cover which it wears is said to be the original one, and if this is true its condition is so good that i fear the sofa was kept permanently in the "south parlor" or the "north parlor," as the best room was called in those days, and the good man was given nothing easier to rest on than a wooden windsor chair, or a straight-backed rush-bottomed one, or perhaps the kitchen settle. [illustration: figure 38. sheraton sideboard.] with the introduction and extended use of the sideboard came several articles to be used in connection with it, to which sheraton turned his attention. among these may be mentioned knife and spoon-boxes, which were of several different designs. sheraton apparently did not make these knife-boxes himself, but only designed them, for he says, "as these cases are not made in regular cabinet shops it may be of service to mention where they may be executed in the best taste by one who makes it his main business, i. e. john lane, no. 44, st. martin's-le-grand, london." two pretty ones, as well as two wine-coolers, are shown on the sideboard in figure 37. this sideboard has two little closets with tambour doors at the bottom, and deep wine-drawers on the sides. there is the brass rail similar to the one in figure 35. this piece belongs to the waring galleries, london. one of the handsomest knife-boxes is an urn-shaped one which has been noted as made also by hepplewhite. it is wrought in mahogany, the veneer made in pie-shaped pieces, each bit being outlined with a delicate line of hollywood. the knives were held in a perforated rack inside, with the handles up, and a pair of these boxes on either end of the sideboard made a very ornamental finish. another shape also in vogue was more box-like in shape, the cover sloping toward the front. not only knives, but spoons also, were held in the racks with which the interior was fitted; and as these latter were put in bowls up, the cases, when open, showed to excellent advantage the worldly wealth of the household, and were ornamental besides. sometimes the covers of these boxes set back flat against a portion of the top, and made a tray on which could be placed silver cups, mugs, posset-pots, ewers, or any pieces of table silver of moderate size. then there were the wine-boxes, or wine-coolers as they were often called, handsome massive boxes of wood, generally mahogany, or whatever wood the sideboard was made of. they stood beneath it, or, if the sideboard was low, at one side. the usual number of bottles they contained was from four to a dozen. general washington's wine-box has room for eighteen bottles. there are still a dozen of the original bottles in it, holding a gallon each. we should call them decanters, for they are of handsome cut glass. there is a letter from general washington to colonel hamilton in the possession of major church of rochester, n. y., presenting him with a wine-cooler, "holding six bottles ... one of four which i imported during my term of governmental administration." a more usual style of sideboard, sheraton pattern, is that given in figure 38. this handsome and useful piece of furniture had its counterparts in many of the stately old houses from the carolinas up. it is of the swell-front type and has five deep drawers and a closet. the wood is mahogany and without inlay. this sideboard is at the whipple house, ipswich, mass. [illustration: figure 39. empire sofa.] [illustration: figure 40. empire sofa.] after the french revolution of 1790 furniture became markedly different. greek models were chosen once more; the tripod became a favorite support. mahogany was freely used, but so were coarse woods, in which case they were carved and profusely gilded. the most valuable book, for cabinet-makers, on "empire" furniture, was published by the architects percier and fontaine in 1809. it was not filled with fanciful designs merely, as we have seen was the case with some of the catalogues of english makers, but every design shown in it had been carried out before it was published. many of the drawings were adapted from classic models preserved in the vatican. in many ways this style has not much to recommend it. it is apt to be heavy and stiff, particularly when made by english makers. the french decorated it with exquisite forms in metal (treated in another chapter), but the english contented themselves with cast brass. it was far preferable under the manipulation of american cabinet-makers, who restricted the use of brass and allowed the handsome woods to show themselves to the best advantage. the dutch, who also were not behind hand in the adoption of this and napoleonic style, made tables, secretaries, chairs, etc., severe and regular in form, but enriched with their admirable marquetry, and with heads and feet of animals sparingly used. sheraton and shearer were swept along by the tide of fashion and drew empire designs. gillow, the inventor of the extension-table, whose firm was established as early as 1800, made many fine designs and had orders from the best patrons. his firm is still carried on under the same name. in 1808 george smith was made "upholder extraordinary to h. r. h., the prince of wales." he published a book, of course, having a hundred and fifty-eight designs. they included bedsteads, tables, chairs, bookcases and commodes, and other articles of furniture copied from the french, like escritoires, jardinières, chiffonièrs, showing how the fancy for french things was increasing. he gives very definite rules as to how and when to use various woods. --"mahogany, when used in houses of consequence, should be confined to the parlour and bed-chamber floors. "in furniture for these apartments the less inlay of other woods, the more chaste will be the style of work. if the wood be of a fine compact and bright quality, the ornaments may be carved clean in the mahogany. where it may be requisite to make out panelling by inlay of lines, let these be of brass or ebony. "in drawing-rooms, boudoirs, ante-rooms, east and west india satin-wood, rosewood, tulip-wood, and the other varieties of woods brought from the east, may be used. with satin and light-coloured woods the decorations may be of ebony or rosewood; with rosewood let the decorations be ormolu and the inlay of brass." figure 39 shows a handsome sofa of carved mahogany, empire style, before it had arrived at its heaviest stage. the carving is extremely handsome, both rails of seat and back being decorated with dolphins. the foot is of the bear shape, and the arms are graceful in curve. this piece is of english make. while we miss in the late empire styles--say from 1810 to 1825--much of the lightness and grace which had been contributed by the carving and inlay which were so freely used in the preceding period, yet there was a solidity and massive dignity which was not without a certain charm. then, too, these pieces were generally veneered, and in them the beautiful grain of the mahogany, which was the favorite wood, showed to greatest advantage. the sofa in figure 40 is such a piece. it is of unusual length, the top of the arm is stuffed, thus doing away with "squabs," as the cushions which were used on sofas, long and narrow, were called. the wood, which is largely shown, is of that dark rich hue inclined to red, with veining many shades darker, and it is in a fine state of preservation. this piece belongs to anthony killgore, esq., flemington, n. j. [illustration: figure 41. pier-table.] [illustration: figure 42. empire sideboard.] to about the same period does the pier-table belong (figure 41), which is not usual in design, because of the third pier which starts from a circular shelf in the middle of the base. the swan piers at each end are very graceful, and the handsome grain of the mahogany is shown to great advantage. this piece belongs to the misses killgore, of flemington, n. j., as does the sideboard shown in figure 42. the doors of the lower part, with the fan, are solid mahogany, the carving on the legs and ornamental scrolls is fine. the middle of the top is raised to permit the insertion of a looking-glass, and the capitals at the tops of the pillars are of fine brass-work. above the middle drawer, a shelf draws out for use in serving meals. the whole sideboard sets back on a little shelf above the bear's feet, a feature not unusual in the finer boards of this period. the surroundings of this fine old piece of furniture are in keeping with its importance, the china showing above it on the wall being the staffordshire blue made during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, while the mirror directly above it is of equal age. environment has a great deal to do with bringing out the true beauties of this stately old furniture. it must be surrounded with objects of approximate age and of equal dignity, otherwise it looks as unseemly as an ancient dame with a pink rose in her hair. the work-table shown in figure 43 belongs to the same period, but of a little earlier date than the last pieces shown. the legs are richly carved, as is the central pillar. this also belongs to the misses killgore. not many pieces of such solidity were required in a room, and in those days overloading did not stand for elegance. in 1800, when the spacious tayloe house in washington was built, the furniture of the great drawing-room was a set of ash, sixteen pieces. there were twelve chairs with chintz cushions, and two card-tables; there were also a centre table and one upholstered couch, and a settee, but not one so-called easy-chair. much furniture like that shown in figures 40-43, is to be found in the old houses of such places as cherry valley, n. y., where there is little changing about, and furniture has descended from one generation to another and still stands in its old familiar home. [illustration: figure 43. empire work-table.] chapter v. colonial and later periods. under the broad head of colonial furniture may really be classed all the "movables and chattels" which belonged to the early settlers, while to be entirely correct, this characterization belongs only to such furniture as was brought in or made before 1776. as the pioneers came from many lands, so many different kinds of furniture will be included in the list. we must begin at the south, with the melancholy little plantation at jamestown. through evil times the feeble colony struggled, harassed by poverty, disease, savage foes, and internal dissensions. there in 1607 were planted the first beginnings of the settlements which were in three hundred years to cover a continent. traces of the little colony have almost disappeared now by the action of the james river, high tide covering the brick foundations of the ancient buildings. walking along the shore one may find little red and white clay pipes, in smoking which, filled with the fragrant weed, the pioneers forgot their woes. glass beads striped like gooseberries, to take the eyes of the indians in barter, pieces of water-soaked brick from these toil-built houses, and even traces of the days of smith, sword-hilts, bits of armour, balls, etc., and--more pathetic mementos of jamestown's trials--human bones and coffin-handles. yet in 1639, thirty-two years after the foundation of the colony, there were in maryland some planters called "rich," who measured their worldly goods by their value in tobacco, the raising of which weed had proved their only salvation. the laws regarding its cultivation, particularly in massachusetts, were very stringent. it was only to be grown as medicine and used privately. it was considered a more harmful indulgence than liquor, and the "creature called tobacko" was hemmed and hedged about with rules and restrictions. it circumvented them all, was planted and grown, and finally became a commodity of much value and a medium of exchange. about ninety years later we find an item which shows how universal had become its use. the will of may bickley, attorney general of the province of new york, filed april 27, 1724, directs that he "wishes to be buried without pipes and tobacco as is usual." [illustration: figure 44. kitchen at deerfield, mass.] to maryland and virginia were transplanted almost bodily rich homes from the mother country, filled with the luxuries to which their occupants had been accustomed. it has been said that many of the grand old homes in the south were built of "english brick." while this is true in the letter, it is entirely misleading to the reader in general. the bricks were not brought from england, because at that time there were few ships afloat capable of bearing any such quantity as would have been necessary for a house of any considerable size. mr. mccrady, in his "history of south carolina," has taken considerable pains to explain how this error arose. the historic miles brewton house, now called the pringle house built about 1770 in the city of charleston, is one of the best known houses in the state. it was used as military headquarters during both the revolutionary and the civil wars. it has been computed, by actual measurement, that the house contains 1,278,720 bricks. each of these weighs eight pounds, the whole amounting to 4,566 tons. no vessels then afloat could carry more than 500 tons, so it would have taken nine of such vessels to bring over the bricks for this house alone. josiah quincy says in his journal that this house cost about $50,000, which sum would hardly have covered the expense of so many vessels from london. mr. mccrady's solution is that there were two styles of brick made, one, large and heavy, known as "english" the other called "dutch" which were very small. there were, however, bricks brought from england, for the prices of brick, both of british and new england make, were fixed by statute. as early as 1662 brickmakers and bricklayers were paid by each thousand bricks made and laid by them. the first material brought into virginia for building purposes was in 1607, for the use of george percy. brickmakers were twice advertised for in 1610, and joiners were at work on the furniture needed for the new homes. the houses late in the seventeenth century were by no means so large as one would expect. six or eight rooms was the usual size, and many had even fewer. the house of cornelius lloyd, whose estate was valued at 131,044 pounds of tobacco, contained a chamber and hall and a kitchen with loft and dairy. the windows were often but sliding panels, but in houses of any pretensions glass was used. in 1684 colonel byrd sent to london for 400 feet of glass, with drawn lead and solder in proportion. robert beverly, sr., one of the richest men in the virginia colony prior to the opening of the eighteenth century, had in his dining-hall one oval and one folding table, a leather couch, two chests, a chest of drawers and fifteen russia-leather chairs, value £9 9_s._ his supply of table linen was abundant, and the table-ware was pewter, with wooden trenchers and some earthenware. richard hobbs, of rappahannock, who died in 1667, owned, among much household stuff, but a single fork, john frison, of henrico county had one of tortoise-shell. robert dudley, of middlesex county who died in 1700, had several forks made of horn. to show some of the luxuries for sale in virginia prior to 1670 the inventory of the store of john frison, mentioned above, is given. "holland night-caps; muslin neck-cloths; silk-fringed gloves; silver shoe-buckles; embroidered holland waistcoats; 2 doz. pr. white gloves; 1 lace cap; 7 lace shirts; 9 lace ruffles; holster-caps of scarlet embroidered with silver and gold; gold and silver hat-bands; a parcel of silver lace; and a feathered velvet cap." there were also many valuable furs. mrs. diggs, widow of the governor of virginia, died in 1699. she was a person of much consequence in the colony, and her inventory is interesting on that account. in her hall parlour were- --"5 spanish tables; 2 green and two turkey-worked carpets; 9 turkey-worked chairs, and 11 with arrows woven on the seats; 1 embroidered and 1 turkey-worked couch; 5 pictures (valued at five shillings); 2 pairs of brass andirons; 3 pr. old tongs; and 1 clock." [illustration: figure 45. william penn's table.] not only did english ships bring on every voyage the best that england afforded, but dutch traders, too, crowded in with their own goods, and others besides from the east. the inventories mention "dutch cases", and "dutch turned chairs", before 1680; and as these rich planters had tobacco to trade, they obtained all the luxuries to be had. it is seen that new england had her rich and prosperous men also, and some fine homes were built as early as 1639. figure 27, shows a room in the famous old whipple house, ipswich, mass., built about 1642. the solidity of these houses is exemplified by the beams, with their finely moulded edges. the furniture is both interesting and beautiful, one of the most attractive pieces being the desk made on sheraton lines which stands on the right-hand side. a handsome bookcase and desk fill the corner, and a little pembroke table holds much glass. the picture (figure 44) shows a typical new england kitchen in colonial times. it has been arranged in the deerfield memorial hall, and all the furniture and utensils shown herein were gathered in the neighbourhood. these primitive homes did not have mantelpieces as a rule, but the heavy wooden beam fashioned with an axe was called the mantel-tree. the one shown here did duty for a hundred and sixty-eight years. the wide chimney-piece could easily accomodate the small children of the family sitting on billets of wood, while the elders were comfortable on the settle with its high backboard. it has a convenient candle-bracket which could be adjusted to suit the reader, and if more light were needed the candle-stand was convenient. the back of this settle is sixty inches high, more than is usual. it was owned by jacob rich, who settled in the neighbourhood of deerfield, mass., in 1777. a famous house was known as the "old stone house" at guilford, conn., while at boston, salem, danvers, dedham, and dorchester was built many a sturdy dwelling still standing to show with what solidity these pioneers did their work. in the earliest days of the colony's struggles too much luxury was not deemed good for those battling with the wilderness. governor winthrop writes with some gratification in 1630 of the burning up of some fine table linen, brought by a "godly woman of the church of boston" from london, and of which she was very proud. "but it pleased god that the loss of this linen did her much good, both in taking off her heart from worldly comforts, and in preparing her for a far greater affliction by the untimely death of her husband, who was slain not long after at isle of providence." yet in 1647, when he married the widow coytemore, he seems to have had no hesitation in accepting with her a rich dowry, her share of the estate of her former husband, and valued at £640 1_s_ 8_d_. among the items were such frivolities as "a silver girdle and a silk iacket." there must have been also other choice garments in the many chests and trunks enumerated. one of these chests is specified as "spruce." the widow had a brave stock of pewter, worth £135, and among other goods unusual at this period were, "1 chest of drawers £1 a copp. furnace £1 10_s._ a parcel of cheney platters and soucers £1 2 flaskets a bedstead, trundle bed with ropes and mats." [illustration: figure 46. rush-bottomed chairs.] it is a matter of wonder how the governor reconciled his conscience to the silver girdle and "iacket," for in 1634 the massachusetts general court had particularly prohibited the wearing of either "gold or silver girdles, hattbands, belts, ruffs, and beaver hatts." also they forbade the purchase of "any appell, either wollen, silke, or lynnen with any lace on it, silver golde, silke or threed." they were only allowed one "slash" on each sleeve and one on the back. these rules were operative for many years, for in salem, in 1653, a man is haled before the court for excess "in bootes, rebonds, gould, and silver lace." in newbury, mass., in 1653, two women were brought before the court for wearing "a silk hood and scarfe," but both were discharged for proving their husbands were worth over £100. john hutchin's wife was also discharged "upon testimony of her being brought up above the ordinary ranke." these items show that both rank and property were saving grace even among the puritans, and no doubt mrs. winthrop escaped censure under this rule. boston, about 1650, had houses partly of brick and partly of stone, as well as plainer wooden ones. in 1640 john davys built for william rix, a weaver, a house "16 feet long and 14 feet wide, with a chamber floare finished with summer and ioysts." there was also a cellar, the walls were covered with clapboards, and the chimney was made of hewn timber, daubed. the whole house cost £21. this was a typical house of a workingman, and must have required little furniture besides the loom to fill it. the fine houses with ample halls and large rooms were but the forerunners of that comfortable style we call by the name colonial. but they were precious things when once built, and it is by no means uncommon to find them parcelled out to different relatives. in 1658 john greene of warwick, r. i., gives to his beloved wife- --"a large hall and chimni with a little chamber adjoining to the hall, as also a large chamber with a little chamber within y^t, with a large garret and with a little dary room which buttes against ye oule house during her life; also half ye orchard." it seems as if this bequest might have been open to different interpretations among the heirs. he does not specify if he left the "goods" which were in the hall and rooms,--quite important items. the widow francis killburn's house at hartford, whose estate in 1650 was valued at £349, had in her hall "tables, formes, chaires, stools, and benches," all valued at £1. mr. palfrey says in his "history of new england" that whitfield's house at guilford, mass., built in 1639, is the oldest house standing now in new england. there were three stone houses built at guilford this same year, and it is now asserted that there are quite a number of houses still standing which were built before that of whitfield. the barker house at pembroke, mass., built in 1628, is said to be the most ancient. the walls of the whitfield house are of stone; it is two stories high with garret, and the timber is oak. there are two secret closets which were found by removing a board in the attic. this house was ample and commodious, and the household furnishings were of corresponding value. [illustration: figure 47. connecticut chest.] in the colonies during the seventeenth century the doublet was worn by women as well as by men. men wore it over a sleeved waistcoat. the sleeves were elaborately slashed and embroidered. there were falling bands at the neck for those who wished, while the sedately inclined wore white linen collars. trunk hose were used, and shoes plainly tied or with rosettes. a beaver or felt hat was a necessary adjunct, and all those who could afford it wore gloves, embroidered if possible. these gloves had gauntlets, worked or fringed, and such an important item of dress were the gloves that in 1645 the glovers petitioned the council to prevent the export of undressed goat-skins. in many inventories the item of leather breeches appears, and in connection with them the comment "half wore out." henry webb, of boston, who died in 1660, left an estate much of which descended to harvard college. his wearing-apparel was unusually limited for a man of means. in women's inventories the most important item is always linen or plate, a "ring with a diamond" valued at eight shillings being an unusual piece of luxury belonging to mistress anne hibbins in 1656. the best articles which new england exported, and for which england was most greedy, were masts, thirty-three to thirty-five inches in diameter, selling for from £95 to £115 each. these and salt fish proved of more value to the colonies than any other commodity possessed at that time. much of the furniture of the old homes has disappeared. some is still retained by the descendants of its original owners, and there are other pieces now gathered in museums, nearly every city endeavouring to retain the mementos of her early history. by 1700 philadelphia was quite a flourishing town. the life of the country magnates was elegant and dignified. many rich men had both town and country houses complete in every detail. before the pennsylvania colony was five years old, (the grant was given march 24, 1681) william penn had set the example of having a town and country house, the latter being completed in 1685. he owned a coach and a calash, and had, besides, a fine barge with oars-men who rowed him between his house and philadelphia. fairfield, the home of the norris family, was finished in 1717, and was at that time the most beautiful home in philadelphia. the sashes for the windows and most of the interior woodwork was imported from england, as was the furniture. the hall was considered wonderfully elegant, being paved with marble. there were substantial houses of brick, the latter of which were home-made, and many artizans of all trades, dutch as well as english, were coming over. william penn wrote to his agent of such a one, and said that he was to be set to work making wainscot and tables and chairs, as penn himself was to bring much furniture with him. his house in bucks county was of brick, two stories and a half high, and was comfortably filled with furniture, some, as we see, made before he arrived, but most of which he brought with him. there was much silver plate, pewter dishes, cisterns, etc., beds, tables, stands and chairs. in the best parlour were two tables, one great cane chair, four small cane chairs, one couch, and many cushions of divers materials. the great hall where they dined had "one long table, two forms, and six chairs." the dining-room was a later development, and not until the eighteenth century was well advanced do we find rooms so called in even the better class of houses. figure 45 shows an oak table, of what is called the thousand-legged pattern. it belongs to mrs. b. h. oliver, of chester, pa., and has an interesting history. it is circular in shape, five feet in diameter, and is in good order. it is said to be part of the furniture brought to america by william penn, from whom it descended to the bradfords, a well-known philadelphia family of printers. it was given by them to a young clerk in their office, named mcgowan. in 1849 it came into the possession of mrs. oliver's father, and when he died he bequeathed it to his son, dr. john hepburn, of warren, pa., who gave it to his sister, mrs. oliver. [illustration: figure 48. mahogany desk.] this style of table dates to the first half of the seventeenth century, as may be seen by the drawer which all these early tables had. the brass handle is a late addition, and the drawer has about it the overlapping edge, this style immediately succeeding the drawers with mouldings like those shown in the chest on frame in figure 5. the legs fold together, fitting into the lower braces, and the leaves drop. this make of table was always considered of value, so we find them selling at philadelphia in 1705 at £2; at boston, 1699, at £2; in 1690 at salem, "a round, black walnut table, £2 5_s_." such a table as this was used by sir william johnson, so potent a factor in the settlement of the mohawk valley. his table is of mahogany, the leaves drop on hinges, and it has one more leg on each side than our example. it is oval in shape instead of round, six feet six inches long, and five feet eleven inches in its shortest diameter. in 1776 this table was confiscated, and was bought by the hon. john taylor. his descendents have lent it to the albany historical society. the social life in philadelphia in revolutionary times was easy and agreeable, consisting of the original quaker families and another class connected with the government, and these two gave the tone to society. the pleasures of the table were the only luxuries which the sedate quakers allowed themselves, and the city was famous for the quality of its madeira and french wines, and the wonderful cooking of west india turtle. in 1778 differences in rank were strongly marked. the labourer wore his leather breeches, checkered shirt, and neat's-hide shoes. the queue or club was still worn by men of fashion; so were rich broadcloth coats of every colour except scarlet, which was seen only on the "backs of soldiers, carolinians, and dancing-masters." winthrop sargent, a philadelphian himself, writing of this time, says: "silver tankards and china punch-bowls were evidences of prosperity, as were the small mirrors in wooden frames, and the mahogany tea-boards that are still sometimes met with in the lumber-rooms of old-time houses. glass tumblers were rarely seen, a dipper for the punch-bowl, or gourd or cup for the water-pail supplied those who did not have recourse to the vessel itself." this latter statement seems hardly compatible with "elegance," but there were certainly great extremes to be met with even in the capitol city, as philadelphia was at that time. [illustration: figure 49. corner cupboard.] when it became fashionable to have tables round or oval, it was no longer possible to use forms or settles at them. so chairs took their place, and we notice with greater frequency in the inventories "sets" of chairs, six, twelve, and occasionally twenty-four. these early chairs, straight-backed (figure 46), with rush or bass bottoms, or of carved wood or leather, were hard to sit upon, so cushions were provided in large numbers and of varying degrees of elegance. these rush-bottomed chairs with turned wood frames remained in use for many years. they were made with different degrees of elaboration, one of the two in figure 46 showing a more ornamental banister back (_i. e._, the vertical slats) than the other. these two chairs have seen much service, but are uncommonly well preserved, and belong to mr. william m. hoyt, of rochester, n. y. they were frequently painted dark green, a fashion said to have come to us from holland. as chairs grew more comfortable the decrease in the number of cushions is very marked. with the increase in comfort in household belongings a corresponding increase in the elegance of dress was visible. there was a "court circle" in america as well as in england. broadway, as early as 1700, presented a brilliant sight at church time. lord bellomont was governor, and colonel bayard and his wife were citizens of wealth and importance. on such an occasion as church-going, on a fine spring morning, mrs. bayard wore no bonnet, but a "frontage", a sort of head-dress of rows of muslin stiffened with wire. she also wore a "steenkirk", or voluminous necktie, which fell over her bodice. the skirt of her purple and gold atlas gown was cut away to show her black velvet petticoat edged with two silver orrices, and short enough to show her green silk stockings and fine embroidered shoes. her hair was powdered and her kerchief scented with rosewater. the furniture in use at this time has been already shown in chapter i. oak chairs, leather chairs, and those of cane are all mentioned. we find entries of "12 cane chairs with black frames" (1712); "6 spanish leather chairs" (1703); "one fine chest of drawers," of maple (1703); "a fine chest of drawers of olive and walnut wood" (1705) and other similar items. furniture was now being made in the colonies in quite large quantities, and new england was actively engaged in the furniture business, which employed many cabinet-makers. salem had james symond as early as 1714, and others, with each succeeding year. lynn had john davis by 1703, and marblehead, which was expected to become a great commercial centre, had at least a dozen more or less celebrated between 1729 and 1780. figure 47 is an example of home-made furniture. it is known to collectors as the connecticut chest, because this design is found only in that vicinity. quite a number of such chests are in existance, all bearing the same pattern carved on the panels. they are of oak, often with pine tops, backs, and bottoms. the one shown has the top of oak; the turned drops and ornaments are of pine stained black; its height is 40 inches, width 48 inches, and breadth 22 inches. it is at deerfield, mass. in the eighteenth century ministers were often glad to turn their hands to some work which would eke out their slender stipends. we have seen how mr. ripley of concord increased his. the rev. theophilus pickering, of salem, in 1724, made furniture. pieces are still in existance which he made, sturdy and in good order, showing that he put his best work and best wood into this business, as he put his best thought into his pulpit labour. [illustration: figure 50. banquet-room, independence hall, philadelphia.] the woods used by these cabinet-makers embrace all kinds, walnut, maple, cherry, nut-wood (hickory), poplar, ash, and pine. american dealers imported mahogany also in quantities, and it was for sale in planks as well as made up into furniture. "new york gazette and weekly mercury" for 1774 published the following advertisements. "to be sold by leonard kip, a quantity of new beef by the barrel, honey by the barrel or half barrel, albany boards and planks, highland butter in firkins and european goods. which he will sell very low for cash or short credit, at his store in dock street opposite mr. gerardus duyckinck's." the following also appeared in many issues of the paper. "mahogany furniture, 3 elegant desks & book cases, 1 chest upon chest of drawers, 1 lady's dressing-chest & bookcase, 3 desks & 1 pr. card tables, 2 setts of chairs, 3 dining-tables & 5 breakfast tables, 1 clock-case furnished with a good plain 8 day clock, sundry stands, etc. the above articles are well made and most of them are of wood of the first quality and will be sold as low as any furniture of equal value in the city by willett & pearsey, cabinet & chair-makers, at the sign of the clothes-press nearly opposite the oswego market, at the end of maiden lane." in philadelphia, renowned for its manufacture of household goods, the trade was so large and important that the "journeyman's cabinet & chair-maker's philadelphia book of prices" was issued. in a second edition (1795) are given the prices of many local furniture-makers, such as: "a plain mahogany high-post bedstead £1. 4_s._ 6_d_. "a plain sofa 6 ft. long, with 6 legs, fast back & no low rails. £1. 8_s._ 0_d_." the desk shown in figure 48 is a piece found at bedford springs, pa., a place which was known as a "resort" as early as 1778, and had houses with plastered walls, quite an unusual luxury in country regions, though as these springs were frequented by the fashionable society of philadelphia and new york, who went for the waters, special effort was used to make the place attractive. the desk is mahogany and solid, not veneered. it has a roll-top of the style made by sheraton, which falls back behind the drawers and cupboards. the brasses are new, and the lid has been restored; otherwise the desk is as it was made. it stood for many years in one of the little outside houses near the main hotel, and when, a number of years ago, a visitor asked to buy it, the proprietor told him the piece was known as "jimmy buchanan's desk." mr. buchanan was in the habit of spending his summers at bedford springs and always occupied the room where this desk was. in 1857, when as president buchanan he arrived at bedford, the proprietors in his honour had refurnished his room. they were congratulating themselves that the president would be gratified at what they had done for him, when he suddenly came into the room and demanded in a rage what had become of the desk. if it was not forthcoming he would go elsewhere. he could use it, he said, to write on, and then the drawers were roomy and just suited him for his clean shirts. it is needless to say that the desk was brought down from the garret, and was never removed from the room when president buchanan visited there. [illustration: figure 51. windsor chairs.] the desk is in company suited to its age, the larger powder-horn hanging above it being a veteran also. it is seventeen inches long and ten inches broad at the largest end. it bears the following inscription cut in quaint old letters on lines drawn so that they should go straight: "this is william norton's horn made at qubeck y^e 10 day of aprill 1776. i powder with my brother ball we wound them all that in our way may chance to fall." the smaller horn bears the date 1810, and the two swords were used in the general training days of the first quarter of the nineteenth century. all these relics belong to anthony killgore, esq., of flemington, n. j. during the first quarter of the eighteenth century, and even a little earlier, houses were built with wainscoting and panelling, and it was the fashion to build into walls cupboards for the display of china and plate. frequently they were placed in the corner of the room, and were either with or without doors. such a cupboard was called a "beaufait," which was sometimes shortened to "bofet," or "buffet," according to the taste of the owner. figure 49 shows a specimen. the house from which this beaufait came was built in 1696 in vernon place, boston, mass., by william clough. two years later he sold it, and it passed through several hands by inheritance and sale till in 1758 it was bought by captain vernon, who with various members of his family held it for seventy-five years. the cherub's heads which ornament the cupboard are somewhat unusual on a piece of furniture of this kind, and it has also a very handsome shell at the top. it is now at the old state house, boston. mention is also made in many inventories of "court cupboards," and "livery cupboards." the former were light movable shelves, making a kind of sideboard, and used to display plate and porcelain. a livery cupboard was somewhat similar. it had usually but three shelves and stood upon four legs. it sometimes had a drawer for linen, but no doors. mugs and cups were hung from the bottom of the shelves, and a ewer stood below. these were put in what was called the dining-parlour, a stately room on the second floor never used to dine in. (see figure 50 showing the banquet room at independence hall, philadelphia, with the beautiful moulding, wainscot, and over-mantel which were seen in handsome houses in the middle of the eighteenth century.) it was many years before the dining-room was set apart for meals. at first only a screen gave privacy, but gradually the dining-room grew in favour. the early dining-rooms held beds, as well as the parlours, they being given to guests on account of the warmth. joint stools were there, and flanders chests, in which the mistress often rummaged, so that the guest should see the goodly store of clothes and linen owned by the family. as was the custom in england, many wealthy men had their furniture made to order, often in their own houses, where the cabinet-makers came and worked. sometimes they imported their own woods, as in the case of mr. champlin, a merchant of newport, r. i., who brought home with him in 1762, from a voyage in the west indies, some logs of mahogany, from which he had several pieces of furniture made. watson, in his "annals of new york," says that the use of what was foreign and modish was noted earlier in new york before the revolution than elsewhere. "they earlier used carpets, wall-papers, foreign milliners, dress-makers, windsor chairs, glass utensils, jewelry, dentistry, watches, umbrellas, stage-playbills, etc. windsor chairs were advertised in 1768 as made and sold by william gautier in new york. he also had high-backed, low-backed, sack-backed chairs and settees, and dining and low chairs. a pair of windsor chairs are shown in figure 51. [illustration: figure 52. wall-paper.] carriages were imported in 1766 from dublin, as also men to keep them in repair. they were landaus, curricles, sedans, and even sleighs with gildings, carvings, and japan to suit. in 1774 there was advertised for sale "a handsome riding chair with full set of harness," and an announcement was made that there was "to be sold a genteel post-chaise." the carpets referred to above were imported ones, turkey and scotch. "persian and plat carpeting" was offered for sale in 1761 by h. van vleck. a later advertisement announced: "there will be sold at public auction, april 7, 1777, two very handsome turkey carpets." rag carpets were used as early as 1660, and private families who could afford it owned their own looms. sometimes those who wished extra elegance bought the yarn and paid for the weaving. in 1761, "pennsylvania stoves newly invented, both round and square, to be sold by peter clopper" were advertised in the "new york gazette." these were, no doubt, what became known as franklin stoves. this same year were also advertised wall-papers by quite a number of firms in various cities: "a variety of paper-hangings imported from london." "flowered papers," "printed papers," and "printed papers for hanging rooms," were imported as early as 1752. figure 52 shows the fashionable wall-paper of about this period. it is in the cowles house, deerfield, mass., and is in an excellent state of preservation. the sofa below is of the late sheraton or early empire, similar to the one belonging to rev. mr. ripley and shown in figure 36. some wall-paper of equal elaboration is shown in the frontispiece, which gives the hallway of the famous "king hooper house," built at danvers, mass., now occupied by francis peabody, esq. wall-paper, however, was not very generally used,--just why one cannot tell, but some of the gaily flowered papers were used for window-shades. curtains for windows and beds were at this time very popular, and it was the fashion of the time to have the windowand bed-curtains alike. the materials were very numerous and their names have a most unfamiliar sound. there was perpetuana, kitterminster, serge, darnick (a coarse damask,) silke darnick, camlet, mohair, fustian, seersucker, camac or camoca, bancour, red and green paly-(vertical stripes of equal size,) printed calico, checked and striped linen, india and patma chintzes, corded dimities, harrateen, lutestring, moreens of all colours, fine french chintzes, pompadour chintzes, "fine laylock and fancy callicoes," and "muzlins." there were bed-cords, and fringes to edge and trim all these materials, and the bed in full dress was a very ornamental affair. beds varied in size and height in quite a remarkable degree. the one shown in figure 53 has a very wide reputation, and is now to be seen at the rooms of the antiquarian society, concord, mass. it is of mahogany, with bandy legs and ball-and-claw feet. the curtains are the original ones that came with the bed and are worn in many places. they are very curious showing agricultural scenes and domestic animals in large numbers. these curtains were not intended to be drawn, but to hang permanently in place, and there were to be inner curtains of "muzlin" or "callico" to draw and keep out drafts. one peculiarity of this bed is its extreme narrowness; it is intended for a double bed and yet its width is only four feet, it was included in the wedding outfit of miss martha tufts, who was married at concord in 1774. the cabriole leg and style of curtain lead to the supposition that the piece is dutch. [illustration: figure 53. bed at concord, mass.] in february, 1768, miss harriott pinckney was married to daniel horry in "charles town," south carolina. this was one of twelve weddings that took place that year, all the bridegrooms being wealthy rice-planters. the furniture to fill the houses of these rich couples was all brought from england, and the beds were lofty mahogany ones, four-posters with tester, canopy, curtains, and valances complete. the large heavy posts for all twelve beds were said to be alike, and were carved with rice-stalks, the heavy clustering heads forming the capitals. so tall were these beds that steps were necessary to climb into them, and the ones belonging to mrs. horry were in existence a few years ago. in the "history and present state of virginia," 1705, is the following paragraph relating to the homes: --"the private buildings are of late very much improved; several gentlemen having built themselves large brick houses of many rooms on a floor and several stories high, as also some stone-houses; but they don't covet to make them lofty having extent enough of ground to build upon. they always contrive to have large rooms that they may be cool in summer. of late they have made their stories much higher than formerly, and their windows large and sasht with cristal glass, and within they adorn their apartments with rich furniture." the eighteenth century was rightly called the golden age of virginia. the planter in his manor-house, surrounded by his family, served by a vast army of retainers, was like a feudal patriarch, though his rule was milder. on the plantation itself were produced all the necessaries of life; it was a little community in itself. wool was woven into clothing, flax was spun, shoes were made, and blacksmithing done. luxuries such as books, wines, silks, laces, and the more elegant household plenishings were brought to the very wharf from london in the planters' own ships in return for tobacco. the writer previously quoted goes on to say, about the people themselves: --"they are such abominable ill husbands that, though their country be overrun with wood, yet they have all their wooden ware from england, their cabinets, chairs, tables, stools, chests, boxes, cart-wheels, and all other things, even so much as their bowls and birchen brooms, to the eternal reproach of their laziness." although beverly calls himself an "inhabitant of virginia", it is curious that he was not aware that the southern colonies were interdicted by special act of legislature from trading with the dutch or english colonies. "wooden ware" is especially mentioned as being subject to "imposicon." [illustration: figure 54. bed at mount vernon.] a typical bed of the last quarter of the eighteenth century is shown in figure 54. this bed belonged to george washington, and is in his bedroom at mount vernon. it is said to be the one he used in his last illness. unlike the bed shown in figure 53, this bed is of unusual proportions, being nearly as wide as it is long. the small table between the doors shows an excellent example of the dutch foot. upon it stands a small dressing-glass, so much in use at this period, of very handsome black and gold lacquer. whenever general washington had the opportunity he added to the furniture and appointments of mount vernon. belvoir, the home of the fairfax family, was one of the most splendid of the mansions on the potomac. in 1774 its contents were sold at auction, and colonel george washington bought goods to the value of £200 sterling. among the most important lots were the following: "1 mahogany shaving desk, 1 settee bed and furniture (£13), 4 mahogany chairs, 1 chamber carpet, 1 oval glass with gilt frame, 1 mahogany chest and drawers in mrs. fairfax's chamber, (£12. 10s) 1 mahogany sideboard, (£12. 5_s._) 1 mahogany cistern and stand, 1 mahogany voider, 1 desk and 1 knife tray, 12 chairs & 3 window curtains from dining room (£31), 1 mahogany wash desk, (£1. 2_s._ 6_d._)." among the smaller articles were several pairs of andirons, tongs and shovels, bellows, brushes, toasting-forks, and "1 hot rache in cellar," with many blankets, 19 coverlids, pillows, bolsters, bottles and pickle-pots, wine-glasses and pewter water-plates. there were also two tables, one "a mahogany spider-make tea-table, £1 11_s._" and "1 mahogany table £11," showing that articles of this wood obtained good values even then. the list of the goods in all of the rooms of belvoir is far too long to be given here, but in the dressing-room connected with colonel fairfax's bedroom were "1 oval glass in burnished gold, (£5 10_s._), 1 mahogany shaving-table, 1 mahogany desk (£16 16_s._), 4 chairs and covers, 1 mahogany settee bedstead, saxon green, covers for same, 1 mahogany pembroke table, dogs, shovel, tongs and fender." it is also a matter of interest to see of what books a library consisted among people who were considered to have a literary bent and to be extensive readers. there is nothing "light" about it, and would to-day be accounted very dull reading. batavia illustrated london magazine, 7 vols. parkinson's herbal knoll's history of the turkish empire coke's institutes of the laws of england, 3 vol. england's recovery laws of the colony of massachusetts bay laws of merchants laws of virginia complete clerk and conveyancer hawkin's pleas of the crown gunnel's offences of the realm of england ainsworth's english and latin dictionary haine's dictionary of arts and sciences blackmore's prince arthur history of the twelve cæsars by suetonius john calvin's institution of religion fuller's church history from its rise locke on the human understanding hughes's natural history of barbadoes a new body of geography croope's law reports heylin's cosmography, in 4 vols. collection of voyages and travels political discourses by henry, earl of monmouth wooten's state of christendom hobart's law reports johnson's excellency or monarchical government latin and french dictionary langley's pomona, or gardening a political piece strada's history of the low country wars spanish and english dictionary latin bible a poem on death judgement & hell knox's martyrology jacob's law dictionary chamberlayne's great britain laws of his majesty's plantations. [illustration: figure 55. bed at somerville, n. j.] a bed showing better the handsome solid posts is given in figure 55. this is also associated with the father of his country, for it is in the house at somerville, n. j., occupied by him as headquarters during one of his campaigns in the revolutionary war. in chapter i a "bedsteade of carven oak" was referred to as having been sent for to england by mrs. lake, as a wedding-present for her daughter. it could hardly have been such a very splendid piece of furniture as that shown in figure 56, with its coat of arms on the headboard, and the two beautiful foot-posts. the draperies were intended to cover the two head-posts, so that they were left plain. the old easy-chair standing beside the bed has unfortunately lost its feet, but they were the well-known ball-and-claw pattern generally seen on this style of chair, which was well calculated to keep off swirling draughts from the head and back of the occupant. these chairs were popular for a century or more, and were made not only by english cabinet-makers like chippendale and hepplewhite, but by the dutch and flemish makers as well. they all have the bandy leg, but the dutch foot is sometimes used instead of the ball-and-claw. but all the luxury and elegance were not absorbed by the south and new york. boston kept well to the front. in 1700 andrew faneuil, huguenot, came to boston and engaged in business. his brother was in this country, too, and, he dying not long after, andrew assumed the care of, and took into business with himself, first one and then a second nephew. they were merchants and the following entries of consignments, taken from their old ledgers, which are still in existence, show the nature of their business. besides crapes, poplins, lawns, and silks, they had for sale durants and duroys, osnaburgs, camblets, narrow, double and cherry, with ingrains, silk druggets and calamancoes. they also imported dishes, pans, and kettles, "wooden lanthorns and tin ditto" (1725). nor did they neglect to provide amusement for their fellow townsmen, for they imported "one-half gross man-in-the-moon cards." among other goods in this same invoice were "1 chest muskets and one large pair looking-glasses." andrew faneuil died in 1738, and his favourite nephew and chief heir, peter faneuil, did not hesitate, on account of the cost, to have an elaborate and seemly funeral. three thousand pairs of gloves were distributed, and later two hundred mourning-rings were given to intimate friends. peter faneuil, now a wealthy young man by inheritance as well as by his own exertions, lived in the old house with his maiden sister. this same year, 1738, he sends to london for "a handsome chariot with two setts of harness," and a coachman warranted to remain sober. a few months later he writes for china and glass from england, for table-cloths and napkins from france, and he sends for silver spoons, "forks with three prongs," all to have upon them the faneuil crest. "let them be very neat and handsome," says he. the next order is for silver candlesticks and a punch-bowl of silver holding two gallons, also to be decorated with the family crest. his clothes were also a matter of concern, and he sends to london a pattern of a piece of duncy, orders buttons of the newest fashion to match it, of mohair silk, and knee-straps. nor is he less scrupulous about his sister's affairs, and sent all the way back to london six pairs of stockings which had been sent of worsted instead of "3 pairs thread hose, and 1 pair galous hose, and 2 pair of thread ditto." [illustration: figure 56. carved oak bedstead.] boston at this time (1738) seems to have had some luxuries demanded by new york, for an order comes to peter faneuil to send there "a dozen red turkey or morocker leather chairs." one of these easy-chairs cost £14 14_s._ in 1742 peter faneuil gave to the city of boston the hall called by his name. it was built of home-made brick (salem had a brick-kiln as early as 1629), but the glass in the windows was brought from england in mr. faneuil's own ships. the first furnishings bought by the selectmen for faneuil hall were "two pairs of brass candlesticks with steel snuffers, and a poker, for the town's use." peter faneuil's inventory, filed in 1742, contains items under 158 heads, and makes quite a volume of manuscript. it includes not only his and his uncle's gatherings in the way of household goods, but the contents of warehouses, cellar, coach-house, and stables. the house was handsomely furnished. in the best room were, "12 carved vineered chairs & couch, £105; 1 pier glass, £100." other costly articles were, "1 buffet with parcel of china delph & glass, £199." there were, besides,- --"1 chimney glass and arms; 1 marble table; 1 large turkey carpet; 1 compleat brass sett, hearth-dogs, tongs, shovel, and bellows; 1 copper tea-table; cups, saucers, tea-pot, stand, bowl and sugar-dish; 3 alabaster bowls and stands; 1 large oval mahogany table, 12 plain walnut-frame leather-bottom chairs; 1 prospect of boston, 2 landskips on copper, and the temple of solomon." the "great centre hall" must have made a quaint appearance, since here hung the fire apparatus; "1 large entry lantern; 12 baggs and buckets, and books £50." the sleeping-rooms were handsomely equipped, and each was furnished with its appropriate colour. the list includes: "1 harrateen bed, bedstead and window curtains, matrass and two green silk quilts and feather-bed, £65 3 scones with arms 1 bureau, 1 table, 1 pr. brass-faced dogs, 1 fire-shovel, tongs bellows, and one turkey carpet, £107" peter faneuil's own room was not lacking in comforts, as is shown by the enumeration of: --"1 silver-hilted sword, 1 pair of pistols and 1 powder-flask, £15; 1 case 6 razors, bone penknife, strap, 2 bottles, looking-glass tipt with silver; yellow mohair bed-counterpane, feather-bed, bolster, 2 false pillows, false curtains, 6 chairs, 1 great chair, 2 stools, window curtains," etc. the furnishings of this room, exclusive of the small-arms, was valued at £245. he had "6 lignum-vitæ chocolate-cups lined with silver", which were probably dutch, for among the goods of sara van der vulgen, of schenectady, at about this same period, was a great "saler" or salt-cellar, made of lignum-vitæ, bound with silver and standing on three little silver feet. in mr. faneuil's kitchen were many utensils of copper, pots, pans, and kettles, together with an "engine and cistern." he had many jewels, 1,400 ounces of plate, including a shaving-basin worth £40. there were silver snuff-boxes, seven gold rings, and "chrystall buttons set in gold." just before he died he sent to london for "six gross of the very best london king henry's cards", for his store no doubt, for cards were becoming more popular among the descendants of the puritans than they had been. in 1729 governor burnet, of new york and massachusetts, died, leaving behind him a long list of valuable personal goods. he owned as many as seventy chairs and twelve tables. the chairs were of mahogany and walnut, with leather or bass bottoms, and one easy-chair was covered with silk. twenty-four chairs had seats of red leather, a noble set, and there are two chairs now in the yale university library which belonged to governor burnet, and which are of the exact style of what we call chippendale. they were made more than twenty-five years before the "director" was published, but are made of mahogany with richly carved knees, ball-and-claw feet, with carved and ornamentally pierced splats, handsome upper rail curved and ending in the little ears before mentioned. in all the inventories of wealthy and poor alike there is mention of candlesticks, sconces, girandoles, etc. the "entry lanthorns," as well as the perforated tin ones, were made to hold bits of candles and lamps are few and far between. it was not till 1783 that the flat-wick lamp was invented, the lamps before that time being pewter and glass, with small, round, string wicks, burning whale oil. when the question of lighting was so difficult, it is no wonder that the pioneers were in the habit of going to bed at dark and rising with the sun. the bayberry or candleberry was of recognized value, and the laws of brookhaven, as early as 1687, forbade the gathering of the berries before september 15, under a penalty of a fine of fifteen shillings. candlewood, as pine knots were called, was burned in the fireplace on long winter evenings. the manufacture of home-made candles was one of the tests by which the careful housewife was distinguished, dozens of candles being made and laid away in the candle-box. in 1753, in the "new york gazette," were advertised "green mould candles for sale, at the old slip market." the old moulds, generally of tin, were passed around among neighbours in country districts and villages. "dipping" candles was a trying business, and required skill and experience on the part of the dipper. lustres holding many candles were used on festive occasions, and four or six lights were often set in branches on either side of mirrors. many candlesticks with cut-glass prisms are still to be found, and betty-lamps, crude little metal lamps, were often used for bedrooms or in sick-rooms. "glass lamps and chamber lamps" were advertised as early as 1759, and "fine large lamps at 20 shilling each" in 1752. candle-screens, "red, green, gilt and black japanned candlesticks with snuffers and extinguishers", were on sale in 1773, and no card-table was complete without at least a pair of tall massive candlesticks of sheffield plate. by 1760 the newspapers contain advertisements of what are really luxuries. james gilliland, dealer in earthen, delf, and glass in wall street, new york, has the following named articles: "enamelled and cabbage teapots [wedgwood, no doubt], cut and ground glass decanters, tumblers, punch and wine glasses." the fair sex is by no means forgotten, and even during the stress of the great struggle for freedom her appearance is considered. many times the following announcement appears: "the venetian paste so well-known to the ladies for enameling the hands, neck and face of a lovely white" is for sale by hugh gaine, printer. nesbit deane offers hats "to exceed in fineness, cut, colour, and cock." he also has "ladies' white riding hats." "goods for the approaching season" are duly set forth in the spring advertisements, and "sagothies, hairbine, white silk embroidered and tambour with gold shades" are recommended for waistcoats. there was also to be bought "gold and silver vellum lace, gold and silver bullion fringe, silk sashes and hat feathers for the gentlemen of the militia and army." "spittlefield corded tabbey, peneaffcoes and peling sattens" were to be had in all colours for ladies' use, while "prunells and oxford crape" were provided for the "rev'd clergy." the servant question was a burning issue even at that time, and there are quantities of rewards offered for runaway slaves and apprentices. some desperate householder advertised in march, 1777: "wanted. a cook, black or white, male or female. such a person will meet with good encouragement by applying to hugh gaine, printer." those who did not wish to be annoyed by the labour of housekeeping could be accommodated with "diet and lodging," also, by applying to hugh gaine, printer. other advertisements read: [1761] "morrison, peruke maker from london, dresses ladies and gentlemen's hair in the politest taste. he has a choice parcel of human, horse, and goat's hairs to dispose of." [1768] "james daniel, wig-maker and hairdresser also operates on the teeth, a business so necessary in this city." wigs were an important feature in the costume of the men. they were subject to tax and were a good source of revenue. the treasurer of the colony of new york, as early as 1732, reported that he had received from the tax on wigs the sum of £9 17_s._ 6_d_. this tax was called- --"a wise and prudent measure, because it was the fashion for even young boys to conceal their own hair under large and spacious wigs. to repress a custom so absurd, or to make a source of revenue has been the object of the legislature." so we paid, and gladly, for our wigs, even though visiting englishmen spoke of us thus: "the people, both in town and country, are sober, industrious, and hospitable, though intent upon gain." all travellers mention our hospitality. prince de broglie writes in 1782: "m. de la luzerne took me to tea at mrs. morris, wife of the secretary of the treasury of the united states. her house is small, but well ordered and neat, the doors and tables of superb well-polished mahogany, the locks and andirons of polished brass, the cups arranged symetrically, the mistress of the house good-looking and very grey." mrs. morris was considered to have one of the handsomest houses in philadelphia, and it was not at all the mode to display one's own hair if it had turned grey, so the fact of mrs. morris doing so seems to have impressed the volatile frenchman. another traveller, captain laurence butler, writes from westmoreland, virginia, in 1784, to mrs. craddock, an englishwoman, as follows: "when balls are given, which is very frequent, the company stay all night (not as in your country), for every gentleman has ten or fifteen beds, which is sufficient for the ladies, and the men shift for themselves." these beds were the high four-posters, carved and draped, and ten or fifteen seems a liberal allowance for every household. one alexander mackraby, visiting philadelphia in 1768, before the revolution, writes home: "i could hardly find myself out this morning in a most elegant crimson silk damask bed." poor indeed was the householder who did not manage to have one "feder bed," or one of flock, or something soft, and there were always pillows, bolster, coverlids, and blankets, though sometimes, judging from the inventories, the owners did not care particularly about sheets. chapter vi. colonial and later periods--_continued_. we have seen by the middle of the century, 1750, how many comforts were obtainable at the large centres, and how many cabinet-makers were at work in the colonies. about 1756 the ways and people are described thus: "new york is one of the most social places on the continent. the men collect themselves into weekly evening clubs. the ladies in winter are frequently entertained either at concerts of musick or assemblies, and make a very good appearance. they are comely and dress well, and scarce any of them have distorted shapes. tinctured with a dutch education they manage their families with becoming parsimony, good providence, and singular neatness." twenty-five years later the british officers quartered in new york made life there very gay. fox-hunting was practiced till 1781, and was advertised in the "royal gazette" as taking place on ascot heath, in brooklyn. horse-racing took place on hempstead plains, long island, for life in general was a full copy of what was going on in england. the "new york gazette" of june 4, 1770, tells us that- --"a great horse-race was run off on hempstead plains for a considerable wager, which engaged the attention of so many in the city that upward of seventy chairs and chaises were carried over the ferry from hence, and a far greater number of horses, so that it was thought that the number of horses on the plains at the races far exceeded a thousand." [illustration: figure 57. room in whipple house, ipswich, mass.] [illustration: figure 58. carved and gilded mirror frame.] [illustration: mahogany mirror frame with brass ornaments.] the comparatively peaceful sport of horse-racing was not the only one indulged in. bull-baiting was not at all unusual. the posters for this amusement were headed "pro bono publico," and in the "new york mercury" for august, 1774, john cornell announces that there will be "a bull baited on town hill at 3 o'clock every thursday during the season." town hill was columbia street, near cranberry street, brooklyn heights. on march 24, 1777, in the "new york mercury" was the following advertisement: "on thursday at the theatre in john st. on next thursday evening will be performed a tragedy called venice preserved. with an occasional prologue. to which will be added a farce called 'the lying valet.' the characters by the gentlemen of the army and navy." as for clothes, of course the people followed the english styles, and copies of such magazines as "the maccaroni magazine or monthly intelligence of the fashions & diversions," found their way to america. here is an extract from the issue october, 1772: "hats are rising behind and falling before. the blazing gold loop and full-moon button is now totally exploded, and succeeded by a single narrow looping, broad hatband, and pin's-head button. in full dress the three buttons zigzag with the foretop à la grecque. roses are entirely confined to cheapside, and bags are increasing daily. the late stunting of coats having promoted the growth of skirts, the pockets are capable of holding conveniently a tolerable-sized muslin handkerchief and smelling bottle. shoes are decreased in heels two inches, and cut like a butter-boat to show the clocks of the stockings." "the magazine a la mode, or fashionable miscellany," particularly adapted to the people of both sexes, and calculated to convey early and useful information to those who are in any way concerned in furnishing articles of dress, either in "town or country," appeared in 1777. from one of these useful repositories we learn under date of 1786 that grass-green was the fashionable colour for gentlemen's suits, that the hair was dressed à la taureau, and that watch-keys were remarkable for size and weight. in 1760, pattern-books published in london were to be found in america for the benefit of native cabinet-makers, as the following advertisement duly sets forth: "john rivington of hanover square has for sale many books for cabinet makers, joiners, etc., and calls particular attention to a new work called household furniture for the year 1760, by a society of upholsterers, cabinet-makers, etc., containing upwards of 180 designs consisting of tea-tables, dressing, card, writing, library and slab tables, chairs, stools, couches, trays, chests, tea-kettles, bureaus, beds, ornamental bed posts, cornishes, brackets, fire-screens, desk and book cases, sconces, chimney-pieces, girandoles, lanthorns, etc., with scales." not a paper but had advertisements of furniture offered for sale. thus in 1774 we find: "to be sold at private sale a large black walnut cupboard with a set of delft, a large pier looking-glass, one pair of sconces, 3 large gilt frame pictures, and sundry other articles." in the same number of the "weekly mercury," and in many succeeding issues appears the following notice: "a scheme for the disposal of a large quantity of silver-plated furniture by lottery. the owner is a philadelphian." [illustration: figure 59. mahogany desk and chest of drawers.] in figure 58 are shown two looking-glasses of styles that were fashionable about the middle of the eighteenth century. one of them is dated 1749, of mahogany handsomely carved, and further embellished with ornaments of chiselled brass, a beading of it being next to the glass. it rests upon two mirror-knobs, which were screwed into the walls to support looking-glasses, and the collection of which is such a pleasing hobby to-day. the central ornament on the top is missing. the other glass is of carved wood gilded, and is now in memorial hall, philadelphia. it hung for many years in the fine old house "belmont," and is of the very finest style. the broken-arch cornice is finished with rosettes, and the central ornament is not the usual urn, but something more ornate. there are constant notices of mahogany for sale, such as: "a cargo of fine mahogany for sale by anthony van dam, jan'y 17, 1774." in may of the same year john morton advertises- --"the largest and most elegant assortment of mahogany or gilt oval looking-glass frames ever imported in this city." william melbourn advertises also, in 1774, over a hundred items, among them are the following, showing that "small wares" were easily to be obtained: "white and green ivory table and desert knives and forks. ditto with silver caps and ferrils. ditto black ebony with caps and ferrils. also black horn, camwood, centre-bone split buck, sham stag table knives and forks. carving and oyster knives. neat mahogany and fish skin knife boxes. mahogany and fish skin razor cases. plated coffee pots and spoons. mahogany tea chests. merry andrew, harry, and mogul's playing cards, pearl and ivory fish and counters, mustard and marrow spoons." in memorial hall, philadelphia, is a set of table knives with green ivory handles, like those advertised in the first item, and looking at the end of the blades we can no longer doubt that the use of two-pronged forks was supplemented by a dexterous manipulation of the knife-blades. writing-desks or scrutoirs, or desks and bookcases, or even desks fitted into the drawers of a bureau, had become pieces of furniture that were found in every well-to-do home. in figure 59 is shown one of the early styles of make, about the middle of the eighteenth century. this particular desk was brought from england, is of mahogany, and is in good condition except that the front feet have been restored. it still has the original brasses and the overlapping drawers. it has several secret drawers where during the revolution the private documents of the owner were concealed. during the civil war its secret drawers were again in use, and effectually concealed papers of value. it has never passed out of the possession of the family whose ancestors brought it over, and it belongs to miss hite, of waynesboro, va. the two-drawer chest beside it is of a much earlier period. the mouldings make the chest part resemble two drawers, but the top opens as is usual. the handles on the desk are of the shape used so much by hepplewhite on his bureaus and sideboards, while those on the chest are an earlier form of the well-known willow pattern of brasses and are fastened in by wires. the earliest patterns of handles were the knob and drop, which were used on furniture before 1700. these were succeeded by others which were fastened in by wire, and these again were replaced by handles which were affixed with nut and screw. on page 224 are shown the different styles of handles, and their approximate dates. the chest is of mahogany, with bracket foot. this is a most unusual and interesting piece. [illustration: figure 60. combined book case and desk.] at the time of the revolution there was comfort generally in most of the large cities at least. in 1776 there were sent to cold spring, for the use of the army, the following: "2 mah'y tables, 6 rush bottom chairs, 4 mah'y rush bottoms, and 2 small bedsteads, a kitchen table, a new case of bottles, a coffee mill, brass scales and waights, 2 kitchen tramels, 2 pickel tubs and 2 wash tubs, an iron hooped pail and a soap barrel mostly full of soap and the ticke of a stra bed. value £20." the works at cold spring were destroyed, and the goods were never used, but the government's strong-box paid for them. cornelis van santvoordt, who lived at esopus, near kingston, n. y., when it was burned by the british october 16, 1777, put in a claim for damages for £54 17_s._ 3_d_. a large variety of goods, as may be seen from the following list: "1 fether bed holl'd tick, 1 boulster, 1 pillow, 1 coverlin to bed 14 0 0 1 bedsted 20_s._--1 green rug 55_s._ 3 15 0 2 large rose blanckets 1 8 0 1 large lookinglass 6 0 0 2 chaina teapots 16 0 8 burnt china chocolate cups 10 0 ½ doz teacups and saucers 14 0 4 tea plates 4 0 2 large cream couler sauce cups 4 0 ½ doz blew chaina plates 6 0 ½ " cream couler " 2 6 1 dining-table black cherry wood 1 4 0 1 teble larg 1 0 0 1 large copper kittle 3 13 9 1 brass kittle 1 12 0 6 flat back chairs 1 16 0 1 holland cubberd neatly adorned with waxwork 10 0 0 1 barrel soap 1 12 0 3 wine canters 6 0 4 " glasses 6 0 1 chest wt. clothing and linen 1 10 0 1 " " sundry books & 1 large dutch bible 3 0 0 1 large kibbe, 1 sermon book some of the others divinity & some history 1 12 0 1 new spinning weale 1 12 0 12 pictures w't glass over 18 0 1 larg knot bowl cost 1 4 2 " " " " 2 0 2 beds with straw 2 10 2 fine worked baskets 16 0 1 tapend water crane 6 0 ------- 54 17 3 this inventory is somewhat unusual from the number of "chaina" articles enumerated, and among all the items there are but six chairs and not a stool. this claim, with many others, is recorded in the "new york records of the revolution," and it was paid out of the "strong-box." this box was not a mythical object at all, but a veritable chest. gerard bancker was state treasurer for twenty years. during the revolution the iron chest moved about from one place to another like the continental congress, and the treasurer went with it. according to a custom of the times mr. bancker took the chest with him when he retired from office. his family kept it for a hundred years, but with many other relics it was sold in philadelphia, in 1898, by one of his descendants. [illustration: figure 61. field bed.] [illustration: figure 62. low four-post bed.] there were various patterns of combinations of desks and bookcases, and of desks and bureaus. there were the high, wide ones of chippendale or sheraton, that would almost fill one side of a room. there were small ones with desk below and shelves above, and occasionally there were such great ones as that shown in figure 60. this piece of furniture is so tall and massive that it could not have been accommodated in any save a large house. it is over eight feet tall and five feet three inches wide. it is of a light mahogany, with pillars of empire style and very handsome brasses. the lid of the desk folds back on itself and below it is a drawer and cupboard. the handsomest things about the bookcase are the glass doors with gothic tracery. the date of this piece is about the first decade of the nineteenth century. the four legs on the front are of unusual elegance. it belongs to the historical society at albany. quite as interesting as the inventories of property left by will are some old records in the state library, new jersey, called a "record of the damages done by the british and their adherents to the inhabitants of middlesex co., new jersey." this contains the inventories made by six hundred and fifty persons who suffered from the depredations of the plundering hessians and the english soldiery. the lists extend over the years from 1776 to 1782 inclusive, but the worst mischief was done in the time from december, 1776, to june, 1777. there were eighteen hundred horses taken, and these form a single item. that the settlers were good livers the following inventory of one patriot shows. he lost- --"4 hogsheads of cider, ½ pipe of madeira, 10 gallons brandy, 7 gallons jamaica brandy, ½ barrel cherry rum, barrel porter." the inventory does not state his business, but we trust from appearances that he kept a "public." another list reads: "three cupboards of dutch make as good as new, also three large bibles 1 dutch and 2 english." david harriott, of middlesex county, was completely stripped by the enemy. among many items were- "a set of homespun curtains wove with damask flowers, one ditto of white in large damask flowers, and one ditto of double dimons." napkins, quilts, bedspreads, and sheets, as well as large-flowered damask table-cloths and linen covers testify to the industry of the women of the family. the good wife lost her long gowns and short gowns, her "shifts of 500 linen," handkerchiefs of gauze, lawn, and linen, aprons of new flowered lawn, fine linen and homespun, 3 caps of cambric and lawn, all new, and even two bibs for a child. they took all of david's clothes and his silver teaspoons and buckles, smashed his windows and doors, broke down his partitions, drove off his cattle, and did not leave him so much as "a bed, a piggin, a trammel, or a gridiron." jacob hyer was another sufferer. his house must have been one of considerable size and well furnished. there are many items, among them- --"5 fluted brass candlesticks, 2 pr. common ditto, 1 doz. iron ditto, 10 pr. snuffers; 11 feather beds with bolsters and pillows, etc." [illustration: figure 63. french bed.] the enemy left him nothing, even taking his "iron chain for smoke jack." much of the furniture listed in these inventories was evidently of american make, for the woods mentioned are bilstead, gum pine, walnut, cherry, or red cedar. the last was the favorite. "bilstead" was maple. the beds were chiefly of three styles, field beds, high four-posters with testers and valance, and low four-posters, with an occasional "english" or "french" bed. there were beds much plainer than the carved ones we so much admire, but in any case the bed was the most valuable household possession, as it had always been. in 1640 william southmead's house in gloucester, mass., is valued at £8, and his feather-bed, bedstead, and appurtenances at the same sum. in 1628 a pair of sheets was furnished to each massachusetts bay colonist. linen and flannel sheets were the ones in use. after spinning became universal and flax abundant, homespun sheets abounded,--"20 and 1 pr." is not an unusual number; and where there were several daughters whose chests had to be filled, the number was many times greater. table linen also was of domestic manufacture. one of the fashionable patterns of beds shown in the english books imported into the colonies, and made by american cabinet-makers, was known as the "field bed." the one shown in figure 61 is in the whipple house, ipswich, and is draped with the netting curtains, heavily dotted and fringed, which were customary in its day. early in 1700 there was an auction sale of governor cornbury's effects in new york, and the following advertisement concerning them: "a fine yellow camblet bed lined with silk and trimmed with fine lace, which came from london. one fine field bedstead and curtains. some blue cloth lately come from london for liveries and some broad gold lace. a very fine medecine chest with a great variety of valuable medecines. a parcel of sweetmeats and jelly glasses. a case of 12 knives and 12 forks with silver handles. a large iron fireplace and iron bars all to be seen at the fort. it seemed as if the field bed had been made here, as it is specified that several of the other articles came from london. "the journeyman's cabinet & chair-makers philadelphia book of prices" gives in 1795 the price of a mahogany field bed, with sloped roof, at £1 7_s._, while one of poplar, with the roof sloped each way, cost but one pound. the carving of the posts was of course extra and was to be paid for according to time. each inch that the bed was longer than six feet and wider than four feet was to be charged for at the rate of two pence per inch. this may be the reason why many of the beds were so narrow. it is often stated that the field bed was in use for a few years only, about the middle of the 18th century, while in fact it was here, imported and of domestic make for fully one hundred years, and i am by no means sure that governor cornbury's was among the earliest. [illustration: figure 64. highboy.] great attention was paid to the draping and arranging of the curtains, valances, and testers of the high four-posters. heavy materials of silk and woollen were used, as well as cotton stuffs. men paid great attention to the colourings of their bed furniture, as we have seen in several inventories, and horace walpole chose for his own bed at strawberry hill purple cloth lined with white satin, and bunches of feathers on the tester. hepplewhite spent much pains on the details of his beds, and recommended that the valance be made very full, in which case it was called the "petticoat valance." there were also elaborate details for tying back the curtains and trimming them with gimp and fringe. the bed-drapings, even in early days, were often very valuable. col. francis epes, of henrico co., va., has in his inventory dated october 1, 1678: "one large new feather bed with camlett curtains and double vallins lind with yellow silke, bolster, pillow, counterpane, rodds and hooks tops and stands, 1 curtaine and some fringe damnified £24 5_s._ 0_d_." the low-post bed was also a very handsome piece of furniture, and in many cases the post was surmounted by a pineapple, like the example shown in figure 62. this bed has passed through a career of violent contrasts, and it is only within a year that the four posts were rescued from a barn, where they afforded convenient roosts for poultry. the side and head and foot boards had passed entirely out of sight, no doubt in some moment of stress they had fed the family cooking-stove. the missing parts have been restored in solid mahogany, and it makes a very handsome piece of furniture. it belongs to mr. william m. hoyt, of rochester, n. y. the acanthus leaves on the lower parts of the legs are unusually handsome. the posts are 63 inches high, and the brass drops which conceal the screw-holes have been restored from a bed of the same period. an unusually elegant example of the french bed is the one given in figure 63. this bed is of rosewood, with legs of splendidly carved dolphins, and on the side rails and rolling ends are very rich ormolu decorations cut from solid brass. the medallions directly over the legs show fame blowing her trumpet, and the rams' heads terminating the head and foot boards where they rest upon the wood above the stars are solid brass also. this bed has been many years in this country, and stood in the bridal chamber or guest-room of the old van rensselaer manor house at albany, n. y. this room was situated on the ground floor to the right of the front door. a most necessary piece of furniture which every housekeeper endeavoured to own was some form of "highboy," as it has come to be called, or a chest-on chest of drawers. figure 64 depicts a fair example of the highest style of perfection to which these articles reached. few are found more ornate than this. the wood is mahogany, and is richly carved on the knees, with the upper and lower drawers ornamented with shell and scrolls. the escutcheons and handles are original, and the only defect is the loss of the two ornaments which decorated either side of the top. the date of this chest of drawers is anywhere from 1750 to about 1780, the overlapping drawers making it more likely to approximate the earlier date. belonging to about the same period is the corner cupboard shown in figure 65. this is of cherry, with the broken arch-cornice and gothic door. it has turned posts with rosettes which sheraton often used, and the cupboard doors overlap and are panelled. the back of the cupboard is of pine, as are the shelves. the wood is a rich dark colour and unpolished. similar pieces, though not exactly in this form, are to be met with in virginia and are doubtless of native manufacture. [illustration: figure 65. corner cupboard.] [illustration: figure 66. inlaid and lacquered table and chair.] american makers used not only mahogany, cedar, ash, elm, pine, maple, cherry, poplar, and walnut, but could inlay with "king, tulip, rose, purple, snake, zebra, alexandria, panella, yew, and maple." there were cabinet-makers in every town, and many of them put out as handsome work as their contemporaries in london. in chapter v mention has been made of the cabinet-makers of the eighteenth century, but furniture was made in the colonies even before that. the native joiners began to work as early as 1622, for phineas pratt, of weymouth, mass., was what we now call a cabinet-maker, and before 1700 boston had at least 25 cabinet-makers whose names appear in various records. we have also spoken of connecticut chests, and their manufacture somewhere in that state. there is also another style known as the hadley chest. mr. lockwood, in his fine work on furniture, places the date of these chests as ranging from 1690 to 1720. they come in one-, two-, and three-drawer patterns, varying in height from 32½ inches in one-drawer size to 46 inches for the three-drawer style. the peculiarity of these chests is their decoration, their shape being similar to other chests of the same period. in addition to being carved they are stained as well,--red, mulberry, and black being the colours chosen. on the central panel of the front the initials of the owner were usually roughly carved; the decoration of the chest, confined to the front, being a rude vine, while the sides are panelled. the top, body of drawers, and back of chest are always pine, the thrifty new england craftsman saving his hardwood for places where it would show. there is a very fine specimen of these hadley chests in the museum at deerfield, mass. several more are in collections gathered in massachusetts or adjoining states. the black-stained pine ornaments do not always mark a piece as of domestic manufacture, for pear-wood was used by the dutch, and even occasionally by the english, stained black to imitate ebony, which was always more or less costly. after 1725 there was considerable travel by merchants, and to a small extent by others bent on pleasure. inns became of importance, and brought in good incomes to their owners. abel chapin kept a tavern at chicopee, mass., in 1730, and some few leaves of his account-book still remain. the records of the bar are the most numerous entries, and he sold there "rhum & cyder", bowls of punch and mugs of flip, and sometimes "shugar, seed-corne, salt, and molasses." when this prosperous innkeeper died he left personal property valued at £400, and his real estate was worth £1,300. there were six hundred items mentioned in his inventory among the household furnishings, including iron, pewter, and brass ware with some china and glass. there is also special mention of "36 linen sheets, sixteen blankets, eleven woolen sheets, 6 table cloths and 21 towels." the inventory of his wardrobe shows richness for those days, and justifies his mother's statement that she had one son who was too rich. the inventory begins with: "2 great cotes, 1 srait body cote, 1 pare lether britches, 1 pare shues, 4 pare pumps, 1 hat, a black velvet vest, 1 pare velvet britches, 9 pare hose, 4 fine shirts, 6 common shirts, shoe buckles." his brother, a bachelor, died in 1747, and also had much worldly geer. he had "cotes and jackets of camlet, serge and broadcloth", and "some shirts, some more shirts, and some fine shirts." [illustration: figure 67. lacquered table.] [illustration: figure 68. mahogany bureau.] there was no longer such great stress for the necessaries of life, in the connecticut valley at least, though there was still hardship and danger a plenty. game and wild fowl abounded in the woods, and the rivers were full of fish. there is on record a single catch in one night of 6,000 shad and 90 salmon, six men being at work. each householder was required to keep at least three sheep, and these, with the fields of flax, supplied bedding and clothing. the wayside inn, south sudbury, mass., is still standing to show what a handsome and hospitable dwelling one of these old-fashioned inns was. in figure 18, is shown the old dining-room, looking to-day pretty much as it did a century ago. on the left is a handsome lowboy with carving, and from the little alcove on the right many a steaming glass of flip or negus was served to cold and weary travellers. the dining-room was the centre of hospitality in the later colonial days, as the kitchen had been in the earlier period. there was no handsomer or more hospitable entertainer than john hancock, of boston. in september, 1778, he gave a dinner to count d'estaing, the french admiral, and his officers and other dignitaries. there was such a large company that the spacious ball-room at the hancock house was not large enough, so faneuil hall was engaged for the occasion. all contemporary accounts agree that it was a very splendid affair and went off with great _éclat_. the following amusing glimpse behind the scenes shows mr. hancock's anxiety about the provisions for this same dinner. "monday noon, 30 aug. 1778. dear sir--the phillistines are coming upon me on wednesday next at dinner. to be serious, the ambassador, etc., etc., are to dine with me on wednesday, and i have nothing to give them, nor from the present prospect of our market do i see that i shall be able to get anything in town. i must beg the fav^r of you to recommend to my man harry where he can get some chickens, ducks, geese, hams, partridges, mutton or anything that will save my reputation in a dinner, and by all means some butter. be so good as to help me and you will much oblige me. is there any good mellons or peaches or any good fruit near you? your advice to harry will much oblige me. excuse me, i am very troublesome. can i get a good turkey? i walked in town to-day. i dine on board the french frigate to-morrow, so you see how i have recovered. god bless you. if you see anything good at providence, do buy it for me. "i am your real friend "john hancock." apparently the friend came to his assistance. the appearance of the company must have been very gay, for bright apparel was not confined to ladies alone. seven years later james bowdoin, the governor of massachusetts (1785) on a review day at cambridge, wore a grey wig, cocked hat, white broadcloth coat and vest, red small-clothes, and black-silk stockings. thomas jefferson wore a white coat and red breeches. the ladies were looked out for also, and- "a neat assortment of women's and children's stays, also hoops and quilted coats, also men's and women's shoes from england" were advertised in the "new york mercury." as early as 1761 mr. h. levy offered for sale hyson tea, coffee and chocolate, and english-made shoes. the "new york gazette" of may 15, 1789, describes a gown of the prevailing mode as follows: "a plain but celestial blue satin gown over a white satin petticoat. over the neck was worn a large italian gauze handkerchief. head-dress a pouf of gauze in form of a globe, the head-piece of which was made of white satin having a double wing which was trimmed with a wreath of roses. the hair was dressed in detached curls and a floating chignon." at this same period in winter weather the gentlemen wore muffs of bearskin with knots of scarlet ribbon, while the hats of the ladies were so immense that it was suggested that a larger style of umbrella be invented so as to protect them. [illustration: figure 69. american-made chairs.] from 1750 the decoration of the fireplace became of importance, and marble chimney-fronts, blue and white tiles, and beautifully variegated marble hearths in different colours are freely advertised. carved and open-work mahogany mantelpieces could be had by 1765, and elegant grates and bath stoves are imported from england. fire-dogs or andirons of many patterns are advertised for sale. in figure 57, there will be seen in the fireplace a pair representing marching soldiers. we have seen in many inventories how the elegances of the east crept in among stouter and more practical goods. in figure 66 are shown two fine examples of oriental lacquer-work ornamented with gold and inlaid with mother-of-pearl flowers. the chair is lacquered on some exceedingly light and porous wood, and has a cane seat. the table, which is of a very ornate design, has a heavy base to prevent its tipping over. both belong to the erastus corning estate, and are now at the albany historical society rooms. music-stands were also made of lacquered wood and decorated with gilt patterns and mother-of-pearl. another very beautiful example of lacquer-work is shown in figure 67. this is gold lacquer on black and special attention should be given to the oriental rendering of the pillar and claw feet of the table. the carving is very fine, the dragon's head in which each foot terminates being quite a work of art. the vase which stands on the table is sèvres, made under napoleon's direction as a gift to the emperor of russia. it never reached its destination; for napoleon himself went to russia, and his mission was not to give, but to take. the vase was secured in paris by mr. william bayard, and presented by him to his brother-in-law, general stephen van rensselaer, the eighth patroon of rensselaerwick. bureaus with flat tops, upon which stood either lacquered or wooden dressing-glasses, were in use during the latter part of the eighteenth and in the early part of the nineteenth centuries. sometimes the glasses were attached to the bureau itself, which then had an extra set of small drawers above the larger ones, set back so as to leave a shelf in front of them. such a piece of a very ornate character is shown in figure 68. it is of mahogany with gilt mountings of very beautiful design on the pillars of the front. the drawer which swells out has on it a splendid empire gilt ornament. above this the rail across the front is painted black and has a pattern in gold upon it. the curved supports to the mirror are carved and then painted with gold, as is the mirror-frame itself. the handles are glass, with bosses of gilt, completing an unusually handsome piece of furniture. the glass handles place the date of this bureau as not earlier than 1820. [illustration: figure 70. american-made rosewood card-table.] the work of domestic furniture-makers has often been referred to in this work, and in figure 69 are given examples of three chairs, all of them mahogany, the two on the left being in sheraton style, and the one on the right rather later, and coming under the head of empire. the latter has the curved back and legs which were very popular, and a very distinctively american touch in the finely carved eagle which ornaments the cross-bar of the back. all three chairs are well carved, and the panelled back of the middle one has a thread of brass moulding. the carved design is adapted from some well-known patterns by sheraton. the one on the extreme left has some very delicate carving above the three arrows. in the little open panel are a bow and quiver quite out of proportion, in their size, to the large, heavy arrows below it. all three chairs had the covering nailed down with brass nails in the popular style, and the middle one still has the original stuff. american cabinet-makers also excelled in making and carving very beautiful rosewood furniture which was held in high estimation down to the middle of the century. a piece of such work is shown in the handsomely carved card-table represented in figure 70. the legs are gracefully curved and embellished with fine carving. the top turns, and then opens, a circular portion of the center being covered with cloth. within the frame the table is finished with handsome curled maple, and has numerous little compartments for holding cards and counters. this specimen belongs to miss sarah frost, of rochester, n. y. chapter vii. french furniture. the glory of the french renaissance had begun to wane when louis xiii. came to the throne in 1614, and by the time of his death in 1643 it had become hardly more than a tradition. its strongest period had been during that century which embraced the reigns of five sovereigns, francis i., and ii., and henry ii., iii., and iv. this was from 1515 to 1610, and, of all monarchs who held the throne of france, francis i., who sat upon it thirty-two years, did more for it in raising the standard of art than had been done by his predecessors in a century, though henry ii. and henry iv. had made their reigns notable. [illustration: figure 71. bedroom of anne of austria at fontainebleau.] rich, ambitious to have france as great in art as italy, francis was a liberal patron, and invited to paris, the centre of all literature and art in france, painters, sculptors, and architects. italy had difficulties to contend with from the fact that she was divided into many small principalities and dominated by many schools. florence, milan, sienna, naples,--each had their distinctive styles; but in france the court of francis was the pivot upon which all the arts turned. he built that series of chateaus which remain among the wonders of the world,--chambord, chenonceau, and fontainebleau. he left traces of his taste on mediæval amboise, remodelled the louvre, and finished the restoration of blois which had been begun by louis xii. the throes through which france has passed has swept away some of her choicest historic monuments, but fontainebleau remains a true example of french renaissance. with this fine old palace are connected some of the most critical moments of french history. in one of its rooms was signed the revocation of the edict of nantes; condé was murdered here in the library, or gallery of diana. on the great curved staircase napoleon bade adieu to what remained of the old guard before he went to elba, and on a little table in one of the six rooms which might be called the suite of the first empire, extending back of the gallery of francis i. he signed his act of abdication. the decorations of this palace are superb, the very flower of the french renaissance. oak, carved and gilded, wainscots the walls in many of the rooms, but in the chamber of anne of austria, shown in figure 71, the wainscoting consists of carved panels framed in marbles, and above them carved figures stand out from the painted walls, which are divided by oak mouldings into sections, while a beautiful carved cornice of scallop-shells on a gold ground surrounds the room. the french, as no other nation has ever done, set in a fitting shrine the beautiful furniture which they made; the decoration of walls, doors, ceilings, and fireplace always playing an important part in the whole scheme. the french "style," a word on which lady dilke strongly insists in her great work on "french furniture of the xviii century," was unmistakably impressed on all they attempted. the woodwork was lighter and more openly carved than italian work of the same period. even when made by italian workmen who swarmed to the french court under promise of abundant employment and rich emolument, the work was imbued with the french spirit and an elegance with which even italy could not vie. the noble appreciation which had grown up in france was fostered by louis xiv. when he came to the throne, not so much for art's sake as for his own aggrandizement, and to make his court the most elegant in the world. louis contemned the style of elegance and luxury begun in an earlier reign, and artists of even superior merit were set to work to make beautiful the homes of those uncrowned queens on whom the "grand monarch" lavished such immense sums of money. versailles was enriched, the lovely gardens planned by le notre, with their superb flower beds and fountains, the "green carpet" of turf down which the monarch loved to walk, were all made with enormous outlay of money. the hotels and buildings at versailles set apart for the service of the king and his attendants were numbered by hundreds. there were the royal stables, the new hotel of the governor of versailles, the green rooms of the actors who performed at the palace, the hotel of the keeper of the wardrobe, the hotel of the guardsmen, the english garden, the riding-school, the king's icehouses, the houses of the body-guard, and so on. street after street was filled with these buildings, besides those devoted to falconry, boar-hunting, the kennels, the little stables, and those filled with shops, vegetable gardens, etc., and in addition that great habitation occupied by more than two thousand persons, with other buildings called "louises" where the king assigned temporary or permanent lodgings. the great stables built in 1682 and costing 3,000,000 francs are some of the few buildings left to show the magnificence of old versailles. they were so ample and beautiful that under the direction of the great louis himself they served sometimes as a ball-room, sometimes as a theatre, and more often as a circus for the princes. [illustration: figure 72. bed of louis xiv at versailles.] there is a bound volume extant, bearing the name of mansart, in which the cost of the palace is given at 153,000,000 francs. this was but the casket itself without any of its furnishings. louis preferred to live in the open air, and the gardens were merely outdoor drawing-rooms, where people conversed and exchanged the compliments of the day. round his person the king loved to group his retinue, and down the broad staircases of the gardens sixty ladies with hoopskirts measuring twenty-four feet in circumference could move easily. on the outskirts were a swarm of courtiers and servants in uniforms, costumes, and liveries as brilliant as the rainbow. consider the life of one of these courtiers under the reign of louis xiv. here is the routine of the duc de la rochefoucauld, master of the hounds: --"he never missed the king's rising or retiring, both changes of dress every day, the hunts and promenades likewise every day, for ten years in succession. never sleeping away from the place where the king rested, not able to stay away all night, and yet obliged to dine away from court." even after the court etiquette became more stiff and precise, and the formal manners arranged by louis and madame de maintenon were in daily practice, the smaller details of life remained as elegant as possible. hoopskirts of such size as has been mentioned were too enormous for chairs, so a sort of stool without arms or back became a necessary article of furniture. one sofa, two arm-chairs, and nine stools were a proper proportion for a set to furnish a room, and these were stiffly set about the walls, leaving the middle of the room quite bare. in figure 72 is shown part of the bedroom of louis xiv. at versailles, with the elaborate decorations which were lavished on that palace, and the furniture which accompanied it. tapestry-covered chairs and hangings of the richest embroidery were all in harmony with the splendid walls. the tall bronze girandoles were cupids supporting branches of flowers in ormolu to hold candles. over the doors were portraits or mirrors surmounted by carved and gilt figures with garlands of flowers. the decorated boulle cabinet on the right is very different in its lines from those articles as seen in the succeeding reign, when everything assumed a lighter air. the curtains to the bed could completely enfold it, and to their sheltering depths the great louis is said to have retired before removing his wig. the chairs shown in figure 73 are of this period, the one upon the right retaining its original covering, the woodwork being carved and gilt. the cane chair on the left is of walnut, and the one in the centre, carved and gilt, is a french adaptation of a flemish design. [illustration: figure 73. chairs of the period of louis xiv.] it is difficult to re-people one of these splendid rooms and consider a period when, as m. taine says, "life was wholly operatic." the grandee lived in a state of luxury and grandeur. his trappings were as magnificent as he could make them, and his household was filled with military as well as civil appointments, approaching as nearly to that of the king as possible. the king must have a stable, so at versailles were 1,875 horses, 217 vehicles, and 1,458 men who were clothed in liveries costing 540,000 francs a year. this is but a single item in the great total considered under fifty or sixty heads. to wait on the king himself, 198 persons were required; some fetched his mall and balls; some combed his hair; others watched his dogs; and there were those who tied his necktie after it had been properly folded. some there were whose sole business it was to stand in a corner which was not to be left empty. the policy which prescribed the custom at court was all for ostentatious display. st. simon says: "he (louis xiv.) was pleased to see a display of dress, table, equipages, buildings, and play; these afforded him opportunities for entering into conversation with people. the contagion had spread from the court into the provinces and to the armies, where people of any position were esteemed only according to their table and magnificence." louis had so dominated the whole court life that he had brought his courtiers to believe that the main thing in life for layman and churchman, and for women and men alike, was to be at all hours and in every place under the king's eye and within reach of his voice. with all this army of personal attendants to feed, clothe, and shelter, the repairs to houses and furniture represented immense sums yearly, and many establishments were taken under royal patronage in order to command their products and to reduce the expenditures. the history of french furniture is quite closely connected with the history of tapestry, for after a time it was used as a covering. francis i., who appreciated the value of this textile as an ornament as well as a covering for his walls, and unwilling to buy all his pieces from the skilful looms of flanders, started a factory in 1531 at fontainebleau. in 1603 a new factory was started at paris, under royal patronage, in the workshop of a family of dyers named gobelin. the first workers were flemish weavers who were brought over to teach the craft to frenchmen. louis xiv. protected the factory through the mediumship of that great financier, colbert, who appointed le brun, the artist, director of the works. in 1667 the factory became the property of the crown, and most artistic and elegant productions were made. not only in france did the gobelins find patronage, but in england as well their work was in great demand. evelyn writes in the last years of the reign of charles ii.: --"here i saw the new fabriq of french tapisstry; for designe, tendernesse of worke, and incomparable imitationn of the best paintings beyond anything i ever beheld. some pieces had versailles, st. germain's, and other palaces of the french king, with huntings, figures, and landskips, exotiq fowls, and all to the life rarely don." the golden age of louis xiv. saw also the golden age of tapestry, for it was during his reign that the proud and royal factory at aubusson was at its highest estate. the tapestries sent out from this factory were not mere imitations as close as possible of painted pictures. the limitations of the process were ever considered, and the number of gradations in every tint was limited so that the dangers of unequal fading reached their lowest point. the beautiful borders which surrounded the central picture were designed and executed with the same care that was bestowed on the centre, and formed a part of the whole that could ill be spared. [illustration: beauvais, louis xvi.] [illustration: gobelin, louis xiv.] [illustration: aubusson, louis xiv.] [illustration: figure 74. tapestry furniture.] the tapestries worked late in the seventeenth century and early in the eighteenth, before the spirit of commercialism had been suffered to encroach on what up to that time had been carefully fostered art work, were all examples of great beauty and merit. in 1694, louis having lost interest in the manufactory, and colbert and le brun being dead, the works at the gobelins' factories declined, and they became financially embarrassed. still the great name was in high esteem, and its more than national reputation was retained. the splendid works which had been sent out from the loom, "the triumph of alexander," "the history of the king," "the elements," and "the seasons," were no longer in demand. fontaine's fables and "the adventures of don quixote" took the place of the more dignified designs, and at last sets of chair-backs and sofa covers were woven where previously historic subjects of heroic size had been demanded. every year there were "_chancelleries_" made,--series of hangings adorned with the royal arms, which the king gave to his chancellors. "the adventures of don quixote" consisted of a set of from twenty to twenty-eight pieces, and so pleased the public taste that sets were being continually woven from 1723 till the times of the revolution. they were varied by the different colours of the background, and also by having different borders, some of them designed by artists like lemaire the younger, and of great beauty. by 1736 the manufactory once more received assistance and patronage from the crown, and famous old models were renewed, and two new sets, from "the story of esther," and "the story of medea and jason," were designed. about the middle of the century came the fatal desire to copy paintings as they came from the hand of the artist, and the traditions which had governed the labor of the tapestry-worker for centuries were thrown aside. in vain the workmen protested: good taste and the principles of decoration were sacrificed, and the artist triumphed. the only check to the artist's exactions was the immense cost of production, for the painter was totally ignorant of the practical difficulties which had to be overcome in carrying out his designs; and as the tapestry-workers were paid by the piece they could no longer calculate or limit the cost of execution. the beauvais tapestries were long granted superior excellence in flower forms, trees, etc., and for figures also, and they held to the styles in which they excelled. but the gobelins after 1740 no longer did work which was not fashionable and profitable. in 1755 boucher, the well-known artist, was appointed director of the gobelins, and, like his predecessors, believed in simulating, as far as possible the painter's art. there is tragedy in the history of the devoted band of workers who, ill-paid, and not sufficiently recognized, laboured at the looms and in the dye-house to carry out the artist's ideas. one of them quimiset, a chemist of undoubted ability, committed suicide. neilson and audran were both ruined financially; and yet these servants of the crown were not allowed to leave paris to better their fortunes. [illustration: figure 75. commodes of the time of louis xv.] the gobelins began to produce tapestry for furniture only during the last half of the eighteenth century. this work was undertaken in hopes of financial profit, for the competition of woven and embroidered stuffs from england, as well as the novelty of english paper-hangings, had crippled them excessively. the very first pieces made were for four chairs and a sofa, in 1748. these furniture tapestries became immediately popular. screens, seat, sofa and chair backs, showing scenes, figures, ribbon-work, and garlands brought up the failing fortune of gobelin and made beauvais wealthy. from this latter factory came those coverings, with designs after boucher, set in wooden frames of the richest carving and gilt. the cost of these works was as great as brocade and velvet, and crowded out the embroiderers, who in turn aimed, with the means at their command, to rival the efforts of the tapestry-workers. then came that most sumptuous combination of painting with embroidery, and in 1743 the duc de luynes describes a new set of furniture for the queen's bedroom. "it is of white gros de tours, embroidered and painted, and is quite complete, consisting of the bed, its hangings, the fauteuils, and curtains." during the revolution, in 1793, a bonfire was made in the courtyard of the gobelin factory, and a set of hangings with designs of "the visit of louis xiv. to the gobelins," several _portieres_, and a set of "_chancelleries_" were burned. on another visit the cartoons of raphael were destroyed, those of "esther" and "medea" thrown out, and everything with a tendency toward aristocracy discarded. the terms "beauvais," "aubusson," etc., do not give their names to any particular style of tapestry. the various factories wove according to their requirements, and used silk, woolen, silver and gold thread as the design called for it. in figure 74 are given examples of work from these famous establishments. the louis xiv. screen is a silk panel, the pattern being flora, surrounded by cupids and wreaths and garlands of flowers. the design is by berain, and was made at the gobelins; the frame is richly carved and gilt. the louis xvi. chair is covered with beauvais tapestry--baskets of flowers and scrolls. the lovely tints are hardly faded, or they have so faded in harmony that it resembles the changing hues of mother-of-pearl. the wooden frame is carved and gilded, a fit setting for the beautiful tapestry. the sofa and chair are but two of a set, the other pieces being nine more chairs. these are of the louis xiv. period and are covered with aubusson tapestry,--crimson peonies on a pale-green ground. the bow leg and carved knees are similar to those shown in figure 73, and, like the one on the right in that illustration are gilded. at a recent sale held in paris, when the great collection of madame lelong was dispersed, the prices obtained for these old tapestries, whether wall-coverings or on furniture, were absolutely astonishing. a screen with four panels of beauvais tapestry illustrating la fontaine's fables brought $3,700. one seat, of carved and gilded wood, covered with a piece of beauvais, brought $2,000, and four chairs in carved and gilded wood with beauvais tapestry coverings brought $41,000. these prices, while sensational, give some idea of the esteem in which these antiques are held. the tapestry covered pieces shown belong to the waring galleries, london. [illustration: figure 76. garderobe, period of louis xv.] the best-known name of any one man who worked in furniture during the splendid reign of louis xiv. was of andré-charles boulle, b. 1642, d. 1732. the superb marquetry work he made, composed of brass, ivory, tortoise-shell, gold, and a choice selection of woods from india, brazil, and other tropical countries, took the fancy of the king by reason of its sumptuous nature. boulle was given an apartment in the louvre and for his great master the celebrated _ébéniste_ composed his choicest work. a cabinet of this work can be seen in figure 72 to the right of the bed. in 1672 louis xiv. had made boulle engraver-in-ordinary of the royal seals. the patent conferring this appointment calls boulle "architect, painter, carver in mosaic, artist in cabinet work, chaser, inlayer, and designer of figures." the most important works of boulle which records show were at versailles, like those he executed for foreign princes, have disappeared. his workshops and studios were of vast extent; he employed many workmen, and consulted for his models a priceless collections of drawings, medals, and gems, comprising drawings by raphael, and that "manuscript journal kept by rubens during his travels in italy and elsewhere, which contained his notes and studies in painting and sculpture, copiously illustrated by pen-and-ink sketches." in "french furniture of the xviii century," by lady dilke, this priceless collection belonging to boulle is described at length, and also the immense loss to which this worker was subjected when, in 1720, his entire warehouses and shops were burned down. boulle was an old man at this time, and for the rest of his life ill-fortune followed him, and he died wretchedly poor, leaving nothing but debts which for years he had been forced to put off by every variety of makeshift. his four sons, one of whom bore his father's name, never accomplished works of such elegance and solidity as those of their father. they, too, had endless misfortune, were ejected from the apartment in the louvre which had descended to them from their father, and died, as he did, in poverty and misery. yet the splendid and showy style of furniture to which boulle gave his name remained in fashion and was made during the whole of the eighteenth century. after the death of the younger boulles, pupils who had studied with their father and themselves carried on the work, and of course there were imitators as well. boulle did not invent this style of decoration, for ebony cabinets ornamented with tortoise-shell and copper were known in france long before boulle was born. he simply perfected the method of making it. nor did he confine himself to this particular style of marquetry, for he made works, mentioned in his catalogue, of wood inlaid with other woods of various colours and ornamented with bronze mounts. [illustration: figure 77. bedroom of marie antoinette at the little trianon.] under the regency, fashions changed, not only in manners and clothes, but even in furniture and belongings as well, though this latter change came slowly. the duc d'orleans and his daughter, the duchesse de berri, conducted entertainments of so scandalous a nature that even the french public was horrified; and gaming, which under louis xiv. had risen to prodigious extremes, became more furious still, and, possessing all classes of society, spread ruin everywhere. the use of looking-glasses for ornaments had become very much the vogue during the period of louis xiv.'s reign. they were introduced into walls opposite windows, and in places where reflection would carry out the idea of windows. the court beauties, both male and female, had the walls of their bathrooms lined with them, and the frames in which they were set were lavishly carved and gilded. while boulle's is associated with the reign of louis xiv., with the regency the name of charles cressent rose to eminence. his work was much like that of boulle in character, but he gradually gave more importance to the mounts of metal as a means of ornament, and used less marquetry. he not only used floral forms for these metal decorations, but modelled beautiful little groups of cupids or loves with garlands and roses, and these ornaments were applied directly to the rosewood frames of wardrobe or cabinet, whichever was chosen for such embellishment. nor was he content with such charming subjects only, for he modelled children swinging a monkey, or monkeys swinging themselves, or dancing a tight rope, and invested even these grotesques with style and charm. with the reign of louis xv. even more sumptuous surroundings were desired. at fontainebleau the luxury was unparalleled, and when the king held a reception, at which there were both cards and dancing, the spectacle, according to records left in the copious memoirs of the times, was one of sumptuous elegance. four or five hundred guests surrounded the tables where cards and cavagnole were played. hanging from the ceiling painted with cupids garlanded with flowers, were many blazing chandeliers, their brilliancy reflected a thousand times in the tall mirrors. everything was flooded with light,--the painted walls, the rich gilding, the diamonds sparkling on white necks and in the hair of the women, whose dresses gleamed with gold, silver, pearls, and artificial flowers and fruits, all in the most gorgeous hues. the men were almost as gay. their hair was powdered, curled, and dressed. their coats of sky-blue, rose, peach, pearl or puce-colored satin, velvet, or brocade, were embroidered with silks and gold, and ornamented with ruffles and cravats of lace. the dress of a man, with his jewelled sword, shoulder-knots with diamond tags, and buckles of brilliants on shoe and knee, might have cost a small fortune. gold and silver thread made stiff and costly, stuffs already rich in themselves, while the money lavished on lace had no limit. when a princess of france married it was no uncommon thing for the laces on her bedspreads and linens to reach the sum of $100,000. the frills on her personal linen added $25,000 more. the ruffle on a handkerchief was cheap at $50, and a laced nightcap might easily double that. all this elaboration of elegance had fitting surroundings, and the case was worthy of its contents. [illustration: figure 78. chairs and table of louis xvi style.] like his predecessor, louis xv. lavished vast sums on buildings, and madame de pompadour, an uncrowned queen, spent millions more. the hotel d'evreux, begun in 1718, was many years later finished under her personal direction. she had the virtue of being a liberal patron of the arts and an encourager of artistic merit wherever she found it. her taste, her sincere love for art, enabled her at least to secure works of absolute perfection, and during the twenty years of her reign it was mainly her fostering guidance which developed so many of the applied arts. she not only assumed the direction of work at her chateaus and hotels, but she encouraged the manufactory of the beautiful porcelain of sèvres; she assisted engravers, and essayed to learn the art herself; and by taste, natural and acquired, she was looked upon by the group of artists of her time as a final court of appeal in all critical matters. her successors were no less extravagant, but they lacked her exquisite and artistic judgment, which amounted almost to genius. it was during this period of louis xv. that the evolution of chests of drawers, writing-tables, and cabinets--that is chests upon trestle-work--was accomplished. the ornament changed constantly, but the form of the articles remained much the same. the changes wrought in paris affected the country slowly, and provincial artists working at the period of louis xv. might have been using the models that had been popular in a previous reign. in figure 75 are depicted rosewood commodes with curved fronts and ends, handsomely decorated with ormulu work in leaves and scrolls. a french clock of the period, with ormolu mounts, stands on the marble top of one, and on the other is one of black and gold lacquer, with very choice water-gilt mounts. in this period the names of the caffieri, father and two sons, who were workers in metal, became famous. they executed bronze mounts for furniture like those on the commodes shown in figure 75, a style which they may be said to have created and by their genius rendered popular. the mounting on these pieces is very simple, and takes the subservient place that ornament always should. but in some of the work executed by the caffieri the wood became merely the vehicle on which a wealth of ornament was hung. they made not only mounts for furniture, but girandoles, branch-lights, mounts for vases and clocks, and chandeliers--working in bronze and silver as well as in brass. this taste for metal mounts was carried to an extreme, even pieces of richly carved furniture being further ornamented with chiselled brass. it is an item of interest that the monument to general montgomery which is placed on that side of st. paul's chapel, new york city, which faces broadway, should have been designed and executed by caffier in paris in 1777. the general was buried first in quebec, and afterward removed to new york by act of congress. in figure 76 is given what is called a _garderobe_, that is wardrobe, with a basket of flowers at the top, this and the two bunches of flowers at the tops of the doors being in ormolu. [illustration: figure 79. encoignure, period of louis xvi.] even as early as the middle of the previous century there had been imitators of the splendid lacquer-work of the orient. by 1723 the three martin brothers, julien, robert, and simon-etienne, had become quite famous for their use of a transparent varnish, which, as "master painters and varnishers," they had perfected in their business. they pushed their trade, and by 1748 were under national protection, so popular had their wares become. in 1742 they perfected a certain green varnish which was immensely popular, and for which they had many orders, some of them from the king himself. they never excelled as painters, but the beauty of this famous green ground, powdered with gold, is very charming. very little of this famous work remains, a few fire-screens and some splendid coaches, with some small boxes for snuff or patches, are all that exist. but in these small pieces like the boxes, which were considered worthy of gold and jewelled mounts, we can see this famous work to the best advantage. there were ribbings, stripings, waves, and flecks which gleam wonderfully through the varnish. sometimes there are a few flowers or a cupid scattered on the surface, but usually, when the green ground was employed, no decoration was considered necessary. with the death of robert martin in 1765 the skill necessary to continue this work was lost, and this charming style of decoration dropped back merely to a trade, and "vernis-martin" became hardly more than a name. among the other great workers of this period were oeben, whose marquetry in coloured woods was of extreme elegance, and riesener, who began to execute his beautiful pieces of furniture under louis xv. in what is known as his earlier style, but who finally created the straight-legged types of louis xvi. style with which his name became associated. in the work which he did for marie antoinette at the little trianon in 1777, the pure louis xvi. style is carried out. the earlier pieces, delivered as early as 1771, still betray the influence of a previous period. in figure 77 is shown the bedroom of marie antoinette at the little trianon. here we see the later style set by riesener, with the straight carved legs, the woodwork being painted and gilded. the silk factories at lyons were no longer as well patronized as they had been, and to revive interest in them new furniture was ordered for the queen, to be upholstered in brocade, and with curtains and hangings to match. everything in these rooms breathes of dainty elegance,--the carvings of the mantelpiece, the walls decorated with garlands of flowers and cupids, even the metal mounts, chiselled wreaths and rosettes, were wrought with the beauty and finish of goldsmith's work. in the small chair by the bedside is seen a style with gilt framework and embroidered cushions, a kind of covering which was always in demand. in 1770 two coaches were sent to vienna for marie antoinette. the work of the embroiderer was selected to embellish their interiors, and the description of them is given by bachaumont: "they were two berlins, much larger than usual, but yet not so large as those of the king. one is lined with rose velvet and the four seasons are embroidered on the largest cushions, with all the attributes of a festival. the other is lined with blue velvet, and on the cushions of this are worked the four elements. there is not a touch of painting about them, but the work of the artist is so perfect and finished that each one is a complete work of art." [illustration: figure 80. bed of josephine at fontainebleau.] the name of the embroider was treaumau, and so celebrated did the beauty of these royal cushions make him that he received large orders, the most important being one from madam de berri for a _vis-à-vis_. the two berlins for marie antoinette were placed on exhibition before they were sent to her, and constituted an event of the day. the three pieces shown in figure 78 are pure types of louis xvi. style. they are at the cooper institute, new york. the chair on the right has its original embroidered cover, and the straight carved leg so much in evidence. all three pieces are entirely gilt wherever the woodwork shows. the top of the table is marble. the chair to the left is very prettily carved with a torch and bow and arrows, according to the conceit of the times, when everything was to be joyous and gay, all suffering and sorrow being resolutely thrust out of sight. rose, blue, and gold were the colours affected, nothing sombre being allowed. the whole life was careless and without responsibility. the letters of the day, saint-beuve, comte de tilly, duc de lauzun, and madam d'oberkirk, draw graphic pictures of the life of pleasure. the duc de lauzun says that one of his mother's lackeys, who could read and write tolerably well, was made his tutor. "they gave me the most fashionable teachers besides, but m. roche (the tutor) was not qualified to arrange their lessons, nor to qualify me to benefit by them. i was, moreover, like all the children of my age and station, dressed in the handsomest clothes to go out, and naked and dying with hunger in the house." this was not through unkindness, but because of dissipation and carelessness, all the time and attention being given elsewhere. even in the last days of the _ancien régime_ little boys had their hair powdered and dressed in ringlets and curls. they wore a sword, carried a chapeau under the arm, wore laces and frills, and coats with cuffs heavy with gold lace. the small girls were their mothers in miniature. at six one of them would present her hand for a little dandy to kiss, her little figure would be squeezed into a stiff corset, her huge hoop-skirt supported a skirt of brocade enwreathed with garlands of flowers. on her head was a structure of false curls, puffs, knots, and ribbons, held on by pins and topped with plumes; and if she was pale they would put rouge on her face. by force of habit and instruction she bore herself like a mature woman. her most important instructor was the dancing-master, her never-ending study deportment. in the eighteenth century drawing-room women were queens. they prescribed the law and fashion in all things. there was no situation, however delicate, that they did not save through tact and politeness. this was the time when first watteau, and later lancret and fragonard, painted the _fêtes galantes_, when pretty picnics and dancing in a woody dell were great diversions. it was an idealized life of the brilliant world of france which early in the eighteenth century watteau painted. scattered all through the land were sumptuous dwellings of the rich, upon which fortunes were lavished. beaus and belles alike dressed themselves _à la watteau_. he became the lover's poet, a painter of an ideal pastoral which hardly existed, but to which his hand gave beauty and value. this was one side. on the other, besides heavy taxation, poor crops, flood, famine, and the devastation of war, there was always the pest. this terrible contagious fever, with the smallpox, was a scourge to the people. hundreds fell victims to these twin plagues, for the usual treatment was copious bleeding. [illustration: figure 81. bed of napoleon at grand trianon.] but the court, while it might suffer at times from sickness and death, never allowed itself to think of such things. it amused itself with balls and masques, plays, and even with blindman's-buff. the gardens at versailles were always in gala dress, and at night musicians played among the trees, and thousands of lights sparkled among the flowers. fifty years later they played at simplicity too, these great ladies and elegant cavaliers, laying aside the silks and brocades of which a surfeit had wearied them, and wearing picturesque gowns of simple material and cut. marie antoinette herself set the example in her retreat at little trianon, with the muslin gown and fichu crowned with a straw hat, in which she ran across the gardens. beneath all this elegance, amiability, and extravagance the revolution seethed and boiled and finally overran and destroyed. till almost the very end extravagance increased, and in figure 79 is shown an encoignure, or corner cupboard with commode below, and cabinet above, of the most elaborate inlaid work, with very rich ormolu mounts. this work is by david de luneville, and is a marvel of the intricacy of inlaying, many different woods being used in that jumble of ornament which forms the decoration of the door in the cabinet. at each intersection of the lattice work inlay is a little rosette. the divisions of the lower part have an edging of satin-wood, which in the centre panel is made more ornate with an inlay of ebony. this piece is at the waring galleries, london. the new conditions in france wrought changes in every detail of life. simplicity, so called, was becoming the watchword, and once more antique models were sought for forms and decorations. under the empire the style was much less graceful, the lines coarser, and the elaboration of ornament heavy. could anything be less pleasing than josephine's bed at fontainebleau, shown in figure 80? it is one of the few unsightly things in that beautiful palace, where are now gathered so many works of art. the bedstead is covered with heavy chiselled ornaments in brass, and surmounted by a canopy held on pillars. this canopy is partly of carved wood and partly of embroidered satin. there are strings of gold beads hanging from this satin, and in addition heavy satin curtains very richly embroidered. these are edged with a long and clumsy fringe. the whole room is in keeping with the bed, for the floor is covered with a carpet bearing the imperial insignia all over it, and the hangings on the walls have countless spots in lieu of a pattern. it was at fontainebleau that the sentence of divorce was passed on josephine, and it seems possible that the sleepless nights which the poor lady endured must have been rendered more miserable by the unlovely character of her surroundings. it is with pleasure that one turns to figure 81, showing the bed of the great emperor himself, at grand trianon, versailles. it is a good example of the best empire work, and is mahogany ornamented with ormolu mounts in classic style. [illustration: figure 82. room at fontainebleau, with historic table.] it was now the fashion to decry the furniture or costumes which had prevailed during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and to seek the athenian models for gowns and furniture. nor were these models used in their simple shapes, but transformed into quite other guise by the touch of french hands. marquetry was no longer considered good taste, and david the painter was largely responsible for much of the theatrical effect which was noted both in costume and household belongings. after the fall of the monarchy, sales had been held, and what had not been destroyed had been sold. it was now necessary to fill again the palaces that had been denuded, and percier, the architect, and joseph desmalter, the cabinet-maker, were the men chosen to do it. desmalter is responsible for the use of mahogany commodes embellished with bronze and gilt like those which flank the bed in figure 81. after the expedition to egypt, sphynx figures were introduced in bronze or brass to uphold tables and as arms for chairs. these, however, did not become popular, and soon were replaced by classic heads. in figure 82 is shown a room in fontainebleau furnished in empire style. the imperial n may be seen on the corners of the console tables and on the commode. the walls are covered with damask woven in geometric forms, and the rooms once so light and brilliant with their dainty arabesques and flowers, cupids and birds on the ceilings, are now dark and severe. the splendid chandelier of venetian glass is the sole reminder of a previous reign. the only piece of furniture in the room which is absolutely plain is the small mahogany table in the foreground. upon this napoleon signed his abdication. in one of the rooms adjoining the leave-taking between josephine and napoleon occurred, after which he went to st. cloud and she to malmaison. the commode shows as well as anything the marked change which took place in the styles under the empire. the graceful curves of front and sides are gone; the feet are stumpy, and so short that the pleasing proportion between the parts is quite lost. the constant repetition of the laurel-wreath on chairs, walls, mantelpieces and furniture is very monotonous, and we miss the graceful curves of the acanthus and celery leaves. in figure 83 is a mahogany reading and writing desk combined. the brass ornaments are beautifully chiselled, and, though some are lost, enough remain to show what a splendid piece of furniture it once was. they partake, in their delicacy, of the metal work of the previous century, particularly the escutcheons and the groups of flowers and musical instruments which are on the tops of the side pillars. the desk top lifts up, and inside there are pigeon-holes and drawers finished in satin-wood. the hole in the rail above the doors is not a keyhole, but in it fits a handle by which the whole upper part of the desk is raised on an iron rod so as to suit the height of who-ever uses it. this piece is at the museum of the cooper institute. the rage for furniture in empire style was not confined to france alone, but crossed the channel to england, where it became even less attractive, and was also used by our own cabinet-makers, as has been shown in previous chapters. the changes in the styles of french furniture, like those which took place in england in the same century (the eighteenth), were not any more definitely marked. one period overlapped another, certain characteristics were retained and put to new uses, so that a perfect style was arrived at only after years of growth. [illustration: figure 83. empire reading and writing desk.] with the name of louis xiv. is associated the furniture of boulle, with its wealth of wonderful inlay. the metal mount in its most correct and elegant form marks the period of louis xv. the reign of louis xvi. and marie antoinette shows the change from the graceful curves of leg and construction lines to straight lines and less generous proportions, while the use of the metal mount is brought to the greatest extreme. the beauty of form taken from leaf and shell, wrought in metal and placed on the lines of fine construction which had marked the epoch of louis xv., ran wild under the workers in the next era, and the fancy for overlaying with costly ornament blinded the eyes to the poor shapes employed, which were inspired by a search among classic forms. even the severest form may become vulgar when overloaded with ornament, and with the reign of louis xv. passed the production of some of the finest furniture ever made. what was poor under louis xvi. became poorer yet under the napoleonic era, and the men employed, instead of drawing from the choice models which still remained, still farther debased what in previous times had risen to the dignity of high art. chapter viii. musical instruments. the evolution of the piano from the clavichord occupied the attention of musicians for over three hundred years, or from 1404, when the earliest record occurs, to 1720, when cristofori's piano was completed in florence. the next instrument in the upward development after the clavichord was the virginal, a parallelogram in shape, with a projecting keyboard. then came the spinet. the earliest of these now in existence is in paris, and was made at verona in 1523. by 1703 two englishmen, thomas and john hitchcock, father and son, had made a great advance in the construction of spinets, giving them a wide compass of five octavos from g to g. it was not until about 1660, after the restoration of the stuarts, that the name "harpsichord" was given to the long wing-shaped instrument, similar to our grand piano, which had hitherto been called _clavecembalo_ in italy, _flügel_ in germany, and _clavecin_ in france. early in the sixteenth century the progressive dutch had put into use double keyboards and stops. these were imported into england, and to john haward is due the credit for the idea of pedals for the harpsichord. this was in 1676. this haward was a fashionable instrument-maker in the days of the lively pepys, who mentions him several times. thus in april, 1668, he records: --"took aldgate street in my way, and then did call upon one haward, who makes virginals, and there did like of a little espinette, and will have him finish it for me; for i had a mind to a small harpsicon, but this takes up less room." the little espinette took some time to finish; for in july he says: --"while i to buy my espinette, which i did now agree for, and did at haward's meet with mr. thacker, and heard him play on the harpsicon so as i never heard man before, i think." on the 15th of july the bargain is concluded; for he states, under that date: "at noon is brought home the espinette i bought the other day of haward; cost me £5." a few days later he combines business with pleasure, for he notes: "to buy a rest for my espinette at the ironmonger's by holborn conduit, where the fair pretty woman is, that i have lately observed there." figure 85 shows a very beautiful spinet made by domenico di pesaro, in italy, in 1661. the instrument can be taken from its outer case, is of cedar wood, has a projecting keyboard, and is decorated with ivory studs. the outer case is very handsome, decorated with _gesso_ work, (which was so much copied by robert adam after his return from italy) this work being gold on a pale-green ground. the decoration on the inside of the cover is a boating scene, the keys are of light wood, the sharps being black. the instrument, triangular in shape, rests on three richly carved and gilt legs, and is four feet eight inches long, by nineteen inches wide. it looks very tiny, even beside a "baby grand." the beauty and enrichment of the cases in which these instruments were placed shows with what care and reverence they were regarded. harpsichords varied much in having one, two, or occasionally three banks of keys, and being placed in upright cases, the covers of which opened like a bookcase, or in a horizontal case, as in the one shown in figure 86. each of the three banks of keys has a compass of five octaves, from f to f. the entire case is gilt louis xv. style, decorated with elaborate carvings and with paintings of flowers and figures in medallions and borders. on the outside of the cover is the coat of arms of the strozzi family. the name of the maker is engraved on an ivory plate above the keyboards, and reads- vicentius sodi florentius fecit. anno domini 1779. the length of the case is seven feet; it is three feet wide, and nearly ten inches deep. the harpsichord held its own for fifty years after the invention of the pianoforte, for bartolommeo cristofori published his invention as early as 1711, although he did not perfect his piano till 1720. his action has the escapement, without which there can be no vibrating note, and the "check," which was an all-important step toward repeating notes. there are preserved at potsdam, germany, three pianos which belonged to frederick the great, and which were made by silberman, who exactly copied the action as well as the structure of cristofori's invention. in figure 87 is shown the first piano made by cristofori. above the front board is the following inscription: bartholomæus de christophoris patavinus inventor facierat florentiæ mdccxx this instrument, as well as the two previously shown, belong to the collection of musical instruments given by mrs. crosby brown to the metropolitan museum, new york. [illustration: figure 84. organ in st. michael's church, charleston, s. c.] this crude instrument bears testimony to years of patient endeavour. like so many old and valuable treasures this one was harboured many years for sentimental reasons only, and because it had been given to an only daughter by her father. the story of the discovery of its value came about as follows, as told in a letter by signor martelli, to whose mother the piano belonged. "for the sake of economy during the time that florence was the capital of italy, we rented the first floor of our house, no. 3, via del melarancio, and occupied the second floor. in 1872 signora martelli (my mother) again changed her apartments from the second to the first floor, and at the moment the transfer of our furniture was taking place from one floor to the other, prof. cosimo conti, a scholar and intimate friend of ours, came to visit us. the professor, who was in close correspondence with cavaliere l. puliti, who was spending a great deal of his time in trying to discover the origin of the piano, discovered on it to his great surprise an inscription which attested that it had been made by bartolomeo christofori. he immediately informed cavaliere l. puliti of this fact, and he came at once to examine it. then it was ascertained that it was one of the rarest and most valuable pianos in existence. we sent at once for a tuner and had it put into good condition." the piano was bought by signora martelli's father, about 1819, from the grand ducal palace at siena, at an auction sale, held by order of the minister of the household, of all such things as he considered worthless and of no use. the piano was shuffled out of the ducal palace, much as some of our interesting relics have been shuffled out of the white house, and offered at auction.[1] [footnote 1: the writer has seen a very beautiful carved and gilt round mirror, once the property of dolly madison, which was bought at a sale of white house furniture for twenty-five dollars.] the christofori piano has a case of cedar, which is painted black on the outside. it stands on three clumsy turned legs. the keys are light-wood naturals and black sharps. the ivory knobs on the side blocks may be withdrawn, and the action removed from the case. there are two strings to each note, and the length of the instrument is seven feet seven and a half inches. it is three feet three inches wide at the front and nine and a half inches deep. keyed instruments at first found little favor in the ears of the italians, who much preferred the violin with its "singing voice" and its superior capacity for expression. yet they contributed much to the early history of this branch of the art, though the germans cultivated more highly these instruments, which were, in their first state, very defective in producing melody. it was domenico scarlatti who laid the foundation of modern music for keyed instruments, and his music for the harpsichord was not confined to fugues and fantasias, as was most of the harpsichord music of early times. the real centre, however, in the line of progress for music for this instrument proved to be germany, and graun, hasse, and john christian bach all wrote for the harpsichord. in america some of the first instruments to come into use were small organs. they are mentioned as early as 1711. although large church organs, with three rows of keys and pedals, were in use in europe by the opening of the sixteenth century, it was long before they were found here. [illustration: figure 85. spinet.] the rivalry which church music seems to inspire in the breasts of those who render it has long existed, and extends even to those who make the instruments. the following story from "hawkin's history of music" bears out this statement. "bernard smith, or more properly schmidt, a native of germany, came to england with his nephews gerard and bernard, and to distinguish him from them obtained the name of 'father smith.' he was the rival of harris from france and built an organ at whitehall too precipitately, to gain the start of them, as they had arrived nearly at the same time in england. emulation was powerfully exerted. dallans joined smith, but died in 1672, and renatus harris, son of the elder harris, made great improvements. the contest became still warmer. the citizens of london, profiting by the rivalship of these excellent artists, erected organs in their churches; and the city, the court, and even the lawyers were divided in judgment as to the superiority. in order to decide the matter, the famous contest took place in the temple church upon their respective organs, played by eminent performers, before eminent judges, one of whom was the too celebrated jeffreys. blow & purcell played for smith, and lully, organist to queen catharine, for harris. in the course of the contest harris challenged father smith to make, by a given time, the additional stops of the vox humana, the cremona or viol stop, the double courtel or bass flute, etc., which was accepted, and each exerted his abilities to the utmost. jeffreys at length decided in favor of smith, and harris's organ was withdrawn. father smith maintained his reputation and was appointed organ-builder to queen anne. harris went to bristol." in the first half of the eighteenth century the salaries paid to organists were small indeed, and it was customary for them to add to their modest stipend in various ways. in charleston, s. c., in 1739, the organist taught the art of psalmody. a dozen years before this the organist at king's chapel, boston, mass., taught dancing. mr. drake, in his "history of boston," says that king's chapel was enlarged and rebuilt in 1713, and an organ was presented by mr. thomas brattle. in 1756 the king's chapel society imported a new organ from london, and the old one was sold to st. paul's church, newburyport. it was used there for eighty years, and then sold to st. john's church, portsmouth, n. h. the original pipes and wind-chest remain to-day in perfect condition. the second church organ in new england was one in a case of english oak, presented by bishop berkeley to trinity church, newport, r. i., in 1733. it had twenty-three gilded pipes and was fourteen and a half feet high, eight feet front, and eight feet deep. it was made by richard bridge, london. this organ was used for a hundred and eleven years by trinity church, till 1844, and after a sojourn of a few years in brooklyn, n. y., it was bought for a church in portsmouth, r. i., where it still is, in excellent condition. south carolina, with her riches and her close communication with england, had abundant masters to teach not only the more elementary branches, but accomplishments as well. by 1774 there were two hundred persons in the colony engaged in teaching, and according to advertisements a knowledge of english, latin, and greek could be obtained at any time after 1712. french and music were constantly taught after 1733. lessons on the harpsichord, spinet, violin, violoncello, guitar, and flute were all to be had after 1733, and the boys could be perfected in fencing and the girls in needlework before the middle of the century. by 1734 a dancing-school was opened at charleston, and in 1760 nicholas valois gives notice that he still receives pupils in dancing, and that he has received "40 of the newest country dances, jiggs, rigadoons, etc., from london, which he proposes to teach." [illustration: figure 86. harpsichord.] in 1752 the vestry of st. phillip's church, charleston, sent to london for an organist. the parish guaranteed him £50 sterling. he was to have the privilege of teaching the harpsichord or spinet, which would add 150 guineas more per annum, and also to have "benefits of concerts which his obliging behaviour to the gentlemen and ladies of the place may amount to 300 or 400 guineas more." the years between 1728 and 1763 were a time of unprecedented prosperity in south carolina. the luxuries of the day were within reach of modest fortunes, and british modes and manners were eagerly followed. josiah quincy, in describing his visit to "charles town" in 1774, speaks of the famous st. cecilia society, which began as a musical club, all the performers being amateurs. he writes: "the music was good, the two bass viols and french horns were grand. there were upwards of two hundred and fifty ladies present and it was called no great number. in loftiness of head-dress these ladies stoop to the daughters of the north; in richness of dress surpass them. the gentlemen, many of them dressed with richness and elegance--uncommon with us; many with swords on." the carolinians travelled often to england. they were lively and expensive in their dress, and an englishman visiting charleston in 1782 writes home that it "was the pleasantest and politest as it is one of the richest cities in all america." the charming old city still retains its two first recommendations, though, alas, the riches have flown. in 1768 the organ seen in figure 84, was imported from england for st. michael's church, charleston. within a little frame on one side of the organ is an inscription as follows. jno snetzler fecit, londoni, 1767. this inscription was found on one of the pipes of the organ when it was taken down during the bombardment of charleston in the civil war. at this time the organ was stored away in the sunday-school room of st. paul's church, radcliffeboro, for safe keeping. this is said to be the largest old church organ in the country, and this church probably had the first surpliced choir of boys. they are mentioned in the vestry books as early as 1794. the photograph of this organ was procured through the courtesy of mr. charles n. beesley, of charleston. [illustration: figure 87. cristofori piano.] in the homes in various parts of the country, besides the virginal, were found the hand lyre, large and small fiddle, the recorder, flute, and hautboy. some of these were imported, some were home-made. the first church organ built in new england was made for christ church, boston, by thomas johnson, in 1752, and indeed by this time music in churches was pretty general all over the country. the puritans, with their hatred of anything secular, or, as it seems now, of anything that could ornament or beautify this none too joyous stay on earth, condemned music. in his "history of music in new england", mr. hood says that before 1690 music was mostly written in psalm-books, the number of tunes rarely exceeding five or six. at the beginning of the eighteenth century new england congregations were rarely able to sing more than three or four tunes, and even these were sung by the doleful process of "lining out". the deacon would read one line of a psalm, and the congregation would sing it. then he would read the next, and so on. about 1720 an effort was made to improve this method of singing, but it met with violent opposition. some of the objections advanced were that "it grieved good men and caused them to behave disorderly;" that it was "quakerish and popish"; that "the names of the notes were blasphemous;" etc. yet after a while the congregations were soothed by the publication of several "letters of pacification", written by ministers, and some books were published like that of the rev. thomas walter of roxbury, mass., entitled: "the grounds and rules of musick explained. or, an introduction to the art of singing by note fitted to the meanest capacity by thomas walter, a.m. recommended by several ministers, 'let everything that hath truth praise the lord.' ps. 150. 6. boston." singing-schools for the instruction of the young were opened, and music, the only science allowed, crept into the church. "the newport mercury" for january 8, 1770, contains the following: "the public are hereby informed that a singing-school will be opened at mr. bradford's schoolhouse next thursday evening by a person who has taught the various branches of psalmody in the provinces of new york, massachusetts bay and connecticut and those gentlemen and ladies who have an inclination to improve in this excellent art may expect all that care and dilligence which is necessary to their being rightly instructed in the same." william tuckey of new york was a schoolmaster in that city about 1753, and taught singing to children. in 1766 the trustees of trinity church paid him £15 for performing the music for the opening of st. paul's chapel in new york. by 1775 choir singing had become more general, and the old system of lining out was dying, but dying hard. in several parishes the singers, male and female, were requested to sit in the gallery and "carry on the singing in public worship." many anecdotes are given in dr. ritter's "music in america", showing how the choir, once called into being, soon became a thorn in the ministers flesh, sometimes being rebuked from the pulpit, and in retaliation refusing to sing. that the music was bad goes without saying, for the singers were ill-trained under incompetent teachers, and the music was often incorrect. dr. ritter gives the proportion of women voices to men as about twenty to one hundred and thirteen. the proposition to let women sing the air was not to be considered for a moment, since men had a "prescriptive right to lead, and women were forbidden to take the first part in song or any other religious service." [illustration: figure 88. harp.] s. howe published in 1804 the "farmer's evening entertainment", and in it gives directions for beating time: "to beat crotchets in common time, let the fingers fall on the table six inches, then bring the heel of the hand down gently, then raising it a little higher, throw open the fingers to begin the next bar. for triple time, let the fingers fall on the table, then the heel of the hand, then raise the whole hand six inches, keeping the fingers straight, which fills the bar." but while religious music was undergoing violent changes, secular music was having a more peaceful time, and instrument-builders were becoming more numerous and successful. in 1774, in the "new york gazette" is this advertisement. "john shybli, organ-builder at mr. samuel princes' cabinet makers in horse-and-cart st. new york. makes, repairs and tunes all sorts of organs, harpsichords and fortepianos, on the most reasonable terms. n. b. he has now ready for sale one neat chamber organ, one hammer spinet, one common spinet. mr. samuel blyth of salem, mass., made "spinnetts" (they spelled them with two n's in those days) and then gave instruction upon them. he did not require cash payment either, as witness the following bill, now in the possession of mr. henry brooks, author of "olden-time music." mrs. margaret barton to sam blyth dr. to making a spinnett for her daughter supra cr. £18 0 0 by 34 oz 1¾ dwt of old silver a. 6. pr. oz. £10 4 11 by cash to ballance £7 15 1 ------- £18 0 0. salem 7th feb'y 1786 rec'd payment sam^l blyth at mount vernon is still to be seen the harpsichord bought for nellie custis by general washington. in 1798, writing to a young friend at philadelphia, she says: "i am not very industrious, but i work a little, read a little, play on the harpsichord, and find my time fully taken up with daily employments." there is an old song given in "historic landmarks of maryland and virginia" as being one which nellie custis used to sing, accompanying herself on the harpsichord. we wonder who selected for her. "the traveler at the widow's gate. "a traveler stop't at a widow's gate, she kept an inn and he wanted to bait; she kept an inn and he wanted to bait; but the widow she slighted her guest, but the widow she slighted her guest, for when nature was forming an ugly race, she certainly moulded the traveler's face as a sample for all the rest, as a sample for all the rest. the chambermaid's sides they were ready to crack when she saw his queer nose and the hump on his back; a hump isn't handsome, no doubt; and though t'is confessed the prejudice goes very strongly in favor of wearing a nose, a nose shouldn't look like a snout. a bag full of gold on the table he laid, 't had a wondrous effect on the widow and maid, and they quickly grew marvelous civil; the money immediately altered the case, they were charmed with his hump and his snout and his face, though he still might have frightened the devil. he paid like a prince, gave the widow a smack, and flop'd on his horse at the door like a sack, while the landlady, touching his chin, said, 'sir, should you travel this country again, i heartily hope that the sweetest of men will stop at the widow's to drink.'" the names of some other popular songs of this period were "the white cockade," "irish howl," "hessian camp," "nancy of the mill," "every inch a soldier," "when nichola first to court began," "baron steuben's march," "sweet village of the valley," "king of sweden's march," etc. the revolutionary echoes seemed to be still reverberating. [illustration: figure 89. bass viol.] in the "domestic life of thomas jefferson" there is a description given of monticello, which he built in 1770-1772, and a diagram of the lower rooms showing where each piece of furniture stood. it seems very sparsely fitted out, yet it had a great reputation for elegance. the house was but a story and a half high, and on the ground floor was a great hall, drawing-room, dining-room, tea-room, sitting-room, and two bedrooms besides the one occupied by jefferson himself. in this latter room was a couch upon which jefferson rested when studying, a dressing-table and mirror, a chair near the wall, and beside it a small bookcase. there was no closet, so in one corner was a rack upon which his clothes where hung. the chief ornament to the drawing-room was his daughter's, mrs. randolph's, harpsichord. standing about were many busts, of alexander of russia, hamilton, voltaire, turgot, and napoleon, and portraits of washington, adams, franklin, madison, etc. the house was at least abundantly furnished with chairs, for jefferson himself leaves an inventory which states that there were 36 of mahogany and 44 of gold leaf. of small tea and card tables there were 13. in the dining-room, well toward its centre, stood jefferson's chair and a candle-stand. his particular hobby was blooded horses, and he used only the finest virginia stock. this same harpsichord was, as early as 1785, in jefferson's thoughts, and he writes to his daughter, polly, from france, that she shall be taught to play on it, as well as to draw and dance, to read and talk french, "and such other things as will make you more worthy of the love of your friends." even in remote places like monticello, where everything had to be transported by cart, or at johnson hall, sir john johnson's home in the mohawk valley, harpsichords, as well as other expensive luxuries, were to be found. sir john's harpsichord was confiscated by the government in december, 1777, at the same time with the table which is now at the historical rooms in albany. while musical instruments are only rarely mentioned in the inventories of the great body of the people, yet we have seen that they were here both of domestic manufacture and imported. thomas harrison, organist of trinity church, advertises in the "new york mercury" for 1761 that he has "harpsichords and spinets imported and for sale." the harp was not so often seen as other instruments, on account both of the great cost of the instrument and of the difficulty of tuning it. it was not until 1720 that the pedal harp was invented by a bavarian named hochbrücker. by means of the pedal working a small plate set with projecting pins, the performer was able to raise the pitch of each string a semitone. the mechanism was concealed in the front pillar, and each note was affected in all its octaves. erard made farther improvements. the harp shown in figure 88 is in the metropolitan museum, new york. it is a very handsome one, painted blue, and resting on four claw feet. the pillar is fluted, and the ornaments, three medallions of dancing girls, with wreaths below, are executed in brass. it has forty-two strings of gut and seven pedals. it was made by naderman, paris, france, late in the eighteenth century. naderman perfected the action of the first pedal harp invented by hochbrücker. in the south kensington museum, london, england, is a harp which belonged to the ill-fated marie antoinette; it also was made by naderman in 1780. [illustration: figure 90. glass harmonica.] the harp in its various forms is an instrument of great antiquity. the greeks and romans, ever alive to the possibilities of everything that tended to grace and beauty, admired this instrument not only for its sweet sound but for its pleasing form. we must look to egypt for the origin of the harp, as there are representations in their picture writings of stringed instruments of a bow-form that support the idea that the first conception of a harp was drawn from the tense string of a warrior's bow. this very primitive instrument was borne on the performer's shoulder and played horizontally. between this crude instrument and the splendid vertical harps shown in the frescoes of the time of rameses iii., painted more than three thousand years ago, there is a chain of pictures showing so many varieties of forms that the growth from the bow-form into the triangular harp is explained. the assyrians, like the egyptians, had harps without a front pillar, but differing from them in using sound-holes, and having the sound body uppermost. we assign to king david the harp, but mediæval artists more frequently depicted him with the psaltery, a horizontal stringed instrument, the parent of the piano. the harp has always been the instrument of the celtic race, and harpists were held in peculiar veneration. for many a long year harpists traveled from one castle to another, sure always of a welcome and seat in a warm corner. in return they not only amused the company with their songs, but brought the news, and isolated and remote families often heard from the outer world by such uncertain means as these. for centuries the english harpers were protected in many ways, and no one has taken advantage of such a picturesque class with the skill of sir walter scott. the most renowned one he introduced as a character was blondel de nesle, in the "talisman," that wonderful picture of the days of the crusades. the first greeting to the youth when he appeared at richard's camp shows the estimation in which these knights of the harp were held. "blondel de nesle!" richard exclaimed joyfully "welcome from cyprus, my king of minstrels! welcome to the king of england, who rates not his own dignity more highly than he does thine.... and what news, my gentle master, from the land of the lyre? anything fresh from the trouveurs of provence? anything from the minstrels of merry normandy? above all, hast thou thyself been busy?" it is also said that richard coeur de lion's place of confinement in germany on his return from the holy land was discovered when blondel sung beneath the tower tenebreuse a tenson which they had jointly composed, and to which the king replied. edward i. and his queen were fond of music and encouraged musicians, as the following entries in their accounts of the household expenditures show: "to melioro, the harper of sir john mantravers, for playing on the harp when the king was bled, twenty shillings; likewise to walter luvel, the harper of chichester, whom the king found playing on his harp before the tomb of st. richard at chichester cathedral, six shillings and eight pence." henry v. was a performer on the harp at an early age, and his wife, catherine of valois, shared his taste, as an entry in the issue rolls reads: "by the hands of william menston was paid £8 13_s_ 4_d_, for two new harps purchased for king henry and queen catherine." these harps were tuned with a key like the more modern instruments, and the player improvised his words to suit the taste of the company in which he found himself. harpists were employed much at courts, and in 1666 pepys says that for want of pay to the household- --"many of the musique are ready to starve, they being five years behind hand for wages; nay, evens, the famous man upon the harp, having not his equal in the world, did the other day die for mere want, and was fain to be buried at the almes of the parish, and carried to his grave in the dark at night without one linke, but that mr. hingston met it by chance, and did give 12_d._ to buy two or three links." at the present day, though at no instrument does a graceful woman look more graceful, solo performers are very rare; but in the orchestra the harp has an important place on account of its tone, such composers as gounod, berlioz, liszt, and wagner using it freely in their scores. in this country there are only occasional references in the old papers to it, and an advertisement by signor pucci in 1815 that he gives concerts on the "fashionable and much admired king david's pedal harp", seems to be an effort to introduce it to the notice of music-lovers of the day. [illustration: figure 91. geib piano.] madame malibran, who achieved such a success in opera in new york about 1825, used to accompany herself on the harp when she sang in response to an encore. but it can never be considered a popular instrument. in dwight's "history of music in boston", he says that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the population of boston numbered about six thousand families, and that not fifty pianos could be found. only a few of boston's churches had organs, while those in country parishes were, almost without exception, without them. the use of instruments had crept slowly into the choir, and if they had a flute and a bass viol they considered they did well. very often a clarinet usurped the place of the flute. the bass viol was, however, the most popular instrument, and when, some years later, concerts began to be given, and musical societies formed, the bass viol was lugged about, notwithstanding its ponderous size, and duly performed its part in the accompaniment. the bass viol shown in figure 89 is an interesting one. it was made by deacon justin hitchcock, and used by him in the choir of the congregational church, deerfield, mass., in 1778. both it and the pitch-pipe used by him as leader of the choir are now resting silent in memorial hall. deacon justin did not confine his musical performances to psalmody and the accompanying of hymns. like all the deerfield men of that day he was a fighter, as who should not be who was brought up among those silent hills which had seen so much of "ye barbarous enemy" and knew the tales of french invasion? the stories of warfare and captivity were still fresh in the minds of the people of deerfield when deacon justin responded to the lexington alarm. his fife it was that inspired the weary deerfield minute-men to press on to boston to meet the british. nor was this the only campaign in which he played a part, for he never wearied of displaying the trophies captured after the disastrous experience of burgoyne, when, harrassed and in flight, he abandoned his baggage. [illustration: figure 92. nuns piano.] a very similar bass-viol, but of german manufacture, was played during the latter part of the eighteenth century in a church in stonington, connecticut. the sisters of the hospital general in montreal, before the conquest of canada, imported several of these instruments from france for use in the convent choir. so they must have been played upon by women sometimes. an instrument that is interesting rather than handsome is the glass harmonica shown in figure 90. it has thirty-five bowls or glasses arranged on a central rod. some of the glasses are now missing, but originally it had a compass of three octaves. the case is three feet nine and a half inches long, and one foot four and three quarters inches wide. the interest in this class of instruments arises from the fact that it was invented by benjamin franklin. it has about as much capacity for producing music as the "musical glasses". one of these latter instruments consists of twenty-four glasses closely resembling finger-bowls and standing in a wooden table-like case. they are partially filled with water, and the performer produces notes by rubbing on the rim with the finger. they were occasionally to be met with, and date about the first decade, possibly a little later, of the nineteenth century. there is one in a perfect condition in rochester, n. y. the case is of handsome mahogany, and the instrument belongs to mrs. james mckown. up to 1760 pianos were made in the wing shape, like the harpsichords, but at that date a man named zumpe made a square one. by 1800 there were a number of makers in new york, and they turned out many very handsome instruments. astor, broadwood, and clementi were three great makers in london, and sent many pianos over here. there is a slender-legged, fragile, clementi piano in memorial hall, deerfield, which was given by a father to his daughter. the story still clings to it that he sold a house in order to buy it for her. john geib, and his sons, john h., adam, and william, were among the best-known early makers of pianofortes. they opened a shop in maiden lane as early as 1807, and advertised not only pianos of their own manufacture, built on a new plan, but those of london makers as well. they held this shop in maiden lane, with a brief interruption of one year, till 1828, when w. geib moved up to the corner of 11th street and third avenue. it was from this establishment that he sold the handsome piano shown in figure 91, which is now at the historical rooms, albany. the name-plate over the keyboard has the following inscription. "w. geib, third avenue, corner 11th st. new york. manufacturer of cabinet, grand, harmonic, and square piano fortes, church and chamber organs." this piano is mahogany inlaid, and has a handsome brass moulding and brass ornamental bands at the tops of the legs. it has six legs and a pedal, and the top of the lid has a small rest for the music. the stool, very richly carved with pillar and claw feet, belongs to an earlier period than the piano, this shape dating from about 1810-20. [illustration: figure 93. upright piano.] indeed, from its ornamentation, the stool would seem to go more fittingly with the very elegant piano shown in figure 92. this is of rosewood, and was made by robert and william nuns, and sold by du bois and stodard, new york. it was probably made about 1823-25, for in pattern of carving, moulding, drawers for music, etc., it is very similar to the pianos made at this time by the geib brothers. at the top of each leg is a richly engraved band of brass, and rosette, to conceal the place where the pin held the leg to the instrument. the drawer knobs were doubtless brass also, for these are not the original ones. the panel above the keyboard is beautifully painted in metallic lustre, and has two carved panels besides, over velvet. the legs are boldly carved with the acanthus leaf, and everything about the piano is as elegant as possible. by the time these last two instruments were made music had taken a decided advance. musical societies were organized in all the large cities; there were the handel and haydn society; the new york philharmonic society; the new york choral society; beethoven society of portland, maine; philadelphia musical fund; harmonic society of baltimore, and equally flourishing musical organizations in several cities of the south, notably new orleans and charleston. music-dealers all over the country advertised their wares; there were instruction-books and sheet music to be had:- --"overtures, battles, sonatas, duets for four hands, airs with variations, rondos, songs, glees, catches, sacred songs, original scotch airs, little ballads, marches, waltzes, dances, and mozart's songs." in view of the selection of good music that could be obtained, it is amusing to know how popular were such ditties as "mary's tears," "apollo, thy treasure," and "sweet little ann," written by shaw, the blind singer of providence. they seem hardly an advance upon "bid me, when forty winters," "little sally's wooden ware," and the "comic irish song 'boston news'" which were used as concert selections a quarter of a century earlier. in figure 93 is shown an upright piano made by julius fiot, philadelphia, in 1827. the heavy veneered empire curved posts are noticeable, and an extra old-fashioned appearance is given to it by the movable candle-brackets fastened to either side. in the upper part were little silk curtains to cover the mechanism, and their arrangement does not seem to have been particularly neat. this was a very early example of the upright shape, and is now in memorial hall, philadelphia. chapter ix. clocks. contrivances for the measurement of time are of such antiquity that the first such implement is wrapped in the mysteries of a forgotten past. before any mechanical form had been invented by which the rate of motion of a staff or pointer was made to indicate the lapse of time, the shadow of the sun in his apparent daily progress was used to mark the passing hours. a gnomon or pin erected so as to throw its traveling shadow across a graduated arc constitutes a dial. this was the earliest form. the subject of sun-dials has been most exhaustively treated by mrs. gatty in her "book of sun-dials", and later in our own country by mrs. earle. in england and scotland many dials may still be found standing in old-fashioned gardens where they have marked the flight of time for hundreds of years. many more dials, vertical ones, are to be found on the walls of public buildings, sometimes on churches, and on country houses as well. not only stationary dials, but portable ones also, of silver and gold, were made and were long in use. some of these are to be seen in various museums over the country, but most of them seem to have disappeared. george washington owned a portable dial, and had a stationary one placed near his front door at mt. vernon. in some of the famous old gardens of the south that still survive, echoes of their former glory, the sun-dial yet holds its accustomed place. in the very heart of new york city there is to-day a sun-dial; not one person in a hundred that passes knows that it is there, nor would scarcely one person in fifty know what it was. it stands on the lawn of grace church rectory, on broadway, near tenth street. this spot of green in a wilderness of brick and stone refreshes the eye of many a hurrying pedestrian, and the dial marks the flight of the hours as sharply as if it stood in a country wilderness, amid birds and flowers. the sun-dial was an important part of every great garden in early times. one was set up at whitehall, england, in the sixteenth century. "in a garden joining to this palace there is a jet d'eau, with a sun-dial, which, while strangers looking at, a quantity of water forced by a wheel, which the gardiner turns at a distance, through a number of little pipes, plentifully sprinkles those that are standing around." william lawson, writing in 1618 a book on "a new orchard and garden", gives the directions about laying it out. "and in some corner (or more) a true dyall or clock, and some anticke works, and especially silver sounding musique, mixt instruments and voyces, gracing all the rest; how will you be rapt with delight?" in 1821 william cobbett wrote his "rural rides". in one of them he discourses of a visit to moor park, once the seat of sir william temple, whose heart, enclosed in a silver box, was said to have been buried in 1698 beneath his sun-dial. but cobbett casts a doubt upon this time-honored legend by declaring that it was beneath a garden seat that the silver box was buried. charles lamb, in his essay "the old benchers of the inner temple", discourses lovingly of the sun-dial. "it spoke of moderate labours, of pleasures not protracted after sunset, of temperance, and good hours." the dials made out of herbs and flowers come in for a special share of his commendation. how much more the dial induces meditation than the clock, but how very much lost we should be, these bustling times, if we had to depend upon one of these delightful but irresponsible "antiques" which say to you quite distinctly, "i mark only sunny hours." [illustration: figure 94. tall-case clocks. _english._ daniel quare, _maker_. 1690. j. harrison, _maker_. 1715.] in an inventory of the property of william bennett, east greenwich, rhode island, who died in 1753, among other articles were mentioned "warming-pan, pewter, sun-dial, book, debts, £10." after the dial came the clepsydra, a sort of clock, which measured time by the graduated flow of some liquid, like water, through a small aperture. while the hour-glass was not known in england till 886, it had been used in rome long before; but inventions traveled slowly in those days. the hour-glass remained long in use, even after the invention of clocks, and while we know it chiefly as marking the period of agony of some unwilling victim at the piano, it was used even later than the noon mark on the window-ledge, which may be seen to-day on some of the old houses still standing. a writer in the "gentlemen's magazine" for 1746 says that he was present on an occasion when a grave-digger was at work in clerkenwell fields. "he had dug pretty deep, and was come to a coffin which had lain so long that it was quite rotten, and the plate so eaten with rust that he could not read anything of the inscription. in clearing away the old wood the grave-digger found an hour-glass close to the left side of the skull, with sand still in it. being a lover of antiquity, i bought it of him, and have since learned from some antiquarians that it was an ancient custom to put an hour-glass in the coffin to show that the sands of life were run." the origin of clockwork is involved in great obscurity, though there are statements by many writers that clocks were in use as early as the ninth century. by 1288 a clock was placed in the old palace yard, london, and remained there till the reign of queen elizabeth. in 1292 a clock was placed on canterbury cathedral, and in 1368 a striking clock was erected at westminster. by 1500, clocks were used in private houses, and watches were introduced. in 1368 three dutch clockmakers were invited to come to england to teach the business to native workers, though "dutch clocks" and their makers were held in contempt some years later. there was a clock put into the tower of hampton court palace in 1540 by a maker whose initials were "n. o.", all that posterity knows of him. it was the oldest clock in england that kept fairly good time. in 1575 george gaver, "serjeant painter" as his title runs, had a sum of money allowed him for "painting the great dial at hampton court palace, containing hours of day and night, and the course of sun and moon." in 1649 a striking part was added. by 1711 it was found that the clock had not been running as correctly as it should, owing to the fact that some careless or ignorant workman had removed some important parts of the works. after this discovery it was left neglected for many years, and finally lost its hands. it was in this condition in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, when g. p. r. james wrote a poem entitled "old clock without hands at hampton court." in 1835 the old works were removed, and a set of works put in which had been made in 1690 by villiamy, for a clock in the queen's palace, st. james' park. as this clock was not powerful enough to drive the astronomical works, these were put away. in 1880 this old clock was also removed, sold for old brass, and a brand-new clock substituted. it seems a pity that one of the earliest clocks known should have been destroyed. it was not till 1639 that galileo published his discovery of the isochronous property of the pendulum, which was eight years after the incorporation of the london clockmakers company. not only did this company train workers for clockmaking, but they also inspected clocks brought into england, and rejected those which they deemed unworthy. richard harris is said to have been the man who first connected the pendulum with clockwork movement, about 1641, and harris's method was improved by huyghens, so that by 1658 very trustworthy time-keepers were in use. mr. lockwood in his book on "colonial furniture," says that the first clock mentioned in the massachusetts colony was found in boston in 1638, but in lechford's note-book it is said that joseph stratton had of his brother in 1628 a clock and a watch. in 1640 henry parks, of hartford, left a clock by will to the church. the first clock in new haven belonged to john davenport, who died in 1670. e. needham, of lynn, mass., died in 1677. she left an estate valued at £1,117. the barn, land, out-houses and dwelling house were valued at £400. this included a "range of ston wall fensing." her silver watch, spoons, and other plate were worth £5. she had a striking clock, another watch, and a "larum that does not strike." these early clocks were probably like the ones shown in figure 95. they were called "lantern," "chamber", or "birdcage" clocks. the lantern clock shown is of the pattern known as the "dolphin fret," on account of the ornamentation above the dial, which is made by two dolphins with crossed tails. this clock was made by thomas tompion, of london, a famous maker, who lived in the last half of the seventeenth century and died in 1713. he was clockmaker to charles ii., and was held in high esteem, as may be gathered from the fact that he was buried in westminster abbey, where his tomb may still be seen. tompion was called the "father of english clockmaking", and has left a more enduring fame than any of his contemporaries. he had been a blacksmith, and before his time watches as well as clocks had been of rude construction, and the watch of charles i., which is still preserved, has a catgut string instead of a chain. indeed watches of that construction were in use for a long time after the chain was invented. very curiously, through some of the strange chances which govern inanimate as well as animate things, this very watch has found at least a temporary home in this country. [illustration: _lantern clock._ 1600-1650] [illustration: _portable clocks._ 1700-1725] [illustration: _willard or banjo clock._ 1800-1825] [illustration: figure 95. three centuries of clocks.] when oliver cromwell obtained his great victory over charles ii., and drove the enemy from hedge to hedge till they finally took refuge in the city of worcester, there were seven thousand prisoners and great spoils, among the latter the royal carriage in which the king had been carried. in the carriage was this watch, which was used by charles ii. as it had been by his father charles i. it had been made for the latter in 1640, and after more than two centuries of vicissitudes still ticks bravely on. it is of the earliest pattern of watches, made entirely by hand and of great size, as it measures four and a half inches in diameter, and is an inch and a half thick. the case is very handsome, of pierced silver in a pattern of flowers and leaves, and has three winding-holes on the back,--one for winding the works, one for the alarm, and one for the striking attachment, which consists of a small silver bell within the perforated case. it has but one hand to mark the time and goes thirty-six hours. there is an outer case into which the watch may be slipped, made of copper with a leather cover studded with silver. the watch was kept by cromwell himself for many years, but after the restoration it fell into the hands of joseph kipling, of overstone house, north hants, england, a relative of rudyard kipling. joseph kipling was also an ancestor of mr. wilfred powell, british consul at the port of philadelphia, and present owner of the watch. robert hooker invented the double balance in 1658, and tompion completed it in 1675, and made a watch which he presented to charles ii. two others were made and sent to the dauphin of france, where huyghens had obtained a patent for spiral-spring watches. this idea was not original with him, but was obtained from a man named oldenburg. it is allowed, however, that it is huyghens who first made those watches which went without strings or chains. barlow, in the reign of james ii. is said to have discovered the method of making striking watches, but, quare's being judged superior by the privy council, barlow did not get a patent. tompion's watches were in great demand for a long time, owing to their being large and well made, the wheels being of well-hammered brass. three most eminent watchmakers of this time were tompion, who died in 1713; daniel quare, who succeeded him and died in 1725; and george graham, who followed quare and died in 1775. they all belonged to the society of friends. watches cannot claim the antiquity of clocks, but they can be traced as far back as the fourteenth century. in shape they were like an egg, and nuremburg claims their earliest manufacture. although it is said that they were introduced into england in 1577, yet it is certain that henry viii. had a watch, and in 1572 the earl of leicester presented to queen elizabeth- --"one amlet or shakell of golde, all over fairly garnished with small diamandes, and fower and one smaller pieces, fully garnished with like diamandes and hanging thereat a round clocke fullie garnished with diamandes and an appendant hanging thereat." they were so unusual that they were worn ostentatiously round the neck hanging to a chain. in an old play called "a mad world, my masters!", one of the characters says "ah, by my troth, sir, besides a jewel and a jewel's fellow, a good fair watch that hung about my neck." when malvolio was telling over the agreeable ways in which he would occupy himself after his marriage with olivia, he says, "i frown the while, and perchance wind up my watch or play with some rich jewel." watches called "strikers" were known in ben jonson's time, for he says in his "staple of news" "'t strikes! one, two, three, four, five, six. enough, enough, dear watch. thy pulse hath beat enough. now stop and rest." watches were in use so rarely in the early times of james i. that it was deemed a cause of suspicion when in 1605 one was found upon the person of guy vaux. by 1638 they were more common, and in a comedy of that year called "the antipodes" it is complained that- "--every clerk can carry the time of day in his pocket." the prices of these first time-keepers must have been high, but there are no records of them left. in 1643 the sum of £4 was paid to redeem a watch taken from a nobleman in battle. in 1661 there was advertised as lost- --"a round watch of reasonable size, showing the day of the month, age of the moon, and tides, upon the upper plate. thomas alcock fecit." the redoubtable pepys's curiosity extended to watches, and he writes in his diary, december 22, 1665: "i to my lord brouncker's, and there spent the evening by my desire in seeing his lordship open to pieces and make up again his watch, thereby being taught what i never knew before; and it is a thing very well worth my having seen, and am mightily pleased and satisfied with it." the english became such famous watchmakers that in 1698 an act was passed to compel makers to place their names upon those they made, in order that discreditable ones might not be passed for english. among the possessions of the english crown is a watch which was found about 1770 in bruce castle, scotland. on the dial plate is written "robertus b. rex scotorum", and over the face is a shield of convex horn instead of glass. robert bruce began his reign in 1305 and died in 1328, long before watches were supposed to be known in england. the case of this watch is of silver in a raised pattern on a ground of blue enamel. striking watches were highly esteemed. when sarah, duchess of marlborough died in 1744 she left a will covering six skins of parchment, and she designated the disposal of "manors, parsonages, rectories, advowsons, messuages, lands, tenements, tithes, and hereditaments", in half a dozen counties. she also specified many of her jewels, and among them is her "striking watch which formerly belonged to lady sutherland." the lantern style of clock before mentioned was not original with tompion, but had been used in england from the beginning of the seventeenth century. they ran by weights, and the clock had to be affixed to a bracket or shelf in order to give room for the weights to hang. in the clock in figure 95 the cords and weights have been removed. the faces of these clocks always stood out beyond the frame, and were of beautifully engraved or etched brass, as may be seen in the figure. the single hand showed only the fifths of the hour and the hours. the small dial in the centre was to set the alarm, which struck the bell, but in some of them the hours were struck also. the portable or table clock came into use early in 1600, and one of them shown in figure 95 has the oval top to the dial which was not in use till the last part of the seventeenth century. these were the common house clocks of the period and were easily carried about. some found their way to america, and as they were well made, with brass works, they are still able to give correct time. this style of clock was made for many years, and was manufactured in substantially the same way, late in the eighteenth century, by such famous makers as isaac fox and joseph rose. samuel pepys, who recorded everything that was going on in london, in july 28th, 1660, has this entry. "to westminster, and there met mr. henson, who had formerly had the brave clock that went with bullets, (which is now taken away from him by the king, it being his goods)." in the "gentlemen's magazine" for 1785 is the following comment on this statement of pepys. "some clocks are still made with a small ball, or bullet on an inclined plane, which turns every minute." the king's clocks probably dropped bullets. gainsborough, the painter, had a brother who was a dissenting minister at henley-on-thames and possessed a strong genius for mechanics. he invented a clock of very peculiar construction, which after his death was deposited in the british museum. it told the hour by a little bell, and was kept in motion by a leaden bullet which dropped, from a spiral reservoir at the top of the clock, into a little ivory bucket. this was so contrived as to discharge it at the bottom, and by means of a counterweight was carried up to the top of the clock, where it received another bullet, which was discharged as the former. this seems to have been an attempt at perpetual motion. catherine of braganza was responsible for introducing many luxuries to the english world. pepys makes this mention of her clock in 1664. "mr. pierce showed me the queen's [the portuguese princess, wife of charles ii] bed-chamber ... and her holy water at her head as she sleeps, with a clock by her bedside, wherein a lamp burns that tells her the time of the night at any time." pepys speaks again in 1667 of going to see- --"a piece of clocke-worke made by an englishman--indeed very good, wherein all the several states of man's age to one hundred years old, is shown very pretty and solemne." besides the dolphin fret shown on the tompion clock in figure 95 there were other patterns, perhaps the earliest being what is called the "heraldic fret", which was a coat-of-arms with scroll-work on either side. this was not used after 1650, so any clocks bearing this pattern belong to the first half of the seventeenth century. it was early seen that to be accurate a clock must have some contrivance to keep it going while it is being wound. in the old-fashioned house clocks which were wound by merely pulling a string, and in which one such winding served both for the going and striking parts, this was done by using what was called the endless chain of huyghens, which consists of a chain or string with ends joined together, passing over two pulleys which are placed on the arbors of the great wheels, and which have both spikes and deep grooves in them to prevent the chain from slipping off. to the best clocks in england it was usual to apply the gridiron pendulum of harrison or the mercurial pendulum of graham. the length of the pendulum of most clocks made before 1800 was 39 inches; that is, after the long pendulum came into use at all. the earliest were called "bob pendulums", which swung so far at the sides that it was often necessary to cut slits in the sides of the case, if it was hung inside, for it was as frequently hung outside. many clocks which started with bob pendulums were changed to those having long ones, which about 1680 came very much into fashion. in mr. charles britten's various books on clocks and clockmaking he has gathered together all the minute particulars which are obtainable on this subject, and which are of chief interest to collectors of clocks. most people are content with one clock, particularly if it be of the "grandfather" variety. the term "clock" was only applied to the bell upon which the hour was rung till well into the fourteenth century, and as late as the time of james i. clocks were known as horologes. even at the present day the old term has clung to the church-tower time-piece in some of the least-traveled parts of england, and in the quaint and lovely little town of wells the cathedral clock is called the "horologe." there are long-case clocks made by tompion to be found in this country; for of course all the first clocks were of english make. the earliest long-case clocks were made by william clement about 1680, and within the same year tompion was making them too. the peculiarities of these first clocks are quite marked and easily distinguished, for the dials were square, and the top of the case lifted off to permit of winding. an early and handsome specimen of such a clock is seen in figure 94. this clock was made in the latter part of the seventeenth century by daniel quare, the successor of thomas tompion. it is a one-year clock and is at hampton court palace. the dial face is square, and the top lifts off. the case is very handsomely carved and has some very handsome figures on the top. the second clock shown in figure 94 is in a black and gold lacquered case, and was made by j. harrison in 1715. it is at the guildhall museum, london. this shows the carved top of the dial face which became universally adopted. the most important part of one of these clocks is the pendulum, for the long case was brought into use solely for the pendulum, as mechanism had not been invented to permit it to swing in a confined space. the first long-case clocks were comparatively small in size, and during the reign of william iii., when everything dutch was in fashion, the cases were ornamented with marquetry in beautiful patterns and variously coloured woods. sometimes this was made even richer by inlay of mother-of-pearl, and there were cases also of splendid lacquer-work, gold on black grounds, like that in figure 94, some of which found their way to america and are either museum specimens or treasured in private collections. there are many clocks with english works housed in dutch cases, but this is understandable from the fact that so many dutch cabinet-makers were settled in london. besides the square face to the dial of these early clocks there were peculiarities of the case as well. on either side of the upper part of the case there were carved spiral pillars, like those we find in old chairs of the same period. these were occasionally finished off by carved or gilt pilasters, and on some choice specimens, notably of tompion's clocks, there are pillars at the back also. this style of pillar was used also in queen anne's time. the clocks might stand flat on the floor or be raised an inch or two on a short foot. the long doors had mouldings, corresponding to the period of their manufacture, and many had a piece of glass or a bull's-eye let into the wood, so that the motion of the pendulum could be seen. some of the most distinguishing marks on these clocks are the hour circles. before the minute hand came into use the double circles seen in the mantle clocks were in use. between them the hour is divided into quarters, the half hour being shown by a longer stroke, or an ornament like a fleur-de-lys. when the minute hand came into use, besides the double circle containing the numerals denoting the hours, and the smaller figures showing the minutes, there were on the outer edge marks or divisions to denote the quarter hours, the device being a cross or a dagger. the dial faces were beautifully embellished with engraving, those of the william iii. and queen anne periods being very rich. not only were the faces brass, but there were to be found silvered faces also, ornamented with ormolu mounts of figures and scrolls in brass. all the space on the dial was utilized; on the extreme edge a border of leaves, or herring-bone pattern was placed, and the whole interior of the hour-ring was engraved or etched with flowers, scrolls, or set patterns, and even the winding-holes had their set of circles around each. of the seventeenth-century clocks the earliest had their makers' names put into latin and engraved straight across the bottom of the dial, and quite concealed when the wooden hood of the case was in place. later it was engraved on the lower half of the circle between the figures seven and five. these two styles were only in use very early, for about 1750 name-plates were first used, and then makers used their own taste in the matter, sometimes omitting the name entirely and substituting some motto like "tempus fugit" "tempus edax rerum", and even such lengthy mottoes as the following; "slow comes the hour; its passing speed how great; waiting to seize it,--vigilantly wait!" edward east was another well-known early english maker, and some clocks in splendid cases came from his hand by 1690 and earlier. joseph knibb and james clowes were other popular makers about 1700. james lownes made handsome clocks by 1705 and usually inserted glass in their doors. the corners of the dials bear devices which also point to the age of the clock. on the dials which came from the best makers till just before the close of the seventeenth century, the ornaments were cherubs' heads. then the patterns of the spandrels, as these ornaments were called, altered, and a head set in more or less elaborate scroll-work, generally of brass, handsomely chased and often gilded, was used. after this, in the early eighteenth century, came two cupids holding up a crown with a surrounding of scroll-work. the clock on the left in figure 96 has this fret, two cherubs holding a crown, at the four corners of the brass face. they do not show very plainly in the illustration, which also does not do justice to the splendid marquetry with which the mahogany case is inlaid. across the dial face is monks, prescot and the clock is in perfect order. the second clock is quite as interesting. it has a fine mahogany inlaid case, the face is painted on wood, the works are wooden also, and it is wound by pulling up the weights by hand. the ornaments which originally decorated the top are missing, but otherwise it is perfect and is in admirable condition. its period is about 1800. this clock belongs to dr. george w. goler, of rochester, n. y., and the one previously described to mr. william m. hoyt, also of rochester. [illustration: _american clock._ 1790-1800.] [illustration: _english clock._ 1720-1740.] [illustration: figure 96. tall-case clocks.] a crown with crossed sceptres and foliage were also used in the spandrels. later in the century the passion for rococo ornament seized the clockmakers too, and during the reign of george iii. these ornaments degenerated very greatly, and were cast brass, often not even touched with a graver's tool. christopher gould was making clocks in 1715, and by 1745 richard vick's works were put into so-called chippendale cases. there is such a clock now at windsor castle. all clocks before the eighteenth century had straight tops. an arched top was added, in which could be placed a register for the equation of time. on some of the latest clocks by tompion, dated about 1709, four years before his death, such an arch is found. it is considered greatly to improve the appearance of the face of the clock, and it was utilized for decoration if not for a time register. name-plates were put there, and a handsome dolphin was engraved or mounted on the dial on either side of the name-plate. a fine specimen of such a clock made by john carmichael, greenock, scotland, and put in a mahogany case, has been owned by a family now living in rochester, n. y., for over one hundred and fifty years. the clock is in good order, with the original brass works, and has a small plate on the dial to indicate the day of the month. the face is silvered and etched handsomely. during the last half of the eighteenth century there was a great demand for moving figures to be placed in this arched top. ships in motion, father time, etc., were always popular subjects, as well as painted disks showing the moon in her various phases. the moving figures were preferred by dutch makers, who excelled at this species of work. the english makers, however, used the painted moon-disks the most. the french, with their taste for the ornamental and elegant, never liked the square-faced clocks. they preferred the small clocks in ebony or alabaster casings with ormolu mounts. julien le roy was a very famous french clockmaker, whose works were mounted in florid style, sometimes in cases of kingwood, with inlay of lighter woods, or in ebony. lepante made clocks dating from about 1750, and these were always in the best style and elegant taste. few of such clocks found their way to america on account of their great cost. by the last quarter of the eighteenth century watches and clocks were quite common in the colonies, where they were also made. in the "mercury" for may 2, 1774, not only were clocks offered for sale, but "watches neat and plain, gold, silver, shagreen, and metal. some engraved and enamelled with devices new and elegant; also the first in this country of the small new-fashioned watches the circumference of a british shilling. john sinnet removed to the main st. called the fly, next house to the corner of beekman's slip, the sign of the dial against the wall." in this same year basil francis offers; "£1 reward for any information of a man who did in a fraudulent manner obtain one pinchbeck watch with a single case, winds up in the face, the hole where the key goes a little flowered." there were even higher rewards offered at this time for the return of lost watches, probably not "pinchbeck," for a "military gentleman offers £5 for the return of his watch and no questions asked." the english officers made the winter of 1778-9 very gay in new york, quite rivaling philadelphia, and set the fashion, which was esteemed very polite, of wearing two watches. the quaker city considered this custom ridiculous. eli terry, of windsor, conn., was one of the first clockmakers in the united states, though james harrison began to manufacture at waterbury, conn., as early as 1790. the first clock he made was entered in his books, "january 1, 1791, at £3 12_s._ 8_d_". yet clocks were made even earlier than this, for in 1783 the assembly of connecticut awarded a patent for fourteen years to benjamin hanks, of litchfield, conn., for a self-winding clock. it was to wind itself by the help of air. in east windsor, conn., daniel burnap carried on the manufacture of brass clocks. william tenny was one of the earliest makers of brass work clocks in the united states, and worked at nine corners, dutchess co., n. y. eli terry made wooden works for his clocks, although he had been instructed in his business by daniel burnap, who used brass as well as wooden works, and made tall-case clocks with long pendulums. these clocks were by no means cheap, ranging from $18 to $48, the more expensive ones having a brass dial, a dial for seconds, the moon's phases, and a better case. terry's wooden-work clocks were well made and were good time keepers, and were distributed all over new england by peddlers. in 1807 terry undertook to make five hundred clocks; this overstocked the market, and he was forced to reduce the price from $25 to $15, and then to $10. before 1800 the best-known clockmakers in the united states were daniel burnap, silas merriam, thomas harland, timothy peck, and james harrison, all of connecticut. from 1806 to 1815 the number of clockmakers largely increased, and seth thomas, silas hoadley, herman clark, and asa hopkins were some of the best-known men engaged in the making. in 1814 terry invented what was called the "short-shelf clock," in which, by a change of arrangement and smaller weights, the pendulum being brought forward and greatly shortened and the weights being carried and run on each side, the whole was reduced to a more compact form. clock and case were sold for a moderate sum. these clocks, like the tall-case ones, were made with wooden wheels, but after the introduction of rolled brass, machinery was invented by which blank wheels could be struck out with a die, the teeth afterward cut by machinery, and the brass-wheel clocks made cheaper than the wooden. this was about 1837. the next improvement was substituting springs for weights. this had been done in europe for two hundred years, but only with the most costly parlour clocks, and the springs were equal to the best watch-springs. many kinds of cheaper springs had been tried without success, till a superior steel spring was invented in the united states, and the springs thus produced have for many years been sold at a price compatible with cheap clocks. the wooden pendulum covered with gold leaf, which is one of the characteristics of a regulator clock, was invented by silas b. terry, a son of eli. america has long taken a leading place in the making of clocks, and that desire to have the biggest and best which is characteristic of the youngest nation has influenced clockmaking. for many years england prided herself on having the largest clock in the world. it is on the houses of parliament, london, and is known as the westminster clock. its dial faces measure 22 feet 6 inches in diameter. a larger one, however, has been erected during the past few years in minneapolis, minn., by an american clockmaker. these dial faces measure 22 feet 8 inches in diameter, and the westminster clock has receded to second place. among extraordinary clocks which have from time to time been invented, none is more curious than that made in 1767 by david rittenhouse, of philadelphia. it has six dials; on the main one there are four hands which indicate seconds, minutes, hours, and days, giving one day more to february in leap year. phases of the moon are also shown. the second dial shows the movements of planets about the sun; the third, the moon revolving about the earth; the fourth, the movements of saturn; the fifth whether sun time is fast or slow with meridian time; while the sixth gives the combination of chimes which sound quarter hours, a choice of any one of ten tunes being played by pressing a knob on the dial. it is not often in the united states that there is a record of any piece of furniture staying in the same place for twenty-five, much less one hundred years. yet in westernville, oneida co., n. y., there is an old "grandfather's" clock ticking away, which with the new year of 1903 is said to have stood in its present position a hundred years. the home which holds this venerable time-piece was built by general william floyd, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, and the old house has weathered the storms as well as the clock. built in the centre of a ten-thousand-acre tract of land acquired from the indians in 1788, the lands have gradually been sold, but four hundred acres still remain surrounding the old homestead. the old mansion is well preserved, and there have been no changes beyond necessary repairs. it is of colonial architecture, and its interior furnishings form a feast for the lovers of the antique. there are some rare pieces of furniture imported from england over a century ago. the house belongs to the widow of admiral sicard, and was left her by her father, the grandson of general floyd. of the tall-case clocks there were many to be found all over the south, in some instances case and all being brought from england, while in others, as was often done, the case was made by the local cabinet-maker. many such clocks have, within recent years, found their way into newport, r. i., which is quite a paradise for the antiquarian. the history of these old clocks is strange. during the civil war the negroes appropriated many articles from the manor houses which had been deserted, or partially sacked or burned, and carried them to their cabins. among such loot were many clocks, but they were too tall to get into the cabin doors or to stand upright afterward. so they were cut down, generally at the base, for the ornamental tops, particularly if there were brass ornaments on the top, appealed to their new owners. a dealer from newport heard of them, and went to virginia, buying all of these sawed off clocks he could find. he took them home, had the cases restored, and sold them all for good prices. [illustration: figure 97. mantel clocks.] one of the most famous names in the history of clockmaking in america is that of willard, and to a certain style of clock this name has been applied. there were at least four clockmakers by this name, simon, aaron, benjamin, and simon jr. it is supposed to be the latter who made the style of clock also known as "banjo," although mr. lockwood considers there is great doubt on the subject. one of these clocks is shown in figure 95. they had no striking machinery, and often varied as to the lower part, occasionally being furnished with a brass ornament. this one has a view of mt. vernon, and belonged to the late mr. alfred hosmer, of concord, mass. these clocks were made during the first twenty years of the nineteenth century. the works are of brass and generally of excellent make. in 1802 "willard of boston," who was, no doubt, benjamin, who had workshops at roxbury and grafton as well as in boston, took out a patent for his timepieces. at this same period terry began business on a larger scale and by water-power. in 1814 he introduced the shelf or mantel-clock, which he patented in 1816. three of this style of clock are shown in figure 97. all are in good condition and are still running. they belong to mr. william m. hoyt, of rochester, n. y. the central clock is a very handsome one of mahogany, with a carved case. the ornament on the top is an eagle, and the posts are leaves bound with a rope. the face of washington painted on the glass is much better than those portraits usually are, and loses much in the reproduction. this clock was made by ephraim downs, of bristol, conn. the clock on the left, made by chauncey ives, is also a bristol one, for connecticut early obtained and has always retained an eminence in the clock business. it has an ornamental case with handsomely carved pineapples on top, and a swan-necked cornice. the one on the right, with claw feet, has a very handsome decoration of painted patterns on a black ground. on the inner part of the case is pasted a paper which reads as follows: "patent clocks patented by eli terry and made and sold by seth thomas plymouth mass. warranted if well used." the faces of all three are painted on tin, the two bristol clocks having ornamentation of gold in the corners. these clocks all date from 1815-20, but the one by seth thomas may be a trifle earlier. a more modern clock than any of the foregoing, yet one of interest, nevertheless, is one in the commandant's office in the navy yard, brooklyn. this old clock, which, although fifty-four years old, is not only in good running order, but practically furnishes the official time for the yard, occupies a prominent position in the outer office of rear-admiral barker's suite. its dial is about the same size as those seen in the clocks of to-day that keep the official time, but it is operated by a spring instead of weights. its mahogany case is handsomely carved, and its brass hands shine in a way that shows the care that it receives. the following inscription, revealing the age of the clock, appears on the case: presented to the u. s. frigate brandywine, by the crew, 1849. no one in the yard knows how the old clock got there,--it probably drifted there, as have so many other waifs and strays. at noon every day it is set by official time received from the naval observatory in washington, and most of the other clocks in the yard depend upon this reliable time-piece which has come down from the frigate "brandywine." the collecting of clocks is a fad which few people indulge in. yet there are those who own ten or a dozen timepieces, and who like to have them in running order. the old dutch clocks, while looking very well, are notoriously ill-regulated time-keepers. a collector took a prize lately acquired to an old german clock-repairer who seemed more learned in the ways of ancient clocks than many a more pretentious maker. the clock did not come home when it was promised, and the owner went to see what was the matter. she found her old clockmaker diligently studying a little german volume with a title which read something like this, "thirteen hundred reasons why a clock in perfect order won't run." chapter x. handles, feet, stuffs, etc. in the manufacture of furniture at one time or another nearly every variety of wood has been used, if not for the body of the frame, then for its enrichment, and every quarter of the globe has been laid under contribution. the island of borneo yielded amboyna wood, with its beautiful mottlings and curlings, and a very splendid cabinet was made of it for the ill-fated marie antoinette by the famous cabinet-maker of her day, riesener. ceylon, held by the dutch as a colony from the middle of the seventeenth century until nearly the nineteenth, produced splendid ebony which was used for whole pieces of furniture as well as for decoration. the french term _ébéniste_, or worker in ebony, was given to the french makers of fine work. to what abundant usage oak, walnut, and mahogany was put we know. rosewood, too, was another of the choicer materials. satin-wood, with its brilliant colour; tulip-wood, more showy still; kingwood, dark and rich; zebra wood, with its black and white effect, as well as leopard and partridge woods,--were all in use before 1800. there were, besides, cherry, yew, pear, walnut, cedar, fir, olive, beech, sycamore, cypress, chestnut for timber work, poplar, acacia, with limewood and boxwood for carving. [illustration: figure 98. kitchen of whipple house, ipswich, mass.] for furniture which was to be painted and gilded common deal was used. in america hickory (nut-wood, as it was called), was very popular among the native workers, and all the other woods were gradually imported, except those used for inlaying, an art never much practiced by american cabinet makers. after the first leather coverings of cured bull-hide there followed spanish or cordova leather, turkey-work, cane, rush, tapestry, brocade, woollen plush, etc., as styles altered from time to time and luxury increased. in an earlier chapter mention has been made of stuffs that were in use in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for bed and window curtains, draperies and upholstery. besides all the varieties of english goods, large importations came from east india of such unfamiliar materials, as bejurapants bafts, gorgorans, mulmuls, jainwars, sallampores, and many others. miss singleton in her "furniture of our forefathers," gives a list of eighty different stuffs, seersuckers being the only familiar name among them. presumably some of these were imported here, and boston merchants before 1725 advertised linceys and flowered serges, bangalls, shalloons, persians and fustian, kersey, silk crêpes, cherry derry and grass. worsted, or hair plush, plain or striped hair-cloth, damask, furniture dimities, moreen, harrateen and tammy were all to be bought in the larger cities. nor were these goods by any means cheap. harrateen cost about four dollars a yard in the middle of the eighteenth century, and a set of curtains of this same material was valued at $210. other goods were in proportion; some bedsteads without beds coming as high as $100. but, once acquired, these household goods were valuable assets and passed from one generation to another, often mentioned with great particularity by will. there are various small details which are of assistance in determining the approximate period of a piece of furniture, and none of greater value than the handles. the different styles of these, particularly of brass, are quite definite. the earliest of them is the drop handle, shown in figure 99, and also on the old oak chest depicted in figure 5. the escutcheons were similar, and the material of the drops on some chests of drawers was iron, but brass was more commonly seen, and was either hollow or solid. after the drop handles followed bail handles of a primitive type, the handles being fastened in with wires. these handles also were of brass and were sometimes engraved. the shape of these handles and escutcheons is known as willow, and appears later in a much more ornate form. see figures 56, 57 and 59. by this time the handles were fastened by screw and nut. by the latter half of the eighteenth century there were in addition to the elaborate willow brasses (see figure 64), oval ones of various styles. this shape was much affected by hepplewhite on his sideboards, and by sheraton in his earlier style (see figures 35 and 38). there was a handle starting from two small plates, either round or oval, frequently seen on swell-front bureaus and desks of 1780 and thereabouts. one is shown in figure 99. beginning at the top of the page the various handles in use in the eighteenth century are shown in the order of their appearance. [illustration: _drop handle._ 1675-1720] [illustration: _early willow pattern._ 1720-1760] [illustration: _bail handle._ 1760-1785] [illustration: _pressed brass oval._ 1780-1810] [illustration: _rosette and ring._ 1790-1820] [illustration: _inset ring. rosette._ 1800-1820] [illustration: figure 99. handles, escutcheons, etc.] there was also a round handle with a ring lying close within it (figure 37); and when the empire style was in favour a rosette with a ring was used on sideboards, bureaus, writing-tables, etc. see figures 42 and 60. the rosette with a ring was not the only empire style, but there were round knob handles of brass (figure 37), glass (figure 38), and brass with medallions of china or enamel. the glass ones, either transparent or opalescent, were held in great esteem, though they are extremely ugly on pieces of dark furniture on which they were usually mounted. in many cases they have been removed, and wooden knobs substituted; yet if one desires an empire piece to look as it did when made, it will be necessary to hunt out, if possible, a set of these knobs to put on it. this is not so difficult a matter as might be imagined; for even if the handles come from divers places they will generally match, as there was small variety in the patterns used. there was a great demand for these opal glass rosettes. very large ones held back the window curtains, smaller ones were used to support the mirrors, besides those on the furniture. about this same time (1820) those fine handles which are so eagerly sought for to-day made their appearance. they were china or enamel set in brass, and the patterns on the china were often portraits of famous men like washington, franklin, clinton, and jefferson. when mounted on a piece of furniture like a small work-table, which had only two drawers, the four patriots named would make a set. there were also fancy heads, and sometimes tiny figures, but these were not so popular. brass was put to many other uses, ornamental as well as useful, and wine-coolers of heavy mahogany were set off with bands of it, and smaller articles, like pipkins, were either made or bound with it. narrow thread-like bands of brass were used for purposes of inlay and in the lyre-back chairs the strings were brass, as well as the accompanying ornaments. brass has always been a valuable commodity in english manufactures, and in the reign of henry viii. parliament passed an act prohibiting, under severe penalties, the export of brass, which prohibition was not withdrawn till as recently as 1799. in 1721 over thirty thousand persons were employed in brass-founding in birmingham, england, and the business has grown until it has become the industrial feature of that city. the handles of both french and dutch furniture were extremely ornate, consisting of scrolls and leaves, many of them of great beauty and delicacy, particularly when made of water-gilt or of etched brass. for the benefit of local cabinet-makers brass handles, escutcheons, and false keyholes were imported and on sale in america. by 1770 many cabinet-makers were manufacturing very handsome furniture of mahogany, cedar, or cherry, requiring handsome brasses to go with them. a cabinet-maker of newburyport, r. i., had in his shop at the time of his death in 1773 much furniture completed and some still unfinished. he also had several thousand feet of costly timber, sixty brass handles valued at more than one pound, desk brasses, fifty-four escutcheons, and old brasses, locks, and screws as well. for bookcase and cabinet doors he had panes of glass, most of it in sheets measuring 5 × 7 inches, which was the size commonly used in windows at that time. although glass had been made in this country for a long time we find "bristol crown window-glass" advertised for sale in 1771 in sizes as large as 9 × 12 inches. besides these brasses of english manufacture, we find another merchant advertising "three dozen dutch rings and escutcheons at three shillings a dozen." handles came at various prices, fifteen, twelve, and eight shillings a dozen, according to pattern and finish. the escutcheons were at proportionate prices, eleven and eight shillings a dozen, but locks came high, a fine-ward desk-lock bringing a guinea. on much furniture, particularly that enriched with inlay, ivory escutcheons were used, and sometimes those of holly or other wood used in the inlay were set in. these were in use during the last years of the eighteenth century, and can be found in connection with various styles of handles. at the "smith's fly" were many metal-workers who sold ironware and goods for cabinet-makers. at the sign of the "cross daggers," thomas brown, as early as 1745, had many metal furnishings on hand. there were latches and bolts for doors and locks for chests, drawers, and cabinets. he had polished brass handles, locks, escutcheons, and handsome brass locks for parlours. ring-drops, tea-chest furniture, knobs and knockers for street doors, curtain-rings and chafing-dishes were advertised in 1750, and casters and handles and escutcheons of the newest fashion were to be found in 1751, with brass chair nails. a few years later double and single spring chest-locks could be bought, and these were sold by the same merchant who imported- --"choice india and japan gilded tea tables, square dressing ditto, of which sort none were ever seen in america before." the rate to be charged for putting on these brasses was set down in "the journeymen's cabinet and chair-makers philadelphia book of prices," 1795, mentioned before. common castors cost 2½_d_ each, and 1_d_ extra for letting in the plate; a set of sockets "when the legs are tapered, to fit in, per set," 1_s_ 2_d_. iron or brass rollers were 8½_d_ per pair. fitting on a box lock was 1_s_ 4_d_, while a patent lock came extra and cost 2_s_. lifting handles could be put on for 1_s_ 4_d_ per pair. letting in an escutcheon was 2½_d_ for each one, and letting in plates for rods in the tops of sideboards were 8_d_ for each plate. ivory escutcheons cost 10_d_ each, and those of holly just half that. if a person chose to have his furniture made on the premises it was an easy matter, for many cabinet-makers worked in this way, and the furniture could be built to suit exactly the prospective owner's taste and the place it was to occupy. none of the furniture made in america and little that was imported here, had the superb handles and escutcheons which were put on french and dutch pieces. these mounts were executed and designed by artists, and made a decidedly beautiful addition to the furniture. another distinctive feature of old furniture is the foot, which in many cases points to period and country as well as if the piece was dated. after the turned chairs with their heavy lines and clumsy construction, the furniture which was gradually finding its way from spain and holland seemed very beautiful. the flemish foot, so called, turns outward, and is found on very early chairs enriched with carving and having cane, rush, or turkey-work seats. this style belongs to the last quarter of the seventeenth century. (for illustrations see figure 100.) chairs of this same period also came from spain and portugal, being covered with the splendid leather of cordova, which has now a world-wide reputation. the woodwork of the frames was handsome enough to correspond with the leather. these frames were carved, and the foot turned out like the flemish, but it was of quite a different shape and fluted (see figure 100). this spanish foot retained its popularity a long time, appearing on many varieties of chairs almost as late as 1750. it was associated with cane, rush, leather, and stuff bottoms, was seen on arm and side chairs with slatted backs, and backs of cane and leather. sometimes on the "roundabout chairs," as those having a square seat set with one angle pointed forward were called (see figure 57), only the front foot was in spanish style, the others being turned knobs which accorded with the turned legs and rails. even on some of the so-called queen anne chairs with spoon backs, a modified form of spanish foot was to be found, but this eventually gave way to the familiar ball-and-claw cabriole leg, or the regular dutch foot (see figure 11). it is curious that the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot was seen on pieces of furniture like both the high and low chests of drawers before it was used on chairs (see figure 57), and the earliest of these queen anne chairs had the bandy leg with the plain dutch foot. this foot is used with the solid splat and the spoon-shaped back with rounded ends to the top. chippendale, in his earliest work, began to use the models then in vogue, and, with the bandy leg which was found only on the two front legs of chairs, used also a modified dutch foot. very soon he used instead the ball-and-claw foot, with or without the underbrace, and with the more ornamental foot the splat became pierced and carved and very ornate and rich. the later straight legged chippendale chair (see chapter iii) came into favour, with or without underbraces, and late in the eighteenth century the other great cabinet-makers came along, each with his distinctive styles and characteristics. the first of these is hepplewhite, who never achieved the success of chippendale, who preceded him, nor of sheraton, who succeeded him, yet whose work is often very beautiful. he did not, of course confine himself to any one style of foot or leg, yet on many of his chairs, tables, and sideboards he used what is called the "spade foot." this was varied in many ways, but the most common form is shown in figure 100. both hepplewhite and sheraton, as well as the other makers of the eighteenth century, used a variety of shapes of feet, for bureaus, desks, bookcases, and other pieces which were in no way distinctive. each maker used the bracket foot as suited him best, adding curves to suit his fancy or the exigencies of the case, or inlay or even carving. a plain bracket foot is shown in figure 100. the french foot (fig. 100) is more ornate and slender, and comes on chests of drawers, bureaus, etc. inlay is very often used for its decoration, and it adds a graceful line to the piece it is used on, which is always of choice wood inlaid or painted. [illustration: _flemish._] [illustration: _spanish._] [illustration: _dutch._] [illustration: _dutch._] [illustration: _chippendale._] [illustration: _bracket._] [illustration: _french foot._] [illustration: _hepplewhite, or spade._] [illustration: _sheraton._] [illustration: _english empire._] [illustration: _pillar and claw._] [illustration: figure 100. feet.] the tapering fluted foot which we associate with sheraton is also shown in figure 100. under his treatment it was nearly always decorated, either inlaid or carved, or sometimes both. although we are most familiar with sheraton style furniture in mahogany, he made much other furniture besides, as the following description of drawing-room chairs shows: "these drawing-room chairs are finished in white and gold, or the ornaments may be japanned, but the french finish them in mahogany with gilt mouldings. the figures in the tablets above the front rails are on french printed silk or satin, sewed onto the stuffing with borders round them. the seat and back are of the same kind, as is the ornamented tablet at the top of the chair. the top rail is pannelled, a small gold bead mitred round, and the printed silk pasted on. chairs of this kind have an effect which far exceeds any conception we can have of them from an uncoloured engraving, or even a coloured one." this does not seem like the furniture we know as "sheraton", yet in his books are many similar descriptions. after sheraton gave up manufacturing furniture, and wrote only books of descriptions and patterns, france had passed through the throes of the revolution, when the old _régime_ was swept away. napoleon had been proclaimed first consul, and then, in 1802, confirmed for life, and took under his charge even such minor details as furniture and dress. the styles arranged to suit his whim found an echo in england. the english empire, both at its best and worse estate, could boast of nothing better than a feeble imitation of the antique, while the french empire was at least an expression of the conquests and successes of one man. thomas hope was perhaps the best exponent of this style in england, and he industriously mingled emblems of the gods and goddesses, phrygian caps and roman fasces, greek amphoræ, and fabulous animals on the furniture which he designed. in figure 100 is shown one side of a chair designed by him, as also an empire pillar-and-claw leg, as rendered by american cabinet-makers. less ornate and ambitious, the american treatment of this period is preferable, for the chief use to which they put brass and bronze, the too-abundant use of which was so characteristic of this style, was to tip columns or pillars, and, to some extent, the feet of tables. the best old furniture which is to be found in the united states is of this period, which was succeeded by what may be denominated the black-walnut age, the chief characteristic of which was abundant coarse carving. our cabinet-makers were very successful in their treatment of mahogany, both solid and veneered. the latter work has never been excelled, and shows its perfection by the good condition in which much of this furniture, seventy and eighty years old, is found to-day. the smaller affairs of life which go to make up the sum of necessaries were woefully wanting in the households of pioneers who battled with the american wilderness. the importance of the iron pot, weighing thirty or forty pounds, which descended by will through three or four generations, has already been pointed out. pewter and brass ware were equally esteemed, and pewter, while by no means expensive, was not so plentiful but that many people managed with a small supply. pewter spoons bent and broke, and a substitute, at least in the connecticut valley, was a small clam-shell set in a cleft stick. however much pewter was owned, whenever the revolutionary heroes called for bullets, what there was was cheerfully run into those missiles of war, and there were many "bees" held all through the colonies where bullets were run, and wooden trenchers were whittled out by the young lads to take the place of the sacrificed pewter. this wooden ware later was smoothed down by the women of the household with broken glass, and polished with sand made of powdered limestone. some of these wooden articles, made of maple, poplar or apple-wood, have descended to show with what simple appliances our ancestors were content. how simple were their pleasures the records of the time show. in fact, anything so enlivening as a hanging was looked upon as sport for a holiday. the first state's prison was opened in 1797 at the foot of tenth street, new york city. it was in use for thirty years, till the structure at sing sing superseded it. grant thorburn, referring to a man who was reprieved through the efforts of the society of friends, writes as follows: "one day i went up to the park to see a man hung. after gazing two hours at the gallows, the sheriff announced a reprieve. i must own i was disappointed." though amusements and pleasures were few, even such as came along could not well be enjoyed if the weather were stormy, and in washington's diary the entry for november 29, 1789, is, "being very snowy, not a single person appeared at the levee." clothes could not be risked; they were too valuable to be subjected to bad weather. romalls, amens, casserillias, and ribdilures were high-sounding but perishable. even while luxury was considered, health was neglected in many ways, such valuable adjuncts as tooth-brushes not being in use until about 1782. many advertisements appear in the papers of men who combined several vocations, dentistry being one of them, and in 1789 general washington, after much pain during the summer, went into the hands of john greenwood, dentist, of 56 william street, new york, who made him a set of "sea-horse teeth". this had been a very trying summer, and one newspaper has it that "raw rum has been found exceeding pernicious in this extreme," and something lighter, like a "bishop" or "lawn sleeves" was recommended, and study of a book published in england called "oxford night-caps" was suggested as furnishing recipes for various healthful beverages though it was added that the rum had better be omitted, "as it is very intoxicating, and therefore pernicious." the president's guests could choose from among madeira, claret, champagne, sherry, arrack, spirits, brandy, cordials, porter, beer, and cider, yet, with it all, unseemly intoxication seems to have been the exception. domestic discipline in new york was enforced on servants, whether bound or free, by means of an official who was stationed at the calaboose on the common, and who, for a fee of one shilling, gave a thorough whipping. education was fostered and colleges throve. by 1760 the records state that the "king's college (columbia) buildings were so far completed that the officers and students began to lodge and mess therein." this was in accordance with the terms of the charter, which further provided that the students were to wear caps and gowns and to be within the gates at a certain hour. the plan of education, like our belongings, was copied from england, and our college was, in the most material parts, to be like queen's college, oxford. the tuition fee when general washington entered his step-son, john parke custis, there, was five pounds per annum, with room-rent four pounds, and board at the rate of eleven shillings weekly. the late andrew p. peabody, writing of college life at harvard in 1820, says: "coal, just then coming into use, had hardly found its way into college. the student's rooms, several of the recitation-rooms as well were heated by open fires. friction matches, which according to faraday were the most useful invention in our age, were not yet." he says that the feather-bed was a valuable asset (this article had held its own for centuries), but that ten dollars would have covered the other contents of a student's room. it had no carpet, and a pine bedstead, a washstand, table and desk, and three or four chairs were all it contained, besides a cannon-ball to be heated on extra-cold nights, and rolled down stairs on warm ones, "at such time as might most nearly bisect a proctor's night's sleep." our maternal great-great-grandmothers must have had little leisure to spare from the duties that occupied their time. yet many of them had still-rooms where they not only compounded the medicaments whereby many a family was raised from infancy, but where they made extracts and essences as well. they made, too, from the flowers and herbs that grew in their gardens, pomander-balls, which were used instead of vinaigrettes, the outer case being of silver or gold, and often as large as an orange. those whose stock of trinkets did not boast one of these metal cases used the rind of an orange, the inside being carefully extracted, and a sponge with vinegar and spices being inserted in its place. rose-balls made of leaves beaten to pulp, mixed with sweet spices, and rolled into a ball, soon became hard, resembling the rosaries made in the south of france. when held in the hand they became very fragrant from its warmth. simpler than any of these was a rosy apple stuck full of cloves and giving out a fragrance years after the apple had lost all appearance or consistency of being a fruit, and awakening in the mind an image of her who made it in some quiet garden long ago. like an antique spice-ball, all this old furniture that we have passed in review has an aroma of its own compounded by the hand that built it, the person that owned it, and the scenes that it has lived through. many a sober old chair could discourse of experiences ranging from grave to gay, from lively to severe, and every one of these antiques, whether a treasured heirloom or a reclaimed derelict, has a charm that is not easily excelled. index. "a brief description of new york", 35 adam brothers, 49, 68, 73, 74, 75, 80, 85 adam, robert, 55, 73, 74, 75, 175, james 73, 74 addison, 56 advertisements, 124, 125, 129, 137, 138, 144, 205, 214, 215, 228 albany, city of, 22, 28, 29, 45 albany historical society, 29, 37, 105, 135, 145, 194 allyn, alexander, 32 almacks, 64 amboise, 148 amboyna wood, 222 amelia sophia, princess, 64 andré, major, 83 "annals of new york," watson, 112 anne of austria, 149 antiquarian society, concord, mass., 114 aubusson, 154, 158 auction sales, 67, 68 ball-and-claw, 53, 66, 70, 119, 123, 229, 230 bancker, gerard, 134 bank of england, 11 barjeer, 81 baroque, 4 bartolozzi, 74 bass viol, 192, 193 battle abbey, 68 bayard, colonel and mrs., 107 "bear's paw", 53, 54 beaufait, 111 beaumanor park, 5 beauvais, 156, 158, 159 beaver skins, 38 beds: 7, 38, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 126, 127, 133, 137, 138, 139, 169, 170, 223, 224 canopy, 72 chinese, 72 dome, 72 elizabethan, 8 english, 137 field, 72, 137, 138 french, 137, 139 flock, 27 folding, 76 gothic, 72 high four post, 72, 137 low four post, 137, 139 press, 81 sofa, 72, 86 summer, 86 tent, 72 bed-curtains, 9, 114, 137, 138, 139, 223 bedsteads, 7, 56, 170 bedford springs, 109, 110 bellomont, lord, 107 belvoir, 117 bergavenny, lady joanne, 7 beverly, robert, 98, 116 bibles, 45 bills of exchange, 11 "bird's claw", 54 block foot, 82 blois, 149 blondel de nesle, 190 "blue boar inn", 5 bookcases, 57 book of sun-dials, 197 boston, 100, 101, 119, 121, 141 boston museum of fine arts, 23 boucher, 156, 157 boulle, 4 boulle, andré, charles, 159, 160, 161, sons 160 bowdoin, james, 144 bracket foot, 132, 230 bradley, sarah, 36 brass, 226 brasses, 226, 227, 228 bricks english, 96, 97 dutch, 97 new england, 97, 121 brickmakers, 97 britten, charles, 209 british museum, 207 broglie, prince de, 126 buchanan, president, 110 bull-baiting, 129 bureau, 19 burnet, governor, 123 butler, captain lawrence, 126 byrd, colonel, 97 cabinet, 42 makers, 137, 140, 141, 146, 147, 226, 227, 232 "cabinet-maker and upholsterer, and general artists encyclopedia, by t. sheraton", 86, 88 cabriole, 53, 66, 70, 229 caffieri, 163, 164 cane furniture, 24, 59 candles, 123, 124 candlewood, 123 cards, dutch, 44, 45 english, 122 card tables, 63, 80 carpets, 44, 113 carriages, 113 casement, 76 castors, 228 catherine of braganza, 24, 59, 63, 208 cedar, 56 chairs, 22, 123, 134, 187, 229, 230 french, 48, 58 hepplewhite, 77 leather, 23 russia leather, 98 rush bottom, 106 sets of, 106 spanish, 23, 229 windsor, 88, 112, 113 chambers, sir william, 55 chambord, 148 "chancelleries", 155, 157 chapin, abel, 142 chapin, mistress david, 34 charles i, 15, 202, 203. ii, 24, 25, 26, 154, 202, 203 charleston, 96, 180, 181, 182, 195 chenonceau, 148 chests, 11-21, 40, 112, 132, 141, 163 chicopee, 34 "chinese and gothic architecture", 49 chinese designs, 48, 58 furniture, 55, 56 style, 43, 48, 56 taste, 49, 55, 62 chippendale, 48-72, 77, 86, 87, 119, 123, 135, 213, 230 ornaments, 52, 57, 58, 66, 69 choir singing, 184 clavichord, 174 clement, william, 209 clepsydra, 199 clocks, 71, 163, 197-221, 200 banjo, 219 brass works, 215 french, 214 lantern, 202 long case, 209, 218 mantel, 219 mottoes, 212 price of, 215, 216 springs, 216 wooden works, 216 clockmakers burnap, daniel, 215 carmichael, john, 213 clark, herman, 216 clement, william, 209 clowes, james, 212 downs, ephraim, 220 fox, isaac, 207 francis, basil, 215 gould, christopher, 213 graham, george, 204 hanks, benjamin, 215 harland, thomas, 216 harris, richard, 201 harrison, j., 210 hoadley, silas, 216 hopkins, asa, 216 huyghens, 203 ives, chauncey, 220 knibb, joseph, 212 lepante, 214 le roy, julien, 214 lownes, james, 212 merriman, silas, 216 monks, 213 "n. o.", 200 peck, timothy, 216 quare, daniel, 204 rittenhouse, david, 217 rose, joseph, 207 tenny, william, 215 terry, silas b., 217 terry, eli, 215 thomas, seth, 216 tompion, thomas, 202 vick, richard, 213 villiamy, 201 willard, simon, aaron, benjamin, simon, jr., 219 cocoa-tree club, 64 colbert, 154, 155 cold spring, 133 "colonial furniture", 201 colonial furniture, 95-148 colonial houses, 101 connecticut chest, 20, 108, 141 continental congress, 134 cooper institute museum, 31, 46, 74, 167, 172 cornbury, governor, 137, 138 costume, 29, 59, 60, 100-103, 106, 107, 120, 129, 136, 142, 144, 145, 151-153, 162, 167-169, 233 counters, 65 "court records of new amsterdam", 11, 42 cowles house, 113 cox, william, 36 coytemore, widow, 100 cressent, charles, 161 cristofori, 174, 176, 177 cromwell, oliver, 202, 203 culpeper, thomas, 6 cupboards, 43, 46, 111, 136, 140 curaçao, 30 current moneys, 34 curtains, 114, 223 "cymbeline", 12 danvers, 100 david, 170 dedham, 100 deerfield memorial hall, 99, 108, 141, 192, 193 denton, daniel, 35 desks, 132, 135 "designs for household furniture" t. sheraton, 86 desmalter, joseph, 171 d'estaing, count, 143 diggs, mrs., 98 dilke, lady, 149, 159 dining-rooms, 112 dining-tables, 78 domestic discipline, 234 "domestic life of thomas jefferson", 186 dorchester, 100 drinks, 234 drop handles, 42 "duchess", 81 dudley, robert, 98 dutch cards, 44, 45 chests, 46 costume, 29 foot, 229, 230 furniture, 18, 28-47, 56, 59, 91, 99 silver, 45 silversmiths, 40, 41 utensils, 34 wills, 32 earl of arundel, richard, 7 eaton, theophilus, 21 easy chairs, 54, 82 east india, 48, 80, 223 ébénisté, 222 ebony, 43 embroidery, 166 empire furniture, 90, 91 empire style, 88, 92, 135, 146, 170, 171, 172, 225, 231, 232 england, 112, 145, 197, 199, 206, 218 epes, colonel francis, 17, 139 escutcheons, 224, 226, 227, 228 esopus, 133 evelyn's diary, 59, 154 "fairfield", 104 faneuil, andrew, 119, 120 faneuil, hall, 121, 143 faneuil, peter, 120, 121, 122 feet, 228, 229 fiot, julius, 196 fire-buckets, 31 fireplace, 145 flaxman, john, 75 flemish foot, 228, 229 flemish style, 25 flock beds, 27 fontainebleau, 148, 149, 154, 161, 169, 170, 171 foot-bank, 24 forks, 98, 120, 132 fox, charles james, 64 fox-hunting, 128 france, 148-150, 154, 168, 169, 231 francis i, 148, 149, 154. ii, 148 french chairs, 48, 58 court, 150 foot, 82, 230 furniture, 52, 148-173 revolution, 90, 157, 169 taste, 59, 71 "french furniture of the xviii century", 149, 159 "fret", heraldic, 208 fretwork, 62 frigate brandywine, 221 frison, john, 98 frost, miss sarah, 66, 147 "furniture of our forefathers", 28, 223 gaine, hugh, 124, 125 galileo, 201 gambling, 63-65, 162 gardiner, lion, 22 gatty, mrs., 197 gautier, william, 112, 113 geib, john & sons, 194, 195 "gentleman's magazine", 199, 207 george i, 60 ii, 60, 64, 65 iii, 55, 74, 213 iv, 64 "gesso", 73, 175 gillow, 91 glass, 226, 227 gnomon, 197 gobelin, 154-157 goler, george w., 213 graham, george, 204 grand trianon, 170 "great bed of ware", 8 greek and roman style, 73 guildford, 100, 102 guildhall museum, 210 hadley chest, 20, 141 halfpenny, william, 49 hancock, john, 143, 144 hampton court palace, 210 handles, 132, 140, 146, 222-236 bail, 224 brass, 226 china, 225 drop, 224 glass, 225 rosette, 225 watergilt, 226 willow, 224 harmonica, 193 harps, 188, 189, 190, 191 harpists, 190, 191 harpsichord, 174, 176, 185, 187, 188, 193 harris, richard, 201 harvard college, 103 haward, john, 174 "hawkin's history of music", 179 haynes, john, 21 hempstead, 35, 45 plains, 128 henrico county, 98, 139 hepplewhite, 69, 71, 76-80, 85, 87, 119, 132, 138, 224 hessians, 135 "highboy", 140 "history of boston." drake, 179 "history of music in boston." dwight, 191 "history of music in new england." hood, 182 "history of new england." palfrey, 102 "history of new york." smith, 66, 67 "history of south carolina." mccrady, 96 "history and present state of virginia.", 115 "historic landmarks of maryland and virginia.", 185 hitchcock, deacon justin, 192 hitchcock, thomas and john, 174 hobbs, richard, 98 hochbrücker, 188 hogarth, 59 hollingbourne manor, 6 hooker, robert, 203 hope, thomas, 231 horologe, 209 horse-racing, 128, 129 hotel montmorency, 1 hour-glass, 199, 200 hoyt, william m., 80, 107, 139, 213, 219 ince & mayhew, 48, 49 independence hall, philadelphia, 112 inns, 142 inventories, 17, 21, 22, 26, 32, 33, 37, 38, 41, 45, 98, 100, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109, 117, 122, 123, 133-136, 139, 142, 187 italian work, 150 italy, 148 jacobean furniture, 9, 10, 12 james i., 9, 11, 15, 205 ii., 64 jamestown, 95 japanning, 5 jefferson, thomas, 48, 186 joined work, 5 johnson, thomas, 48 johnson hall, 187 josephine, empress, 169, 170, 171 "journal of the pilgrims at plymouth", 26 "journeyman's cabinet and chair-makers philadelphia book of prices", 109 kauffmann, angelica, 73, 74 kidd, captain william, 37 killgore, a., 92 misses, 93, 111 king's chapel, 179, 180 king's college, 234, 235 king david, 189 "king hooper house", 114 "king richard's bed", 6 knife-boxes, 82, 89 kitchen utensils, 122 lacquer, 4, 145, 210 lady joanne bergavenny, 7 lady moody, 13 lake, mrs., 21, 119 lamb, charles, 199 lamberton, george, 26 lamps, 123, 124 lanterns, 120 le brun, 154, 155 lemaire, 156 le notre, 150 "letters of pacification", 183 library, 118 lignum-vitæ, 122 "lining-out", 182, 183 little trianon, 165, 169 lloyd, cornelius, 97 lock, matthias, 48 lockwood, 141, 201, 219 london, 97, 120, 122, 141 london cabinet-maker's society, 76 london clock-maker's company, 201 long island, 45 long island dutch, 34 looking glasses, 43, 70 louis xii., 149 xiii., 148 xiv., 71, 150-155, 157-159, 161, 172 xv., 52, 57, 161-163, 165, 172, 173, 176 xvi., 158, 165, 167, 172, 173 louvre, 148, 160 "lowboy", 143 luynes, duc de, 157 madison, dolly, 84 mahogany, 43, 44, 51, 54, 58, 61, 81, 84, 86, 90, 91, 109, 117, 123, 132, 138, 140, 172, 232 maintenon, madame de, 151 manwaring, robert, 49 mansart, 151 marie antoinette, 165, 166, 169, 172, 188, 222 marlborough, duke and duchess, 67 marquetry, 3, 46 martin brothers, 164, 165 maryland, 96 massachusett's general court, 101 memorial hall, philadelphia, 15, 56, 61, 70, 196 metal mounts, 55, 139, 146, 163-167, 171-173, 211 metropolitan museum, new york, 46, 177, 188 "mischianza", 83 michaud, doctor, 83 monticello, 186, 187 montgomery, general, 164 morris, mrs., 126 moulding, 19 mount vernon, 116, 117, 185, 197, 219 mott, charles, 33 "music in america." ritter, 184 musical glasses, 193 musical instruments, 174-196 musical societies, 195 naderman, 188 napoleon, 146, 149, 170, 171, 231 napoleonic style, 91 new amsterdam, 28, 31, 35, 36, 45 court records of, 11, 42 newbury, 101 new england, 26, 28, 99, 103, 108, 141, 180 new haven colony, 20, 26, 201 new jersey, state library, 135 new york, city of, 32, 34, 44, 45, 126, 128, 198, 215 "new york gazette and weekly mercury", 109, 113, 129, 144 "new york records of the revolution", 134 newport, 218, 219 nutwood, 31, 223 oak, american, 18 english, 10 spanish, 59 oeben, 165 "old manse", 88 "old palace yard", 200, 201 old songs, 185, 186, 195 "old state house", boston, 111 "old stone house", 100 "olden-time music", brooks, 185 olive-wood, 14, 15 oliver, mrs. b. h., 105 oort, john, 36 organs, 178-182, 184, 191 organists, 179, 181 ormolu, 4, 163, 164, 169, 211 "overdoors", 49 "over-mantels", 71 panelling, oak, 2 peabody, a. p., 235 pembroke tables, 82 pendulum, 208-211, 215, 217 penn, william, 104, 105 pennsylvania, 104 "pennsylvania stoves", 113 pepys's diary, 63, 175, 191, 205, 207, 208 percier & fontaine, 90 percy, george, 97 pergolese, 73, 74 pesaro, domenico di, 175 pewter, 232, 233 philadelphia, 83, 84, 103, 106, 109, 112, 126, 127, 134, 215, 217 piano, 174, 176-178, 191, 193-196 pickering, rev. theophilus, 108 pomander balls, 235, 236 pompadour, madame de, 162 pratt, phineas, 141 pringle house, 96 psaltery, 189 quare, daniel, 204, 210 queen anne, 59, 64, 211, 229 queen caroline, 60 queen catherine, 63 quincy, josiah, 97, 181 rails, 18 raleigh, sir w., 51 rappahannock, 98 "record of the damages done by the british," etc., 135 regency, 160, 161 renaissance, french, 148, 149 furniture, 10, 14 revolution, 82, 97, 127, 132, 133 rich, charles, 84 richard coeur de lion, 190 riesener, 165, 166, 222 ripley, rev. ezra, 88, 108, 114 rittenhouse, david, 217 rochefoucauld, duc de la, 151 rococo, 3 roelantsen, adam, 35 rosewood, 54, 147 salem, 84, 108, 121 santvoordt, cornelis van, 133 satin-wood, 73, 80, 81 schenectady, 28 "set-work.", 22, 27 sèvres, 146, 163 sewall, rev. samuel, 17 shaw, henry, 6, 8 shearer, thomas, 69, 76-78, 91 sheets, 137 sheraton, thomas, 69, 71, 77, 78, 84-91, 99, 113, 140, 146, 147, 224, 230, 231 " foot, 85 sideboards, 69, 77, 78, 86, 90 silver furniture, 10 singleton, miss, 28 singing-schools, 183 sleeping-bunk, 42 smith, george, 91 smith, captain john, 15, 95 south carolina, 180, 181 south carolina college, 53 south kensington museum, 8, 25, 54, 188 "spade-foot", 74, 81, 230 spandrels, 212, 213 spanish chairs, 23 foot, 23, 229 leather, 22, 23, 223 style, 25, 229 "specimens of early furniture", 6 "spectator", 59 spinet, 174, 175, 185 splat, 53, 58, 66, 77, 123, 229, 230 st. cecilia society, 181 st. martin's lane, 52 st. paul's chapel, 164, 183 st. philip's church, 181 st. simon, 153 staffordshire, 93 steenwych, madam, 30 stiles, 18 stillrooms, 235 stools, 10 stoves, 145 strawberry hill, 56, 75, 138 "strong-box", 134 stuarts, 15 "style" french, 149 sun-dials, 197, 199 table, old oak, 9 tadema, alma, 73 taine, m., 152 tapestry, 154, 159 tayloe house, 94 tea, 62, 144 caddies, 57 tables, 61, 62 temple, sir william, 198, 199 terry, eli and silas, 215, 220 testers, 8 "the cabinet-maker & upholsterer's guide, or repository of designs for every article of household furniture, etc." by a. hepplewhite, 77, 78 "the cabinet-maker & upholsterer's drawing book.", by t. sheraton, 86 "the decorative part of civil architecture", 55 "the gentlemen's & cabinet-maker's director", 50, 52, 54, 65, 72, 123 "the journeyman's cabinet and chair-makers philadelphia book of prices", 138, 228 "the london cabinet-maker's book of prices", 76 "the maccaroni magazine or monthly intelligence of the fashions & diversions", 129 "the magazine a la mode, or fashionable miscellany", 129 tinder and steel, 42 tobacco, 96 tompion, thomas, 202, 208, 211, 213 trundle-bed, 42 "turkey-work", 23 turned-wood work, 24 "twenty new designs of chinese lattice and other works for staircases, gates, pailings, etc.", 49 "universal system of household furnishing", 48 upholstery stuffs, 223 van rensselaer, 40, 41, 45, 140, 146 vatican, 91 veneering, 3 venetian paste, 124 vernis-martin, 164, 165 versailles, 150-153, 159, 168, 170, 171 virginal, 174 virginia, 96-98, 115, 116, 126, 140, 185, 219 wainscot, 51, 111, 112, 149 wall papers, 113, 114, 157 walpole, horace, 56, 64, 138 wardrobes, 72, 164 ware, isaac, 50 waring galleries, london, 19, 25, 42, 47, 81, 87, 89, 159, 169 washington, d. c., 94 washington, general, 90, 116, 117, 197, 220, 233, 234 watches, 200-202, 206 watches, striking, 206 watteau, 168 wayside inn, 143 wedgwood, josiah, 75, 124 west india company, 35 west indies, 112 weymouth, 141 whipple house, 90, 99, 137 whitfield's house, 102 wigs, 125 william iii., 211 willards, simon, aaron, benjamin, simon, jr., 219 wine coolers, 61, 89, 90 winthrop, governor, 100 " mrs., 101 "wooden ware", 117, 233 woods, 108, 136, 137, 141, 222, 223, 226 worcester, 52 "works in architecture by robert and james adam, esquires", 74 yale university library, 123 youghal, 51 zucchi, 74 [illustration: interior of a french chateau shewing furniture of the time. period: late xiv. or early xv. century.] illustrated history of furniture: _from the earliest to the present time._ by frederick litchfield. with numerous illustrations 1893. preface. in the following pages the author has placed before the reader an account of the changes in the design of decorative furniture and woodwork, from the earliest period of which we have any reliable or certain record until the present time. a careful selection of illustrations has been made from examples of established authenticity, the majority of which are to be seen, either in the museums to which reference is made, or by permission of the owners; and the representations of the different "interiors" will convey an idea of the character and disposition of the furniture of the periods to which they refer. these illustrations are arranged, so far as is possible, in chronological order, and the descriptions which accompany them are explanatory of the historical and social changes which have influenced the manners and customs, and directly or indirectly affected the furniture of different nations. an endeavour is made to produce a "panorama" which may prove acceptable to many, who, without wishing to study the subject deeply, may desire to gain some information with reference to it generally, or with regard to some part of it, in which they may feel a particular interest. it will be obvious that within the limits of a single volume of moderate dimensions it is impossible to give more than an outline sketch of many periods of design and taste which deserve far more consideration than is here bestowed upon them; the reader is, therefore, asked to accept the first chapter, which refers to "ancient furniture" and covers a period of several centuries, as introductory to that which follows, rather than as a serious attempt to examine the history of the furniture during that space of time. the fourth chapter, which deals with a period of some hundred and fifty years, from the time of king james the first until that of chippendale and his contemporaries, and the last three chapters, are more fully descriptive than some others, partly because trustworthy information as to these times is more accessible, and partly because it is probable that english readers will feel greater interest in the furniture of which they are the subject. the french _meubles de luxe_, from the latter half of the seventeenth century until the revolution, are also treated more fully than the furniture of other periods and countries, on account of the interest which has been manifested in this description of the cabinet maker's and metal mounter's work during the past ten or fifteen years. there is evidence of this appreciation in the enormous prices realised at notable auction sales, when such furniture has been offered for competition to wealthy connoisseurs. in order to gain a more correct idea of the design of furniture of different periods, it has been necessary to notice the alterations in architectural styles which influenced, and were accompanied by, corresponding changes in the fashion of interior woodwork. such comments are made with some diffidence, as it is felt that this branch of the subject would have received more fitting treatment by an architect, who was also an antiquarian, than by an antiquarian with only a limited knowledge of architecture. some works on "furniture" have taken the word in its french interpretation, to include everything that is "movable" in a house; other writers have combined with historical notes, critical remarks and suggestions as to the selection of furniture. the author has not presumed to offer any such advice, and has confined his attention to a description of that which, in its more restricted sense, is understood as "decorative furniture and woodwork." for his own information, and in the pursuit of his business, he has been led to investigate the causes and the approximate dates of the several changes in taste which have taken place, and has recorded them in as simple and readable a story as the difficulties of the subject permit. numerous acts of kindness and co-operation, received while preparing the work for the press, have rendered the task very pleasant; and while the author has endeavoured to acknowledge, in a great many instances, the courtesies received, when noticing the particular occasion on which such assistance was rendered, he would desire generally to record his thanks to the owners of historic mansions, the officials of our museums, the clerks of city companies, librarians, and others, to whom he is indebted. the views of many able writers who have trodden the same field of enquiry have been adopted where they have been confirmed by the writer's experience or research, and in these cases he hopes he has not omitted to express his acknowledgments for the use he has made of them. the large number of copies subscribed for, accompanied, as many of the applications have been, by expressions of goodwill and confidence beforehand, have been very gratifying, and have afforded great encouragement during the preparation of the work. if the present venture is received in such a way as to encourage a larger effort, the writer hopes both to multiply examples and extend the area of his observations. f. l. hanway street, london, _july_, 1892. contents. chapter i. biblical references: solomon's house and temple--palace of ahashuerus. assyrian furniture: nimrod's palace--mr. george smith quoted. egyptian furniture: specimens in the british museum--the workman's stool--various articles of domestic furniture--dr. birch quoted. greek furniture: the bas reliefs in the british museum--the chest of cypselus--laws and customs of the greeks--house of alcibiades--plutarch quoted. roman furniture: position of rome--the roman house--cicero's table--thyine wood--customs of wealthy romans--downfall of the empire. chapter ii. period of 1000 years from fall of rome, a.d. 476, to capture of constantinople, 1453--the crusades--influence of christianity--chairs of st. peter and maximian at rome, ravenna and venice--edict of leo iii. prohibiting image worship--the rise of venice--charlemagne and his successors--the chair of dagobert--byzantine character of furniture--norwegian carving--russian and scandinavian--the anglo-saxons--sir walter scott quoted--descriptions of anglo-saxon houses and customs--art in flemish cities--gothic architecture--the coronation chair in westminster abbey--penshurst--french furniture in the 14th century--description of rooms--the south kensington museum--transition from gothic to renaissance--german carved work: the credence, the buffet, and dressoir. chapter iii. the renaissance in italy: leonardo da vinci and raffaele--church of st. peter, contemporary great artists--the italian palazzo--methods of gilding, inlaying and mounting furniture--pietra-dura and other enrichments--ruskin's criticism. the renaissance in france: francois i. and the chateau of fontainebleau--influence on courtiers-chairs of the time--design of cabinets--m.e. bonnaffe on the renaissance--bedstead of jeanne d'albret--deterioration of taste in time of henry iv.--louis xiii. furniture--brittany woodwork. the renaissance in the netherlands: influence of the house of burgundy on art--the chimney-piece at bruges, and other casts of specimens in south kensington museum. the renaissance in spain: the resources of spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--influence of saracenic art--high-backed leather chairs--the carthusian convent at granada. the renaissance in germany: albrecht dürer--famous steel chair of augsburg--german seventeenth century carving in st. saviour's hospital. the renaissance in england: influence of foreign artists in the time of henry viii.--end of feudalism--hampton court palace--linen pattern panels--woodwork in the henry vii. chapel at westminster abbey--livery cupboards at hengrave--harrison quoted--the "parler"--alteration in english customs--chairs of the sixteenth century--coverings and cushions of the time, extract from old inventory--south kensington cabinet--elizabethan mirror at goodrich court--shaw's "ancient furniture"--the glastonbury chair--introduction of frames into england--characteristics of native woodwork--famous country mansions--alteration in design of woodwork and furniture--panelled rooms in south kensington--the charterhouse--gray's inn hall and middle temple--the hall of the carpenters' company--the great bed of ware--shakespeare's chair--penshurst place. chapter iv. english home life in the reign of james i.--sir henry wootton quoted--inigo jones and his work--ford castle--chimney pieces in south kensington museum--table in the carpenters' hall--hall of the barbers' company--the charterhouse--time of charles i.--furniture at knole--eagle house, wimbledon--mr. charles eastlake--monuments at canterbury and westminster--settles, couches, and chairs of the stuart period--sir paul pindar's house--cromwellian furniture--the restoration--indo-portuguese furniture--hampton court palace--evelyn's description--the great fire of london--hall of the brewers' company--oak panelling of the time--grinling gibbons and his work--the edict of nantes--silver furniture at knole--william iii. and dutch influence--queen anne--sideboards, bureaus, and grandfather's clocks--furniture at hampton court. chapter v. chinese furniture: probable source of artistic taste--sir william chambers quoted--racinet's "le costume historique"--dutch influence--the south kensington and the duke of edinburgh collections--processes of making lacquer--screens in the kensington museum. japanese furniture: early history--sir rutherford alcock and lord elgin--the collection of the shogun--famous collections--action of the present government of japan--special characteristics. indian furniture: early european influence--furniture of the moguls--racinet's work--bombay furniture--ivory chairs and table--specimens in the india museum. persian woodwork: collection of objets d'art formed by gen. murdoch smith, r.e.---industrial arts of the persians--arab influence--south kensington specimens. saracenic woodwork: oriental customs--specimens in the south kensington museum of arab work--m. d'aveune's work. chapter vi. palace of versailles: "grand" and "petit trianon"--the three styles of louis xiv., xv., and xvi.--colbert and lebrun--andré charles boule and his work--carved and gilt furniture--the regency and its influence--alteration in condition of french society--watteau, lancret, and boucher. louis xv. furniture: famous ébenistes--vernis martin furniture--caffieri and gouthière mountings--sêvres porcelain introduced into cabinets--gobelins tapestry--the "bureau du roi." louis xvi. and marie antoinette: the queen's influence--the painters chardin and greuze--more simple designs--characteristic ornaments of louis xvi. furniture--riesener's work--gouthière's mountings--specimens in the louvre--the hamilton palace sale--french influence upon the design of furniture in other countries--the jones collection--extract from "the times". chapter vii. chinese style--sir william chambers--the brothers adams' work--pergolesi, cipriani, and angelica kauffmann--architects of the time--wedgwood and flaxman--chippendale's work and his contemporaries--chair in the barbers' hall--lock, shearer, hepplewhite; ince, mayhew, sheraton--introduction of satinwood and mahogany--gillows, of lancaster and london--history of the sideboard--the dining room--furniture of the time. chapter viii. the french revolution and first empire--influence on design of napoleon's campaigns--the cabinet presented to marie louise--dutch furniture of the time--english furniture--sheraton's later work--thomas hope, architect--george smith's designs--fashion during the regency--gothic revival--seddon's furniture--other makers--influence on design of the restoration in france--furniture of william iv. and early part of queen victoria's reign--baroque and rococo styles--the panelling of rooms, dado, and skirting--the art union--the society of arts--sir charles barry and the new palace of westminster--pugin's designs--auction prices of furniture--christie's--the london club houses--steam--different trade customs--exhibitions in france and england--harry rogers' work--the queen's cradle--state of art in england during first part of present reign--continental designs--italian carving--cabinet work--general remarks. chapter ix. the great exhibition: exhibitors and contemporary cabinet makers--exhibition of 1862, london; 1867, paris; and subsequently--description of illustrations--fourdinois, wright and mansfield--the south kensington museum--revival of marquetry--comparison of present day with that of a hundred years ago--æstheticism--traditions--trades-unionism--the arts and crafts exhibition society--independence of furniture--present fashions--writers on design--modern furniture in other countries--concluding remarks. appendix. list of artists and manufacturers of furniture--woods--tapestry used for french furniture--the processes of gilding and polishing--the pianoforte. index. list of subscribers. list of illustrations. frontispiece--dwelling room of a french chateau chapter i. vignette of bas-relief--egyptian seated, as ornament to initial letter. assyrian bronze throne and footstool chairs from khorsabad and xanthus and assyrian throne repose of king asshurbanipal examples of egyptian furniture in the british museum: stool; stand for a vase; head-rest or pillow; workman's stool; vase on a stand; folding stool; ebony seat inlaid with ivory an egyptian of high rank seated an egyptian banquet chair with captives as supports, and an ivory box bacchus and attendants visiting icarus greek bedstead with a table greek furniture interior of an ancient roman house roman state chair bronze lamp and stand roman scamnum or bench bisellium, or seat for two persons roman couch, generally of bronze a roman study roman triclinium or dining room chapter ii. vignette of gothic oak armoire, as ornament to initial letter chair of st. peter, rome dagobert chair a carved norwegian doorway scandinavian chair cover of a casket carved in whalebone saxon house (ix. century) anglo-saxon furniture of about the x. century the seat on the daïs saxon state bed english folding chair (xiv. century) cradle of henry v coronation chair, westminster abbey chair in york minster two chairs of the xv. century table at penshurst bedroom (xiv. century) carved oak bedstead and chair the new born infant portrait of christine de pisan state banquet with attendant musicians (two woodcuts) a high-backed chair (xv. century) medieval bed and bedroom a scribe or copyist two german chairs carved oak buffet (french gothic) carved oak table flemish buffet a tapestried room a carved oak seat interior of apothecary's shop court of the ladies of queen anne of brittany chapter iii. vignette of the caryatides cabinet, as ornament to initial letter reproduction of decoration by raffaele salon of m. bonnaffé a sixteenth century room chair in carved walnut venetian centre table marriage coffer in carved walnut marriage coffer pair of italian carved bellows carved italian mirror frame, xvi. century a sixteenth century coffre-fort italian coffer italian chairs ebony cabinet venetian state chair ornamental panelling in st. vincent's church, rouen chimney piece (fontainebleau) carved oak panel (1577) fac-similes of engraving on wood carved oak bedstead of jeanne d'albret carved oak cabinet (lyons) louis xiii. and his court decoration of a salon in louis xiii. style an ebony armoire (flemish renaissance) a barber's shop (xvi. century) a flemish citizen at meals sedan chair of charles v. silver table (windsor castle) chair of walnut or chesnut wood, spanish, with embossed leather wooden coffer (xvi. century) the steel chair (longford castle) german carved oak buffet carved oak chest chair of anna boleyn tudor cabinet the glastonbury chair carved oak elizabethan bedstead oak wainscoting dining hall in the charterhouse screen in the hall of gray's inn carved oak panels (carpenters' hall) part of an elizabethan staircase the entrance hall, hardwick hall shakespeare's chair the "great bed of ware" the "queen's room," penshurst place carved oak chimney piece in speke hall chapter iv. a chair of xvii. century, as ornament to initial letter oak chimney piece in sir w. raleigh's house chimney piece in byfleet house "the king's chamber," ford castle centre table (carpenters' hall) carved oak chairs oak chimney piece from lime street, city oak sideboard seats at knole arm chair, knole the "spangle" bedroom, knole couch, chair, and single chair (penshurst place) "folding" and "drawinge" table chairs, stuart period chair used by charles i. during his trial two carved oak chairs settle of carved oak staircase in general treton's house settee and chair (penshurst place) carved ebony chair sedes busbiana the master's chair in the brewers' hall carved oak "livery" cupboard carved oak napkin press three chairs from hampton court, hardwick, and knole carved oak screen in stationers' hall silver furniture at knole three chimney pieces by james gibbs chapter v. pattern of a chinese lac screen an eastern (saracenic) table, as ornament to initial letter japanese cabinet of red chased lacquer ware casket of indian lacquer-work door of carved sandal wood from travancore persian incense burner of engraved brass governor's palace, manfulut specimen of saracenic panelling a carved door of syrian work shaped panel of saracenic work chapter vi. boule armoire (hamilton palace) vignette of a louis quatorze commode, as ornament to initial letter. boule armoire (jones collection) pedestal cabinet by boule (jones collection) a concert in the reign of louis xiv. a screen panel by watteau decoration of a salon in the louis xiv. style a boule commode french sedan chair part of a salon (louis xv.) carved and gilt console table louis xv. fauteuil (carved and gilt) louis xv. commode (jones collection) a parqueterie commode "bureau du roi" a boudoir (louis xvi. period) part of a salon in louis xvi. style a marqueterie cabinet (jones collection) writing table (riesener) the "marie antoinette" writing table bedstead of marie antoinette a cylinder secretaire (rothschild collection) an arm chair (louis xvi.) carved and gilt settee and arm chair a sofa en suite a marqueterie escritoire (jones collection) a norse interior, shewing french influence a secretaire with sêvres plaques a clock by robin (jones collection) harpsichord, about 1750 italian sedan chair chapter vii. vignette of a chippendale girandole, as ornament to initial letter fac-simile of drawings by robert adam english satinwood dressing table chimney-piece and overmantel, designed by w. thomas two chippendale chairs in the "chinese" style fac-simile of title page of chippendale's "gentleman and cabinet maker's director" two book cases from chippendale's "director" tea caddy carved in the french style (chippendale) a bureau from chippendale's "director" a design for a state bed from chippendale's "director" "french" commode and lamp stands bed pillars chimney-piece and mirror parlour chairs by chippendale clock case by chippendale china shelves, designed by w. ince girandoles and pier table, designed by w. thomas toilet glass and urn stand, from hepplewhite's guide parlour chairs, designed by w. ince ladies' secretaires, designed by w. ince desk and bookcase, designed by w. ince china cabinet, designed by j. mayhew dressing chairs, designed by j. mayhew designs of furniture from hepplewhite's "guide" plan of a room. (hepplewhite) inlaid tea caddy and tops of pier tables, from hepplewhite's "guide" kneehole table by sheraton chairs by sheraton chair backs, from sheraton's "cabinet maker" urn stand a sideboard in the style of robert adam carved jardiniere by chippendale cabinet and bookcase with secretaire, by sheraton chapter viii. vignette of an empire tripod, as ornament to initial letter cabinet presented to marie louise stool and arm chair (napoleon i. period) nelson's chairs by sheraton drawing room chair, designed by sheraton drawing room chair, designed by sheraton "canopy bed" by sheraton "sisters' cylinder bookcase" by sheraton sideboard and sofa table (sheraton) design of a room, by t. hope library fauteuil, from smith's "book of designs" parlor chairs bookcase by sheraton drawing room chairs, from smith's book prie-dieu in carved oak, designed by mr. pugin secretaire and bookcase (german gothic style) cradle for h.m. the queen by h. rogers design for a tea caddy by j. strudwick design for one of the wings of a sideboard by w. holmes design for a work table. h. fitzcook venetian stool of carved walnut chapter ix. examples of design in furniture in the 1851 exhibition:- sideboard, in carved oak, by gillow chimney-piece and bookcase by holland and sons cabinet by grace bookcase by jackson and graham grand pianoforte by broadwood vignette of a cabinet, modern jacobean style, as ornament to initial letter lady's escritoire by wettli, berne lady's work table and screen in papier maché sideboard (sir walter scott) by cookes, warwick a state chair by jancowski, york sideboard, in carved oak, by dorand, paris bedstead, in carved ebony, by roulé, antwerp pianoforte by leistler, vienna bookcase, in lime tree, by leistler, vienna cabinet, with bronze and porcelain, by games, st. petersburg casket of ivory, with ormolu mountings, by matifat, paris table and chair, in the classic style, by capello, turin cabinet of ebony, with carnelions, by litchfield & radclyffe (1862 exhibition, london) cabinet of ebony, with boxwood carvings, by fourdinois, paris (1867 exhibition, paris) cabinet of satinwood, with wedgwood plaques, by wright and mansfield (1867 exhibition, paris) cabinet of ebony and ivory by andrea picchi, florence (1867 exhibition, paris) the ellesmere cabinet the saloon at sandringham house the drawing room at sandringham house carved frame by radspieler, munich carved oak flemish armoire, as tail piece a sixteenth century workshop chapter i. ancient furniture. biblical references: solomon's house and temple--palace of ahashuerus. assyrian furniture: nimrod's palace--mr. george smith quoted. egyptian furniture: specimens in the british museum--the workman's stool--various articles of domestic furniture--dr. birch quoted. greek furniture: the bas reliefs in the british museum--the chest of cypselus--laws and customs of the greeks--house of alcibiades--plutarch quoted. roman furniture: position of rome--the roman house--cicero's table--thyine wood--customs of wealthy romans--downfall of the empire. biblical references. the first reference to woodwork is to be found in the book of genesis, in the instructions given to noah to make an ark of[1] gopher wood, "to make a window," to "pitch it within and without with pitch," and to observe definite measurements. from the specific directions thus handed down to us, we may gather that mankind had acquired at a very early period of the world's history a knowledge of the different kinds of wood, and of the use of tools. we know, too, from the bas reliefs and papyri in the british museum, how advanced were the ancient egyptians in the arts of civilization, and that the manufacture of comfortable and even luxurious furniture was not neglected. in them, the hebrews must have had excellent workmen for teachers and taskmasters, to have enabled them to acquire sufficient skill and experience to carry out such precise instructions as were given for the erection of the tabernacle, some 1,500 years before christ--as to the kinds of wood, measurements, ornaments, fastenings ("loops and taches"), curtains of linen, and coverings of dried skins. we have only to turn for a moment to the 25th chapter of exodus to be convinced that all the directions there mentioned were given to a people who had considerable experience in the methods of carrying out work, which must have resulted from some generations of carpenters, joiners, weavers, dyers, goldsmiths, and other craftsmen. a thousand years before christ, we have those descriptions of the building and fitting by solomon of the glorious work of his reign, the great temple, and of his own, "the king's house," which gathered from different countries the most skilful artificers of the time, an event which marks an era of advance in the knowledge and skill of those who were thus brought together to do their best work towards carrying out the grand scheme. it is worth while, too, when we are referring to old testament information bearing upon the subject, to notice some details of furniture which are given, with their approximate dates as generally accepted, not because there is any particular importance attached to the precise chronology of the events concerned, but because, speaking generally, they form landmarks in a history of furniture. one of these is the verse (kings ii. chap. 4) which tells us the contents of the "little chamber in the wall," when elisha visited the shunamite, about b.c. 895; and we are told of the preparations for the reception of the prophet: "and let us set for him there a bed and a table and a stool and a candlestick." the other incident is some 420 years later, when, in the allusion to the grandeur of the palace of ahashuerus, we catch a glimpse of eastern magnificence in the description of the drapery which furnished the apartment: "where were white, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple, to silver rings and pillars of marble; the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red and blue and white and black marble." (esther i. 6.) there are, unfortunately, no trustworthy descriptions of ancient hebrew furniture. the illustrations in kitto's bible. mr. henry soltan's "the tabernacle, the priesthood, and the offerings," and other similar books, are apparently drawn from imagination, founded on descriptions in the old testament. in these, the "table for shew-bread" is generally represented as having legs partly turned, with the upper portions square, to which rings were attached for the poles by which it was carried. as a nomadic people, their furniture would be but primitive, and we may take it that as the jews and assyrians came from the same stock, and spoke the same language, such ornamental furniture as there was would, with the exception of the representations of figures of men or animals, be of a similar character. assyrian furniture. [illustration: part of assyrian bronze throne and footstool, about b.c. 880, reign of asshurnazirpat. (_from a photo by mansell & co. of the original in the british museum._)] the discoveries which have been made in the oldest seat of monarchical government in the world, by such enterprising travellers as sir austin layard, mr. george smith, and others, who have thrown so much light upon domestic life in nineveh, are full of interest in connection with this branch of the subject. we learn from these authorities that the furniture was ornamented with the heads of lions, bulls, and rams; tables, thrones, and couches were made of metal and wood, and probably inlaid with ivory; the earliest chair, according to sir austin layard, having been made without a back, and the legs terminating in lion's feet or bull's hoofs. some were of gold, others of silver and bronze. on the monuments of khorsabad, representations have been discovered of chairs supported by animals, and by human figures, probably those of prisoners. in the british museum is a bronze throne found by sir a. layard amidst the rains of nirnrod's palace, which shews ability of high order for skilled metal work. mr. smith, the famous assyrian excavator and translator of cuneiform inscriptions, has told us in his "assyrian antiquities" of his finding close to the site of nineveh portions of a crystal throne somewhat similar in design to the bronze one mentioned above, and in another part of this interesting book we have a description of an interior that is useful in assisting us to form an idea of the condition of houses of a date which can be correctly assigned to b.c. 860:--"altogether in this place i opened six chambers, all of the same character, the entrances ornamented by clusters of square pilasters, and recesses in the rooms in the same style; the walls were coloured in horizontal bands of red, green, and yellow, and where the lower parts of the chambers were panelled with small stone slabs, the plaster and colours were continued over these." then follows a description of the drainage arrangements, and finally we have mr. smith's conclusion that this was a private dwelling for the wives and families of kings, together with the interesting fact that on the under side of the bricks he found the legend of shalmeneser ii. (b.c. 860), who probably built this palace. [illustration: assyrian chair from khorsabad. (_in the british museum._)] [illustration: assyrian chair from xanthus. (_in the british museum._)] [illustration: assyrian throne. (_in the british museum._)] in the british museum is an elaborate piece of carved ivory, with depressions to hold colored glass, etc., from nineveh, which once formed part of the inlaid ornament of a throne, shewing how richly such objects were ornamented. this carving is said by the authorities to be of egyptian origin. the treatment of figures by the assyrians was more clumsy and more rigid, and their furniture generally was more massive than that of the egyptians. an ornament often introduced into the designs of thrones and chairs is a conventional treatment of the tree sacred to asshur, the assyrian jupiter; the pine cone, another sacred emblem, is also found, sometimes as in the illustration of the khorsabad chair on page 4, forming an ornamental foot, and at others being part of the merely decorative design. the bronze throne, illustrated on page 3, appears to have been of sufficient height to require a footstool, and in "nineveh and its remains" these footstools are specially alluded to. "the feet were ornamented like those of the chair with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls." the furniture represented in the following illustration, from a bas relief in the british museum, is said to be of a period some two hundred years later than the bronze throne and footstool. [illustration: repose of king asshurbanipal. (_from a bas relief in the british museum._)] egyptian furniture. in the consideration of ancient egyptian furniture we find valuable assistance in the examples carefully preserved to us, and accessible to everyone, in the british museum, and one or two of these deserve passing notice. [illustration: "stool", "stand for a vase, head rest or pillow", "workman's stool", "vase on a stand", "folding stool", "ebony seat inlaid with ivory" (_from photos by mansell & co. of the originals in the british museum._)] nothing can be more suitable for its purpose then the "workman's stool:" the seat is precisely like that of a modern kitchen chair (all wood), slightly concaved to promote the sitter's comfort, and supported by three legs curving outwards. this is simple, convenient, and admirably adapted for long service. for a specimen of more ornamental work, the folding stool in the same glass case should be examined; the supports are crossed in a similar way to those of a modern camp-stool, and the lower parts of the legs carved as heads of geese, with inlayings of ivory to assist the design and give richness to its execution. [illustration: an egyptian of high rank seated. (_from a photo by mansell & co. of the original wall painting in the british museum._) period: b.c. 1500-1400.] portions of legs and rails, turned as if by a modern lathe, mortice holes and tenons, fill us with wonder as we look upon work which, at the most modern computation, must be 3,000 years old, and may be of a date still more remote. in the same room, arranged in cases round the wall, is a collection of several objects which, if scarcely to be classed under the head of furniture, are articles of luxury and comfort, and demonstrate the extraordinary state of civilisation enjoyed by the old egyptians, and help us to form a picture of their domestic habits. [illustration: an egyptian banquet. (_from a wall painting at thebes._)] amongst these are boxes inlaid with various woods, and also with little squares of bright turquoise blue pottery let in as a relief; others veneered with ivory; wooden spoons, carved in most intricate designs, of which one, representing a girl amongst lotus flowers, is a work of great artistic skill; boats of wood, head rests, and models of parts of houses and granaries, together with writing materials, different kinds of tools and implements, and a quantity of personal ornaments and requisites. "for furniture, various woods were employed, ebony, acacia or sont, cedar, sycamore, and others of species not determined. ivory, both of the hippopotamus and elephant, was used for inlaying, as also were glass pastes; and specimens of marquetry are not uncommon. in the paintings in the tombs, gorgeous pictures and gilded furniture are depicted. for cushions and mattresses, linen cloth and colored stuffs, filled with feathers of the waterfowl, appear to have been used, while seats have plaited bottoms of linen cord or tanned and dyed leather thrown over them, and sometimes the skins of panthers served this purpose. for carpets they used mats of palm fibre, on which they often sat. on the whole, an egyptian house was lightly furnished, and not encumbered with so many articles as are in use at the present day." the above paragraph forms part of the notice with which the late dr. birch, the eminent antiquarian, formerly at the head of this department of the british museum, has prefaced a catalogue of the antiquities alluded to. the visitor to the museum should be careful to procure one of these useful and inexpensive guides to this portion of its contents. some illustrations taken from ancient statues and bas reliefs in the british museum, from copies of wall paintings at thebes, and other sources, give us a good idea of the furniture of this interesting people. in one of these will be seen a representation of the wooden head-rest which prevented the disarrangement of the coiffure of an egyptian lady of rank. a very similiar head-rest, with a cushion attached for comfort to the neck, is still in common use by the japanese of the present day. [illustration: chair with captives as supports. (_from papyrus in british museum._)] [illustration: an ivory box.] [illustration: bacchus and attendants visiting icarus. (_reproduced from a bas-relief in the british museum._) period: about a.d. 100.] greek furniture. an early reference to greek furniture is made by homer, who describes coverlids of dyed wool, tapestries, carpets, and other accessories, which must therefore have formed part of the contents of a great man's residence centuries before the period which we recognise as the "meridian" of greek art. in the second vase-room of the british museum the painting on one of these vases represents two persons sitting on a couch, upon which is a cushion of rich material, while for the comfort of the sitters there is a footstool, probably of ivory. on the opposite leaf there is an illustration of a has relief in stone, "bacchus received as a guest by icarus," in which the couch has turned legs and the feet are ornamented with carved leaf work. [illustration: greek bedstead with a table. (_from an old wall painting._)] we know, too, from other illustrations of tripods used for sacred purposes, and as supports for braziers, that tables were made of wood, of marble, and of metal; also folding chairs, and couches for sleeping and resting, but not for reclining at meals, as was the fashion at a later period. in most of the designs for these various articles of furniture there is a similarity of treatment of the head, legs, and feet of lions, leopards, and sphinxes to that which we have noticed in the assyrian patterns. [illustration: greek furniture. (_from antique bas reliefs._)] the description of an interesting piece of furniture may be noticed here, because its date is verified by its historical associations, and it was seen and described by pausanias about 800 years afterwards. this is the famous chest of cypselus of corinth, the story of which runs that when his mother's relations, having been warned by the oracle of delphi, that her son would prove formidable to the ruling party, sought to murder him, his life was saved by his concealment in this chest, and he became ruler of corinth for some 30 years (b.c. 655-625). it is said to have been made of cedar, carved and decorated with figures and bas reliefs, some in ivory, some in gold or ivory part gilt, and inlaid on all four sides and on the top. the peculiar laws and customs of the greeks at the time of their greatest prosperity were not calculated to encourage display or luxury in private life, or the collection of sumptuous furniture. their manners were simple and their discipline was very severe. statuary, sculpture of the best kind, painting of the highest merit--in a word, the best that art could produce--were all dedicated to the national service in the enrichment of temples and other public buildings, the state having indefinite and almost unlimited power over the property of all wealthy citizens. the public surroundings of an influential athenian were therefore in direct contrast to the simplicity of his home, which contained the most meagre supply of chairs and tables, while the _chef d'oeuvres_ of phidias adorned the senate house, the theatre, and the temple. there were some exceptions to this rule, and we have records that during the later years of greek prosperity such simplicity was not observed. alcibiades is said to have been the first to have his house painted and decorated, and plutarch tells us that he kept the painter agatharcus a prisoner until his task was done, and then dismissed him with an appropriate reward. another ancient writer relates that "the guest of a private house was enjoined to praise the decorations of the ceilings and the beauty of the curtains suspended from between the columns." this occurs, according to mr. perkins, the american translator of dr. falke's german book "kunst im hause," in the "wasps of aristophanes," written b.c. 422. the illustrations, taken from the best authorities in the british museum, the national library of paris, and other sources, shew the severe style adopted by the greeks in their furniture. roman furniture. as we are accustomed to look to greek art of the time of pericles for purity of style and perfection of taste, so do we naturally expect the gradual demoralisation of art in its transfer to the great roman empire. from that little village on the palatine hill, founded some 750 years b.c., rome had spread and conquered in every direction, until in the time of augustus she was mistress of the whole civilised world, herself the centre of wealth, civilisation, luxury, and power. antioch in the east and alexandria in the south ranked next to her as great cities of the world. from the excavations of herculaneum and pompeii we have learned enough to conceive some general idea of the social life of a wealthy roman in the time of rome's prosperity. the houses had no upper story, but were formed by the enclosure of two or more quadrangles, each surrounded by courts opening into rooms, and receiving air and ventilation from the centre open square or court. the illustration will give an idea of this arrangement. in mr. hungerford pollen's useful handbook there is a description of each room in a roman house, with its proper latin title and purpose; and we know from other descriptions of ancient rome that the residences in the imperial city were divided into two distinct classes--that of _domus_ and _insula_, the former being the dwellings of the roman nobles, and corresponding to the modern _palazzi_, while the latter were the habitations of the middle and lower classes. each _insula _ consisted of several sets of apartments, generally let out to different families, and was frequently surrounded by shops. the houses described by mr. pollen appear to have had no upper story, but as ground became more valuable in rome, houses were built to such a height as to be a source of danger, and in the time of augustus there were not only strict regulations as to building, but the height was limited to 70 feet. the roman furniture of the time was of the most costly kind. [illustration: interior of an ancient roman house. said to have been that of sallust. period: b.c. 20 to a.d. 20.] tables were made of marble, gold, silver, and bronze, and were engraved, damascened, plated, and enriched with precious stones. the chief woods used were cedar, pine, elm, olive, ash, ilex, beech, and maple. ivory was much used, and not only were the arms and legs of couches and chairs carved to represent the limbs of animals, as has been noted in the assyrian, egyptian, and greek designs, but other parts of furniture were ornamented by carvings in bas relief of subjects taken from greek mythology and legend. veneers were cut and applied, not as some have supposed for the purpose of economy, but because by this means the most beautifully marked or figured specimens of the woods could be chosen, and a much richer and more decorative effect produced than would be possible when only solid timber was used. as a prominent instance of the extent to which the romans carried the costliness of some special pieces of furniture, we have it recorded on good authority (mr. pollen) that the table made for cicero cost a million sesterces, a sum equal to about £9,000, and that one belonging to king juba was sold by auction for the equivalent of £10,000. [illustration: roman state chair. (_from the marble example in the musée du louvre._)] [illustration: roman bronze lamp and stand. (_found in pompeii._)] cicero's table was made of a wood called thyine--wood which was brought from africa and held in the highest esteem. it was valued not only on account of its beauty but also from superstitious or religious reasons. the possession of thyine wood was supposed to bring good luck, and its sacredness arose from the fact that from it was produced the incense used by the priests. dr. edward clapton, of st. thomas' hospital, who has made a collection of woods named in the scriptures, has managed to secure a specimen of thyine, which a friend of his obtained on the atlas mountains. it resembles the woods which we know as tuyere and amboyna.[2] roman, like greek houses, were divided into two portions--the front for reception of guests and the duties of society, with the back for household purposes, and the occupation of the wife and family; for although the position of the roman wife was superior to that of her greek contemporary, which was little better than that of a slave, still it was very different to its later development. the illustration given here of a repast in the house of sallust, represents the host and his eight male guests reclining on the seats of the period, each of which held three persons, and was called a triclinium, making up the favorite number of a roman dinner party, and possibly giving us the proverbial saying--"not less than the graces nor more than the muses"--which is still held to be a popular regulation for a dinner party. [illustration: roman scamnum or bench.] [illustration: roman bisellium, or seat for two persons. but generally occupied by one, on occasions of festivals, etc.] from discoveries at herculaneum and pompeii a great deal of information has been gained of the domestic life of the wealthier roman citizens, and there is a useful illustration at the end of this chapter of the furniture of a library or study in which the designs are very similar to the greek ones we have noticed; it is not improbable they were made and executed by greek workmen. it will be seen that the books such as were then used, instead of being placed on shelves or in a bookcase, were kept in round boxes called _scrinia_, which were generally of beech wood, and could be locked or sealed when required. the books in rolls or sewn together were thus easily carried about by the owner on his journeys. mr. hungerford pollen mentions that wearing apparel was kept in _vestiaria_, or wardrobe rooms, and he quotes plutarch's anecdote of the purple cloaks of lucullus, which were so numerous that they must have been stored in capacious hanging closets rather than in chests. in the _atrium_, or public reception room, was probably the best furniture in the house. according to moule's "essay on roman villas," "it was here that numbers assembled daily to pay their respects to their patron, to consult the legislator, to attract the notice of the statesman, or to derive importance in the eyes of the public from an apparent intimacy with a man in power." the growth of the roman empire eastward, the colonisation of oriental countries, and subsequently the establishment of an eastern empire, produced gradually an alteration in greek design, and though, if we were discussing the merits of design and the canons of taste, this might be considered a decline, still its influence on furniture was doubtless to produce more ease and luxury, more warmth and comfort, than would be possible if the outline of every article of useful furniture were decided by a rigid adherence to classical principles. we have seen that this was more consonant with the public life of an athenian; but the romans, in the later period of the empire, with their wealth, their extravagance, their slaves, their immorality and gross sensuality, lived in a splendour and with a prodigality that well accorded with the gorgeous colouring of eastern hangings and embroideries, of rich carpets and comfortable cushions, of the lavish use of gold and silver, and meritricious and redundant ornament. [illustration: roman couch, generally of bronze. (_from an antique bas relief._)] this slight sketch, brief and inadequate as it is, of a history of furniture from the earliest time of which we have any record, until from the extraordinary growth of the vast roman empire, the arts and manufactures of every country became as it were centralised and focussed in the palaces of the wealthy romans, brings us down to the commencement of what has been deservedly called "the greatest event in history"--the decline and fall of this enormous empire. for fifteen generations, for some five hundred years, did this decay, this vast revolution, proceed to its conclusion. barbarian hosts settled down in provinces they had overrun and conquered, the old pagan world died as it were, and the new christian era dawned. from the latter end of the second century until the last of the western caesars, in a.d. 476, it is, with the exception of a short interval when the strong hand of the great theodosius stayed the avalanche of rome's invaders, one long story of the defeat and humiliation of the citizens of the greatest power the world has ever known. it is a vast drama that the genius and patience of a gibbon has alone been able to deal with, defying almost by its gigantic catastrophes and ever raging turbulence the pen of history to chronicle and arrange. when the curtain rises on a new order of things, the age of paganism has passed away, and the period of the middle ages will have commenced. [illustration: a roman study. shewing scrolls or books in a "scrinium;" also lamp, writing tablets, etc.] [illustration: the roman triclinium, or dining room. the plan in the margin shews the position of guests; the place of honor was that which is indicated by "no. 1," and that of the host by "no. 9." (_the illustration is taken from dr. jacob von falke's "kunst im hause."_)] [illustration: plan of a triclinium.] chapter ii. the middle ages. period of 1000 years from fall of rome, a.d. 476, to capture of constantinople, 1453--the crusades--influence of christianity--chairs of st. peter and maximian at rome, ravenna and venice--edict of leo iii. prohibiting image worship--the rise of venice--charlemagne and his successors--the chair of dagobert--byzantine character of furniture--norwegian carving--russian and scandinavian--the anglo-saxons--sir walter scott quoted--descriptions of anglo-saxon houses and customs--art in flemish cities--gothic architecture--the coronation chair at westminster abbey--penshurst--french furniture in the 14th century--description of rooms--the south kensington museum--transition from gothic to renaissance--german carved work: the credence, the buffet, and dressoir. [illustration] the history of furniture is so thoroughly a part of the history of the manners and customs of different peoples, that one can only understand and appreciate the several changes in style, sometimes gradual and sometimes rapid, by reference to certain historical events and influences by which such changes were effected. thus, we have during the space of time known as the middle ages, a stretch of some 1,000 years, dating from the fall of rome itself, in a.d. 476, to the capture of constantinople by the turks under mahomet ii. in 1453, an historical panorama of striking incidents and great social changes bearing upon our subject. it was a turbulent and violent period, which saw the completion of rome's downfall, the rise of the carlovingian family, the subjection of britain by the saxons, the danes, and the normans; the extraordinary career and fortunes of mahomet; the conquest of spain and a great part of africa by the moors; and the crusades, which, for a common cause, united the swords and spears of friend and foe. it was the age of monasteries and convents, of religious persecutions and of heroic struggles of the christian church. it was the age of feudalism, chivalry, and war; but, towards the close, a time of comparative civilisation and progress, of darkness giving way to the light which followed; the night of the middle ages preceding the dawn of the renaissance. with the growing importance of constantinople, the capital of the eastern empire, families of well-to-do citizens flocked thither from other parts, bringing with them all their most valuable possessions; and the houses of the great became rich in ornamental furniture, the style of which was a mixture of eastern and roman: that is, a corruption of the early classic greek developing into the style known as byzantine. the influence of christianity upon the position of women materially affected the customs and habits of the people. ladies were allowed to be seen in chariots and open carriages, the designs of which, therefore, improved and became more varied; the old custom of reclining at meals ceased, and guests sat on benches; and though we have, with certain exceptions, such as the chair of st. peter at rome, and that of maximian in the cathedral at ravenna, no specimens of furniture of this time, we have in the old byzantine ivory bas-reliefs such representations of circular throne chairs and of ecclesiastical furniture as suffice to show the class of woodwork then in vogue. the chair of st. peter is one of the most interesting relics of the middle ages. the woodcut will shew the design, which is, like other work of the period, byzantine, and the following description is taken from mr. hungerford pollen's introduction to the south kensington catalogue:--"the chair is constructed of wood, overlaid with carved ivory work and gold. the back is bound together with iron. it is a square with solid front and arms. the width in front is 39 inches; the height in front 30 inches, shewing that a scabellum or footstool must have belonged to it.... in the front are 18 groups or compositions from the gospels, carved in ivory with exquisite fineness, and worked with inlay of the purest gold. on the outer sides are several little figures carved in ivory. it formed, according to tradition, part of the furniture of the house of the senator pudens, an early convert to the christian faith. it is he who gave to the church his house in rome, of which much that remains is covered by the church of st. pudenziana. pudens gave this chair to st. peter, and it became the throne of the see. it was kept in the old basilica of st. peter's." since then it has been transferred from place to place, until now it remains in the present church of st. peter's, but is completely hidden from view by the seat or covering made in 1667, by bernini, out of bronze taken from the pantheon. much has been written about this famous chair. cardinal wiseman and the cavaliere de rossi have defended its reputation and its history, and mr. nesbitt, some years ago, read a paper on the subject before the society of antiquaries. [illustration: chair of st. peter, rome.] formerly there was in venice another chair of st. peter, of which there is a sketch from a photograph in mrs. oliphant's "makers of venice." it is said to have been a present from the emperor michel, son of theophilus (824-864), to the venetian republic in recognition of services rendered, by either the doge gradonico, who died in 1864, or his predecessor, against the mahommedan incursions. fragments only now remain, and these are preserved in the church of st. pietro, at castello. there is also a chair of historic fame preserved in venice, and now kept in the treasury of st. mark's. originally in alexandria, it was sent to constantinople and formed part of the spoils taken by the venetians in 1204. like both the other chairs, this was also ornamented with ivory plaques, but these have been replaced by ornamental marble. the earliest of the before-mentioned chairs, namely, the one at ravenna, was made for the archbishop about 546 to 556, and is thus described in mr. maskell's "handbook on ivories," in the science and art series:--"the chair has a high back, round in shape, and is entirely covered with plaques of ivory arranged in panels carved in high relief with scenes from the gospels and with figures of saints. the plaques have borders with foliated ornaments, birds and animals; flowers and fruits filling the intermediate spaces. du sommerard names amongst the most remarkable subjects, the annunciation, the adoration of the wise men, the flight into egypt, and the baptism of our lord." the chair has also been described by passeri, the famous italian antiquary, and a paper was read upon it, by sir digby wyatt, before the arundel society, in which he remarked that as it had been fortunately preserved as a holy relic, it wore almost the same appearance as when used by the prelate for whom it was made, save for the beautiful tint with which time had invested it. long before the general break up of the vast roman empire, influences had been at work to decentralise art, and cause the migration of trained and skilful artisans to countries where their work would build up fresh industries, and give an impetus to progress, where hitherto there had been stagnation. one of these influences was the decree issued in a.d. 726 by leo iii., emperor of the eastern empire, prohibiting all image worship. the consequences to art of such a decree were doubtless similar to the fanatical proceedings of the english puritans of the seventeenth century, and artists, driven from their homes, were scattered to the different european capitals, where they were gladly received and found employment and patronage. it should be borne in mind that at this time venice was gradually rising to that marvellous position of wealth and power which she afterwards held. "a ruler of the waters and their powers: and such she was;--her daughters had their dowers from spoils of nations, and the exhaustless east pour'd in her lap all gems in sparkling showers; in purple was she robed and of her feasts monarchs partook, and deemed their dignity increased." her wealthy merchants were well acquainted with the arts and manufactures of other countries, and venice would be just one of those cities to attract the artist refugee. it is indeed here that wood carving as an art may be said to have specially developed itself, and though, from its destructible nature, there are very few specimens extant dating from this early time, yet we shall see that two or three hundred years later ornamental woodwork flourished in a state of perfection which must have required a long probationary period. [illustration: dagobert chair. chair of dagobert, of gilt bronze, now in the museé de souverains, paris. originally as a folding chair said to be the work of st. eloi, 7th century; back and arms added by the abbe suger in 12th century. there is an electrotype reproduction in the south kensington museum.] turning from venice. during the latter end of the eighth century the star of charlemagne was in the ascendant, and though we have no authentic specimen, and scarcely a picture of any wooden furniture of this reign, we know that, in appropriating the property of the gallo-romans, the frank emperor king and his chiefs were in some degree educating themselves to higher notions of luxury and civilisation. paul lacroix, in "manners, customs, and dress of the middle ages," tells us that the trichorium or dining room was generally the largest hall in the palace: two rows of columns divided it into three parts: one for the royal family, one for the officers of the household, and the third for the guests, who were always very numerous. no person of rank who visited the king could leave without sitting at his table or at least draining a cup to his health. the king's hospitality was magnificent, especially on great religious festivals, such as christmas and easter. in other portions of this work of reference we read of "boxes" to hold articles of value, and of rich hangings, but beyond such allusions little can be gleaned of any furniture besides. the celebrated chair of dagobert (illustrated on p. 21), now in the louvre, and of which there is a cast in the south kensington museum, dates from some 150 years before charlemagne, and is probably the only specimen of furniture belonging to this period which has been handed down to us. it is made of gilt bronze, and is said to be the work of a monk. for the designs of furniture of the tenth to the fourteenth centuries we are in a great measure dependent upon old illuminations and missals of these remote times. they represent chiefly the seats of state used by sovereigns on the occasions of grand banquets, or of some ecclesiastical function, and from the valuable collections of these documents in the national libraries of paris and brussels, some illustrations are reproduced, and it is evident from such authorities that the designs of state furniture in france and other countries dominated by the carlovingian monarchs were of byzantine character, that pseudo-classic style which was the prototype of furniture of about a thousand years later, when the cæsarism of napoleon i., during the early years of the nineteenth century, produced so many designs which we now recognise as "empire." no history of mediaeval woodwork would be complete without noticing the scandinavian furniture and ornamental wood carving of the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. there are in the south kensington museum, plaster casts of some three or four carved doorways of norwegian workmanship, of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, in which scrolls are entwined with contorted monsters, or, to quote mr. lovett's description, "dragons of hideous aspect and serpents of more than usually tortuous proclivities." the woodcut of a carved lintel conveys a fair idea of this work, and also of the old juniper wood tankards of a much later time. [illustration: a carved norwegian doorway. period: x. to xi. century.] there are also at kensington other casts of curious scandinavian woodwork of more byzantine treatment, the originals of which are in the museums of stockholm and copenhagen, where the collection of antique woodwork of native production is very large and interesting, and proves how wood carving, as an industrial art, has flourished in scandinavia from the early viking times. one can still see in the old churches of borgund and hitterdal much of the carved woodwork of the seventh and eighth centuries; and lintels and porches full of national character are to be found in thelemarken. under this heading of scandinavian may be included the very early russian school of ornamental woodwork. before the accession of the romanoff dynasty in the sixteenth century, the ruric race of kings came originally from finland, then a province of sweden; and, so far as one can see from old illuminated manuscripts, there was a similarity of design to those of the early norwegian and swedish carved lintels which have been noticed above. [illustration: carved wood chair, scandinavian work. period: 12th to 13th century.] the covers and caskets of early mediaeval times were no inconsiderable items in the valuable furniture of a period when the list of articles coming under that definition was so limited. these were made in oak for general use, and some were of good workmanship; but of the very earliest none remain. there were, however, others, smaller and of a special character, made in ivory of the walrus and elephant, of horn and whalebone, besides those of metal. in the british museum is one of these, of which the cover is illustrated on the following page, representing a man defending his house against an attack by enemies armed with spears and shields. other parts of the casket are carved with subjects and runic inscriptions which have enabled mr. stephens, an authority on this period of archæology, to assign its date to the eighth century, and its manufacture to that of northumbria. it most probably represents a local incident, and part of the inscription refers to a word signifying treachery. it was purchased by mr. a.w. franks, f.s.a., and is one of the many valuable specimens given to the british museum by its generous curator. [illustration: cover of a casket carved in whalebone. (_northumbrian, 8th century. british museum._)] of the furniture of our own country previous to the eleventh or twelfth centuries we know but little. the habits of the anglo-saxons were rude and simple, and they advanced but slowly in civilisation until after the norman invasion. to convey, however, to our minds some idea of the interior of a saxon thane's castle, we may avail ourselves of sir walter scott's antiquarian research, and borrow his description of the chief apartment in rotherwood, the hospitable hall of cedric the saxon. though the time treated of in "ivanhoe" is quite at the end of the twelfth century, yet we have in cedric a type of man who would have gloried in retaining the customs of his ancestors, who detested and despised the new-fashioned manners of his conquerors, and who came of a race that had probably done very little in the way of "refurnishing" for some generations. if, therefore, we have the reader's pardon for relying upon the _mise en scéne_ of a novel for an authority, we shall imagine the more easily what kind of furniture our anglo-saxon forefathers indulged in. [illustration: saxon house of 9th or 10th century. (_from the harleian mss. in the british museum._)] "in a hall, the height of which was greatly disproportioned to its extreme length and width, a long oaken table--formed of planks rough hewn from the forest, and which had scarcely received any polish--stood ready prepared for the evening meal.... on the sides of the apartment hung implements of war and of the chase, and there were at each corner folding doors which gave access to the other parts of the extensive building. "the other appointments of the mansion partook of the rude simplicity of the saxon period, which cedric piqued himself upon maintaining. the floor was composed of earth mixed with lime, trodden into a hard substance, such as is often employed in flooring our modern barns. for about one quarter of the length of the apartment, the floor was raised by a step, and this space, which was called the daïs, was occupied only by the principal members of the family and visitors of distinction. for this purpose a table richly covered with scarlet cloth was placed transversely across the platform, from the middle of which ran the longer and lower board, at which the domestics and inferior persons fed, down towards the bottom of the hall. the whole resembled the form of the letter <b>t</b>, or some of those ancient dinner tables which, arranged on the same principles, may still be seen in the ancient colleges of oxford and cambridge. massive chairs and settles of carved oak were placed upon the daïs, and over these seats and the elevated table was fastened a canopy of cloth, which served in some degree to protect the dignitaries who occupied that distinguished station from the weather, and especially from the rain, which in some places found its way through the ill-constructed roof. the walls of this upper end of the hall, as far as the daïs extended, were covered with hangings or curtains, and upon the floor there was a carpet, both of which were adorned with some attempts at tapestry or embroidery, executed with brilliant or rather gaudy colouring. over the lower range of table the roof had no covering, the rough plastered walls were left bare, the rude earthen floor was uncarpeted, the board was uncovered by a cloth, and rude massive benches supplied the place of chairs. in the centre of the upper table were placed two chairs more elevated than the rest, for the master and mistress of the family. to each of these was added a footstool curiously carved and inlaid with ivory, which mark of distinction was peculiar to them." a drawing in the harleian mss. in the british museum is shewn on page 25, illustrating a saxon mansion in the ninth or tenth century. there is the hall in the centre, with "chamber" and "bower" on either side; there being only a ground floor, as in the earlier roman houses. according to mr. wright, f.s.a., who has written on the subject of anglo-saxon manners and customs, there was only one instance recorded of an upper floor at this period, and that was in an account of an accident which happened to the house in which the witan or council of st. dunstan met, when, according to the ancient chronicle which he quotes, the council fell from an upper floor, and st. dunstan saved himself from a similar fate by supporting his weight on a beam. the illustration here given shews the anglo-saxon chieftain standing at the door of his hall, with his lady, distributing food to the needy poor. other woodcuts represent anglo-saxon bedsteads, which were little better than raised wooden boxes, with sacks of straw placed therein, and these were generally in recesses. there are old inventories and wills in existence which shew that some value and importance was attached to these primitive contrivances, which at this early period in our history were the luxuries of only a few persons of high rank. a certain will recites that "the bed-clothes (bed-reafes) with a curtain (hyrite) and sheet (hepp-scrytan), and all that thereto belongs," should be given to his son. in the account of the murder of king athelbert by the queen of king offa, as told by roger of wendover, we read of the queen ordering a chamber to be made ready for the royal guest, which was adorned for the occasion with what was then considered sumptuous furniture. "near the king's bed she caused a seat to be prepared, magnificently decked and surrounded with curtains, and underneath it the wicked woman caused a deep pit to be dug." the author from whom the above translation is quoted adds with grim humour, "it is clear that this room was on the ground floor." [illustration: anglo saxon furniture of about the tenth century. (_from old mss. in the british museum._) 1. a drinking party. 2. a dinner party, in which the attendants are serving the meal on the spits on which it has been cooked. 3. anglo-saxon beds. ] there are in the british museum other old manuscripts whose illustrations have been laid under contribution representing more innocent occupations of our anglo-saxon forefathers. "the seat on the däis," "an anglo-saxon drinking party," and other illustrations which are in existence, prove generally that, when the meal had finished, the table was removed and drinking vessels were handed round from guest to guest; the storytellers, the minstrels, and the gleemen (conjurers) or jesters, beguiling the festive hour by their different performances. [illustration: the seat on the daïs.] [illustration: saxon state bed.] some of these anglo-saxon houses had formerly been the villas of the romans during their occupation, altered and modified to suit the habits and tastes of their later possessors. lord lytton has given us, in the first chapter of his novel "harold," the description of one of such saxonised roman houses, in his reference to hilda's abode. the gradual influence of norman civilisation, however, had its effect, though the unsettled state of the country prevented any rapid development of industrial arts. the feudal system by which every powerful baron became a petty sovereign, often at war with his neighbour, rendered it necessary that household treasures should be few and easily transported or hidden, and the earliest oak chests which are still preserved date from about this time. bedsteads were not usual, except for kings, queens, and great ladies; tapestry covered the walls, and the floors were generally sanded. as the country became more calm, and security for property more assured, this comfortless state of living disappeared; the dress of ladies was richer, and the general habits of the upper classes were more refined. stairs were introduced into houses, the "parloir" or talking room was added, and fire places were made in some of the rooms, of brick or stonework, where previously the smoke was allowed to escape through an aperture in the roof. bedsteads were carved and draped with rich hangings. armoires made of oak and enriched with carving, and presses date from about the end of the eleventh century. [illustration: english folding chair, 14th century.[3]] [illustration: cradle of henry v.] it was during the reign of henry iii., 1216-1272, that wood-panelling was first used for rooms, and considerable progress generally appears to have been made about this period. eleanor of provence, whom the king married in 1236, encouraged more luxury in the homes of the barons and courtiers. mr. hungerford pollen has quoted a royal precept which was promulgated in this year, and it plainly shows that our ancestors were becoming more refined in their tastes. the terms of this precept were as follows, viz., "the king's great chamber at westminster be painted a green colour like a curtain, that in the great gable or frontispiece of the said chamber, a french inscription should be painted, and that the king's little wardrobe should be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain." in another 100 or 150 years we find mediaeval art approaching its best period, not only in england, but in the great flemish cities, such as bruges and ghent, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries played so important a part in the history of that time. the taste for gothic architecture had now well set in, and we find that in this as in every change of style, the fashion in woodwork naturally followed that of ornament in stone; indeed, in many cases it is more than probable that the same hands which planned the cathedral or monastery also drew the designs for furniture, especially as the finest specimens of wood-carving were devoted to the service of the church. the examples, therefore, of the woodwork of this period to which we have access are found to be mostly of gothic pattern, with quaint distorted conceptions of animals and reptiles, adapted to ornament the structural part of the furniture, or for the enrichment of the panels. to the end of the thirteenth century belongs the coronation chair made for king edward i., 1296-1300, and now in westminster abbey. this historic relic is of oak, and the woodcut on the following page gives an idea of the design and decorative carving. it is said that the pinnacles on each side of the gabled back were formerly surmounted by two leopards, of which only small portions remain. the famous coronation stone which, according to ancient legend, is the identical one on which the patriarch jacob rested his head at bethel, when "he tarried there all night because the sun was set, and he took of the stones of that place and put them up for his pillows," gen. xxviii., can be seen through the quatrefoil openings under the seat.[4] the carved lions which support the chair are not original, but modern work; and were regilt in honour of the jubilee of her majesty in 1887, when the chair was last used. the rest of the chair now shows the natural colour of the oak, except the arms, which have a slight padding on them. the wood was, however, formerly covered with a coating of plaster, gilded over, and it is probably due to this protection that it is now in such excellent preservation. standing by its side in henry iii.'s chapel in westminster abbey is another chair, similar, but lacking the trefoil gothic arches, which are carved on the sides of the original chair; this was made for and used by mary, daughter of james ii. and wife of william iii., on the occasion of their double coronation. mr. hungerford pollen has given us a long description of this chair, with quotations from the different historical notices which have appeared concerning it. the following is an extract which he has taken from an old writer: "it appears that the king intended, in the first instance, to make the chair in bronze, and that eldam, the king's workman, had actually begun it. indeed, some parts were even finished, and tools bought for the clearing up of the casting. however, the king changed his mind, and we have accordingly 100s. paid for a chair in wood, made after the same pattern as the one which was to be cast in copper; also 13s. 4d. for carving, painting, and gilding two small leopards in wood, which were delivered to master walter, the king's painter, to be placed upon and on either side of the chair made by him. the wardrobe account of 29th ed. i. shows that master walter was paid £1 19s. 7d. 'for making a step at the foot of the new chair in which the scottish stone is placed; and for the wages of the carpenters and of the painters, and for colours and gold employed, and for the making a covering to cover the said chair.'" [illustration: coronation chair. westminster abbey.] in 1328, june 1, there is a royal writ ordering the abbot to deliver up the stone to the sheriff of london, to be carried to the queen-mother; however, it never went. the chair has been used upon the occasion of every coronation since that time, except in the case of mary, who is said to have used a chair specially sent by the pope for the occasion. [illustration: chair in the vestry of york minster. late 14th century.] the above drawing of a chair in york minster, and the two more throne-like seats on the full-page illustration, will serve to shew the best kind of ornamental ecclesiastical furniture of the fourteenth century. in the choir of canterbury cathedral there is a chair which has played its part in history, and, although earlier than the above, it may be conveniently mentioned here. this is the archbishop's throne, and it is also called the chair of st. augustine. according to legend, the saxon kings were crowned therein, but it is probably not earlier than the thirteenth century. it is an excellent piece of stonework, with a shaped back and arms, relieved from being quite plain by the back and sides being panelled with a carved moulding. [illustration: chair. in st. mary's hall, coventry. chair. from an old english monastery. period: xv. century.] penshurst place, near tonbridge, the residence of lord de l'isle and dudley, the historic home of the sydneys, is almost an unique example of what a wealthy english gentleman's country house was about the time of which we are writing, say the middle of the fourteenth century, or during the reign of edward iii. by the courtesy of lord de l'isle, the writer has been allowed to examine many objects of great interest there, and from the careful preservation of many original fittings and articles of furniture, one may still gain some idea of the "hall" as it then appeared, when that part of the house was the scene of the chief events in the life of the family--the raised daïs for host and honoured guests, the better table which was placed there (illustrated) and the commoner ones for the body of the hall; and though the ancient buffet which displayed the gold and silver cups is gone, one can see where it would have stood. penshurst is said to possess the only hearth of the time now remaining in england, an octagonal space edged with stone in the centre of the hall, over which was once the simple opening for the outlet of smoke through the roof, and the old andirons or firedogs are still there. [illustration: "standing" table at penshurst, still on the daïs in the hall.] [illustration: bedroom in which a knight and his lady are seated. (_from a miniature in "othea," a poem by christine de pisan. xiv. century, french._)] an idea of the furniture of an apartment in france during the fourteenth century is conveyed by the above illustration, and it is very useful, because, although we have on record many descriptions of the appearance of the furniture of state apartments, we have very few authenticated accounts of the way in which such domestic chambers as the one occupied by "a knight and his lady" were arranged. the prie dieu chair was generally at the bedside, and had a seat which lifted up, the lower part forming a box-like receptacle for devotional books then so regularly used by a lady of the time. [illustration: bedstead and chair in carved oak. _from miniatures in the royal library, brussels._ period: xiv. century.] towards the end of the fourteenth century there was in high quarters a taste for bright and rich colouring; we have the testimony of an old writer who describes the interior of the hotel de bohême, which after having been the residence of several great personages was given by charles vi. of france in 1388 to his brother the duke of orleans. "in this palace was a room used by the duke, hung with cloth of gold, bordered with vermilion velvet embroidered with roses; the duchess had a room hung with vermilion satin embroidered with crossbows, which were on her coat of arms; that of the duke of burgundy was hung with cloth of gold embroidered with windmills. there were besides eight carpets of glossy texture with gold flowers, one representing 'the seven virtues and seven vices,' another the history of charlemagne, another that of saint louis. there were also cushions of cloth of gold, twenty-four pieces of vermilion leather of aragon, and four carpets of aragon leather, 'to be placed on the floor of rooms in summer.' the favourite arm-chair of the princess is thus described in an inventory--'a chamber chair with four supports, painted in fine vermilion, the seat and arms of which are covered in vermilion morocco, or cordovan, worked and stamped with designs representing the sun, birds, and other devices bordered with fringes of silk and studded with nails.'" the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had been remarkable for a general development of commerce: merchants of venice, geneva, florence, milan, ghent, bruges, antwerp, and many other famous cities had traded extensively with the east and had grown opulent, and their homes naturally showed signs of wealth and comfort that in former times had been impossible to any but princes and rich nobles. laws had been made in answer to the complaints of the aristocracy to place some curb on the growing ambition of the "bourgeoisie"; thus we find an old edict in the reign of philippe the fair (1285-1314)--"no bourgeois shall have a chariot, nor wear gold, precious stones, nor crowns of gold and silver. bourgeois not being prelates or dignitaries of state shall not have tapers of wax. a bourgeois possessing 2,000 pounds (tournois) or more, may order for himself a dress of 12[5] sous 6 deniers, and for his wife one worth 16 sous at the most," etc., etc., etc. this and many other similar regulations were made in vain; the trading classes became more and more powerful, and we quote the description of a furnished apartment in p. lacroix's "manners and customs of the middle ages." "the walls were hung with precious tapestry of cyprus, on which the initials and motto of the lady were embroidered, the sheets were of fine linen of rheims, and had cost more than 300 pounds, the quilt was a new invention of silk and silver tissue, the carpet was like gold. the lady wore an elegant dress of crimson silk, and rested her head and arms on pillows ornamented with buttons of oriental pearls. it should be remarked that this lady was not the wife of a great merchant, such as those of venice and genoa, but of a simple retail dealer who was not above selling articles for 4 sous; such being the case, we cannot wonder that christine de pisan should have considered the anecdote 'worthy of being immortalized in a book.'" [illustration: "the new born infant." shewing the interior of an apartment at the end of the 14th or commencement of the 15th century. (_from a miniature in "histoire de la belle hélaine," national library of paris_)] as we approach the end of the fourteenth century, we find canopies added to the "chaires" or "chayers á dorseret," which were carved in oak or chesnut, and sometimes elaborately gilded and picked out in color. the canopied seats were very bulky and throne-like constructions, and were abandoned towards the end of the fifteenth century; and it is worthy of notice that though we have retained our word "chair," adopted from the norman french, the french people discarded their synonym in favour of its diminutive "chaise" to describe the somewhat smaller and less massive seat which came into use in the sixteenth century. [illustration: portrait of christine de pisan, seated on a canopied chair of carved wood, the back lined with tapestry. (_from miniature on ms., in the burgundy library, brussels._) period: xv. century.] the skilled artisans of paris had arrived at a very high degree of excellence in the fourteenth century, and in old documents describing valuable articles of furniture, care is taken to note that they are of parisian workmanship. according to lacroix, there is an account of the court silversmith, etienne la fontaine, which gives us an idea of the amount of extravagance sometimes committed in the manufacture and decorations of a chair, into which it was then the fashion to introduce the incrustation of precious stones; thus for making a silver arm chair and ornamenting it with pearls, crystals, and other stones, he charged the king of france, in 1352, no less a sum than 774 louis. the use of rich embroideries at state banquets and on grand occasions appears to have commenced during the reign of louis ix.--saint louis, as he is called--and these were richly emblazoned with arms and devices. indeed, it was probably due to the fashion for rich stuffs and coverings of tables, and of velvet embroidered cushions for the chairs, that the practice of making furniture of the precious metals died out, and carved wood came into favour. [illustration: state banquet, with attendant musicians. (_from miniatures in the national library, paris._) period: xv. century.] chairs of this period appear only to have been used on very special occasions; indeed they were too cumbersome to be easily moved from place to place, and in a miniature from some mss. of the early part of the fifteenth century, which represents a state banquet, the guests are seated on a long bench with a back carved in the gothic ornament of the time. in skeat's dictionary, our modern word "banquet" is said to be derived from the banes or benches used on these occasions. [illustration: a high backed chair, in carved oak (gothic style). period: xv. century. french.] [illustration: mediaeval bed and bedroom. (_from viollet-le-duc._) period: xiv. to xv. century. french.] the great hall of the king's palace, where such an entertainment as that given by charles v. to the emperor charles of luxemburg would take place, was also furnished with three "dressoirs" for the display of the gold and silver drinking cups, and vases of the time; the repast itself was served upon a marble table, and above the seat of each of the princes present was a separate canopy of gold cloth embroidered with fleur de lis. [illustration: scribe or copyist. working at his desk in a room in which are a reading desk and a chest with manuscript. (_from an old minature_) period: xv. century.] the furniture of ordinary houses of this period was very simple. chests, more or less carved, and ornamented with iron work, settles of oak or of chestnut, stools or benches with carved supports, a bedstead and a prie dieu chair, a table with plain slab supported on shaped standards, would nearly supply the inventory of the furniture of the chief room in a house of a well-to-do merchant in france until the fourteenth century had turned. the table was narrow, apparently not more than some 30 inches wide, and guests sat on one side only, the service taking place from the unoccupied side of the table. in palaces and baronial halls the servants with dishes were followed by musicians, as shewn in an old-miniature of the time, reproduced on p. 39. turning to german work of the fifteenth century, there is a cast of the famous choir stalls in the cathedral of ulm, which are considered the finest work of the swabian school of german wood carving. the magnificent panel of foliage on the front, the gothic triple canopy with the busts of isaiah, david, and daniel, are thoroughly characteristic specimens of design; and the signature of the artist, jorg syrlin, with date 1468, are carved on the work. there were originally 89 choir stalls, and the work occupied the master from the date mentioned, 1468, until 1474. the illustrations of the two chairs of german gothic furniture formerly in some of the old castles, are good examples of their time, and are from drawings made on the spot by prof. heideloff. [illustration: two german chairs (late 15th century). (_from drawings made in old german castles by prof. heideloff._)] there are in our south kensington museum some full-sized plaster casts of important specimens of woodwork of the fifteenth and two previous centuries, and being of authenticated dates, we can compare them with the work of the same countries after the renaissance had been adopted and had completely altered design. thus in italy there was, until the latter part of the fifteenth century, a mixture of byzantine and gothic of which we can see a capital example in the casts of the celebrated pulpit in the baptistry of pisa, the date of which is 1260. the pillars are supported by lions, which, instead of being introduced heraldically into the design, as would be the case some two hundred years later, are bearing the whole weight of the pillars and an enormous superstructure on the hollow of their backs in a most impossible manner. the spandril of each arch is filled with a saint in a grotesque position amongst gothic foliage, and there is in many respects a marked contrast to the casts of examples of the renaissance period which are in the museum. [illustration: carved oak buffet in gothic style (viollet le duc). period: xv. century. french.] this transition from mediaeval and gothic, to renaissance, is clearly noticeable in the woodwork of many cathedrals and churches in england and in continental cities. it is evident that the chairs, stalls, and pulpits in many of these buildings have been executed at different times, and the change from one style to another is more or less marked. the flemish buffet here illustrated is an example of this transition, and may be contrasted with the french gothic buffet referred to in the following paragraph. there is also in the central hall of the south kensington museum a plaster cast of a carved wood altar stall in the abbey of saint denis, france: the pilasters at the sides have the familiar gothic pinnacles, while the panels are ornamented with arabesques, scrolls, and an interior in the renaissance style; the date of this is late in the fifteenth century. the buffet on page 43 is an excellent specimen of the best fifteenth century french gothic oak work, and the woodcut shows the arrangement of gold and silver plate on the white linen cloth with embroidered ends, in use at this time. [illustration: carved oak table. period: late xv. or early xvi. century. french.] [illustration: flemish buffet. of carved oak; open below with panelled cupboards above. the back evidently of later work, after the renaissance had set in. (_from a photo, by messrs. r. sutton & co. from the original in the s. kensington museum._) period: gothic to renaissance, xv. century.] [illustration: a tapestried room in a french chateau, with oak chests as seats.] [illustration: carved oak seat, with moveabls backrest, in front of fireplace. period: late xv. century. french.] we have now arrived at a period in the history of furniture which is confused, and difficult to arrange and classify. from the end of the fourteenth century to the renaissance is a time of transition, and specimens may be easily mistaken as being of an earlier or later date than they really are. m. jacquemart notices this "gap," though he fixes its duration from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, and he quotes as an instance of the indecision which characterised this interval, that workers in furniture were described in different terms; the words coffer maker, carpenter, and huchier (trunk-maker) frequently occurring to describe the same class of artisan. it is only later that the word "menuisier," or joiner, appears, and we must enter upon the period of the renaissance before we find the term "cabinet maker," and later still, after the end of the seventeenth century, we have such masters of their craft as riesener described as "ebenistes," the word being derived from ebony, which, with other eastern woods, came into use after the dutch settlement in ceylon. jacquemart also notices the fact that as early as 1360 we have record of a specialist, "jehan petrot," as a "chessboard maker." [illustration: interior of an apothecary's shop. late xiv. or early xv. century. flemish. (_from an old painting._)] [illustration: court of the ladies of queen anne of brittany. (_from a miniature in the library of st. petersburg_) representing the queen weeping on account of her husband's absence during the italian war. period: xv. century.] chapter iii. the renaissance. the renaissance in italy: leonardo da vinci and raffaele--church of st. peter, contemporary great artists--the italian palazzo--methods of gilding, inlaying and mounting furniture-pietra-dura and other enrichments--ruskin's criticism. the renaissance in france: francois i. and the chateau of fontainebleau--influence on courtiers, chairs of the time--design of cabinets--m.e. bonnaffé on the renaissance, bedstead of jeanne d'albret--deterioration of taste in time of henry iv., louis xiii. furniture--brittany woodwork. the renaissance in the netherlands: influence of the house of burgundy on art--the chimney-piece at bruges, and other casts of specimens at south kensington museum. the renaissance in spain: the resources of spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--influence of saracenic art, high-backed leather chairs, the carthusian convent at granada. the renaissance in germany: albrecht dürer--famous steel chair of augsburg--german seventeenth century carving in st. saviour's hospital. the renaissance in england: influence of foreign artists in the time of henry viii.--end of feudalism--hampton court palace--linen pattern panels--woodwork in the henry vii. chapel at westminster abbey--livery cupboards at hengrave--harrison quoted--the "parler," alteration in english customs--chairs of the sixteenth century--coverings and cushions of the time, extract from old inventory--south kensington cabinet--elizabethan mirror at goodrich court--shaw's "ancient furniture" the glastonbury chair--introduction of frames into england--characteristics of native woodwork--famous country mansions, alteration in design of woodwork and furniture--panelled rooms at south kensington--the charterhouse--gray's inn hall and middle temple--the hall of the carpenter's company--the great bed of ware--shakespeare's chair--penshurst place. [illustration] it is impossible to write about the period of the renaissance without grave misgivings as to the ability to render justice to a period which has employed the pens of many cultivated writers, and to which whole volumes, nay libraries, have been devoted. within the limited space of a single chapter all that can be attempted is a brief glance at the influence on design by which furniture and woodwork were affected. perhaps the simplest way of understanding the changes which occurred, first in italy, and subsequently in other countries, is to divide the chapter on this period into a series of short notes arranged in the order in which italian influence would seem to have affected the designers and craftsmen of several european nations. towards the end of the fifteenth century there appears to have been an almost universal rage for classical literature, and we believe some attempt was made to introduce latin as a universal language; it is certain that italian art was adopted by nation after nation, and a well known writer on architecture (mr. parker) has observed:--"it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that the national styles of the different countries of modern europe were revived." as we look back upon the history of art, assisted by the numerous examples in our museums, one is struck by the want of novelty in the imagination of mankind. the glorious antique has always been our classic standard, and it seems only to have been a question of time as to when and how a return was made to the old designs of the greek artists, then to wander from them awhile, and again to return when the world, weary of over-abundance of ornament, longed for the repose of simpler lines on the principles which governed the glorious athenian artists of old. the renaissance in italy. italy was the birthplace of the renaissance. leonardo da vinci and raffaele may be said to have guided and led the natural artistic instincts of their countrymen, to discard the byzantine-gothic which, as m. bonnaffe has said, was adopted by the italians not as a permanent institution, but "faute de mieux" as a passing fashion. it is difficult to say with any certainty when the first commencement of a new era actually takes place, but there is an incident related in michael bryan's biographical notice of leonardo da vinci which gives us an approximate date. ludovico sforza, duke of milan, had appointed this great master director of painting and architecture in his academy in 1494, and, says bryan, who obtained his information from contemporary writers, "leonardo no sooner entered on his office, than he banished all the gothic principles established by his predecessor, michelino, and introduced the beautiful simplicity and purity of the grecian and roman styles." a few years after this date, pope julius ii. commenced to build the present magnificent church of st. peter's, designed by bramante d'urbino, kinsman and friend of raffaele, to whose superintendence pope leo x. confided the work on the death of the architect in 1514, michael angelo having the charge committed to him some years after raffaele's death. these dates give us a very fair idea of the time at which this important revolution in taste was taking place in italy, at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the following century, and carved woodwork followed the new direction. [illustration: reproduction of decoration by raffaelle. in the loggie of the vatican. period: italian renaissance.] [illustration: a sixteenth century room. reproduced from the "magazine of art" (by permission)] [illustration: salon of m. edmond bonnaffé, decorated and furnished in the renaissance style.] leo x. was pope in 1513. the period of peace which then ensued after war, which for so many decades had disturbed italy, as france or germany had in turn striven to acquire her fertile soil, gave the princes and nobles leisure to rebuild and adorn their palaces; and the excavations which were then made brought to light many of the works of art which had remained buried since the time when rome was mistress of the world. leo was a member of that remarkable and powerful family the medicis, the very mention of whom is to suggest the renaissance, and under his patronage, and with the co-operation of the reigning dukes and princes of the different italian states, artists were given encouragement and scope for the employment of their talents. michael angelo, titian, raffaele sanzio, andrea del sarto, correggio, and many other great artists were raising up monuments of everlasting fame; palladio was rebuilding the palaces of italy, which were then the wonder of the world; benvenuto cellini and lorenzo ghiberti were designing those marvellous chef d'oeuvres in gold, silver, and bronze which are now so rare; and a host of illustrious artists were producing work which has made the sixteenth century famous for all time. [illustration: chair in carved walnut. found in the house of michael angelo.] the circumstances of the italian noble caused him to be very amenable to art influence. living chiefly out of doors, his climate rendered him less dependent on the comforts of small rooms, to which more northern people were attached, and his ideas would naturally aspire to pomp and elegance, rather than to home life and utility. instead of the warm chimney corner and the comfortable seat, he preferred furniture of a more palatial character for the adornment of the lofty and spacious saloons of his palace, and therefore we find the buffet elaborately carved, with a free treatment of the classic antique which marks the time; it was frequently "garnished" with the beautiful majolica of urbino, of pesaro, and of gubbio. the sarcophagus, or _cassone_, of oak, or more commonly of chesnut or walnut, sometimes painted and gilded, sometimes carved with scrolls and figures; the cabinet designed with architectural outline, and fitted up inside with steps and pillars like a temple; chairs which are wonderful to look upon as guardians of a stately doorway, but uninviting as seats; tables inlaid, gilded, and carved, with slabs of marble or of florentine mosaic work, but which from their height are as a rule impossible to use for any domestic purpose; mirrors with richly carved and gilded frames are so many evidences of a style which is palatial rather than domestic, in design as in proportion. [illustration: venetian centre table, carved and gilt. in the south kensington museum.] the walls of these handsome saloons or galleries were hung with rich velvet of genoese manufacture, with stamped and gilt leather, and a composition ornament was also applied to woodwork, and then gilded and painted; this kind of decoration was termed "gesso work." [illustration: marriage coffer in carved walnut. (collection of comte de briges.) period: renaissance (xvi. century) venetian.] [illustration: marriage coffer, carved and gilt with painted subject. italian. xvi. century.] a rich effect was produced on the carved console tables, chairs, stools and frames intended for gilding, by the method employed by the venetian and florentine craftsmen, the gold leaf being laid on a red preparation, and then the chief portions highly burnished. there are in the south kensington museum several specimens of such work, and now that time and wear have caused this red groundwork to shew through the faded gold, the harmony of color is very satisfactory. [illustration: pair of italian carved bellows, in walnut wood. (_south kensington museum._)] other examples of fifteenth century italian carving, such as the old cassone fronts, are picked out with gold, the remainder of the work displaying the rich warm color of the walnut or chesnut wood, which were almost invariably employed. of the smaller articles of furniture, the "bellows" and wall brackets of this period deserve mention; the carving of these is very carefully finished, and is frequently very elaborate. the illustration on page 51 is that of a pair of bellows in the south kensington collection. [illustration: carved italian mirror frame, 16th century. (_in the south kensington museum._)] the enrichment of woodwork by means of inlaying deserves mention. in the chapter on ancient furniture we have seen that ivory was used as an inlaid ornament as early as six centuries before christ, but its revival and development in europe probably commenced in venice about the end of the thirteenth century, in copies of geometrical designs, let into ebony and brown walnut, and into a wood something like rosewood; parts of boxes and chests of these materials are still in existence. mr. maskell tells us in his handbook on "ivories," that probably owing to the difficulty of procuring ivory in italy, bone of fine quality was frequently used in its place. all this class of work was known as "tarsia," "intarsia," or "certosina," a word supposed to be derived from the name of the well-known religious community--the carthusians--on account of the dexterity of those monks at this work.[6] it is true that towards the end of the fourteenth century, makers of ornamental furniture began to copy marble mosaic work, by making similar patterns of different woods, and subsequently this branch of industrial art developed from such modest beginnings as the simple pattern of a star, or bandings in different kinds of wood in the panel of a door, to elaborate picture-making, in which landscapes, views of churches, houses and picturesque ruins were copied, figures and animals being also introduced. this work was naturally facilitated and encouraged by increasing commerce between different nations, which rendered available a greater variety of woods. in some of the early italian "intarsia" the decoration was cut into the surface of the panel piece by piece. as artists became more skilful, veneers were applied and the effect heightened by burning with hot sand the parts requiring shading; and the lines caused by the thickness of the sawcuts were filled in with black wood or stained glue to give definition to the design. [illustration: a sixteenth century "coffre-fort."] the "mounting" of articles of furniture with metal enrichments doubtless originated in the iron corner pieces and hinge plates, which were used to strengthen the old chests, of which mention has been already made, and as artificers began to render their productions decorative as well as useful, what more natural progress than that the iron corners, bandings, or fastenings, should be of ornamental forged or engraved iron. in the sixteenth century, metal workers reached a point of excellence which has never been surpassed, and those marvels of mountings in steel, iron and brass were produced in italy and germany, which are far more important as works of art, than the plain and unpretending productions of the coffer maker, which are their _raison d'etre._ the woodcut on p. 53 represents a very good example of a "coffre-fort" in the south kensington collection. the decoration is bitten in with acids so as to present the appearance of its being damascened, and the complicated lock, shewn on the inside of the lid, is characteristic of these safeguards for valuable documents at a time when the modern burglar-proof safe had not been thought of. the illustration on the following page is from an example in the same museum, shewing a different decoration, the oval plaques of figures and coats of arms being of carved ivory let into the surface of the coffer. this is an early specimen, and belongs as much to the last chapter as to the present. "pietra-dura" as an ornament was first introduced in italy during the sixteenth century, and became a fashion. this was an inlay of highly-polished rare marbles, agates, hard pebbles, lapis lazuli, and other stones; ivory was also carved and applied as a bas relief, as well as inlaid in arabesques of the most elaborate designs; tortoiseshell, brass, mother of pearl, and other enrichments were introduced in the decoration of cabinets and of caskets; silver plaques embossed and engraved were pressed into the service as the native princes of florence, urbino, ferrara, and other independent cities vied with rome, venice, and naples in sumptuousness of ornament, and lavishness of expense, until the inevitable period of decline supervened in which exaggeration of ornament and prodigality of decoration gave the eye no repose. edmond bonnaffe, contrasting the latter period of italian renaissance with that of sixteenth century french woodwork, has pithily remarked: "_chez cux, l'art du bois consiste à le dissimuler, chez nous à le faire valoir._" [illustration: italian coffer with medallions of ivory. 15th century. (_south kensington museum._)] in ruskin's "stones of venice," the author alludes to this over-ornamentation of the latter renaissance in severe terms. after describing the progress of art in venice from byzantine to gothic, and from gothic to renaissance he subdivides the latter period into three classes:--1. renaissance grafted on byzantine. 2. renaissance grafted on gothic. 3. renaissance grafted on renaissance, and this last the veteran art critic calls "double darkness," one of his characteristic terms of condemnation which many of us cannot follow, but the spirit of which we can appreciate. speaking generally of the character of ornament, we find that whereas in the furniture of the middle ages, the subjects for carving were taken from the lives of the saints or from metrical romance, the renaissance carvers illustrated scenes from classical mythology, and allegories, such as representations of elements, seasons, months, the cardinal virtues, or the battle scenes and triumphal processions of earlier times. [illustration: carved walnut wood italian chairs. 16th century. (_from photos of the originals in the south kensington museum._)] [illustration: ebony cabinet. with marble mosaics, and bronze gilt ornaments, florentine work. period: xvii. century.] the outlines and general designs of the earlier renaissance cabinets were apparently suggested by the old roman triumphal arches and sarcophagi; afterwards these were modified and became varied, elegant and graceful, but latterly as the period of decline was marked, the outlines as shewn in the two chairs on the preceding page became confused and dissipated by over-decoration. the illustrations given of specimens of furniture of italian renaissance render lengthy descriptions unnecessary. so far as it has been possible to do so, a selection has been made to represent the different classes of work, and as there are in the south kensington museum numerous examples of cassone fronts, panels, chairs, and cabinets which can be examined, it is easy to form an idea of the decorative woodwork made in italy during the period we have been considering. [illustration: venetian state chair. carved and gilt frame, upholstered with embroidered velvet. date about 1670. (_in the possession of h.m. the queen at windsor castle._)] the renaissance in france. from italy the great revival of industrial art travelled to france. charles viii., who for two years had held naples (1494-96), brought amongst other artists from italy, bernadino de brescia and domenico de cortona, and art, which at this time was in a feeble, languishing state in france, began to revive. francis i. employed an italian architect to build the chateau of fontainebleau, which had hitherto been but an old fashioned hunting box in the middle of the forest, and leonardo da vinci and andrea del sarto came from florence to decorate the interior. guilio romano, who had assisted raffaele to paint the loggie of the vatican, exercised an influence in france, which was transmitted by his pupils for generations. the marriage of henry ii. with catherine de medici increased the influence of italian art, and later that of marie de medici with henri quatre continued that influence. diane de poietiers, mistress of henri ii., was the patroness of artists; and fontainebleau has been well said to "reflect the glories of gay and splendour loving kings from francois premier to henri quatre." besides fontainebleau, francis i. built the chateau of chambord,[7] that of chenonceaux on the loire, the chateau de madrid, and others, and commenced the louvre. following their king's example, the more wealthy of his subjects rebuilt or altered their chateaux and hotels, decorated them in the italian style, and furnished them with the cabinets, chairs, coffers, armoires, tables, and various other articles, designed after the italian models. the character of the woodwork naturally accompanied the design of the building. fireplaces, which until the end of the fifteenth century had been of stone, were now made of oak, richly carved and ornamented with the armorial bearings of the "_seigneur_." the _prie dieu_ chair, which viollet le due tells us came into use in the fifteenth century, was now made larger and more ornate, in some cases becoming what might almost be termed a small oratory, the back being carved in the form of an altar, and the utmost care lavished on the work. it must be remembered that in france, until the end of the fifteenth century, there were no benches or seats in the churches, and, therefore, prayers were said by the aristocracy in the private chapel of the chateau, and by the middle classes in the chief room of the house. [illustration: ornamental panelling in st. vincent's church, rouen. period: early french renaissance. temp. francois i.] [illustration: chimney piece. in the gallery of henri ii., chateau of fontainebleau. period: french renaissance, early xvi. century.] the large high-backed chair of the sixteenth century "_chaire à haut dossier,"_ the arm chair "_chaire à bras," "chaire tournante_," for domestic use, are all of this time, and some illustrations will show the highly finished carved work of renaissance style which prevailed. besides the "_chaire_" which was reserved for the "_seigneur_," there were smaller and more convenient stools, the x form supports of which were also carved. [illustration: carved oak panel, dated 1577.] cabinets were made with an upper and lower part; sometimes the latter was in the form of a stand with caryatides figures like the famous cabinet in the chateau fontainebleau, a vignette of which forms the initial letter of this chapter; or were enclosed by doors generally decorated with carving, the upper, part having richly carved panels, which when open disclosed drawers with fronts minutely carved. m. edmond bonnaffé, in his work on the sixteenth century furniture of france, gives no less than 120 illustrations of "_tables, coffres, armoires, dressoirs, sieges, et bancs_, manufactured at orleans, anjou, maine, touraine, le berri, lorraine, burgundy, lyons, provence, auvergne, languedoc, and other towns and districts, besides the capital," which excelled in the reputation of her "menuisiers," and in the old documents certain articles of furniture are particularized as "_fait à paris_." he also mentions that francis i. preferred to employ native workmen, and that the italians were retained only to furnish the designs and lead the new style; and in giving the names of the most noted french cabinet makers and carvers of this time, he adds that jacques lardant and michel bourdin received no less than 15,700 livres for a number of "_buffets de salles," "tables garnies de leurs tréteaux," "chandeliers de bois_" and other articles. [illustration: facsimiles of engravings on wood, by j. amman, in the 16th century, showing interiors of workshops of the period.] the bedstead, of which there is an illustration, is a good representation of french renaissance. it formed part of the contents of the chateau of pau, and belonged to jeanne d'albret, mother of henri quatre, who was born at pau in 1553. the bedstead is of oak, and by time has acquired a rich warm tint, the details of the carving remaining sharp and clear. on the lower cornice moulding, the date 1562 is carved. this, like other furniture and contents of palaces in france, forms part of the state or national collection, of which there are excellent illustrations and descriptions in m. williamson's "mobilier national," a valuable contribution to the literature of this subject which should be consulted. [illustration: carved oak bedstead of jeanne d'albret. from the chateau of pau. (collection "mobilier national.") period: french renaissance (date 1562).] [illustration: carved oak cabinet. made at lyons. period: latter part of xvi. century.] another example of four-post bedsteads of french sixteenth century work is that of the one in the cluny museum, which is probably some years later than the one at pau, and in the carved members of the two lower posts, more resembles our english elizabethan work. towards the latter part of henri iv. the style of decorative art in france became debased and inconsistent. construction and ornamentation were guided by no principle, but followed the caprice of the individual. meaningless pilasters, entablatures, and contorted cornices replaced the simpler outline and subordinate enrichment of the time of henri ii., and until the great revival of taste under the "_grand monarque,"_ there was in france a period of richly ornamented but ill-designed decorative furniture. an example of this can be seen at south kensington in the plaster cast of a large chimney-piece from the chateau of the seigneur de villeroy, near menecy, by germain pillon, who died in 1590. in this the failings mentioned above will be readily recognized, and also in another example, namely, that of a carved oak door from the church of st. maclou, rouen, by jean goujon, in which the work is very fine, but somewhat overdone with enrichment. this cast is in the same collection. during the 'louis treize' period chairs became more comfortable than those of an earlier time. the word "chaise" as a diminutive of "chaire" found its way into the french dictionary to denote the less throne-like seat which was in more ordinary use, and, instead of being at this period entirely carved, it was upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework; the frame was covered, and only the legs and arms visible and slightly carved. in the illustration here given, the king and his courtiers are seated on chairs such as have been described. marqueterie was more common; large armoires, clients of drawers and knee-hole writing tables were covered with an inlay of vases of flowers and birds, of a brownish wood, with enrichments of bone and ivory, inserted in a black ground of stained wood, very much like the dutch inlaid furniture of some years later but with less colour in the various veneers than is found in the dutch work. mirrors became larger, the decoration of rooms had ornamental friezes with lower portions of the walls panelled, and the bedrooms of ladies of position began to be more luxuriously furnished. it is somewhat singular that while normandy very quickly adopted the new designs in her buildings and her furniture, and rouen carvers and joiners became famous for their work, the neighbouring province, brittany, was conservative of her earlier designs. the sturdy breton has through all changes of style preserved much of the rustic quaintness of his furniture, and when some three or four years ago the writer was stranded in a sailing trip up the ranee, owing to the shallow state of the river, and had an opportunity of visiting some of the farm houses in the country district a few miles from dinan, there were still to be seen many examples of this quaint rustic furniture. curious beds, consisting of shelves for parents and children, form a cupboard in the wall and are shut in during the day by a pair of lattice doors of moorish design, with the wheel pattern and spindle perforations. these, with the armoire of similar design, and the "huche" or chest with relief carving, of a design part moorish, part byzantine, used as a step to mount to the bed and also as a table, are still the _garniture_ of a good farm house in brittany. the earliest date of this quaint furniture is about the middle of the fifteenth century, and has been handed down from father to son by the more well-to-do farmers. the manufacture of armoires, cupboards, tables and doors, is still carried on near st. malo, where also some of the old specimens may be found. [illustration: louis xiii. and his court in a hall, witnessing a play. (_from a miniature dated_ 1643.)] [illustration: decoration for a salon in louis xiii. style.] the renaissance in the netherlands. in the netherlands, the reigning princes of the great house of burgundy had prepared the soil for the renaissance, and, by the marriage of mary of burgundy with the archduke maximilian, the countries which then were called flanders and holland, passed under the austrian rule. this influence was continued by the taste and liberality of margaret of austria, who, being appointed "governor" of the low countries in 1507, seems to have introduced italian artists and to have encouraged native craftsmen. we are told that corneille floris introduced italian ornamentation and grotesque borders; that pierre coech, architect and painter, adopted and popularised the designs of vitruvius and serlio. wood carvers multiplied and embellished churches and palaces, the houses of the burgomasters, the town halls, and the residences of wealthy citizens. oak, at first almost the only wood used, became monotonous, and as a relief, ebony and other rare woods, introduced by the then commencing commerce with the indies, were made available for the embellishments of furniture and wood work of this time. one of the most famous examples of rich wood carving is the well known hall and chimney piece at bruges with its group of cupidons and armorial bearings, amongst an abundance of floral detail. this over ornate _chef d'oeuvre_ was designed by lancelot blondel and guyot de beauregrant, and its carving was the combined work of three craftsmen celebrated in their day, herman glosencamp, andré rash and roger de smet. there is in the south kensington museum a full-sized plaster cast of this gigantic chimney piece, the lower part being coloured black to indicate the marble of which it was composed, with panels of alabaster carved in relief, while the whole of the upper portion and the richly carved ceiling of the room is of oak. the model, including the surrounding woodwork, measures thirty-six feet across, and should not be missed by any one who is interested in the subject of furniture, for it is noteworthy historically as well as artistically, being a monument in its way, in celebration of the victory gained by charles v. over francis i. of france, in 1529, at pavia, the victorious sovereign being at this time not only emperor of germany, but also enjoying amongst other titles those of duke of burgundy, count of flanders, king of spain and the indies, etc., etc. the large statues of the emperor, of ferdinand and isabella, with some thirty-seven heraldic shields of the different royal families with which the conqueror claimed connection, are prominent features in the intricate design. there is in the same part of the museum a cast of the oak door of the council chamber of the hotel de ville at audenarde, of a much less elaborate character. plain mullions divide sixteen panels carved in the orthodox renaissance style, with cupids bearing tablets, from which are depending floral scrolls, and at the sides the supports are columns, with the lower parts carved and standing on square pedestals. the date of this work is 1534, somewhat later than the bruges carving, and is a representative specimen of the flemish work of this period. [illustration: an ebony armoire, richly carved, flemish renaissance. (_in south kensington museum._)] the clever flemish artist so thoroughly copied the models of his different masters that it has become exceedingly difficult to speak positively as to the identity of much of the woodwork, and to distinguish it from german, english, or italian, although as regards the latter we have seen that walnut wood was employed very generally, whereas in flanders, oak was nearly always used for figure work. after the period of the purer forms of the first renaissance, the best time for carved woodwork and decorative furniture in the netherlands was probably the seventeenth century, when the flemish designers and craftsmen had ceased to copy the italian patterns, and had established the style we recognise as "flemish renaissance." lucas faydherbe, architect and sculptor (1617-1694)--whose boxwood group of the death of john the baptist is in the south kensington museum--both the verbruggens, and albert bruhl, who carved the choir work of st. giorgio maggiore in venice, are amongst the most celebrated flemish wood carvers of this time. vriedman de vriesse and crispin de passe, although they worked in france, belong to flanders and to the century. some of the most famous painters--francis hals, jordaens, rembrandt, metsu, van mieris--all belong to this time, and in some of the fine interiors represented by these old masters, in which embroidered curtains and rich coverings relieve the sombre colors of the dark carved oak furniture, there is a richness of effect which the artist could scarcely have imagined, but which he must have observed in the houses of the rich burghers of prosperous flanders. [illustration: a barber's shop. from a wood engraving by j. amman. 16th century. shewing a chair of the time.] in the chapter on jacobean furniture, we shall see the influence and assistance which england derived from flemish woodworkers; and the similarity of the treatment in both countries will be noticed in some of the south kensington museum specimens of english marqueterie, made at the end of the seventeenth century. the figure work in holland has always been of a high order, and though as the seventeenth century advanced, this perhaps became less refined, the proportions have always been well preserved, and the attitudes are free and unconstrained. a very characteristic article of seventeenth century dutch furniture is the large and massive wardrobe, with the doors handsomely carved, not infrequently having three columns, one in the centre and one at each side, and these generally form part of the doors, which are also enriched with square panels, carved in the centre and finished with mouldings. there are specimens in the south kensington museum, of these and also of earlier flemish work when the renaissance was purer in style and, as has been observed, of less national character. the marqueterie of this period is extremely rich, the designs are less severe, but the colouring of the woods is varied, and the effect heightened by the addition of small pieces of mother of pearl and ivory. later, this marqueterie became florid, badly finished, and the colouring of the veneers crude and gaudy. old pieces of plain mahogany furniture were decorated with a thin layer of highly coloured veneering, a meretricious ornamentation altogether lacking refinement. there is, however, a peculiarity and character about some of the furniture of north holland, in the towns of alkmaar, hoorn, and others in this district, which is worth noticing. the treatment has always been more primitive and quaint than in the flemish cities to which allusion has been made--and it was here that the old farm houses of the nord-hollander were furnished with the rush-bottomed chairs, painted green; the three-legged tables, and dower chests painted in flowers and figures of a rude description, with the colouring chiefly green and bright red, is extremely effective. [illustration: a flemish citizen at meals. (_from a xvi, century ms._)] the renaissance in spain. we have seen that spain as well as germany and the low countries were under the rule of the emperor charles v., and therefore it is unnecessary to look further for the sources of influence which brought the wave of renaissance to the spanish carvers and cabinet makers. [illustration: sedan chair of charles v. probably made in the netherlands. arranged with moveable back and uprights to form a canopy when desired. (_in the royal armoury, madrid._)] after van eyck was sent for to paint the portrait of king john's daughter, the low countries continued to export to the peninsula painters, sculptors, tapestry weavers, and books on art. french artists also found employment in spain, and the older gothic became superseded as in other countries. berruguete, a spaniard, who had studied in the atelier of michael angelo, returned to his own country with the new influence strong upon him, and the vast wealth and resources of spain at this period of her history enabled her nobles to indulge their taste in cabinets richly ornamented with repoussé plaques of silver, and later of tortoiseshell, of ebony, and of scarce woods from her indian possessions; though in a more general way chesnut was still a favorite medium. contemporary with decorative woodwork of moorish design there was also a great deal of carving, and of furniture made, after designs brought from italy and the north of europe; and mr. j.h. pollen, quoting a trustworthy spanish writer, senor j.f. riario, says:--"the brilliant epoch of sculpture (in wood) belongs to the sixteenth century, and was due to the great impulse it received from the works of berruguete and felipe de borgoña. he was the chief promoter of the italian style, and the choir of the cathedral of toledo, where he worked so much, is the finest specimen of the kind in spain. toledo, seville, and valladolid were at the time great productive and artistic centres." [illustration: silver table, late 16th or early 17th century. (_in the queen's collection, windsor castle._)] the same writer, after discussing the characteristic spanish cabinets, decorated outside with fine ironwork and inside with columns of bone painted and gilt, which were called "varguenos," says:--"the other cabinets or escritoires belonging to that period (sixteenth century) were to a large extent imported from germany and italy, while others were made in spain in imitation of these, and as the copies were very similar it is difficult to classify them." * * * [illustration: chair of walnut or chesnut wood, covered in leather with embossed pattern. spanish, (collection of baron de vallière.) period: early xvii. century.] [illustration: wooden coffer. with wrought iron mounts and falling flap, on carved stand. spanish. (collection of m. monbrison.) period: xvii. century.] "besides these inlaid cabinets, others must have been made in the sixteenth century inlaid with silver. an edict was issued in 1594, prohibiting, with the utmost rigour, the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in order not to increase the scarcity of silver." the edict says that "no cabinets, desks, coffers, braziers, shoes, tables, or other articles decorated with stamped, raised, carved, or plain silver should be manufactured." the beautiful silver table in her majesty's collection at windsor castle, illustrated on page 68, is probably one of spanish make of late sixteenth or early seventeenth century. although not strictly within the period treated of in this chapter, it is convenient to observe that much later, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, one finds the spanish cabinet maker ornamenting his productions with an inlay of ivory let into tortoiseshell, representing episodes in the history of _don quichotte_, and the national pastime of bull-fighting. these cabinets generally have simple rectangular outlines with numerous drawers, the fronts of which are decorated in the manner described, and where the stands are original they are formed of turned legs of ebony or stained wood. in many spanish cabinets the influence of saracenic art is very dominant; these have generally a plain exterior, the front is hinged as a fall-down flap, and discloses a decorative effect which reminds one of some of the alhambra work--quaint arches inlaid with ivory, of a somewhat bizarre coloring of blue and vermilion--altogether a rather barbarous but rich and effective treatment. to the seventeenth century also belong the high-backed spanish and portuguese chairs, of dark brown leather, stamped with numerous figures, birds and floral scrolls, studded with brass nails and ornaments, while the legs and arms are alone visible as woodwork; they are made of chesnut, with some leafwork or scroll carving. there is a good representative woodcut of one of these chairs. until baron davillier wrote his work on spanish art, very little was known of the different peculiarities by which we can now distinguish examples of woodwork and furniture of that country from many italian or flemish contemporary productions. some of the museum specimens will assist the reader to mark some characteristics, and it may be observed generally that in the treatment of figure subjects in the carved work, the attitudes are somewhat strained, and, as has been stated, the outlines of the cabinets are without any special feature. besides the spanish chesnut (noyer), which is singularly lustrous and was much used, one also finds cedar, cypress wood and pine. in the chapel of saint bruno, attached to the carthusian convent at granada, the doors and interior fittings are excellent examples of inlaid spanish work of the seventeenth century; the monks of this order at a somewhat earlier date are said to have produced the "tarsia," or inlaid work, to which some allusion has already been made. the renaissance in germany. german renaissance may be said to have made its debut under albrecht dürer. there was already in many of the german cities a disposition to copy flemish artists, but under dürer's influence this new departure became developed in a high degree, and, as the sixteenth century advanced, the gothic designs of an earlier period were abandoned in favour of the more free treatment of figure ornament, scrolls, enriched panels and mouldings, which mark the new era in all art work. many remarkable specimens of german carving are to be met with in augsburg, aschaffenburg, berlin, cologne, dresden, gotha, munich, manheim, nuremberg, ulm, regensburg, and other old german towns. although made of steel, the celebrated chair at longford castle in wiltshire is worthy of some notice as a remarkable specimen of german renaissance. it is fully described in richardson's "studies from old english mansions." it was the work of thomas rukers, and was presented by the city of augsburg to the emperor of germany in 1577. the city arms are at the back, and also the bust of the emperor. the other minute and carefully finished decorative subjects represent different events in history; a triumphal procession of caesar, the prophet daniel explaining his dream, the landing of aeneas, and other events. the emperor rudolphus placed the chair in the city of prague, gustavus adolphus plundered the city and removed it to sweden, whence it was brought by mr. gustavus brander about 100 years ago, and sold by him to lord radnor. as is the case with flemish wood-carving, it is often difficult to identify german work, but its chief characteristics may be said to include an exuberant realism and a fondness for minute detail. m. bonnaffé has described this work in a telling phrase: "_l'ensemble est tourmenté, laborieux, touffu tumultueux_." [illustration: the steel chair, at longford castle, wiltshire.] there is a remarkable example of rather late german renaissance oak carving in the private chapel of s. saviour's hospital, in osnaburg street, regent's park, london. the choir stalls, some 31 in number, and the massive doorway, formed part of a carthusian monastery at buxheim, bavaria, which was sold and brought to london after the monastery had been secularised and had passed into the possession of the territorial landlords, the bassenheim family. at first intended to ornament one of the colleges at oxford, it was afterwards resold and purchased by the author, and fitted to the interior of s. saviour's, and so far as the proportions of the chapel would admit of such an arrangement, the relative positions of the different parts are maintained. the figures of the twelve apostles--of david, eleazer, moses, aaron, and of the eighteen saints at the backs of the choir stalls, are marvellous work, and the whole must have been a harmonious and well considered arrangement of ornament. the work, executed by the monks themselves, is said to have been commenced in 1600, and to have been completed in 1651, and though a little later than, according to some authorities, the best time of the renaissance, is so good a representation of german work of this period that it will well repay an examination. as the author was responsible for its arrangement in its present position, he has the permission of the rev. mother at the head of s. saviour's to say that any one who is interested in art will be allowed to see the chapel. [illustration: german carved oak buffet, 17th century. (_from a drawing by prof. heideloff._)] the renaissance in england. england under henry the eighth was peaceful and prosperous, and the king was ambitious to outvie his french contemporary, francois i., in the sumptuousness of his palaces. john of padua, holbein, havernius of cleves, and other artists, were induced to come to england and to introduce the new style. it, however, was of slow growth, and we have in the mixture of gothic, italian and flemish ornament, the style which is known as "tudor." it has been well said that "feudalism was ruined by gunpowder." the old-fashioned feudal castle was no longer proof against cannon, and with the new order of things, threatening walls and serried battlements gave way as if by magic to the pomp and grace of the italian mansion. high roofed gables, rows of windows and glittering oriels looking down on terraced gardens, with vases and fountains, mark the new epoch. [illustration: carved oak chest in the style of holbein.] the joiner's work played a very important part in the interior decoration of the castles and country seats of this time, and the roofs were magnificently timbered with native oak, which was available in longer lengths than that of foreign growth. the great hall in hampton court palace, which was built by cardinal wolsey and presented to his master, the halls of oxford, and many other public buildings which remain to us, are examples of fine woodwork in the roofs. oak panelling was largely used to line the walls of the great halls, the "linen scroll pattern" being a favorite form of ornament. this term describes a panel carved to represent a napkin folded in close convolutions, and appears to have been adopted from german work; specimens of this can be seen at hampton court, and in old churches decorated in the early part of the sixteenth century. there is also some fine panelling of this date in king's college, cambridge. in this class of work, which accompanied the style known in architecture as the "perpendicular," some of the finest specimens of oak ornamented interiors are to be found, that of the roof and choir stalls in the beautiful chapel of henry vii. in westminster abbey, being world famous. the carved enrichments of the under part of the seats, or "misericords," are especially minute, the subjects apparently being taken from old german engravings. this work was done in england before architecture and wood carving had altogether flung aside their gothic trammels, and shews an admixture of the new italian style which was afterwards so generally adopted. there are in the british museum some interesting records of contracts made in the ninth year of henry viii.'s reign for joyner's work at hengrave, in which the making of 'livery' or service cupboards is specified. "ye cobards they be made ye facyon of livery y is w'thout doors." these were fitted up by the ordinary house carpenters, and consisted of three stages or shelves standing on four turned legs, with a drawer for table linen. they were at this period not enclosed, but the mugs or drinking vessels were hung on hooks, and were taken down and replaced after use; a ewer and basin was also part of the complement of a livery cupboard, for cleansing these cups. in harrison's description of england in the latter part of the sixteenth century the custom is thus described: "each one as necessitie urgeth, calleth for a cup of such drinke as him liketh, so when he hath tasted it, he delivereth the cup again to some one of the standers by, who maketh it clean by pouring out the drinke that remaineth, restoreth it to the cupboard from whence he fetched the same." it must be borne in mind, in considering the furniture of the earlier part of the sixteenth century, that the religious persecutions of the time, together with the general break-up of the feudal system, had gradually brought about the disuse of the old custom of the master of the house taking his meals in the large hall or "houseplace," together with his retainers and dependants; and a smaller room leading from the great hall was fitted up with a dressoir or service cupboard, for the drinking vessels in the manner just described, with a bedstead, and a chair, some benches, and the board on trestles, which formed the table of the period. this room, called a "parler" or "privée parloir," was the part of the house where the family enjoyed domestic life, and it is a singular fact that the clerics of the time, and also the court party, saw in this tendency towards private life so grave an objection that, in 1526, this change in fashion was the subject of a court ordinance, and also of a special pastoral from bishop grosbeste. the text runs thus: "sundrie noblemen and gentlemen and others doe much delighte to dyne in corners and secret places," and the reason given, was that it was a bad influence, dividing class from class; the real reason was probably that by more private and domestic life, the power of the church over her members was weakened. [illustration: chair said to have belonged to anna boleyn, hever castle. (_from the collection of mr. godwin, f.s.a._)] in spite, however, of opposition in high places, the custom of using the smaller rooms became more common, and we shall find the furniture, as time goes on, designed accordingly. [illustration: tudor cabinet in the south kensington museum. (_described below._)] in the south kensington museum there is a very remarkable cabinet, the decoration of which points to its being made in england at this time, that is, about the middle, or during the latter half, of the sixteenth century, but the highly finished and intricate marqueterie and carving would seem to prove that italian or german craftsmen had executed the work. it should be carefully examined as a very interesting specimen. the tudor arms, the rose and portcullis, are inlaid on the stand. the arched panels in the folding doors, and at the ends of the cabinet are in high relief, representing battle scenes, and bear some resemblance to holbein's style. the general arrangement of the design reminds one of a roman triumphal arch. the woods employed are chiefly pear tree, inlaid with coromandel and other woods. its height is 4 ft. 7 in. and width 3 ft. 1 in., but there is in it an immense amount of careful detail which could only be the work of the most skilful craftsmen of the day, and it was evidently intended for a room of moderate dimensions where the intricacies of design could be observed. mr. hungerford pollen has described this cabinet fully, giving the subjects of the ornament, the latin mottoes and inscriptions, and other details, which occupy over four closely printed pages of his museum catalogue. it cost the nation £500, and was an exceedingly judicious purchase. chairs were during the first half of the sixteenth century very scarce articles, and as we have seen with other countries, only used for the master or mistress of the house. the chair which is said to have belonged to anna boleyn, of which an illustration is given on p. 74, is from the collection of the late mr. geo. godwin, f.s.a., formerly editor of "_the builder_," and was part of the contents of hever castle, in kent. it is of carved oak, inlaid with ebony and boxwood, and was probably made by an italian workman. settles were largely used, and both these and such chairs as then existed, were dependent, for richness of effect, upon the loose cushions with which they were furnished. if we attempt to gain a knowledge of the designs of the tables of the sixteenth, and early part of the seventeenth centuries, from interiors represented in paintings of this period, the visit to the picture gallery will be almost in vain, for in nearly every case the table is covered by a cloth. as these cloths or carpets, as they were then termed, to distinguish them from the "tapet" or floor covering, often cost far more than the articles they covered, a word about them may be allowed. most of the old inventories from 1590, after mentioning the "framed" or "joyned" table, name the "carpett of turky werke" which covered it, and in many cases there was still another covering to protect the best one, and when frederick, duke of wurtemburg, visited england in 1592 he noted a very extravagant "carpett" at hampton court, which was embroidered with pearls and cost 50,000 crowns. the cushions or "quysshens" for the chairs, of embroidered velvet, were also very important appendages to the otherwise hard oaken and ebony seats, and as the actual date of the will of alderman glasseor quoted below is 1589, we may gather from the extract given, something of the character and value of these ornamental accessories which would probably have been in use for some five and twenty or thirty years previously. "inventory of the contents of the parler of st. jone's, within the cittie of chester," of which place alderman glasseor was vice-chamberlain:- "a drawinge table of joyned work with a frame," valued at "xl shillings," equilius labour £20 your present money. two formes covered with turkey work to the same belonginge. xiij shillings and iiij pence a joyned frame xvj_d_. a bord ij_s_. vj_d_. a little side table upon a frame ij_s_. v_d_. a pair of virginalls with the frame xxx_s_. sixe joyned stooles covr'd with nedle werke xv_s_. sixe other joyned stooles vj_s_. one cheare of nedle worke iij_s_. iiij_d_. two little fote stooles iiij_d_. one longe carpett of turky werke vil_i_. a shortte carpett of the same werke xiij_s_. iij_d_. one cupbord carpett of the same x_s_. sixe quysshens of turkye xij_s_. sixe quysshens of tapestree xx_s_. and others of velvet "embroidered wt gold and silver armes in the middesle." eight pictures xls. maps, a pedigree of earl leicester in "joyned frame" and a list of books. this alderman glasseor was apparently a man of taste and culture for those days; he had "casting bottles" of silver for sprinkling perfumes after dinner, and he also had a country house "at the sea," where his parlour was furnished with "a canapy bedd." as the century advances, and we get well into elizabeth's reign, wood carving becomes more ambitious, and although it is impossible to distinguish the work of flemish carvers who had settled in england from that of our native craftsmen, these doubtless acquired from the former much of their skill. in the costumes and in the faces of figures or busts, produced in the highly ornamental oak chimney pieces of the time, or in the carved portions of the fourpost bedsteads, the national characteristics are preserved, and, with a certain grotesqueness introduced into the treatment of accessories, combine to distinguish the english school of elizabethan ornament from other contemporary work. knole, longleaf, burleigh, hatfield, hardwick, and audley end are familiar instances of the change in interior decoration which accompanied that in architecture; terminal figures, that is, pedestals diminishing towards their bases, surmounted by busts of men or women, elaborate interlaced strap work carved in low relief, trophies of fruit and flowers, take the places of the more gothic treatment formerly in vogue. the change in the design of furniture naturally followed, for in cases where flemish or italian carvers were not employed, the actual execution was often by the hand of the house carpenter, who was influenced by what he saw around him. the great chimney piece in speke hall, near liverpool, portions of the staircase of hatfield, and of other english mansions before mentioned, are good examples of the wood carving of this period, and the illustrations from authenticated examples which are given, will assist the reader to follow these remarks. [illustration: the glastonbury chair. (_in the palace of the bishop of bath, and wells._)] there is a mirror frame at goodrich court of early elizabethan work, carved in oak and partly gilt; the design is in the best style of renaissance and more like italian or french work than english. architectural mouldings, wreaths of flowers, cupids, and an allegorical figure of faith are harmoniously combined in the design, the size of the whole frame being 4 ft. 5 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. it bears the date 1559 and initials r. m.; this was the year in which roland meyrick became bishop of bangor, and it is still in the possession of the meyrick family. a careful drawing of this frame was made by henry shaw, f.s.a., and published in "specimens of ancient furniture drawn from existing authorities," in 1836. this valuable work of reference also contains finished drawings of other noteworthy examples of the sixteenth century furniture and woodwork. amongst these is one of the abbot's chair at glastonbury, temp. henry viii., the original of the chair familiar to us now in the chancel of most churches; also a chair in the state-room of hardwick hall, derbyshire, covered with crimson velvet embroidered with silver tissue, and others, very interesting to refer to because the illustrations are all drawn from the articles themselves, and their descriptions are written by an excellent antiquarian and collector, sir samuel rush meyrick. the mirror frame, described above, was probably one of the first of its size and kind in england. it was the custom, as has been already stated, to paint the walls with subjects from history or scripture, and there are many precepts in existence from early times until about the beginning of henry viii.'s reign, directing how certain walls were to be decorated. the discontinuance of this fashion brought about the framing of pictures, and some of the paintings by holbein, who came to this country about 1511, and received the patronage of henry viii. some fourteen or fifteen years later, are probably the first pictures that were framed in england. there are some two or three of these at hampton court palace, the ornament being a scroll in gold on a black background, the width of the frame very small in comparison with its canvas. some of the old wall paintings had been on a small scale, and, where long stories were represented, the subjects instead of occupying the whole flank of the wall, had been divided into rows some three feet or less in height, these being separated by battens, and therefore the first frames would appear to be really little more than the addition of vertical sides to the horizontal top and bottom which such battens had formed. subsequently, frames became more ornate and elaborate. after their application to pictures, their use for mirrors was but a step in advance, and the mirror in a carved and gilt or decorated frame, probably at first imported and afterwards copied, came to replace the older mirror of very small dimensions for toilet use. until early in the fifteenth century, mirrors of polished steel in the antique style, framed in silver and ivory, had been used; in the wardrobe account of edward i. the item occurs, "a comb and a mirror of silver gilt," and we have an extract from the privy purse of expenses of henry viii. which mentions the payment "to a frenchman for certayne loking glasses," which would probably be a novelty then brought to his majesty's notice. indeed, there was no glass used for windows[8] previous to the fifteenth century, the substitute being shaved horn, parchment, and sometimes mica, let into the shutters which enclosed the window opening. the oak panelling of rooms during the reign of elizabeth was very handsome, and in the example at south kensington, of which there is here an illustration, the country possesses a very excellent representative specimen. this was removed from an old house at exeter, and its date is given by mr. hungerford pollen as from 1550-75. the pilasters and carved panels under the cornice are very rich and in the best style of elizabethan renaissance, while the panels themselves, being plain, afford repose, and bring the ornament into relief. the entire length is 52 ft. and average height 8 ft. 3 in. if this panelling could be arranged as it was fitted originally in the house of one of elizabeth's subjects, with models of fireplace, moulded ceiling, and accessories added, we should then have an object lesson of value, and be able to picture a drake or a raleigh in his west of england home. [illustration: carved oak elizabethan bedstead.] a later purchase by the science and art department, which was only secured last year for the extremely moderate price of £1,000, is the panelling of a room some 23 ft. square and 12 ft. 6 in. high, from sizergh castle, westmoreland. the chimney piece was unfortunately not purchased, but the department has arranged the panelling as a room with a plaster model of the extremely handsome ceiling. the panelling is of richly figured oak, entirely devoid of polish, and is inlaid with black bog oak and holly, in geometrical designs, being divided at intervals by tall pilasters fluted with bog oak and having ionic capitals. the work was probably done locally, and from wood grown on the estate, and is one of the most remarkable examples in existence. the date is about 1560 to 1570, and it has been described in local literature of nearly 200 years ago. [illustration: oak wainscoting, from an old house in exeter. s. kensington museum. period: english renaissance (about 1550-75).] while we are on the subject of panelling, it may be worth while to point out that with regard to old english work of this date, one may safely take it for granted that where, as in the south kensington (exeter) example, the pilasters, frieze, and frame-work are enriched, and the panels plain, the work was designed and made for the house, but, when the panels are carved and the rest plain, they were bought, and then fitted up by the local carpenter. another museum specimen of elizabethan carved oak is a fourpost bedstead, with the arms of the countess of devon, which bears date 1593, and has all the characteristics of the time. there is also a good example of elizabethan woodwork in part of the interior of the charterhouse, immortalised by thackeray, when, as "greyfriars," in "the newcomes," he described it as the old school "where the colonel, and clive, and i were brought up," and it was here that, as a "poor brother," the old colonel had returned to spend the evening of his gentle life, and, to quote thackeray's pathetic lines, "when the chapel bell began to toll, he lifted up his head a little, and said 'adsum!' it was the word we used at school when names were called." this famous relic of old london, which fortunately escaped the great fire in 1666, was formerly an old monastery which henry viii. dissolved in 1537, and the house was given some few years later to sir edward, afterwards lord north, from whom the duke of norfolk purchased it in 1565, and the handsome staircase, carved with terminal figures and renaissance ornament, was probably built either by lord north or his successor. the woodwork of the great hall, where the pensioners still dine every day, is very rich, the fluted columns with corinthian capitals, the interlaced strap work, and other details of carved oak, are characteristic of the best sixteenth century woodwork in england; the shield bears the date of 1571. this was the year when the duke of norfolk, who was afterwards beheaded, was released from the tower on a kind of furlough, and probably amused himself with the enrichment of his mansion, then called howard house. in the old governors' room, formerly the drawing room of the howards, there is a specimen of the large wooden chimney piece of the end of the sixteenth century, painted instead of carved. after the duke of norfolk's death, the house was granted by the crown to his son, the earl of suffolk, who sold it in 1611 to the founder of the present hospital, sir thomas sutton, a citizen who was reputed to be one of the wealthiest of his time, and some of the furniture given by him will be found noticed in the chapter on the jacobean period. [illustration: dining hall in the charterhouse. shewing oak screen and front of minstrels' gallery, dated 1571. period: elizabethan.] [illustration: screen in the hall of gray's inn. with table and desks referred to.] there are in london other excellent examples of elizabethan oak carving. amongst those easily accessible and valuable for reference are the hall of gray's inn, built in 1560, the second year of the queen's reign, and middle temple hall, built in 1570-2. an illustration of the carved screen supporting the minstrels' gallery in the older hall is given by permission of mr. william r. douthwaite, librarian of the "inn," for whose work, "gray's inn, its history and associations," it was specially prepared. the interlaced strap work generally found in elizabethan carving, encircles the shafts of the columns as a decoration. the table in the centre has also some low relief carving on the drawer front which forms its frieze, but the straight and severe style of leg leads us to place its date at some fifty years later than the hall. the desk on the left, and the table on the right, are probably later still. it may be mentioned here, too, that the long table which stands at the opposite end of the hall, on the daïs, said to have been presented by queen elizabeth, is not of the design with which the furniture of her reign is associated by experts; the heavy cabriole legs, with bent knees, corresponding with the legs of the chairs (also on the daïs), are of unmistakable dutch origin, and, so far as the writer's observations and investigations have gone, were introduced into england about the time of william iii. the same remarks apply to a table in middle temple hall, also said to have been there during elizabeth's time. mr. douthwaite alludes to the rumour of the queen's gift in his book, and endeavoured to substantiate it from records at his command, but in vain. the authorities at middle temple are also, so far as we have been able to ascertain, without any documentary evidence to prove the claim of their table to any greater age than the end of the seventeenth century. the carved oak screen of middle temple hall is magnificent, and no one should miss seeing it. terminal figures, fluted columns, panels broken up into smaller divisions, and carved enrichments of various devices, are all combined in a harmonious design, rich without being overcrowded, and its effect is enhanced by the rich color given to it by age, by the excellent proportions of the hall, by the plain panelling of the three other sides, and above all by the grand oak roof, which is certainly one of the finest of its kind in england. some of the tables and forms are of much later date, but an interest attaches even to this furniture from the fact of its having been made from oak grown close to the hall; and as one of the tables has a slab composed of an oak plank nearly thirty inches wide, we can imagine what fine old trees once grew and flourished close to the now busy fleet street, and the bustling strand. there are frames, too, in middle temple made from the oaken timbers which once formed the piles in the thames, on which rested "the temple stairs." in mr. herbert's "antiquities of the courts of chancery," there are several facts of interest in connection with the woodwork of middle temple. he mentions that the screen was paid for by contributions from each bencher of twenty shillings, each barrister of ten shillings, and every other member of six shillings and eightpence; that the hall was founded in 1562, and furnished ten years later, the screen being put up in 1574: and that the memorials of some two hundred and fifty "readers" which decorate the otherwise plain oak panelling, date from 1597 to 1804, the year in which mr. herbert's book was published. referring to the furniture, he says:--"the massy oak tables and benches with which this apartment was anciently furnished, still remain, and so may do for centuries, unless violently destroyed, being of wonderful strength." mr. herbert also mentions the masks and revels held in this famous hall in the time of elizabeth: he also gives a list of quantities and prices of materials used in the decoration of gray's inn hall. [illustration: three carved oak panels. now in the court room of the hall of the carpenters' company. removed from the former hall. period: elizabethan.] in the hall of the carpenters' company, in throgmorton avenue, are three curious carved oak panels, worth noticing here, as they are of a date bringing them well into this period. they were formerly in the old hall, which escaped the great fire, and in the account books of the corporation is the following record of the cost of one of these panels:- "paide for a planke to carve the arms of the companie iij_s_." "paide to the carver for carvinge the arms of the companie xxiij_s_. iiij_d_." the price of material (3s.) and workmanship (23s. 4d.) was certainly not excessive. all three panels are in excellent preservation, and the design of a harp, being a rebus of the master's name, is a quaint relic of old customs. some other oak furniture, in the hall of this ancient company, will be noticed in the following chapter. mr. jupp, a former clerk of the company, has written an historical account of the carpenters, which contains many facts of interest. the office of king's carpenter or surveyor, the powers of the carpenters to search, examine, and impose fines for inefficient work, and the trade disputes with the "joyners," the sawyers, and the "woodmongers," are all entertaining reading, and throw many side-lights on the woodwork of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. [illustration: part of an elizabethan staircase.] the illustration of hardwick hall shews oak panelling and decoration of a somewhat earlier, and also somewhat later time than elizabeth, while the carved oak chairs are of jacobean style. at hardwick is still kept the historic chair in which it is said that william, fourth earl of devonshire, sat when he and his friends compassed the downfall of james ii. in the curious little chapel hung with ancient tapestry, and containing the original bible and prayer book of charles i., are other quaint chairs covered with cushions of sixteenth or early seventeenth century needlework. [illustration: the entrance hall, hardwick hall. period of furniture, jacobean, xvii. century.] before concluding the remarks on this period of english woodwork and furniture, further mention should be made of penshurst place, to which there has been already some reference in the chapter on the period of the middle ages. it was here that sir philip sydney spent much of his time, and produced his best literary work, during the period of his retirement when he had lost the favour of elizabeth, and in the room known as the "queen's room," illustrated on p. 89, some of the furniture is of this period; the crystal chandeliers are said to have been given by leicester to his royal mistress, and some of the chairs and tables were sent down by the queen, and presented to sir henry sydney (philip's father) when she stayed at penshurst during one of her royal progresses. the room, with its vases and bowls of old oriental china and the contemporary portraits on the walls, gives us a good idea of the very best effect that was attainable with the material then available. richardson's "studies" contains, amongst other examples of furniture, and carved oak decorations of english renaissance, interiors of little charlton, east sutton place, stockton house, wilts, audley end, essex, and the great hall, crewe, with its beautiful hall screens and famous carved "parloir," all notable mansions of the sixteenth century. to this period of english furniture belongs the celebrated "great bed of ware," of which there is an illustration. this was formerly at the saracen's head at ware, but has been removed to rye house, about two miles away. shakespeare's allusion to it in the "twelfth night" has identified the approximate date and gives the bed a character. the following are the lines:- "sir toby belch.--and as many lies as shall lie in thy sheet of paper, altho' the sheet were big enough for the bed of ware in england, set em down, go about it." another illustration shows the chair which is said to have belonged to william shakespeare; it may or may not be the actual one used by the poet, but it is most probably a genuine specimen of about his time, though perhaps not made in england. there is a manuscript on its back which states that it was known in 1769 as the shakespeare chair, when garrick borrowed it from its owner, mr. james bacon, of barnet, and since that time its history is well known. the carved ornament is in low relief, and represents a rough idea of the dome of s. marc and the campanile tower. we have now briefly and roughly traced the advance of what may be termed the flood-tide of art from its birthplace in italy to france, the netherlands, spain, germany, and england, and by explanation and description, assisted by illustrations, have endeavoured to shew how the gothic of the latter part of the middle ages gave way before the revival of classic forms and arabesque ornament, with the many details and peculiarities characteristic of each different nationality which had adopted the general change. during this period the bahut or chest has become a cabinet with all its varieties; the simple _prie dieu_ chair, as a devotional piece of furniture, has been elaborated into almost an oratory, and, as a domestic seat, into a dignified throne; tables have, towards the end of the period, become more ornate, and made as solid pieces of furniture, instead of the planks and tressels which we found when the renaissance commenced. chimney pieces, which in the fourteenth century were merely stone smoke shafts supported by corbels, have been replaced by handsome carved oak erections, ornamenting the hall or room from floor to ceiling, and the english livery cupboard, with its foreign contemporary the buffet, is the forerunner of the sideboard of the future. [illustration: shakespeare's chair.] [illustration: the great bed of ware. formerly at the saracen's head, ware, but now at rye house, broxbourne, herts. period: xvi. century.] carved oak panelling has replaced the old arras and ruder wood lining of an earlier time, and with the departure of the old feudal customs and the indulgence in greater luxuries of the more wealthy nobles and merchants in italy, flanders, france, germany, spain, and england, we have the elegancies and grace with which art, and increased means of gratifying taste, enabled the sixteenth century virtuoso to adorn his home. [illustration: the "queen's room," penshurst place. (_reproduced from "historic houses of the united kingdom" by permission of messrs. cassell & co., limited._)] [illustration: carved oak chimney piece in speke hall, near liverpool. period: elizabethan.] chapter iv. jacobean furniture. english home life in the reign of james i.--sir henry wootton quoted--inigo jones and his work--ford castle--chimney pieces in south kensington museum--table in the carpenters' hall---hall of the barbers' company--the charterhouse--time of charles i.--furniture at knole--eagle house, wimbledon, mr. charles eastlake--monuments at canterbury and westminster--settles, couches, and chairs of the stuart period--sir paul pindar's house--cromwellian furniture--the restoration--indo-portuguese furniture--hampton court palace--evelyn's description--the great fire of london--hall of the brewers' company--oak panelling of the time--grinling gibbons and his work--the edict of nantes--silver furniture at knole--william iii. and dutch influence--queen anne--sideboards, bureaus, and grandfather's clocks--furniture at hampton court. [illustration] in the chapter on "renaissance" the great art revival in england has been noticed; in the elizabethan oak work of chimney pieces, panelling, and furniture, are to be found varying forms of the free classic style which the renaissance had brought about. these fluctuating changes in fashion continued in england from the time of elizabeth until the middle of the eighteenth century, when, as will be shewn presently, a distinct alteration in the design of furniture took place. the domestic habits of englishmen were getting more established. we have seen how religious persecution during preceding reigns, at the time of the reformation, had encouraged private domestic life of families, in the smaller rooms and apart from the gossiping retainer, who might at any time bring destruction upon the household by giving information about items of conversation he had overheard. there is a passage in one of sir henry wootton's letters, written in 1600, which shews that this home life was now becoming a settled characteristic of his countrymen. "every man's proper mansion house and home, being the theatre of his hospitality, the seate of his selfe fruition, the comfortable part of his own life, the noblest of his son's inheritance, a kind of private princedom, nay the possession thereof an epitome of the whole world, may well deserve by these attributes, according to the degree of the master, to be delightfully adorned." [illustration: oak chimney piece in sir walter raleigh's house, youghal, ireland. said to be the work of a flemish artist who was brought over for the purpose of executing this and other carved work at youghal.] sir henry wootton was ambassador in venice in 1604, and is said to have been the author of the well-known definition of an ambassador's calling, namely, "an honest man sent abroad to lie for his country's good." this offended the piety of james i., and caused him for some time to be in disgrace. he also published some 20 years later "elements of architecture," and being an antiquarian and man of taste, sent home many specimens of the famous italian wood carving. it was during the reign of james i. and that of his successor that inigo jones, our english vitruvius, was making his great reputation; he had returned from italy full of enthusiasm for the renaissance of palladio and his school, and of knowledge and taste gained by a diligent study of the ancient classic buildings of rome; his influence would be speedily felt in the design of woodwork fittings, for the interiors of his edifices. there is a note in his own copy of palladio, which is now in the library of worcester college, oxford, which is worth quoting:- "in the name of god: amen. the 2 of january, 1614, i being in rome compared these desines following, with the ruines themselves.--inigo jones." [illustration: chimney piece in byfleet house. early jacobean.] in the following year he returned from italy on his appointment as king's surveyor of works, and until his death in 1652 was full of work, though unfortunately for us, much that he designed was never carried out, and much that he carried out has been destroyed by fire. the banqueting hall of whitehall, now whitehall chapel; st. paul's, covent garden; the old water gate originally intended as the entrance to the first duke of buckingham's palace, close to charing cross; nos. 55 and 56, on the south side of great queen street, lincoln's inn; and one or two monuments and porches, are amongst the examples that remain to us of this great master's work; and of interiors, that of ashburnham house is left to remind us, with its quiet dignity of style, of this great master. it has been said in speaking of the staircase, plaster ornament, and woodwork of this interior, "upon the whole is set the seal of the time of charles i." as the work was probably finished during that king's reign, the impression intended to be conveyed was that after wood carving had rather run riot towards the end of the sixteenth century, we had now in the interior designed by inigo jones, or influenced by his school, a more quiet and sober style. [illustration: the king's chamber, ford castle.] the above woodcut shews a portion of the king's room in ford castle, which still contains souvenirs of flodden field--according to an article in the _magazine of art_. the room is in the northernmost tower, which still preserves externally the stern, grim character of the border fortress; and the room looks towards the famous battle-field. the chair shews a date 1638, and there is another of dutch design of about fifty or sixty years later; but the carved oak bedstead, with tapestry hangings, and the oak press, which the writer of the article mentions as forming part of the old furniture of the room, scarcely appear in the illustration. mr. hungerford pollen tells us that the majority of so-called tudor houses were actually built during the reign of james i., and this may probably be accepted as an explanation of the otherwise curious fact of there being much in the architecture and woodwork of this time which would seem to have belonged to the earlier period. the illustrations of wooden chimney-pieces will show this change. there are in the south kensington museum some three or four chimney-pieces of stone, having the upper portions of carved oak, the dates of which have been ascertained to be about 1620; these were removed from an old house in lime street, city, and give us an idea of the interior decoration of a residence of a london merchant. the one illustrated is somewhat richer than the others, the columns supporting the cornice of the others being almost plain pillars with ionic or doric capitals, and the carving of the panels of all of them is in less relief, and simpler in character, than those which occur in the latter part of elizabeth's time. [illustration: carved oak centre table. _in the hall of the carpenters' company._] the earliest dated piece of jacobean furniture which has come under the writer's observation is the octagonal table belonging to the carpenters' company. the illustration, taken from mr. jupp's book referred to in the last chapter, hardly does the table justice; it is really a very handsome piece of furniture, and measures about 3 feet 3 inches in diameter. in the spandrils of the arches between the legs are the letters r.w., g.i., j.r., and w.w., being the initials of richard wyatt, george isack, john reeve, and william willson, who were master and wardens of the company in 1606, which date is carved in two of the spandrils. while the ornamental legs shew some of the characteristics of elizabethan work, the treatment is less bold, the large acorn-shaped member has become more refined and attenuated, and the ornament is altogether more subdued. this is a remarkable specimen of early jacobean furniture, and is the only one of the shape and kind known to the writer; it is in excellent preservation, save that the top is split, and it shews signs of having been made with considerable skill and care. [illustration: carved oak chair. from abingdon park. carved oak chair. in the carpenters' hall _from photos in the s. kensington museum album._ early xvii. century. english.] the science and art department keep for reference an album containing photographs, not only of many of the specimens in the different museums under its control, but also of some of those which have been lent for a temporary exhibition. the illustration of the above two chairs is taken from this source, the album having been placed at the writer's disposal by the courtesy of mr. jones, of the photograph department. the left-hand chair, from abingdon park, is said to have belonged to lady barnard, shakespeare's grand-daughter, and the other may still be seen in the hall of the carpenters' company. [illustration: oak chimney piece. removed from an old house in lime street, city. (_south kensington museum._) period: james i.] in the hall of the barbers' company in monkswell street, the court room, which is lighted with an octagonal cupola, was designed by inigo jones as a theatre of anatomy, when the barbers and surgeons were one corporation. there are some three or four tallies of this period in the hall, having four legs connected by stretchers, quite plain; the moulded edges of the table tops are also without enrichment. these plain oak slabs, and also the stretchers, have been renewed, but in exactly the same style as the original work; the legs, however, are the old ones, and are simple columns with plain turned capitals and bases. other tables of this period are to be found in a few old country mansions; there is one in longleat, which, the writer has been told, has a small drawer at the end, to hold the copper coins with which the retainers of the marquis of bath's ancestors used to play a game of shovel penny. in the chapter house in westminster abbey, there is also one of these plain substantial james i. tables, which is singular in being nearly double the width of those which were made at this time. as the chapter house was, until comparatively recent years, used as a room for the storage of records, this table was probably made, not as a dining table, but for some other purpose requiring greater width. [illustration: oak sideboard in the s. kensington museum. period: william iii.] in the chapter on renaissance there was an allusion to charterhouse, which was purchased for its present purpose by thomas sutton in 1611, and in the chapel may be seen to-day the original communion table placed there by the founder. it is of carved oak, with a row of legs running lengthways underneath the middle, and four others at the corners; these, while being cast in the simple lines noticed in the tables in the barbers' hall, and the chapter house, westminster abbey, are enriched by carving from the base to the third of the height of the leg, and the frieze of the table is also carved in low relief. the rich carved wood screen which supports the organ loft is also of jacobean work. there is in the south kensington museum a carved oak chest, with a centre panel representing the adoration of the magi, about this date, 1615-20; it is mounted on a stand which has three feet in front and two behind, much more primitive and quaint than the ornate supports of elizabethan carving, while the only ornament on the drawer fronts which form the frieze of the stand are moulded panels, in the centre of each of which is a turned knob by which to open the drawer. this chest and the table which forms its stand were probably not intended for each other. the illustration on the previous page shows the stand, which is a good representation of the carving of this time, i.e., early seventeenth century. the round backed arm chair which the museum purchased last year from the hailstone collection, though dated 1614, is really more elizabethan in design. there is no greater storehouse for specimens of furniture in use during the jacobean period than knole, that stately mansion of the sackville family, then the property of the earls of dorset. in the king's bedroom, which is said to have been specially prepared and furnished for the visit of king james i., the public, owing to the courtesy and generous spirit of the present lord sackville, can still see the bed, originally of crimson silk, but now faded, elaborately embroidered with gold. it is said to have cost £8,000, and the chairs and seats, which are believed to have formed part of the original equipment of the room, are in much the same position as they then occupied. in the carved work of this furniture we cannot help thinking the hand of the venetian is to be traced, and it is probable they were either imported or copied from a pattern brought over for the purpose. a suite of furniture of that time appears to have consisted of six stools and two arm chairs, almost entirely covered with velvet, having the x form supports, which, so far as the writer's investigations have gone, appear to have come from venice. in the "leicester" gallery at knole there is a portrait of the king;, painted by mytens, seated on such a chair, and just below the picture is placed the chair which is said to be identical with the one portrayed. it is similar to the one reproduced on page 100 from a drawing of mr. charles eastlake's. [illustration: seats at knole. covered with crimson silk velvet. period: james i.] in the same gallery also are three sofas or settees upholstered with crimson velvet, and one of these has an accommodating rack, by which either end can be lowered at will, to make a more convenient lounge. [illustration: arm chair. covered with velvet, ringed with fringe and studded with copper nails. early xvii. century. (_from a drawing of the original at knole, by mr. charles eastlake._)] this excellent example of jacobean furniture has been described and sketched by mr. charles eastlake in "hints on household taste." he says: "the joints are properly 'tenoned' and pinned together in such a manner as to ensure its constant stability. the back is formed like that of a chair, with a horizontal rail only at its upper edge, but it receives additional strength from the second rail, which is introduced at the back of the seat." in marcus stone's well-known picture of "the stolen keys," this is the sofa portrayed. the arm chair illustrated above is part of the same suite of furniture. the furniture of another room at knole is said to have been presented by king james to the first earl of middlesex, who had married into the dorset family. the author has been furnished with a photograph of this room; and the illustration prepared from this will give the reader a better idea than a lengthy description. [illustration: the "spangle" bedroom at knole. the furniture of this room was presented by james i. to the earl of middlesex. (_front a photo by mr. corke, of sevenoaks._)] it seems from the knole furniture, and a comparison of the designs with those of some of the tables and other woodwork produced during the same reign, bearing the impress of the more severe style of inigo jones, that there were then in england two styles of decorative furniture. one of these, simple and severe, showing a reaction from the grotesque freedom of elizabethan carving, and the other, copied from venetian ornamental woodwork, with cupids on scrolls forming the supports of stools, having these ornamental legs connected by stretchers the design of which is, in the case of those in the king's bedchamber at knole, a couple of cupids in a flying attitude holding up a crown. this kind of furniture was generally gilt, and under the black paint of those at knole are still to be seen traces of the gold. mr. eastlake visited knole and made careful examination and sketches of the jacobean furniture there, and has well described and illustrated it in his book just referred to; he mentions that he found a slip of paper tucked beneath the webbing of a settle there, with an inscription in old english characters which fixed the date of some of the furniture at 1620. in a letter to the writer on this subject, mr. lionel sackville west confirms this date by referring to the heirloom book, which also bears out the writer's opinion that some of the more richly-carved furniture of this time was imported from italy. in the lady chapel of canterbury cathedral there is a monument of dean boys, who died in 1625. this represents the dean seated in his library, at a table with turned legs, over which there is a tapestry cover. books line the walls of the section of the room shown in the stone carving; it differs little from the sanctum of a literary man of the present day. there are many other monuments which represent furniture of this period, and amongst the more curious is that of a child of king james i., in westminster abbey, close to the monument of mary queen of scots. the child is sculptured about life size, in a carved cradle of the time. in holland house, kensington,[9] which is a good example of a jacobean mansion, there is some oak enrichment of the seventeenth century, and also a garden bench, with its back formed of three shells and the legs shaped and ornamented with scroll work. horace walpole mentions this seat, and ascribes the design to francesco cleyn, who worked for charles i. and some of the court. there is another jacobean house of considerable interest, the property of mr. t.g. jackson, a.r.a. an account of it has been written by him, and was read to some members of the surrey archaeological society, who visited eagle house, wimbledon, in 1890. it appears to have been the country seat of a london merchant, who lived early in the seventeenth century. mr. jackson bears witness to the excellence of the workmanship, and expresses his opinion that the carved and decorated enrichments were executed by native and not foreign craftsmen. he gives an illustration in his pamphlet of the sunk "strap work," which, though jacobean in its date, is also found in the carved ornament of elizabeth's time. another relic of this time is the panel of carved oak in the lych gate of st. giles', bloomsbury, dated 1638. this is a realistic representation of "the resurrection," and when the writer examined it a few weeks ago, it seemed in danger of perishing for lack of a little care and attention. it is very probable that had the reign of charles i. been less troublous, this would have been a time of much progress in the domestic arts in england. the queen was of the medici family, italian literature was in vogue, and italian artists therefore would probably have been encouraged to come over and instruct our workmen. the king himself was an excellent mechanic, and boasted that he could earn his living at almost any trade save the making of hangings. his father had established the tapestry works at mortlake; he himself had bought the raffaele cartoons to encourage the work--and much was to be hoped from a monarch who had the judgment to induce a vandyke to settle in england. the civil war, whatever it has achieved for our liberty as subjects, certainly hindered by many years our progress as an artistic people. but to consider some of the furniture of this period in detail. until the sixteenth century was well advanced, the word "table" in our language meant an index, or pocket book (tablets), or a list, not an article of furniture; it was, as we have noticed in the time of elizabeth, composed of boards generally hinged in the middle for convenience of storage, and supported on trestles which were sometimes ornamented by carved work. the word trestle, by the way, is derived from the "threstule," i.e., three-footed supports, and these three-legged stools and benches formed in those days the seats for everyone except the master of the house. chairs were, as we have seen, scarce articles; sometimes there was only one, a throne-like seat for an honoured guest or for the master or mistress of the house, and doubtless our present phrase of "taking the chair" is a survival of the high place a chair then held amongst the household gods of a gentleman's mansion. shakespeare possibly had the boards and trestles in his mind when, about 1596, he wrote in "romeo and juliet"- "come, musicians, play! a hall! a hall! give room and foot it, girls, more light, ye knaves, and turn the tables up." and as the scene in "king henry the fourth" is placed some years earlier than that of "romeo and juliet," it is probable that "table" had then its earlier meaning, for the archbishop of york says:- "... the king is weary of dainty and such picking grievances; and, therefore, will he wipe his tables clean and keep no tell-tale to his memory." mr. maskell, in his handbook on "ivories," tells us that the word "table" was also used in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to denote the religious carvings and paintings in churches; and he quotes chaucer to show that the word was used to describe the game of "draughts." "they dancen and they play at chess and tables." now, however, at the time of which we are writing, chairs were becoming more plentiful and the table was a definite article of furniture. in inventories of the time and for some twenty years previous, as has been already noticed in the preceding chapter, we find mention of "joyned table," framed table, "standing" and "dormant" table, and the word "board" had gradually disappeared, although it remains to us as a souvenir of the past in the name we still give to any body of men meeting for the transaction of business, or in its more social meaning, expressing festivity. the width of these earlier tables had been about 30 inches, and guests sat on one side only, with their backs to the wall, in order, it may be supposed, to be the more ready to resist any sudden raid, which might be made on the house, during the relaxation of the supper hour, and this custom remained long after there was any necessity for its observance. in the time of charles the first the width was increased, and a contrivance was introduced for doubling the area of the top when required, by two flaps which drew out from either end, and, by means of a wedge-shaped arrangement, the centre or main table top was lowered, and the whole table, thus increased, became level. illustrations taken from mr. g.t. robinson's article on furniture in the "art journal" of 1881, represent a "drawinge table," which was the name by which these "latest improvements" were known; the black lines were of stained pear tree, let into the oak, and the acorn shaped member of the leg is an imported dutch design, which became very common about this time, and was applied to the supports of cabinets, sometimes as in the illustration, plainly turned, but frequently carved. another table of this period was the "folding table," which was made with twelve, sixteen, or with twenty legs, as shewn in the illustration of this example, and which, as its name implies, would shut up into about one third its extended size. there is one of these tables in the stationers' hall. [illustration: couch, arm chair and single chair. carved and gilt. upholstered in rich silk velvet. part of suite at penshurst place. also an italian cabinet. period: charles ii.] [illustration: folding table at penshurst place. period: charles ii. to james ii.] [illustration: "drawing" table with black lines inlaid. period: charles ii.] it was probably in the early part of the seventeenth century that the couch became known in england. it was not common, nor quite in the form in which we now recognize that luxurious article of furniture, but was probably a carved oak settle, with cushions so arranged as to form a resting lounge by day, shakespeare speaks of the "branch'd velvet gown" of malvolio having come from a "day bed," and there is also an allusion to one in richard iii.[10] in a volume of "notes and queries" there is a note which would show that the lady's wardrobe of this time (1622) was a very primitive article of furniture. mention is made there of a list of articles of wearing apparel belonging to a certain lady elizabeth morgan, sister to sir nathaniel rich, which, according to the old document there quoted, dated the 13th day of november, 1622, "are to be found in a great bar'd chest in my ladie's bedchamber." to judge from this list, lady morgan was a person of fashion in those days. we may also take it for granted that beyond the bedstead, a prie dieu chair, a bench, some chests, and the indispensable mirror, there was not much else to furnish a lady's bedroom in the reign of james i. or of his successor. [illustration: theodore hook's chair.] [illustration: scrowled chair in carved oak.] the "long settle" and "scrowled chair" were two other kinds of seats in use from the time of charles i. to that of james ii. the illustrations are taken from authenticated specimens in the collection of mr. dalton, of scarborough. they are most probably of yorkshire manufacture, about the middle of the seventeenth century. the ornament in the panel of the back of the chair is inlaid work box or ash stained to a greenish black to represent green ebony, with a few small pieces of rich red wood then in great favour; and, says mr. g. t. robinson, to whose article mentioned above we are indebted for the description, "probably brought by some buccaneer from the west." mr. robinson mentions another chair of the stuart period, which formed a table, and subsequently became the property of theodore hook, who carefully preserved its pedigree. it was purchased by its late owner, mr. godwin, editor of "the builder." a woodcut of this chair is on p. 106. another chair which played an important part in history is the one in which charles i. sat during his trial; this was exhibited in the stuart exhibition in london in 1889. the illustration is taken from a print in "the illustrated london news" of the time. [illustration: chair used by king charles i. during his trial.] in addition to the chairs of oak, carved, inlaid, and plain, which were in some cases rendered more comfortable by having cushions tied to the backs and seats, the upholstered chair, which we have seen had been brought from venice in the early part of the reign of james i., now came into general use. few appear to have survived, but there are still to be seen in pictures of the period a chair represented as covered with crimson velvet, studded with brass nails, the seat trimmed with fringe, similar to that at knole, illustrated on p. 100. there is in the historical portrait gallery in bethnal green museum, a painting by an unknown artist, but dated 1642, of sir william lenthall, who was speaker of the house of commons, on the memorable occasion when, on the 4th of january in that year, charles i. entered the house to demand the surrender of the five members. the chair on which sir william is seated answers this description, and is very similar to the one used by charles i. (illustrated on p. 107.) [illustration: carved oak chair. said to have been used by cromwell. (_the original in the possession of t. knollys parr, esq._)] [illustration: carved oak chair, jacobean style. (_the original in the author's possession._)] inlaid work, which had been crude and rough in the time of elizabeth, became more in fashion as means increased of decorating both the furniture and the woodwork panelling of the rooms of the stuart period. mahogany had been discovered by raleigh as early as 1595, but did not come into general use until the middle of the eighteenth century. the importation of scarce foreign woods in small quantities gave an impetus to this description of work, which in the marqueterie of italy, france, holland, germany, and spain, had already made great progress. [illustration: settle of carved oak. probably made in yorkshire. period: charles ii.] within the past year, owing to the extensions of the great eastern railway premises at bishopsgate street, an old house of antiquarian interest was pulled down, and generously presented by the company to the south kensington museum. it will shortly be arranged so as to enable the visitor to see a good example of the exterior as well as some of the interior woodwork of a quaint house of the middle of the seventeenth century. this was the residence of sir paul pindar, diplomatist, during the time of charles i., and it contained a carved oak chimney-piece, with some other good ornamental woodwork of this period. the quaint and richly-carved chimney-piece, which was dated 1600, and other decorative work, was removed early in the present century, when the possessors of that time were making "improvements." [illustration: staircase in general ireton's house, dated 1630.] [illustration: pattern of a chinese lac screen. (_in the south kensington museum._)] in the illustration of a child's chair, which is said to have been actually used by cromwell, can be seen an example of carved oak of this time; it was lent to the writer by its present owner, in whose family it was an heirloom since one of his ancestors married the protector's daughter. the ornament has no particular style, and it may be taken for granted that the period of the commonwealth was not marked by any progress in decorative art. the above illustration, however, proves that there were exceptions to the prevalent puritan objection to figure ornament. in one of mrs. s.c. hall's papers, "pilgrimages to english shrines," contributed in 1849 to "the art journal," she describes the interior of the house which was built for bridget, the protector's daughter, who married general ireton. the handsome oak staircase had the newels surmounted by carved figures, representing different grades of men in the general's army--a captain, common soldier, piper, drummer, etc, etc., while the spaces between the balustrades were filled in with devices emblematical of warfare, the ceiling being decorated in the fashion of the period. at the time mrs. hall wrote, the house bore cromwell's name and the date 1630. we may date from the commonwealth the more general use of chairs; people sat as they chose, and no longer regarded the chair as the lord's place. a style of chair, which we still recognise as cromwellian, was also largely imported from holland about this time--plain square backs and seats covered with brown leather, studded with brass nails. the legs, which are now generally turned with a spiral twist, were in cromwell's time plain and simple. the residence of charles ii. abroad, had accustomed him and his friends to the much more luxurious furniture of france and holland. with the restoration came a foreign queen, a foreign court, french manners, and french literature. cabinets, chairs, tables, and couches, were imported into england from the netherlands, france, spain, and portugal; and our craftsmen profited by new ideas and new patterns, and what was of equal consequence, an increased demand for decorative articles of furniture. the king of portugal had ceded bombay, one of the portuguese indian stations, to the new queen, and there is a chair of this indo-portuguese work, carved in ebony, now in the museum at oxford, which was given by charles ii. either to elias ashmole or to evelyn: the illustration on the next page shews all the details of the carving. another woodcut, on a smaller scale, represents a similar chair grouped with a settee of a like design, together with a small folding chair which mr. g.t. robinson, in his article on "seats," has described as italian, but which we take the liberty of pronouncing flemish, judging by one now in the south kensington museum. in connection with this indo-portuguese furniture, it would seem that spiral turning became known and fashionable in england during the reign of charles ii., and in some chairs of english make, which have come under the writer's notice, the legs have been carved to imitate the effect of spiral turning--an amount of superfluous labour which would scarcely have been incurred, but for the fact that the country house-carpenter of this time had an imported model, which he copied, without knowing how to produce by the lathe the effect which had just come into fashion. there are, too, in some illustrations in "shaw's ancient furniture," some lamp-holders, in which this spiral turning is overdone, as is generally the case when any particular kind of ornament comes into vogue. [illustration: settee and chair. in carved ebony, part of indo-portuguese suite at penshurst place, with flemish folding chair. period: charles ii.] [illustration: carved ebony chair of indo-portuguese work, given by charles ii. to elias ashmole, esq. (_in the museum at oxford_).] probably the illustrated suite of furniture at penshurst place, which comprises thirteen pieces, was imported about this time; two of the smaller chairs appear to have their original cushions, the others have been lately re-covered by lord de l'isle and dudley. the spindles of the backs of two of the chairs are of ivory: the carving, which is in solid ebony, is much finer on some than on others. we gather a good deal of information about the furniture of this period from the famous diary of evelyn. he thus describes hampton court palace, as it appeared to him at the time of its preparation for the reception of catherine of braganza, the bride of charles ii., who spent the royal honeymoon in this historic building, which had in its time sheltered for their brief spans of favour the six wives of henry viii. and the sickly boyhood of edward vi.:-"it is as noble and uniform a pile as gothic architecture can make it. there is incomparable furniture in it, especially hangings designed by raphael, very rich with gold. of the tapestries i believe the world can show nothing nobler of the kind than the stories of abraham and tobit.[11] ... the queen's bed was an embroidery of silver on crimson velvet, and cost £8,000, being a present made by the states of holland when his majesty returned. the great looking-glass and toilet of beaten massive gold were given by the queen mother. the queen brought over with her from portugal such indian cabinets as had never before been seen here." evelyn wrote of course before wren made his renaissance additions to the palace. after the great fire which occurred in 1666, and destroyed some 13,000 houses and no less than 80 churches, sir christopher wren was given an opportunity, unprecedented in history, of displaying his power of design and reconstruction. writing of this great architect, macaulay says, "the austere beauty of the athenian portico, the gloomy sublimity of the gothic arcade, he was, like most of his contemporaries, incapable of emulating, and perhaps incapable of appreciating; but no man born on our side of the alps has imitated with so much success the magnificence of the palace churches of italy. even the superb louis xiv. has left to posterity no work which can bear a comparison with st. paul's." [illustration: sedes, ecce tibi? quæ tot produxit alumnos quot gremio nutrit granta, quot. isis habet. _from the original by sir peter lely, presented to dr. busby by king charles_ "sedes busbiana" from a print in the possession of j. c. thynne, esq. period: charles ii.] wren's great masterpiece was commenced in 1675, and completed in 1710, and its building therefore covers a period of 35 years, carrying us through the reigns of james ii., william iii. and mary, and well on to the end of anne's. the admirable work which he did during this time, and which has effected so much for the adornment of our metropolis, had a marked influence on the ornamental woodwork of the second half of the seventeenth century: in the additions which he made to hampton court palace, in bow church, in the hospitals of greenwich and of chelsea, there is a sumptuousness of ornament in stone and marble, which shew the influence exercised on his mind by the desire to rival the grandeur of louis xiv.; the fountain court at hampton being in direct imitation of the palace of versailles. the carved woodwork of the choir of st. paul's, with fluted columns supporting a carved frieze; the richly carved panels, and the beautiful figure work on both organ lofts, afford evidence that the oak enrichments followed the marble and stone ornament. the swags of fruit and flowers, the cherubs' heads with folded wings, and other details in wren's work, closely resemble the designs executed by gibbons, whose carving is referred to later on. it may be mentioned here that amongst the few churches in the city which escaped the great fire, and contain woodwork of particular note, are st. helen's, bishopgate, and the charterhouse chapel, which contain the original pulpits of about the sixteenth century. the famous dr. busby, who for 55 years was head master of westminster school, was a great favourite of king charles, and a picture painted by sir peter lely, is said to have been presented to the doctor by his majesty; it is called "sedes busbiana." prints from this old picture are scarce, and the writer is indebted to mr. john c. thynne for the loan of his copy, from which the illustration is taken. the portrait in the centre, of the pedagogue aspiring to the mitre, is that of dr. south, who succeeded busby, and whose monument in westminster abbey is next to his. the illustration is interesting, as although it may not have been actually taken from a chair itself, it shews a design in the mind of a contemporary artist. of the halls of the city guilds, there is none more quaint, and in greater contrast to the bustle of the neighbourhood, than the hall of the brewers' company, in addle street, city. this was partially destroyed, like most of the older halls, by the great fire, but was one of the first to be restored and refurnished. in the kitchen are still to be seen the remains of an old trestle and other relics of an earlier period, but the hall or dining room, and the court room, are complete, with very slight additions, since the date of their interior equipment in 1670 to 1673. the court room has a richly carved chimney-piece in oak, nearly black with age, the design of which is a shield with a winged head, palms, and swags of fruit and flowers, while on the shield itself is an inscription, stating that this room was wainscoted by alderman knight, master of the company and lord mayor of the city of london, in the year 1670. the room itself is exceedingly quaint, with its high wainscoting and windows on the opposite side to the fireplace, reminding one of the port-holes of a ship's cabin, while the chief window looks out on to the old-fashioned garden, giving the beholder altogether a pleasing illusion, carrying him back to the days of charles ii. the chief room or hall is still more handsomely decorated with carved oak of this time. the actual date, 1673, is over the doorway on a tablet which bears the names, in the letters of the period, of the master, "james reading, esq.," and the wardens, "mr. robert lawrence," "mr. samuel barber," and "mr. henry sell." the names of other masters and wardens are also written over the carved escutcheons of their different arms, and the whole room is one of the best specimens in existence of the oak carving of this date. at the western end is the master's chair, of which by the courtesy of mr. higgins, clerk to the company, we are able to give an illustration on p. 115--the shield-shaped back, the carved drapery, and the coat-of-arms with the company's motto, are all characteristic features, as are also the corinthian columns and arched pediments, in the oak decoration of the room. the broken swan-necked pediment, which surmounts the cornice of the room over the chair, is probably a more recent addition, this ornament having come in about 30 years later. there are also the old dining tables and benches; these are as plain and simple as possible. in the court room, is a table, which was formerly in the company's barge, with some good inlaid work in the arcading which connects the two end standards, and some old carved lions' feet; the top and other parts have been renewed. there is also an old oak fire-screen of about the end of the seventeenth century. another city hall, the interior woodwork of which dates from just after the great fire, is that of the stationers' company, in ave maria lane, close to ludgate hill. mr. charles robert rivington, the present clerk to the company, has written a pamphlet, full of very interesting records of this ancient and worshipful corporation, from which the following paragraph is a quotation:--"the first meeting of the court after the fire was held at cook's hall, and the subsequent courts, until the hall was re-built, at the lame hospital hall, i.e., st. bartholomew's hospital. in 1670 a committee was appointed to re-build the hall; and in 1674 the court agreed with stephen colledge (the famous protestant joiner, who was afterwards hanged at oxford in 1681) to wainscot the hall 'with well-seasoned and well-matched wainscot, according to a model delivered in for the sum of £300.' his work is now to be seen in excellent condition." [illustration: the master's chair. (_hall of the brewers' company._)] mr. rivington read his paper to the london and middlesex archaeological society in 1881; and the writer can with pleasure confirm the statement as to the condition, in 1892, of this fine specimen of seventeenth century work. less ornate and elaborate than the brewers' hall, the panels are only slightly relieved with carved mouldings; but the end of the room, or main entrance, opposite the place of the old daïs (long since removed), is somewhat similar to the brewers', and presents a fine architectural effect, which will be observed in the illustration on p. 117. [illustration: carved oak livery cupboard. in the hall of the stationers'company. made in 1674, the curved pediment added later, probably in 1788.] [illustration: carved oak napkin press lent to the s. kensington museum by h. farrer, esq. early xvii. century.] there is above, an illustration of one of the two livery cupboards, which formerly stood on the daïs, and these are good examples of the cupboards for display of plate of this period. the lower part was formerly the receptacle of unused viands, distributed to the poor after the feast. in their original state these livery cupboards finished with a straight cornice, the broken pediments with the eagle (the company's crest) having most probably been added when the hall was, to quote an inscription on a shield, "repaired and beautified in the mayoralty of the right honourable william gill, in the year 1788," when mr. thomas hooke was master, and mr. field and mr. rivington (the present clerk's grandfather) wardens. [illustration: arm chairs. chair upholstered in spitalfields silk. hampton court palace. carved and upholstered chair. hardwick hall. chair upholstered in spitalfields silk. knole, sevenoaks. period: william iii. to queen anne.] there is still preserved in a lumber room one of the old benches of seventeenth century work--now replaced in the hall by modern folding chairs. this is of oak, with turned skittle-shaped legs slanting outwards, and connected and strengthened by plain stretchers. the old tables are still in their places. [illustration: carved oak screen. in the hall of the stationers' company, erected in 1674: the royal coat of arms has been since added.] another example of seventeenth century oak panelling is the handsome chapel of the mercers' hall--the only city company possessing their own chapel--but only the lining of the walls and the reredos are of the original work, the remainder having been added some ten or twelve years ago, when some of the original carving was made use of in the new work. indeed, in this magnificent hall, about the most spacious of the old city corporation palaces, there is a great deal of new work mixed with old--new chimney-pieces and old overmantels--some of grinling gibbons' carved enrichments, so painted and varnished as to have lost much of their character; these have been applied to the oak panels in the large dining hall. the woodwork lining of living rooms had been undergoing changes since the commencement of the period of which we are now writing. in 1638 a man named christopher had taken out a patent for enamelling and gilding leather, which was used as a wall decoration over the oak panelling. this decorated leather hitherto had been imported from holland and spain; when this was not used, and tapestry, which was very expensive, was not obtainable, the plaster was roughly ornamented. somewhat later than this, pictures were let into the wainscot to form part of the decoration, for in 1669 evelyn, when writing of the house of the "earle of norwich," in epping forest, says, "a good many pictures put into the wainstcot which mr. baker, his lordship's predecessor, brought from spaine." indeed, subsequently the wainscot became simply the frame for pictures, and we have the same writer deploring the disuse of timber, and expressing his opinion that a sumptuary law ought to be passed to restore the "ancient use of timber." although no law was enacted on the subject, yet, some twenty years later, the whirligig of fashion brought about the revival of the custom of lining rooms with oak panelling. it is said that about 1670 evelyn found grinling gibbons in a small thatched house on the outskirts of deptford, and introduced him to the king, who gave him an appointment on the board of works, and patronised him with extensive orders. the character of his carving is well known; generally using lime-tree as the vehicle of his designs, the life-like birds and flowers, the groups of fruit, and heads of cherubs, are easily recognised. one of the rooms in windsor castle is decorated with the work of his chisel, which can also be seen in st. paul's cathedral, hampton court palace, chatsworth, burleigh, and perhaps his best, at petworth house, in sussex. he also sculptured in stone. the base of king charles' statue at windsor, the font of st. james', piccadilly (round the base of which are figures of adam and eve), are his work, as is also the lime-tree border of festoon work over the communion table. gibbons was an englishman, but appears to have spent his boyhood in holland, where he was christened "grinling." he died in 1721. his pupils were samuel watson, a derbyshire man, who did much of the carved work at chatsworth, drevot of brussels, and lawreans of mechlin. gibbons and his pupils founded a school of carving in england which has been continued by tradition to the present day. [illustration: silver furniture at knole. (_from a photo by mr. corke, of sevenoaks._)] a somewhat important immigration of french workmen occurred about this time owing to the persecutions of protestants in france, which followed, the revocation of the edict of nantes in 1685, by louis xiv., and these refugees bringing with them their skill, their patterns and ideas, influenced the carving of our frames and the designs of some of our furniture. this influence is to be traced in some of the contents of hampton court palace, particularly in the carved and gilt centre tables and the _torchères_ of french design but of english workmanship. it is said that no less than 50,000 families left france, some thousands of whom belonged to the industrial classes, and settled in england and germany, where their descendants still remain. they introduced the manufacture of crystal chandeliers, and founded our spitalfields silk industry and other trades, till then little practised in england. the beautiful silver furniture at knole belongs to this time, having been made for one of the earls of dorset, in the reign of james ii. the illustration is from a photograph taken by mr. corke, of sevenoaks. electrotypes of the originals are in the south kensington museum. from two other suites at knole, consisting of a looking glass, a table, and a pair of _torchères_, in the one case of plain walnut wood, and in the other of ebony with silver mountings, it would appear that a toilet suite of furniture of the time of james ii. generally consisted of articles of a similar character, more or less costly, according to circumstances. the silver table bears the english hall mark of the reign. as we approach the end of the seventeenth century and examine specimens of english furniture about 1680 to 1700, we find a marked flemish influence. the stadtholder, king william iii., with his dutch friends, imported many of their household goods[12], and our english craftsmen seem to have copied these very closely. the chairs and settees in the south kensington museum, and at hampton court palace, have the shaped back with a wide inlaid or carved upright bar, the cabriole leg and the carved shell ornament on the knee of the leg, and on the top of the back, which are still to be seen in many of the old dutch houses. there are a few examples of furniture of this date, which it is almost impossible to distinguish from flemish, but in some others there is a characteristic decoration in marqueterie, which may be described as a seaweed scroll in holly or box wood, inlaid on a pale walnut ground, a good example of which is to be seen in the upright "grandfather's clock" in the south kensington museum, the effect being a pleasing harmony of colour. in the same collection there is also a walnut wood centre table, dating from about 1700, which has twisted legs and a stretcher, the top being inlaid with intersecting circles relieved by the inlay of some stars in ivory. as we have observed with regard to french furniture of this time, mirrors came more generally into use, and the frames were both carved and inlaid. there are several of these at hampton court palace, all with bevelled edged plate glass; some have frames entirely of glass, the short lengths which make the frame, having in some cases the joints covered by rosettes of blue glass, and in others a narrow moulding of gilt work on each side of the frame. in one room (the queen's gallery) the frames are painted in colors and relieved by a little gilding. the taste for importing old dutch furniture, also lacquer cabinets from japan, not only gave relief to the appearance of a well furnished apartment of this time, but also brought new ideas to our designers and workmen. our collectors, too, were at this time appreciating the oriental china, both blue and white, and colored, which had a good market in holland, so that with the excellent silversmith's work then obtainable, it was possible in the time of william and mary to arrange a room with more artistic effect than at an earlier period, when the tapestry and panelling of the walls, a table, the livery cupboard previously described, and some three or four chairs, had formed almost the whole furniture of reception rooms. the first mention of corner cupboards appears to have been made in an advertisement of a dutch joiner in "the postman" of march 8th, 1711; these cupboards, with their carved pediments being part of the modern fittings of a room in the time of queen anne. the oak presses common to this and earlier times are formed of an upper and lower part, the former sometimes being three sides of an octagon with the top supported by columns, while the lower half is straight, and the whole is carved with incised ornament. these useful articles of furniture, in the absence of wardrobes, are described in inventories of the time (1680-1720) as "press cupboards," "great cupboards," "wainscot," and "joyned cupboards." the first mention of a "buerow," as our modern word "bureau" was then spelt, is said by dr. lyon, in his american book, "the colonial furniture of new england," to have occurred in an advertisement in "the daily post" of january 4th, 1727. the same author quotes bailey's dictionarium britannicum, published in london, 1736, as defining the word "bureau" as "a cabinet or chest of drawers, or 'scrutoir' for depositing papers or accounts." in the latter half of the eighteenth century those convenient pieces of furniture came into more general use, and illustrations of them as designed and made by chippendale and his contemporaries will be found in the chapter dealing with that period. dr. lyon also quotes from an american newspaper, "the boston news letter" of april 16th, 1716, an advertisement which was evidently published when the tall clocks, which we now call "grandfathers' clocks," were a novelty, and as such were being introduced to the american public. we have already referred to one of these which is in the south kensington museum, date 1700, and no doubt the manufacture of similar ones became more general during the first years of the eighteenth century. the advertisement alluded to runs, "lately come from london, a parcel of very fine clocks--they go a week and repeat the hour when pulled" (a string caused the same action as the pressing of the handle of a repeating watch) "in japan cases or wall-nut." the style of decoration in furniture and woodwork which we recognise as "queen anne," apart from the marqueterie just described, appears, so far as the writer's investigations have gone, to be due to the designs of some eminent architects of the time. sir james vanbrugh was building blenheim palace for the queen's victorious general, and also castle howard. nicholas hawksmoor had erected st. george's. bloomsbury, and james gibbs, a scotch architect and antiquary, st. martin's-in-the-fields, and the royal library at oxford; a ponderous style characterises the woodwork interior of these buildings. we give an illustration of three designs for chimney-pieces and overmantels by james gibbs, the centre one of which illustrates the curved or "swan-necked" pediment, which became a favourite ornament about this time, until supplanted by the heavier triangular pediment which came in with "the georges." the contents of hampton court palace afford evidence of the transition which the design of woodwork and furniture has undergone from the time of william iii. until that of george ii. there is the dutch chair with cabriole leg, the plain walnut card table also of dutch design, which probably came over with the stadtholder; then, there are the heavy draperies, and chairs almost completely covered by spitalfields silk velvet, to be seen in the bedroom furniture of queen anne. later, as the heavy georgian style predominated, there is the stiff ungainly gilt furniture, console tables with legs ornamented with the greek key pattern badly applied, and finally, as the french school of design influenced our carvers, an improvement may be noticed in the tables and _torchéres_, which but for being a trifle clumsy, might pass for the work of french craftsmen of the same time. the state chairs, the bedstead, and some stools, which are said to have belonged to queen caroline, are further examples of the adoption of french fashion. [illustration: three chimneypieces. designed by james gibes, architect, in 1739.] nearly all writers on the subject of furniture and woodwork are agreed in considering that the earlier part of the period discussed in this chapter, that is, the seventeenth century, is the best in the traditions of english work. as we have seen in noticing some of the earlier jacobean examples already illustrated and described, it was a period marked by increased refinement of design through the abandonment of the more grotesque and often coarse work of elizabethan carving, and by soundness of construction and thorough workmanship. oak furniture made in england during the seventeenth century, is still a credit to the painstaking craftsmen of those days, and even upholstered furniture, like the couches and chairs at knole, after more than 250 years' service, are fit for use. in the ninth and last chapter, which will deal with furniture of the present day, the methods of production which are now in practice will be noticed, and some comparison will be made which must be to the credit of the jacobean period. * * * * * in the foregoing chapters an attempt has been made to preserve, as far as possible, a certain continuity in the history of the subject matter of this work from the earliest times until after the renaissance had been generally adopted in europe. in this endeavour a greater amount of attention has been bestowed upon the furniture of a comparatively short period of english history than upon that of other countries, but it is hoped that this fault will be forgiven by english readers. it has now become necessary to interrupt this plan, and before returning to the consideration of european design and work, to devote a short chapter to those branches of the industrial arts connected with furniture which flourished in china and japan, in india, persia, and arabia, at a time anterior and subsequent to the renaissance period in europe. chapter v. the furniture of eastern countries. chinese furniture: probable source of artistic taste--sir william chambers quoted--racinet's "le costume historique"--dutch influence--the south kensington and the duke of edinburgh collections--processes of making lacquer--screens in the kensington museum. japanese furniture: early history--sir rutherford alcock and lord elgin--the collection of the shogun--famous collections--action of the present government of japan--special characteristics. indian furniture: early european influence--furniture of the moguls--racinet's work--bombay furniture--ivory chairs and table--specimens in the india museum. persian woodwork: collection of objets d'art formed by general murdoch smith, r.e.--industrial arts of the persians--arab influence--south kensington specimens. saracenic woodwork: oriental customs--specimens in the south kensington museum of arab work--m. d'aveune's work. chinese and japanese furniture. [illustration] we have been unable to discover when the chinese first began to use state or domestic furniture. whether, like the ancient assyrians and egyptians, there was an early civilization which included the arts of joining, carving, and upholstering, we do not know; most probably there was; and from the plaster casts which one sees in our indian museum, of the ornamental stone gateways of sanchi tope, bhopal in central india, it would appear that in the early part of our christian era, the carvings in wood of their neighbours and co-religionists, the hindoos, represented figures of men and animals in the woodwork of sacred buildings or palaces; and the marvellous dexterity in manipulating wood, ivory and stone which we recognize in the chinese of to-day, is inherited from their ancestors. sir william chambers travelled in china in the early part of the last century. it was he who introduced "the chinese style" into furniture and decoration, which was adopted by chippendale and other makers, as will be noticed in the chapter dealing with that period of english furniture. he gives us the following description of the furniture he found in "the flowery land." "the moveables of the saloon consist of chairs, stools, and tables; made sometimes of rosewood, ebony, or lacquered work, and sometimes of bamboo only, which is cheap, and, nevertheless, very neat. when the moveables are of wood, the seats of the stools are often of marble or porcelain, which, though hard to sit on, are far from unpleasant in a climate where the summer heats are so excessive. in the corners of the rooms are stands four or live feet high, on which they set plates of citrons, and other fragrant fruits, or branches of coral in vases of porcelain, and glass globes containing goldfish, together with a certain weed somewhat resembling fennel; on such tables as are intended for ornament only they also place little landscapes, composed of rocks, shrubs, and a kind of lily that grows among pebbles covered with water. sometimes also, they have artificial landscapes made of ivory, crystal, amber, pearls, and various stones. i have seen some of these that cost over 300 guineas, but they are at best mere baubles, and miserable imitations of nature. besides these landscapes they adorn their tables with several vases of porcelain, and little vases of copper, which are held in great esteem. these are generally of simple and pleasing forms. the chinese say they were made two thousand years ago, by some of their celebrated artists, and such as are real antiques (for there are many counterfeits) they buy at an extravagant price, giving sometimes no less than £300 sterling for one of them. "the bedroom is divided from the saloon by a partition of folding doors, which, when the weather is hot, are in the night thrown open to admit the air. it is very small, and contains no other furniture than the bed, and some varnished chests in which they keep their apparel. the beds are very magnificent; the bedsteads are made much like ours in europe--of rosewood, carved, or lacquered work: the curtains are of taffeta or gauze, sometimes flowered with gold, and commonly either blue or purple. about the top a slip of white satin, a foot in breadth, runs all round, on which are painted, in panels, different figures--flower pieces, landscapes, and conversation pieces, interspersed with moral sentences and fables written in indian ink and vermilion." from old paintings and engravings which date from about the fourteenth or fifteenth century one gathers an idea of such furniture as existed in china and japan in earlier times. in one of these, which is reproduced in racinet's "le costume historique," there is a chinese princess reclining on a sofa which has a frame of black wood visible, and slightly ornamented; it is upholstered with rich embroidery, for which these artistic people seem to have been famous from a very early period. a servant stands by her side to hand her the pipe of opium with which the monotony of the day was varied--one arm rests on a small wooden table or stand which is placed on the sofa, and which holds a flower vase and a pipe stand. on another old painting two figures are seated on mats playing a game which resembles draughts, the pieces being moved about on a little table with black and white squares like a modern chessboard, with shaped feet to raise it a convenient height for the players: on the floor stand cups of tea ready to hand. such pictures are generally ascribed to the fifteenth century, the period of the great ming dynasty, which appears to have been the time of an improved culture and taste in china. from this time and a century later (the sixteenth) also date those beautiful cabinets of lacquered wood enriched with ivory, mother of pearl, with silver and even with gold, which have been brought to england occasionally; but genuine specimens of this, and of the seventeenth century, are very scarce and extremely valuable. the older chinese furniture which one sees generally in europe dates from the eighteenth century, and was made to order and imported by the dutch; this explains the curious combination to be found of oriental and european designs; thus, there are screens with views of amsterdam and other cities copied from paintings sent out for the purpose, while the frames of the panels are of carved rosewood of the fretted bamboo pattern characteristic of the chinese. elaborate bedsteads, tables and cabinets were also made, with panels of ash stained a dark color and ornamented with hunting scenes, in which the men and horses are of ivory, or sometimes with ivory faces and limbs, the clothes being chiefly in a brown colored wood. in a beautiful table in the south kensington museum, which is said to have been made in cochin-china, mother of pearl is largely used and produces a rich effect. the furniture brought back by the duke of edinburgh from china and japan is of the usual character imported, and the remarks hereafter made on indian or bombay furniture apply equally to this adaptation of chinese detail to european designs. the most highly prized work of china and japan in the way of decorative furniture is the beautiful lacquer work, and in the notice on french furniture of the eighteenth century, in a subsequent chapter, we shall see that the process was adopted in holland, france and england with more or less success. it is worth while, however, to allude to it here a little more fully. the process as practised in china is thus described by m. jacquemart:-"the wood when smoothly planed is covered with a sheet of thin paper or silk gauze, over which is spread a thick coating made of powdered red sandstone and buffalo's gall. this is allowed to dry, after which it is polished and rubbed with wax, or else receives a wash of gum water, holding chalk in solution. the varnish is laid on with a flat brush, and the article is placed in a damp drying room, whence it passes into the hands of a workman, who moistens and again polishes it with a piece of very fine grained soft clay slate, or with the stalks of the horse-tail or shave grass. it then receives a second coating of lacquer, and when dry is once more polished. these operations are repeated until the surface becomes perfectly smooth and lustrous. there are never applied less than three coatings and seldom more than eighteen, though some old chinese and some japan ware are said to have received upwards of twenty. as regards china, this seems quite exceptional, for there is in the louvre a piece with the legend 'lou-tinsg,' i.e. six coatings, implying that even so many are unusual enough to be worthy of special mention." there is as much difference between different kinds and qualities of lac as between different classes of marquctcrie. the most highly prized is the lacquer on gold ground, and the specimens of this which first reached europe during the time of louis xv., were presentation pieces from the japanese princes to some of the dutch officials. gold ground lacquer is rarely found in furniture, and only as a rule in some of those charming little boxes, in which the luminous effect of the lac is heightened by the introduction of silver foliage on a minute scale, or of tiny landscape work and figures charmingly treated, partly with dull gold and partly highly burnished. small placques of this beautiful ware were used for some of the choicest pieces of gouthière's elegant furniture made for marie antoinette. aventurine lacquer closely imitates in color the sparkling mineral from which it takes its name, and a less highly finished preparation is used as a lining for the small drawers of cabinets. another lacquer has a black ground, on which landscapes delicately traced in gold stand out in charming relief. such pieces were used by riesener and mounted by gouthière in some of the most costly furniture made for marie antoinette; some specimens are in the louvre. it is this kind of lacquer, in varying qualities, that is usually found in cabinets, folding screens, coffers, tables, etagéres, and other ornamental articles of furniture. enriched with inlay of mother of pearl, the effect of which is in some cases heightened and rendered more effective by some transparent coloring on its reverse side, as in the case of a bird's plumage or of those beautiful blossoms which both chinese and japanese artists can represent so faithfully. a very remarkable screen in chinese lacquer of later date is in the south kensington museum; it is composed of twelve folds each ten feet high, and measuring when fully extended twenty-one feet. this screen is very beautifully decorated on both sides with incised and raised ornaments painted and gilt on black ground, with a rich border ornamented with representations of sacred symbols and various other objects. the price paid for it was £1,000. there are also in the museum some very rich chairs of modern chinese work, in brown wood, probably teak, very elaborately inlaid with mother-of-pearl; they were exhibited in paris in 1867. of the very early history of japanese industrial arts we know but little. we have no record of the kind of furniture which marco polo found when he travelled in japan in the thirteenth century, and until the jesuit missionaries obtained a footing in the sixteenth century and sent home specimens of native work, there was probably very little of japanese manufacture which found its way to europe. the beautiful lacquer work of japan, which dates from the end of the sixteenth and the following century, leads us to suppose that a long period of probation must have occurred before the arts, which were probably learned from the chinese, could have been so thoroughly mastered. of furniture, with the exception of the cabinets, chests, and boxes, large and small, of this famous lac, there appears to have been little. until the japanese developed a taste for copying european customs and manners, the habit seems to have been to sit on mats and to use small tables raised a few inches from the ground. even the bedrooms contained no bedsteads, but a light mattress served for bed and bedstead. the process of lacquering has already been described, and in the chapter on french furniture of the eighteenth century it will be seen how specimens of this decorative material reached france by way of holland, and were mounted into the "_meubles de luxe_" of that time. with this exception, and that of the famous collection of porcelain in the japan palace at dresden, probably but little of the art products of this artistic people had been exported until the country was opened up by the expedition of lord elgin and commodore perry, in 1858-9, and subsequently by the antiquarian knowledge and research of sir rutherford alcock, who has contributed so much to our knowledge of japanese industrial art; indeed it is scarcely too much to say, that so far as england is concerned, he was the first to introduce the products of the empire of japan. [illustration: japanese cabinet of red chased lacquer work. xvii to xviii century.] the revolution, and the break up of the feudal system which had existed in that country for some eight hundred years, ended by placing the mikado on the throne. there was a sale in paris, in 1867, of the famous collection of the shôgun, who had sent his treasures there to raise funds for the civil war in which he was then engaged with the daimio. this was followed by the exportation of other fine native productions to paris and london; but the supply of old and really fine specimens has, since about 1874, almost ceased, and, in default, the european markets have become flooded with articles of cheap and inferior workmanship, exported to meet the modern demand. the present government of japan, anxious to recover many of the masterpieces which were produced in the best time, under the patronage of the native princes of the old _régime_, have established a museum at tokio, where many examples of fine lacquer work, which had been sent to europe for sale, have been placed after repurchase, to serve as examples for native artists to copy, and to assist in the restoration of the ancient reputation of japan. there is in the south kensington museum a very beautiful japanese chest of lacquer work made about the beginning of the seventeenth century, the best time for japanese art; it formerly belonged to napoleon i. and was purchased at the hamilton palace sale for £722: it is some 3 ft. 3 in. long and 2 ft. 1 in. high, and was intended originally as a receptacle for sacred buddhist books. there are, most delicately worked on to its surface, views of the interior of one of the imperial palaces of japan, and a hunting scene. mother-of-pearl, gold, silver, and aventurine, are all used in the enrichment of this beautiful specimen of inlaid work, and the lock plate is a representative example of the best kind of metal work as applied to this purpose. h.r.h. the duke of edinburgh has several fine specimens of chinese and japanese lacquer work in his collection, about the arrangement of which the writer had the honour of advising his royal highness, when it arrived some years ago at clarence house. the earliest specimen is a reading desk, presented by the mikado, with a slope for a book much resembling an ordinary bookrest, but charmingly decorated with lacquer in landscape subjects on the flat surfaces, while the smaller parts are diapered with flowers and quatrefoils in relief of lac and gold. this is of the sixteenth century. the collections of the earl of elgin and kincardine, sir rutherford alcock, k.c.b., mr. salting, viscount gough, and other well-known amateurs, contain some excellent examples of the best periods of japanese art work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. the grotesque carving of the wonderful dragons and marvellous monsters introduced into furniture made by the chinese and japanese, and especially in the ornamental woodwork of the old temples, is thoroughly peculiar to these masters of elaborate design and skilful manipulation: and the low rate of remuneration, compared with our european notions of wages, enables work to be produced that would be impracticable under any other conditions. in comparing the decorative work on chinese and japanese furniture, it may be said that more eccentricity is effected by the latter than by the former in their designs and general decorative work. the japanese joiner is unsurpassed, and much of the lattice work, admirable in design and workmanship, is so quaint and intricate that only by close examination can it be distinguished from finely cut fret work. indian furniture. european influence upon indian art and manufactures has been of long duration; it was first exercised by the portuguese and dutch in the early days of the united east india company, afterwards by the french, who established a trading company there in 1664, and since then by the english, the first charter of the old east india company dating as far back as 1600. thus european taste dominated almost everything of an ornamental character until it became difficult to find a decorative article the design of which did not in some way or other shew the predominance of european influence over native conception. therefore it becomes important to ascertain what kind of furniture, limited as it was, existed in india during the period of the mogul empire, which lasted from 1505 to 1739, when the invasion of the persians under kouli khan destroyed the power of the moguls; the country formerly subject to them was then divided amongst sundry petty princes. the thrones and state chairs used by the moguls were rich with elaborate gilding; the legs or supports were sometimes of turned wood, with some of the members carved; the chair was formed like an hour glass, or rather like two bowls reversed, with the upper part extended to form a higher back to the seat. in m. racinet's sumptuous work, "le costume historique," published in paris in 20 volumes (1876), there are reproduced some old miniatures from the collection of m. ambroise didot. these represent--with all the advantages of the most highly finished printing in gold, silver, and colours--portraits of these native sovereigns seated on their state chairs, with the umbrella, as a sign of royalty. the panels and ornaments of the thrones are picked out with patterns of flowers, sometimes detached blossoms, sometimes the whole plant; the colors are generally bright red and green, while the ground of a panel or the back of a chair is in silver, with arabesque tracery, the rest of the chair being entirely gilt. the couches are rectangular, with four turned and carved supports, some eight or ten inches high, and also gilt. with the exception of small tables, which could be carried into the room by slaves, and used for the light refreshments customary to the country, there was no other furniture. the ladies of the harem are represented as being seated on sumptuous carpets, and the walls are highly decorated with gold and silver and color, which seems very well suited to the arched openings, carved and gilt doors, and brilliant costumes of the occupants of these indian palaces. after the break up of the mogul power, the influence of holland, france, and england brought about a mixture of taste and design which, with the concurrent alterations in manners and customs, gradually led to the production of what is now known as the "bombay furniture." the patient, minute carving of indian design applied to utterly uncongenial portuguese or french shapes of chairs and sofas, or to the familiar round or oval table, carved almost beyond recognition, are instances of this style. one sees these occasionally in the house of an anglo-indian, who has employed native workmen to make some of this furniture for him, the european chairs and tables being given as models, while the details of the ornament have been left to native taste. it is scarcely part of our subject to allude to the same kind of influence which has spoiled the quaint bizarre effect of native design and workmanship in silver, in jewellery, in carpets, embroideries, and in pottery, which was so manifest in the contributions sent to south kensington at the colonial exhibition, 1886. there are in the indian museum at south kensington several examples of this bombay furniture, and also some of cingalese manufacture. in the jones collection at south kensington museum, there are two carved ivory chairs and a table, the latter gilded, the former partly gilded, which are a portion of a set taken from tippo sahib at the storming of seringapatam. warren hastings brought them to england, and they were given to queen charlotte. after her death the set was divided; lord londesborough purchased part of it, and this portion is now on loan at the bethnal green museum. the queen has also amongst her numerous jubilee presents some very handsome ivory furniture of indian workmanship, which may be seen at windsor castle. these, however, as well as the jones collection examples, though thoroughly indian in character as regards the treatment of scrolls, flowers, and foliage, shew unmistakcably the influence of french taste in their general form and contour. articles, such as boxes, stands for gongs, etc., are to be found carved in sandal wood, and in _dalburgia,_ or black wood, with rosewood mouldings; and a peculiar characteristic of this indian decoration, sometimes applied to such small articles of furniture, is the coating of the surface of the wood with red lacquer, the plain parts taking a high polish while the carved enrichment remains dull. the effect of this is precisely that of the article being made of red sealing wax, and frequently the minute pattern of the carved ornament and its general treatment tend to give an idea of an impression made in the wax by an elaborately cut die. the casket illustrated on p. 134 is an example of this treatment. it was exhibited in 1851. the larger examples of indian carved woodwork are of teak; the finest and most characteristic specimens within the writer's knowledge are the two folding doors which were sent as a present to the indian government, and are in the indian museum. they are of seventeenth century work, and are said to have enclosed a library at kerowlee. while the door frames are of teak, with the outer frames carved with bands of foliage in high relief, the doors themselves are divided into panels of fantastic shapes, and yet so arranged that there is just sufficient regularity to please the eye. some of these panels are carved and enriched with ivory flowers, others have a rosette of carved ivory in the centre, and pieces of talc with green and red colour underneath, a decoration also found in some arabian work. it is almost impossible to convey by words an adequate description of these doors; they should be carefully examined as examples of genuine native design and workmanship. mr. pollen has concluded a somewhat detailed account of them by saying:--"for elegance of shape and proportion, and the propriety of the composition of the frame and sub-divisions of these doors, their mouldings and their panel carvings and ornaments, we can for the present name no other example so instructive. we are much reminded by this decoration of the pierced lattices at the s. marco in venice." [illustration: casket of indian lacquer work.] there is in the indian museum another remarkable specimen of native furniture--namely, a chair of the purest beaten gold of octagonal shape, and formed of two bowls reversed, decorated with acanthus and lotus in repousée ornament. this is of eighteenth century workmanship, and was formerly the property of runjeet sing. the precious metal is thinly laid on, according to the eastern method, the wood underneath the gold taking all the weight. there is also a collection of plaster casts of portions of temples and palaces from a very early period until the present time, several having been sent over as a loan to the indian and colonial exhibition of 1886, and afterwards presented by the commissioners to the museum. a careful observation of the ornamental details of these casts leads us to the conclusion that the byzantine style which was dominant throughout the more civilized portion of asia during the power of the romans, had survived the great changes of the middle ages. as native work became subject more or less to the influence of the indo-chinese carvers of deities on the one side, and of the european notions of the portuguese pioneers of discovery on the other, a fashion of decorative woodwork was arrived at which can scarcely be dignified by the name of a style, and which it is difficult to describe. dr. birdwood, in his work on indian art, points out that, about a hundred years ago, indian designs were affected by the immigration of persian designers and workmen. the result of this influence is to be seen in the examples in the museum, a short notice of which will conclude these remarks on indian work. the copy in shishem wood of a carved window at amritzar, in the punjaub, with its overhanging cornice, ornamental arches, supported by pillars, and the whole surface covered with small details of ornament, is a good example of the sixteenth and seventeenth century work. the various façades of dwelling-houses in teak wood, carved, and still bearing the remains of paint with which part of the carving was picked out, represent the work of the contemporary carvers of ahmedabad, famous for its woodwork. portions of a lacquer work screen, similar in appearance to embossed gilt leather, with the pattern in gold, on a ground of black or red, and the singular cashmere work, called "mirror mosaic," give us a good idea of the indian decoration of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. this effective decoration is produced by little pieces of looking-glass being introduced into the small geometrical patterns of the panels; these, when joined together, form a very rich ceiling. the bedstead of king theebaw, brought from mandalay, is an example of this mixture of glass and wood, which can be made extremely effective. the wood is carved and gilt to represent the gold setting of numerous precious stones, which are counterfeited by small pieces of looking-glass and variously-coloured pieces of transparent glass. some of the prince of wales' presents, namely, chairs, with carved lions forming arms; tables of shishem wood, inlaid with ebony and ivory, shew the european influence we have alluded to. amongst the modern ornamental articles in the museum are many boxes, pen trays, writing cases, and even photograph albums of wood and ivory mosaic work, the inlaid patterns being produced by placing together strips of tin wire, sandal wood, ebony, and of ivory, white, or stained green: these bound into a rod, either triangular or hexagonal, are cut into small sections, and then inlaid into the surface of the article to be decorated. papier maché and lacquer work are also frequently found in small articles of furniture; and the collection of drawings by native artists attests the high skill in design and execution attained by indian craftsmen. persia. the persians have from time immemorial been an artistic people, and their style of art throughout successive conquests and generations has varied but little. major-general murdoch smith, r.e., the present director of the branch of the south kensington museum in edinburgh, who resided for some years in persia, and had the assistance when there of m. richard (a well-known french antiquarian), made a collection of _objets d'art_ some years ago for the science and art department, which is now in the kensington museum, but it contains comparatively little that can be actually termed furniture; and it is extremely difficult to meet with important specimens of ornamental wordwork of native workmanship. those in the museum, and in other collections, are generally small ornamental articles. the chief reason of this is, doubtless, that little timber is to be found in persia, except in the caspian provinces, where, as mr. benjamin has told us in "persia and the persians," wood is abundant; and the persian architect, taking advantage of his opportunity, has designed his houses with wooden piazzas--not found elsewhere--and with "beams, lintels, and eaves quaintly, sometimes elegantly, carved, and tinted with brilliant hues." another feature of the decorative woodwork in this part of persia is that produced by the large latticed windows, which are well adapted to the climate. [illustration: door of carved sandal wood, from travancore. india museum, south kensington. period: probably late xviii. century.] in the manufacture of textile fabrics--notably, their famous carpets of yezd and ispahan, and their embroidered cloths in hammered and engraved metal work, and formerly in beautiful pottery and porcelain--they have excelled: and examples will be found in the south kensington museum. it is difficult to find a representative specimen of persian furniture except a box or a stool; and the illustration of a brass incense burner is, therefore, given to mark the method of design, which was adopted in a modified form by the persians from their arab conquerors. [illustration: incense burner of engraved brass. (_in the south kensington museum_).] this method of design has one or two special characteristics which are worth noticing. one of these was the teaching of mahomet forbidding animal representation in design--a rule which in later work has been relaxed; another was the introduction of mathematics into persia by the saracens, which led to the adoption of geometrical patterns in design; and a third, the development of "caligraphy" into a fine art, which has resulted in the introduction of a text, or motto, into so many of the persian designs of decorative work. the combination of these three characteristics have given us the "arabesque" form of ornament, which, in artistic nomenclature, occurs so frequently. the general method of decorating woodwork is similar to that of india, and consists in either inlaying brown wood (generally teak) with ivory or pearl in geometrical patterns, or in covering the wooden box, or manuscript case, with a coating of lacquer, somewhat similar to the chinese or japanese preparations. on this groundwork some good miniature painting was executed, the colours being, as a rule, red, green, and gold, with black lines to give force to the design. the author of "persia and the persians," already quoted, had, during his residence in the country, as american minister, great opportunities of observation, and in his chapter entitled "a glance at the arts of persia," has said a good deal of this mosaic work. referring to the scarcity of wood in persia, he says: "for the above reason one is astonished at the marvellous ingenuity, skill, and taste developed by the art of inlaid work, or mosaic in wood. it would be impossible to exceed the results achieved by the persian artizans, especially those of shiraz, in this wonderful and difficult art.... chairs, tables, sofas, boxes, violins, guitars, canes, picture frames, almost every conceivable object, in fact, which is made of wood, may be found overlaid with an exquisite casing of inlaid work, so minute sometimes that thirty-live or forty pieces may be counted in the space of a square eighth of an inch. i have counted four hundred and twenty-eight distinct pieces on a square inch of a violin, which is completely covered by this exquisite detail of geometric designs, in mosaic." mr. benjamin--who, it will be noticed, is somewhat too enthusiastic over this kind of mechanical decoration--also observes that, while the details will stand the test of a magnifying glass, there is a general breadth in the design which renders it harmonious and pleasing if looked at from a distance. in the south kensington museum there are several specimens of persian lacquer work, which have very much the appearance of papier maché articles that used to be so common in england some forty years ago, save that the decoration is, of course, of eastern character. of seventeenth century work, there is also a fine coffer, richly inlaid with ivory, of the best description of persian design and workmanship of this period, which was about the zenith of persian art during the reign of shah abbas. the numerous small articles of what is termed persian marqueterie, are inlaid with tin wire and stained ivory, on a ground of cedar wood, very similar to the same kind of ornamental work already described in the indian section of this chapter. these were purchased at the paris exhibition in 1867. persian art of the present day may be said to be in a state of transition, owing to the introduction and assimilation of european ideas. saracenic woodwork from cairo and damascus. while the changes of fashion in western, as contrasted with eastern countries, are comparatively rapid, the record of two or three centuries presenting a history of great and well-defined alterations in manners, customs, and therefore, of furniture, the more conservative oriental has been content to reproduce, from generation to generation, the traditions of his forefathers; and we find that, from the time of the moorish conquest and spread of arabesque design, no radical change in saracenic art occurred until french and english energy and enterprise forced european fashions into egypt: as a consequence, the original quaintness and orientalism natural to the country, are being gradually replaced by buildings, decoration, and furniture of european fashion. the carved pulpit, from a mosque in cairo, which is in the south kensington museum, was made for sultan kaitbeg, 1468-96. the side panels, of geometrical pattern, though much injured by time and wear, shew signs of ebony inlaid with ivory, and of painting and gilding; they are good specimens of the kind of work. the two doors, also from cairo, the oldest parts of which are just two hundred years earlier than the pulpit, are exactly of the same style, and, so far as appearances go, might be just as well taken for two hundred years later, so conservative was the saracenic treatment of decorative woodwork for some four or five centuries. pentagonal and hexagonal mosaics of ivory, with little mouldings of ebony dividing the different panels, the centres of eccentric shapes of ivory or rosewood carved with minute scrolls, combine to give these elaborate doors a very rich effect, and remind one of the work still to be seen at the alhambra. the science and art department has been fortunate in securing from the st. maurice and dr. meymar collections a great many specimens which are well worth examination. the most remarkable is a complete room brought from a house in damascus, which is fitted up in the oriental style, and gives one a good idea of an eastern interior. the walls are painted in colour and gold; the spaces divided by flat pilasters, and there are recesses, or cupboards, for the reception of pottery, quaintly formed vessels, and pots of brass. oriental carpets, octagonal tables, such as the one which ornaments the initial letter of this chapter, hookas, incense burners, and cushions furnish the apartment; while the lattice window is an excellent representation of the "mesherabijeh," or lattice work, with which we are familiar, since so much has been imported by egyptian travellers. in the upper panels of the lattice there are inserted pieces of coloured glass, and, looking outwards towards the light, the effect is very pretty. the date of this room is 1756, which appears at the foot of an arabic inscription, of which a translation is appended to the exhibit. it commences--"in the name of god, the merciful, the compassionate," and concludes; "pray, therefore, to him morning and evening." [illustration: governor's palace, manfalut. shewing a window of arab lattice work, similar to that of the damascus room in the south kensington museum.] a number of bosses and panels, detached from their original framework, are also to be seen, and are good specimens of saracenic design. a bedstead, with inlay of ivory and numerous small squares of glass, under which are paper flowers, is also a good example of native work. [illustration: specimen of saracenic panelling of cedar, ebony, and ivory. (_in the south kensington museum._)] the illustration on p. 142 is of a carved wood door from cairo, considered by the south kensington authorities to be of syrian work. it shews the turned spindles, which the arabs generally introduce into their ornamental woodwork: and the carving of the vase of flowers is a good specimen of the kind. the date is about the seventeenth century. for those who would gain an extended knowledge of saracenic or arabian art industry, "_l'art arabe,"_ by m. prisse d'aveunes, should be consulted. there will be found in this work many carefully-prepared illustrations of the cushioned seats, the projecting balconies of the lattice work already alluded to, of octagonal inlaid tables, and such other articles of furniture as were used by the arabs. the south kensington handbook, "persian art," by major-general murdoch smith, r.e., is also a very handy and useful work in a small compass. while discussing saracenic or arab furniture, it is worth noticing that our word "sofa" is of arab derivation, the word "suffah" meaning "a couch or place for reclining before the door of eastern houses." in skeat's dictionary the word is said to have first occurred in the "guardian," in the year 1713, and the phrase is quoted from no. 167 of that old periodical of the day--"he leapt off from the sofa on which he sat." [illustration: a carved door of syrian work. (_south kensington museum._)] from the same source the word "ottoman," which webster defines as "a stuffed seat without a back, first used in turkey," is obviously obtained, and the modern low-seated upholsterer's chair of to-day is doubtless the development of a french adaptation of the eastern cushion or "divan," this latter word having become applied to the seats which furnished the hall or council chamber in an eastern palace, although its original meaning was probably the council or "court" itself, or the hall in which such was held. thus do the habits and tastes of different nations act and re-act upon each other. western peoples have carried eastward their civilisation and their fashions, influencing arts and industries, with their restless energy, and breaking up the crust of oriental apathy and indolence; and have brought back in return the ideas gained from an observation of the associations and accessories of eastern life, to adapt them to the requirements and refinements of european luxury. [illustration: shaped panel of saracenic work in carved bone or ivory.] [illustration: boule armoire. designed by le brun, formerly in the "hamilton palace" collection and purchased (wertheimer) for £12,075 the pair. period: louis xiv.] chapter vi. french furniture. palace of versailles: "grand" and "petit trianon"--the three styles of louis xiv., xv. and xvi.--colbert and lebrun--andré charles boule and his work--carved and gilt furniture--the regency and its influence--alteration in condition of french society--watteau, lancret, and boucher. louis xv. furniture: famous ebenistes--vernis martin furniture--caffieri and gouthière mountings--sêvres porcelain introduced into cabinets--gobelins tapestry--the "bureau du roi." louis xvi. and marie antoinette: the queen's influence--the painters chardin and greuze--more simple designs--characteristic ornaments of louis xvi. furniture--riesener's work--gouthière's mountings--specimens in the louvre--the hamilton palace sale--french influence upon the design of furniture in other countries--the jones collection--extract from the "times." [illustration] there is something so distinct in the development of taste in furniture, marked out by the three styles to which the three monarchs have given the names of "louis quatorze," "louis quinze," and "louis seize," that it affords a fitting point for a new departure. this will be evident to anyone who will visit, first the palace of versailles,[13] then the grand trianon, and afterwards the petit trianon. by the help of a few illustrations, such a visit in the order given would greatly interest anyone having a smattering of knowledge of the characteristic ornaments of these different periods. a careful examination would demonstrate how the one style gradually merged into that of its successor. thus the massiveness and grandeur of the best louis quatorze _meubles de luxe_, became, in its later development, too ornate and effeminate, with an elaboration of enrichment, culminating in the rococo style of louis quinze. then we find, in the "petit trianon," and also in the chateau of fontainebleau, the purer taste of marie antoinette dominating the art productions of her time, which reached their zenith, with regard to furniture, in the production of such elegant and costly examples as have been preserved to us in the beautiful work-table and secretaire--sold some years since at the dispersion of the hamilton palace collection--and in some other specimens, which may be seen in the musée du louvre, in the jones collection in the south kensington museum, and in other public and private collections: of these several illustrations are given. we have to recollect that the reign of louis xiv. was the time of the artists berain, lebrun, and, later in the reign, of watteau, also of andré charles boule, _ciseleur et doreur du roi_, and of colbert, that admirable minister of finance, who knew so well how to second his royal master's taste for grandeur and magnificence. the palace of versailles bears throughout the stamp and impress of the majesty of _le grande monarque;_ and the rich architectural ornament of the interior, with moulded, gilded, and painted ceilings, required the furnishing to be carried to an extent which had never been attempted previously. louis xiv. had judgment in his taste, and he knew that, to carry out his ideas of a royal palace, he must not only select suitable artists capable of control, but he must centralize their efforts. in 1664 colbert founded the royal academy of painting, architecture, and sculpture, to which designs of furniture were admitted. the celebrated gobelins tapestry factory was also established; and it was here the king collected together and suitably housed the different skilled producers of his furniture, placing them all under the control of his favourite artist, lebrun, who was appointed director in 1667. the most remarkable furniture artist of this time, for surely he merits such title, was andré charles boule, of whom but little is known. he was born in 1642, and, therefore, was 25 years of age when lebrun was appointed art-director. he appears to have originated the method of ornamenting furniture which has since been associated with his name. this was to veneer his cabinets, pedestals, armoires, encoignures, clocks, and brackets with tortoiseshell, into which a cutting of brass was laid, the latter being cut out from a design, in which were harmoniously arranged scrolls, vases of flowers, satyrs, animals, cupids, swags of fruit and draperies; fantastic compositions of a free renaissance character constituted the panels; to which bold scrolls in ormolu formed fitting frames; while handsome mouldings of the same material gave a finish to the extremities. these ormolu mountings were gilt by an old-fashioned process,[14] which left upon the metal a thick deposit of gold, and were cunningly chiselled by the skilful hands of caffieri or his contemporaries. [illustration: boule armoire, in the "jones" collection, s. kensington museum. louis xiv. period.] boule subsequently learned to economise labour by adopting a similar process to that used by the marqueterie cutter; and by glueing together two sheets of brass, or white metal, and two of shell, and placing over them his design, he was then able to pierce the four layers by one cut of the handsaw; this gave four exact copies of the design. the same process would be repeated for the reverse side, if, as with an armoire or a large cabinet, two panels, one for each door, right and left, were required; and then, when the brass, or white metal cutting was fitted into the shell so that the joins were imperceptible, he would have two right and two left panels. these would be positive and negative: in the former pair the metal would represent the figured design with the shell as groundwork, and the latter would have the shell as a design, with a ground of metal. the terms positive and negative are the writer's to explain the difference, but the technical terms are "first part" and "second part," or "boule" and "counter." the former would be selected for the best part of the cabinet, for instance, the panels of the front doors, while the latter would be used for the ends or sides. an illustration of this plan of using all four cuttings of one design occurs in the armoire no. 1026 in the jones collection, and in a great many other excellent specimens. the brass, or the white metal in the design, was then carefully and most artistically engraved; and the beauty of the engraving of boule's finest productions is a great point of excellence, giving, as it does, a character to the design, and emphasizing its details. the mounting of the furniture in ormolu of a rich and highly-finished character, completed the design. the _museé du louvre_ is rich in examples of boule's work; and there are some very good pieces in the jones collection, at hertford house, and at windsor castle. the illustration on p. 144 is the representation of an armoire, which was, undoubtedly, executed by boule from a design by lebrun: it is one of a pair which was sold in 1882, at the hamilton palace sale, by messrs. christie, for £12,075. another small cabinet, in the same collection, realised £2,310. the pedestal cabinet illustrated on p. 148, from the jones collection, is very similar to the latter, and cost mr. jones £3,000. when specimens, of the genuineness of which there is no doubt, are offered for sale, they are sure to realize very high prices. the armoire in the jones collection, already alluded to (no. 1026), of which there is an illustration, cost between £4,000 and £5,000. in some of the best of boule's cabinets, as, for instance, in the hamilton palace armoire (illustrated), the bronze gilt ornaments stand out in bold relief from the surface. in the louvre there is one which has a figure of _le grand monarque_, clad in armour, with a roman toga, and wearing the full bottomed wig of the time, which scarcely accords with the costume of a roman general. the absurd combination which characterises this affectation of the classic costume is also found in portraits of our george ii. [illustration: pedestal cabinet, by boule, formerly in mr. baring's collection. purchased by mr. jones for £3,000. (_south kensington museum_)] the masks, satyrs, and ram's heads, the scrolls and the foliage, are also very bold in specimens of this class of boule's work; and the "sun" (that is, a mask surrounded with rays of light) is a very favourite ornament of this period. boule had four sons and several pupils; and he may be said to have founded a school of decorative furniture, which has its votaries and imitators now, as it had in his own time. the word one frequently finds misspelt "buhl," and this has come to represent any similar mode of decorations on furniture, no matter how meretricious or common it may be. [illustration: a concert during the reign of louis xiv. (_from a miniature, dated 1696._)] later in the reign, as other influences were brought to bear upon the taste and fashion of the day, this style of furniture became more ornate and showy. instead of the natural colour of the shell, either vermilion or gold leaf was placed underneath the transparent shell; the gilt mounts became less severe, and abounded with the curled endive ornament, which afterwards became thoroughly characteristic of the fashion of the succeeding reign; and the forms of the furniture itself conformed to a taste for a more free and flowing treatment; and it should be mentioned, in justice to lebrun, that from the time of his death and the appointment of his successor, mignard, a distinct decline in merit can be traced. contemporary with boule's work, were the richly-mounted tables, having slabs of egyptian porphyry, or florentine marble mosaic; and marqueterie cabinets, with beautiful mountings of ormolu, or gilt bronze. commodes and screens were ornamented with chinese lacquer, which had been imported by the dutch and taken to paris, after the french invasion of the netherlands. [illustration: panel for a screen. painted by watteau. louis xiv. period.] about this time--that is, towards the end of the seventeenth century--the resources of designers and makers of decorative furniture were reinforced by the introduction of glass in larger plates than had been possible previously. mirrors of considerable size were first made in venice; these were engraved with figures and scrolls, and mounted in richly carved and gilt wood frames; and soon afterwards manufactories of mirrors, and of glass, in larger plates than before, were set up in england, near battersea, and in france at tour la ville, near paris. this novelty not only gave a new departure to the design of suitable frames in carved wood (generally gilt), but also to that of boule work and marqueterie. it also led to a greater variety of the design for cabinets; and from this time we may date the first appearance of the "vitrine," or cabinet with glass panels in the doors and sides, for the display of smaller _objets d'art._ [illustration: decoration of a salon in louis xiv. style.] the chairs and sofas of the latter half of the reign of louis quatorze are exceedingly grand and rich. the suite of furniture for the state apartment of a prince or wealthy nobleman comprised a _canapé_, or sofa, and six _fauteils_, or arm chairs, the frames carved with much spirit, or with "feeling," as it is technically termed, and richly gilt. the backs and seats were upholstered and covered with the already famous tapestry of gobelins or beauvais.[15] such a suite of furniture, in bad condition and requiring careful and very expensive restoration, was sold at christie's some time ago for about £1,400, and it is no exaggeration to say that a really perfect suite, with carving and gilding of the best, and the tapestry not too much worn, if offered for public competition, would probably realise between £3,000 and £4,000. in the appendix will be found the names of many artists in furniture of this time, and in the jones collection we have several very excellent specimens which can easily be referred to, and compared with others of the two succeeding reigns, whose furniture we are now going to consider. as an example of the difference in both outline and detail which took place in design, let the reader notice the form of the louis quatorze commode vignetted for the initial letter of this chapter, and then turn to the lighter and more fanciful cabinets of somewhat similar shape which will be found illustrated in the "louis quinze" section which follows this. in the louis quatorze cabinets the decorative effect, so far as the woodwork was concerned, was obtained first by the careful choice of suitable veneers, and then, by joining four pieces in a panel, so that the natural figure of the wood runs from the centre, and then a banding of a darker wood forms a frame. an instance of this will also be found in the above-mentioned illustration. louis xv. when the old king died, at the ripe age of 77, the crown devolved on his great-grandson, then a child five years old, and therefore a regency became necessary; and this period of some eight years, until the death of philip, duke of orleans, in 1723, when the king was declared to have attained his majority at the age of 13, is known as _l'epoch de la regence_, and is a landmark in the history of furniture. [illustration: boule commode, probably made during the period of the regency (_museé du louvre._)] there was a great change about this period of french history in the social condition of the upper classes in france. the pomp and extravagance of the late monarch had emptied the coffers of the noblesse, and in order to recruit their finances, marriages became common which a decade or two before that time would hardly have been thought possible. nobles of ancient lineage married the daughters of bankers and speculators, in order to supply themselves with the means of following the extravagant fashions of the day, and we find the wives of ministers of departments of state using their influence and power for the purpose of making money by gambling in stocks, and accepting bribes for concessions and contracts. [illustration: french sedan chair. (_from an engraving in the south kensington art library._) period: louis xv.] it was a time of corruption, extravagance, licentiousness, and intrigue, and although one might ask what bearing this has upon the history of furniture, a little reflection shows that the abandonment of the great state receptions of the late king, and the pompous and gorgeous entertainments of his time, gave way to a state of society in which the boudoir became of far more importance than the salon, in the artistic furnishing of a fashionable house. instead of the majestic grandeur of immense reception rooms and stately galleries, we have the elegance and prettiness of the boudoir; and as the reign of the young king advances, we find the structural enrichment of rooms more free, and busy with redundant ornament; the curved endive decoration, so common in carved woodwork and in composition of this period, is seen everywhere; in the architraves, in the panel mouldings, in the frame of an overdoor, in the design of a mirror frame; doves, wreaths, arcadian fountains, flowing scrolls, cupids, and heads and busts of women terminating in foliage, are carved or moulded in relief, on the walls, the doors, and the alcoved recesses of the reception rooms, either gilded or painted white; and pictures by watteau, lancret, or boucher, and their schools, are appropriate accompaniments.[16] [illustration: part of a salon, decorated in the louis quinze style, showing the carved and gilt console table and mirror, with other enrichments, _en suite_.] the furniture was made to agree with this decorative treatment: couches and easy chairs were designed in more sweeping curves and on a smaller scale, the woodwork wholly or partially gilt and upholstered, not only with the tapestry of gobelins or beauvais, but with soft colored silk brocades and brocatelles; light occasional chairs were enriched with mother-of-pearl or marqueterie; screens were painted with love scenes and representations of ladies and gentlemen who look as if they passed their entire existence in the elaboration of their toilettes or the exchange of compliments; the stately cabinet is modified into the _bombé_ fronted commode, the ends of which curve outwards with a graceful sweep; and the bureau is made in a much smaller size, more highly decorated with marqueterie, and more fancifully mounted to suit the smaller and more effeminate apartment. the smaller and more elegant cabinets, called _bonheur du jour_ (a little cabinet mounted on a table); the small round occasional table, called a _gueridon_; the _encoignure_, or corner cabinet; the _étagère_, or ornamental hanging cabinet, with shelves; the three-fold screen, with each leaf a different height, and with shaped top, all date from this time. the _chaise à porteur_, or sedan chair, on which so much work and taste were expended, became more ornate, so as to fall in with the prevailing fashion. marqueterie became more fanciful. [illustration: console table, carved and gilt. (_collection of m. double, paris._)] the louis quinze cabinets were inlaid, not only with natural woods, but with veneers stained in different tints; and landscapes, interiors, baskets of flowers, birds, trophies, emblems of all kinds, and quaint fanciful conceits are pressed into the service of marqueterie decoration. the most famous artists in this decorative woodwork were riesener, david roentgen (generally spoken of as david), pasquier. carlin, leleu, and others, whose names will be found in a list in the appendix. [illustration: louis xv. carved and gilt "fauteui." upholstered with beauvais tapestry. subject from la fontaine's fables.] during the preceding reign the chinese lacquer ware then in use was imported from the east, the fashion for collecting which had grown ever since the dutch had established a trade with china: and subsequently as the demand arose for smaller pieces of _meubles de luxe,_ collectors had these articles taken to pieces, and the slabs of lacquer mounted in panels to decorate the table, or cabinet, and to display the lacquer. _ébenistés_, too, prepared such parts of woodwork as were desired to be ornamented in this manner, and sent them to china to be coated with lacquer, a process which was then only known to the chinese; but this delay and expense quickened the inventive genius of the european, and it was found that a preparation of gum and other ingredients applied again and again, and each time carefully rubbed down, produced a surface which was almost as lustrous and suitable for decoration as the original article. a dutchman named huygens was the first successful inventor of this preparation; and, owing to the adroitness of his work, and of those who followed him and improved his process, one can only detect european lacquer from chinese by trifling details in the costumes and foliage of decoration, not strictly oriental in character. [illustration: commode. with panels of fine old laquer and mountings by caffieri. _jones collection, s. kensington museum._ period of louis xv.] about 1740-4 the martin family had three manufactories of this peculiar and fashionable ware, which became known as vernis-martin, or martins' varnish; and it is singular that one of these was in the district of paris then and now known as faubourg saint martin. by a special decree a monopoly was granted in 1744 to sieur simon etienne martin the younger, "to manufacture all sorts of work in relief and in the style of japan and china." this was to last for twenty years; and we shall see that in the latter part of the reign of louis xv., and in that of his successor, the decoration was not confined to the imitation of chinese and japanese subjects, but the surface was painted in the style of the decorative artist of the day, both in monochrome and in natural colours; such subjects as "cupid awakening venus," "the triumph of galatea," "nymphs and goddesses," "garden scenes," and "fêtes champêtres," being represented in accordance with the taste of the period. it may be remarked in passing, that lacquer work was also made previous to this time in england. several cabinets of "old" english lac are included in the strawberry hill sale catalogue; and they were richly mounted with ormolu, in the french style; this sale took place in 1842. george robins, so well known for his flowery descriptions, was the auctioneer; the introduction to the catalogue was written by harrison ainsworth. [illustration: in parqueterie with massive mountings of gilt bronze, probably by caffieri, (_formerly in the hamilton palace collection. purchased_ (_westheims_), £6,247 ics.) louis xv. period.] the gilt bronze mountings of the furniture became less massive and much more elaborate: the curled endive ornament was very much in vogue; the acanthus foliage followed the curves of the commode; busts and heads of women, cupids, satyrs terminating in foliage, suited the design and decoration of the more fanciful shapes; and caffieri, who is the great master of this beautiful and highly ornate enrichment, introduced chinese figures and dragons into his designs. the amount of spirit imparted into the chasing of this ormolu is simply marvellous--it has never been equalled and could not be excelled. time has now mellowed the colour of the woodwork it adorns; and the tint of the gold with which it is overlaid, improved by the lights and shadows caused by the high relief of the work and the consequent darkening of the parts more depressed while the more prominent ornaments have been rubbed bright from time to time, produces an effect which is exceedingly elegant and rich. one cannot wonder that connoisseurs are prepared to pay such large sums for genuine specimens, or that clever imitations are exceedingly costly to produce. illustrations are given from some of the more notable examples of decorative furniture of this period, which were sold in 1882 at the celebrated hamilton palace sale, together with the sums they realised: also of specimens in the south kensington museum in the jones collection. we must also remember, in considering the _meubles de luxe_ of this time, that in 1753 louis xv. had made the sêvres porcelain manufactory a state enterprise; and later, as that celebrated undertaking progressed, tables and cabinets were ornamented with plaques of the beautiful and choice _pâte tendre_, the delicacy of which was admirably adapted to enrich the light and frivolous furnishing of the dainty boudoir of a madame du barri or a madame pompadour. another famous artist in the delicate bronze mountings of the day was pierre gouthière. he commenced work some years later than caffieri, being born in 1740; and, like his senior fellow craftsman, did not confine his attention to furniture, but exercised his fertility of design, and his passion for detail, in mounting bowls and vases of jasper, of sêvres and of oriental porcelain. the character of his work is less forcible than that of caffieri, and comes nearer to what we shall presently recognise as the louis seize, or marie antoinette style, to which period his work more properly belongs: in careful finish of minute details, it more resembles the fine goldsmith's work of the renaissance. [illustration: bureau du roi. made for louis xv. by riesener. (collection of "mobilier national.") (_from a pen and ink drawing by h. evans._) period: louis xv.] gouthière was employed extensively by madame du barri; and at her execution, in 1793, he lost the enormous balance of 756,000 francs which was due to him, but which debt the state repudiated, and the unfortunate man died in extreme poverty, the inmate of an almshouse. the designs of the celebrated tapestry of gobelins and of beauvais, used for the covering of the finest furniture of this time, also underwent a change; and, instead of the representation of the chase, with a bold and vigorous rendering, we find shepherds and shepherdesses, nymphs and satyrs, the illustrations of la fontaine's fables, or renderings of boucher's pictures. without doubt, the most important example of _meubles de luxe_ of this reign is the famous "bureau du roi," made for louis xv. in 1769, and which appears fully described in the inventory of the "garde meuble" in the year 1775, under no. 2541. this description is very minute, and is fully quoted by m. williamson in his valuable work, "les meubles d'art du mobilier national," and occupies no less than thirty-seven lines of printed matter. its size is five-and-a-half feet long and three feet deep; the lines are the perfection of grace and symmetry; the marqueterie is in riesner's best manner; the mountings are magnificent--reclining figures, foliage, laurel wreaths, and swags, chased with rare skill; the back of this famous bureau is as fully decorated as the front: it is signed "riesener, f.e., 1769, à l'arsenal de paris." riesener is said to have received the order for this bureau from the king in 1767, upon the occasion of the marriage of this favourite court _ébeniste_ with the widow of his former master oeben. its production therefore would seem to have taken about two years. this celebrated chef d'oeuvre was in the tuileries in 1807, and was included in the inventory found in the cabinet of napoleon i. it was moved by napoleon iii. to the palace of st. cloud, and only saved from capture by the germans by its removal to its present home in the louvre, in august, 1870. it is said that it would probably realise, if offered for sale, between fifteen and twenty thousand pounds. a full-page illustration of this famous piece of furniture is given. a similar bureau is in the hertford (wallace) collection, which was made to the order of stanilaus, king of poland; a copy executed by zwiener, a very clever _ébeniste_ of the present day in paris, at a cost of some three thousand pounds, is in the same collection. louis xvi. and marie antoinette. [illustration: boudoir furnished in the taste of the louis xvi. period.] it is probable that for some little time previous to the death of louis xv., the influence of the beautiful daughter of maria theresa on the fashions of the day was manifested in furniture and its accessories. we know that marie antoinette disliked the pomp and ceremony of court functions, and preferred a simpler way of living at the favourite farm house which was given to her husband as a residence on his marriage, four years before his accession to the throne; and here she delighted to mix with the bourgeoise on the terrace at versailles, or, donning a simple dress of white muslin, would busy herself in the garden or dairy. there was, doubtless, something of the affectation of a woman spoiled by admiration, in thus playing the rustic; still, one can understand that the best french society, weary of the domination of the late king's mistresses, with their intrigues, their extravagances, and their creatures, looked forward, at the death of louis, with hope and anticipation to the accession of his grandson and the beautiful young queen. [illustration: part of a salon. decorated and furnished in the louis xvi. style.] gradually, under the new regime, architecture became more simple; broken scrolls are replaced by straight lines, curves and arches only occur when justifiable, and columns and pilasters reappear in the ornamental façades of public buildings. interior decoration necessarily followed suit; instead of the curled endive scrolls enclosing the irregular panel, and the superabundant foliage in ornament, we have rectangular panels formed by simpler mouldings, with broken corners, having a patera or rosette in each, and between the upright panels there is a pilaster of refined renaissance design. in the oval medallions supported by cupids, is found a domestic scene by a fragonard or a chardin; and the portraits of innocent children by greuze replace the courting shepherds and mythological goddesses of boucher and lancret. sculpture, too, becomes more refined and decorous in its representations. as with architecture, decoration, painting, and sculpture, so also with furniture. the designs became more simple, but were relieved from severity by the amount of ornament, which, except in some cases where it is over-elaborate, was properly subordinate to the design and did not control it. mr. hungerford pollen attributes this revival of classic taste to the discoveries of ancient treasures in herculaneum and pompeii, but as these occurred in the former city so long before the time we are discussing as the year 1711, and in the latter in 1750, these can scarcely be the immediate cause; the reason most probably is that a reversion to simpler and purer lines came as a relief and reaction from the over-ornamentation of the previous period. there are not wanting, however, in some of the decorated ornaments of the time, distinct signs of the influence of these discoveries. drawings and reproductions from frescoes, found in these old italian cities, were in the possession of the draughtsmen and designers of the time; and an instance in point of their adaptation is to be seen in the small boudoir of the marquise de serilly, one of the maids of honour to marie antoinette. the decorative woodwork of this boudoir is fitted up in the kensington museum. a notable feature in the ornament of woodwork and in metal mountings of this time, is a fluted pilaster with quills or husks filling the flutings some distance from the base, or starting from both base and top and leaving an interval of the hollow fluting plain and free. an example of this will be seen in the next woodcut of a cabinet in the jones collection, which has also the familiar "louis seize" riband surmounting the two oval sêvres china plaques. when the flutings are in oak, in rich mahogany, or painted white, these husks are gilt, and the effect is chaste and pleasing. variation was introduced into the gilding of frames by mixing silver with some portion of the gold so as to produce two tints, red gold and green gold; the latter would be used for wreaths and accessories, while the former, or ordinary gilding, was applied to the general surface. the legs of tables are generally fluted, as noticed above, tapering towards the feet, and are relieved from a stilted appearance by being connected by a stretcher. [illustration: marqueterie cabinet. with plaques of sêvres china (_in the jones collection, south kensington museum._)] [illustration: writing table. made by riesener for marie antoinette. collection "mobilier national." (_from a-pen and ink drawing by h. evans._) period: late louis xv.] there occurs in m. williamson's valuable contribution to the literature of our subject ("_les meubles d'art du mobilier national_,") an interesting illustration of the gradual alterations which we are noticing as having taken place in the design of furniture. this is a small writing table, some 3 ft. 6 in. long, made during the reign of louis xv., but quite in the marie antoinette style, the legs tapering and fluted, the frieze having in the centre a plaque of _bronze doré_, the subject being a group of cupids, representing the triumph of poetry, and on each side a scroll with a head and foliage (the only ornament characteristic of louis quinze style) connecting leg and frieze. m. williamson quotes verbatim the memorandum of which this was the subject. it was made for the trianon and the date is just one year after marie antoinette's marriage:--"memoire des ouvrages faits et livrés, par les ordres de monsieur le chevalier de fontanieu, pour le garde meuble du roy par riesener, ébeniste a l'arsenal paris," savoir sept. 21, 1771; and then follows a fully detailed description of the table, with its price, which was 6,000 francs, or £240. there is a full page illustration of this table. the maker of this piece of furniture was the same riesener whose masterpiece is the magnificent _bureau du roi_ which we have already alluded to in the louvre. this celebrated _ébeniste_ continued to work for marie antoinette for about twenty years, until she quitted versailles, and he probably lived quite to the end of the century, for during the revolution we find that he served on the special commission appointed by the national convention to decide which works of art should be retained and which should be sold, out of the mass of treasure confiscated after the deposition and execution of the king. riesener's designs do not show much fertility, but his work is highly finished and elaborate. his method was generally to make the centre panel of a commode front, or the frieze of a table, a _tour de force_, the marqueterie picture being wonderfully delicate. the subject was generally a vase with fruits and flowers; the surface of the side panels inlaid with diamond-shaped lozenges, or a small diaper pattern in marqueterie; and then a framework of rich ormolu would separate the panels. the centre panel had sometimes a richer frame. his famous commode, made for the château of fontainebleau, which cost a million francs (£4,000)--an enormous sum in those days--is one of his _chefs d'oeuvre_, and this is an excellent example of his style. a similar commode was sold in the hamilton palace sale for £4,305. an upright secretaire, _en suite_ with the commode, was also sold at the same time for £4,620, and the writing table for £6,000. an illustration of the latter is on the following page, but the details of this elaborate gem of cabinet maker's work, and of gouthière's skill in mounting, are impossible to reproduce in a woodcut. it is described as follows in christie's catalogue:-"lot 303. an oblong writing table, _en suite_, with drawer fitted with inkstand, writing slide and shelf beneath; an oval medallion of a trophy and flowers on the top, and trophies with four medallions round the sides: stamped t. riesener and branded underneath with cypher of marie antoinette, and _garde meuble de la reine_." there is no date on the table, but the secretaire is stamped 1790, and the commode 1791. if we assume that the table was produced in 1792, these three specimens, which have always been regarded as amongst the most beautiful work of the reign, were almost the last which the unfortunate queen lived to see completed. [illustration: the "marie antoinette" writing table. (_formerly in the hamilton palace collection._)] [illustration: bedstead of marie antoinette, from fontainebleau. collection "mobilier national." (_from a pen and ink drawing by h. evans._) period: louis xvi.] the fine work of riesener required the mounting of an artist of quite equal merit, and in gouthière he was most fortunate. there is a famous clock case in the hertford collection, fully signed "gouthière, ciseleur et doreur du roi à paris quai pelletier, à la boucle d'or, 1771." he worked, however, chiefly in conjunction with riesener and david roentgen for the decoration of their marqueterie. in the louvre are some beautiful examples of this co-operative work; and also of cabinets in which plaques of very fine black and gold lacquer take the place of marqueterie; the centre panel being a finely chased oval medallion of gouthière's gilt bronze, with caryatides figures of the same material at the ends supporting the cornice. [illustration: cylinder secretaire, in marqueterie, with bronze gilt mountings, by gouthière. (_mr. alfred de rothschild's collection._) period: louis xvi.] a specimen of this kind of work (an upright secretaire, of which we have not been able to obtain a satisfactory representation) formed part of the hamilton palace collection, and realised £9,450, the highest price which the writer has ever seen a single piece of furniture bring by auction; it must be regarded as the _chef d'oeuvre_ of gouthière. in the jones collection, at south kensington, there are also several charming examples of louis seize _meubles de luxe_. some of these are enriched with plaques of sêvres porcelain, which treatment is better adapted to the more jewel-like mounting of this time than to the rococo style in vogue during the preceding reign. [illustration: arm chair in louis xvi. style.] the upholstered furniture became simpler in design; the sofas and chairs have generally, but not invariably, straight fluted tapering legs, but these sometimes have the flutings spiral instead of perpendicular, and the backs are either oval or rectangular, and ornamented with a carved riband which is represented as tied at the top in a lover's knot. gobelins, beauvais, and aubusson tapestry are used for covering, the subjects being in harmony with the taste of the time. a sofa in this style, with settees at the ends, the frame elaborately carved with trophies of arrows and flowers in high relief, and covered with fine old gobelins tapestry, was sold at the hamilton palace sale for £1,176. this was formerly at versailles. beautiful silks and brocades were also extensively used both for chairs and for the screens, which at this period were varied in design and extremely pretty. small two-tier tables of tulip wood with delicate mountings were quite the rage, and small occasional pieces, the legs of which, like those of the chairs, are occasionally curved. an excellent example of a piece with cabriole legs is the charming little marie antoinette cylinder-fronted marqueterie escritoire in the jones collection (illustrated below). the marqueterie is attributed to riesener, but, from its treatment being so different from that which he adopted as an almost invariable rule, it is more probably the work of david. [illustration: carved and gilt causeuse or settee, and fauteuil or arm chair, covered with beauvais tapestry. (collection "mobilier national.") (_from a pen and ink drawing by h. evans._) period: end of louis xvi.] [illustration: carved and gilt canapé or sofa. covered with beauvais tapestry. (colection "mobilier natioanal.") period: end of louis xvi.] another fine specimen illustrated on page 170 is the small cabinet made of kingwood, with fine ormolu mounts, and some beautiful sêvres plaques. [illustration: marqueterie escritoire. by davis, said to have belonged to marie antoinette. (_jones collection, south kensington museum._)] the influence exercised by the splendour of the court of louis quatorze, and by the bringing together of artists and skilled handicraftsmen for the adornment of the palaces of france, which we have seen took place during the latter half of the seventeenth century, was not without its effect upon the industrial arts of other countries. macaulay mentions the "bales of tapestry" and other accessories which were sent to holland to fit up the camp quarters of louis le grand when he went there to take the command of his army against william iii., and he also tells us of the sumptuous furnishing of the apartments at st. germains when james ii., during his exile, was the guest of louis. the grandeur of the french king impressed itself upon his contemporaries, and war with germany, as well as with holland and england, helped to spread this influence. we have noticed how wren designed the additions to hampton court palace in imitation of versailles; and in the chapter which follows this, it will be seen that the designs of chippendale were really reproductions of french furniture of the time of louis quinze. the king of sweden, charles xii., "the madman of the north," as he was called, imitated his great french contemporary, and in the palace at stockholm there are still to be seen traces of the louis quatorze style in decoration and in furniture; such adornments are out of keeping with the simplicity of the habits of the present royal family of sweden. a bourbon prince, too, succeeded to the throne of spain in 1700, and there are still in the palaces and picture galleries of madrid some fine specimens of french furniture of the three reigns which have just been discussed. it may be taken, therefore, that from the latter part of the seventeenth century the dominant influence upon the design of decorative furniture was of french origin. there is evidence of this in a great many examples of the work of flemish, german, english, and spanish cabinet makers, and there are one or two which may be easily referred to which it is worth while to mention. one of these is a corner cupboard of rosewood, inlaid with engraved silver, part of the design being a shield with the arms of an elector of cologne; there is also a pair of somewhat similar cabinets from the bishop's palace at salzburg. these are of german work, early eighteenth century, and have evidently been designed after boule's productions. the shape and the gilt mounts of a secretaire of walnutwood with inlay of ebony and ivory, and some other furniture which, with the other specimens just described, may be seen in the bethnal green museum, all manifest the influence of the french school, when the bombe-fronted commodes and curved lines of chair and table came into fashion. having described somewhat in detail the styles which prevailed and some of the changes which occurred in france, from the time of louis xiv. until the revolution, it is unnecessary for the purposes of this sketch, to do more than briefly refer to the work of those countries which may be said to have adopted, to a greater or less extent, french designs. for reasons already stated, an exception is made in the case of our own country; and the following chapter will be devoted to the furniture of some of the english designers and makers of the latter half of the eighteenth century. of italy it may be observed generally that the renaissance of raffaele, leonardo da vinci, and michael angelo, which we have seen became degenerate towards the end of the sixteenth century, relapsed still further during the period which we have been discussing, and although the freedom and grace of the italian carving, and the elaboration of inlaid arabesques, must always have some merit of their own, the work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in italy will compare very unfavourably with that of the earlier period of the renaissance. [illustration: a norse interior, shewing chairs of dutch design. period: late xvii. or early xviii. century.] there are many other museum specimens which might be referred to to prove the influence of french design of the seventeenth and subsequent centuries on that of other countries. the above illustration of a norse interior shews that this influence penetrated as far as scandinavia; for while the old-fashioned box-like bedsteads which the norwegians had retained from early times, and which in a ruder form are still to be found in the cottages of many scottish counties, especially of those where the scandinavian connection existed, is a characteristic mark of the country, the design of the two chairs is an evidence of the innovations which had been made upon native fashions. these chairs are in style thoroughly dutch, of about the end of the seventeenth or early in the eighteenth century; the cabriole legs and shell ornaments were probably the direct result of the influence of the french on the dutch. the woodcut is from a drawing of an old house in norwav. [illustration: secretaire, in king and tulip wood, with sêvres plaques and ormolu mountings. period: early louis xvi.] it would be unfitting to close this chapter on french furniture without paying a tribute to the munificence and public spirit of mr. john jones, whose bequest to the south kensington museum constitutes in itself a representative museum of this class of decorative furniture. several of the illustrations in this chapter have been taken from this collection. in money value alone, the collection of furniture, porcelain, bronzes, and _articles de vertú,_ mostly of the period embraced within the limits of this chapter, amounts to about £400,000, and exceeds the value of any bequest the nation has ever had. perhaps the references contained in these few pages to the french furniture of this time may stimulate the interest of the public in, and its appreciation of, this valuable national property. [illustration: clock, by robin, in marqueterie case, with mountings of gilt bronze, (_jones collection. south kensington museum._) louis xvi. period.] soon after this generous bequest was placed in the south kensington museum, for the benefit of the public, a leading article appeared in the _times_, from which the following extract will very appropriately conclude this chapter:--"as the visitor passes by the cases where these curious objects are displayed, he asks himself what is to be said on behalf of the art of which they are such notable examples." tables, chairs, commodes, secretaires, wardrobes, porcelain vases, marble statuettes, they represent in a singularly complete way the mind and the work of the _ancien régime_. like eisen's vignettes, or the _contes_ of innumerable story-tellers, they bring back to us the grace, the luxury, the prettiness, the frivolity of that court which believed itself, till the rude awakening came, to contain all that was precious in the life of france. a piece of furniture like the little sêvres-inlaid writing table of marie antoinette is, to employ a figure of balzac's, a document which reveals as much to the social historian as the skeleton of an ichthyosaurus reveals to the palæontologist. it sums up an epoch. a whole world can be inferred from it. pretty, elegant, irrational, and entirely useless, this exquisite and costly toy might stand as a symbol for the life which the revolution swept away. [illustration: harpsichord, from the permanent collection belonging to south kensington museum. date: about 1750.] [illustration: italian sedan chair. used at the baptism of the grand ducal family of tuscany, now in the south kensington museum. period: latter half of xviii. century.] chapter vii. chippendale and his contemporaries. chinese style--sir william chambers--the brothers adams' work--pergelesi, cipriani, and angelica kauffmann--architects of the time--wedgwood and flaxman--chippendale's work and his contemporaries--chair in the barbers' hall--lock, shearer, hepplewhite, ince, mayhew, sheraton--introduction of satinwood and mahogany--gillows of lancaster and london--history of the sideboard--the dining room--furniture of the time. soon after the second half of the eighteenth century had set in, during the latter days of the second george, and the early part of his successor's long reign, there is a distinct change in the design of english decorative furniture. sir william chambers, r.a., an architect, who has left us somerset house as a lasting monument of his talent, appears to have been the first to impart to the interior decoration, of houses what was termed "the chinese style," after his visit to china, of which a notice was made in the chapter on eastern furniture: and as he was considered an "oracle of taste" about this time, his influence was very powerful. chair backs consequently have the peculiar irregular lattice work which is seen in the fretwork of chinese and japanese ornaments, and pagodas, chinamen and monsters occur in his designs for cabinets. the overmantel which had hitherto been designed with some architectural pretension, now gave way to the larger mirrors which were introduced by the improved manufacture of plate glass: and the chimney piece became lower. during his travels in italy, chambers had found some italian sculptors, and had brought them to england, to carve in marble his designs; they were generally of a free italian character, with scrolls of foliage and figure ornaments: but being of stone instead of woodwork, would scarcely belong to our subject, save to indicate the change in fashion of the chimney piece, the vicissitudes of which we have already noticed. chimney pieces were now no longer specially designed by architects, as part of the interior fittings, but were made and sold with the grates, to suit the taste of the purchaser, often quite irrespective of the rooms for which they were intended. it may be said that dignity gave way to elegance. robert adam, having returned from his travels in france and italy, had designed and built, in conjunction with his brother james, adelphi terrace about 1769, and subsequently portland place, and other streets and houses of a like character; the furniture being made, under the direction of robert, to suit the interiors. there is much interest attaching to no. 25, portland place, because this was the house built, decorated and furnished by robert adam for his own residence, and, fortunately, the chief reception rooms remain to shew the style then in vogue. the brothers adam introduced into england the application of composition ornaments to woodwork. festoons of drapery, wreaths of flowers caught up with rams' heads, or of husks tied with a knot of riband, and oval pateroe to mark divisions in a frieze, or to emphasize a break in the design, are ornaments characteristic of what was termed the adams style. robert adam published between 1778 and 1822 three magnificent volumes, "works on architecture." one of these was dedicated to king george iii., to whom he was appointed architect. many of his designs for furniture were carried out by gillows; there is a good collection of his original drawings in the soane museum, lincoln's inn fields. the decoration was generally in low relief, with fluted pilasters, and sometimes a rather stiff renaissance ornament decorating the panel; the effect was neat and chaste, and a distinct change from the rococo style which had preceded it. the design of furniture was modified to harmonize with such decoration. the sideboard had a straight and not infrequently a serpentine-shaped front, with square tapering legs, and was surmounted by a pair of urn-shaped knife cases, the wood used being almost invariably mahogany, with the inlay generally of plain flutings relieved by fans or oval pateroe in satin wood. pergolesi, cipriani and angelica kaufmann had been attracted to england by the promise of lucrative employment, and not only decorated the panels of ceilings and walls which were enriched by adams' "_compo_'" (in reality a revival of the old italian gesso work), but also painted the ornamental cabinets, occasional tables, and chairs of the time. [illustration: fac-simile of original drawings by robert adam (reduced).] towards the end of the century, satin wood was introduced into england from the east indies; it became very fashionable, and was a favourite ground-work for decoration, the medallions of figure subjects, generally of cupids, wood-nymphs, or illustrations of mythological fables on darker coloured wood, formed an effective relief to the yellow satin wood. sometimes the cabinet, writing table, or spindle-legged occasional piece, was made entirely of this wood, having no other decoration beyond the beautiful marking of carefully chosen veneers; sometimes it was banded with tulipwood or harewood (a name given to sycamore artificially stained), and at other times painted as just described. a very beautiful example of this last named treatment is the dressing table in the south kensington museum, which we give as an illustration, and which the authorities should not, in the writer's opinion, have labelled "chippendale." besides chambers, there were several other architects who designed furniture about this time who have been almost forgotten. abraham swan, some of whose designs for wooden chimney pieces in the quasi-classic style are given, flourished about 1758. john carter, who published "specimens of ancient sculpture and painting"; nicholas revitt and james stewart, who jointly published "antiquities of athens" in 1762; j.c. kraft, who designed in the adams' style; w. thomas, m.s.a., and others, have left us many drawings of interior decorations, chiefly chimney pieces and the ornamental architraves of doors, all of them in low relief and of a classical character, as was the fashion towards the end of the eighteenth century. josiah wedgwood, too, turned his attention to the production of plaques in relief, for adaptation to chimney pieces of this character. in a letter written from london to mr. bentley, his partner, at the works, he deplores the lack of encouragement in this direction which he received from the architects of his day; he, however, persevered, and by the aid of flaxman's inimitable artistic skill as a modeller, made several plaques of his beautiful jasper ware, which were let in to the friezes of chimney pieces, and also into other wood-work. there can be seen in the south kensington museum a pair of pedestals of this period (1770-1790) so ornamented. it is now necessary to consider the work of a group of english cabinet makers, who not only produced a great deal of excellent furniture, but who also published a large number of designs drawn with extreme care and a considerable degree of artistic skill. the first of these and the best known was thomas chippendale, who appears to have succeeded his father, a chair maker, and to have carried on a large and successful business in st. martin's lane, which was at this time an important art centre, and close to the newly-founded royal academy. [illustration: english satinwood dressing table. with painted decoration. end of xviii. century.] [illustration: chimneypiece and overmantel. designed by w. thomas, architect. 1783. very similar to robert adam's work.] chippendale published "the gentleman and cabinet maker's director," not, as stated in the introduction to the catalogue to the south kensington museum, in 1769, but some years previously, as is testified by a copy of the "third edition" of the work which is in the writer's possession and bears date 1762, the first edition having appeared in 1754. the title page of this edition is reproduced in _fac simile_ on page 178. [illustration: chairs, with ornament in the chinese style, by thomas chippendale.] this valuable work of reference contains over two hundred copperplate engravings of chairs, sofas, bedsteads, mirror frames, girandoles, torchéres or lamp stands, dressing tables, cabinets, chimney pieces, organs, jardiniéres, console tables, brackets, and other useful and decorative articles, of which some examples are given. it will be observed from these, that the designs of chippendale are very different from those popularly ascribed to him. indeed, it would appear that this maker has become better known than any other, from the fact of the designs in his book being recently republished in various forms; his popularity has thus been revived, while the names of his contemporaries are forgotten. for the last fifteen or twenty years, therefore, during which time the fashion has obtained of collecting the furniture of a bygone century, almost every cabinet, table, or mirror-frame, presumably of english manufacture, which is slightly removed from the ordinary type of domestic furniture, has been, for want of a better title, called "chippendale." as a matter of fact, he appears to have adopted from chambers the fanciful chinese ornament, and the rococo style of that time, which was superseded some five-and-twenty years later by the quieter and more classic designs of adam and his contemporaries. [illustration: _fac-simile of the title page of chippendale's "director." (reduced by photography.) the original is in folio size_. the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director: being a large collection of the most elegant and useful designs of household furniture, in the most fashionable taste. including a great variety of chairs, sofas, beds, and couches; china-tables, dressing-tables, shaving-tables, bason-stands, and teakettle-stands; frames for marble-slabs, bureau-dressing-tables, and commodes; writing-tables, and library-tables; library-book-cases, organ-cases for private rooms, or churches, desks, and book-cases; dressing and writing-tables with book-cases, toilets, cabinets, and cloaths-presses; china-cases, china-shelves, and book-shelves; candle-stands, terms for busts, stands for china jars, and pedestals; cisterns for water, lanthorns, and chandeliers; fire-screens, brackets, and clock-cases; pier-glasses, and table-frames; girandoles, chimney-pieces, and picture-frames; stove-grates, boarders, frets, chinese-railing, and brass-work, for furniture, and other ornaments, to which is prefixed, a short explanation of the five orders of architecture; with proper directions for executing the most difficult pieces, the mouldings being exhibited at large, and the dimensions of each design specified. the whole comprehended in two hundred copper-plates, neatly engraved. calculated to improve and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances of persons in all degrees of life. by thomas chippendale, cabinet-maker and upholsterer, in st. martin's lane, london. the third edition. london: printed for the author, and sold at his house, in st. martin's lane; also by t. becket and p.a. dehondt, in the strand. mdcclxii. ] [illustration: fac-simile of a page in chippendale's "director." (the original is folio size.)] [illustration: tea caddy, carved in the french style. (from chippendale's "director.")] in the chapter on louis xv. and louis xvi. furniture, it has been shewn how france went through a similar change about this same period. in chippendale's chairs and console tables, in his state bedsteads and his lamp-stands, one can recognise the broken scrolls and curved lines, so familiar in the bronze mountings of caffieri. the influence of the change which had occurred in france during the louis seize period is equally evident in the adams' treatment. it was helped forward by the migration into this country of skilled workmen from france, during the troubles of the revolution at the end of the century. some of chippendale's designs bear such titles as "french chairs" or a "bombé-fronted commode." these might have appeared as illustrations in a contemporary book on french furniture, so identical are they in every detail with the carved woodwork of picau, of cauner, or of nilson, who designed the flamboyant frames of the time of louis xv. others have more individuality. in his mirror frames he introduced a peculiar bird with a long snipe-like beak, and rather impossible wings, an imitation of rockwork and dripping water, chinese figures with pagodas and umbrellas; and sometimes the illustration of aesop's fables interspersed with scrolls and flowers. by dividing the glass unequally, by the introduction into his design of bevelled pillars with carved capitals and bases, he produced a quaint and pleasing effect, very suitable to the rather effeminate fashion of his time, and in harmony with three-cornered hats, wigs and patches, embroidered waistcoats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and enamelled snuff-boxes. in some of the designs there is a fanciful gothic, to which he makes special allusion in his preface, as likely to be considered by his critics as impracticable, but which he undertakes to produce, if desired- "though some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them (espescially those after the gothick and chinese manner) as so many specious drawings impossible to be worked off by any mechanick whatsoever. i will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance, and inability; and i am confident i can convince all noblemen, gentlemen, or others who will honour me with their commands, that every design in the book can be improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the execution of it, by "their most obedient servant, "thomas chippendale." [illustration: a bureau, from chippendale's "director."] the reader will notice that in the examples selected from chippendale's book there are none of those fretwork tables and cabinets which are generally termed "chippendale." we know, however, that besides the designs which have just been described, and which were intended for gilding, he also made mahogany furniture, and in the "director" there are drawings of chairs, washstands, writing-tables and cabinets of this description. fretwork is very rarely seen, but the carved ornament is generally a foliated or curled endive scroll; sometimes the top of a cabinet is finished in the form of a chinese pagoda. upon examining a piece of furniture that may reasonably be ascribed to him, it will be found of excellent workmanship, and the wood, always mahogany without any inlay, is richly marked, shewing a careful selection of material. [illustration: fac-simile of a page in chippendale's "director." (the original is folio size.)] [illustration: "french" commode and lamp stands. designed by t. chippendale, and published in his "director."] [illustration: fac-simile of a page in chippendale's "director." (the original is folio size.)] [illustration: chimneypiece and mirror. designed by t. chippendale, and published in his "director."] [illustration: parlour chairs by chippendale.] the chairs of chippendale and his school are very characteristic. if the outline of the back of some of them be compared with the stuffed back of the chair from hardwick hall (illustrated in chap. iv.) it will be seen that the same lines occur, but instead of the frame of the back being covered with silk, tapestry, or other material--as in william iii.'s time--chippendale's are cut open into fanciful patterns; and in his more highly ornate work, the twisted ribands of his design are scarcely to be reconciled with the use for which a dining room chair is intended. the well-moulded sweep of his lines, however, counterbalances this defect to some extent, and a good chippendale mahogany chair will ever be an elegant and graceful article of furniture. one of the most graceful chairs of about the middle of the century, in the style of chippendale's best productions, is the master's chair in the hall of the barbers' company. carved in rich spanish mahogany, and upholstered in morocco leather, the ornament consists of scrolls and cornucopiæ, with flowers charmingly disposed, the arms and motto of the company being introduced. unfortunately, there is no certain record as to the designer and maker of this beautiful chair, and it is to be regretted that the date (1865), the year when the hall was redecorated, should have been placed in prominent gold letters on this interesting relic of a past century. [illustration: clock case, by chippendale.] apart from the several books of design noticed in this chapter, there were published two editions of a work, undated, containing many of the drawings found in chippendale's book. this book was entitled, "upwards of one hundred new and genteel designs, being all the most approved patterns of household furniture in the french taste. by a society of upholders and cabinet makers." it is probable that chippendale was a member of this society, and that some of the designs were his, but that he severed himself from it and published his own book, preferring to advance his individual reputation. the "sideboard" which one so generally hears called "chippendale" scarcely existed in his time. if it did, it must have been quite at the end of his career. there were side tables, sometimes called "side-boards," but they contained neither cellaret nor cupboard: only a drawer for table linen. the names of two designers and makers of mahogany ornamental furniture, which deserve to be remembered equally with chippendale, are those of w. ince and j. mayhew, who were partners in business in broad street, golden square, and contemporary with him. they also published a book of designs which is alluded to by thomas sheraton in the preface to his "cabinet maker and upholsterer's drawing book," published in 1793. a few examples from ince and mayhew's "cabinet maker's real friend and companion" are given, from which it is evident that, without any distinguishing brand, or without the identification of the furniture with the designs, it is difficult to distinguish between the work of these contemporary makers. it is, however, noticeable after careful comparison of the work of chippendale with that of ince and mayhew, that the furniture designed and made by the latter has many more of the characteristic details and ornaments which are generally looked upon as denoting the work of chippendale; for instance, the fretwork ornaments finished by the carver, and then applied to the plain mahogany, the open-work scroll-shaped backs to encoignures or china shelves, and the carved chinaman with the pagoda. some of the frames of chimney glasses and pictures made by ince and mayhew are almost identical with those of chippendale. other well known designers and manufacturers of this time were hepplewhite, who published a book of designs very similar to those of his contemporaries, and matthias lock, some of whose original drawings were on view in the exhibition of 1862, and had interesting memoranda attached, giving the names of his workmen and the wages paid: from these it appears that five shillings a day was at that time sufficient remuneration for a skilful wood carver. another good designer and maker of much excellent furniture of this time was "shearer," who has been unnoticed by nearly all writers on the subject. in an old book of designs in the author's possession, "shearer delin" and "published according to act of parliament, 1788," appears underneath the representations of sideboards, tables, bookcases, dressing tables, which are very similar in every way to those of sheraton, his contemporary. a copy of hepplewhite's book, in the author's possession (published in 1789), contains 300 designs "of every article of household furniture in the newest and most approved taste," and it is worth while to quote from his preface to illustrate the high esteem in which english cabinet work was held at this time. [illustration: china shelves, designed by w. ince. (reproduced by photography from an old print in the author's possession.)] [illustration: girandoles and pier table, designed by w. thomas, architect, 1783. (reproduced by photography from an old print in the author's possession.)] "english taste and workmanship have of late years been much sought for by surrounding nations; and the mutability of all things, but more especially of fashions, has rendered the labours of our predecessors in this line of little use; nay, in this day can only tend to mislead those foreigners who seek a knowledge of english taste in the various articles of household furniture." it is amusing to think how soon the "mutabilities of fashion" did for a time supersede many of his designs. a selection of designs from his book is given, and it will be useful to compare them with those of other contemporary makers. from such a comparison it will be seen that in the progress from the rococo of chippendale to the more severe lines of sheraton, hepplewhite forms a connecting link between the two. [illustration: toilet glass. urn stand. (_from "hepplewhite's guide"._)] the names given to some of these designs appear curious; for instance: "rudd's table or reflecting dressing table," so called from the first one having been invented for a popular character of that time. "knife cases," for the reception of the knives which were kept in them, and used to "garnish" the sideboards. "cabriole chair," implying a stuffed back, and not having reference, as it does now, to the curved form of the leg. "bar backed sofa," being what we should now term a three or four chair settee, i.e., like so many chairs joined and having an arm at either end. "library case" instead of bookcase. "confidante" and "duchesse," which were sofas of the time. "gouty stool," a stool having an adjustable top. "tea chest," "urn stand," and other names which have now disappeared from ordinary use in describing similar articles. [illustration: ladies' secretaires, designed by w. ince. (reproduced by photography from an old print in the author's possession.)] [illustration: parlour chairs, designed by w. ince.] [illustration: desk and bookcase, designed by w. ince. (reproduced by photography from an old print in the author's possession.)] [illustration: china cabinet, designed by j. mayhew. (reproduced from an old print in the author's possession).] [illustration: "dressing chairs," designed by j. mayhew. these shew the influence of sir w. chamber's chinese style.] hepplewhite had a _specialité_, to which he alludes in his book, and of which he gives several designs. this was his japanned or painted furniture: the wood was coated with a preparation after the manner of chinese or japanese lacquer, and then decorated, generally with gold on a black ground, the designs being in fruits and flowers: and also medallions painted in the style of cipriani and angelica kauffmann. subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of being japanned, was only painted white. it is probable that many of the chairs of this time which one sees, of wood of inferior quality, and with scarcely any ornament, were originally decorated in the manner just described, and therefore the "carving" of details would have been superfluous. injury to the enamelling by wear and tear was most likely the cause of their being stripped of their rubbed and partly obliterated decorations, and they were then stained and polished, presenting an appearance which is scarcely just to the designer and manufacturer. in some of hepplewhite's chairs, too, as in those of sheraton, one may fancy one sees evidence of the squabbles of two fashionable factions of this time, "the court party" and the "prince's party," the latter having the well known prince of wales' plumes very prominent, and forming the ornamental support of the back of the chair. another noticeable enrichment is the carving of wheat ears on the shield shape backs of the chairs. "the plan of a room shewing the proper distribution of the furniture," appears on p. 193 to give an idea of the fashion of the day; it is evident from the large looking glass which overhangs the sideboard that the fashion had now set in to use these mirrors. some thirty or forty year later this mirror became part of the sideboard, and in some large and pretentious designs which we have seen, the sideboard itself was little better than a support for a huge glass in a heavily carved frame. the dining tables of this period deserve a passing notice as a step in the development of that important member of our "lares and penates." what was and is still called the "pillar and claw" table, came into fashion towards the end of last century. it consisted of a round or square top supported by an upright cylinder, which rested on a plinth having three, or sometimes four, feet carved as claws. in order to extend these tables for a larger number of guests, an arrangement was made for placing several together. when apart, they served as pier or side tables, and some of these--the two end ones, being semi-circular--may still be found in some of our old inns.[17] [illustration: tea tray.] [illustration: girandole.] [illustration: tea tray.] [illustration: parlour chair, with prince of wales' plumes.] [illustration: pier table.] [illustration: parlour chair.] [illustration: designs of furniture. from hepplewhite's "guide," published 1787.] [illustration: fac-simile of a page in hepplewhite's "cabinet maker's guide." published in 1787.] it was not until 1800 that richard gillow, of the well-known firm in oxford street, invented and patented the convenient telescopic contrivance which, with slight improvements, has given us the table of the present day. the term still used by auctioneers in describing a modern extending table as "a set of dining tables," is, probably, a survival of the older method of providing for a dinner party. gillow's patent is described as "an improvement in the method of constructing dining and other tables calculated to reduce the number of legs, pillars and claws, and to facilitate and render easy, their enlargement and reduction." [illustration: inlaid tea caddy and top of pier tables. (_from "hepplewhite's guide"_)] as an interesting link between the present and the past it may be useful here to introduce a slight notice of this well-known firm of furniture manufacturers, for which the writer is indebted to mr. clarke, one of the present partners of gillows. "we have an unbroken record of books dating from 1724, but we existed long anterior to this: all records were destroyed during the scottish rebellion in 1745." the house originated in lancaster, which was then the chief port in the north, liverpool not being in existence at the time, and gillows exported furniture largely to the west indies, importing rum as payment, for which privilege they held a special charter. the house opened in london in 1765, and for some time the lancaster books bore the heading and inscription, "adventure to london." on the architect's plans for the premises now so well-known in oxford street, occur these words, "this is the way to uxbridge." mr. clarke's information may be supplemented by adding that from dr. gillow, whom the writer had the pleasure of meeting some years ago, and was the thirteenth child of the richard gillow before mentioned; he learnt that this same richard gillow retired in 1830, and died as late as 1866 at the age of 90. dowbiggin, founder of the firm of holland and sons, was an apprentice to richard gillow. mahogany may be said to have come into general use subsequent to 1720, and its introduction is asserted to have been due to the tenacity of purpose of a dr. gibbon, whose wife wanted a candle box, an article of common domestic use of the time. the doctor, who had laid by in the garden of his house in king street, covent garden, some planks sent to him by his brother, a west indian captain, asked the joiner to use a part of the wood for this purpose; it was found too tough and hard for the tools of the period, but the doctor was not to be thwarted, and insisted on harder-tempered tools being found, and the task completed; the result was the production of a candle box which was admired by every one. he then ordered a bureau of the same material, and when it was finished invited his friends to see the new work; amongst others, the duchess of buckingham begged a small piece of the precious wood, and it soon became the fashion. on account of its toughness, and peculiarity of grain, it was capable of treatment impossible with oak, and the high polish it took by oil and rubbing (not french polish, a later invention), caused it to come into great request. the term "putting one's knees under a friend's mahogany," probably dates from about this time. [illustration: kneehole table, by sheraton.] thomas sheraton, who commenced work some 20 years later than chippendale, and continued it until the early part of the nineteenth century, accomplished much excellent work in english furniture. the fashion had now changed; instead of the rococo or rock work (literally rock-scroll) and shell (_rocquaille et cocquaille_) ornament, which had gone out, a simpler and more severe taste had come in. in sheraton's cabinets, chairs, writing tables, and occasional pieces we have therefore no longer the cabriole leg or the carved ornament; but, as in the case of the brothers adam, and the furniture designed by them for such houses as those in portland place, we have now square tapering legs, severe lines, and quiet ornament. sheraton trusted almost entirely for decoration to his marqueterie. some of this is very delicate and of excellent workmanship. he introduced occasionally animals with foliated extremities into his scrolls, and he also inlaid marqueterie trophies of musical instruments; but as a rule the decoration was in wreaths of flowers, husks, or drapery, in strict adherence to the fashion of the decorations to which allusion has been made. a characteristic feature of his cabinets was the swan-necked pediment surmounting the cornice, being a revival of an ornament fashionable during queen anne's reign. it was then chiefly found in stone, marble, or cut brickwork, but subsequently became prevalent in inlaid woodwork. [illustration: chairs, by sheraton.] sheraton was apparently a man very well educated for his time, whether self taught or not one cannot say; but that he was an excellent draughtsman, and had a complete knowledge of geometry, is evident from the wonderful drawings in his book, and the careful though rather verbose directions he gives for perspective drawing. many of his numerous designs for furniture and ornamental items, are drawn to a scale with the geometrical nicety of an engineer's or architect's plan: he has drawn in elevation, plan, and minute detail, each of the five architectural orders. [illustration: chair backs, from sheraton's "cabinet maker."] the selection made here from his designs for the purposes of illustration, is not taken from his later work, which properly belongs to a future chapter, when we come to consider the influence of the french revolution, and the translation of the "empire" style to england. sheraton published "the cabinet maker and upholsterer's drawing book" in 1793, and the list of subscribers whose names and addresses are given, throws much light on the subject of the furniture of his time.[18] amongst these are many of his aristocratic patrons and no less than 450 names and addresses of cabinet makers, chair makers and carvers, exclusive of harpsichord manufacturers, musical instrument makers, upholsterers, and other kindred trades. included with these we find the names of firms who, from the appointments they held, it may be inferred, had a high reputation for good work and a leading position in the trade, but who, perhaps from the absence of a taste for "getting into print" and from the lack of any brand or mark by which their work can be identified, have passed into oblivion while their contemporaries are still famous. the following names taken from this list are probably those of men who had for many years conducted well known and old established businesses, but would now be but poor ones to "conjure" with, while those of chippendale, sheraton, or hepplewhite, are a ready passport for a doubtful specimen. for instance:--france, cabinet maker to his majesty, st. martin's lane; charles elliott, upholder to his majesty and cabinet maker to the duke of york, bond street; campbell and sons, cabinet makers to the prince of wales, mary-le-bone street, london. besides those who held royal appointments, there were other manufacturers of decorative furniture--thomas johnson, copeland, robert davy, a french carver named nicholas collet, who settled in england, and many others. in mr. j.h. pollen's larger work on furniture and woodwork, which includes a catalogue of the different examples in the south kensington museum, there is a list of the various artists and craftsmen who have been identified with the production of artistic furniture either as designers or manufacturers, and the writer has found this of considerable service. in the appendix to this work, this list has been reproduced, with the addition of several names (particularly those of the french school) omitted by mr. pollen, and it will, it is hoped, prove a useful reference to the reader. * * * * * although this chapter is somewhat long, on account of the endeavour to give more detailed information about english furniture of the latter half of last century, than of some other periods, in consequence of the prevailing taste for our national manufacture of this time, still, in concluding it, a few remarks about the "sideboard" may be allowed. the changes in form and fashion of this important article of domestic furniture are interesting, and to explain them a slight retrospect is necessary. the word "buffet," sometimes translated "sideboard," which was used to describe continental pieces of furniture of the 15th and 16th centuries, does not designate our sideboard, which may be said to have been introduced by william iii.; and of which kind there is a fair specimen in the south kensington museum; an illustration of it has been given in the chapter dealing with that period. the term "stately sideboard" occurs in milton's "paradise regained," which was published in 1671, and dryden, in his translation of juvenal, published in 1693, when contrasting the furniture of the classical period of which he was writing with that of his own time, uses the following line:- "no sideboards then with gilded plate were dressed." the fashion in those days of having symmetrical doors in a room, that is, false doors to correspond with the door used for exit, which one still finds in many old houses in the neighbourhood of portland place, and particularly in the palaces of st. james' and of kensington, enabled our ancestors to have good cupboards for the storage of glass, crockery, and reserve wine. after the middle of the eighteenth century, however, these extra doors and the enclosed cupboard gradually disappeared, and soon after the mahogany side table came into fashion it became the custom to supplement this article of furniture by a pedestal cupboard on either side (instead of the cupboards alluded to), one for hot plates and the other for wine. then, as the thin legs gave the table rather a lanky appearance, the _garde de vin_, or cellaret, was added in the form of an oval tub of mahogany with bands of brass, sometimes raised on low feet with castors for convenience, which was used as a wine cooler. a pair of urn-shaped mahogany vases stood on the pedestals, and these contained--the one hot water for the servants' use in washing the knives, forks and spoons, which being then much more valuable were limited in quantity, and the other held iced water for the guests' use. a brass rail at the back of the side table with ornamental pillars and branches for candles was used, partly to enrich the furniture, and partly to form a support to the handsome pair of knife and spoon cases, which completed the garniture of a gentleman's sideboard of this period. the full page illustrations will give the reader a good idea of this arrangement, and it would seem that the modern sideboard is the combination of these separate articles into one piece of furniture--at different times and in different fashions--first the pedestals joined to the table produced our "pedestal sideboard," then the mirror was joined to the back, the cellarette made part of the interior fittings, and the banishment of knife cases and urns to the realms of the curiosity hunter, or for conversion into spirit cases and stationery holders. the sarcophagus, often richly carved, of course succeeded the simpler cellaret of sheraton's period. before we dismiss the furniture of the "dining room" of this period, it may interest some of our readers to know that until the first edition of "johnson's dictionary" was published in 1755, the term was not to be found in the vocabularies of our language designating its present use. in barrat's "alvearic," published in 1580, "parloir," or "parler," was described as "a place to sup in." later, "minsheu's guide unto tongues," in 1617, gave it as "an inner room to dine or to suppe in," but johnson's definition is "a room in houses on the first floor, elegantly furnished for reception or entertainment." [illustration: urn stand.] to the latter part of the eighteenth century--the english furniture of which time has been discussed in this chapter--belong the quaint little "urn stands" which were made to hold the urn with boiling water, while the tea pot was placed on the little slide which is drawn out from underneath the table top. in those days tea was an expensive luxury, and the urn stand, of which there is an illustration, inlaid in the fashion of the time, is a dainty relic of the past, together with the old mahogany or marqueterie tea caddy, which was sometimes the object of considerable skill and care. one of these designed by chippendale is illustrated on p. 179, and another by hepplewhite will be found on p. 194. they were fitted with two and sometimes three bottles or tea-pays of silver or battersea enamel, to hold the black and green teas, and when really good examples of these daintily-fitted tea caddies are offered for sale, they bring large sums. [illustration: a sideboard in mahogany with inlay of satinwood. in the style of robert adam.] the "wine table" of this time deserves a word. these are now somewhat rare, and are only to be found in a few old houses, and in some of the colleges at oxford and cambridge. these were found with revolving tops, which had circles turned out to a slight depth for each glass to stand in, and they were sometimes shaped like the half of a flat ring. these latter were for placing in front of the fire, when the outer side of the table formed a convivial circle, round which the sitters gathered after they had left the dinner table. one of these old tables is still to be seen in the hall of gray's inn, and the writer was told that its fellow was broken and had been "sent away." they are nearly always of good rich mahogany, and have legs more or less ornamental according to circumstances. a distinguishing feature of english furniture of the last century was the partiality for secret drawers and contrivances for hiding away papers or valued articles; and in old secretaires and writing tables we find a great many ingenious designs which remind us of the days when there were but few banks, and people kept money and deeds in their own custody. [illustration: carved jardiniere, by chippendale.] [illustration: a china cabinet, and a bookcase with secretaire. designed by t. sheraton, and published in his "cabinet maker and upholsterer's drawing book," 1793.] chapter viii. first half of the nineteenth century the french revolution and first empire--influence on design of napoleon's campaigns--the cabinet presented to marie louise--dutch furniture of the time--english furniture--sheraton's later work--thomas hope, architect--george smith's designs--fashion during the regency--gothic revival--seddon's furniture--other makers--influence on design of the restoration in france--furniture of william iv. and early part of queen victoria's reign--baroque and rococo styles--the panelling of rooms, dado, and skirting--the art union,--the society of arts--sir charles barry and the new palace of westminster--pugin's designs--auction prices of furniture--christie's--the london club houses--steam--different trade customs--exhibitions in france and england--harry rogers' work--the queen's cradle--state of art in england during first part of present reign--continental designs--italian carving--cabinet work--general remarks. empire furniture. [illustration] there are great crises in the history of a nation which stand out in prominent relief. one of these is the french revolution, which commenced in 1792, and wrought such dire havoc amongst the aristocracy, with so much misery and distress throughout the country. it was an event of great importance, whether we consider the religion, the politics, or the manners and customs of a people, as affecting the changes in the style of the decoration of their homes. the horrors of the revolution are matters of common knowledge to every schoolboy, and there is no need to dwell either upon them or their consequences, which are so thoroughly apparent. the confiscation of the property of those who had fled the country was added to the general dislocation of everything connected with the work of the industrial arts. nevertheless it should be borne in mind that amongst the anarchy and disorder of this terrible time in france, the national convention had sufficient foresight to appoint a commission, composed of competent men in different branches of art, to determine what state property in artistic objects should be sold, and what was of sufficient historical interest to be retained as a national possession. riesener, the celebrated _ébeniste_, whose work we have described in the chapter on louis seize furniture, and david, the famous painter of the time, both served on this commission, of which they must have been valuable members. there is a passage quoted by mr. c. perkins, the american translator of dr. falke's german work "kunst im hause," which gives us the keynote to the great change which took place in the fashion of furniture about the time of the revolution. in an article on "art," says this democratic french writer, as early as 1790, when the great storm cloud was already threatening to burst, "we have changed everything; freedom, now consolidated in france, has restored the pure taste of the antique! farewell to your marqueterie and boule, your ribbons, festoons, and rosettes of gilded bronze; the hour has come when objects must be made to harmonize with circumstances." thus it is hardly too much to say that designs were governed by the politics and philosophy of the day; and one finds in furniture of this period the reproduction of ancient greek forms for chairs and couches; ladies' work tables are fashioned somewhat after the old drawings of sacrificial altars; and the classical tripod is a favourite support. the mountings represent antique roman fasces with an axe in the centre; trophies of lances, surmounted by a phrygian cap of liberty; winged figures, emblematical of freedom; and antique heads of helmeted warriors arranged like cameo medallions. after the execution of robespierre, and the abolition of the revolutionary tribunal in 1794, came the choice of the directory: and then, after buonaparte's brilliant success in italy, and the famous expeditions to syria and egypt two years later, came his proclamation as first consul in 1799, which in 1802 was confirmed as a life appointment. we have only to refer to the portrait of the great soldier, represented with the crown of bay leaves and other attributes of old roman imperialism, to see that in his mind was the ambition of reviving much of the splendour and of the surroundings of the caesars, whom he took, to some extent, as his models; and that in founding on the ashes of the revolution a new fabric, with new people about him, all influenced by his energetic personality, he desired to mark his victories by stamping the new order of things with his powerful and assertive individualism. [illustration: cabinet in mahogany with bronze gilt mountings, presented by napoleon i. to marie louise on his marriage with her in 1810 period: napoleon i.] the cabinet which was designed and made for marie louise, on his marriage with her in 1810, is an excellent example of the napoleonic furniture. the wood used was almost invariably rich mahogany, the colour of which made a good ground for the bronze gilt mounts which were applied. the full-page illustration shews these, which are all classical in character; and though there is no particular grace in the outline or form of the cabinet, there is a certain dignity and solemnity, relieved from oppressiveness by the fine chasing and gilding of the metal enrichments, and the excellent colour and figuring of the rich spanish mahogany used. on secretaires and tables, a common ornament of this description of furniture, is a column of mahogany, with a capital and base of bronze (either gilt, part gilt, or green), in the form of the head of a sphinx with the foot of an animal; console tables are supported by sphinxes and griffins; and candelabra and wall brackets for candles have winged figures of females, stiff in modelling and constrained in attitude, but almost invariably of good material with careful finish. [illustration: tabouret, or stool, carved and gilt; arm chair, in mahogany, with gilt bronze mountings. period of napoleon i.] the bas-reliefs in metal which ornament the panels of the friezes of cabinets, or the marble bases of clocks, are either reproductions of mythological subjects from old italian gems and seals, or represent the battles of the emperor, in which napoleon is portrayed as a roman general. there was plenty of room to replace so much that had disappeared during the revolution, and a vast quantity of decorative furniture was made during the few years which elapsed before the disaster of waterloo caused the disappearance of a power which had been almost meteoric in its career. the best authority on "empire furniture" is the book of designs, published in 1809 by the architects percier and fontaine, which is the more valuable as a work of reference, from the fact that every design represented was actually carried out, and is not a mere exercise of fancy, as is the case with many such books. in the preface the authors modestly state that they are entirely indebted to the antique for the reproduction of the different ornaments; and the originals, from which some of the designs were taken, are still preserved in a fragmentary form in the museum of the vatican. the illustrations on p. 205 of an arm chair and a stool, together with that of the tripod table which ornaments the initial letter of this chapter, are favourable examples of the richly-mounted and more decorative furniture of this style. while they are not free from the stiffness and constraint which are inseparable from classic designs as applied to furniture, the rich colour of the mahogany, the high finish and good gilding of the bronze mounts, and the costly silk with which they are covered, render them attractive and give them a value of their own. the more ordinary furniture, however, of the same style, but without these decorative accessories, is stiff, ungainly, and uncomfortable, and seems to remind us of a period in the history of france when political and social disturbance deprived the artistic and pleasure-loving frenchman of his peace of mind, distracting his attention from the careful consideration of his work. it may be mentioned here that, in order to supply a demand which has lately arisen, chiefly in new york, but also to some extent in england, for the best "empire" furniture, the french dealers have bought up some of the old undecorated pieces, and by ornamenting them with gilt bronze mounts, cast from good old patterns, have sold them as original examples of the _meubles de luxe_ of the period. in dutch furniture of this time one sees the reproduction of the napoleonic fashion--the continuation of the revolutionists' classicalism. many marqueterie secretaires, tables, chairs, and other like articles, are mounted with the heads and feet of animals, with lions' heads and sphinxes, designs which could have been derived from no other source; and the general design of the furniture loses its bombé form, and becomes rectangular and severe. whatever difficulty there may be in sometimes deciding between the designs of the louis xiv. period, towards its close, and that of louis xv., there can be no mistake about _l'epoch de la directoire_ and _le style de l'empire._ these are marked and branded with the egyptian expedition, and the syrian campaign, as legibly as if they all bore the familiar plain roman n, surmounted by a laurel wreath, or the imperial eagle which had so often led the french legions to victory. it is curious to notice how england, though so bitterly opposed to napoleon, caught the infection of the dominant features of design which were prevalent in france about this time. [illustration: nelson's chairs. designs published by t. sheraton, october 29th, 1806.] thus, in sheraton's book on furniture, to which allusion has been made, and from which illustrations have been given in the chapter on "chippendale and his contemporaries," there is evidence that, as in france during the influence of marie antoinette, there was a classical revival, and the lines became straighter and more severe for furniture, so this alteration was adopted by sheraton, shearer, and other english designers at the end of the century. but if we refer to sheraton's later drawings, which are dated about 1804 to 1806, we see the constrained figures and heads and feet of animals, all brought into the designs as shewn in the "drawing room" chairs here illustrated. these are unmistakable signs of the french "empire" influence, the chief difference between the french and english work being, that, whereas in french empire furniture the excellence of the metal work redeems it from heaviness or ugliness, such merit was wanting in england, where we have never excelled in bronze work, the ornament being generally carved in wood, either gilt or coloured bronze-green. when metal was used it was brass, cast and fairly finished by the chaser, but much more clumsy than the french work. therefore, the english furniture of the first years of the nineteenth century is stiff, massive, and heavy, equally wanting in gracefulness with its french contemporary, and not having the compensating attractions of fine mounting, or the originality and individuality which must always add an interest to napoleonic furniture. [illustration: drawing room chair. design published by t. sheraton, april, 1804.] [illustration: drawing room chair. design published by t. sheraton, april 1, 1804.] there was, however, made about this time by gillow, to whose earlier work reference has been made in the previous chapter, some excellent furniture, which, while to some extent following the fashion of the day, did so more reasonably. the rosewood and mahogany tables, chairs, cabinets and sideboards of his make, inlaid with scrolls and lines of flat brass, and mounted with handles and feet of brass, generally representing the heads and claws of lions, do great credit to the english work of this time. the sofa table and sideboard, illustrated on the previous page, are of this class, and shew that sheraton, too, designed furniture of a less pronounced character, as well as the heavier kind to which reference has been made. [illustration: "canopy bed" design published by t. sheraton, november 9th, 1803.] [illustration: "sister's cylinder bookcase." designed by t. sheraton, 1802.] [illustration: sideboard, in mahogany, with brass rail and convex mirror at back, design published by t. sheraton, 1802.] [illustration: sofa table, design published by t. sheraton, 1804.] a very favourable example of the craze in england for classic design in furniture and decoration, is shown in the reproduction of a drawing by thomas hope, in 1807, a well-known architect of the time, in which it will be observed that the forms and fashions of some of the chairs and tables, described and illustrated in the chapter on "ancient furniture," have been taken as models. there were several makers of first-class furniture, of whom the names of some still survive in the "style and title" of firms of the present day, who are their successors, while those of others have been forgotten, save by some of our older manufacturers and auctioneers, who, when requested by the writer, have been good enough to look up old records and revive the memories of fifty years ago. of these the best known was thomas seddon, who came from manchester and settled in aldersgate street. his two sons succeeded to the business, became cabinet makers to george iv., and furnished and decorated windsor castle. at the king's death their account was disputed, and £30,000 was struck off, a loss which necessitated an arrangement with their creditors. shortly after this, however, they took the barracks of the london light horse volunteers in the gray's inn road (now the hospital), and carried on there for a time a very extensive business. seddon's work ranked with gillow's, and they shared with that house the best orders for furniture. thomas seddon, painter of oriental subjects, who died in 1856, and p. seddon, a well-known architect, were grandsons of the original founder of the firm. on the death of the elder brother, thomas, the younger one then transferred his connection to the firm of johnstone and jeanes, in bond street, another old house which still carries on business as "johnstone and norman," and who some few years ago executed a very extravagant order for an american millionaire. this was a reproduction of byzantine designs in furniture of cedar, ebony, ivory, and pearl, made from drawings by mr. alma tadema, r.a. [illustration: design of a room, in the classic style, by thomas hope, architect, in 1807.] snell, of albemarle street, had been established early in the century, and obtained an excellent reputation; his specialité was well-made birch bedroom suites, but he also made furniture of a general description. the predecessor of the present firm of howard and son, who commenced business in whitechapel as early as 1800, and the first morant, may all be mentioned as manufacturers of the first quarter of the century. somewhat later, trollopes, of parliament street; holland, who had succeeded dowbiggin (gillow's apprentice), first in great pulteney street, and subsequently at the firm's present address; wilkinson, of ludgate hill, founder of the present firm of upholsterers in bond street; aspinwall, of grosvenor street; the second morant, of whom the great duke of wellington made a personal friend; and grace, a prominent decorator of great taste, who carried out many of pugin's gothic designs, were all men of good reputation. miles and edwards, of oxford street, whom hindleys succeeded, were also well known for good middle-class furniture. these are some of the best known manufacturers of the first half of the present century, and though until after the great exhibition there was, as a rule, little in the designs to render their productions remarkable, the work of those named will be found sound in construction, and free from the faults which accompany the cheap and showy reproductions of more pretentious styles which mark so much of the furniture of the present day. with regard to this, more will be said in the next chapter. there was then a very limited market for any but the most commonplace furniture. our wealthy people bought the productions of french cabinet makers, either made in paris or by frenchmen who came over to england, and the middle classes were content with the most ordinary and useful articles. if they had possessed the means they certainly had neither the taste nor the education to furnish more ambitiously. the great extent of suburbs which now surround the metropolis, and which include such numbers of expensive and extravagantly-fitted residences of merchants and tradesmen, did not then exist. the latter lived over their shops or warehouses, and the former only aspired to a dull house in bloomsbury, or, like david copperfield's father-in-law, mr. spenlow, a villa at norwood, or perhaps a country residence at hampstead or highgate. in 1808 a designer and maker of furniture, george smith by name, who held the appointment of "upholder extraordinary to h.r.h. the prince of wales," and carried on business at "princess" street, cavendish square, produced a book of designs, 158 in number, published by "wm. taylor," of holborn. these include cornices, window drapery, bedsteads, tables, chairs, bookcases, commodes, and other furniture, the titles of some of which occur for about the first time in our vocabularies, having been adapted from the french. "escritore, jardiniere, dejuné tables, chiffoniers" (the spelling copied from smith's book), all bear the impress of the pseudo-classic taste; and his designs, some of which are reproduced, shew the fashion of our so-called artistic furniture in england at the time of the regency. mr. smith, in the "preliminary remarks" prefacing the illustrations, gives us an idea of the prevailing taste, which it is instructive to peruse, looking back now some three-quarters of a century:-[illustration: "library fauteuil." reproduced from smith's book of designs, published in 1804] "the following practical observations on the various woods employed in cabinet work may be useful. mahogany, when used in houses of consequence, should be confined to the parlour and the bedchamber floors. in furniture for these apartments the less inlay of other woods, the more chaste will be the style of work. if the wood be of a fine, compact, and bright quality, the ornaments may be carved clean in the mahogany. where it may be requisite to make out panelling by an inlay of lines, let those lines be of brass or ebony. in drawing-rooms, boudoirs, ante-rooms, east and west india satin woods, rosewood, tulip wood, and the other varieties of woods brought from the east, may be used; with satin and light coloured woods the decorations may be of ebony or rosewood; with rosewood let the decorations be _ormolu_, and the inlay of brass. bronze metal, though sometimes used with satin wood, has a cold and poor effect: it suits better on gilt work, and will answer well enough on mahogany." [illustration: "parlor chairs," shewing the inlay of brass referred to. from smith's book of designs, published 1808.] amongst the designs published by him are some few of a subdued gothic character; these are generally carved in light oak, or painted light stone colour, and have, in some cases, heraldic shields, with crests and coats of arms picked out in colour. there are window seats painted to imitate marble, with the roman or greco-roman ornaments painted green to represent bronze. the most unobjectionable are mahogany with bronze green ornaments. of the furniture of this period there are several pieces in the mansion house, in the city of london, which apparently was partly refurnished about the commencement of the century. [illustration: bookcase. design published by t. sheraton, june 12th, 1806. _note_.--very similar bookcases are in the london mansion house.] in the court room of the skinners' company there are tables which are now used' with extensions, so as to form a horseshoe table for committee meetings. they are good examples of the heavy and solid carving in mahogany, early in the century before the fashion had gone out of representing the heads and feet of animals in the designs of furniture. these tables have massive legs, with lion's heads and claws, carved with great skill and shewing much spirit, the wood being of the best quality and rich in color. [illustration: "drawing room chairs in profile." from g. smith's book, published 1808.] early victorian. in the work of the manufacturers just enumerated, may be traced the influence of the "empire" style. with the restoration, however, of the monarchy in france came the inevitable change in fashions, and "_le style de l'empire_" was condemned. in its place came a revival of the louis quinze scrolls and curves, but with less character and restraint, until the style we know as "baroque," [19] or debased "rococo," came in. ornament of a florid and incongruous character was lavished on decorative furniture, indicative of a taste for display rather than for appropriate enrichment. it had been our english custom for some long period to take our fashions from france, and, therefore, about the time of william iv. and during the early part of the present queen's reign, the furniture for our best houses was designed and made in the french style. in the "music" room at chatsworth are some chairs and footstools used at the time of the coronation of william iv. and queen adelaide, which have quite the appearance of french furniture. the old fashion of lining rooms with oak panelling, which has been noticed in an earlier chapter, had undergone a change which is worth recording. if the illustration of the elizabethan oak panelling, as given in the english section of chapter iii., be referred to, it will be seen that the oak lining reaches from the floor to within about two or three feet of the cornice. subsequently this panelling was divided into an upper and a lower part, the former commencing about the height of the back of an ordinary chair, a moulding or chair-rail forming a capping to the lower part. then pictures came to be let into the panelling; and presently the upper part was discarded and the lower wainscoting remained, properly termed the dado,[20] which we have seen revived both in wood and in various decorative materials of the present day. during the period we are now discussing, this arrangement lost favour in the eyes of our grandfathers, and the lowest member only was retained, which is now termed the "skirting board." as we approach a period that our older contemporaries can remember, it is very interesting to turn over the leaves of the back numbers of such magazines and newspapers as treated of the industrial arts. the _art union_, which changed its title to the _art journal_ in 1849, had then been in existence for about ten years, and had done good work in promoting the encouragement of art and manufactures. the "society of arts" had been formed in london as long ago as 1756, and had given prizes for designs and methods of improving different processes of manufacture. exhibitions of the specimens sent in for competition for the awards were, and are still, held at their house in adelphi buildings. old volumes of "transactions of the society" are quaint works of reference with regard to these exhibitions. about 1840, mr., afterwards sir, charles barry, r.a., had designed and commenced the present, or, as it was then called, the new palace of westminster, and, following the gothic character of the building, the furniture and fittings were naturally of a design to harmonize with what was then quite a departure from the heavy architectural taste of the day. mr. barry was the first in this present century to leave the beaten track, although the reform and travellers' clubs had already been designed by him on more classic lines. the speaker's chair in the house of commons is evidently designed after one of the fifteenth century "canopied seats," which have been noticed and illustrated in the second chapter; and the "linen scroll pattern" panels can be counted by the thousand in the houses of parliament and the different official residences which form part of the palace. the character of the work is subdued and not flamboyant, is excellent in design and workmanship, and is highly creditable, when we take into consideration the very low state of art in england fifty years ago. this want of taste was very much discussed in the periodicals of the day, and, yielding to expressed public opinion, government had in 1840-1 appointed a select committee to take into consideration the promotion of the fine arts in the country, mr. charles barry, mr. eastlake, and sir martin shee, r.a., being amongst the witnesses examined. the report of this committee, in 1841, contained the opinion "that such an important and national work as the erection of the two houses of parliament affords an opportunity which ought not to be neglected of encouraging, not only the higher, but every subordinate branch of fine art in this country." mr. augustus welby pugin was a well-known designer of the gothic style of furniture of this time. born in 1811, he had published in 1835 his "designs for gothic furniture," and later his "glossary of ecclesiastical ornament and costume"; and by skilful application of his knowledge to the decorations of the different ecclesiastical buildings he designed, his reputation became established. one of his designs is here reproduced. pugin's work and reputation have survived, notwithstanding the furious opposition he met with at the time. in a review of one of his books, in the _art union_ of 1839, the following sentence completes the criticism:--"as it is a common occurrence in life to find genius mistaken for madness, so does it sometimes happen that a madman is mistaken for a genius. mr. welby pugin has oftentimes appeared to us to be a case in point." [illustration: prie-dieu, in carved oak, enriched with painting and gilding. designed by mr. pugin, and manufactured by mr. crace, london.] at this time furniture design and manufacture, as an industrial art in england, seems to have attracted no attention whatever. there are but few allusions to the design of decorative woodwork in the periodicals of the day; and the auctioneers' advertisements--with a few notable exceptions, like that of the strawberry hill collection of horace walpole, gave no descriptions; no particular interest in the subject appears to have been manifested, save by a very limited number of the dilettanti, who, like walpole, collected the curios and cabinets of two or three hundred years ago. [illustration: secretaire and bookcase, in carved oak, in the style of german gothic. (_from drawing by professor heideloff, published in the "art union," 1816._)] york house was redecorated and furnished about this time, and as it is described as "excelling any other dwelling of its own class in regal magnificence and vieing with the royal palaces of europe," we may take note of an account of its re-equipment, written in 1841 for the _art journal_. this notice speaks little for the taste of the period, and less for the knowledge and grasp of the subject by the writer of an art critique of the day:--"the furniture generally is of no particular style, but, on the whole, there is to be found a mingling of everything, in the best manner of the best epochs of taste." writing further on of the ottoman couches, "causeuses," etc., the critic goes on to tell of an alteration in fashion which had evidently just taken place:--"some of them, in place of plain or carved rosewood or mahogany, are ornamented in white enamel, with classic subjects in bas-relief of perfect execution." towards the close of the period embraced by the limits of this chapter, the eminent firm of jackson and graham were making headway, a french designer named prignot being of considerable assistance in establishing their reputation for taste; and in the exhibition which was soon to take place, this firm took a very prominent position. collinson and lock, who have recently acquired this firm's premises and business, were both brought up in the house as young men, and left some thirty odd years ago for herrings, of fleet street, whom they succeeded about 1870. another well-known decorator who designed and manufactured furniture of good quality was leonard william collmann, first of bouverie street and later of george street, portman square. he was a pupil of sydney smirke, r.a. (who designed and built the carlton and the conservative clubs), and was himself an excellent draughtsman, and carried out the decoration and furnishing of many public buildings, london clubs, and mansions of the nobility and gentry. his son is at present director of decorations to her majesty at windsor castle. collmann's designs were occasionally gothic, but generally classic. there is evidence of the want of interest in the subject of furniture in the auctioneers' catalogues of the day. by the courtesy of messrs. christie and manson, the writer has had access to the records of this old firm, and two or three instances of sales of furniture may be given. while the catalogues of the picture sales of 1830-40 were printed on paper of quarto size, and the subjects described at length, those of "furniture" are of the old-fashioned small octavo size, resembling the catalogue of a small country auctioneer of the present day, and the printed descriptions rarely exceed a single line. the prices very rarely amount to more than £10; the whole proceeds of a day's sale were often less than £100, and sometimes did not reach £50. at the sale of "rosslyn house," hampstead, in 1830, a mansion of considerable importance, the highest-priced article was "a capital maghogany pedestal sideboard, with hot closet, cellaret, 2 plate drawers, and fluted legs," which brought £32. at the sale of the property of "a man of fashion," "a marqueterie cabinet, inlaid with trophies, the panels of sêvres china, mounted in ormolu," sold for twenty-five guineas; and a "reisener (_sic_) table, beautifully inlaid with flowers, and drawers," which appears to have been reserved at nine guineas, was bought in at eight-and-a-half guineas. frequenters of christie's of the present day who have seen such furniture realize as many pounds as the shillings included in such sums, will appreciate the enormously increased value of really good old french furniture. perhaps the most noticeable comparison between the present day and that of half-a-century ago may be made in reading through the prices of the great sale at stowe house, in 1848, when the financial difficulties of the duke of buckingham caused the sale by auction which lasted thirty-seven days, and realised upwards of £71,000, the proceeds of the furniture amounting to £27,152. we have seen in the notice of french furniture that armoires by boule have, during the past few years, brought from £4,000 to £6,000 each under the hammer, and the want of appreciation of this work, probably the most artistic ever produced by designer and craftsman, is sufficiently exemplified by the statement that at the stowe sale two of boule's famous armoires, of similar proportions to those in the hamilton palace and jones collections, were sold for £21 and £19 8s. 6d. respectively. we are accustomed now to see the bids at christie's advance by guineas, by fives and by tens; and it is amusing to read in these old catalogues of marqueterie tables, satin wood cabinets, rosewood pier tables, and other articles of "ornamental furniture," as it was termed, being knocked down to town and emanuel, webb, morant, hitchcock, raldock, forrest, redfearn, litchfield (the writer's father), and others who were the buyers and regular attendants at "christie's" (afterwards christie and manson) of 1830 to 1845, for such sums as 6s., 15s., and occasionally £10 or £15. a single quotation is given, but many such are to be found:--sale on february 25th and 26th, 1841. lot 31. "a small oval table, with a piece of sêvres porcelain painted with flowers. 6s." it is pleasant to remember, as some exception to this general want of interest in the subject, that in 1843 there was held at gore house, kensington, then the fashionable residence of lady blessington, an exhibition of old furniture; and a series of lectures, illustrated by the contributions, was given by mr., now sir, j.c. robinson. the venetian state chair, illustrated on p. 57, was amongst the examples lent by the queen on that occasion. specimens of boule's work and some good pieces of italian renaissance were also exhibited. a great many of the older club houses of london were built and furnished between 1813 and 1851, the guards' being of the earlier date, and the army and navy of the latter; and during the intervening thirty odd years the united service, travellers', union, united university, athenaeum, oriental, wyndham, oxford and cambridge, reform, carlton, garrick, conservative, and some others were erected and fitted up. many of these still retain much of the furniture of gillows, seddons, and some of the other manufacturers of the time whose work has been alluded to, and these are favourable examples of the best kind of cabinet work done in england during the reign of george iv., william iv., and that of the early part of queen victoria. it is worth recording, too, that during this period, steam power, which had been first applied to machinery about 1815, came into more general use in the manufacture of furniture, and with its adoption there seems to have been a gradual abandonment of the apprenticeship system in the factories and workshops of our country; and the present "piece work" arrangement, which had obtained more or less since the english cabinet makers had brought out their "book of prices" some years previously, became generally the custom of the trade, in place of the older "day work" of a former generation. [illustration: cradle, in boxwood, for h.m. the queen. designed and carved by h. rogers, london.] in france the success of national exhibitions had become assured, the exhibitors having increased from only 110 when the first experiment was tried in 1798, by leaps and bounds, until at the eleventh exhibition, in 1849, there were 4,494 entries. the _art journal_ of that year gives us a good illustrated notice of some of the exhibits, and devotes an article to pointing out the advantages to be gained by something of the kind taking place in england. from 1827 onwards we had established local exhibitions in dublin, leeds, and manchester. the first time a special building was devoted to exhibition of manufactures was at birmingham in 1849; and from the illustrated review of this in the _art journal_ one can see there was a desire on the part of our designers and manufacturers to strike out in new directions and make progress. we are able to reproduce some of the designs of furniture of this period; and in the cradle, designed and carved in turkey-boxwood, for the queen, by mr. harry rogers, we have a fine piece of work, which would not have disgraced the latter period of the renaissance. indeed, mr. rogers was a very notable designer and carver of this time; he had introduced his famous boxwood carvings about seven years previously. [illustration: design for a tea caddy, by j. strudwick, for inlaying and ivory. published as one of the "original designs for manufacturers" in _art journal_, 1829.] the cradle was also, by the queen's command, sent to the exhibition, and it may be worth while quoting the artist's description of the carving:--"in making the design for the cradle it was my intention that the entire object should symbolize the union of the royal houses of england with that of saxe-coburg and gothe, and, with this view, i arranged that one end should exhibit the arms and national motto of england, and the other those of h.r.h. prince albert. the inscription, 'anno, 1850,' was placed between the dolphins by her majesty's special command." [illustration: design for one of the wings of a sideboard, by w. holmes. exhibited at the "society of art" in 1818, and published by the _art journal_ in 1829.] in a criticism of this excellent specimen of work, the _art journal_ of the time said:--"we believe the cradle to be one of the most important examples of the art of wood carving ever executed in this country." rogers was also a writer of considerable ability on the styles of ornament; and there are several contributions from his pen to the periodicals of the day, besides designs which were published in the _art journal_ under the heading of "original designs for manufacturers." these articles appeared occasionally, and contained many excellent suggestions for manufacturers and carvers, amongst others, the drawings of h. fitzcook, one of whose designs for a work table we are able to reproduce. other more or less constant contributors of original designs for furniture were j. strudwick and w. holmes, a design from the pencil of each of whom is given. [illustration: design for a work table, by h. fitzcook. published as one of the "original designs for manufacturers" in the _art journal_, 1850.] but though here and there in england good designers came to the front, as a general rule the art of design in furniture and decorative woodwork was at a very low ebb about this time. in furniture, straight lines and simple curves may be plain and uninteresting, but they are by no means so objectionable as the over ornamentation of the debased rococo style, which obtained in this country about forty years ago; and if the scrolls and flowers, the shells and rockwork, which ornamented mirror frames, sideboard backs, sofas, and chairs, were debased in style, even when carefully carved in wood, the effect was infinitely worse when, for the sake of economy, as was the case with the houses of the middle classes, this elaborate and laboured enrichment was executed in the fashionable stucco of the day. large mirrors, with gilt frames of this material, held the places of honour on the marble chimney piece, and on the console, or pier table, which was also of gilt stucco, with a marble slab. the cheffonier, with its shelves having scroll supports like an elaborate s, and a mirror at the back, with a scrolled frame, was a favourite article of furniture. carpets were badly designed, and loud and vulgar in colouring; chairs, on account of the shape and ornament in vogue, were unfitted for their purpose, on account of the wood being cut across the grain; the fire-screen, in a carved rosewood frame, contained the caricature, in needlework, of a spaniel, or a family group of the time, ugly enough to be in keeping with its surroundings. the dining room was sombre and heavy. the pedestal sideboard, with a large mirror in a scrolled frame at the back, had come in; the chairs were massive and ugly survivals of the earlier reproductions of the greek patterns, and, though solid and substantial, the effect was neither cheering nor refining. in the bedrooms were winged wardrobes and chests of drawers; dressing tables and washstands, with scrolled legs, nearly always in mahogany; the old four-poster had given way to the arabian or french bedstead, and this was being gradually replaced by the iron or brass bedsteads, which came in after the exhibition had shewn people the advantages of the lightness and cleanliness of these materials. in a word, from the early part of the present century, until the impetus given to art by the great exhibition had had time to take effect, the general taste in furnishing houses of all but a very few persons, was at about its worst. in other countries the rococo taste had also taken hold. france sustained a higher standard than england, and such figure work as was introduced into furniture was better executed, though her joinery was inferior. in italy old models of the renaissance still served as examples for reproduction, but the ornament became more carelessly carved and the decoration less considered. ivory inlaying was largely executed in milan and venice; mosaics of marble were specialites of rome and of florence, and were much applied to the decoration of cabinets; venice was busy manufacturing carved walnutwood furniture in buffets, cabinets, negro page boys, elaborately painted and gilt, and carved mirror frames, the chief ornaments of which were cupids and foliage. italian carving has always been free and spirited, the figures have never been wanting in grace, and, though by comparison with the time of the renaissance there is a great falling off, still, the work executed in italy during the present century has been of considerable merit as regards ornament, though this has been overdone. in construction and joinery, however, the italian work has been very inferior. cabinets of great pretension and elaborate ornament, inlaid perhaps with ivory, lapislazuli, or marbles, are so imperfectly made that one would think ornament, and certainly not durability, had been the object of the producer. in antwerp, brussels, liege, and other flemish art centres, the school of wood carving, which came in with the renaissance, appears to have been maintained with more or less excellence. with the increased quality of the carved woodwork manufactured, there was a proportion of ill-finished and over-ornamented work produced; and although, as has been before observed, the manufacture of cheap marqueterie in amsterdam and other dutch cities was bringing the name of dutch furniture into ill-repute--still, so far as the writer's observations have gone, the flemish wood-carver appears to have been, at the time now under consideration, ahead of his fellow craftsmen in europe; and when in the ensuing chapter we come to notice some of the representative exhibits in the great international competition of 1851, it will be seen that the antwerp designer and carver was certainly in the foremost rank. in austria, too, some good cabinet work was being carried out, m. leistler, of vienna, having at the time a high reputation. in paris the house of fourdinois was making a name which, in subsequent exhibitions, we shall see took a leading place amongst the designers and manufacturers of decorative furniture. england, it has been observed, was suffering from languor in art industry. the excellent designs of the adams and their school, which obtained early in the century, had been supplanted, and a meaningless rococo style succeeded the heavy imitations of french pseudo-classic furniture. instead of, as in the earlier and more tasteful periods, when architects had designed woodwork and furniture to accord with the style of their buildings, they appear to have then, as a general rule, abandoned the control of the decoration of interiors, and the result was one which--when we examine our national furniture of half a century ago--has not left us much to be proud of, as an artistic and industrious people. some notice has been taken of the appreciation of this unsatisfactory state of things by the government of the time, and by the press; and, as with a knowledge of our deficiency, came the desire and the energy to bring about its remedy, we shall see that, with the exhibition of 1851, and the intercourse and the desire to improve, which naturally followed that great and successful effort, our designers and craftsmen profited by the great stimulus which art and industry then received. [illustration: venetian stool of carved walnut wood.] [illustration: sideboard in carved oak, with cellaret. designed and manufactured by mr. gillow, london. 1851 exhibition.] [illustration: chimneypiece and bookcase. in carved walnut wood with colored marbles inlaid and doors of perforated brass. designed by mr. t. r. macquoid, architect, and manufactured by messrs. holland & sons. london, 1851 exhibition.] [illustration: cabinet in the mediaeval style. designed and manufactured by mr. grace, london. 1851 exhibition.] [illustration: bookcase in carved wood. designed and manufactured by messrs. jackson & graham, london, 1851 exhibition.] [illustration: grand pianoforte. in ebony inlaid, and enriched with gold in relief. designed and manufactured by messrs. broadwood, london. 1851 exhibition] chapter ix. from 1851 to the present time. the great exhibition: exhibitors and contemporary cabinet makers--exhibition of 1862, london; 1867, paris; and subsequently--description of illustrations--fourdinois, wright, and mansfield--the south kensington museum--revival of marquetry--comparison of present day with that of a hundred years ago--æstheticism--traditions--trades-unionism--the arts and crafts exhibition society--independence of furniture--present fashions--writers on design--modern furniture in other countries--concluding remarks. [illustration] in the previous chapter attention has been called to the success of the national exhibition in paris of 1849; in the same year the competition of our manufacturers at birmingham gave an impetus to industrial art in england, and there was about this time a general forward movement, with a desire for an international exhibition on a grand scale. articles advocating such a step appeared in newspapers and periodicals of the time, and, after much difficulty, and many delays, a committee for the promotion of this object was formed. this resulted in the appointment of a royal commission, and the prince consort, as president of this commission, took the greatest personal interest in every arrangement for this great enterprise. indeed, there can be no doubt, that the success which crowned the work was, in a great measure, due to his taste, patience, and excellent business capacity. it is no part of our task to record all the details of an undertaking which, at the time, was a burning question of the day, but as we cannot but look upon this exhibition of 1851 as one of the landmarks in the history of furniture, it is worth while to recall some particulars of its genesis and accomplishment. the idea of the exhibition of 1851 is said to have been originally due to mr. f. whishaw, secretary of the society of arts, as early as 1844, but no active steps were taken until 1849, when the prince consort, who was president of the society, took the matter up very warmly. his speech at one of the meetings contained the following sentence:-"now is the time to prepare for a great exhibition--an exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country, not merely national in its scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole world; and i offer myself to the public as their leader, if they are willing to assist in the undertaking." [illustration: lady's escritoire, in white wood, carved with rustic figures. designed and manufactured by m. wettli, berne, switzerland. 1851 exhibition, london.] to mr. (afterwards sir) joseph paxton, then head gardener to the duke of devonshire, the general idea of the famous glass and iron building is due. an enterprising firm of contractors. messrs. fox and henderson, were entrusted with the work; a guarantee fund of some £230,000 was raised by public subscriptions; and the great exhibition was opened by her majesty on the 1st of may, 1851. at a civic banquet in honour of the event, the prince consort very aptly described the object of the great experiment:--"the exhibition of 1851 would afford a true test of the point of development at which the whole of mankind had arrived in this great task, and a new starting point from which all nations would be able to direct their further exertions." the number of exhibitors was some 17,000, of whom over 3,000 received prize and council medals; and the official catalogue, compiled by mr. scott russell, the secretary, contains a great many particulars which are instructive reading, when we compare the work of many of the firms of manufacturers, whose exhibits are therein described, with their work of the present day. the _art journal_ published a special volume, entitled "the art journal illustrated catalogue," with woodcuts of the more important exhibits, and, by the courtesy of the proprietors, a small selection is reproduced, which will give the reader an idea of the design of furniture, both in england and the chief continental industrial centres at that time. with regard to the exhibits of english firms, of which these illustrations include examples, little requires to be said, in addition to the remarks already made in the preceding chapter, of their work previous to the exhibition. one of the illustrations, however, may be further alluded to, since the changes in form and character of the pianoforte is of some importance in the consideration of the design of furniture. messrs. broadwood's grand pianoforte (illustrated) was a rich example of decorative woodwork in ebony and gold, and may be compared with the illustration on p. 172 of a harpsichord, which the piano had replaced about 1767, and which at and since the time of the 1851 exhibition supplies evidence of the increased attention devoted to decorative furniture. in the appendix will be found a short notice of the different phases through which the ever-present piano has passed, from the virginal, or spinette--of which an illustration will be found in "a sixteenth century room," in chapter iii.--down to the latest development of the decoration of the case of the instrument by leading artists of the present day. mr. rose, of messrs. broadwood, whose firm was established at this present address in 1732, has been good enough to supply the author with the particulars for this notice. other illustrations, taken from the exhibits of foreign cabinet makers, as well as those of our english manufacturers, have been selected, being fairly representative of the work of the time, rather than on account of their own intrinsic excellence. it will be seen from these illustrations that, so far as figure carving and composition are concerned, our foreign rivals, the italians, belgians, austrians, and french, were far ahead of us. in mere construction and excellence of work we have ever been able to hold our own, and, so long as our designers have kept to beaten tracks, the effect is satisfactory. it is only when an attempt has been made to soar above the conventional, that the effort is not so successful. [illustration: lady's work table and screen. in papier-maché. 1851 exhibition, london.] in looking over the list of exhibits, one finds evidence of the fickleness of fashion. the manufacture of decorative articles of furniture of _papier-maché_ was then very extensive, and there are several specimens of this class of work, both by french and english firms. the drawing-room of 1850 to 1860 was apparently incomplete without occasional chairs, a screen with painted panel, a work table, or some small cabinet or casket of this decorative but somewhat flimsy material. [illustration: sideboard. in carved oak, with subjects taken from sir walter scott's "kenilworth." designed and manufactured by messrs. cookes, warwick 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: a state chair. carved and gilt frame, upholstered in ruby silk, embroidered with the royal coat of arms and the prince of wales' plumes. designed and manufactured by m. jancowski, york. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: sideboard in carved oak. designed and manufactured by m. durand, paris. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: bedstead in carved ebony. renaissance style. designed and manufactured by m. roulé, antwerp. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: pianoforte. in rosewood, inlaid with boulework, in gold, silver, and copper. designed and manufactured by m. leistler, vienna. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: bookcase, in carved lime tree, with panels of satinwood. designed and manufactured by m. leistler, vienna. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: cabinet. in tulipwood, ornamented with bronze, and inlaid with porcelain. manufactured by m. games, st. petersburg, 1851 exhibition.] the design and execution of mountings of cabinets in metal work, particularly of the highly-chased and gilt bronzes for the enrichment of _meubles de luxe_, was then, as it still to a great extent remains, the specialite of the parisian craftsman, and almost the only english exhibits of such work were those of foreigners who had settled amongst us. [illustration: casket of ivory, with ormolu mountings. designed and manufactured by m. matifat, paris. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: table, in the classic style, inlaid with ivory, manufactured for the king of sardinia by m. g. capello, turin. 1851 exhibition, london.] [illustration: chair, in the classic style, inlaid with ivory. manufactured for the king of sardinia by m. g. capello, turin. 1851 exhibition, london.] amongst the latter was monbro, a frenchman, who established himself in berners street, london, and made furniture of an ornamental character in the style of his countrymen, reproducing the older designs of "boule" and marqueterie furniture. the present house of mellier and cie. are his successors, mellier having been in his employ. the late samson wertheimer, then in greek street, soho, was steadily making a reputation by the excellence of the metal mountings of his own design and workmanship, which he applied to caskets of french style. furniture of a decorative character and of excellent quality was also made some forty years ago by town and emanuel, of bond street, and many of this firm's "old french" tables and cabinets were so carefully finished with regard to style and detail, that, with the "tone" acquired by time since their production, it is not always easy to distinguish them from the models from which they were taken. toms was assistant to town and emanuel, and afterwards purchased and carried on the business of "toms and luscombe," a firm well-known as manufacturers of excellent and expensive "french" furniture, until their retirement from business some ten years ago. [illustration: cabinet of ebony, in the renaissance style. with carnelions inserted. litchfield and radclyffe. 1862 exhibition.] webb, of old bond street, succeeded by annoot, and subsequently by radley, was a manufacturer of this class of furniture; he employed a considerable number of workmen, and carried on a very successful business. the name of "blake," too, is one that will be remembered by some of our older readers who were interested in marqueterie furniture of forty years ago. he made an inlaid centre table for the late duke of northumberland, from a design by mr. c. p. slocornbe, of south kensington museum; he also made excellent copies of louis xiv. furniture. the next international exhibition held in london was in the year 1862, and, though its success was somewhat impaired by the great calamity this country sustained in the death of the prince consort on 14th december, 1861, and also by the breaking out of the civil war in the united states of america, the exhibitors had increased from 17,000 in '51 to some 29,000 in '62, the foreign entries being 16,456, as against 6,566. exhibitions of a national and international character had also been held in many of the continental capitals. there was in 1855 a successful one in paris, which was followed by one still greater in 1867, and, as every one knows, they have been lately of almost annual occurrence in various countries, affording the enterprising manufacturer better and more frequent opportunities of placing his productions before the public, and of teaching both producer and consumer to appreciate and profit by every improvement in taste, and by the greater demand for artistic objects. the few illustrations from these more recent exhibitions of 1862 and 1867 deserve a passing notice. the cabinet of carved ebony with enrichments of carnelian and other richly-colored minerals (illustrated on previous page), received a good deal of notice, and was purchased by william, third earl of craven, a well-known virtuoso of thirty years ago. the work of fourdinois, of paris, has already been alluded to, and in the 1867 exhibition his furniture acquired a still higher reputation for good taste and attention to detail. the full page illustration of a cabinet of ebony, with carvings of boxwood, is a remarkably rich piece of work of its kind; the effect is produced by carving the box-wood figures and ornamental scroll work in separate pieces, and then inserting these bodily into the ebony. by this means the more intricate work is able to be more carefully executed, and the close grain and rich tint of turkey boxwood (perhaps next to ivory the best medium for rendering fine carving) tells out in relief against the ebony of which the body of the cabinet is constructed. this excellent example of modern cabinet work by fourdinois, was purchased for the south kensington museum for £1,200, and no one who has a knowledge of the cost of executing minute carved work in boxwood and ebony will consider the price a very high one. the house of fourdinois no longer exists; the names of the foremost makers of french _meubles de luxe_, in paris, are buerdeley, dasson, roux, sormani, durand, and zwiener. some mention has already been made of zwiener, as the maker of a famous bureau in the hertford collection, and a sideboard exhibited by durand in the '51 exhibition is amongst the illustrations selected as representative of cabinet work at that time. [illustration: cabinet of ebony with carvings of boxwood. designed and manufactured by m. fourdenois, paris. 1867 exhibition, paris. (purchased by s. kensington museum for £1,200.)] [illustration: cabinet in satinwood, with wedgwood plaques and inlay of various woods in the adams' style. designed and manufactured by messrs. wright & mansfield, london. 1867 exhibition, paris. purchased by the s. kensington museum.] [illustration: ebony and ivory cabinet. in the style of italian renaissance by andrea picchi, florence, exhibited paris, 1867. note.--a marked similarity in this design to that of a 17th century cabinet, illustrated in the italian section of chapter iii., will be observed.] the illustration of wright and mansfield's satin-wood cabinet, with wedgewood plaques inserted, and with wreaths and swags of marqueteric inlaid, is in the adams' style, a class of design of which this firm made a specialité. both wright and mansfield had been assistants at jackson and graham's, and after a short term in great portland street, they removed to bond street, and carried on a successful business of a high class and somewhat exclusive character, until their retirement from business a few years since. this cabinet was exhibited in paris in 1867, and was purchased by our south kensington authorities. perhaps it is not generally known that a grant is made to the department for the purchase of suitable specimens of furniture and woodwork for the museum. this expenditure is made with great care and discrimination. it may be observed here that the south kensington museum, which was founded in 1851, was at this time playing an important part in the art education of the country. the literature of the day also contributed many useful works of instruction and reference for the designer of furniture and woodwork.[21] one noticeable feature of modern design in furniture is the revival of marquetry. like all mosaic work, to which branch of industrial art it properly belongs, this kind of decoration should be quite subordinate to the general design; but with the rage for novelty which seized public attention some forty years ago, it developed into the production of all kinds of fantastic patterns in different veneers. a kind of minute mosaic work in wood, which was called "tunbridge wells work," became fashionable for small articles. within the last ten or fifteen years the reproductions of what is termed "chippendale," and also adam and sheraton designs in marqueterie furniture, have been manufactured to an enormous extent. partly on account of the difficulty in obtaining the richly-marked and figured old mahogany and satin-wood of a hundred years ago, which needed little or no inlay as ornament, and partly to meet the public fancy by covering up bad construction with veneers of marquetry decoration, a great deal more inlay has been given to these reproductions than ever appeared in the original work of the eighteenth century cabinet makers. simplicity was sacrificed, and veneers, thus used and abused, came to be a term of contempt, implying sham or superficial ornament. dickens, in one of his novels, has introduced the "veneer" family, thus stamping the term more strongly on the popular imagination. the method now practised in using marquetry to decorate furniture is very similar to the one explained in the description of "boule" furniture given in chapter vi., except that, instead of shell, the marquetry cutter uses the veneer, which he intends to be the groundwork of his design, and as in some cases these veneers are cut to the thickness of 1/16 of an inch, several layers can be sawn through at once. sometimes, instead of using so many different kinds of wood, when a very polychromatic effect is required, holly wood and sycamore are stained different colours, and the marquetry thus prepared, is glued on to the body of the furniture, and subsequently prepared, engraved, and polished. this kind of work is done to a great extent in england, but still more extensively and elaborately in france and italy, where ivory and brass, marble, and other materials are also used to enrich the effect. this effect is either satisfactory or the reverse according as the work is well or ill-considered and executed. it must be obvious, too, that in the production of marquetry the processes are attainable by machinery, which saves labour and cheapens productions of the commoner kinds; this tends to produce a decorative effect which is often inappropriate and superabundant. perhaps it is allowable to add here that marquetry, or _marqueterie_, its french equivalent, is the more modern survival of "tarsia" work to which allusion has been made in previous chapters. webster defines the word as "work inlaid with pieces of wood, shells, ivory, and the like," derived from the french word _marqueter_ to checker and _marque_ (a sign), of german origin. it is distinguished from parquetry (which is derived from "_pare_," an enclosure, of which it is a diminutive), and signifies a kind of joinery in geometrical patterns, generally used for flooring. when, however, the marquetry assumes geometrical patterns (frequently a number of cubes shaded in perspective) the design is often termed in art catalogues a "parquetry" design. in considering the design and manufacture of furniture of the present day, as compared with that of, say, a hundred years ago, there are two or three main factors to be taken into account. of these the most important is the enormously increased demand, by the multiplication of purchasers, for some classes of furniture, which formerly had but a limited sale. this enables machinery to be used to advantage in economising labour, and therefore one finds in the so-called "queen anne" and "jacobean" cabinet work of the well furnished house of the present time, rather too prominent evidence of the lathe and the steam plane. mouldings are machined by the length, then cut into cornices, mitred round panels, or affixed to the edge of a plain slab of wood, giving it the effect of carving. the everlasting spindle, turned rapidly by the lathe, is introduced with wearisome redundance, to ornament the stretcher and the edge of a shelf; the busy fret or band-saw produces fanciful patterns which form a cheap enrichment when applied to a drawer-front, a panel, or a frieze, and carving machines can copy any design which a century ago were the careful and painstaking result of a practised craftsman's skill. again, as the manufacture of furniture is now chiefly carried on in large factories, both in england and on the continent, the sub-division of labour causes the article to pass through different hands in successive stages, and the wholesale manufacture of furniture by steam has taken the place of the personal supervision by the master's eye of the task of a few men who were in the old days the occupants of his workshop. as a writer on the subject has well said, "the chisel and the knife are no longer in such cases controlled by the sensitive touch of the human hand." in connection with this we are reminded of ruskin's precept that "the first condition of a work of art is that it should be conceived and carried out by one person." instead of the carved ornament being the outcome of the artist's educated taste, which places on the article a stamp of individuality--instead of the furniture being, as it was in the seventeenth century in england, and some hundred years earlier in italy and in france, the craftsman's pride--it is now the result of the rapid multiplication of some pattern which has caught the popular fancy, generally a design in which there is a good deal of decorative effect for a comparatively small price. the difficulty of altering this unsatisfactory state of things is evident. on the one side, the manufacturers or the large furnishing firms have a strong case in their contention that the public will go to the market it considers the best: and when decoration is pitted against simplicity, though the construction which accompanies the former be ever so faulty, the more pretentious article will be selected. when a successful pattern has been produced, and arrangements and sub-contracts have been made for its repetition in large quantities, any considerable variation made in the details (even if it be the suppression of ornament) will cause an addition to the cost which those only who understand something of a manufacturer's business can appreciate. during the present generation an art movement has sprung up called æstheticism, which has been defined as the "science of the beautiful and the philosophy of the fine arts," and aims at carrying a love of the beautiful into all the relations of life. the fantastical developments which accompanied the movement brought its devotees into much ridicule about ten years ago, and the pages of _punch_ of that time will be found to happily travesty its more amusing and extravagant aspects. the great success of gilbert and sullivan's operetta, "patience," produced in 1881, was also to some extent due to the humorous allusions to the extravagances of the "aesthetetes." in support of what may be termed a higher æstheticism, mr. ruskin has written much to give expression to his ideas and principles for rendering our surroundings more beautiful. sir frederic leighton and mr. alma tadema are conspicuous amongst those who have in their houses carried such principles into effect, and amongst other artists who have been and are, more or less, associated with this movement, may be named rossetti, burne jones, and holman hunt. as a writer on æstheticism has observed:--"when the extravagances attending the movement have been purged away, there may be still left an educating influence, which will impress the lofty and undying principles of art upon the minds of the people." for a time, in-spite of ridicule, this so-called æstheticism was the vogue, and considerably affected the design and decoration of furniture of the time. woodwork was painted olive green; the panels of cabinets, painted in sombre colors, had pictures of sad-looking maidens, and there was an attempt at a "dim religious" effect in our rooms quite inappropriate to such a climate as that of england. the reaction, however, from the garish and ill-considered colourings of a previous decade or two has left behind it much good, and with the catholicity of taste which marks the furnishing of the present day, people see some merit in every style, and are endeavouring to select that which is desirable without running to the extreme of eccentricity. perhaps the advantage thus gained is counterbalanced by the loss of our old "traditions," for amongst the wilderness of reproductions of french furniture, more or less frivolous--of chippendale, as that master is generally understood--of what is termed "jacobean" and "queen anne"--to say nothing of a quantity of so-called "antique furniture," we are bewildered in attempting to identify this latter end of the nineteenth century with any particular style of furniture. by "tradition" it is intended to allude to the old-fashioned manner of handing down from father to son, or master to apprentice, for successive generations, the skill to produce any particular class of object of art or manufacture. surely ruskin had something of this in his mind when he said, "now, when the powers of fancy, stimulated by this triumphant precision of manual dexterity, descend from generation to generation, you have at last what is not so much a trained artist, as a new species of animal, with whose instinctive gifts you have no chance of contending." tradition may be said to still survive in the country cartwright, who produces the farmer's wagon in accordance with custom and tradition, modifying the method of construction somewhat perhaps to meet altered conditions of circumstances, and then ornamenting his work by no particular set design or rule, but partly from inherited aptitude and partly from playfulness or fancy. in the house-carpenter attached to some of our old english family estates, there will also be found, here and there, surviving representatives of the traditional "joyner" of the seventeenth century, and in eastern countries, particularly in japan, we find the dexterous joiner or carver of to-day is the descendant of a long line of more or less excellent mechanics. it must be obvious, too, that "trades unionism" of the present day cannot but be, in many of its effects, prejudicial to the industrial arts. a movement which aims at reducing men of different intelligence and ability, to a common standard, and which controls the amount of work done, and the price paid for it, whatever are its social or economical advantages, must have a deleterious influence upon the art products of our time. writers on art and manufactures, of varying eminence and opinion, are unanimous in pointing out the serious drawbacks to progress which will exist, so long as there is a demand for cheap and meretricious imitations of old furniture, as opposed to more simply made articles, designed in accordance with the purposes for which they are intended. within the past few years a great many well directed endeavours have been made in england to improve design in furniture, and to revive something of the feeling of pride and ambition in his craft, which, in the old days of the trade guilds, animated our jacobean joiner. one of the best directed of these enterprises is that of the "arts and crafts exhibition society," of which mr. walter crane, a.r.w.s., is president, and which numbers, amongst its committee and supporters, a great many influential names. as suggested in the design of the cover of their exhibition catalogue, drawn by the president, one chief aim of the society is to link arm in arm "design and handicraft," by exhibiting only such articles as bear the names of individuals who (1) drew the design and (2) carried it out: each craftsman thus has the credit and responsibility of his own part of the work, instead of the whole appearing as the production of messrs. a.b. or c.d., who may have known nothing personally of the matter, beyond generally directing the affairs of a large manufacturing or furnishing business. in the catalogue published by this society there are several short and useful essays in which furniture is treated, generally and specifically, by capable writers, amongst whom are mr. walter crane, mr. edward prior, mr. halsey ricardo, mr. reginald t. blomfield, mr. w.r. letharby, mr. j.h. pollen, mr. stephen webb, and mr. t.g. jackson, a.r.a., the order of names being that in which the several essays are arranged. this small but valuable contribution to the subject of design and manufacture of furniture is full of interest, and points out the defects of our present system. amongst other regrets, one of the writers (mr. halsey ricardo) complains, that the "transient tenure that most of us have in our dwellings, and the absorbing nature of the struggle that most of us have to make to win the necessary provisions of life, prevent our encouraging the manufacture of well wrought furniture. we mean to outgrow our houses--our lease expires after so many years, and then we shall want an entirely different class of furniture--consequently we purchase articles that have only sufficient life in them to last the brief period of our occupation, and are content to abide by the want of appropriateness or beauty, in the clear intention of some day surrounding ourselves with objects that shall be joys to us for the remainder of our life." many other societies, guilds, and art schools have been established with more or less success, with the view of improving the design and manufacture of furniture, and providing suitable models for our young wood carvers to copy. the ellesmere cabinet (illustrated) was one of the productions of the "home arts and industries association," founded by the late lady marian alford in 1883, a well known connoisseur and art patron. it will be seen that this is virtually a jacobean design. in the earlier chapters of this book, it has been observed that as architecture became a settled art or science, it was accompanied by a corresponding development in the design of the room and its furniture, under, as it were, one impulse of design, and this appropriate concord may be said to have obtained in england until nearly the middle of the present century, when, after the artificial greek style in furniture and woodwork which had been attempted by wilkins, soane, and other contemporary architects, had fallen into disfavour, there was first a reaction, and then an interregnum, as has been noticed in the previous chapter. the great exhibition marked a fresh departure, and quickened, as we have seen, industrial enterprise in this country; and though, upon the whole, good results have been produced by the impetus given by these international competitions, they have not been exempt from unfavorable accompaniments. one of these was the eager desire for novelty, without the necessary judgment to discriminate between good and bad. for a time, nothing satisfied the purchaser of so-called "artistic" products, whether of decorative furniture, carpets, curtains or merely ornamental articles, unless the design was "new." the natural result was the production either of heavy and ugly, or flimsy and inappropriate furniture, which has been condemned by every writer on the subject. in some of the designs selected from the exhibits of '51 this desire to leave the beaten track of conventionality will be evident: and for a considerable time after the exhibition there is to be seen in our designs, the result of too many opportunities for imitation, acting upon minds insufficiently trained to exercise careful judgment and selection. [illustration: the ellesmere cabinet, in the collection of the late lady marian alford.] the custom of appropriate and harmonious treatment of interior decorations and suitable furniture, seems to have been in a great measure abandoned during the present century, owing perhaps to the indifference of architects of the time to this subsidiary but necessary portion of their work, or perhaps to a desire for economy, which preferred the cheapness of painted and artificially grained pine-wood, with decorative effects produced by wall papers, to the more solid but expensive though less showy wood-panelling, architectural mouldings, well-made panelled doors and chimney pieces, which one finds, down to quite the end of the last century, even in houses of moderate rentals. furniture therefore became independent and "beginning to account herself an art, transgressed her limits" ... and "grew to the conceit that it could stand by itself, and, as well as its betters, went a way of its own." [22] the interiors, handed over from the builder, as it were, in blank, are filled up from the upholsterer's store, the curiosity shop, and the auction room, while a large contribution from the conservatory or the nearest florist gives the finishing touch to a mixture, which characterizes the present taste for furnishing a boudoir or a drawing room. there is, of course, in very many cases an individuality gained by the "omnium gatherum" of such a mode of furnishing. the cabinet which reminds its owner of a tour in italy, the quaint stool from tangier, and the embroidered piano cover from spain, are to those who travel, pleasant souvenirs; as are also the presents from friends (when they have taste and judgment), the screens and flower-stands, and the photographs, which are reminiscences of the forms and faces separated from us by distance or death. the test of the whole question of such an arrangement of furniture in our living rooms, is the amount of judgment and discretion displayed. two favorable examples of the present fashion, representing the interior of the saloon and drawing room at sandringham house, are here reproduced. [illustration: the saloon at sandringham house. (_from a photo by bedford lemère & co., by permission of h. r. h. the prince of wales_).] [illustration: the drawing room at sandringham house. (_from a photo by bedford lemère & co., by permission of h. r. h. the prince of wales_).] there is at the present time an ambition on the part of many well-to-do persons to imitate the effect produced in houses of old families where, for generations, valuable and memorable articles of decorative furniture have been accumulated, just as pictures, plate and china have been preserved; and failing the inheritance of such household gods, it is the practice to acquire, or as the modern term goes, "to collect," old furniture of different styles and periods, until the room becomes incongruous and overcrowded, an evidence of the wealth, rather than of the taste, of the owner. as it frequently happens that such collections are made very hastily, and in the brief intervals of a busy commercial or political life, the selections are not the best or most suitable; and where so much is required in a short space of time, it becomes impossible to devote a sufficient sum of money to procure a really valuable specimen of the kind desired; in its place an effective and low priced reproduction of an old pattern (with all the faults inseparable from such conditions) is added to the conglomeration of articles requiring attention, and taking up space. the limited accommodation of houses built on ground which is too valuable to allow spacious halls and large apartments, makes this want of discretion and judgment the more objectionable. there can be no doubt that want of care and restraint in the selection of furniture, by the purchasing public, affects its character, both as to design and workmanship. these are some of the faults in the modern style of furnishing, which have been pointed out by recent writers and lecturers on the subject. in "hints on household taste," [23] mr. eastlake has scolded us severely for running after novelties and fashions, instead of cultivating suitability and simplicity, in the selection and ordering of our furniture; and he has contrasted descriptions and drawings of well designed and constructed pieces of furniture of the jacobean period with those of this century's productions. col. robert edis, in "decoration and furniture of town houses," has published designs which are both simple and economical, with regard to space and money, while suitable to the specified purpose of the furniture or "fitment." this revival in taste, which has been not inappropriately termed "the new renaissance," has produced many excellent results, and several well-known architects and designers in the foremost rank of art, amongst whom the late mr. street, r.a.; messrs. norman shaw, r.a.; waterhouse, r.a.; alma tadema, r.a.; t. g. jackson, a.r.a.; w. burgess, thomas cutler, e. w. godwin, s. webb, and many others, have devoted a considerable amount of attention to the design of furniture. the ruling principle in the majority of these designs has been to avoid over ornamentation, and pretension to display, and to produce good solid work, in hard, durable, and (on account of the increased labour) expensive woods, or, when economy is required, in light soft woods, painted or enamelled. some manufacturing firms, whom it would be invidious to name, and whose high reputation renders them independent of any recommendation, have adopted this principle, and, as a result, there is now no difficulty in obtaining well designed and soundly constructed furniture, which is simple, unpretentious, and worth the price charged for it. unfortunately for the complete success of the new teaching, useful and appropriate furniture meets with a fierce competition from more showy and ornate productions, made to sell rather than to last: furniture which seems to have upon it the stamp of our "three years' agreement," or "seven years' lease." of this it may be said, speaking not only from an artistic, but from a moral and humane standpoint, it is made so cheaply, that it seems a pity it is made at all. the disadvantages, inseparable from our present state of society, which we have noticed as prejudicial to english design and workmanship, and which check the production of really satisfactory furniture, are also to be observed in other countries; and as the english, and english-speaking people, are probably the largest purchasers of foreign manufacturers, these disadvantages act and re-act on the furniture of different nations. in france, the cabinet maker has ever excelled in the production of ornamental furniture; and by constant reference to older specimens in the museums and palaces of his country, he is far better acquainted with what may be called the traditions of his craft than his english brother. with him the styles of francois premier, of henri deux, and the "three louis" are classic, and in the beautiful chasing and finishing of the mounts which ornament the best _meubles de luxe_, it is almost impossible to surpass his best efforts, provided the requisite price be paid; but this amounts in many cases to such considerable sums of money as would seem incredible to those who have but little knowledge of the subject. as a simple instance, the "copy" of the "bureau du louvre" (described in chapter vi.) in the hertford house collection, cost the late sir richard wallace a sum of £4,000. as, however, in france, and in countries which import french furniture, there are many who desire to have the effect of this beautiful but expensive furniture, but cannot afford to spend several thousand pounds in the decoration of a single room, the industrious and ingenious frenchman manufactures, to meet this demand, vast quantities of furniture which affects, without attaining, the merits of the better made and more highly finished articles. in holland, belgium, and in germany, as has already been pointed out, the manufacture of ornamental oak furniture, on the lines of the renaissance models, still prevails, and such furniture is largely imported into this country. italian carved furniture of modern times has been already noticed; and in the selections made from the 1851 exhibition, some productions of different countries have been illustrated, which tend to shew that, speaking generally, the furniture most suitable for display is produced abroad, while none can excel english cabinet makers in the production of useful furniture and woodwork, when it is the result of design and handicraft, unfettered by the detrimental, but too popular, condition that the article when finished shall appear to be more costly really than it is. [illustration: carved frame, by radspieler, munich.] the illustration of a carved frame in the rococo style of chippendale, with a chinaman in a canopy, represents an important school of wood carving which has been developed in munich; and in the "künst gewerberein," or "workman's exhibition," in that city, the bavarians have a very similar arrangement to that of the arts and crafts exhibition society of this country, of which mention has already been made. each article is labelled with the name of the designer and maker. in conclusion, it seems evident that, with all the faults and shortcomings of this latter part of the nineteenth century--and no doubt they are many, both of commission and omission--still, speaking generally, there is no lack of men with ability to design, and no want of well trained patient craftsmen to produce, furniture which shall equal the finest examples of the renaissance and jacobean periods. with the improved means of inter-communication between england and her colonies, and with the chief industrial centres of europe united for the purposes of commerce, the whole civilized world is, as it were, one kingdom: merchants and manufacturers can select the best and most suitable materials, can obtain photographs or drawings of the most distant examples, or copies of the most expensive designs, while the public art libraries of london, and paris, contain valuable works of reference, which are easily accessible to the student or to the workman. it is very pleasant to bear testimony to the courtesy and assistance which the student or workman invariably receives from those who are in charge of our public reference libraries. there needs, however, an important condition to be taken into account. good work, requiring educated thought to design, and skilled labour to produce, must be paid for at a very different rate to the furniture of machined mouldings, stamped ornament, and other numerous and inexpensive substitutes for handwork, which our present civilization has enabled our manufacturers to produce, and which, for the present, seems to find favour with the multitude. it has been well said that, "decorated or sumptuous furniture is not merely furniture that is expensive to buy, but that which has been elaborated with much thought, knowledge, and skill. such furniture cannot be cheap certainly, but _the real cost is sometimes borne by the artist who produces, rather than by the man who may happen to buy it_." [24] it is often forgotten that the price paid is that of the lives and sustenance of the workers and their families. conclusion. a point has now been reached at which our task must be brought to its natural conclusion; for although many collectors, and others interested in the subject, have invited the writer's attention to numerous descriptions and examples, from an examination of which much information could, without doubt, be obtained, still, the exigencies of a busy life, and the limits of a single volume of moderate dimensions, forbid the attempt to add to a story which, it is feared, may perhaps have already overtaxed the reader's patience. as has already been stated in the preface, this book is not intended to be a guide to "_collecting,"_ or "_furnishing";_ nevertheless, it is possible that, in the course of recording some of the changes which have taken place in designs and fashions, and of bringing into notice, here and there, the opinions of those who have thought and written upon the subject, some indirect assistance may have been given in both these directions. if this should be the case, and if an increased interest has been thereby excited in the surroundings of the home, or in some of those art collections--the work of bye-gone years--which form part of our national property, the writer's aim and object will have been attained, and his humble efforts amply rewarded. [illustration] [illustration: a sixteenth century workshop.] index. note.--the names of several designers and makers, omitted from the index, will be found in the list in the appendix, with references. academy (french) of the arts founded adam, robert and james æstheticism ahashuerus, palace of alcock, sir rutherford, collection of angelo, michael anglo-saxon furniture arabesque ornament, origin of arabian woodwork ark, reference to the armoires, mention of art journal, the arts and crafts exhibition society aspinwall, of grosvenor street assyrian furniture aubusson tapestry audley end austrian work barbers' company, hall of the baroque, the style barry, sir charles, r.a. beauvais tapestry bedroom furniture bedstead of jeanne d'albret bedstead in the cluny museum bellows, italian benjamin, mr., referred to berain, charles, french artist bethnal green museum biblical references birch, dr., reference to birdwood, sir george, referred to black, mr. adam, reference to blomfield, mr. reginald t. boards and trestles boleyn, anna, chair of bombay furniture bonnaffé, referred to boucher, artist boudoir boule, andré charles brackets, wall british museum, references to specimens in the brittany furniture broadwood, messrs bronze mountings bruges, chimney-piece at bryan, michael, referred to buffet, the bureau du roi burgess, mr. w burleigh byzantine-gothic, discarded byzantine style caffieri, work of cairo woodwork canopied seats canterbury cathedral carpenters' company cashmere work cauner, french carver cellaret, the cellini, b. chambers, sir william, r.a. chair of dagobert chairs of st. peter chardin, reference to charlemagne, reference to charles i. reference to charles ii. reference to charlton, little charterhouse, the chaucer quoted chippendale's work chippendale's "gentleman and cabinetmakers' director" christianity influence of christie, manson, & wood, messrs reference to old catalogues of cicero's tables cipriani clapton, dr. edward, reference to club houses of london cluny museum, reference to colbert, finance minister coliards' predecessors collinson & lock collman, l.w., work of constantinople, capture of coronation chair, the correggio grace, work of crane, mr. walter cromwell referred to crusades, influence of the cutler, mr. t cypselus of corinth, chest of dado, the, described dagobert chair dalburgia or blackwood damascus, room from a house in davillier, baron "dining room," the, various definitions divan, derivation of dowbiggin (gillow's apprentice) dryden quoted dürer, a., referred to d'urbino bramante du sommerard referred to dutch furniture eastlake, mr. c., reference to edinburgh, h.r.h. the duke of, art collection edis, col. robert, referred to, elgin and kincardine, earl of, collection of elizabethan work empire furniture english work evelyn's diary exhibiton, the colonial the great (1851) inventions exhibitions, local falké, dr., reference to faydherbe, lucas fitzcook, h., designer flaxman's work flemish renaissance flemish work florentine mosaic work folding stool fontainebleau, chateau of fourdinois, work of fragonard, french artist, reference to frames for pictures and mirrors franks, mr. a.w. fretwork ornament gavard's, c., work on versailles german work gesso work ghiberti, l gibbon, dr., story of gilding, methods of gillow, richard, extending table patented work of gillow's records gillow's work glastonbury chair gobelins tapestry godwin, mr. g., referred to godwin, mr. e.w. goodrich court gore house, exhibition at gothic architecture gothic work french german chippendale's gough, viscount, collection of gouthière, pierre gray's inn hall greek furniture greuze, reference to hamilton palace collection hampton court palace hardwick hall harpsichord, the harrison quoted hatfield house hebrew furniture henri ii. time of henri iv. style of art in france henry viii hepplewhite, work of herculaneum and pompeii discovery of herbert's "antiquities" hertford house collection holbein holland house holland & sons holmes, w., designer home arts and industries association hope, thomas, design by hopkinson's pianos hotel de bohême howard & sons, firm of, founded ince w., contemporary of chippendale indian furniture indian museum, the indo-portuguese furniture intarsia work, or tarsia inventories, old italian carved furniture italian renaissance jackson, mr. t.g., a.r.a., referred to jackson & graham jacobean furniture jacquemart, m., reference to japan, the revolution in japanese joiner, the japanned furniture jeanne d'albret, bedstead of jones, inigo jones collection, the kauffmann, angelica kensington, south, museum, foundation of kensington, south, museum, reference to specimens in the khorsabad, reference to kirkman's exhibit knife cases knole lacquer work, chinese and japanese indian persian lacroix, paul, reference to lancret, artist layard, sir austen, reference to lebrun, artist leighton, sir f., referred to leo x., pope letharby, mr. w.r. litchfield & radclyffe livery cupboards longford castle collection longman & broderip longleat louis xiii. furniture louis xiv death of louis xv death of louis xvi louvre, the macaulay, lord, quoted machine-made furniture madrid, french furniture in mahogany, introduction of mansion house, furniture of the marie antionette marie louise, cabinet designed for marqueterie maskell, mr., reference to mayhew, j., contemporary of chippendale medicis family, influence of the meyrick, s. middle temple hall miles and edwards milton quoted mirror, mosaic mirrors, introduction of "mobilier national," the collection of modern fashion of furnishing mogul empire, the monbro morant's furniture mounting of furniture munich, work and exhibition of napoleon alluded to nilson, french carver norman civilization, influence of north holland, furniture of notes and queries nineveh, discoveries in oak panelling oriental conservatism ottoman, derivation of panelling (oak) papier-maché work passe, c. de paxton, sir joseph penshurst place pergolesi perkins, mr. c. translator of "kunst im hause" persian designs pianoforte, the picau, french carver pietra-dura introduced pinder, sir paul, house of pollen, mr. j. hungerford, references to portuguese work prie dieu chair, the prignot, designs of prior, mr. edward, essay on furniture pugin, mr. a.w., work of queen anne furniture queen's collection, the racinet's work, "le costume historique" radspieler of munich (manufacturer) raffaele, referred to raleigh, sir w. regency, period of the, in france renaissance renaissance in england france germany italy the netherlands spain revolution, the french revival of art in france ricardo, mr. halsey richardson's "studies" riesener, court ebeniste robinson, mr. g.t., quoted rococo style, the rogers, harry, work of roman furniture ruskin, mr., quoted russian woodwork st. augustine's chair st. giles', bloomsbury st. peter's chairs st. peter's church st. saviour's chapel sallust, house of salting, mr., collection of salzburg, bishop's palace at sandringham house, referred to saracenic art sarto, andrea del satinwood, introduction of scandinavian woodwork science and art department, the scott, sir walter, reference to screens, louis xv. period secret drawers, etc., in furniture sedan chair, the seddon, thomas, and his sons, work of serilly. marquise de, boudoir of sêvres porcelain, introduction of shakespeare's chair shakespeare, quoted shaw, mr. norman, r.a. shaw's "ancient furniture" sheraton, thomas, work of shisham wood sideboard, reference to the skinners' company, the smith, major general murdoch, reference to smith, mr. george, explorer, reference to smith, george, manufacturer snell, work of soane museum, the society of arts, the society of upholsterers and cabinet makers sofa, derivation of south kensington. see kensington spanish furniture speke hall, liverpool spoon cases stationers' hall steam power applied to manufactures stephens, mr., referred to stockton house stone, mr. marcus strawberry hill sale street, mr., r.a. strudwick, j., designer sydney, sir philip tabernacle, the table, "dormant" "drawings" extending folding framed kneehole pier side joined standing wine tables and trestles tadema, mr. alma, r.a., design by tarsia work, or intarsia tea caddies thackeray, quoted theebaw, king, bedstead of thyine wood "times" newspaper, the, quoted titian toms & luscombe town & emanuel trades unionism traditions, loss of old transition period trianon, the trollopes founded ulm, cathedral of urn stands, the veeners venice, importance of venice, referred to verbruggens, the vernis martin versailles, palace of victorian (early) furniture vinci, l. da viollet-le-duc vriesse, v. de wales, h.r.h. prince of, art collection of wallace, sir richard, collection of walpole, horace ware, great bed of waterhouse, mr., r.a. watteau webb, mr. stephen wedgwood, josiah wertheimer, s. westminster abbey wilkinson, of ludgate hill williamson (mobilier national) wine tables woods used for furniture wootton, sir henry, quoted wren, sir christopher, referred to wright, mr., f.s.a, referred to wyatt, sir digby, paper read by york house, described in the "art journal" york minster, chair in list of subscribers. her majesty the queen (for the royal library). h.i.m. the empress frederick of germany. h.r.h. the duke of edinburgh. h.r.h. the princess louise (marchioness of lorne). h.r.h. the duchess of teck. abercromby, rt. hon. lord. aberdeen public library. agnew, sir andrew noel, bart. affleck, lady. allen, e.g., 28, henrietta street, covent garden, london. amherst, w. amhurst tyssen, m.p., didlington hall, norfolk. anderson, w. & sons, newcastle. andrews & co., durham. angst, h., h.b.m. consul, zurich. ashburnham, rt. hon. earl of. ashworth, a., manchester. bagott, henry pearman, dudley, worcester. bailey, thomas j., a.r.i.b.a., school board of london, victoria embankment, westminster. balfour, charles b., j.p., balgonie, fife. balfour, george w., m.d., ll.d., 17, walker street, edinburgh. balfour, captain j. e. h., 3, berkeley square, london. bahr, william, 119, charlotte street, fitzroy square, london. ball, norris & hadley, 5, argyll place, london. barber, w., swinden, halifax. barnes, j.w., f.s.a., durham. barratt, thomas. bartlett, george a., 1, wolverton gardens, london. battersea public library. battiscombe & harris, 49 and 50, great marylebone street, london. baxter & co., colegate street, norwich. bazley, sir thomas s., bart. beloe, edward milligen, f.s.a., paradise, king's lynn. bennett-poe, j.t., ashley place, s.w. beresford-peirse, sir henry, bart. bevan, rev. philip charles, march baldon rectory, near oxford. bibby, james j. birch, charles e., 19, bloomsbury street, london. birdwood, sir george, k.c.i.e., c.s.i., m.d. blackburne & johnston, wells street, oxford street, london. blomfield, sir arthur w., m.a., a.r.a. bonham, f.j., 65, oxford street, london. bools, w.e., 7, cornhill, london. borradaile, charles, brighton. boucneau, a. j. h., 349, euston rd., london. boys & spurge, 79, great eastern street, london. bradshaw, christopher, manchester. brady & son, 74, high street, perth. brereton, professor w.w., galway. brett, dr., 63, shepherd's bush road, london. briggs, r.a., f.r.i.b.a., 2, devonshire square, london. brooke, henry, 20, holland park villas, london. brown brothers, 114a, george street, edinburgh. bruce, isaac, 4, maitland street, edinburgh. bulkeley-owen, rev. t.m., tedsmore hall, oswystry. burd, j.s., compton gifford, plymouth. burnard, robert, 3. hillsborough, plymouth. butts, captain, the salterns, parkstone, dorset. caine, h.j., deanwood, newbury. campbell, sir archibald, s. j. (of succoth), bart. campbell, sir guy. carliuan & beaumetz, rue beaurepaire, paris. carmichael, sir t.d., gibson, bart. carrington, howard, 39, high street, stockport. castle, reuben, f.r.i.b.a., westgate, cleckheaton. chamberlain, rt. hon. joseph, m.p. chamberlain, king & jones, 27, union street, birmingham. chapman, h., windsor hall, windsor street, brighton. christie, manson & woods, king street, st. james' square, london. civil service supply association, bedford street, strand, london. clapperton, w.r. & co., 59, princes street, edinburgh. clapton, edward, esq., m.d., f.l.s., 22, st. thomas street, london. clark, william, oxford street, london. clifford, samuel, 14, goldsmith street, nottingham. clowes, j.e., quay, great yarmouth. coates, major edward f., tayles hill, ewell, surrey. cochran, alex, 22, blythewood square, glasgow. cohen & sons, b., 1, curtain road, london. colt, e.w., m.a., hagley hall, rugeley. conrath & sons, south audley street, london. cook, j., & son, 80, market street, edinburgh. combe, r.h., d.l., j.p., surrey. cooper, rev. canon w.h., f.r.g.s., 19, delahay street, westminster. cooper, joseph, granville terrace, lytham. cornford, l. cope, a.r.i.b.a., norfolk road, brighton. count, f.w., market place, east dereham. cornish bros., 37, new street, birmingham. cornish & son, j., liverpool. cornish, j.e., 16, st. ann's square, manchester. count, f.w., market place, east dereham. cowie, robert, 39b, queensferry street, edinburgh. craigie, e.w., 8, fopstone road, london. cranbrook, rt. hon. viscount, g.c.s.i. cranford, r., dartmouth. cranston & elliot, 47, north bridge, edinburgh. creighton, david h., museum r.s.a.i, kilkenny, ireland. crisp, h.b., saxmundham. croft, arthur, south park, wadhurst, surrey. cross, f. richardson, m.b., f.r.c.s. crowley, reginald a., a.r.i.b.a., 96, george street, croydon. cunningham, general sir a. cutler, thomas, f.r.i.b.a, 5, queen's square, london. dalrymple, hon. h.e.w., bargany, girvan, ayrshire. darmstaedter, dr., berlin. davenport, henry, c.c., woodcroft, leek. davies, rev. gerald s., charterhouse, godalming. davis, colonel john, sifrons, farnboro', hants. davis, james w., f.s.a., chevinedge, halifax. de bathe, general sir henry, bart. de l'isle & dudley, rt. hon. lord, penshurst place, tonbridge. de trafford, humphrey f., 36, charles street, berkeley square, london. de saumarez, rt. hon. lord. debenham & freebody, wigmore street, london. derby, rt, hon. earl of., k.g. dormer, roland, ministry of finance, cairo. douglas, grenville. downing, william, afonwan, acock's green, birmingham. doveston's, manchester. drey, a.s., munich. druce & co., baker street, london. drury-lavin, mrs. dulau & co., 37, soho square, london. dundee free library. durham, rt. hon. earl of. duveen, j.j., oxford street, london. easter, george, free library, norwich, edis, colonel, f.s.a., f.r.i.b.a., 14, fitzroy square, london. edwards & roberts, wardour street, london. egginton, john, milverton erleigh, reading. elliot, andrew, 17, princes street, edinburgh. elliott, horace, 18, queen's road, bayswater, london. elwes, h. t., fir bank, east grimstead. empson, c. w., palace court, bayswater, london. evans, colonel john, horsham. fane, w. d., melbourne hall, derby. fenwick, j. g., moorlands, newcastle-on-tyne. ferrier, george straton, r.s.w., 41, heriot row, edinburgh. ffoolkes, his honour judge wynne, old northgate house, chester. firbank, j. t., d.l., j.p., coopers, chislehurst. fisher, edward, f.s.a. scot., abbotsbury, newton-abbot. fisher, samuel t., the grove, streatham. fleming, mrs. robert, walden, chislehurst. fletcher, w., tottenham court road, london. ford, onslow, a.r.a., 62, acacia road, regent's park, n.w. forrester, robert, glasgow. foster, captain, j.p., d.l., apley park, bridgnorth. foster, j. collie, 44a, gutter lane, london. fox & jacobs, 69, wigmore street, london. fraeur, frederick, greek street, soho, london. frain, william, dundee. francis, john h., 17, regent place, birmingham. frankau, mrs., weymouth street, portland place, london. fraser & co., a., 7, union street, inverness. frith, miss louise, 18, fulham road, london. fuller, b. franklin, 16, great eastern street, london. fuzzey, j. & a. j., penzance. grainer, j. w., m.b. edin., belmont house, thrapstone, northampton. galloway, john, aberdeen. gardner, george, 209, brompton road, london. garnett, robert, j. p., warrington. garrod, turner & son, ipswich. gibbons, dr., 29, cadogan place, london. gibson, robert, pitt street, portobello. gilbert, george ralph, dunolly, torquay. gillilan, wm., 6, palace gate, bayswater, london. gillow & co., lancaster. gillows, messrs., 406, oxford street, london. godfree, a. h., 18, holland villas road, bayswater, london. gooch, sir alfred sherlock. goodall, e. & co., limited, manchester. goldsmid, sir julian, bart., m.p. gosford, right hon. earl of, k.p., gow, james m., 66, george street, edinburgh. grand hotel, northumberland avenue, london. green, j. l., 64, king's road, camden road, london. greenall, lady, walton hall, warrington. greenwood & sons, stonegate, york. gregory & co., regent street, london. guild, the decorative arts, limd., 2, hanover-square, london. gurney, richard, northrepps hall, norwich. guthrie, d. c. hall, mrs. dickinson, whatton manor, nottingham. hamburger bros., utrecht. hamer, william, mayfield, knutsford. hamilton, thomas, manchester. hampton & sons, pall mall east, london. hannay, a. a., 80, coleman street, london. hansell, p. e., wroxharn house, norwich. harding, george, charing cross road, london. hardy, e. meredith, 9, sinclair gardens, kensington. harrison, h.e.b., devonshire road, liverpool. harvey, rev. canon, vicar's court, lincoln. hawes, g. e., duke's palace joinery works, norwich. hawkins, a. p., new york. hawkins, thomas, bridge house, newbury. hawsell, p. e., wroxham, norfolk. hayne, charles seale, m.p., 6, upper belgrave street, london hayward, mrs., mossley hill, liverpool. headfort, the most noble marchioness of. hems, harry, exeter. herring, dr. herbert t., 50, harley street, london. hesse, miss, the lodge, haslemere, surrey. hewitson, milner & thexton, tottenham court road, london. hillhouse, james, 50, lincoln's inn fields, w.c. hind, john, manchester. hobson, richard, j. p., d.l, etc., the marfords, bromborough, cheshire. hockliffe, t. h., high street, bedford. hodges, w.d., 249, brompton road, london. hodges, figgis & co. 104, grafton street, dublin. hodgkins, e. m., king street, st. james's square, london. hogg & coutts, 61, north frederick street, edinburgh holmes, w. & r., dunlop street, glasgow. hopwood, w., scarborough. horlock, rev. george, st. olave's vicarage, hanbury street, london. hornby, admiral sir g. phipps. hotel metropolis, london. houghton, cedric, 17, ribblesdale place, preston. hozier, sir william w., bart. humbert, son & flint, watford and lincoln's inn. hunt, william, 5, york buildings, adelphi. hunter, rev. charles, helperby, yorks. hunter, frederick, 75, portland place, london. hunter, r. w., 19, george iv. bridge, edinburgh iveagie, rt. hon. lord. jackson, w. l., m.p., chief secretary for ireland. jacob, w. heaton, 29, sinclair gardens, london. jarrold & sons, norwich. jenkins, john j., the grange, swansea. jerome, jerome k., alpha place, st. john's wood. joicey, mrs. e., haltwhistle. johnston, william, 43, cambridge road, hove. jones, yarrell & co., 8, bury street, jermyn street, london. joseph, edward, 25, dover street, piccadilly, london. joseph, felix, eastbourne. jowers, alfred, a.r.i.b.a., 7, gray's inn square, london. keates, dr. w. cooper, 2, tredegar villas, east dulwich road, london. kelvin, rt. hon. lord. kemp-welch, charles durant, brooklands, ascot. kendal, milne & co., manchester. kennett, w. b., 89, high street, sandgate. kent, a. t. kenyon, george, 35, new bond street, london. king, alfred, kensington court mansions, london. knight, j. w., 33, hyde park square, london, knox, james, 31, upper kensington lane, london. lainson, th., & son, 170, north street, brighton. langford, rt. hon. lord. landsberg, h. & son, 1, gordon place, london. larkins-walker, lt. colonel, 201, cromwell road, london. laurie, thomas & son, st. vincent street, glasgow. law, charles a., 53, highgate hill, london. lee, a. g., alexander house, solent road, w. hampstead. leigh, mrs., tabley house, knutsford. leighton, sir frederic p.r.a. leighton, captain f., parsons green, fulham, london. lennox, d., m. d., 144, nethergate, dundee. lethbridge, captain e., 20, st. peter street, winchester. lewis, miss wyndham, 33, hans place, london. litchfield, samuel, the lordship, cheshunt. litchfield, t. g., bruton street, london. lindsay-carnegie, j. p., d.l., co. forfar. loder, r. b., 47, grosvenor square, london. long, nathaniel, tuckey street, cork. lord & co., w. turner, 120, mount street, grosvenor square, london. longden, h., london and sheffield. lowe, j. w., ridge hall, chapel-en-le-frith. lucas, seymour, a.r.a., woodchurch road, west hampstead. lynam, c., f.r.i.b.a., stoke-on-trent. mcandrew, john. macdonald, a. r., 10, chester street, s.w. macdonald, dudley ward, 15, earls' terrace, kensington, w. mack, thomas, manchester. mckie, miss, dumfries, n.b mackintosh, j. r., st. giles street, edinburgh. manchester free library. mann, j. p., adamson road, n.w. mannering, e. h., hillside, arkwright road, hampstead. mant, rev. newton, the vicarage, hendon, n.w. maple, j. blundell, m.p. marks, h. stacy, r.a. marshall, arthur, a.r.i.b.a., cauldon place, long row, nottingham. marsham, major g. a., j.p., thetford. mart, alfred, 22, carleton road, tufnell park, london. martin, sir theodore, k.c.b. melville, rt. hon. viscount. menzies, john & co., 12, hanover street, edinburgh. miall, g. c., bouverie street, london. milford, the lady. miller, alfred, queen's road, weybridge. millar, david, 8, fitzroy street, london. mills, r. mason, bourne, lincolnshire. milne, robert o., oakfield, leamington. milner, john, 180, great portland street, london. mitchell library, miller street, glasgow. mitchell, sydney & wilson, 13, young street, edinburgh. morgan & sons, hanway street, w. morrison, h., public library, edinburgh. morton, thomas h., m.d., c.m., don house, brightside, sheffield. mountstephen, the lady. murray, william, f.s.i., 81, wood green shepherds bush, london. murphy, john, 215, brompton road, london. nelson, rt. hon. earl. nettlefold, hugh, hallfield, edgbaston, birmingham. nevill, charles h., bramall hall, cheshire. newcastle-upon-tyne public libraries. nicol, robert e., 94, morningside road, edinburgh. nind, p. h., lashlake house, thame, oxon. norman, james t., 57, great eastern street, london. nottingham mechanics' institution. nuttall, john r., market place, lancaster. nyburg & co., 17, hanway street, w. oakeley, rev. w. bagnall, newland, coleford, gloucester. oakley, frank p., hanging bridge chambers, cathedral yard, manchester. oliver & leeson, bank chambers, mosley street, newcastle-on-tyne. osborne, william, 30, reform street, beith, n.b. ovey, richard, j.p., badgemore, henley-on-thames. palmer, the rev. francis, 17, new-cavendish-street, w. parlane, james, rusholme, manchester. parr, t. knowles, isthmian club, s.w. paterson, smith & innes, 77, south bridge, edinburgh. patterson, w. g., 54, george street, edinburgh. pattison, robert p., seacliffe, trinity. paul, alfred s. h., tetbury. pearce, s. s., 4, victoria parade, ramsgate. pearse, h., rochdale. pearson, john l., r.a., 13, mansfield street, london. peckitt, lieut.-colonel r. wm., thornton-le-moor, northallerton. penney, j. campbell, 15, gloucester place, edinburgh. penty, walter, g., f.r.i.b.a., clifford chambers, york. philip, g. stanley, 32, fleet street, london. phillips, f. w., the manor house, hitchin. phillips, moro, west street house, chichester. piggot, revd. alexander, leven, fife. pitt-rivers, general, f.s.a., 4, grosvenor gardens, s.w. pollard, joseph, nicholas street, truro. pollen, j. hungerford, south kensington museum. ponsonby, hon. gerald, 57, green street, london. portal, melville, j.p., micheldever, hants. pott, harry kerby, the cedars, sunninghill, ascot. powel, h. penry, castle madoc, brecknock. powell & powell, 18, old bond street, bath. powell & sons, james, 31, osborn street, hull. powis, right hon. earl of. propert, j. lumsden, 112, gloucester terrace, london. pruyn, mrs. john v.l., albany, new york. quantrell, a. & s.s., 203, wardour street, london. rabbits, w. t., 6, cadogan gardens, s.w. radcliffe, h. miles, summerlands, kendal. radcliffe, r. d., m.a., f.s.a., darley, old swan, liverpool. radnor, the rt. hon. the countess of ramsay, robert, 33/437--greendyke street, glasgow. ramsey, the hon. mrs. charles, 48, grosvenor street, w. richards, s., hounds gate, nottingham. rigden, john, j. p., surrey house, brixton hill, s.w. riley, athelstan, l.c.c., 2, kensington court. riley, john, 20, harrington gardens, s.w. rivington, charles robert, f.s.a., stationers' hall, london. roberts, d. lloyd, m.d., f.r.c.p., broughton park, manchester. robson, edward r., f.s.a., 9, bridge street, westminster. robson, r., 16, old bond street, w. robson.& sons, 42, northumberland street, newcastle-on-tyne. rogerson, arthur, fleurville, cheltenham. romaine-walker, w. h., a.r.i.b.a., buckingham street, strand, london. rose, algernon, f.r.g.s., great pulteney street, london. rothschild, the lady. rothschild, leopold de, 5, hamilton place, w. russell, john, m. b., 142, waterloo road, burslem. sackville, rt. hon. lord, knole park, sevenoaks. salmon, w. forrest, f.r.i.b.a., 197, st. vincent, street, glasgow. saiter, s. james a., f.r.s., basingfield, near basingstoke. sanders, t. r. h., old fore street, sidmouth. sanderson, john, 52, berners street, london. savory, horace r., 11, cornhill, london. sawers, john, gothenburg, sweden. science and art department of south kensington. scott, a. & j., glasgow. scott, j. & t., 10, george street, edinburgh. scully, w. c., 32, earl's court square, london. sharp, j., fernwood road, newcastle-on-tyne. sherborne, rt. hon. lord. shiell, john, 5, bank street, dundee. simkiv, w. r., north hill, colchester. simpson, thomas & sons, silver street, halifax. sims, f. manley, f.r.c.s., 12, hertford street, london. sion college library, thames embankment, london. slessor, rev. j. h., the rectory, headbourne, worthy, winchester. smiley, hugh h., gallowhill, paisley. smith, charles, 12, gloucester terrace, hyde park, london. smith, edward orford, council house, birmingham. smith, f. bennett, 17, brazenose street, manchester. smith, w. j., 41 & 43, north street, brighton. sopwith, h. t., newcastle-on-tyne. spence, c. j., south preston lodge, north shields. stenhouse & son, 4, alexandra gardens, folkestone. stephens, e. george, 5, portman street, whalley range, manchester. stephens, j. wallace, belph, whitmell, nr. chesterfield. stone, j. h., j.p., handsworth. storr, j. s., 26, king street, covent garden. talbot, lieut. colonel gerald. talbot, miss, 3, cavendish square, london. tanner, robert r.s., 9, montagu street, portman square, london. tanner, slingsby, 1046, mount street, berkeley square, london. taplin, john, 8, blomfield road, maida vale, london. tasker, g. s., glen-ashton, wimbourne, dorset. tate, john, oaklands, alnwick. taylor, john & sons, 109, princes street, edinburgh. tempest, sir robert t., bart. tempest, major a.c., coleby hall, near lincoln. thomason, yeoville, f.r.i.b.a., 9, observatory gardens, kensington, london. thompson, the lady meysey. thompson, j. c. thompson, richard, dringcote, the mount, york. thonet bros., 68, oxford street, london. thynne, j. c., cloisters, westminster, london. traill, james christie, j.p, d.l., rattan, caithness; and hobbister, orkney. tapnall, c., 60, st. john's road, clifton. tunissen, g., 64, noordeinde, the hague. turner, r. d., roughway, tonbridge. turner, william, manchester. vanderbyl, mrs. philip, porchester terrace, london. vaughan & co., 18, gt. eastern street, london. vince, a. s., 14, gt. pulteney street, london. viney, john p., 26, charlotte street, portland place, london. vost & fisher, halifax. wade, miss, royal school of art needlework, south kensington. wallace, mrs., french hall, gateshead. wallis & co., limited, holborn circus, london. walters, frederick a., a.r.i.b.a, 4, great queen street, westminster. warburton, samuel, 10, witton polygon, cheetham hill, manchester. waring, s. j. & sons, bold street, liverpool. warner & sons, newgate street, e.c. watkins, rev. h. g., lilliput hill, parkstone, dorset. watney, vernon j., berkeley square, london. watterson, william craven, hill carr, altrincham. watts, g. f., r.a., little holland house, kensington, london. watts, james, old hall, cheadle, near manchester. webb, r. barrett, bristol. weekes, j.e., 19, sinclair gardens, w. wellard, charles, st. leonard street, bromley-by-bow. wertheimer, asher, 154, new bond street, w. wertheimer, charles, 21, norfolk street, park lane, w. westminster, his grace the duke of. weston, mrs. e., ashbank, penrith. wharton, the rev. george, radley college, abingdon. wharton, w. h. b., london road, manchester. wheatley, colonel. wheeler, william, george row, york road, city road, london. whitaker, walter, combe down, bath. whitaker, w. w., cornbrook house, manchester. wigan public library. wilkinson & son, 8, old bond street, london. williams, mrs., parcian, anglesey. wills, george, park street, bristol. wilson, samuel, 7, king street, st. james's square. wolfsohn, helena, dresden. wood, alexander, saltcoats. wood, herbert s., a.r.i.b.a., 16, basinghall street, london. wood, t. a., 67, berners street, london. worcester public library. wornum, r. s., 26, bedford square, london. worthington, henry h., sale old hall, manchester. wright, a. o., 25, low skellgate, ripon. wright, e., 144, wardour street, london. wylie, s., glasgow. wyllik & sons, d., aberdeen. yorke, the hon. mrs. eliot. received too late for classification. anderson, mrs. j. h., palewell, east sheen, s.w. bethell, william, derwent bank, malton. edwards, thomas & sons, wolverhampton. emslie, a., rothay, border crescent, sydenham. gosford, the rt. honble. the countess of. larking, t. j., 28, new bond street, w. mrs. harry pollock. sidney, t. h., wolverhampton. [illustration] footnotes [1] gopher is supposed to mean cypress wood. see notes on woods (appendix). [2] see also notes on woods (appendix). [3] folding stool--faldistory or faldstool--a portable seat, similar to a camp stool, of wood or metal covered with silk or other material. it was used by a bishop when officiating in other than his own cathedral church. [4] those who would read a very interesting account of the history of this stone are referred to the late dean stanley's "historical memorials of westminster abbey." [5] the sous, which was but nominal money, may be reckoned as representing 20 francs, the denier 1 franc, but allowance must be made for the enormous difference in the value of silver, which would make 20 francs in the thirteenth century represent upwards of 200 francs in the present century. [6] the panels of the high screen or back to the stalls in "la certosa di pavia" (a carthusian monastery suppressed by joseph ii.), are famous examples of early intarsia. in an essay on the subject written by mr. t.g. jackson, a.r.a., they are said to be the work of one bartolommeo, an istrian artist, and to date from 1486. the same writer mentions still more elaborate examples of pictorial "intarsia" in the choir stalls of sta. maria, maggiore, in bergamo. [7] writers of authority on architecture have noticed that the chief characteristic in style of the french renaissance, as contrasted with the italian, is that in the latter the details and ornament of the new school were imposed on the old foundations of gothic character. the chateau of chambord is given as an instance of this combination. [8] dr. jacob von falké states that the first mention of glass as an extraordinary product occurs in a register of 1239. [9] "holland house," by princess marie liechtenstein, gives a full account of this historic mansion. [10] the following passage occurs in one of beaumont and fletcher's plays: "is the great couch up, the duke of medina sent?" to which the duenna replies, "'tis up and ready;" and then marguerite asks, "and day beds in all chambers?" receiving in answer, "in all, lady." [11] this tapestry is still in the great hall at hampton court palace. [12] [pg note] the original text said "gods". [13] the present decorations of the palace of versailles were carried out about 1830, under louis phillipe. "versailles galeries historiques," par c. gavard, is a work of 13 vols., devoted to the illustration of the pictures, portraits, statues, busts, and various decorative contents of the palace. [14] for description of method of gilding the mounts of furniture, see appendix. [15] for a short account of these factories, see appendix. [16] watteau, 1684-1721. lancrel, _b_. 1690, _d_. 1743. boucher, _b_. 1703, _d_. 1770. [17] the court room of the stationers' hall contains an excellent set of tables of this kind. [18] the late mr. adam black, senior partner in the publishing firm of a. and c. black, and lord macaulay's colleague in parliament, when quite a young man, assisted sheraton in the production of this book; at that time the famous designer of furniture was in poor circumstances. [19] the word baroque, which became a generic term, was derived from the portugese "barroco," meaning a large irregular-shaped pearl. at first a jeweller's technical term, it came later, like "rococo," to be used to describe the kind of ornament which prevailed in design of the nineteenth century, after the disappearance of the classic. [20] mr. parker defines dado as "the solid block, or cube, forming the body of a pedestal in classical architecture, between the base mouldings and the cornice: an architectural arrangement of mouldings, etc., round the lower parts of the wall of a room, resembling a continuous pedestal." [21] owen jones' "grammar of ornament," a work much used by designers, was published in 1856. [22] essay by mr. edward s. prior, "of furniture and the room." [23] published in 1868, when the craze for novelties was at its height. [24] essay on "decorated furniture," by j. h. pollen.