this my insuperable and fixed decree! abstaining from a work by right prescribed never is meet! so to abstain doth spring from "darkness," and delusion teacheth it. abstaining from a work grievous to flesh, when one saith "'tis unpleasing!" this is null! such an one acts from "passion;" nought of gain wins his renunciation! but, arjun! abstaining from attachment to the work, abstaining from rewardment in the work, while yet one doeth it full faithfully, saying, "tis right to do!" that is "true " act and abstinence! who doeth duties so, unvexed if his work fail, if it succeed unflattered, in his own heart justified, quit of debates and doubts, his is "true" act: for, being in the body, none may stand wholly aloof from act; yet, who abstains from profit of his acts is abstinent. the fruit of labours, in the lives to come, is threefold for all men,--desirable, and undesirable, and mixed of both; but no fruit is at all where no work was. hear from me, long-armed lord! the makings five which go to every act, in sankhya taught as necessary. first the force; and then the agent; next, the various instruments; fourth, the especial effort; fifth, the god. what work soever any mortal doth of body, mind, or speech, evil or good, by these five doth he that. which being thus, whoso, for lack of knowledge, seeth himself as the sole actor, knoweth nought at all and seeth nought. therefore, i say, if one- holding aloof from self--with unstained mind should slay all yonder host, being bid to slay, he doth not slay; he is not bound thereby! knowledge, the thing known, and the mind which knows, these make the threefold starting-ground of act. the act, the actor, and the instrument, these make the threefold total of the deed. but knowledge, agent, act, are differenced by three dividing qualities. hear now which be the qualities dividing them. there is "true" knowledge. learn thou it is this: to see one changeless life in all the lives, and in the separate, one inseparable. there is imperfect knowledge: that which sees the separate existences apart, and, being separated, holds them real. there is false knowledge: that which blindly clings to one as if 'twere all, seeking no cause, deprived of light, narrow, and dull, and "dark." there is "right" action: that which being enjoined- is wrought without attachment, passionlessly, for duty, not for love, nor hate, nor gain. there is "vain" action: that which men pursue aching to satisfy desires, impelled by sense of self, with all-absorbing stress: this is of rajas--passionate and vain. there is "dark" action: when one doth a thing heedless of issues, heedless of the hurt or wrong for others, heedless if he harm his own soul--'tis of tamas, black and bad! there is the "rightful"doer. he who acts free from self-seeking, humble, resolute, steadfast, in good or evil hap the same, content to do aright-he "truly" acts. there is th' "impassioned" doer. he that works from impulse, seeking profit, rude and bold to overcome, unchastened; slave by turns of sorrow and of joy: of rajas he! and there be evil doers; loose of heart, low-minded, stubborn, fraudulent, remiss, dull, slow, despondent--children of the "dark." hear, too, of intellect and steadfastness the threefold separation, conqueror-prince! how these are set apart by qualities. good is the intellect which comprehends the coming forth and going back of life, what must be done, and what must not be done, what should be feared, and what should not be feared, what binds and what emancipates the soul: that is of sattwan, prince! of "soothfastness." marred is the intellect which, knowing right and knowing wrong, and what is well to do and what must not be done, yet understands nought with firm mind, nor as the calm truth is: this is of rajas, prince! and "passionate!" evil is intellect which, wrapped in gloom, looks upon wrong as right, and sees all things contrariwise of truth. o pritha's son! that is of tamas, "dark" and desperate! good is the steadfastness whereby a man masters his beats of heart, his very breath of life, the action of his senses; fixed in never-shaken faith and piety: that is of sattwan, prince! "soothfast" and fair! stained is the steadfastness whereby a man holds to his duty, purpose, effort, end, for life's sake, and the love of goods to gain, arjuna! 'tis of rajas, passion-stamped! sad is the steadfastness wherewith the fool cleaves to his sloth, his sorrow, and his fears, his folly and despair. this--pritha's son!- is born of tamas, "dark" and miserable! hear further, chief of bharatas! from me the threefold kinds of pleasure which there be. good pleasure is the pleasure that endures, banishing pain for aye; bitter at first as poison to the soul, but afterward sweet as the taste of amrit. drink of that! it springeth in the spirit's deep content. and painful pleasure springeth from the bond between the senses and the sense-world. sweet as amrit is its first taste, but its last bitter as poison. 'tis of rajas, prince! and foul and "dark" the pleasure is which springs from sloth and sin and foolishness; at first and at the last, and all the way of life the soul bewildering. 'tis of tamas, prince! for nothing lives on earth, nor 'midst the gods in utmost heaven, but hath its being bound with these three qualities, by nature framed. the work of brahmans, kshatriyas, vaisyas, and sudras, o thou slayer of thy foes! is fixed by reason of the qualities planted in each: a brahman's virtues, prince! born of his nature, are serenity, self-mastery, religion, purity, patience, uprightness, learning, and to know the truth of things which be. a kshatriya's pride, born of his nature, lives in valour, fire, constancy, skilfulness, spirit in fight, and open-handedness and noble mien, as of a lord of men. a vaisya's task, born with his nature, is to till the ground, tend cattle, venture trade. a sudra's state, suiting his nature, is to minister. whoso performeth--diligent, content- the work allotted him, whate'er it be, lays hold of perfectness! hear how a man findeth perfection, being so content: he findeth it through worship--wrought by work- of him that is the source of all which lives, of him by whom the universe was stretched. better thine own work is, though done with fault, than doing others' work, ev'n excellently. he shall not fall in sin who fronts the task set him by nature's hand! let no man leave his natural duty, prince! though it bear blame! for every work hath blame, as every flame is wrapped in smoke! only that man attains perfect surcease of work whose work was wrought with mind unfettered, soul wholly subdued, desires for ever dead, results renounced. learn from me, son of kunti! also this, how one, attaining perfect peace, attains brahm, the supreme, the highest height of all! devoted--with a heart grown pure, restrained in lordly self-control, forgoing wiles of song and senses, freed from love and hate, dwelling 'mid solitudes, in diet spare, with body, speech, and will tamed to obey, ever to holy meditation vowed, from passions liberate, quit of the self, of arrogance, impatience, anger, pride; freed from surroundings, quiet, lacking nought- such an one grows to oneness with the brahm; such an one, growing one with brahm, serene, sorrows no more, desires no more; his soul, equally loving all that lives, loves well me, who have made them, and attains to me. by this same love and worship doth he know me as i am, how high and wonderful, and knowing, straightway enters into me. and whatsoever deeds he doeth--fixed in me, as in his refuge--he hath won for ever and for ever by my grace th' eternal rest! so win thou! in thy thoughts do all thou dost for me! renounce for me! sacrifice heart and mind and will to me! live in the faith of me! in faith of me all dangers thou shalt vanquish, by my grace; but, trusting to thyself and heeding not, thou can'st but perish! if this day thou say'st, relying on thyself, "i will not fight!" vain will the purpose prove! thy qualities would spur thee to the war. what thou dost shun, misled by fair illusions, thou wouldst seek against thy will, when the task comes to thee waking the promptings in thy nature set. there lives a master in the hearts of men maketh their deeds, by subtle pulling--strings, dance to what tune he will. with all thy soul trust him, and take him for thy succour, prince! so--only so, arjuna!--shalt thou gain- by grace of him--the uttermost repose, the eternal place! thus hath been opened thee this truth of truths, the mystery more hid than any secret mystery. meditate! and--as thou wilt--then act! nay! but once more take my last word, my utmost meaning have! precious thou art to me; right well-beloved! listen! i tell thee for thy comfort this. give me thy heart! adore me! serve me! cling in faith and love and reverence to me! so shalt thou come to me! i promise true, for thou art sweet to me! and let go those- rites and writ duties! fly to me alone! make me thy single refuge! i will free thy soul from all its sins! be of good cheer! [hide, the holy krishna saith, this from him that hath no faith, him that worships not, nor seeks wisdom's teaching when she speaks: hide it from all men who mock; but, wherever, 'mid the flock of my lovers, one shall teach this divinest, wisest, speech- teaching in the faith to bring truth to them, and offering of all honour unto me- unto brahma cometh he! nay, and nowhere shall ye find any man of all mankind doing dearer deed for me; nor shall any dearer be in my earth. yea, furthermore, whoso reads this converse o'er, held by us upon the plain, pondering piously and fain, he hath paid me sacrifice! (krishna speaketh in this wise!) yea, and whoso, full of faith, heareth wisely what it saith, heareth meekly,--when he dies, surely shall his spirit rise to those regions where the blest, free of flesh, in joyance rest.] hath this been heard by thee, o indian prince! with mind intent? hath all the ignorance- which bred thy trouble--vanished, my arjun? arjuna. trouble and ignorance are gone! the light hath come unto me, by thy favour, lord! now am i fixed! my doubt is fled away! according to thy word, so will i do! sanjaya. thus gathered i the gracious speech of krishna, o my king! thus have i told, with heart a-thrill, this wise and wondrous thing by great vyasa's learning writ, how krishna's self made known the yoga, being yoga's lord. so is the high truth shown! and aye, when i remember, o lord my king, again arjuna and the god in talk, and all this holy strain, great is my gladness: when i muse that splendour, passing speech, of hari, visible and plain, there is no tongue to reach my marvel and my love and bliss. o archer-prince! all hail! o krishna, lord of yoga! surely there shall not fail blessing, and victory, and power, for thy most mighty sake, where this song comes of arjun, and how with god he spake. here ends, with chapter xviii., entitled "mokshasanyasayog," or "the book of religion by deliverance and renunciation," the bhagavad-gita. [fn#1] some repetitionary lines are here omitted. [fn#2] technical phrases of vedic religion. [fn#3] the whole of this passage is highly involved and difficult to render. [fn#4] i feel convinced sankhyanan and yoginan must be transposed here in sense. [fn#5] i am doubtful of accuracy here. [fn#6] a name of the sun. [fn#7] without desire of fruit. [fn#8] that is,"joy and sorrow, success and failure, heat and cold,"&c. [fn#9] i.e., the body. [fn#10] the sanskrit has this play on the double meaning of atman. [fn#11] so in original. [fn#12] beings of low and devilish nature. [fn#13] krishna. [fn#14] i read here janma, "birth;" not jara,"age" [fn#15] i have discarded ten lines of sanskrit text here as an undoubted interpolation by some vedantist [fn#16] the sanskrit poem here rises to an elevation of style and manner which i have endeavoured to mark by change of metre. [fn#17] ahinsa. [fn#18] the nectar of immortality. [fn#19] called "the jap." [fn#20] the compound form of sanskrit words. [fn#21] "kamalapatraksha" [fn#22] these are all divine or deified orders of the hindoo pantheon. [fn#23] "hail to thee, god of gods! be favourable!" [fn#24] the wind. [fn#25] "not peering about,"anapeksha. [fn#26] the calcutta edition of the mahabharata has these three opening lines. [fn#27] this is the nearest possible version of kshetrakshetrajnayojnanan yat tajnan matan mama. [fn#28] i omit two lines of the sanskrit here, evidently interpolated by some vedantist. [fn#29] wombs. [fn#30] i do not consider the sanskrit verses here-which are somewhat freely rendered--"an attack on the authority of the vedas," with mr davies, but a beautiful lyrical episode, a new "parable of the fig-tree." [fn#31] i omit a verse here, evidently interpolated. [fn#32] "of the asuras," lit. [fn#33] i omit the ten concluding shlokas, with mr davis. [fn#34] rakshasas and yakshas are unembodied but capricious beings of great power, gifts, and beauty, same times also of benignity. [fn#35] these are spirits of evil wandering ghosts. [fn#36] yatayaman, food which has remained after the watches of the night. in india this would probably "go bad." [fn#37] i omit the concluding shlokas, as of very doubtful authenticity. the vedanta society of san francisco is an institution based on broad and universal teachings. it aims at explaining the philosophy of life in a simple, rational and practical way. it has an uplifting and vital message for persons in all walks of life. you are cordially invited to the lectures by swami prakashananda of india delivered every sunday at 11 a. m. and 8 p. m. tuesday and thursday class lectures and individual lessons are for the members. any sincere truthseeker is eligible to membership. for further information please inquire or write to the secretary. the inner consciousness how to awaken and direct it _by_ swami prakashananda published by the vedanta society of san francisco 2963 webster street san francisco, california u. s. a. copyright, 1921, by vedanta society of s. f. the inner consciousness how to awaken and direct it in theoretical as well as applied psychology no term is more misleading, or confusing than the term consciousness. we use the term often in our conversation; we come across it in our study; but when we are asked to define it properly, to explain its significance, its meaning, or the idea for which that word stands, we are unable to do so. and that is because there are so many varied ideas concerning consciousness. there are so many aspects of consciousness, there are so many states of consciousness that we get mixed up--that is, we confuse one with the other. so we must know thoroughly the true significance of the term. then we can make such distinctions as inner consciousness and outer consciousness. what is truly meant by consciousness, or what is the principle back of that term? there are many ideas which cannot be expressed properly for lack of words, or lack of terms. the word consciousness is really derived from the latin root =scio=, to know, and =con=, together; so the word consciousness from the derivative meaning would signify: to know together. we use the term generally in the sense of being conscious of a fact. that is, consciousness means knowing an object, as it were; knowing something. but the word consciousness really indicates two things--subject and object. it implies the duality of existence. there is one who is the knower, the subject, the ego, the perceiver. i know it; i am conscious of it; i perceive it; i think about it. therefore there is always the subject, the ego--i--as the background of any form of consciousness. then there must be something to be conscious of, something which we perceive, something which we know, something which we understand, and that something is the object. so, "knowing together" means we know the subject and object together--that is, they both exist; one cannot exist without the other. so wherever there is a subject, there is also an object. that means that wherever there is a thinker, there must be something to think about; otherwise there is no meaning back of the term "thinker". whenever we use the term "perceiver", we must know that there is something to be perceived. the same is true of consciousness. whenever we use the term "consciousness", we must know it includes both--the one who is conscious of something, and something of which that one is conscious. therefore the word "consciousness" implies duality. there is another meaning back of "consciousness" which we often fail to understand, or about which we do not stop to think deeply. that is why we miss it. consciousness not only implies the idea of becoming conscious of a thing, or the state of being conscious of something, but there is also the idea of identification back of it. what is the meaning of identification? by identification we mean a state in which we become almost one with a thing. when we become one with a thing we become conscious of it. of course ordinarily we may not be wholly identified with it, but the word consciousness indicates that, and judging our modes of thought, or observing the practical phases of our life, we shall see that there is identification. take for instance, the word "body-consciousness". what does it mean? it means that not only are we conscious of the body, but we are also identified with it. i can not separate myself from the body; i am almost one with it. i have become mixed up, as it were, with the body and its conditions. there the subject or ego is hidden; only the object of consciousness, the object of perception is there. so that is another meaning of consciousness. the deepest and purest meaning of consciousness is this: the absolute consciousness. there is the sanskrit word "chit". you will come across that word in the study of the upanishads, in the vedas, in the gita, and in many such books. you will find not only ancient sages, but the sages of modern times have been using the term "sat-chit-ananda", meaning the divine spirit. sat-chit-ananda--what is its meaning? it means absolute existence, absolute consciousness, absolute bliss. these three are not the qualities of the divine spirit, but they are the essence--one with it. so chit is the word of pure consciousness. in the understanding of pure consciousness, we have to eliminate the duality of existence, the duality of subject and object. it stands alone; it is that of which the subject and object are lower manifestations, or expressions. it is that which makes everything possible, which gives life and soul to the subject and object, as it were. so that is pure consciousness, the basic, the fundamental, the principle back of everything that is indicated by pure consciousness. there is a beautiful sanskrit verse which expresses this idea. "na tatra suryo bhati na chandra tarakam nema vidyuto bhanti kutoyam agni tameva bhantam anubhati sarvam tasya bhasha sarvamidam bibhati" (kathopanishad, chap. v. 15). in describing the pure, the basic, fundamental principle of life and creation--the pure light, the self-effulgent, self-caused divine intelligence--vedic sages sang in this way: "there the sun does not shine, nor the moon, nor the lightning, what to speak of the mortal fire. that shining, everything shines; by its light everything is illumined",--by its essence everything becomes full of consciousness. there is another sanskrit word which expresses the same idea, kaivalyam, the state of being alone; that which is self-caused; that which is not dependent on anything; that which is freedom itself; which is above everything. do you see? there all differentiation vanishes--differentiation of subject and object, i and thou. all these ideas are merged, as it were, in that absolute consciousness. so the pure consciousness is that. however, when we apply the term consciousness in our daily lives, in its varied relation to various channels of existence, in our varied experiences, in different states and conditions, we have to understand it from a dualistic standpoint, and we also have to study other phases of consciousness, such as inner consciousness and outer consciousness, soul-consciousness and body consciousness. all these terms we bring in to explain the different details, or the different stages of development, or the different stages of experience through which we have to pass. in order to be able to understand the inner consciousness, we must know it in its relation to the outer consciousness. the light can be understood only in its relation to darkness. praise can be understood only in its relation to blame. joy can be understood only in its relation to suffering or pain. one who is not really hungry cannot really appreciate the value of food. so, many ideas exist only relatively. it is the same with the inner and outer consciousness. we must understand both--then both become clear. what is meant then by outer consciousness? outer consciousness means consciousness in which we are cognizant of external things--gross forms, gross objects, sense objects. now, every moment of our lives, the senses bring in these impressions. the senses come in touch with the external objects of nature, gross things, gross objects, objects of vision, objects of touch, objects of taste. all these objects of perception exist in gross form, and there is the impression within ourselves, or there are impressions of varied sorts. that is outer consciousness--consciousness of the outer-world, the objective world. i am not going to enter here into a detailed exposition of what is called idealism, or realism. but outer consciousness must mean this to us: there is the idea of objective perception, and there is the objective world. we know that there is external nature, and all the time we are impressed with this idea. so when we cannot extricate ourselves from the realm and domain of forms and objects, when we cannot rise above the sense perceptions--the gross sense perceptions--when we cannot divest our minds of these externalities, as it were, then you will understand this state to be the outer consciousness. coming nearer the practical idea--there is the body-consciousness. as i stated previously, that means that we are conscious of the body, the body in all its phases, in all its senses, and in all its aspects. then there is a consciousness within ourselves. you may say that only through mind can we understand this, only through thought processes can we get knowledge of external nature. that is true, but in order to explain the inner consciousness properly, i have to bring in this idea of the outer consciousness where all these things exist; where there are nothing but external things, nothing but sense impressions, nothing but outer objects and their impressions. what is meant by inner consciousness? inner consciousness means: consciousness of inner forces, consciousness of inner perceptions, consciousness of what is called soul energy, consciousness of the divine in the soul. that is a consciousness of something distinct and separate from the sense impressions, from bodily conditions, from external gross objects, from external perceptions. now this question may arise in your mind: why should we try to awaken our inner consciousness? what benefit do we gain by it? we always ask that question. what are we going to gain by it? why should we try to arouse the inner consciousness, if the outer consciousness is as explained? what harm is there in living in the outer consciousness only? our life means that, our life means the varied duties of life--the varied responsibilities. our life means its relation to our fellow-beings, to the world, to so many material things, to so many objects, to so many phases of external life. our life means all this--and what is the harm in living in that state of consciousness? why should we try to awaken our inner consciousness? is there any necessity for it? is it absolutely necessary--is it indispensably necessary to enter that life? yes, it is absolutely necessary for persons in all walks of life. why? because while living in the outer consciousness we are not really contented. we always complain, either openly or mentally. something is always lacking in our life. just ask yourself this question: are we really happy? it is not that we have to give up our external life, our material life. it is not that we have to eliminate all these things completely from our life. no. but we have to know where we stand, and we have to understand the purpose and the meaning of our external life, or outer consciousness. we must know why we have to go through life's duties. we must know why we have to perform so many activities. what is the purpose? what is the idea back of it? why are those condemned who neglect their duties, who shirk their responsibilities, who do not try to perform their functions, their duties properly? the idea is this: first of all, we are ignorant of the meaning and purpose of life. we cannot explain definitely the reason for all these activities. we do not know why we live in the midst of sense perceptions. why are we experiencing these things? we have certain desires, we have certain tendencies, certain emotions, certain passions. we are regulated by them; we are carried away by them against our will. we are, as it were, enslaved by certain things, and we go on, not knowing whence we have come or whither we are going, or what is the mission of our life. that is why the question was asked in ancient times by the vedic sages: "what is that, knowing which, everything else will be known?" what is that fountainhead, knowing which, we shall understand the meaning and purpose of life--knowing which, everything would be explained? everything appears to be detached, purposeless, meaningless. what is that, knowing which, everything would be illumined? that is the question. that is the desire, in reality, in every human heart. we may not be able to explain it; we may not know it properly at times; but it is there, and only the sages have put the question definitely. that is why we must try to get into that realm of pure consciousness, as i explained. there are different grades of inner consciousness. the deeper we search, the more we understand, the more will that pure consciousness be unfolded which alone holds the key. to illuminate, to unfold, to explain everything in our life, we must come to that. there is another reason why we must try to go beyond the outer and enter into the inner consciousness, and that is this: there is always reaction in our life--that is, when we live in the external consciousness, there is always reaction. suffering is caused by reaction. our miseries, our pains, our complaints, our doubts, our troubles, our disillusionments, our despair, have always been caused by the outer consciousness. for instance, when we live in the midst of sense perceptions we want to possess certain objects which we have perceived, impressions of which have been gathered through the senses. first of all, the senses come in touch with external things. it may be a little food, a little form; it may be a little object; but it is there. that impression gets hold of us, and what do we want to do? we want to get that object; we want to possess it; we want to own it. when we cannot own it, there is suffering, there is heart-burning. suppose i love some object. i try my best to possess it. i cannot do it. something stands in the way and takes it away from me--snatches it away. there is suffering. there is misery. in this way we are constantly becoming dependent on external things. these outer things, these external things, these objects of the senses get hold of us. they enter our lives and completely hold sway over us, and we are carried away by them. then we are thrown back, as it were, into ourselves; because nature's laws work relentlessly--and there are changes--there are separations. you may say such ideas bring gloominess, pessimism into our lives. what difference does it make if we become a little gloomy, or if we become pessimistic? what has your optimism given us? what do the passing joys bring us? they bring us nothing but reaction. so-called optimism does not land us anywhere. it rather leads us into complex situations and conditions. rather we should hail with joy that sort of pessimism, true pessimism, which brings us face to face with the truth, which enables us to see things in their true color. yes, we must face things boldly. it is not simply by patchwork that we gain in life, it is only by bold search and uncompromising investigation. it is by going to the root and the bottom of things that we gain--truly gain--and accomplish something which is worth achieving. so we must not be afraid of analysing things in a deeper way. you see around you nature's changes and separations. you love a person. that person dies, or is taken away to other lands. you are miserable and prostrated with grief. again, you have possessed certain things and you lose them--you lose a fortune in a few days, or in a few weeks, or in a few months. you are overcome with sorrow. that is life, and that is what is meant by outer consciousness. it is not that you must not have possessions; it is not that you must not have good homes; it is not that you must not love others. but do it knowingly; do it not as a slave, but as a master; not as a dependent worm, but as the witness you should approach these things. many things there are which must be taken into our lives necessarily. unhappily we delude ourselves; we forget ourselves; we lose our heads; we lose our judgment; and we are carried away by the currents of life, not knowing whither we are going. when we are caught up in the whirl of conditions, when we are lost in the labyrinthian maze of circumstances, then we wake up for a while. again we forget. so that is the outer consciousness, which has separations everywhere. you cannot depend upon anything. as soon as you depend upon anything--lean on anything--it is taken away from you, and what is to be done? that is why we must try to search for something which is more internal, which is not so changeable, on whom, or on which you can depend to a greater extent, because everything is relative until we get to the absolute. we must find something which is better, which is greater. and that is our search--that should be our search. so, while living a life of outer consciousness you will analyse and you will see how all your complex conditions regarding which you complain, all the entanglements which we notice in different lives, all the confusion and friction which we see at home or abroad, all the heart-burnings, disillusionment and suffering which we notice amongst individuals--all these can be traced to that outer consciousness, that slavery, that dependence upon the material things of life. that is why we have to open up our inner consciousness. that is why we want to know if there is anything beyond the veil of the senses. that is why we must know whether there is anything back of this changeable condition of the senses and this changeable condition of the body. now, you may ask the question, how do we know that there is such a thing as soul-energy, or that there are inner forces? how do we know? we know as we know everything in life. we have to follow the same methods. how do you know the different details of a machine? you study that machine. you follow three processes--that is, three steps you must take in everything. first of all, you get hold of a book, or you go to a person who knows about the machine and you ask him questions. you look over different descriptions of the details of the machine, then you think for yourself; you judge for yourself. you revolve all these details within your mind. you analyse, and gradually you begin to handle the machine yourself--practical experience you must acquire. for instance, if you want to know about electricity, what do you do? you get hold of a book on the subject of electricity. then you go to a professor and receive instruction. then you go to the laboratory and handle different machines and study them. suppose you want to learn music, you follow the same process. and it is the same with this subject of the inner consciousness. first of all, you have to study; you must read books, or you must consult some persons who know. would you believe blindly? would you accept blindly that which they tell you? no. in no study must we accept anything blindly. blind belief does not lead us anywhere. we must search thoroughly without any fear. truth can stand all the tests of analysis, all the tests of observation. and if it is not truth, it can not stand the test. so always keep the reasoning faculty, or power of analysis sharpened, ready to observe, ready to understand, ready to reason out. at every point you must reason. and the more is this true with regard to the study of these inner things. why? because there are so many dangers and difficulties in studying these inner things. many promising lives have been failures owing to a lack of proper understanding, owing to ignorance, owing to indiscriminate search or indiscriminate investigation. you cannot be too cautious--you cannot be too careful in studying these things. these, then, are the steps you have to take. first, study and go to a person who has studied these things and who knows these things. in every book you will notice you are asked to go to a teacher. as you need a teacher in different fields of knowledge, so you need a teacher in this field too, and the more so because the objects which you are going to learn, the principles which you are going to master, are so subtle. machines you can handle properly, because they are external things. you can grasp them. you can see them. but in studying this subject you have to study that which is very subtle, which is very fine. that is why you need more care. you need the help, you need the guidance of some one who is an expert teacher. and then you analyse yourself and reason--always reason. but do not bring that sort of skepticism into your life which is dangerous, which, as it were, clogs up all the channels of experience, which covers, or shuts up, all the avenues of knowledge, which makes one give up the search without proper study and investigation. do not become skeptical in that way. many have a tendency to become skeptical and give up the search. we have no honest right to demand any knowledge unless we have studied properly, or investigated closely. so open your mind, your heart, your soul to conviction. at the same time, do not take anything for granted, but be ready to learn. always be receptive, always be responsive. then we have to apply certain direct means; we have to follow certain practical methods in order to accomplish our purpose. now, of all the different methods which are handed down to us from the great sages and masters, one method is important, and that is concentration. why is concentration upheld as a great method? can we not awaken the inner consciousness by prayer, by worship, by devotion, by divine love, and in many other ways? certainly, we can. but in the path of concentration we can rise step by step--it is the most scientific method. of course every path can be made scientific we may say, or every path can be followed step by step. true. but we can combine certain methods. take, for instance, devotion. devotion is a great thing. the love for an ideal, we need; it is important; in this country it is necessary. but if we allow ourselves to be carried away by heightened emotions, or by wrought-up feelings, we may develop fanaticism. there have been instances in which devotion, love, divine love--when not combined with proper concentration, or proper analysis--have landed persons in the realm of emotionalism, or sentimentality, or fanaticism. they are led into the realm of bigotry and narrowness and carried away by these things. so try to balance devotion, with proper reasoning and it will be a great, helpful method. true prayer can open up our inner communion and help us to unfold. pure self-analysis is another method. but concentration has been found to be very helpful for many, many people--for the majority of people--if it can be followed under the guidance of proper teachers and if it can be followed methodically. but some might say that there is danger in concentration. there is no danger in concentration. consciously or unconsciously we apply it in every field of knowledge. without concentration what can you do? as emerson said, "the one prudence in life is concentration; the one evil is dissipation." in war, in politics, in business, in trade, in the management of all commercial and social affairs, concentration is the secret of success. and what is meant by concentration? concentration includes two things. one is gathering up scattered energies; another is focussing these scattered energies of mind. as i explained, outer consciousness means this: we are dependent on the senses and outward things. that is, when we try to think of inner things, we are held back by our dependence on things external. we are all the time living in these external impressions, and cannot enter into the inner realm of understanding. and how does concentration help us? concentration helps us to withdraw our scattered minds from different directions. the mind has been scattered. it wanders among various objects, which are impressions in our minds. the mind has been divided, and thus mental energy is dissipated. very little energy is left for the accomplishment of the real ideals in life. but gradually we learn by concentration how to withdraw the scattered forces of the mind and how to focus them upon the chosen ideal. there are many details, but i am only mentioning the most important points. when, through proper training and daily practice, one is able to learn how to gather up the wandering mind, and withdraw these different powers of the mind from different sources and focus them on one thing, then so much energy has been combined, as it were, and we can accomplish something. otherwise, so much of our energy has been dissipated. regarding the difficulties and dangers of concentration, let me mention that there are difficulties in all paths, in all fields of knowledge. nothing worth achieving has been accomplished without a little difficulty, without a little sacrifice, without a little sincere and earnest effort. you know, curiosity-seekers never reach anything in life. those who are sincere and earnest searchers and seekers have gradually unfolded themselves and reached the higher realms of understanding. so there is no real danger in concentration. we must start with that idea, and not be hasty. many of us try to take things like a pill. we take a pill, and it must accomplish its results. concentration is not a pill--and we do not know what accumulated experiences and impressions are at our backs. through different lives and through the present life we have been gathering up so many things. we are performing so many karmas, as we say, and we have to eliminate so many things in our lives. through proper effort we shall remove many obstacles, many difficulties, and our task will become easier and easier. now, the yogis, in figurative language call this opening up of the inner consciousness the awakening of the kundalini. you will see--if you analyse your life--that there are a few things which are constantly holding your attention. the mind, as it were, is drawn into certain realms. as i explained in the beginning, sense perceptions are in different forms and include many things--our eating, our drinking, all sorts of habits and many other things. thus the best of our energies are swallowed up, as it were, by these things. the yogis claim that the nerve centers--the lower nerve centers--have absorbed these energies and the energies are chained there, or enslaved there, and you have to release them. there are two sides, the physiological and mental. physiologically, when we begin to practise concentration, this energy is gradually released from the lower centers. it is called the awakening of kundalini--coiled-up energy--energy in latent form or enslaved form. simultaneously our mind is released from its impressions and begins to work in a higher realm. time will not permit me to enter into the details of this subject, but i just want to touch upon some important points, so that you will think and study and investigate more. a few points i must try to impress upon your mind. i must repeat that first of all these things should be studied under the guidance of proper teachers, and secondly, that you need not believe anything blindly. i want to impress this upon your mind because these things are established facts and those who have experienced them know these things. they are not the results of mere speculation, or mere imagination, because those teachers who would try to teach you will tell you from the beginning that you have to eliminate all the ideas of imagination. you must give up imagining things. many of us have a tendency to imagine too much, constantly seeing visions and other things. you must eliminate those notions from the beginning, and must try to live in realities, in facts and true experiences. so you must not accept anything credulously, but try to study and investigate for yourself. the yogis declare that there is a hollow canal in the spinal column, and that the base of the spinal column, in the majority of persons, is closed. when these energies are released, they must find a passage and they must be allowed to go through this canal, and as this released energy rises into higher and higher centers, we enter into inner and inner stages of illumination. and when that energy reaches the brain--the highest center, the pineal gland--there the illumination becomes absolute; that is, we reach that pure state of consciousness of which i have spoken. you will find as you progress that there are physiological experiences and mental experiences. as we have physiological experiences we shall see that the whole nervous system is changing. our bodies are full of vibrating currents. our whole life is full of vibrating currents, and we must know how to direct them, how to adjust them. and that is why i said the teachers would ask you to give up that idea of imagining things. we imagine and speculate too much. we must not accept anything unless it is realized, and that is why the student must be properly directed. and why is it necessary that the student should be directed? because of ignorance of the subtle forces involved. as these physiological experiences go on, layer after layer of the mind is opened up, but you must let these experiences alone. you must not identify yourself with them. do you not see that in order to eliminate these external conditions and enter into the inner realms of consciousness, we have to rise above the body consciousness? therefore, if we identify ourselves with these vibrations, or any kind of physiological experiences, we are going against what we are trying to accomplish. we would be inconsistent. so put the chemicals together and let the crystallization take care of itself. gradually the latent energy awakens, and the energy working in the life is concentrated. gradually you will see a new vista of knowledge and wisdom opening before you. a new land, a new realm of experience is coming to you, and that needs the master mind. instead of allowing ourselves to become enslaved again by these conditions, we must rise above them as the master. we must become the director. instead of allowing the mind to take the reins, we must take the reins in our own hands. you, as part of the divine spirit, have that mastery and power. you have that strength within you, and you are going to be the director. and so you have to tell the mind and the senses and the little things in your life that you are the master. they must know who is the master, and who is going to direct the situation. in this way we have to direct properly, knowing the ideal thoroughly, knowing where we are going, what we are trying to accomplish, eliminating all the selfish ideals, eliminating all the obstacles and difficulties as much as possible. yes, there are obstacles; there are difficulties, and we are frightened by them. but you must remember these difficulties and obstacles can be overcome. they come to test our strength, and we overcome them, we unfold our latent and dormant powers. so never give way. never give up after you accept a method. be not hasty in adopting a method, but once you have taken it up, follow it with the utmost pertinacity. follow it with that sincerity and earnestness of purpose necessary for accomplishment in all walks of life and in all fields of achievement. and then go on, day after day, practising it, following it with un-ending patience and perseverance. gradually a time will come when you will see that there is a realm, or there are different realms of inner consciousness which are being unfolded to you. by degrees you will come to that state of divine illumination which will make you really blessed. the blessedness of that state cannot be described--it must be felt--it must be experienced. i will conclude this topic with the admonition that we must be absolutely sincere, and we must not apply these things in any other way than for spiritual unfoldment. there is the danger. we have a tendency to apply them in different realms--lower states--and for selfish purposes. we must avoid that. to many, you must remember, it may be a life task. for many, it may take several lives. some may accomplish it in a few years. to others, again--persons of sincerity and steadfastness--it may come quickly. but whatever time it takes, we must be determined and we must start with this idea, that even before passing away from this life, we will reach a very high state of consciousness, and we will unfold that divine, cosmic, universal, absolute consciousness, which alone can make us really happy and blessed. * * * * * =the gospel of sri ramakrishna= cloth, $2.00; postage 10 cents. paper, $1.50; postage 8 cents. =sayings of sri ramakrishna= cloth, $1.25; postage 10 cents. =the life of swami vivekananda (4 vols.)= each vol., cloth, $2.50; postage 18 cents. =complete works of swami vivekananda (5 vols.)= each vol., cloth, $2.50; postage 15 cents. besides the above, many important books and pamphlets on vedanta philosophy by the swamis, sanskrit translations of upanishads, etc., for sale at the society headquarters, 2963 webster st., san francisco, cal. vedanta periodicals =prabuddha bharata=--monthly. $1.50 a year. mayavati p. o. st. almora, u. p. india. =vedanta kesari=--monthly. $1.50 a year. mylapore, madras, india. =message of the east=--monthly. $2.00 a year. 1 queensberry st., boston, mass. the upanishads translated and commentated by swami paramananda from the original sanskrit text this volume is reverently dedicated to all seekers of truth and lovers of wisdom preface the translator's idea of rendering the upanishads into clear simple english, accessible to occidental readers, had its origin in a visit paid to a boston friend in 1909. the gentleman, then battling with a fatal malady, took from his library shelf a translation of the upanishads and, opening it, expressed deep regret that the obscure and unfamiliar form shut from him what he felt to be profound and vital teaching. the desire to unlock the closed doors of this ancient treasure house, awakened at that time, led to a series of classes on the upanishads at the vedanta centre of boston during its early days in st. botolph street. the translation and commentary then given were transcribed and, after studious revision, were published in the centre's monthly magazine, "the message of the east," in 1913 and 1914.. still further revision has brought it to its present form. so far as was consistent with a faithful rendering of the sanskrit text, the swami throughout his translation has sought to eliminate all that might seem obscure and confusing to the modern mind. while retaining in remarkable measure the rhythm and archaic force of the lines, he has tried not to sacrifice directness and simplicity of style. where he has been obliged to use the sanskrit term for lack of an exact english equivalent, he has invariably interpreted it by a familiar english word in brackets; and everything has been done to remove the sense of strangeness in order that the occidental reader may not feel himself an alien in the new regions of thought opened to him. even more has the swami striven to keep the letter subordinate to the spirit. any scripture is only secondarily an historical document. to treat it as an object of mere intellectual curiosity is to cheat the world of its deeper message. if mankind is to derive the highest benefit from a study of it, its appeal must be primarily to the spiritual consciousness; and one of the salient merits of the present translation lies in this, that the translator approaches his task not only with the grave concern of the careful scholar, but also with the profound reverence and fervor of the true devotee. editor boston, march, 1919 contents introduction isa-upanishad katha-upanishad kena-upanishad introduction the upanishads represent the loftiest heights of ancient indo-aryan thought and culture. they form the wisdom portion or gnana-kanda of the vedas, as contrasted with the karma-kanda or sacrificial portion. in each of the four great vedas--known as rik, yajur, sama and atharva--there is a large portion which deals predominantly with rituals and ceremonials, and which has for its aim to show man how by the path of right action he may prepare himself for higher attainment. following this in each veda is another portion called the upanishad, which deals wholly with the essentials of philosophic discrimination and ultimate spiritual vision. for this reason the upanishads are known as the vedanta, that is, the end or final goal of wisdom (veda, wisdom; anta, end). the name upanishad has been variously interpreted. many claim that it is a compound sanskrit word upa-ni-shad, signifying "sitting at the feet or in the presence of a teacher"; while according to other authorities it means "to shatter" or "to destroy" the fetters of ignorance. whatever may have been the technical reason for selecting this name, it was chosen undoubtedly to give a picture of aspiring seekers "approaching" some wise seer in the seclusion of an himalayan forest, in order to learn of him the profoundest truths regarding the cosmic universe and god. because these teachings were usually given in the stillness of some distant retreat, where the noises of the world could not disturb the tranquillity of the contemplative life, they are known also as aranyakas, forest books. another reason for this name may be found in the fact that they were intended especially for the vanaprasthas (those who, having fulfilled all their duties in the world, had retired to the forest to devote themselves to spiritual study). the form which the teaching naturally assumed was that of dialogue, a form later adopted by plato and other greek philosophers. as nothing was written and all instruction was transmitted orally, the upanishads are called srutis, "what is heard." the term was also used in the sense of revealed, the upanishads being regarded as direct revelations of god; while the smritis, minor scriptures "recorded through memory," were traditional works of purely human origin. it is a significant fact that nowhere in the upanishads is mention made of any author or recorder. no date for the origin of the upanishads can be fixed, because the written text does not limit their antiquity. the word sruti makes that clear to us. the teaching probably existed ages before it was set down in any written form. the text itself bears evidence of this, because not infrequently in a dialogue between teacher and disciple the teacher quotes from earlier scriptures now unknown to us. as professor max müller states in his lectures on the vedanta philosophy: "one feels certain that behind all these lightning-flashes of religious and philosophic thought there is a distant past, a dark background of which we shall never know the beginning." some scholars place the vedic period as far back as 4000 or 5000 b.c.; others from 2000 to 1400 b.c. but even the most conservative admit that it antedates, by several centuries at least, the buddhistic period which begins in the sixth century b.c. the value of the upanishads, however, does not rest upon their antiquity, but upon the vital message they contain for all times and all peoples. there is nothing peculiarly racial or local in them. the ennobling lessons of these scriptures are as practical for the modern world as they were for the indo-aryans of the earliest vedic age. their teachings are summed up in two maha-vakyam or "great sayings":--tat twam asi (that thou art) and aham brahmasmi (i am brahman). this oneness of soul and god lies at the very root of all vedic thought, and it is this dominant ideal of the unity of all life and the oneness of truth which makes the study of the upanishads especially beneficial at the present moment. one of the most eminent of european orientalists writes: "if we fix our attention upon it (this fundamental dogma of the vedanta system) in its philosophical simplicity as the identity of god and the soul, the brahman and the atman, it will be found to possess a significance reaching far beyond the upanishads, their time and country; nay, we claim for it an inestimable value for the whole race of mankind. whatever new and unwonted paths the philosophy of the future may strike out, this principle will remain permanently unshaken and from it no deviation can possibly take place. if ever a general solution is reached of the great riddle . . . the key can only be found where alone the secret of nature lies open to us from within, that is to say, in our innermost self. it was here that for the first time the original thinkers of the upanishads, to their immortal honor, found it...." the first introduction of the upanishads to the western world was through a translation into persian made in the seventeenth century. more than a century later the distinguished french scholar, anquetil duperron, brought a copy of the manuscript from persia to france and translated it into french and latin. publishing only the latin text. despite the distortions which must have resulted from transmission through two alien languages, the light of the thought still shone with such brightness that it drew from schopenhauer the fervent words: "how entirely does the oupnekhat (upanishad) breathe throughout the holy spirit of the vedas! how is every one, who by a diligent study of its persian latin has become familiar with that incomparable book, stirred by that spirit to the very depth of his soul! from every sentence deep, original and sublime thoughts arise, and the whole is pervaded by a high and holy and earnest spirit." again he says: "the access to (the vedas) by means of the upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries." this testimony is borne out by the thoughtful american scholar, thoreau, who writes: "what extracts from the vedas i have read fall on me like the light of a higher and purer luminary which describes a loftier course through a purer stratum free from particulars, simple, universal." the first english translation was made by a learned hindu, raja ram mohun roy (1775-1833). since that time there have been various european translations--french, german, italian and english. but a mere translation, however accurate and sympathetic, is not sufficient to make the upanishads accessible to the occidental mind. professor max müller after a lifetime of arduous labor in this field frankly confesses: "modern words are round, ancient words are square, and we may as well hope to solve the quadrature of the circle, as to express adequately the ancient thought of the vedas in modern english." without a commentary it is practically impossible to understand either the spirit or the meaning of the upanishads. they were never designed as popular scriptures. they grew up essentially as text books of god-knowledge and self-knowledge, and like all text books they need interpretation. being transmitted orally from teacher to disciple, the style was necessarily extremely condensed and in the form of aphorisms. the language also was often metaphorical and obscure. yet if one has the perseverance to penetrate beneath these mere surface difficulties, one is repaid a hundredfold; for these ancient sacred books contain the most precious gems of spiritual thought. every upanishad begins with a peace chant (shanti-patha) to create the proper atmosphere of purity and serenity. to study about god the whole nature must be prepared, so unitedly and with loving hearts teacher and disciples prayed to the supreme being for his grace and protection. it is not possible to comprehend the subtle problems of life unless the thought is tranquil and the energy concentrated. until our mind is withdrawn from the varied distractions and agitations of worldly affairs, we cannot enter into the spirit of higher religious study. no study is of avail so long as our inner being is not attuned. we must hold a peaceful attitude towards all living things; and if it is lacking, we must strive fervently to cultivate it through suggestion by chanting or repeating some holy text. the same lesson is taught by jesus the christ when he says: "if thou bring thy gift to the altar and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee; leave there thy gift before the altar and go thy way; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift." bearing this lofty ideal of peace in our minds, let us try to make our hearts free from prejudice, doubt and intolerance, so that from these sacred writings we may draw in abundance inspiration, love and wisdom. paramananda isa-upanishad this upanishad desires its title from the opening words isa-vasya, "god-covered." the use of isa (lord)--a more personal name of the supreme being than brahman, atman or self, the names usually found in the upanishads--constitutes one of its peculiarities. it forms the closing chapter of the yajur-veda, known as shukla (white). oneness of the soul and god, and the value of both faith and works as means of ultimate attainment are the leading themes of this upanishad. the general teaching of the upanishads is that works alone, even the highest, can bring only temporary happiness and must inevitably bind a man unless through them he gains knowledge of his real self. to help him acquire this knowledge is the aim of this and all upanishads. isa-upanishad peace chant om! that (the invisible-absolute) is whole; whole is this (the visible phenomenal); from the invisible whole comes forth the visible whole. though the visible whole has come out from that invisible whole, yet the whole remains unaltered. om! peace! peace! peace! the indefinite term "that" is used in the upanishads to designate the invisible-absolute, because no word or name can fully define it. a finite object, like a table or a tree, can be defined; but god, who is infinite and unbounded, cannot be expressed by finite language. therefore the rishis or divine seers, desirous not to limit the unlimited, chose the indefinite term "that" to designate the absolute. in the light of true wisdom the phenomenal and the absolute are inseparable. all existence is in the absolute; and whatever exists, must exist in it; hence all manifestation is merely a modification of the one supreme whole, and neither increases nor diminishes it. the whole therefore remains unaltered. i all this, whatsoever exists in the universe, should be covered by the lord. having renounced (the unreal), enjoy (the real). do not covet the wealth of any man. we cover all things with the lord by perceiving the divine presence everywhere. when the consciousness is firmly fixed in god, the conception of diversity naturally drops away; because the one cosmic existence shines through all things. as we gain the light of wisdom, we cease to cling to the unrealities of this world and we find all our joy in the realm of reality. the word "enjoy" is also interpreted by the great commentator sankaracharya as "protect," because knowledge of our true self is the greatest protector and sustainer. if we do not have this knowledge, we cannot be happy; because nothing on this external plane of phenomena is permanent or dependable. he who is rich in the knowledge of the self does not covet external power or possession. ii if one should desire to live in this world a hundred years, one should live performing karma (righteous deeds). thus thou mayest live; there is no other way. by doing this, karma (the fruits of thy actions) will not defile thee. if a man still clings to long life and earthly possessions, and is therefore unable to follow the path of self-knowledge (gnana-nishta) as prescribed in the first mantram (text), then he may follow the path of right action (karma-nishta). karma here means actions performed without selfish motive, for the sake of the lord alone. when a man performs actions clinging blindly to his lower desires, then his actions bind him to the plane of ignorance or the plane of birth and death; but when the same actions are performed with surrender to god, they purify and liberate him. iii after leaving their bodies, they who have killed the self go to the worlds of the asuras, covered with blinding ignorance. the idea of rising to bright regions as a reward for well-doers, and of falling into realms of darkness as a punishment for evil-doers is common to all great religions. but vedanta claims that this condition of heaven and hell is only temporary; because our actions, being finite, can produce only a finite result. what does it mean "to kill the self?" how can the immortal soul ever be destroyed? it cannot be destroyed, it can only be obscured. those who hold themselves under the sway of ignorance, who serve the flesh and neglect the atman or the real self, are not able to perceive the effulgent and indestructible nature of their soul; hence they fall into the realm where the soul light does not shine. here the upanishad shows that the only hell is absence of knowledge. as long as man is overpowered by the darkness of ignorance, he is the slave of nature and must accept whatever comes as the fruit of his thoughts and deeds. when he strays into the path of unreality, the sages declare that he destroys himself; because he who clings to the perishable body and regards it as his true self must experience death many times. iv that one, though motionless, is swifter than the mind. the senses can never overtake it, for it ever goes before. though immovable, it travels faster than those who run. by it the all-pervading air sustains all living beings. this verse explains the character of the atman or self. a finite object can be taken from one place and put in another, but it can only occupy one space at a time. the atman, however, is present everywhere; hence, though one may run with the greatest swiftness to overtake it, already it is there before him. even the all-pervading air must be supported by this self, since it is infinite; and as nothing can live without breathing air, all living things must draw their life from the cosmic self. v it moves and it moves not. it is far and also it is near. it is within and also it is without all this. it is near to those who have the power to understand it, for it dwells in the heart of every one; but it seems far to those whose mind is covered by the clouds of sensuality and self-delusion. it is within, because it is the innermost soul of all creatures; and it is without as the essence of the whole external universe, infilling it like the all-pervading ether. vi he who sees all beings in the self and the self in all beings, he never turns away from it (the self). vii he who perceives all beings as the self for him how can there be delusion or grief, when he sees this oneness (everywhere)? he who perceives the self everywhere never shrinks from anything, because through his higher consciousness he feels united with all life. when a man sees god in all beings and all beings in god, and also god dwelling in his own soul, how can he hate any living thing? grief and delusion rest upon a belief in diversity, which leads to competition and all forms of selfishness. with the realization of oneness, the sense of diversity vanishes and the cause of misery is removed. viii he (the self) is all-encircling, resplendent, bodiless, spotless, without sinews, pure, untouched by sin, all-seeing, all-knowing, transcendent, self-existent; he has disposed all things duly for eternal years. this text defines the real nature of the self. when our mind is cleansed from the dross of matter, then alone can we behold the vast, radiant, subtle, ever-pure and spotless self, the true basis of our existence. ix they enter into blind darkness who worship avidya (ignorance and delusion); they fall, as it were, into greater darkness who worship vidya (knowledge). x by vidya one end is attained; by avidya, another. thus we have heard from the wise men who taught this. xi he who knows at the same time both vidya and avidya, crosses over death by avidya and attains immortality through vidya. those who follow or "worship" the path of selfishness and pleasure (avidya), without knowing anything higher, necessarily fall into darkness; but those who worship or cherish vidya (knowledge) for mere intellectual pride and satisfaction, fall into greater darkness, because the opportunity which they misuse is greater. in the subsequent verses vidya and avidya are used in something the same sense as "faith" and "works" in the christian bible; neither alone can lead to the ultimate goal, but when taken together they carry one to the highest. work done with unselfish motive purifies the mind and enables man to perceive his undying nature. from this he gains inevitably a knowledge of god, because the soul and god are one and inseparable; and when he knows himself to be one with the supreme and indestructible whole, he realizes his immortality. xii they fall into blind darkness who worship the unmanifested and they fall into greater darkness who worship the manifested. xiii by the worship of the unmanifested one end is attained; by the worship of the manifested, another. thus we have heard from the wise men who taught us this. xiv he who knows at the same time both the unmanifested (the cause of manifestation) and the destructible or manifested, he crosses over death through knowledge of the destructible and attains immortality through knowledge of the first cause (unmanifested). this particular upanishad deals chiefly with the invisible cause and the visible manifestation, and the whole trend of its teaching is to show that they are one and the same, one being the outcome of the other hence no perfect knowledge is possible without simultaneous comprehension of both. the wise men declare that he who worships in a one-sided way, whether the visible or the invisible, does not reach the highest goal. only he who has a co-ordinated understanding of both the visible and the invisible, of matter and spirit, of activity and that which is behind activity, conquers nature and thus overcomes death. by work, by making the mind steady and by following the prescribed rules given in the scriptures, a man gains wisdom. by the light of that wisdom he is able to perceive the invisible cause in all visible forms. therefore the wise man sees him in every manifested form. they who have a true conception of god are never separated from him. they exist in him and he in them. xv the face of truth is hidden by a golden disk. o pushan (effulgent being)! uncover (thy face) that i, the worshipper of truth, may behold thee. xvi o pushan! o sun, sole traveller of the heavens, controller of all, son of prajapati, withdraw thy rays and gather up thy burning effulgence. now through thy grace i behold thy blessed and glorious form. the purusha (effulgent being) who dwells within thee, i am he. here the sun, who is the giver of all light, is used as the symbol of the infinite, giver of all wisdom. the seeker after truth prays to the effulgent one to control his dazzling rays, that his eyes, no longer blinded by them, may behold the truth. having perceived it, he proclaims: "now i see that that effulgent being and i are one and the same, and my delusion is destroyed." by the light of truth he is able to discriminate between the real and the unreal, and the knowledge thus gained convinces him that he is one with the supreme; that there is no difference between himself and the supreme truth; or as christ said, "i and my father are one." xvii may my life-breath go to the all-pervading and immortal prana, and let this body be burned to ashes. om! o mind, remember thy deeds! o mind, remember, remember thy deeds! remember! seek not fleeting results as the reward of thy actions, o mind! strive only for the imperishable. this mantram or text is often chanted at the hour of death to remind one of the perishable nature of the body and the eternal nature of the soul. when the clear vision of the distinction between the mortal body and the immortal soul dawns in the heart, then all craving for physical pleasure or material possession drops away; and one can say, let the body be burned to ashes that the soul may attain its freedom; for death is nothing more than the casting-off of a worn-out garment. xviii o agni (bright being)! lead us to blessedness by the good path. o lord! thou knowest all our deeds, remove all evil and delusion from us. to thee we offer our prostrations and supplications again and again. here ends this upanishad this upanishad is called isa-vasya-upanishad, that which gives brahma-vidya or knowledge of the all-pervading deity. the dominant thought running through it is that we cannot enjoy life or realize true happiness unless we consciously "cover" all with the omnipresent lord. if we are not fully conscious of that which sustains our life, how can we live wisely and perform our duties? whatever we see, movable or immovable, good or bad, it is all "that." we must not divide our conception of the universe; for in dividing it, we have only fragmentary knowledge and we thus limit ourselves. he who sees all beings in his self and his self in all beings, he never suffers; because when he sees all creatures within his true self, then jealousy, grief and hatred vanish. he alone can love. that ah-pervading one is selfeffulgent, birthless, deathless, pure, untainted by sin and sorrow. knowing this, he becomes free from the bondage of matter and transcends death. transcending death means realizing the difference between body and soul and identifying oneself with the soul. when we actually behold the undecaying soul within us and realize our true nature, we no longer identify ourself with the body which dies and we do not die with the body. self-knowledge has always been the theme of the sages; and the upanishads deal especially with the knowledge of the self and also with the knowledge of god, because there is no difference between the self and god. they are one and the same. that which comes out of the infinite whole must also be infinite; hence the self is infinite. that is the ocean, we are the drops. so long as the drop remains separate from the ocean, it is small and weak; but when it is one with the ocean, then it has all the strength of the ocean. similarly, so long as man believes himself to be separate from the whole, he is helpless; but when he identifies himself with it, then he transcends all weakness and partakes of its omnipotent qualities. katha-upanishad the katha-upanishad is probably the most widely known of all the upanishads. it was early translated into persian and through this rendering first made its way into europe. later raja ram mohun roy brought out an english version. it has since appeared in various languages; and english, german and french writers are all agreed in pronouncing it one of the most perfect expressions of the religion and philosophy of the vedas. sir edwin arnold popularized it by his metrical rendering under the name of "the secret of death," and ralph waldo emerson gives its story in brief at the close of his essay on "immortality." there is no consensus of opinion regarding the place of this upanishad in vedic literature. some authorities declare it to belong to the yajur-veda, others to the sama-veda, while a large number put it down as a part of the atharva-veda. the story is first suggested in the rig-veda; it is told more definitely in the yajur-veda; and in the katha-upanishad it appears fully elaborated and interwoven with the loftiest vedic teaching. there is nothing however, to indicate the special place of this final version, nor has any meaning been found for the name katha. the text presents a dialogue between an aspiring disciple, nachiketas, and the ruler of death regarding the great hereafter. katha-upanishad peace chant may he (the supreme being) protect us both, teacher and taught. may he be pleased with us. may we acquire strength. may our study bring us illumination. may there be no enmity among us. om! peace! peace! peace! part first i vahasrava, being desirous of heavenly rewards (at the viswajit sacrifice), made a gift of all that he possessed. he had a son by the name of nachiketas. ii when the offerings were being distributed, faith (shraddha) entered (the heart of) nachiketas, who, though young, yet resected: iii these cows have drunk water, eaten grass and given milk for the last time, and their senses have lost all vigour. he who gives these undoubtedly goes to joyless realms. in india the idea of sacrifice has always been to give freely for the joy of giving, without asking anything in return; and the whole purpose and merit of the sacrifice is lost, if the giver entertains the least thought of name, fame or individual benefit. the special viswajit sacrifice which vajasrava was making required of him to give away all that he possessed. when, however, the gifts were brought forward to be offered, his son nachiketas, although probably a lad about twelve years of age, observed how worthless were the animals which his father was offering. his heart at once became filled with shraddha. there is no one english word which can convey the meaning of this sanskrit term. it is more than mere faith. it also implies self-reliance, an independent sense of right and wrong, and the courage of one's own conviction. as a boy of tender age, nachiketas had no right to question his father's action; yet, impelled by the sudden awakening of his higher nature, he could not but reflect: "by merely giving these useless cows, my father cannot gain any merit. if he has vowed to give all his possessions, then he must also give me. otherwise his sacrifice will not be complete and fruitful." therefore, anxious for his father's welfare, he approached him gently and reverently. iv he said to his father: dear father, to whom wilt thou give me? he said it a second time, then a third time. the father replied: i shall give thee unto death. nachiketas, being a dutiful son and eager to atone for his father's inadequate sacrifice, tried to remind him thus indirectly that he had not fulfilled his promise to give away all his possessions, since he had not yet offered his own son, who would be a worthier gift than useless cattle. his father, conscious that he was not making a true sacrifice, tried to ignore the boy's questions; but irritated by his persistence, he at last impatiently made answer: "i give thee to yama, the lord of death." the fact that anger could so quickly rise in his heart proved that he had not the proper attitude of a sacrificer, who must always be tranquil, uplifted and free from egoism. v nachiketas thought: among many (of my father's pupils) i stand first; among many (others) i stand in the middle (but never last). what will be accomplished for my father by my going this day to yama? it was not conceit which led nachiketas to consider his own standing and importance. he was weighing his value as a son and pupil in order to be able to judge whether or not he had merit enough to prove a worthy gift. although he realized that his father's harsh reply was only the expression of a momentary outburst of anger; yet he believed that greater harm might befall his father, if his word was not kept. therefore he sought to strengthen his father's resolution by reminding him of the transitory condition of life. he said: vi look back to those who lived before and look to those who live now. like grain the mortal decays and like grain again springs up (is reborn). all things perish, truth alone remains. why then fear to sacrifice me also; thus nachiketas convinced his father that he should remain true to his word and send him to yama, the ruler of death. then nachiketas went to the abode of death, but yama was absent and the boy waited without food or drink for three days. on yama's return one of his household said to him: vii like fire a brahmana guest enters into houses. that fire is quenched by an offering. (therefore) o vaivaswata, bring water. viii the foolish man in whose house a brahmana guest remains without food, all his hopes and expectations, all the merit gained by his association with the holy, by his good words and deeds, all his sons and cattle, are destroyed. according to the ancient vedic ideal a guest is the representative of god and should be received with due reverence and honor. especially is this the case with a brahmana or a sannyasin whose life is wholly consecrated to god. any one who fails to give proper care to a holy guest brings misfortune on himself and his household. when yama returned, therefore, one of the members of his household anxiously informed him of nachiketas' presence and begged him to bring water to wash his feet, this being always the first service to an arriving guest. ix yama said: o brahmana! revered guest! my salutations to thee. as thou hast remained three nights in my house without food, therefore choose three boons, o brahmana. x nachiketas said: may gautama, my father, be free from anxious thought (about me). may he lose all anger (towards me) and be pacified in heart. may he know and welcome me when i am sent back by thee. this, o death, is the first of the three boons i choose. xi yama replied: through my will auddalaki aruni (thy father) will know thee, and be again towards thee as before. he will sleep in peace at night. he will be free from wrath when he sees thee released from the mouth of death. xii nachiketas said: in the realm of heaven there is no fear, thou (death) art not there; nor is there fear of old age. having crossed beyond both hunger and thirst and being above grief, (they) rejoice in heaven. xiii thou knowest, o death, the fire-sacrifice that leads to heaven. tell this to me, who am full of shraddha (faith and yearning). they who live in the realm of heaven enjoy freedom from death. this i beg as my second boon. xiv yama replied: i know well that fire which leads to the realm of heaven. i shall tell it to thee. listen to me. know, o nachiketas, that this is the means of attaining endless worlds and their support. it is hidden in the heart of all beings. xv yama then told him that fire-sacrifice, the beginning of all the worlds; what bricks, how many and how laid for the altar. nachiketas repeated all as it was told to him. then death, being pleased with him, again said: xvi the great-soured yama, being well pleased, said to him (nachiketas): i give thee now another boon. this fire (sacrifice) shall be named after thee. take also this garland of many colours. xvii he who performs this nachiketa fire-sacrifice three times, being united with the three (mother, father and teacher), and who fulfills the three-fold duty (study of the vedas, sacrifice and alms-giving) crosses over birth and death. knowing this worshipful shining fire, born of brahman, and realizing him, he attains eternal peace. xviii he who knows the three-fold nachiketa fire and performs the nachiketa fire-sacrifice with three-fold knowledge, having cast off the fetters of death and being beyond grief, he rejoices in the realm of heaven. xix o nachiketas, this is thy fire that leads to heaven, which thou hast chosen as thy second boon. people will call this fire after thy name. ask the third boon, nachiketas. fire is regarded as "the foundation of all the worlds," because it is the revealer of creation. if there were no fire or light, no manifested form would be visible. we read in the semitic scriptures, "in the beginning the lord said, 'let there be light."' therefore, that which stands in the external universe as one of the purest symbols of the divine, also dwells in subtle form in the heart of every living being as the vital energy, the life-force or cause of existence. yama now tells nachiketas how, by performing sacrifice with the three-fold knowledge, he may transcend grief and death and reach heaven. the three-fold knowledge referred to is regarding the preparation of the altar and fire. nachiketas being eager to learn, listened with wholehearted attention and was able to repeat all that was told him. this so pleased yama that he granted him the extra boon of naming the fire-sacrifice after him and gave him a garland set with precious stones. verses xvi-xviii are regarded by many as an interpolation, which would account for certain obscurities and repetitions in them. xx nachiketas said: there is this doubt regarding what becomes of a man after death. some say he exists, others that he does not exist. this knowledge i desire, being instructed by thee. of the boons this is the third boon. xxi yama replied: even the devas (bright ones) of old doubted regarding this. it is not easy to know; subtle indeed is this subject. o nachiketas, choose another boon. do not press me. ask not this boon of me. xxii nachiketas said: o death, thou sayest that even the devas had doubts about this, and that it is not easy to know. another teacher like unto thee is not to be found. therefore no other boon can be equal to this one. xxiii yama said: ask for sons and grandsons who shall live a hundred years, many cattle, elephants, gold and horses. ask for lands of vast extent and live thyself as many autumns as thou desirest. xxiv if thou thinkest of any other boon equal to this, ask for wealth and long life; be ruler over the wide earth. o nachiketas, i shall make thee enjoyer of all desires. xxv whatsoever objects of desire are difficult to obtain in the realm of mortals, ask them all as thou desirest; these lovely maidens with their chariots and musical instruments, such as are not obtainable by mortals--be served by these whom i give to thee. o nachiketas, do not ask regarding death. the third boon asked by nachiketas concerning the great hereafter was one which could be granted only to those who were freed from all mortal desires and limitations, therefore yama first tested nachiketas to see whether he was ready to receive such knowledge. "do not press me regarding this secret," he said. "even wise men cannot understand it and thou art a mere lad. take, rather, long life, wealth, whatever will give thee happiness on the mortal plane." but the boy proved his strength and worthiness by remaining firm in his resolution to know the great secret of life and death. xxvi nachiketas said: o death, these are fleeting; they weaken the vigour of all the senses in man. even the longest life is short. keep thou thy chariots, dance and music. xxvii man cannot be satisfied by wealth. shall we possess wealth when we see thee (death)? shall we continue to live as long as thou rulest? therefore that boon alone is to be chosen by me. xxviii what man dwelling on the decaying mortal plane, having approached the undecaying immortal one, and having reflected upon the nature of enjoyment through beauty and sense pleasure, would delight in long life? xxix o death, that regarding which there is doubt, of the great hereafter, tell us. nachiketas asks for no other boon than that which penetrates this hidden secret. part second i yama said: the good is one thing and the pleasant another. these two, having different ends, bind a man. it is well with him who chooses the good. he who chooses the pleasant misses the true end. ii the good and the pleasant approach man; the wise examines both and discriminates between them; the wise prefers the good to the pleasant, but the foolish man chooses the pleasant through love of bodily pleasure. iii o nachiketas after wise reflection thou hast renounced the pleasant and all pleasing forms. thou hast not accepted this garland of great value for which many mortals perish. iv wide apart are these two,--ignorance and what is known as wisdom, leading in opposite directions. i believe nachiketas to be one who longs for wisdom, since many tempting objects have not turned thee aside. with this second part, the ruler of death begins his instructions regarding the great hereafter. there are two paths,--one leading godward, the other leading to worldly pleasure. he who follows one inevitably goes away from the other; because, like light and darkness they conflict. one leads to the imperishable spiritual realm; the other to the perishable physical realm. both confront a man at every step of life. the discerning man distinguishing between the two, chooses the real and eternal, and he alone attains the highest, while the ignorant man, preferring that which brings him immediate and tangible results, misses the true purpose of his existence. although yama put before nachiketas many temptations to test his sincerity and earnestness, he judging them at their real value, refused them all, saying "i have come from the mortal realm, shall i ask for what is mortal? i desire only that which is eternal." then death said to him: "i now see that thou art a sincere desirer of truth. i offered thee vast wealth, long life and every form of pleasure which tempts and deludes men; but thou hast proved thy worthiness by rejecting them all." v fools dwelling in ignorance, yet imagining themselves wise and learned, go round and round in crooked ways, like the blind led by the blind. vi the hereafter never rises before the thoughtless child (the ignorant), deluded by the glamour of wealth. "this world alone is, there is none other": thinking thus, he falls under my sway again and again. there are many in the world, who, puffed up with intellectual conceit, believe that they are capable of guiding others. but although they may possess a certain amount of worldly wisdom, they are devoid of deeper understanding; therefore all that they say merely increases doubt and confusion in the minds of those who hear them. hence they are likened to blind men leading the blind. the hereafter does not shine before those who are lacking in the power of discrimination and are easily carried away therefore by the charm of fleeting objects. as children are tempted by toys, so they are tempted by pleasure, power, name and fame. to them these seem the only realities. being thus attached to perishable things, they come many times under the dominion of death. there is one part of us which must die; there is another part which never dies. when a man can identify himself with his undying nature, which is one with god, then he overcomes death. vii he about whom many are not even able to hear, whom many cannot comprehend even after hearing: wonderful is the teacher, wonderful is he who can receive when taught by an able teacher. throughout the vedic scriptures it is declared that no one can impart spiritual knowledge unless he has realization. what is meant by realization? it means knowledge based on direct perception. in india often the best teachers have no learning, but their character is so shining that every one learns merely by coming in contact with them. in one of the scriptures we read: under a banyan tree sat a youthful teacher and beside him an aged disciple. the mind of the disciple was full of doubts and questions, but although the teacher continued silent, gradually every doubt vanished from the disciple's mind. this signifies that the conveying of spiritual teaching does not depend upon words only. it is the life, the illumination, which counts. such god-enlightened men, however, cannot easily be found; but even with such a teacher, the knowledge of the self cannot be gained unless the heart of the disciple is open and ready for the truth. hence yama says both teacher and taught must be wonderful. viii when taught by a man of inferior understanding, this atman cannot be truly known, even though frequently thought upon. there is no way (to know it) unless it is taught by another (an illumined teacher), for it is subtler than the subtle and beyond argument. ix o dearest, this atman cannot be attained by argument; it is truly known only when taught by another (a wise teacher). o nachiketas, thou hast attained it. thou art fixed in truth. may we ever, find a questioner like thee. knowledge of the atman or self cannot be attained when it is taught by those who themselves lack in real understanding of it; and who therefore, having no definite conviction of their own, differ among themselves as to its nature and existence. only he who has been able to perceive the self directly, through the unfoldment of his higher nature, can proclaim what it actually is; and his words alone carry weight and bring illumination. it is too subtle to be reached by argument. this secret regarding the hereafter cannot be known through reasoning or mere intellectual gymnastics. it is to be attained only in a state of consciousness which transcends the boundary line of reason. x i know that (earthly) treasure is transitory, for the eternal can never be attained by things which are non-eternal. hence the nachiketa fire (sacrifice) has been performed by me with perishable things and yet i have attained the eternal. xi o nachiketas, thou hast seen the fulfillment of all desires, the basis of the universe, the endless fruit of sacrificial rites, the other shore where there is no fear, that which is praiseworthy, the great and wide support; yet, being wise, thou hast rejected all with firm resolve. the teacher, saying that the imperishable cannot be attained by the perishable, shows that no amount of observance of rituals and ceremonies can earn the imperishable and eternal. although the nachiketa fire-sacrifice may bring results which seem eternal to mortals because of their long duration, yet they too must come to an end; therefore this sacrifice cannot lead to the final goal. yama praises nachiketas because, when all heavenly and earthly pleasures, as well as knowledge of all realms and their enjoyments were offered him, yet he cast them aside and remained firm in his desire for truth alone. xii the wise, who by means of the highest meditation on the self knows the ancient one, difficult to perceive, seated in the innermost recess, hidden in the cave of the heart, dwelling in the depth of inner being, (he who knows that one) as god, is liberated from the fetters of joy and sorrow. xiii a mortal, having heard and fully grasped this, and having realized through discrimination the subtle self, rejoices, because he has obtained that which is the source of all joy. i think the abode (of truth) is open to nachiketas. the scriptures give three stages in all spiritual attainment. the aspirant must first hear about the truth from an enlightened teacher; next he must reflect upon what he has heard; then by constant practice of discrimination and meditation he realizes it; and with realization comes the fulfilment of every desire, because it unites him with the source of all. having beheld this, a man learns that all sense pleasures are but fragmentary reflections of that one supreme joy, which can be found in the true self alone. yama assures nachiketas that there is no doubt of his realizing the truth, because he has shown the highest discrimination as well as fixity of purpose. xiv nachiketas said: that which thou seest, which is neither virtue nor vice, neither cause nor effect, neither past nor future (but beyond these), tell me that. xv yama replied: that goal which all the vedas glorify, which all austerities proclaim, desiring which (people) practice brahmacharya (a life of continence and service), that goal i tell thee briefly--it is aum. what name can man give to god? how can the infinite be bound by any finite word? all that language can express must be finite, since it is itself finite. yet it is very difficult for mortals to think or speak of anything without calling it by a definite name. knowing this, the sages gave to the supreme the name a-u-m which stands as the root of all language. the first letter "a" is the mother-sound, being the natural sound uttered by every creature when the throat is opened, and no sound can be made without opening the throat. the last letter "m," spoken by closing the lips, terminates all articulation. as one carries the sound from the throat to the lips, it passes through the sound "u." these three sounds therefore cover the whole field of possible articulate sound. their combination is called the akshara or the imperishable word, the sound-brahman or the word god, because it is the most universal name which can be given to the supreme. hence it must be the word which was "in the beginning" and corresponds to the logos of christian theology. it is because of the all-embracing significance of this name that it is used so universally in the vedic scriptures to designate the absolute. xvi this word is indeed brahman. this word is indeed the supreme. he who knows this word obtains whatever he desires. xvii this is the best support, this is the highest support; he who knows this support is glorified in the world of brahman. this sacred word is the highest symbol of the absolute. he who through meditating on it grasps its full significance, realizes the glory of god and at once has all his desires satisfied, because god is the fulfilment of all desires. xviii this self is never born, nor does it die. it did not spring from anything, nor did anything spring from it. this ancient one is unborn, eternal, everlasting. it is not slain even though the body is slain. xix if the slayer thinks that he slays, or if the slain thinks that he is slain, both of these know not. for it neither slays nor is it slain. xx the self is subtler than the subtle, greater than the great; it dwells in the heart of each living being. he who is free from desire and free from grief, with mind and senses tranquil, beholds the glory of the atman. although this atman dwells in the heart of every living being, yet it is not perceived by ordinary mortals because of its subtlety. it cannot be perceived by the senses; a finer spiritual sight is required. the heart must be pure and freed from every unworthy selfish desire; the thought must be indrawn from all external objects; mind and body must be under control; when the whole being thus becomes calm and serene, then it is possible to perceive that effulgent atman. it is subtler than the subtle, because it is the invisible essence of every thing; and it is greater than the great because it is the boundless, sustaining power of the whole universe; that upon which all existence rests. xxi though sitting, it travels far; though lying, it goes everywhere. who else save me is fit to know that god, who is (both) joyful and joyless? the self is all-pervading, hence it is that which sits still and that which travels, that which is active and that which is inactive. it is both stationary and moving, and it is the basis of all forms of existence; therefore whatever exists in the universe, whether joy or joylessness, pleasure or pain, must spring from it. who is better able to know god than i myself, since he resides in my heart and is the very essence of my being? such should be the attitude of one who is seeking. xxii the wise who know the self, bodiless, seated within perishable bodies, great and allpervading, grieve not. then a wise man through the practice of discrimination has seen clearly the distinction between body and soul, he knows that his true self is not the body, though it dwells in the body. thus realizing the indestructible, all-pervading nature of his real self, he surmounts all fear of death or loss, and is not moved even by the greatest sorrow. xxiii this self cannot be attained by study of the scriptures, nor by intellectual perception, nor by frequent hearing (of it); he whom the self chooses, by him alone is it attained. to him the self reveals its true nature. we may imagine that by much study we can find out god; but merely hearing about a thing and gaining an intellectual comprehension of it does not mean attaining true knowledge of it. knowledge only comes through direct perception, and direct perception of god is possible for those alone who are pure in heart and spiritually awakened. although he is alike to all beings and his mercy is on all, yet the impure and worldy-minded do not get the blessing, because they do not know how to open their hearts to it. he who longs for god, him the lord chooses; because to him alone can he reveal his true nature. xxiv he who has not turned away from evil conduct, whose senses are uncontrolled, who is not tranquil, whose mind is not at rest, he can never attain this atman even by knowledge. yama having first described what the atman is, now tells us how to attain it. a man must try to subdue his lower nature and gain control over the body and senses. he must conquer the impure selfish desires which now disturb the serenity of his mind, that it may grow calm and peaceful. in other words, he must live the life and develop all spiritual qualities in order to perceive the atman. xxv who then can know where is this mighty self? he (that self) to whom the brahmanas and kshatriyas are but food and death itself a condiment. this text proclaims the glory and majesty of the supreme. the brahmanas stand for spiritual strength, the kshatriyas for physical strength, yet both are overpowered by his mightiness. life and death alike are food for him. as the light of the great sun swallows up all the lesser lights of the universe, similarly all worlds are lost in the effulgence of the eternal omnipresent being. part third i there are two who enjoy the fruits of their good deeds in the world, having entered into the cave of the heart, seated (there) on the highest summit. the knowers of brahman call them shadow and light. so also (they are called) by householders who perform five firesacrifices or three nachiketa fire-sacrifices. here the two signify the higher self and the lower self, dwelling in the innermost cave of the heart. the seers of truth, as well as householders who follow the path of rituals and outer forms with the hope of enjoying the fruits of their good deeds, both proclaim that the higher self is like a light and the lower self like a shadow. when the truth shines clearly in the heart of the knower, then he surmounts the apparent duality of his nature and becomes convinced that there is but one, and that all outer manifestations are nothing but reflections or projections of that one. ii may we be able to learn that nachiketa fire-sacrifice, which is a bridge for those who perform sacrifice. may we also know the one, who is the highest imperishable brahman for those who desire to cross over to the other shore which is beyond fear. the significance of this text is may we acquire the knowledge of brahman, the supreme, in both manifested and unmanifested form. he is manifested as the lord of sacrifice for those who follow the path of ritual. he is the unmanifested, eternal, universal supreme being for those who follow the path of wisdom. the "other shore," being the realm of immortality, is said to be beyond fear; because disease, death, and all that which mortals fear, cease to exist there. it is believed by many that these two opening verses were a later interpolation. iii know the atman (self) as the lord of the chariot, and the body as the chariot. know also the intellect to be the driver and mind the reins. iv the senses are called the horses; the sense objects are the roads; when the atman is united with body, senses and mind, then the wise call him the enjoyer. in the third chapter yama defines what part of our being dies and what part is deathless, what is mortal and what is immortal. but the atman, the higher self, is so entirely beyond human conception that it is impossible to give a direct definition of it. only through similies can some idea of it be conveyed. that is the reason why all the great teachers of the world have so often taught in the form of parables. so here the ruler of death represents the self as the lord of this chariot of the body. the intellect or discriminative faculty is the driver, who controls these wild horses of the senses by holding firmly the reins of the mind. the roads over which these horses travel are made up of all the external objects which attract or repel the senses:--the sense of smelling follows the path of sweet odours, the sense of seeing the way of beautiful sights. thus each sense, unless restrained by the discriminative faculty, seeks to go out towards its special objects. when the self is joined with body, mind and senses, it is called the intelligent enjoyer; because it is the one who wills, feels, perceives and does everything. v he who is without discrimination and whose mind is always uncontrolled, his senses are unmanageable, like the vicious horses of a driver. vi but he who is full of discrimination and whose mind is always controlled, his senses are manageable, like the good horses of a driver. the man whose intellect is not discriminative and who fails to distinguish right from wrong, the real from the unreal, is carried away by his sense passions and desires, just as a driver is carried away by vicious horses over which he has lost control. but he who clearly distinguishes what is good from what is merely pleasant, and controls all his out-going forces from running after apparent momentary pleasures, his senses obey and serve him as good horses obey their driver. vii he who does not possess discrimination, whose mind is uncontrolled and always impure, he does not reach that goal, but falls again into samsara (realm of birth and death). viii but he who possesses right discrimination, whose mind is under control and always pure, he reaches that goal, from which he is not born again. ix the man who has a discriminative intellect for the driver, and a controlled mind for the reins, reaches the end of the journey, the highest place of vishnu (the all-pervading and unchangeable one). a driver must possess first a thorough knowledge of the road; next he must understand how to handle the reins and control his horses. then will he drive safely to his destination. similarly in this journey of life, our mind and senses must be wholly under the control of our higher discriminative faculty; for only when all our forces work in unison can we hope to reach the goal--the abode of absolute truth. x beyond the senses are the objects, beyond the objects is the mind, beyond the mind is the intellect, beyond the intellect is the great atman. xi beyond the great atman is the unmanifested; beyond the unmanifested is the purusha (the cosmic soul); beyond the purusha there is nothing. that is the end, that is the final goal. in these two verses the teacher shows the process of discrimination, by which one attains knowledge of the subtle self. beginning with the sense-organs, he leads up to the less and less gross, until he reaches that which is subtlest of all, the true self of man. the senses are dependent on sense-objects, because without these the senses would have no utility. superior to sense-objects is the mind, because unless these objects affect the mind, they cannot influence the senses. over the mind the determinative faculty exercises power; this determinative faculty is governed by the individual self; beyond this self is the undifferentiated creative energy known as avyaktam; and above this is the purusha or supreme self. than this there is nothing higher. that is the goal, the highest abode of peace and bliss. xii this atman (self), hidden in all beings, does not shine forth; but it is seen by subtle seers through keen and subtle understanding. if it dwells in all living beings, why do we not see it? because the ordinary man's vision is too dull and distracted. it is visible to those alone whose intellect has been purified by constant thought on the supreme, and whose sight therefore has become refined and sharpened. this keenness of vision comes only when all our forces have been made one-pointed through steadfast practice of concentration and meditation. xiii a wise man should control speech by mind, mind by intellect, intellect by the great atman, and that by the peaceful one (the paramatman or supreme self). here yama gives the practical method to be followed if one wishes to realize the supreme. the word "speech" stands for all the senses. first, therefore, a man must control his outgoing senses by the mind. then the mind must be brought under the control of the discriminative faculty; that is, it must be withdrawn from all sense-objects and cease to waste its energies on nonessential things. the discriminative faculty in turn must be controlled by the higher individual intelligence and this must be governed wholly by the supreme intelligence. xiv arise! awake! having reached the great ones (illumined teachers), gain understanding. the path is as sharp as a razor, impassable and difficult to travel, so the wise declare. this is the eternal call of the wise: awake from the slumber of ignorance! arise and seek out those who know the truth, because only those who have direct vision of truth are capable of teaching it. invoke their blessing with a humble spirit and seek to be instructed by them. the path is very difficult to tread. no thoughtless or lethargic person can safely travel on it. one must be strong, wakeful and persevering. xv knowing that which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the unmanifested: (knowing that) man escapes from the mouth of death. the ruler of death defines here the innermost essence of our being. because of its extreme subtlety, it cannot be heard or felt or smelled or tasted like any ordinary object. it never dies. it has no beginning or end. it is unchangeable. realizing this supreme reality, man escapes from death and attains everlasting life. thus the teacher has gradually led nachiketas to a point where he can reveal to him the secret of death. the boy had thought that there was a place where he could stay and become immortal. but yama shows him that immortality is a state of consciousness and is not gained so long as man clings to name and form, or to perishable objects. what dies? form. therefore the formful man dies; but not that which dwells within. although inconceivably subtle, the sages have always made an effort through similies and analogies to give some idea of this inner self or the god within. they have described it as beyond mind and speech; too subtle for ordinary perception, but not beyond the range of purified vision. xvi the intelligent man, who has heard and repeated the ancient story of nachiketas, told by the ruler of death, is glorified in the world of brahman. xvii he who with devotion recites this highest secret of immortality before an assembly of brahmanas (pious men) or at the time of shraddha (funeral ceremonies), gains everlasting reward, he gains everlasting reward. part fourth i the self-existent created the senses out-going; for this reason man sees the external, but not the inner atman (self). some wise man, however, desiring immortality, with eyes turned away (from the external) sees the atman within. in the last chapter the ruler of death instructed nachiketas regarding the nature and glory of the self. now he shows the reason why the self is not seen by the majority. it is because man's mind is constantly drawn outward through the channels of his senses, and this prevents his seeing the inner self (pratyagatman); but now and then a seeker, wiser than others, goes within and attains the vision of the undying self. ii children (the ignorant) pursue external pleasures; (thus) they fall into the widespread snare of death. but the wise, knowing the nature of immortality, do not seek the permanent among fleeting things. those who are devoid of discrimination and fail to distinguish between real and unreal, the fleeting and the permanent, set their hearts on the changeable things of this world; hence they entangle themselves in the net of insatiable desire, which leads inevitably to disappointment and suffering. to such, death must seem a reality because they identify themselves with that which is born and which dies. but the wise, who see deeper into the nature of things, are no longer deluded by the charm of the phenomenal world and do not seek for permanent happiness among its passing enjoyments. iii that by which one knows form, taste, smell, sound, touch and sense enjoyments, by that also one knows whatever remains (to be known). this verily is that (which thou hast asked to know). iv that by which a mortal perceives, both in dream and in waking, by knowing that great all-pervading atman the wise man grieves no more. in these verses the teacher tries to make plain that all knowledge, as well as all sense perception, in every state of consciousness--sleeping, dreaming or waking--is possible only because the self exists. there can be no knowledge or perception independent of the self. wise men, aware of this, identify themselves with their higher self and thus transcend the realm of grief. v he who knows this atman, the honey-eater (perceiver and enjoyer of objects), ever near, as the lord of the past and future, fears no more. this verily is that. vi he who sees him seated in the five elements, born of tapas (fire of brahman), born before water; who, having entered the cave of the heart, abides therein --this verily is that. this verse indicates that he, the great self, is the cause of all created objects. according to the vedas, his first manifestation was brahma, the personal god or creator, born of the fire of wisdom. he existed before the evolution of the five elements-earth, water, fire, air and ether; hence he was "born before water." he is the self dwelling in the hearts of all creatures. vii he who knows aditi, who rises with prana (the life principle), existent in all the devas; who, having entered into the heart, abides there; and who was born from the elements--this verily is that. this verse is somewhat obscure and seems like an interpolated amplification of the preceding verse. viii the all-seeing fire which exists hidden in the two sticks, as the foetus is well-guarded in the womb by the mother, (that fire) is to be worshipped day after day by wakeful seekers (after wisdom), as well as by sacrificers. this verily is that. fire is called all-seeing because its light makes everything visible. in vedic sacrifices the altar fire was always kindled by rubbing together two sticks of a special kind of wood called arani. because fire was regarded as one of the most perfect symbols of divine wisdom, it was to be worshipped by all seekers after truth, whether they followed the path of meditation or the path of rituals. ix from whence the sun rises, and whither it goes at setting, upon that all the devas depend. no one goes beyond that. this verily is that. x what is here (in the visible world), that is there (in the invisible); he who sees difference (between visible and invisible) goes from death to death. xi by mind alone this is to be realized. there is no difference whatever (between visible and invisible). he who sees difference here (between these) goes from death to death. in the sight of true wisdom, there is no difference between the creator and the created. even physical science has come to recognize that cause and effect are but two aspects of one manifestation of energy. he who fails to see this, being engrossed in the visible only, goes from death to death; because he clings to external forms which are perishable. only the essence which dwells within is unchangeable and imperishable. this knowledge of the oneness of visible and invisible, however, cannot be acquired through sense-perception. it can only be attained by the purified mind. xii the purusha (self), of the size of a thumb, resides in the middle of the body as the lord of the past and the future, (he who knows him) fears no more. this verily is that. the seat of the purusha is said to be the heart, hence it "resides in the middle of the body." although it is limitless and all-pervading, yet in relation to its abiding-place it is represented as limited in extension, "the size of a thumb." this refers really to the heart, which in shape may be likened to a thumb. its light is everywhere, yet we see it focused in a lamp and believe it to be there only; similarly, although the life-current flows everywhere in the body, the heart is regarded as peculiarly its seat. xiii that purusha, of the size of a thumb, is like a light without smoke, lord of the past and the future. he is the same today and tomorrow. this verily is that. in this verse the teacher defines the effulgent nature of the soul, whose light is pure like a flame without smoke. he also answers the question put by nachiketas as to what happens after death, by declaring that no real change takes place, because the soul is ever the same. xiv as rain water, (falling) on the mountain top, runs down over the rocks on all sides; similarly, he who sees difference (between visible forms) runs after them in various directions. xv o gautama (nachiketas), as pure water poured into pure water becomes one, so also is it with the self of an illumined knower (he becomes one with the supreme). part fifth i the city of the unborn, whose knowledge is unchanging, has eleven gates. thinking on him, man grieves no more; and being freed (from ignorance), he attains liberation. this verily is that. this human body is called a city with eleven gates, where the eternal unborn spirit dwells. these gates are the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the mouth, the navel, the two lower apertures, and the imperceptible opening at the top of the head. the self or atman holds the position of ruler in this city; and being above the modifications of birth, death and all human imperfections, it is not affected by the changes of the physical organism. as the intelligent man through constant thought and meditation realizes the splendour of this supreme spirit, he becomes free from that part of his nature which grieves and suffers, and thus he attains liberation. ii he is the sun dwelling in the bright heaven; he is the air dwelling in space; he is the fire burning on the altar; he is the guest dwelling in the house. he dwells in man. he dwells in those greater than man. he dwells in sacrifice. he dwells in the ether. he is (all that is) born in water, (all that) is born in earth, (all that) is born in sacrifice, (all that) is born on mountains. he is the true and the great. iii he it is who sends the (in-coming) prana (life-breath) upward and throws the (out-going) breath downward. him all the senses worship, the adorable atman, seated in the centre (the heart). iv when this atman, which is seated in the body, goes out (from the body), what remains then? this verily is that. v no mortal lives by the in-coming breath (prana) or by the out-going breath (apana), but he lives by another on which these two depend. vi o gautama (nachiketas), i shall declare unto thee the secret of the eternal brahman and what happens to the self after death. vii some jivas (individual souls) enter wombs to be embodied; others go into immovable forms, according to their deeds and knowledge. this text shows the application of the law of cause and effect to all forms of life. the thoughts and actions of the present life determine the future birth and environment. viii the being who remains awake while all sleep, who grants all desires, that is pure, that is brahman, that alone is said to be immortal. on that all the worlds rest. none goes beyond that. this verily is that. ix as fire, though one, having entered the world, becomes various according to what it burns, so does the atman (self) within all living beings, though one, become various according to what it enters. it also exists outside. x as air, though one, having entered the world, becomes various according to what it enters, so does the atman within all living beings, though one, become various according to what it enters. it also exists outside. by using these similies of fire and air, the teacher tries to show nachiketas the subtle quality of the great self, who, although one and formless like air and fire, yet assumes different shapes according to the form in which it dwells. but, being all-pervading and unlimited, it cannot be confined to these forms; therefore it is said that it also exists outside all forms. xi as the sun, the eye of the whole world, is not defiled by external impurities seen by the eyes, thus the one inner self of all living beings is not defiled by the misery of the world, being outside it. the sun is called the eye of the world because it reveals all objects. as the sun may shine on the most impure object, yet remain uncontaminated by it, so the divine self within is not touched by the impurity or suffering of the physical form in which it dwells, the self being beyond all bodily limitations. xii there is one ruler, the self of all living beings, who makes the one form manifold; the wise who perceive him seated within their self, to them belongs eternal bliss, not to others. xiii eternal among the changing, consciousness of the conscious, who, though one, fulfils the desires of many: the wise who perceive him seated within their self, to them belongs eternal peace, not to others. xiv they (the wise) perceive that indescribable highest bliss, saying, this is that. how am i to know it? does it shine (by its own light) or does it shine (by reflected light)? xv the sun does not shine there, nor the moon, nor the stars; nor do these lightnings shine there, much less this fire. when he shines, everything shines after him; by his light all is lighted. part sixth i this ancient aswattha tree has its root above and branches below. that is pure, that is brahman, that alone is called the immortal. all the worlds rest in that. none goes beyond that. this verily is that. this verse indicates the origin of the tree of creation (the samsara-vriksha), which is rooted above in brahman, the supreme, and sends its branches downward into the phenomenal world. heat and cold, pleasure and pain, birth and death, and all the shifting conditions of the mortal realm--these are the branches; but the origin of the tree, the brahman, is eternally pure, unchanging, free and deathless. from the highest angelic form to the minutest atom, all created things have their origin in him. he is the foundation of the universe. there is nothing beyond him. ii whatever there is in the universe is evolved from prana and vibrates in prana. that is a mighty terror, like an upraised thunderbolt. they who know that become immortal. iii from fear of him the fire burns, from fear of him the sun shines. from fear of him indra and vayu and death, the fifth, speed forth. just as the body cannot live or act without the soul, similarly nothing in the created world can exist independent of brahman, who is the basis of all existence. his position is like that of a king whom all must obey; hence it is said that the gods of sun, moon, wind, rain, do his bidding. he is likened to an upraised thunderbolt, because of the impartial and inevitable nature of his law, which all powers, great or small, must obey absolutely. iv if a man is not able to know him before the dissolution of the body, then he becomes embodied again in the created worlds. as soon as a man acquires knowledge of the supreme, he is liberated; but if he fails to attain such knowledge before his soul is separated from the body, then he must take other bodies and return again and again to this realm of birth and death, until through varied experience he realizes the nature of the supreme and his relation to him. v as in a mirror, so is he seen within oneself; as in a dream, so (is he seen) in the world of the fathers (departed spirits); as in water, so (is he seen) in the world of gandharvas (the angelic realm). as light and shadow, so (is he seen) in the world of brahma (the creator). when by means of a purified understanding one beholds god within, the image is distinct as in a polished mirror; but one cannot have clear vision of the supreme by attaining to the various realms known as heavens, where one reaps the fruit of his good deeds. it is only by developing one's highest consciousness here in this life that perfect god-vision can be attained. vi knowing that the senses are distinct (from the atman) and their rising and setting separate (from the atman), a wise man grieves no more. a wise man never confounds the atman, which is birthless and deathless, with that which has beginning and end. therefore, when he sees his senses and his physical organism waxing and waning, he knows that his real self within can never be affected by these outer changes, so he remains unmoved. vii higher than the senses is the mind, higher than the mind is the intellect, higher than the intellect is the great atman, higher than the atman is the unmanifested. viii beyond the unmanifested is the all-pervading and imperceptible being (purusha). by knowing him, the mortal is liberated and attains immortality. this division of the individual into senses, mind, intellect, self-consciousness, undifferentiated creative energy and the absolute self is explained in the commentary of verse xi, part third. ix his form is not to be seen. no one can see him with the eye. he is perceived by the heart, by the intellect and by the mind. they who know this become immortal. the supreme, being formless, cannot be discerned by the senses, hence all knowledge of him must be acquired by the subtler faculties of heart, intellect and mind, which are developed only through the purifying practice of meditation. x when the five organs of perception become still, together with the mind, and the intellect ceases to be active: that is called the highest state. the teacher now shows nachiketas the process by which the transcendental vision can be attained. he out-going senses,--seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting; the restless mind and the intellect: all must be indrawn and quieted. the state of equilibrium thus attained is called the highest state, because all the forces of one's being become united and focused; and this inevitably leads to supersensuous vision. xi this firm holding back of the senses is what is known as yoga. then one should become watchful, for yoga comes and goes. yoga literally means to join or to unite the lower self with the higher self, the object with the subject, the worshipper with god. in order to gain this union, however, one must first disunite oneself from all that scatters the physical, mental and intellectual forces; so the outgoing perceptions must be detached from the external world and indrawn. when this is accomplished through constant practice of concentration and meditation, the union takes place of its own accord. but it may be lost again, unless one is watchful. xii he cannot be attained by speech, by mind, or by the eye. how can that be realized except by him who says "he is"? xiii he should be realized as "he is" and also as the reality of both (visible and invisible). he who knows him as "he is," to him alone his real nature is revealed. this supersensuous vision cannot be gained through man's ordinary faculties. by mind, eye, or speech the manifested attributes of the divine can be apprehended; but only one who has acquired the supersensuous sight can directly perceive god's existence and declare definitely that "he is," that he alone exists in both the visible and the invisible world. xiv when all desires dwelling in the heart cease, then the mortal becomes immortal and attains brahman here. xv when all the ties of the heart are cut asunder here, then the mortal becomes immortal. such is the teaching. xvi there are a hundred and one nerves of the heart. one of them penetrates the centre of the head. going upward through it, one attains immortality. the other (hundred nerve-courses) lead, in departing, to different worlds. the nervous system of the body provides the channels through which the mind travels; the direction in which it moves is determined by its desires and tendencies. when the mind becomes pure and desireless, it takes the upward course and at the time of departing passes out through the imperceptible opening at the crown of the head; but as long as it remains full of desires, its course is downward towards the realms where those desires can be satisfied. xvii the purusha, the inner self, of the size of a thumb, is ever seated in the heart of all living beings. with perseverance man should draw him out from his body as one draws the inner stalk from a blade of grass. one should know him as pure and deathless, as pure and deathless. as has been explained in part fourth, verse xii, the inner self, although unlimited, is described as "the size of a thumb" because of its abiding-place in the heart, often likened to a lotus-bud which is similar to a thumb in size and shape. through the process of steadfast discrimination, one should learn to differentiate the soul from the body, just as one separates the pith from a reed. xviii thus nachiketas, having acquired this wisdom taught by the ruler of death, together with all the rules of yoga, became free from impurity and death and attained brahman (the supreme). so also will it be with another who likewise knows the nature of the self. peace chant may he (the supreme being) protect us both. may he be pleased with us. may we acquire strength. may our study bring us illumination. may there be no enmity among us. om! peace! peace! peace! here ends this upanishad kena-upanishad like the isavasya, this upanishad derives its name from the opening word of the text, kena-ishitam, "by whom directed." it is also known as the talavakara-upanishad because of its place as a chapter in the talavakara-brahmana of the sama-veda. among the upanishads it is one of the most analytical and metaphysical, its purpose being to lead the mind from the gross to the subtle, from effect to cause. by a series of profound questions and answers, it seeks to locate the source of man's being; and to expand his self-consciousness until it has become identical with god-consciousness. kena-upanishad peace chant may my limbs, speech, prana (life-force), sight, hearing, strength and all my senses, gain in vigor. all is the brahman (supreme lord) of the upanishads. may i never deny the brahman. may the brahman never deny me. may there be no denial of the brahman. may there be no separation from the brahman. may all the virtues declared in the sacred upanishads be manifest in me, who am devoted to the atman (higher self). may they be manifest in me. om! peace! peace! peace! part first i by whom commanded and directed does the mind go towards its objects? commanded by whom does the life-force, the first (cause), move? at whose will do men utter speech? what power directs the eye and the ear? thus the disciple approached the master and inquired concerning the cause of life and human activity. having a sincere longing for truth he desired to know who really sees and hears, who actuates the apparent physical man. he perceived all about him the phenomenal world, the existence of which he could prove by his senses; but he sought to know the invisible causal world, of which he was now only vaguely conscious. is mind all-pervading and all-powerful, or is it impelled by some other force, he asked. who sends forth the vital energy, without which nothing can exist? the teacher replies: ii it is the ear of the ear, the mind of the mind, the speech of the speech, the life of the life, the eye of the eye. the wise, freed (from the senses and from mortal desires), after leaving this world, become immortal. an ordinary man hears, sees, thinks, but he is satisfied to know only as much as can be known through the senses; he does not analyze and try to find that which stands behind the ear or eye or mind. he is completely identified with his external nature. his conception does not go beyond the little circle of his bodily life, which concerns the outer man only. he has no consciousness of that which enables his senses and organs to perform their tasks. there is a vast difference between the manifested form and that which is manifested through the form. when we know that, we shall not die with the body. one who clings to the senses and to things that are ephemeral, must die many deaths, but that man who knows the eye of the eye, the ear of the ear, having severed himself from his physical nature, becomes immortal. immortality is attained when man transcends his apparent nature and finds that subtle, eternal and inexhaustible essence which is within him. iii there the eye does not go, nor speech, nor mind. we do not know that; we do not understand how it can be taught. it is distinct from the known and also it is beyond the unknown. thus we have heard from the ancient (teachers) who told us about it. these physical eyes are unable to perceive that subtle essence. nor can it be expressed by finite language or known by finite intelligence, because it is infinite. our conception of knowing finite things is to know their name and form; but knowledge of god must be distinct from such knowledge. this is why some declare god to be unknown and unknowable; because he is far more than eye or mind or speech can perceive, comprehend or express. the upanishad does not say that he cannot be known. he is unknowable to man's finite nature. how can a finite mortal apprehend the infinite whole? but he can be known by man's god-like nature. iv that which speech does not illumine, but which illumines speech: know that alone to be the brahman (the supreme being), not this which people worship here. v that which cannot be thought by mind, but by which, they say, mind is able to think: know that alone to be the brahman, not this which people worship here. vi that which is not seen by the eye, but by which the eye is able to see: know that alone to be the brahman, not this which people worship here. vii that which cannot be heard by the ear, but by which the ear is able to hear: know that alone to be brahman, not this which people worship here. viii that which none breathes with the breath, but by which breath is in-breathed: know that alone to be the brahman, not this which people worship here. ordinarily we know three states of consciousness only,--waking, dreaming and sleeping. there is, however, a fourth state, the superconscious, which transcends these. in the first three states the mind is not clear enough to save us from error; but in the fourth state it gains such purity of vision that it can perceive the divine. if god could be known by the limited mind and senses, then god-knowledge would be like any other knowledge and spiritual science like any physical science. he can be known, however, by the purified mind only. therefore to know god, man must purify himself. the mind described in the upanishads is the superconscious mind. according to the vedic sages the mind in its ordinary state is only another sense organ. this mind is limited, but when it becomes illumined by the light of the cosmic intelligence, or the "mind of the mind," then it is able to apprehend the first cause or that which stands behind all external activities. part second i if thou thinkest "i know it well," then it is certain that thou knowest but little of the brahman (absolute truth), or in what form he (resideth) in the devas (minor aspects of deity). therefore i think that what thou thinkest to be known is still to be sought after. having given the definition of the real self or brahman, by which mortals are able to see, hear, feel and think, the teacher was afraid that the disciple, after merely hearing about it, might conclude that he knew it. so he said to him: "you have heard about it, but that is not enough. you must experience it. mere intellectual recognition will not give you true knowledge of it. neither can it be taught to you. the teacher can only show the way. you must find it for yourself." knowledge means union between subject and object. to gain this union one must practice, theory cannot help us. the previous chapter has shown that the knowledge of brahman is beyond sense-perception: "there the eye does not go, nor speech, nor mind." "that is distinct from known and also it is beyond the unknown." therefore it was necessary for the teacher to remind the disciple that knowledge based on sense-perception or intellectual apprehension should not be confounded with supersensuous knowledge. although the disciple had listened to the teacher with unquestioning mind and was intellectually convinced of the truth of his words, it was now necessary for him to prove by his own experience what he had heard. guided by the teacher, he sought within himself through meditation the meaning of brahman; and having gained a new vision, he approached the teacher once more. ii the disciple said: i do not think i know it well, nor do i think that i do not know it. he among us who knows it truly, knows (what is meant by) "i know" and also what is meant by "i know it not." this appears to be contradictory, but it is not. in the previous chapter we learned that brahman is "distinct from the known" and "beyond the unknown." the disciple, realizing this, says: "so far as mortal conception is concerned, i do not think i know, because i understand that it is beyond mind and speech; yet from the higher point of view, i cannot say that i do not know; for the very fact that i exist, that i can seek it, shows that i know; for it is the source of my being. i do not know, however, in the sense of knowing the whole infinite ocean of existence." the word knowledge is used ordinarily to signify acquaintance with phenomena only, but man must transcend this relative knowledge before he can have a clear conception of god. one who wishes to attain soul-consciousness must rise above matter. the observation of material science being confined to the sense plane, it ignores what is beyond. therefore it must always be limited and subject to change. it discovered atoms, then it went further and discovered electrons, and when it had found the one, it had to drop the other; so this kind of knowledge can never lead to the ultimate knowledge of the infinite, because it is exclusive and not inclusive. spiritual science is not merely a question of mind and brain, it depends on the awakening of our latent higher consciousness. iii he who thinks he knows it not, knows it. he who thinks he knows it, knows it not. the true knowers think they can never know it (because of its infinitude), while the ignorant think they know it. by this text the teacher confirms the idea that brahman is unthinkable, because unconditioned. therefore he says: he who considers it beyond thought, beyond sense-perception, beyond mind and speech, he alone has a true understanding of brahman. they who judge a living being from his external form and sense faculties, know him not; because the real self of man is not manifested in his seeing, hearing, speaking. his real self is that within by which he hears and speaks and sees. in the same way he knows not brahman who thinks he knows it by name and form. the arrogant and foolish man thinks he knows everything; but the true knower is humble. he says: "how can i know thee, who art infinite and beyond mind and speech?" in the last portion of the text, the teacher draws an impressive contrast between the attitude of the wise man who knows, but thinks he does not know; and that of the ignorant who does not know, but thinks he knows. iv it (brahman) is known, when it is known in every state of consciousness. (through such knowledge) one attains immortality. by attaining this self, man gains strength; and by self-knowledge immortality is attained. we have learned from the previous text that the brahman is unknown to those whose knowledge is limited to sense experience; but he is not unknown to those whose purified intelligence perceives him as the basis of all states of consciousness and the essence of all things. by this higher knowledge a man attains immortality, because he knows that although his body may decay and die, the subtle essence of his being remains untouched. such an one also acquires unlimited strength, because he identifies himself with the ultimate source. the strength which comes from one's own muscle and brain or from one's individual power must be limited and mortal and therefore cannot lift one beyond death; but through the strength which atma-gnana or self-knowledge gives, immortality is reached. whenever knowledge is based on direct perception of this undying essence, one transcends all fear of death and becomes immortal. v if one knows it here, that is truth; if one knows it not here, then great is his loss. the wise seeing the same self in all beings, being liberated from this world, become immortal. part third i the brahman once won a victory for the devas. through that victory of the brahman, the devas became elated. they thought, "this victory is ours. this glory is ours." brahman here does not mean a personal deity. there is a brahma, the first person of the hindu trinity; but brahman is the absolute, the one without a second, the essence of all. there are different names and forms which represent certain personal aspects of divinity, such as brahma the creator, vishnu the preserver and siva the transformer; but no one of these can fully represent the whole. brahman is the vast ocean of being, on which rise numberless ripples and waves of manifestation. from the smallest atomic form to a deva or an angel, all spring from that limitless ocean of brahman, the inexhaustible source of life. no manifested form of life can be independent of its source, just as no wave, however mighty, can be independent of the ocean. nothing moves without that power. he is the only doer. but the devas thought: "this victory is ours, this glory is ours." ii the brahman perceived this and appeared before them. they did not know what mysterious form it was. iii they said to fire: "o jataveda (all-knowing)! find out what mysterious spirit this is." he said: "yes." iv he ran towards it and he (brahman) said to him: "who art thou?" "i am agni, i am jataveda," he (the fire-god) replied. v brahman asked: "what power resides in thee?" agni replied: "i can burn up all whatsoever exists on earth." vi brahman placed a straw before him and said: "burn this." he (agni) rushed towards it with all speed, but was not able to burn it. so he returned from there and said (to the devas): "i was not able to find out what this great mystery is." vii then they said to vayu (the air-god): "vayu! find out what this mystery is." he said: "yes." viii he ran towards it and he (brahman) said to him: "who art thou?" "i am vayu, i am matarisva (traveller of heaven)," he (vayu) said. ix then the brahman said: "what power is in thee?" vayu replied: "i can blow away all whatsoever exists on earth." x brahman placed a straw before him and said: "blow this away." he (vayu) rushed towards it with all speed, but was not able to blow it away. so he returned from there and said (to the devas): "i was not able to find out what this great mystery is." xi then they said to indra: "o maghavan (worshipful one)! find out what this mystery is." he said: "yes"; and ran towards it, but it disappeared before him. xii then he saw in that very space a woman beautifully adorned, uma of golden hue, daughter of haimavat (himalaya). he asked: "what is this great mystery?" here we see how the absolute assumes concrete form to give knowledge of himself to the earnest seeker. brahman, the impenetrable mystery, disappeared and in his place appeared a personal form to represent him. this is a subtle way of showing the difference between the absolute and the personal aspects of deity. the absolute is declared to be unknowable and unthinkable, but he assumes deified personal aspects to make himself known to his devotees. thus uma, daughter of the himalaya, represents that personal aspect as the offspring of the infinite being; while the himalaya stands as the symbol of the eternal, unchangeable one. part fourth i she (uma) said: "it is brahman. it is through the victory of brahman that ye are victorious." then from her words, he (indra) knew that it (that mysterious form) was brahman. uma replied to indra, "it is to brahman that you owe your victory. it is through his power that you live and act. he is the agent and you are all only instruments in his hands. therefore your idea that 'this victory is ours, this glory is ours,' is based on ignorance." at once indra saw their mistake. the devas, being puffed up with vanity, had thought they themselves had achieved the victory, whereas it was brahman; for not even a blade of grass can move without his command. ii therefore these devas,--agni, vayu and indra--excel other devas, because they came nearer to brahman. it was they who first knew this spirit as brahman. iii therefore indra excels all other devas, because he came nearest to brahman, and because he first (before all others) knew this spirit as brahman. agni, vayu and indra were superior to the other devas because they gained a closer vision; and they were able to do this because they were purer; while indra stands as the head of the devas, because he realized the truth directly, he reached brahman. the significance of this is that whoever comes in direct touch with brahman or the supreme is glorified. iv thus the teaching of brahman is here illustrated in regard to the devas. he dashed like lightning, and appeared and disappeared just as the eye winks. the teaching as regards the devas was that brahman is the only doer. he had appeared before them in a mysterious form; but the whole of the unfathomable brahman could not be seen in any definite form; so at the moment of vanishing, he manifested more of his immeasurable glory and fleetness of action by a sudden dazzling flash of light. v next (the teaching) is regarding adhyatman (the embodied soul). the mind seems to approach him (brahman). by this mind (the seeker) again and again remembers and thinks about brahman. only by the mind can the seeker after knowledge approach brahman, whose nature in glory and speed has been described as like unto a flash of lightning. mind alone can picture the indescribable brahman; and mind alone, being swift in its nature, can follow him. it is through the help of this mind that we can think and meditate on brahman; and when by constant thought of him the mind becomes purified, then like a polished mirror it can reflect his divine glory. vi that brahman is called tadvanam (object of adoration). he is to be worshipped by the name tadvanam. he who knows brahman thus, is loved by all beings. brahman is the object of adoration and the goal of all beings. for this reason he should be worshipped and meditated upon as tadvanam. whoever knows him in this aspect becomes one with him, and serves as a clear channel through which the blessings of brahman flow out to others. the knower of god partakes of all his lovable qualities and is therefore loved by all true devotees. vii the disciple asked: o master, teach me the upanishad. (the teacher replied:) the upanishad has been taught thee. we have certainly taught thee the upanishad about brahman. viii the upanishad is based on tapas (practice of the control of body, mind and senses), dama (subjugation of the senses), karma (right performance of prescribed actions). the vedas are its limbs. truth is its support. ix he who knows this (wisdom of the upanishad), having been cleansed of all sin, becomes established in the blissful, eternal and highest abode of brahman, in the highest abode of brahman. here ends this upanishad. this upanishad is called kena, because it begins with the inquiry: "by whom" (kena) willed or directed does the mind go towards its object? from whom comes life? what enables man to speak, to hear and see? and the teacher in reply gives him the definition of brahman, the source and basis of existence. the spirit of the upanishads is always to show that no matter where we look or what we see or feel in the visible world, it all proceeds from one source. the prevailing note of all vedic teaching is this: one tremendous whole becoming the world, and again the world merging in that whole. it also strives in various ways to define that source, knowing which all else is known and without which no knowledge can be well established. so here the teacher replies: that which is the eye of the eye, the ear of the ear, that is the inexhaustible river of being which flows on eternally; while bubbles of creation rise on the surface, live for a time, then burst. the teacher, however, warns the disciple that this eye, ear, mind, can never perceive it; for it is that which illumines speech and mind, which enables eye and ear and all sense-faculties to perform their tasks. "it is distinct from the known and also it is beyond the unknown." he who thinks he knows it, knows it not; because it is never known by those who believe that it can be grasped by the intellect or by the senses; but it can be known by him who knows it as the basis of all consciousness. the knower of truth says, "i know it not," because he realizes the unbounded, infinite nature of the supreme. "thou art this (the visible), thou art that (the invisible), and thou art all that is beyond," he declares. the ordinary idea of knowledge is that which is based on sense preceptions; but the knowledge of an illumined sage is not confined to his senses. he has all the knowledge that comes from the senses and all that comes from spirit. the special purpose of this upanishad is to give us the knowledge of the real, that we may not come under the dominion of the ego by identifying ourselves with our body, mind and senses. mortals become mortals because they fall under the sway of ego and depend on their own limited physical and mental strength. the lesson of the parable of the devas and brahman is that there is no real power, no real doer except god. he is the eye of the eye, the ear of the ear; and eyes, ears, and all our faculties have no power independent of him. when we thus realize him as the underlying reality of our being, we transcend death and become immortal. om! peace! peace! peace! the hindu-yogi science _of_ breath a complete manual of the oriental breathing philosophy of physical, mental, psychic and spiritual development. by yogi ramacharaka index. chapter page i. salaam 1 ii. "breath is life" 3 iii. the exoteric theory of breath 11 iv. the esoteric theory of breath 16 v. the nervous system 20 vi. nostril breathing vs. mouth breathing 23 vii. the four methods of respiration 27 viii. how to acquire the yogi complete breath 33 ix. physiological effect of the complete breath 36 x. a few bits of yogi lore 40 xi. the seven yogi developing exercises 43 xii. seven minor yogi exercises 48 xiii. vibration and yogi rhythmic breathing 51 xiv. phenomena of yogi psychic breathing 55 xv. more phenomena of yogi psychic breathing 61 xvi. yogi spiritual breathing 69 chapter i. salaam. the western student is apt to be somewhat confused in his ideas regarding the yogis and their philosophy and practice. travelers to india have written great tales about the hordes of fakirs, mendicants and mountebanks who infest the great roads of india and the streets of its cities, and who impudently claim the title "yogi." the western student is scarcely to be blamed for thinking of the typical yogi as an emaciated, fanatical, dirty, ignorant hindu, who either sits in a fixed posture until his body becomes ossified, or else holds his arm up in the air until it becomes stiff and withered and forever after remains in that position, or perhaps clenches his fist and holds it tight until his fingernails grow through the palms of his hands. that these people exist is true, but their claim to the title "yogi" seems as absurd to the true yogi as does the claim to the title "doctor" on the part of the man who pares one's corns seem to the eminent surgeon, or as does the title of "professor," as assumed by the street corner vendor of worm medicine, seem to the president of harvard or yale. there have been for ages past in india and other oriental countries men who devoted their time and attention to the development of man, physically, mentally and spiritually. the experience of generations of earnest seekers has been handed down for centuries from teacher to pupil, and gradually a definite yogi science was built up. to these investigations and teachings was finally applied the term "yogi," from the sanscrit word "yug," meaning "to join." from the same source comes the english word "yoke," with a similar meaning. its use in connection with these teachings is difficult to trace, different authorities giving different explanations, but probably the most ingenious is that which holds that it is intended as the hindu equivalent for the idea conveyed by the english phrase, "getting into harness," or "yoking up," as the yogi undoubtedly "gets into harness" in his work of controlling the body and mind by the will. yoga is divided into several branches, ranging from that which teaches the control of the body, to that which teaches the attainment of the highest spiritual development. in the work we will not go into the higher phases of the subject, except when the "science of breath" touches upon the same. the "science of breath" touches yoga at many points, and although chiefly concerned with the development and control of the physical, has also its psychic side, and even enters the field of spiritual development. in india there are great schools of yoga, comprising thousands of the leading minds of that great country. the yoga philosophy is the rule of life for many people. the pure yogi teachings, however, are given only to the few, the masses being satisfied with the crumbs which fall from the tables of the educated classes, the oriental custom in this respect being opposed to that of the western world. but western ideas are beginning to have their effect even in the orient, and teachings which were once given only to the few are now freely offered to any who are ready to receive them. the east and the west are growing closer together, and both are profiting by the close contact, each influencing the other. the hindu yogis have always paid great attention to the science of breath, for reasons which will be apparent to the student who reads this book. many western writers have touched upon this phase of the yogi teachings, but we believe that it has been reserved for the writer of this work to give to the western student, in concise form and simple language, the underlying principles of the yogi science of breath, together with many of the favorite yogi breathing exercises and methods. we have given the western idea as well as the oriental, showing how one dovetails into the other. we have used the ordinary english terms, almost entirely, avoiding the sanscrit terms, so confusing to the average western reader. the first part of the book is devoted to the physical phase of the science of breath; then the psychic and mental sides are considered, and finally the spiritual side is touched upon. we may be pardoned if we express ourselves as pleased with our success in condensing so much yogi lore into so few pages, and by the use of words and terms which may be understood by anyone. our only fear is that its very simplicity may cause some to pass it by as unworthy of attention, while they pass on their way searching for something "deep," mysterious and non-understandable. however, the western mind is eminently practical, and we know that it is only a question of a short time before it will recognize the practicability of this work. we greet our students, with our most profound salaam, and bid them be seated for their first lessons in the yogi science of breath. chapter ii. "breath is life." life is absolutely dependent upon the act of breathing. "breath is life." differ as they may upon details of theory and terminology, the oriental and the occidental agree upon these fundamental principles. to breathe is to live, and without breath there is no life. not only are the higher animals dependent upon breath for life and health, but even the lower forms of animal life must breathe to live, and plant life is likewise dependent upon the air for continued existence. the infant draws in a long, deep breath, retains it for a moment to extract from it its life-giving properties, and then exhales it in a long wail, and lo! its life upon earth has begun. the old man gives a faint gasp, ceases to breathe, and life is over. from the first faint breath of the infant to the last gasp of the dying man, it is one long story of continued breathing. life is but a series of breaths. breathing may be considered the most important of all of the functions of the body, for, indeed, all the other functions depend upon it. man may exist some time without eating; a shorter time without drinking; but without breathing his existence may be measured by a few minutes. and not only is man dependent upon breath for life, but he is largely dependent upon correct habits of breathing for continued vitality and freedom from disease. an intelligent control of our breathing power will lengthen our days upon earth by giving us increased vitality and powers of resistance, and, on the other hand, unintelligent and careless breathing will tend to shorten our days, by decreasing our vitality and laying us open to disease. man in his normal state had no need of instruction in breathing. like the lower animal and the child, he breathed naturally and properly, as nature intended him to do, but civilization has changed him in this and other respects. he has contracted improper methods and attitudes of walking, standing and sitting, which have robbed him of his birthright of natural and correct breathing. he has paid a high price for civilization. the savage, to-day, breathes naturally, unless he has been contaminated by the habits of civilized man. the percentage of civilized men who breathe correctly is quite small, and the result is shown in contracted chests and stooping shoulders, and the terrible increase in diseases of the respiratory organs, including that dread monster, consumption, "the white scourge." eminent authorities have stated that one generation of correct breathers would regenerate the race, and disease would be so rare as to be looked upon as a curiosity. whether looked at from the standpoint of the oriental or occidental, the connection between correct breathing and health is readily seen and explained. the occidental teachings show that the physical health depends very materially upon correct breathing. the oriental teachers not only admit that their occidental brothers are right, but say that in addition to the physical benefit derived from correct habits of breathing, man's mental power, happiness, self-control, clear-sightedness, morals, and even his spiritual growth may be increased by an understanding of the "science of breath." whole schools of oriental philosophy have been founded upon this science, and this knowledge when grasped by the western races, and by them put to the practical use which is their strong point, will work wonders among them. the theory of the east, wedded to the practice of the west, will produce worthy offspring. this work will take up the yogi "science of breath," which includes not only all that is known to the western physiologist and hygienist, but the occult side of the subject as well. it not only points out the way to physical health along the lines of what western scientists have termed "deep breathing," etc., but also goes into the less known phases of the subject, and shows how the hindu yogi controls his body, increasing his mental capacity, and develops the spiritual side of his nature by the "science of breath." the yogi practices exercises by which he attains control of his body, and is enabled to send to any organ or part an increased flow of vital force or "prana," thereby strengthening and invigorating the part or organ. he knows all that his western scientific brother knows about the physiological effect of correct breathing, but he also knows that the air contains more than oxygen and hydrogen and nitrogen, and that something more is accomplished than the mere oxygenating of the blood. he knows something about "prana," of which his western brother is ignorant, and he is fully aware of the nature and manner of handling that great principle of energy, and is fully informed as to its effect upon the human body and mind. he knows that by rhythmical breathing one may bring himself into harmonious vibration with nature, and aid in the unfoldment of his latent powers. he knows that by controlled breathing he may not only cure disease in himself and others, but also practically do away with fear and worry and the baser emotions. to teach these things is the object of this work. we will give in a few chapters concise explanations and instructions, which might be extended into volumes. we hope to awaken the minds of the western world to the value of the yogi "science of breath." chapter iii. the exoteric theory of breath. in this chapter we will give you briefly the theories of the western scientific world regarding the functions of the respiratory organs, and the part in the human economy played by the breath. in subsequent chapters we will give the additional theories and ascertained facts of the oriental school of thought and research. the oriental accepts the theories and facts of his western brothers (which have been known to him for centuries) and adds thereto much that the latter do not now accept, but which they will in due time "discover" and which, after renaming, they will present to the world as a great truth. before taking up the western idea, it will perhaps be better to give a hasty general idea of the organs of respiration. the organs of respiration consist of the lungs and the air passages leading to them. the lungs are two in number, and occupy the pleural chamber of the thorax, one en each side of the median line, being separated from each other by the heart, the greater blood vessels and the larger air tubes. each lung is free in all directions, except at the root, which consists chiefly of the bronchi, arteries and veins connecting the lungs with the trachea and heart. the lungs are spongy and porous, and their tissues are very elastic. they are covered with a delicately constructed but strong sac, known as the pleural sac, one wall of which closely adheres to the lung, and the other to the inner wall of the chest, and which secretes a fluid which allows the inner surfaces of the walls to glide easily upon each other in the act of breathing. the air passages consist of the interior of the nose, pharynx, larynx, windpipe or trachea, and the bronchial tubes. when we breathe, we draw in the air through the nose, in which it is warmed by contact with the mucous membrane, which is richly supplied with blood, and after it has passed through the pharynx and larynx it passes into the trachea or windpipe, which subdivides into numerous tubes called the bronchial tubes (bronchia), which in turn subdivide into and terminate in minute subdivisions in all the small air spaces in the lungs, of which the lungs contain millions. a writer has stated that if the air cells of the lungs were spread out over an unbroken surface, they would cover an area of fourteen thousand square feet. the air is drawn into the lungs by the action of the diaphragm, a great, strong, flat, sheet-like muscle, stretched across the chest, separating the chest-box from the abdomen. the diaphragm's action is almost as automatic as that of the heart, although it may be transformed into a semi-voluntary muscle by an effort of the will. when it expands, it increases the size of the chest and lungs, and the air rushes into the vacuum thus created. when it relaxes the chest and lungs contract and the air is expelled from the lungs. now, before considering what happens to the air in the lungs, let us look a little into the matter of the circulation of the blood. the blood, as you know, is driven by the heart, through the arteries, into the capillaries, thus reaching every part of the body, which it vitalizes, nourishes and strengthens. it then returns by means of the capillaries by another route, the veins, to the heart, from whence it is drawn to the lungs. the blood starts on its arterial journey, bright red and rich, laden with life-giving qualities and properties. it returns by the venous route, poor, blue and dull, being laden down with the waste matter of the system. it goes out like a fresh stream from the mountains; it returns as a stream of sewer water. this foul stream goes to the right auricle of the heart. when this auricle becomes filled, it contracts and forces the stream of blood through an opening in the right ventricle of the heart, which in turn sends it on to the lungs, where it is distributed by millions of hair-like blood vessels to the air cells of the lungs, of which we have spoken. now, let us take up the story of the lungs at this point. the foul stream of blood is now distributed among the millions of tiny air cells in the lungs. a breath of air is inhaled and the oxygen of the air comes in contact with the impure blood through the thin walls of the hair-like blood vessels of the lungs, which walls are thick enough to hold the blood, but thin enough to admit the oxygen to penetrate them. when the oxygen comes in contact with the blood, a form of combustion takes place, and the blood takes up oxygen and releases carbonic acid gas generated from the waste products and poisonous matter which has been gathered up by the blood from all parts of the system. the blood thus purified and oxygenated is carried back to the heart, again rich, red and bright, and laden with life-giving properties and qualities. upon reaching the left auricle of the heart, it is forced into the left ventricle, from whence it is again forced out through the arteries on its mission of life to all parts of the system. it is estimated that in a single day of twenty-four hours, 35,000 pints of blood traverse the capillaries of the lungs, the blood corpuscles passing in single file and being exposed to the oxygen of the air on both of their surfaces. when one considers the minute details of the process alluded to, he is lost in wonder and admiration at nature's infinite care and intelligence. it will be seen that unless fresh air in sufficient quantities reaches the lungs, the foul stream of venous blood cannot be purified, and consequently not only is the body thus robbed of nourishment, but the waste products which should have been destroyed are returned to the circulation and poison the system, and death ensues. impure air acts in the same way, only in a lessened degree. it will also be seen that if one does not breathe in a sufficient quantity of air, the work of the blood cannot go on properly, and the result is that the body is insufficiently nourished and disease ensues, or a state of imperfect health is experienced. the blood of one who breathes improperly is, of course, of a bluish, dark color, lacking the rich redness of pure arterial blood. this often shows itself in a poor complexion. proper breathing, and a consequent good circulation, results in a clear, bright complexion. a little reflection will show the vital importance of correct breathing. if the blood is not fully purified by the regenerative process of the lungs, it returns to the arteries in an abnormal state, insufficiently purified and imperfectly cleansed of the impurities which it took up on its return journey. these impurities if returned to the system will certainly manifest in some form of disease, either in a form of blood disease or some disease resulting from impaired functioning of some insufficiently nourished organ or tissue. the blood, when properly exposed to the air in the lungs, not only has its impurities consumed, and parts with its noxious carbonic acid gas, but it also takes up and absorbs a certain quantity of oxygen which it carries to all parts of the body, where it is needed in order that nature may perform her processes properly. when the oxygen comes in contact with the blood, it unites with the hemoglobin of the blood and is carried to every cell, tissue, muscle and organ, which it invigorates and strengthens, replacing the worn out cells and tissue by new materials which nature converts to her use. arterial blood, properly exposed to the air, contains about 25 per cent of free oxygen. not only is every part vitalized by the oxygen, but the act of digestion depends materially upon a certain amount of oxygenation of the food, and this can be accomplished only by the oxygen in the blood coming in contact with the food and producing a certain form of combustion. it is therefore necessary that a proper supply of oxygen be taken through the lungs. this accounts for the fact that weak lungs and poor digestion are so often found together. to grasp the full significance of this statement, one must remember that the entire body receives nourishment from the food assimilated, and that imperfect assimilation always means an imperfectly nourished body. even the lungs themselves depend upon the same source for nourishment, and if through imperfect breathing the assimilation becomes imperfect, and the lungs in turn become weakened, they are rendered still less able to perform their work properly, and so in turn the body becomes further weakened. every particle of food and drink must be oxygenated before it can yield us the proper nourishment, and before the waste products of the system can be reduced to the proper condition to be eliminated from the system. lack of sufficient oxygen means imperfect nutrition, imperfect elimination and imperfect health. verily, "breath is life." the combustion arising from the change in the waste products generates heat and equalizes the temperature of the body. good breathers are not apt to "take cold," and they generally have plenty of good warm blood which enables them to resist the changes in the outer temperature. in addition to the above-mentioned important processes the act of breathing gives exercise to the internal organs and muscles, which feature is generally overlooked by the western writers on the subject, but which the yogis fully appreciate. in imperfect or shallow breathing, only a portion of the lung cells are brought into play, and a great portion of the lung capacity is lost, the system suffering in proportion to the amount of under-oxygenation. the lower animals, in their native state, breathe naturally, and primitive man undoubtedly did the same. the abnormal manner of living adopted by civilized man--the shadow that follows upon civilization--has robbed us of our natural habit of breathing, and the race has greatly suffered thereby. man's only physical salvation is to "get back to nature." chapter iv. the esoteric theory of breath. the science of breath, like many other teachings, has its esoteric or inner phase, as well as its exoteric or external. the physiological phase may be termed the outer or exoteric side of the subject, and the phase which we will now consider may be termed its esoteric or inner side. occultists, in all ages and lands, have always taught, usually secretly to a few followers, that there was to be found in the air a substance or principle from which all activity, vitality and life was derived. they differed in their terms and names for this force, as well as in the details of the theory, but the main principle is to be found in all occult teachings and philosophies, and has for centuries formed a portion of the teachings of the oriental yogis. in order to avoid misconceptions arising from the various theories regarding this great principle, which theories are usually attached to some name given the principle, we, in this work, will speak of the principle as "prana," this word being the sanskrit term meaning "absolute energy." many occult authorities teach that the principle which the hindus term "prana" is the universal principle of energy or force, and that all energy or force is derived from that principle, or, rather, is a particular form of manifestation of that principle. these theories do not concern us in the consideration of the subject matter of this work, and we will therefore confine ourselves to an understanding of prana as the principle of energy exhibited in all living things, which distinguishes them from a lifeless thing. we may consider it as the active principle of life--vital force, if you please. it is found in all forms of life, from the amoeba to man--from the most elementary form of plant life to the highest form of animal life. prana is all pervading. it is found in all things having life, and as the occult philosophy teaches that life is in all things--in every atom--the apparent lifelessness of some things being only a lesser degree of manifestation, we may understand their teachings that prana is everywhere, in everything. prana must not be confounded with the ego--that bit of divine spirit in every soul, around which clusters matter and energy. prana is merely a form of energy used by the ego in its material manifestation. when the ego leaves the body, the prana, being no longer under its control, responds only to the orders of the individual atoms, or groups of atoms, forming the body, and as the body disintegrates and is resolved to its original elements, each atom takes with it sufficient prana to enable it to form new combinations, the unused prana returning to the great universal storehouse from which it came. with the ego in control, cohesion exists and the atoms are held together by the will of the ego. prana is the name by which we designate a universal principle, which principle is the essence of all motion, force or energy, whether manifested in gravitation, electricity, the revolution of the planets, and all forms of life, from the highest to the lowest. it may be called the soul of force and energy in all their forms, and that principle which, operating in a certain way, causes that form of activity which accompanies life. this great principle is in all forms of matter, and yet it is not matter. it is in the air, but it is not the air nor one of its chemical constituents. animal and plant life breathe it in with the air, and yet if the air contained it not they would die even though they might be filled with air. it is taken up by the system along with the oxygen, and yet is not the oxygen. the hebrew writer of the book of genesis knew the difference between the atmospheric air and the mysterious and potent principle contained within it. he speaks of neshemet ruach chayim, which, translated, means "the breath of the spirit of life." in the hebrew neshemet means the ordinary breath of atmospheric air, and chayim means life or lives, while the word ruach means the "spirit of life," which occultists claim is the same principle which we speak of as prana. prana is in the atmospheric air, but it is also elsewhere, and it penetrates where the air cannot reach. the oxygen in the air plays an important part in sustaining animal life, and the carbon plays a similar part with plant life, but prana has its own distinct part to play in the manifestation of life, aside from the physiological functions. we are constantly inhaling the air charged with prana, and are as constantly extracting the latter from the air and appropriating it to our uses. prana is found in its freest state in the atmospheric air, which when fresh is fairly charged with it, and we draw it to us more easily from the air than from any other source. in ordinary breathing we absorb and extract a normal supply of prana, but by controlled and regulated breathing (generally known as yogi breathing) we are enabled to extract a greater supply, which is stored away in the brain and nerve centers, to be used when necessary. we may store away prana, just as the storage battery stores away electricity. the many powers attributed to advanced occultists is due largely to their knowledge of this fact and their intelligent use of this stored-up energy. the yogis know that by certain forms of breathing they establish certain relations with the supply of prana and may draw on the same for what they require. not only do they strengthen all parts of their body in this way, but the brain itself may receive increased energy from the same source, and latent faculties be developed and psychic powers attained. one who has mastered the science of storing away prana, either consciously or unconsciously, often radiates vitality and strength which is felt by those coming in contact with him, and such a person may impart this strength to others, and give them increased vitality and health. what is called "magnetic healing" is performed in this way, although many practitioners are not aware of the source of their power. western scientists have been dimly aware of this great principle with which the air is charged, but finding that they could find no chemical trace of it, or make it register an any of their instruments, they have generally treated the oriental theory with disdain. they could not explain this principle, and so denied it. they seem, however, to recognize that the air in certain places possesses a greater amount of "something" and sick people are directed by their physicians to seek such places in hopes of regaining, lost health. the oxygen in the air is appropriated by the blood and is made use of by the circulatory system. the prana in the air is appropriated by the nervous system, and is used in its work. and as the oxygenated blood is carried to all parts of the system, building up and replenishing, so is the prana carried to all parts of the nervous system, adding strength and vitality. if we think of prana as being the active principle of what we call "vitality," we will be able to form a much clearer idea of what an important part it plays in our lives. just as is the oxygen in the blood used up by the wants of the system, so the supply of prana taken up by the nervous system is exhausted by our thinking, willing, acting, etc., and in consequence constant replenishing is necessary. every thought, every act, every effort of the will, every motion of a muscle, uses up a certain amount of what we call nerve force, which is really a form of prana. to move a muscle the brain sends out an impulse over the nerves, and the muscle contracts, and so much prana is expended. when it is remembered that the greater portion of prana acquired by man comes to him from the air inhaled, the importance of proper breathing is readily understood. chapter v. the nervous system. it will be noticed that the western scientific theories regarding the breath confine themselves to the effects of the absorption of oxygen, and its use through the circulatory system, while the yogi theory also takes into consideration the absorption of prana, and its manifestation through the channels of the nervous system. before proceeding further, it may be as well to take a hasty glance at the nervous system. the nervous system of man is divided into two great systems, viz., the cerebro-spinal system and the sympathetic system. the cerebro-spinal system consists of all that part of the nervous system contained within the cranial cavity and the spinal canal, viz., the brain and the spinal cord, together with the nerves which branch off from the same. this system presides over the functions of animal life known as volition, sensation, etc. the sympathetic system includes all that part of the nervous system located principally in the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities, and which is distributed to the internal organs. it has control over the involuntary processes, such as growth, nutrition, etc. the cerebro-spinal system attends to all the seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, feeling, etc. it sets things in motion; it is used by the ego to think--to manifest consciousness. it is the instrument with which the ego communicates with the outside world. this system may be likened to a telephone system, with the brain as the central office, and the spinal column and nerves as cable and wires respectively. the brain is a great mass of nerve tissue, and consists of three parts, viz., the cerebrum or brain proper, which occupies the upper, front, middle and back portion of the skull; the cerebellum, or "little brain," which fills the lower and back portion of the skull; and the medulla oblongata, which is the broadened commencement of the spinal cord, lying before and in front of the cerebellum. the cerebrum is the organ of that part of the mind which manifests itself in intellectual action. the cerebellum regulates the movements of the voluntary muscles. the medulla oblongata is the upper enlarged end of the spinal cord, and from it and the cerebrum branch forth the cranial nerves which reach to various parts of the head, to the organs of special sense, and to some of the thoracic and abdominal organs, and to the organs of respiration. the spinal cord, or spinal marrow, fills the spinal canal in the vertebral column, or "backbone." it is a long mass of nerve tissue, branching off at the several vertebrae to nerves communicating with all parts of the body. the spinal cord is like a large telephone cable, and the emerging nerves are like the private wires connecting therewith. the sympathetic nervous system consists of a double chain of ganglia on the side of the spinal column, and scattered ganglia in the head, neck, chest and abdomen. (a ganglion is a mass of nervous matter including nerve cells.) these ganglia are connected with each other by filaments, and are also connected with the cerebro-spinal system by motor and sensory nerves. from these ganglia numerous fibers branch out to the organs of the body, blood vessels, etc. at various points, the nerves meet together and form what are known as plexuses. the sympathetic system practically controls the involuntary processes, such as circulation, respiration and digestion. the power or force transmitted from the brain to all parts of the body by means of the nerves, is known to western science as "nerve force," although the yogi knows it to be a manifestation of prana. in character and rapidity it resembles the electric current. it will be seen that without this "nerve force" the heart cannot beat; the blood cannot circulate; the lungs cannot breathe; the various organs cannot function; in fact the machinery of the body comes to a stop without it. nay more, even the brain cannot think without prana be present. when these facts are considered, the importance of the absorption of prana must be evident to all, and the science of breath assumes an importance even greater than that accorded it by western science. the yogi teachings go further than does western science, in one important feature of the nervous system. we allude to what western science terms the "solar plexus," and which it considers as merely one of a series of certain matted nets of sympathetic nerves with their ganglia found in various parts of the body. yogi science teaches that this solar plexus is really a most important part of the nervous system, and that it is a form of brain, playing one of the principal parts in the human economy. western science seems to be moving gradually towards a recognition of this fact which has been known to the yogis of the east for centuries, and some recent western writers have termed the solar plexus the "abdominal brain." the solar plexus is situated in the epigastric region, just back of the "pit of the stomach" on either side of the spinal column. it is composed of white and gray brain matter, similar to that composing the other brains of man. it has control of the main internal organs of man, and plays a much more important part than is generally recognized. we will not go into the yogi theory regarding the solar plexus, further than to say that they know it as the great central store-house of prana. men have been known to be instantly killed by a severe blow over the solar plexus, and prize fighters recognize its vulnerability and frequently temporarily paralyze their opponents by a blow over this region. the name "solar" is well bestowed on this "brain," as it radiates strength and energy to all parts of the body, even the upper brains depending largely upon it as a storehouse of prana. sooner or later western science will fully recognize the real function of the solar plexus, and will accord to it a far more important place then it now occupies in their text-books and teachings. chapter vi. nostril-breathing vs. mouth-breathing. one of the first lessons in the yogi science of breath, is to learn how to breathe through the nostrils, and to overcome the common practice of mouth-breathing. the breathing mechanism of man is so constructed that he may breathe either through the mouth or nasal tubes, but it is a matter of vital importance to him which method he follows, as one brings health and strength and the other disease and weakness. it should not be necessary to state to the student that the proper method of breathing is to take the breath through the nostrils, but alas! the ignorance among civilized people regarding this simple matter is astounding. we find people in all walks of life habitually breathing through their mouths, and allowing their children to follow their horrible and disgusting example. many of the diseases to which civilized man is subject are undoubtedly caused by this common habit of mouth-breathing. children permitted to breathe in this way grow up with impaired vitality and weakened constitutions, and in manhood and womanhood break down and become chronic invalids. the mother of the savage race does better, being evidently guided by her intuition. she seems to instinctively recognize that the nostrils are the proper channels for the conveyal of air to the lungs, and she trains her infant to close its little lips and breathe through the nose. she tips its head forward when it is asleep, which attitude closes the lips and makes nostril-breathing imperative. if our civilized mothers were to adopt the same plan, it would work a great good for the race. many contagious diseases are contracted by the disgusting habit of mouth-breathing, and many cases of cold and catarrhal affections are also attributable to the same cause. many persons who, for the sake of appearances, keep their mouth closed during the day, persist in mouth-breathing at night and often contract disease in this way. carefully conducted scientific experiments have shown that soldiers and sailors who sleep with their mouths open are much more liable to contract contagious diseases than those who breathe properly through the nostrils. an instance is related in which small-pox became epidemic on a man-of-war in foreign parts, and every death which resulted was that of some sailor or marine who was a mouth-breather, not a single nostril-breather succumbing. the organs of respiration have their only protective apparatus, filter, or dust-catcher, in the nostrils. when the breath is taken through the mouth, there is nothing from mouth to lungs to strain the air, or to catch the dust and other foreign matter in the air. from mouth to lungs the dirt or impure substance has a clear track, and the entire respiratory system is unprotected. and, moreover, such incorrect breathing admits cold air to the organs, thereby injuring them. inflammation of the respiratory organs often results from the inhalation of cold air through the mouth. the man who breathes through the mouth at night, always awakens with a parched feeling in the mouth and a dryness in the throat. he is violating one of nature's laws, and is sowing the seeds of disease. once more, remember that the mouth affords no protection to the respiratory organs, and cold air, dust and impurities and germs readily enter by that door. on the other hand, the nostrils and nasal passages show evidence of the careful design of nature in this respect. the nostrils are two narrow, tortuous channels, containing numerous bristly hairs which serve the purpose of a filter or sieve to strain the air of its impurities, etc., which are expelled when the breath is exhaled. not only do the nostrils serve this important purpose, but they also perform an important function in warming the air inhaled. the long narrow winding nostrils are filled with warm mucous membrane, which coming in contact with the inhaled air warms it so that it can do no damage to the delicate organs of the throat, or to the lungs. no animal, excepting man, sleeps with the mouth open or breathes through the mouth, and in fact it is believed that it is only civilized man who so perverts nature's functions, as the savage and barbarian races almost invariably breathe correctly. it is probable that this unnatural habit among civilized men has been acquired through unnatural methods of living, enervating luxuries and excessive warmth. the refining, filtering and straining apparatus of the nostrils renders the air fit to reach the delicate organs of the throat and the lungs, and the air is not fit to so reach these organs until it has passed through nature's refining process. the impurities which are stopped and retained by the sieves and mucous membrane of the nostrils, are thrown out again by the expelled breath, in exhalation, and in case they have accumulated too rapidly or have managed to escape through the sieves and have penetrated forbidden regions, nature protects us by producing a sneeze which violently ejects the intruder. the air, when it enters the lungs is as different from the outside air, as is distilled water different from the water of the cistern. the intricate purifying organization of the nostrils, arresting and holding the impure particles in the air, is as important as is the action of the mouth in stopping cherry-stones and fish-bones and preventing them from being carried on to the stomach. man should no more breathe through his mouth than he would attempt to take food through his nose. another feature of mouth-breathing is that the nasal passages, being thus comparatively unused, consequently fail to keep themselves clean and clear, and become clogged up and unclean, and are apt to contract local diseases. like abandoned roads that soon become filled with weeds and rubbish, unused nostrils become filled with impurities and foul matter. one who habitually breathes through the nostrils is not likely to be troubled with clogged or stuffy nostrils, but for the benefit of those who have been more or less addicted to the unnatural mouth-breathing, and who wish to acquire the natural and rational method, it may perhaps be well to add a few words regarding the way to keep their nostrils clean and free from impurities. a favorite oriental method is to snuff a little water up the nostrils allowing it to run down the passage into the throat, from thence it may be ejected through the mouth. some hindu yogis immerse the face in a bowl of water, and by a sort of suction draw in quite a quantity of water, but this latter method requires considerable practice, and the first mentioned method is equally efficacious, and much more easily performed. another good plan is to open the window and breathe freely, closing one nostril with the finger or thumb, sniffing up the air through the open nostril. then repeat the process on the other nostril. repeat several times, changing nostrils. this method will usually clear the nostrils of obstructions. in case the trouble is caused by catarrh it is well to apply a little vaseline or camphor ice or similar preparation. or sniff up a little witch-hazel extract once in a while, and you will notice a marked improvement. a little care and attention will result in the nostrils becoming clean and remaining so. we have given considerable space to this subject of nostril-breathing, not only because of its great importance in its reference to health, but because nostril-breathing is a prerequisite to the practice of the breathing exercises to be given later in this book, and because nostril-breathing is one of the basic principles underlying the yogi science of breath. we urge upon the student the necessity of acquiring this method of breathing if he has it not, and caution him against dismissing this phase of the subject as unimportant. chapter vii. four methods of respiration. in the consideration of the question of respiration, we must begin by considering the mechanical arrangements whereby the respiratory movements are effected. the mechanics of respiration manifest through (1) the elastic movements of the lungs, and (2) the activities of the sides and bottom of the thoracic cavity in which the lungs are contained. the thorax is that portion of the trunk between the neck and the abdomen, the cavity of which (known as the thoracic cavity) is occupied mainly by the lungs and heart. it is bounded by the spinal column, the ribs with their cartilages, the breastbone, and below by the diaphragm. it is generally spoken of as "the chest." it has been compared to a completely shut, conical box, the small end of which is turned upward, the back of the box being formed by the spinal column, the front by the breastbone and the sides by the ribs. the ribs are twenty-four in number, twelve on each side, and emerge from each side of the spinal column. the upper seven pair are known as "true ribs," being fastened to the breastbone direct, while the lower five pairs are called (false ribs) or "floating ribs," because they are not so fastened, the upper two of them being fastened by cartilage to the other ribs, the remainder having no cartilages, their forward ends being free. the ribs are moved in respiration by two superficial muscular layers, known as the intercostal muscles. the diaphragm, the muscular partition before alluded to, separates the chest box from the abdominal cavity. in the act of inhalation the muscles expand the lungs so that a vacuum is created and the air rushes in in accordance with the well known law of physics. everything depends upon the muscles concerned in the process of respiration, which we may as, for convenience, term the "respiratory muscles." without the aid of these muscles the lungs cannot expand, and upon the proper use and control of these muscles the science of breath largely depends. the proper control of these muscles will result in the ability to attain the maximum degree of lung expansion, and the greatest amount of the life giving properties of the air into the system. the yogis classify respiration into four general methods, viz: (1) high breathing. (2) mid breathing. (3) low breathing. (4) yogi complete breathing. we will give a general idea of the first three methods, and a more extended treatment of the fourth method, upon which the yogi science of breath is largely based. (1) high breathing. this form of breathing is known to the western world as clavicular breathing, or collarbone breathing. one breathing in this way elevates the ribs and raises the collarbone and shoulders, at the same time drawing in the abdomen and pushing its contents up against the diaphragm, which in turn is raised. the upper part of the chest and lungs, which is the smallest, is used, and consequently but a minimum amount of air enters the lungs. in addition to this, the diaphragm being raised, there can be no expansion in that direction. a study of the anatomy of the chest will convince any student that in this way a maximum amount of effort is used to obtain a minimum amount of benefit. high breathing is probably the worst form of breathing known to man and requires the greatest expenditure of energy with the smallest amount of benefit. it is an energy-wasting, poor-returns plan. it is quite common among the western races, many women being addicted to it, and even singers, clergymen, lawyers and others, who should know better, using it ignorantly. many diseases of the vocal organs and organs of respiration may be directly traced to this barbarous method of breathing, and the straining of delicate organs caused by this method, often results in the harsh, disagreeable voices heard on all sides. many persons who breathe in this way become addicted to the disgusting practice of "mouth-breathing" described in a preceding chapter. if the student has any doubts about what has been said regarding this form of breathing, let him try the experiment of expelling all the air from his lungs, then standing erect, with hands at sides, let him raise the shoulders and collar-bone and inhale. he will find that the amount of air inhaled far below normal. then let him inhale a full breath, after dropping the shoulders and collar-bone, and he will receive an object lesson in breathing which he will be apt to remember much longer than he would any words, printed or spoken. (2) mid breathing. this method of respiration is known to western students as rib breathing, or inter-costal breathing, and while less objectionable than high breathing, is far inferior to either low breathing or to the yogi complete breath. in mid breathing the diaphragm is pushed upward, and the abdomen drawn in. the ribs are raised somewhat, and the chest is partially expanded. it is quite common among men who have made no study of the subject. as there are two better methods known, we give it only passing notice, and that principally to call your attention to its short-comings. (3) low breathing. this form of respiration is far better than either of the two preceding forms: and of recent years many western writers have extolled its merits, and have exploited it under the names of "abdominal breathing," "deep breathing," "diaphragmatic breathing," etc., etc., and much good has been accomplished by the attention of the public having been directed to the subject, and many having been induced to substitute it for the interior and injurious methods above alluded to. many "systems" of breathing have been built around low breathing, and students have paid high prices to learn the new (?) systems. but, as we have said, much good has resulted, and after all the students who paid high prices to learn revamped old systems undoubtedly got their money's worth if they were induced to discard the old methods of high breathing and low breathing. although many western authorities write and speak of this method as the best known form of breathing, the yogis know it to be but a part of a system which they have used for centuries and which they know as "the complete breath." it must be admitted, however, that one must be acquainted with the principles of low breathing before he can grasp the idea of complete breathing. let us again consider the diaphragm. what is it? we have seen that it is the great partition muscle, which separates the chest and its contents from the abdomen and its contents. when at rest it presents a concave surface to the abdomen. that is, the diaphragm as viewed from the abdomen would seem like the sky as viewed from the earth--the interior of an arched surface. consequently the side of the diaphragm toward the chest organs is like a protruding rounded surface--like a hill. when the diaphragm is brought into use the hill formation is lowered and the diaphragm presses upon the abdominal organs and forces out the abdomen. in low breathing, the lungs are given freer play than in the methods already mentioned, and consequently more air is inhaled. this fact has led the majority of western writers to speak and write of low breathing (which they call abdominal breathing) as the highest and best method known to science. but the oriental yogi has long known of a better method, and some few western writers have also recognized this fact. the trouble with all methods of breathing, other than "yogi complete breathing" is that in none of these methods do the lungs become filled with air--at the best only a portion of the lung space is filled, even in low breathing. high breathing fills only the upper portion of the lungs. mid breathing fills only the middle and a portion of the upper parts. low breathing fills only the lower and middle parts. it is evident that any method that fills the entire lung space must be far preferable to those filling only certain parts any method which will fill the entire lung space must be the greatest value to man in the way of allowing him to absorb the greatest quantity of oxygen and to store away the greatest amount of prana. the complete breath is known to the yogis to be the best method of respiration known to science. the yogi complete breath. yogi complete breathing includes all the good points of high breathing, mid breathing and low breathing, with the objectionable features of each eliminated. it brings into play the entire respiratory apparatus, every part of the lungs, every air-cell, every respiratory muscle. the entire respiratory organism responds to this method of breathing, and the maximum amount of benefit is derived from the minimum expenditure of energy. the chest cavity is increased to its normal limits in all directions and every part of the machinery performs its natural work and functions. one of the most important features of this method of breathing is the fact that the respiratory muscles are fully called into play, whereas in the other forms of breathing only a portion of these muscles are so used. in complete breathing, among other muscles, those controlling the ribs are actively used, which increases the space in which the lungs may expand, and also gives the proper support to the organs when needed, nature availing herself of the perfection of the principle of leverage in this process. certain muscles hold the lower ribs firmly in position, while other muscles bend them outward. then again, in this method, the diaphragm is under perfect control and is able to perform its functions properly, and in such manner as to yield the maximum degree of service. in the rib-action, above alluded to, the lower ribs are controlled by the diaphragm which draws them slightly downward, while other muscles hold them in place and the intercostal muscles force them outward, which combined action increases the mid-chest cavity to its maximum. in addition to this muscular action, the upper ribs are also lifted and forced outward by the intercostal muscles, which increases the capacity of the upper chest to its fullest extent. if you have studied the special features of the four given methods of breathing, you will at once see that the complete breath comprises all the advantageous features of the three other methods, plus the reciprocal advantages accruing from the combined action of the high-chest, mid-chest, and diaphragmatic regions, and the normal rhythm thus obtained. in our next chapter, we will take up the complete breath in practice, and will give full directions for the acquirement of this superior method of breathing, with exercises, etc. chapter viii. how to acquire the yogi complete breath. the yogi complete breath is the fundamental breath of the entire yogi science of breath, and the student must fully acquaint himself with it, and master it perfectly before he can hope to obtain results from the other forms of breath-mentioned and given in this book. he should not be content with half-learning it, but should go to work in earnest until it becomes his natural method of breathing. this will require work, time and patience, but without these things nothing is ever accomplished. there is no royal road to the science of breath, and the student must be prepared to practice and study in earnest if he expect to receive results. the results obtained by a complete mastery of the science of breath are great, and no one who has attained them would willingly go back to the old methods, and he will tell his friends that he considers himself amply repaid for all his work. we say these things now, that you may fully understand the necessity and importance of mastering this fundamental method of yogi breathing, instead of passing it by and trying some of the attractive looking variations given later on in this book. again, we say to you: start right, and right results will follow; but neglect your foundations and your entire building will topple over sooner or later. perhaps the better way to teach you how to develop the yogi complete breath, would be to give you simple directions regarding the breath itself, and then follow up the same with general remarks concerning it, and then later on giving exercises for developing the chest, muscles and lungs which have been allowed to remain in an undeveloped condition by imperfect methods of breathing. right here we wish to say that this complete breath is not a forced or abnormal thing, but on the contrary is a going back to first principles--a return to nature. the healthy adult savage and the healthy infant of civilization both breathe in this manner, but civilized man has adopted unnatural methods of living, clothing, etc., and has lost his birthright. and we wish to remind the reader that the complete breath does not necessarily call for the complete filling of the lungs at every inhalation. one may inhale the average amount of air, using the complete breathing method and distributing the air inhaled, be the quantity large or small, to all parts of the lungs. but one should inhale a series of full complete breaths several times a day, whenever opportunity offers, in order to keep the system in good order and condition. the following simple exercise will give you a clear idea of what the complete breath is: (1) stand or sit erect. breathing through the nostrils, inhale steadily, first filling the lower part of the lungs, which is accomplished by bringing into play the diaphragm, which descending exerts a gentle pressure on the abdominal organs, pushing forward the front walls of the abdomen. then fill the middle part of the lungs, pushing out the lower ribs, breast-bone and chest. then fill the higher portion of the lungs, protruding the upper chest, thus lifting the chest, including the upper six or seven pairs of ribs. in the final movement, the lower part of the abdomen will be slightly drawn in, which movement gives the lungs a support and also helps to fill the highest part of the lungs. at first reading it may appear that this breath consists of three distinct movements. this, however, is not the correct idea. the inhalation is continuous, the entire chest cavity from the lowered diaphragm to the highest point of the chest in the region of the collar-bone, being expanded with a uniform movement. avoid a jerky series of inhalations, and strive to attain a steady continuous action. practice will soon overcome the tendency to divide the inhalation into three movements, and will result in a uniform continuous breath. you will be able to complete the inhalation in a couple of seconds after a little practice. (2) retain the breath a few seconds. (3) exhale quite slowly, holding the chest in a firm position, and having the abdomen in a little and lifting it upward slowly as the air leaves the lungs. when the air is entirely exhaled, relax the chest and abdomen. a little practice will render this part of the exercise easy, and the movement once acquired will be afterwards performed almost automatically. it will be seen that by this method of breathing all parts of the respiratory apparatus is brought into action, and all parts of the lungs, including the most remote air cells, are exercised. the chest cavity is expanded in all directions. you will also notice that the complete breath is really a combination of low, mid and high breaths, succeeding each other rapidly in the order given, in such a manner as to form one uniform, continuous, complete breath. you will find it quite a help to you if you will practice this breath before a large mirror, placing the hands lightly over the abdomen so that you may feel the movements. at the end of the inhalation, it is well to occasionally slightly elevate the shoulders, thus raising the collarbone and allowing the air to pass freely into the small upper lobe of the right lung, which place is sometimes the breeding place of tuberculosis. at the beginning of practice, you may have more or less trouble in acquiring the complete breath, but a little practice will make perfect, and when you have once acquired it you will never willingly return to the old methods. chapter ix. physiological effect of the complete breath. scarcely too much can be said of the advantages attending the practice of the complete breath. and yet the student who has carefully read the foregoing pages should scarcely need to have pointed out to him such advantages. the practice of the complete breath will make any man or woman immune to consumption and other pulmonary troubles, and will do away with all liability to contract "colds," as well as bronchial and similar weaknesses. consumption is due principally to lowered vitality attributable to an insufficient amount of air being inhaled. the impairment of vitality renders the system open to attacks from disease germs. imperfect breathing allows a considerable part of the lungs to remain inactive, and such portions offer an inviting field for bacilli, which invading the weakened tissue soon produce havoc. good healthy lung tissue will resist the germs, and the only way to have good healthy lung tissue is to use the lungs properly. consumptives are nearly all narrow-chested. what does this mean? simply that these people were addicted to improper habits of breathing, and consequently their chests failed to develop and expand. the man who practices the complete breath will have a full broad chest, end the narrow-chested man may develop his chest to normal proportions if he will but adopt this mode of breathing. such people must develop their chest cavities if they value their lives. colds may often be prevented by practicing a little vigorous complete breathing whenever you feel that you are being unduly exposed. when chilled, breathe vigorously a few minutes, and you will feel a glow all over your body. most colds can be cured by complete breathing and partial fasting for a day. the quality of the blood depends largely upon its proper oxygenation in the lungs, and if it is under-oxygenated it becomes poor in quality and laden with all sorts of impurities, and the system suffers from lack of nourishment, and often becomes actually poisoned by the waste products remaining uneliminated in the blood. as the entire body, every organ and every part, is dependent upon the blood for nourishment, impure blood must have a serious effect upon the entire system. the remedy is plain--practice the yogi complete breath. the stomach and other organs of nutrition suffer much from improper breathing. not only are they ill nourished by reason of the lack of oxygen, but as the food must absorb oxygen from the blood and become oxygenated before it can be digested and assimilated, it is readily seen how digestion and assimilation is impaired by incorrect breathing. and when assimilation is not normal, the system receives less and less nourishment, the appetite fails, bodily vigor decreases, and energy diminishes, and the man withers and declines. all from the lack of proper breathing. even the nervous system suffers from improper breathing, inasmuch as the brain, the spinal cord, the nerve centers, and the nerves themselves, when improperly nourished by means of the blood, become poor and inefficient instruments for generating, storing and transmitting the nerve currents. and improperly nourished they will become if sufficient oxygen is not absorbed through the lungs. there is another aspect of the case whereby the nerve currents themselves, or rather the force from which the nerve currents spring, becomes lessened from want of proper breathing, but this belongs to another phase of the subject which is treated of in other chapters of this book, and our purpose here is to direct your attention to the fact that the mechanism of the nervous system is rendered inefficient as an instrument for conveying nerve force, as the indirect result of a lack of proper breathing. the effect of the reproductive organs upon the general health is too well known to be discussed at length here, but we may be permitted to say that with the reproductive organs in a weakened condition the entire system feels the reflex action and suffers sympathetically. the complete breath produces a rhythm which is nature's own plan for keeping this important part of the system in normal condition, and, from the first, it will be noticed that the reproductive functions are strengthened and vitalized, thus, by sympathetic reflex action, giving tone to the whole system. by this, we do not mean that the lower sex impulses will be aroused; far from it. the yogis are advocates of continence and chastity, and have learned to control the animal passions. but sexual control does not mean sexual weakness, and the yogi teachings are that the man or woman whose reproductive organism is normal and healthy, will have a stronger will with which to control himself or herself. the yogi believes that much of the perversion of this wonderful part of the system comes from a lack of normal health, and results from a morbid rather than a normal condition of these organs. a little careful consideration of this question will prove that the yogi teachings are right. this is not the place to discuss the subject fully, but the yogis know that sex-energy may be conserved and used for the development of the body and mind of the individual, instead of being dissipated in unnatural excesses as is the wont of so many uninformed people. by special request we will give in this book one of the favorite yogi exercises for this purpose. but whether or not the student wishes to adopt the yogi theories of continence and clean-living, he or she will find that the complete breath will do more to restore health to this part of the system than anything else ever tried. remember, now, we mean normal health, not undue development. the sensualist will find that normal means a lessening of desire rather than an increase; the weakened man or woman will find a toning up and a relief from the weakness which has heretofore depressed him or her. we do not wish to be misunderstood or misquoted on this subject. the yogis' ideal is a body strong in all its parts, under the control of a masterful and developed will, animated by high ideals. in the practice of the complete breath, during inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and exerts a gentle pressure upon the liver, stomach and other organs, which in connection with the rhythm of the lungs acts as a gentle massage of these organs and stimulates their actions, and encourages normal functioning. each inhalation aids in this internal exercise, and assists in causing a normal circulation to the organs of nutrition and elimination. in high or mid breathing the organs lose the benefit accruing from this internal massage. the western world is paying much attention to physical culture just now, which is a good thing. but in their enthusiasm they must not forget that the exercise of the external muscles is not everything. the internal organs also need exercise, and nature's plan for this exercise is proper breathing. the diaphragm is nature's principal instrument for this internal exercise. its motion vibrates the important organs of nutrition and elimination, and massages and kneads them at each inhalation and exhalation, forcing blood into them, and then squeezing it out, and imparting a general tone to the organs. any organ or part of the body which is not exercised gradually atrophies and refuses to function properly, and lack of the internal exercise afforded by the diaphragmatic action leads to diseased organs. the complete breath gives the proper motion to the diaphragm, as well as exercising the middle and upper chest. it is indeed "complete" in its action. from the standpoint of western physiology alone, without reference to the oriental philosophies and science, this yogi system of complete breathing is of vital importance to every man, woman and child who wishes to acquire health and keep it. its very simplicity keeps thousands from seriously considering it, while they spend fortunes in seeking health through complicated and expensive "systems." health knocks at their door and they answer not. verily the stone which the builders reject is the real cornerstone of the temple of health. chapter x. a few bits of yogi lore. we give below three forms of breath, quite popular among the yogis. the first is the well-known yogi cleansing breath, to which is attributed much of the great lung endurance found among the yogis. they usually finish up a breathing exercise with this cleansing breath, and we have followed this plan in this book. we also give the yogi nerve vitalizing exercise, which has been handed down among them for ages, and which has never been improved on by western teachers of physical culture, although some of them have "borrowed" it from teachers of yoga. we also give the yogi vocal breath, which accounts largely for the melodious, vibrant voices of the better class of the oriental yogis. we feel that if this book contained nothing more than these three exercises, it would be invaluable to the western student. take these exercises as a gift from your eastern brothers and put them into practice. the yogi cleansing breath. the yogis have a favorite form of breathing which they practice when they feel the necessity of ventilating and cleansing the lungs. they conclude many of their other breathing exercises with this breath, and we have followed this practice in this book. this cleansing breath ventilates and cleanses the lungs, stimulates the cells and gives a general tone to the respiratory organs, and is conducive to their general healthy condition. besides this effect, it is found to greatly refresh the entire system. speakers, singers, etc., will find this breath especially restful, after having tired the respiratory organs. (1) inhale a complete breath. (2) retain the air a few seconds. (3) pucker up the lips as if for a whistle (but do not swell out the cheeks), then exhale a little air through the opening, with considerable vigor. then stop for a moment, retaining the air, and then exhale a little more air. repeat until the air is completely exhaled. remember that considerable vigor is to be used in exhaling the air through the opening in the lips. this breath will be found quite refreshing when one is tired and generally "used up." a trial will convince the student of its merits. this exercise should be practiced until it can be performed naturally and easily, as it is used to finish up a number of other exercises given in this book, and it should be thoroughly understood. the yogi nerve vitalizing breath. this is an exercise well known to the yogis, who consider it one of the strongest nerve stimulants and invigorants known to man. its purpose is to stimulate the nervous system, develop nerve force, energy and vitality. this exercise brings a stimulating pressure to bear on important nerve centers, which in turn stimulate and energize the entire nervous system, and send an increased flow of nerve force to all parts of the body. (1) stand erect. (2) inhale a complete breath, and retain same. (3) extend the arms straight in front of you, letting them be somewhat limp and relaxed, with only sufficient nerve force to hold them out. (4) slowly draw the hands back toward the shoulders, gradually contracting the muscles and putting force into them, so that when they reach the shoulders the fists will be so tightly clenched that a tremulous motion is felt. (5) then, keeping the muscles tense, push the fists slowly out, and then draw them back rapidly (still tense) several times. (6) exhale vigorously through the mouth. (7) practice the cleansing breath. the efficiency of this exercise depends greatly upon the speed of the drawing back of the fists, and the tension of the muscles, and, of course, upon the full lungs. this exercise must be tried to be appreciated. it is without equal as a "bracer," as our western friends put it. the yogi vocal breath. the yogis have a form of breathing to develop the voice. they are noted for their wonderful voices, which are strong, smooth and clear, and have a wonderful trumpet-like carrying power. they have practiced this particular form of breathing exercise which has resulted in rendering their voices soft, beautiful and flexible, imparting to it that indescribable, peculiar floating quality, combined with great power. the exercise given below will in time impart the above-mentioned qualities, or the yogi voice, to the student who practices it faithfully. it is to be understood, of course, that this form of breath is to be used only as an occasional exercise, and not as a regular form of breathing. (1) inhale a complete breath very slowly, but steadily, through the nostrils, taking as much time as possible in the inhalation. (2) retain for a few seconds. (3) expel the air vigorously in one great breath, through the wide opened mouth. (4) rest the lungs by the cleansing breath. without going deeply into the yogi theories of sound-production in speaking and singing, we wish to say that experience has taught them that the timbre, quality and power of a voice depends not alone upon the vocal organs in the throat, but that the facial muscles, etc., have much to do with the matter. some men with large chests produce but a poor tone, while others with comparatively small chests produce tones of amazing strength and quality. here is an interesting experiment worth trying: stand before a glass and pucker up your mouth and whistle, and note the shape of your mouth and the general expression of your face. then sing or speak as you do naturally, and see the difference. then start to whistle again for a few seconds, and then, _without changing the position of your lips or face_, sing a few notes and notice what a vibrant, resonant, clear and beautiful tone is produced. chapter xi. the seven yogi developing exercises. the following are the seven favorite exercises of the yogis for developing the lungs, muscles, ligaments, air cells, etc. they are quite simple but marvelously effective. do not let the simplicity of these exercises make you lose interest, for they are the result of careful experiments and practice on the part of the yogis, and are the essence of numerous intricate and complicated exercises, the non-essential portions being eliminated and the essential features retained. (1) the retained breath. this is a very important exercise which tends to strengthen and develop the respiratory muscles as well as the lungs, and its frequent practice will also tend to expand the chest. the yogis have found that an occasional holding of the breath, after the lungs have been filled with the complete breath, is very beneficial, not only to the respiratory organs but to the organs of nutrition, the nervous system and the blood itself. they have found that an occasional holding of the breath tends to purify the air which has remained in the lungs from former inhalations, and to more fully oxygenate the blood. they also know that the breath so retained gathers up all the waste matter, and when the breath is expelled it carries with it the effete matter of the system, and cleanses the lungs just as a purgative does the bowels. the yogis recommend this exercise for various disorders of the stomach, liver and blood, and also find that it frequently relieves bad breath, which often arises from poorly ventilated lungs. we recommend students to pay considerable attention to this exercise, as it has great merits. the following directions will give you a clear idea of the exercise: (1) stand erect. (2) inhale a complete breath. (3) retain the air as long as you can comfortably. (4) exhale vigorously through the open mouth. (5) practice the cleansing breath. at first you will be able to retain the breath only a short time, but a little practice will also show a great improvement. time yourself with a watch if you wish to note your progress. (2) lung cell stimulation. this exercise is designed to stimulate the air cells in the lungs, but beginners must not overdo it, and in no case should it be indulged in too vigorously. some may find a slight dizziness resulting from the first few trials, in which case let them walk around a little and discontinue the exercise for a while. (1) stand erect, with hands at sides. (2) breathe in very slowly and gradually. (3) while inhaling, gently tap the chest with the finger tips, constantly changing position. (4) when the lungs are filled, retain the breath and pat the chest with the palms of the hands. (5) practice the cleansing breath. this exercise is very bracing and stimulating to the whole body, and is a well-known yogi practice. many of the air cells of the lungs become inactive by reason of incomplete breathing, and often become almost atrophied. one who has practiced imperfect breathing for years will find it not so easy to stimulate all these ill-used air cells into activity all at once by the complete breath, but this exercise will do much toward bringing about the desired result, and is worth study and practice. (3) rib stretching. we have explained that the ribs are fastened by cartilages, which admit of considerable expansion. in proper breathing, the ribs play an important part, and it is well to occasionally give them a little special exercise in order to preserve their elasticity. standing or sitting in unnatural positions, to which many of the western people are addicted, is apt to render the ribs more or less stiff and inelastic, and this exercise will do much to overcome same. (1) stand erect. (2) place the hands one on each side of the body, as high up under the armpits as convenient, the thumbs reaching toward the back, the palms on the side of the chest and the fingers to the front over the breast. (3) inhale a complete breath. (4) retain the air for a short time. (5) then gently squeeze the sides, at the same time slowly exhaling. (6) practice the cleansing breath. use moderation in this exercise and do not overdo its (4) chest expansion. the chest is quite apt to be contracted from bending over one's work, etc. this exercise is very good for the purpose of restoring natural conditions and gaining chest expansion. (1) stand erect. (2) inhale a complete breath. (3) retain the air. (4) extend both arms forward and bring the two clenched fists together on a level with the shoulder. (5) then swing back the fists vigorously until the arms stand out straight sideways from the shoulders. (6) then bring back to position 4, and swing to position 5. repeat several times. (7) exhale vigorously through the opened mouth. (8) practice the cleansing breath. use moderation and do not overdo this exercise. (5) walking exercise. (1) walk with head up, chin drawn slightly in, shoulders back, and with measured tread. (2) inhale a complete breath, counting (mentally) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, one count to each step, making the inhalation extend over the eight counts. (3) exhale slowly through the nostrils, counting as before--1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8--one count to a step. (4) rest between breaths, continuing walking and counting, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 7, 8, one count to a step. (5) repeat until you begin to feel tired. then rest for a while, and resume at pleasure. repeat several times a day. some yogis vary this exercise by retaining the breath during a 1, 2, 3, 4, count, and then exhale in an eight-step count. practice whichever plan seems most agreeable to you. (6) morning exercise. (1) stand erect in a military attitude, head up, eyes front, shoulders back, knees stiff, hands at sides. (2) raise body slowly on toes, inhaling a complete breath, steadily and slowly. (3) retain the breath for a few seconds, maintaining the same position. (4) slowly sink to first position, at the same time slowly exhaling the air through the nostrils. (5) practice cleansing breath. (6) repeat several times, varying by using right leg alone, then left leg alone. (7) stimulating circulation. (1) stand erect. (2) inhale a complete breath and retain. (3) bend forward slightly and grasp a stick or cane steadily and firmly, and gradually exerting your entire strength upon the grasp. (4) relax the grasp, return to first position, and slowly exhale. (5) repeat several times. (6) finish with the cleansing breath. this exercise may be performed without the use of a stick or cane, by grasping an imaginary cane, using the will to exert the pressure. the exercise is a favorite yogi plan of stimulating the circulation by driving the arterial blood to the extremities, and drawing back the venous blood to the heart and lungs that it may take up the oxygen which has been inhaled with the air. in cases of poor circulation there is not enough blood in the lungs to absorb the increased amount of oxygen inhaled, and the system does not get the full benefit of the improved breathing. in such cases, particularly, it is well to practice this exercise, occasionally with the regular complete breathing exercise. chapter xii. seven minor yogi exercises. this chapter is composed of seven minor yogi breathing exercises, bearing no special names, but each distinct and separate from the others and having a different purpose in view. each student will find several of these exercises best adapted to the special requirements of his particular case. although we have styled these exercises "minor exercises," they are quite valuable and useful, or they would not appear in this book. they give one a condensed course in "physical culture" and "lung development," and might readily be "padded out" and elaborated into a small book on these subjects. they have, of course, an additional value, as yogi breathing forms a part of each exercise. do not pass them by because they are marked "minor." some one or more of these exercises may be just what you need. try them and decide for yourself. exercise i. (1) stand erect with hands at sides. (2) inhale complete breath. (3) raise the arms slowly, keeping them rigid until the hands touch over head. (4) retain the breath a few minutes with hands over head. (5) lower hands slowly to sides, exhaling slowly at same time. (6) practice cleansing breath. exercise ii. (1) stand erect, with arms straight in front of you. (2) inhale complete breath and retain. (3) swing arms back as far as they will go; then back to first position; then repeat several times, returning the breath all the while. (4) exhale vigorously through mouth. (5) practice cleansing breath. exercise iii. (1) stand erect with arms straight in front of you, (2) inhale complete breath. (3) swing arms around in a circle, backward, a few times. then reverse a few times, retaining the breath all the while. you may vary this by rotating them alternately like the sails of a windmill. (4) exhale the breath vigorously through the mouth. (5) practice cleansing breath. exercise iv. (1) lie on the floor with your face downward and palms of hands flat upon the floor by your sides. (2) inhale complete breath and retain. (3) stiffen the body and raise yourself up by the strength of your arms until you rest on your hands and toes (4) then lower yourself to original position. repeat several times. (5) exhale vigorously through your mouth. (6) practice cleansing breath. exercise v. (1) stand erect with your palms against the wall. (2) inhale complete breath and retain. (3) lower the chest to the wall, resting your weight on your hands. (4) then raise yourself back with the arm muscles alone, keeping the body stiff. (5) exhale vigorously through the mouth. (6) practice cleansing breath. exercise vi. (1) stand erect with arms "akimbo," that is, with hands resting around the waist and elbows standing out. (2) inhale complete breath and retain. (3) keep legs and hips stiff and bend well forward, as if bowing, at the same time exhaling slowly. (4) return to first position and take another complete breath. (5) then bend backward, exhaling slowly. (6) return to first position and take a complete breath. (7) then bend sideways, exhaling slowly. (vary by bending to right and then to left.) (8) practice cleansing breath. exercise vii. (1) stand erect, or sit erect, with straight spinal column. (2) inhale a complete breath, but instead of inhaling in a continuous steady stream, take a series of short, quick "sniffs," as if you were smelling aromatic salts or ammonia and did not wish to get too strong a "whiff." do not exhale any of these little breaths, but add one to the other until the entire lung space is filled. (3) retain for a few seconds. (4) exhale through the nostrils in a long, restful, sighing breath. (5) practice cleansing breath. chapter xiii. vibration and yogi rhythmic breathing all is in vibration. from the tiniest atom to the greatest sun, everything is in a state of vibration. there is nothing in absolute rest in nature. a single atom deprived of vibration would wreck the universe. in incessant vibration the universal work is performed. matter is being constantly played upon by energy and countless forms and numberless varieties result, and yet even the forms and varieties are not permanent. they begin to change the moment they are created, and from them are born innumerable forms, which in turn change and give rise to newer forms, and so on and on, in infinite succession. nothing is permanent in the world of forms, and yet the great reality is unchangeable. forms are but appearances--they come, they go, but the reality is eternal and unchangeable. the atoms of the human body are in constant vibration. unceasing changes are occurring. in a few months there is almost a complete change in the matter composing the body, and scarcely a single atom now composing your body will be found in it a few months hence. vibration, constant vibration. change, constant change. in all vibration is to be found a certain rhythm. rhythm pervades the universe. the swing of the planets around the sun; the rise and fall of the sea; the beating of the heart; the ebb and flow of the tide; all follow rhythmics laws. the rays of the sun reach us; the rain descends upon us, in obedience to the same law. all growth is but an exhibition of this law. all motion is a manifestation of the law of rhythm. our bodies are as much subject to rhythmic laws as is the planet in its revolution around the sun. much of the esoteric side of the yogi science of breath is based upon this known principle of nature. by falling in with the rhythm of the body, the yogi manages to absorb a great amount of prana, which he disposes of to bring about results desired by him. we will speak of this at greater length later on. the body which you occupy is like a small inlet running in to the land from the sea. although apparently subject only to its own laws, it is really subject to the ebb and flow of the tides of the ocean. the great sea of life is swelling and receding, rising and falling, and we are responding to its vibrations and rhythm. in a normal condition we receive the vibration and rhythm of the great ocean of life, and respond to it, but at times the mouth of the inlet seems choked up with debris, and we fail to receive the impulse from mother ocean, and inharmony manifests within us. you have heard how a note on a violin, if sounded repeatedly and in rhythm, will start into motion vibrations which will in time destroy a bridge. the same result is true when a regiment of soldiers crosses a bridge, the order being always given to "break step" on such an occasion, lest the vibration bring down both bridge and regiment. these manifestations of the effect of rhythmic motion will give you an idea of the effect on the body of rhythmic breathing. the whole system catches the vibration and becomes in harmony with the will, which causes the rhythmic motion of the lungs, and while in such complete harmony will respond readily to orders from the will. with the body thus attuned, the yogi finds no difficulty in increasing the circulation in any part of the body by an order from the will, and in the same way he can direct an increased current of nerve force to any part or organ, strengthening and stimulating it. in the same way the yogi by rhythmic breathing "catches the swing," as it were, and is able to absorb and control a greatly increased amount of prana, which is then at the disposal of his will. he can and does use it as a vehicle for sending forth thoughts to others and for attracting to him all those whose thoughts are keyed in the same vibration. the phenomena of telepathy, thought transference, mental healing, mesmerism, etc., which subjects are creating such an interest in the western world at the present time, but which have been known to the yogis for centuries, can be greatly increased and augmented if the person sending forth the thoughts will do so after rhythmic breathing. rhythmic breathing will increase the value of mental healing, magnetic healing, etc., several hundred per cent. in rhythmic breathing the main thing to be acquired is the mental idea of rhythm. to those who know anything of music, the idea of measured counting is familiar. to others, the rhythmic step of the soldier: "left, right; left, right; left, right; one, two, three, four; one, two, three, four," will convey the idea. the yogi bases his rhythmic time upon a unit corresponding with the beat of his heart. the heart beat varies in different persons, but the heart beat unit of each person is the proper rhythmic standard for that particular individual in his rhythmic breathing. ascertain your normal heart beat by placing your fingers over your pulse, and then count: "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6," etc., until the rhythm becomes firmly fixed in your mind. a little practice will fix the rhythm, so that you will be able to easily reproduce it. the beginner usually inhales in about six pulse units, but he will be able to greatly increase this by practice. the yogi rule for rhythmic breathing is that the units of inhalation and exhalation should be the same, while the units for retention and between breaths should be one-half the number of those of inhalation and exhalation. the following exercise in rhythmic breathing should be thoroughly mastered, as it forms the basis of numerous other exercises, to which reference will be made later. (1) sit erect, in an easy posture, being sure to hold the chest, neck and head as nearly in a straight line as possible, with shoulders slightly thrown back and hands resting easily on the lap. in this position the weight of the body is largely supported by the ribs and the position may be easily maintained. the yogi has found that one cannot get the best effect of rhythmic breathing with the chest drawn in and the abdomen protruding. (2) inhale slowly a complete breath, counting six pulse units. (3) retain, counting three pulse units. (4) exhale slowly through the nostrils, counting six pulse units. (5) count three pulse beats between breaths. (6) repeat a number of times, but avoid fatiguing yourself at the start. (7) when you are ready to close the exercise, practice the cleansing breath, which will rest you and cleanse the lungs. after a little practice you will be able to increase the duration of the inhalations and exhalations, until about fifteen pulse units are consumed. in this increase, remember that the units for retention and between breaths is one-half the units for inhalation and exhalation. do not overdo yourself in your effort to increase the duration of the breath, but pay as much attention as possible to acquiring the "rhythm," as that is more important than the length of the breath. practice and try until you get the measured "swing" of the movement, and until you can almost "feel" the rhythm of the vibratory motion throughout your whole body. it will require a little practice and perseverance, but your pleasure at your improvement will make the task an easy one. the yogi is a most patient and persevering man, and his great attainments are due largely to the possession of these qualities. chapter xiv. phenomena of yogi psychic breathing. with the exception of the instructions in the yogi rhythmic breathing, the majority of the exercises heretofore given in this book relate to the physical plane of effort, which, while highly important in itself, is also regarded by the yogis as in the nature of affording a substantial basis for efforts on the psychic and spiritual plane. do not, however, discard or think lightly of the physical phase of the subject, for remember that it needs a sound body to support a sound mind, and also that the body is the temple of the ego, the lamp in which burns the light of the spirit. everything is good in its place, and everything has its place. the developed man is the "all-around man," who recognizes body, mind and spirit and renders to each its due. neglect of either is a mistake which must be rectified sooner or later; a debt which must be repaid with interest. we will now take up the psychic phase of the yogi science of breath in the shape of a series of exercises, each exercise carrying with it its explanation. you will notice that in each exercise rhythmic breathing is accompanied with the instructions to "carry the thought" of certain desired results. this mental attitude gives the will a cleared track upon which to exercise its force. we cannot, in this work, go into the subject of the power of the will, and must assume that you have some knowledge of the subject. if you have no acquaintance with the subject, you will find that the actual practice of the exercises themselves will give you a much clearer knowledge than any amount of theoretical teaching, for as the old hindu proverb says, "he who tastes a grain of mustard seed knows more of its flavor than he who sees an elephant load of it." (1) general directions for yogi psychic breathing. the basis of all yogi psychic breathing is the yogi rhythmic breath, instruction regarding which we gave in our last chapter. in the following exercises, in order to avoid useless repetition, we will say merely, "breathe rhythmically," and then give the instruction for the exercise of the psychic force, or directed will power working in connection with the rhythmic breath vibrations. after a little practice you will find that you will not need to count after the first rhythmic breath, as the mind will grasp the idea of time and rhythm and you will be able to breathe rhythmically at pleasure, almost automatically. this will leave the mind clear for the sending of the psychic vibrations under the direction of the will. (see the following first exercise for directions in using the will.) (2) prana distributing. lying flat on the floor or bed, completely relaxed, with hands resting lightly over the solar plexus (over the pit of the stomach, where the ribs begin to separate), breathe rhythmically. after the rhythm is fully established _will_ that each inhalation will draw in an increased supply of prana or vital energy from the universal supply, which will be taken up by the nervous system and stored in the solar plexus. at each exhalation will that the prana or vital energy is being distributed all over the body, to every organ and part; to every muscle, cell and atom; to nerve, artery and vein; from the top of your head to the soles of your feet; invigorating, strengthening and stimulating every nerve; recharging every nerve center; sending energy, force and strength all over the system. while exercising the will, try to form a mental picture of the inrushing prana, coming in through the lungs and being taken up at once by the solar plexus, then with the exhaling effort, being sent to all parts of the system, down to the finger tips and down to the toes. it is not necessary to use the will with an effort. simply commanding that which you wish to produce and then making the mental picture of it is all that is necessary. calm command with the mental picture is far better than forcible willing, which only dissipates force needlessly. the above exercise is most helpful and greatly refreshes and strengthens the nervous system and produces a restful feeling all over the body. it is especially beneficial in cases where one is tired or feels a lack of energy. (3) inhibiting pain. lying down or sitting erect, breath rhythmically, holding the thought that you are inhaling prana. then when you exhale, send the prana to the painful part to re-establish the circulation and nerve current. then inhale more prana for the purpose of driving out the painful condition; then exhale, holding the thought that you are driving out the pain. alternate the two above mental commands, and with one exhalation stimulate the part and with the next drive out the pain. keep this up for seven breaths, then practice the cleansing breath and rest a while. then try it again until relief comes, which will be before long. many pains will be found to be relieved before the seven breaths are finished. if the hand is placed over the painful part, you may get quicker results. send the current of prana down the arm and into the painful part. (4) directing the circulation. lying down or sitting erect, breathe rhythmically, and with the exhalations direct the circulation to any part you wish, which may be suffering from imperfect circulation. this is effective in cases of cold feet or in cases of headache, the blood being sent downward in both cases, in the first case warming the feet, and in the latter, relieving the brain from too great pressure. in the case of headache, try the pain inhibiting first, then follow with sending the blood downward. you will often feel a warm feeling in the legs as the circulation moves downward. the circulation is largely under the control of the will and rhythmic breathing renders the task easier. (5) self-healing. lying in a relaxed condition, breathe rhythmically, and command that a good supply of prana be inhaled. with the exhalation, send the prana to the affected part for the purpose of stimulating it. vary this occasionally by exhaling, with the mental command that the diseased condition be forced out and disappear. use the hands in this exercise, passing them down the body from the head to the affected part. in using the hands in healing yourself or others always hold the mental image that the prana is flowing down the arm and through the finger tips into the body, thus reaching the affected part and healing it. of course we can give only general directions in this book without taking up the several forms of disease in detail, but a little practice of the above exercise, varying it slightly to fit the conditions of the case, will produce wonderful results. some yogis follow the plan of placing both hands on the affected part, and then breathing rhythmically, holding the mental image that they are fairly pumping prana into the diseased organ and part, stimulating it and driving out diseased conditions, as pumping into a pail of dirty water will drive out the latter and fill the bucket with fresh water. this last plan is very effective if the mental image of the pump is clearly held, the inhalation representing the lifting of the pump handle and the exhalation the actual pumping. (6) healing others. we cannot take up the question of the psychic treatment of disease by prana in detail in this book, as such would be foreign to its purpose. but we can and will give you simple, plain instructions whereby you may be enabled to do much good in relieving others. the main principle to remember is that by rhythmic breathing and controlled thought you are enabled to absorb a considerable amount of prana, and are also able to pass it into the body of another person, stimulating weakened parts and organs and imparting health and driving out diseased conditions. you must first learn to form such a clear mental image of the desired condition that you will be able to actually feel the influx of prana, and the force running down your arms and out of your finger tips into the body of the patient. breathe rhythmically a few times until the rhythm is fairly established, then place your bands upon the affected part of the body of the patient, letting them rest lightly over the part. then follow the "pumping" process described to the preceding exercise (self-healing) and fill the patient full of prana until the diseased condition is driven out. every once in a while raise the hands and "flick" the fingers as if you were throwing off the diseased condition. it is well to do this occasionally and also to wash the hands after treatment, as otherwise you may take on a trace of the diseased condition of the patient. also practice the cleansing breath several times after the treatment. during the treatment let the prana pour into the patient in one continuous stream, allowing yourself to be merely the pumping machinery connecting the patient with the universal supply of prana, and allowing it to flow freely through you. you need not work the hands vigorously, but simply enough that the prana freely reaches the affected parts. the rhythmic breathing must be practiced frequently during the treatment, so as to keep the rhythm normal and to afford the prana a free passage. it is better to place the hands on the bare skin, but where this is not advisable or possible place them over the clothing. vary above method occasionally during the treatment by stroking the body gently and softly with the finger tips, the fingers being kept slightly separated. this is very soothing to the patient. in cases of long standing you may find it helpful to give the mental command in words, such as "get out, get out," or "be strong, be strong," as the case may be, the words helping you to exercise the will more forcibly and to the point. vary these instructions to suit the needs of the case, and use your own judgment and inventive faculty. we have given you the general principles and you can apply them in hundreds of different ways. the above apparently simple instruction, if carefully studied and applied, will enable one to accomplish all that the leading "magnetic healers" are able to, although their "systems" are more or less cumbersome and complicated. they are using prana ignorantly and calling it "magnetism." if they would combine rhythmic breathing with their "magnetic" treatment they would double their efficiency. (7) distant healing. prana colored by the thought of the sender may be projected to persons at a distance, who are willing to receive it, and healing work done in this way. this is the secret of the "absent healing," of which the western world has heard so much of late years. the thought of the healer sends forth and colors the prana of the sender, and it flashes across space and finds lodgment in the psychic mechanism of the patient. it is unseen, and like the marconi waves, it passes through intervening obstacles and seeks the person attuned to receive it. in order to treat persons at a distance, you must form a mental image of them until you can feel yourself to be en rapport with them. this is a psychic process dependent upon the mental imagery of the healer. you can feel the sense of rapport when it is established, it manifesting in a sense of nearness. that is about as plain as we can describe it. it may be acquired by a little practice, and some will get it at the first trial. when rapport is established, say mentally to the distant patient, "i am sending you a supply of vital force or power, which will invigorate you and heal you." then picture the prana as leaving your mind with each exhalation of rhythmic breath, and traveling across space instantaneously and reaching the patient and healing him. it is not necessary to fix certain hours for treatment, although you may do so if you wish. the receptive condition of the patient, as he is expecting and opening himself up to your psychic force, attunes him to receive your vibrations whenever you may send them. if you agree upon hours, let him place himself in a relaxed attitude and receptive condition. the above is the great underlying principle of the "absent treatment" of the western world. you may do these things as well as the most noted healers, with a little practice. chapter xv. more phenomena of yogi psychic breathing. (1) thought projection. thoughts may be projected by following the last mentioned method (distant healing) and others will feel the effect of thought so sent forth, it being remembered always that no evil thought can ever injure another person whose thoughts are good. good thoughts are always positive to bad ones, and bad ones always negative to good ones. one can, however, excite the interest and attention of another by sending him thought waves in this way, charging the prana with the message he wishes to convey. if you desire another's love and sympathy, and possess love and sympathy for him, you can send him thoughts of this kind with effect, providing your motives are pure. never, however, attempt to influence another to his hurt, or from impure or selfish motives, as such thoughts only recoil upon the sender with redoubled force, and injure him, while the innocent party is not affected. psychic force when legitimately used is all right, but beware of "black magic" or improper and unholy uses of it, as such attempts are like playing with a dynamo, and the person attempting such things will be surely punished by the result of the act itself. however, no person of impure motives ever acquires a great degree of psychic power, and a pure heart and mind is an invulnerable shield against improper psychic power. keep yourself pure and nothing can hurt you. (2) forming an aura. if you are ever in the company of persons of a low order of mind, and you feel the depressing influence of their thought, breathe rhythmically a few times, thus generating an additional supply of prana, and then by means of the mental image method surround yourself with an egg-shaped thought aura, which will protect you from the gross thought and disturbing influences of others. (3) recharging yourself. if you feel that your vital energy is at a low ebb, and that you need to store up a new supply quickly, the best plan is to place the feet close together (side by side, of course) and to lock the fingers of both hands in any way that seems the most comfortable. this closes the circuit, as it were, and prevents any escape of prana through the extremities. then breathe rhythmically a few times, and you will feel the effect of the recharging. (4) recharging others. if some friend is deficient in vitality you may aid him by sitting in front of him, your toes touching his, and his hands in yours. then both breathe rhythmically, you forming the mental image of sending prana into his system, and he holding the mental image of receiving the prana. persons of weak vitality or passive will should be careful with whom they try this experiment, as the prana of a person of evil desires will be colored with the thoughts of that person, and may give him a temporary influence over the weaker person. the latter, however, may easily remove such influence by closing the circuit (as before mentioned) and breathing a few rhythmic breaths, closing with the cleansing breath. (5) charging water. water may be charged with prana, by breathing rhythmically, and holding the glass of water by the bottom, in the left hand, and then gathering the fingers of the right hand together and shaking them gently over the water, as if you were shaking drops of water off of your finger tips into the glass. the mental image of the prana being passed into the water must also be held. water thus charged is found stimulating to weak or sick persons, particularly if a healing thought accompanies the mental image of the transfer of the prana. the caution given in the last exercise applies also to this one, although the danger exists only in a greatly lessened degree. (6) acquiring mental qualities. not only can the body be controlled by the mind under direction of the will, but the mind itself can be trained and cultivated by the exercise of the controlling will. this, which the western world knows as "mental science," etc., has proved to the west portions of that truth which the yogi has known for ages. the mere calm demand of the will will accomplish wonders in this direction, but if the mental exercise is accompanied by rhythmic breathing, the effect is greatly increased. desirable qualities may be acquired by holding the proper mental image of what is desired during rhythmic breathing. poise and self control, desirable qualities; increased power, etc., may be acquired in this way. undesirable qualities may be eliminated by cultivating the opposite qualities. any or all the "mental science" exercises, "treatments" and "affirmations" may be used with the yogi rhythmic breath. the following is a good general exercise for the acquirement and development of desirable mental qualities: lie in a passive attitude, or sit erect. picture to yourself the qualities you desire to cultivate, seeing yourself as possessed of the qualities, and demanding that your mind develop the quality. breathe rhythmically, holding the mental picture firmly. carry the mental picture with you as much as possible, and endeavor to live up to the ideal you have set up in your mind. you will find yourself gradually growing up to your ideal. the rhythm of the breathing assists the mind in forming new combinations, and the student who has followed the western system will find the yogi rhythmic a wonderful ally in his "mental science" works. (7) acquiring physical qualities. physical qualities may be acquired by the same methods as above mentioned in connection with mental qualities. we do not mean, of course, that short men can be made tall, or that amputated limbs may be replaced, or similar miracles. but the expression of the countenance may be changed; courage and general physical characteristics improved by the control of the will, accompanied by rhythmic breathing. as a man thinks so does he look, act, walk, sit, etc. improved thinking will mean improved looks and actions. to develop any part of the body, direct the attention to it, while breathing rhythmically, holding the mental picture that you are sending an increased amount of prana, or nerve force, to the part, and thus increasing its vitality and developing it. this plan applies equally well to any part of the body which you wish to develop. many western athletes use a modification of this plan in their exercises. the student who has followed our instructions so far will readily understand haw to apply the yogi principles in the above work. the general rule of exercise is the same as in the preceding exercise (acquiring mental qualities). we have touched upon the subject of the cure of physical ailments in preceding pages. (8) controlling the emotions. the undesirable emotions, such as fear, worry, anxiety, hate, anger, jealousy, envy, melancholy, excitement, grief, etc., are amenable to the control of the will, and the will is enabled to operate more easily in such cases if rhythmic breathing is practiced while the student is "willing." the following exercise has been found most effective by the yogi students, although the advanced yogi has but little need of it, as he has long since gotten rid of these undesirable mental qualities by growing spiritually beyond them. the yogi student, however, finds the exercise a great help to him while he is growing. breathe rhythmically, concentrating the attention upon the solar plexus, and sending to it the mental command "get out." send the mental command firmly, just as you begin to exhale, and form the mental picture of the undesirable emotions being carried away with the exhaled breath. repeat seven times, and finish with the cleansing breath, and then see how good you feel. the mental command must be given "in earnest," as trifling will not do the work. (9) transmutation of the reproductive energy. the yogis possess great knowledge regarding the use and abuse of the reproductive principle in both sexes. some hints of this esoteric knowledge have filtered out and have been used by western writers on the subject, and much good has been accomplished in this way. in this little book we cannot do more than touch upon the subject, and omitting all except a bare mention of theory, we will give a practical breathing exercise whereby the student will be enabled to transmute the reproductive energy into vitality for the entire system, instead of dissipating and wasting it in lustful indulgences in or out of the marriage relations. the reproductive energy is creative energy, and may be taken up by the system and transmuted into strength and vitality, thus serving the purpose of regeneration instead of generation. if the young men of the western world understood these underlying principles they would be saved much misery and unhappiness in after years, and would be stronger mentally, morally and physically. this transmutation of the reproductive energy gives great vitality to those practicing it. they will be filled with great vital force, which will radiate from them and will manifest in what has been called "personal magnetism." the energy thus transmuted may be turned into new channels and used to great advantage. nature has condensed one of its most powerful manifestations of prana into reproductive energy, as its purpose is to create. the greatest amount of vital force is concentrated in the smallest area. the reproductive organism is the most powerful storage battery in animal life, and its force can be drawn upward and used, as well as expended in the ordinary functions of reproduction, or wasted in riotous lust. the majority of our students know something of the theories of regeneration; and we can do little more than to state the above facts, without attempting to prove them. the yogi exercise for transmuting reproductive energy is simple. it is coupled with rhythmic breathing, and can be easily performed. it may be practiced at any time, but is specially recommended when one feels the instinct most strongly, at which time the reproductive energy is manifesting and may be most easily transmuted for regenerative purposes. the exercise is as follows: keep the mind fixed on the idea of energy, and away from ordinary sexual thoughts or imaginings. if these thoughts come into the mind do not be discouraged, but regard them as manifestations of a force which you intend using for the purposes of strengthening the body and mind. lie passively or sit erect, and fix your mind on the idea of drawing the reproductive energy upward to the solar plexus, where it will be transmuted and stored away as a reserve force of vital energy. then breathe rhythmically, forming the mental image of drawing up the reproductive energy with each inhalation. with each inhalation make a command of the will that the energy be drawn upward from the reproductive organization to the solar plexus. if the rhythm is fairly established and the mental image is clear, you will be conscious of the upward passage of the energy, and will feel its stimulating effect. if you desire an increase in mental force, you may draw it up to the brain instead of to the solar plexus, by giving the mental command and holding the mental image of the transmission to the brain. the man or woman doing metal creative work, or bodily creative work, will be able to use this creative energy in their work by following the above exercise, drawing up the energy with the inhalation and sending it forth with the exhalation. in this last form of exercise, only such portions as are needed in the work will pass into the work being done, the balance remaining stored up in the solar plexus. you will understand, of course, that it is not the reproductive fluids which are drawn up and used, but the etheripranic energy which animates the latter, the soul of the reproductive organism, as it were. it is usual to allow the head to bend forward easily and naturally during the transmuting exercise. (10) brain stimulating. the yogis have found the following exercise most useful in stimulating the action of the brain for the purpose of producing clear thinking and reasoning. it has a wonderful effect in clearing the brain and nervous system, and those engaged in mental work will find it most useful to them, both in the direction of enabling them to do better work and also as a means of refreshing the mind and clearing it after arduous mental labor. sit in an erect posture, keeping the spinal column straight, and the eyes well to the front, letting the hands rest on the upper part of the legs. breathe rhythmically, but instead of breathing through both nostrils as in the ordinary exercises, press the left nostril close with the thumb, and inhale through the right nostril. then remove the thumb, and close the right nostril with the finger, and then exhale through the left nostril. then, without changing the fingers, inhale through the left nostril, and changing fingers, exhale through the right. then inhale through right and exhale through left, and so on, alternating nostrils as above mentioned, closing the unused nostril with the thumb or forefinger. this is one of the oldest forms of yogi breathing, and is quite important and valuable, and is well worthy of acquirement. but it is quite amusing to the yogis to know that to the western world this method is often held out as being the "whole secret" of yogi breathing. to the minds of many western readers, "yogi breathing" suggests nothing more than a picture of a hindu, sitting erect, and alternating nostrils in the act of breathing. "only this and nothing more." we trust that this little work will open the eyes of the western world to the great possibilities of yogi breathing, and the numerous methods whereby it may be employed. (11) the grand yogi psychic breath. the yogis have a favorite form of psychic breathing which they practice occasionally, to which has been given a sanscrit term of which the above is a general equivalent. we have given it last, as it requires practice on the part of the student in the line of rhythmic breathing and mental imagery, which he has now acquired by means of the preceding exercises. the general principles of the grand breath may be summed up in the old hindu saying: "blessed is the yogi who can breathe through his bones." this exercise will fill the entire system with prana, and the student will emerge from it with every bone, muscle, nerve, cell, tissue, organ and part energized and attuned by the prana and the rhythm of the breath. it is a general housecleaning of the system, and he who practices it carefully will feel as if he had been given a new body, freshly created, from the crown of his head to the tips of his toes. we will let the exercise speak for itself. (1) lie in a relaxed position, at perfect ease. (2) breathe rhythmically until the rhythm is perfectly established. (3) then, inhaling and exhaling, form the mental image of the breath being drawn up through the bones of the legs, and then forced out through them; then through the bones of the arms; then through the top of the skull; then through the stomach; then through the reproductive region; then as if it were traveling upward and downward along the spinal column; and then as if the breath were being inhaled and exhaled through every pore of the skin, the whole body being filled with prana and life. (4) then (breathing rhythmically) send the current of prana to the seven vital centers, in turn, as follows, using the mental picture as in previous exercises: (a) to the forehead. (b) to the back of the head. (c) to the base of the brain. (d) to the solar plexus. (e) to the sacral region (lower part of the spine). (f) to the region of the navel. (g) to the reproductive region. finish by sweeping the current of prana, to and fro from head to feet several times. (5) finish with cleansing breath. chapter xvi. yogi spiritual breathing. the yogis not only bring about desired mental qualities and properties by will-power coupled with rhythmic breathing, but they also develop spiritual faculties, or rather aid in their unfoldment, in the same way. the oriental philosophies teach that man has many faculties which are at present in a dormant state, but which will become unfolded as the race progresses. they also teach that man, by the proper effort of the will, aided by favorable conditions, may aid in the unfoldment of these spiritual faculties, and develop them much sooner than in the ordinary process of evolution. in other words, one may even now develop spiritual powers of consciousness which will not become the common property of the race until after long ages of gradual development under the law of evolution. in all of the exercises directed toward this end, rhythmic breathing plays an important part. there is of course no mystic property in the breath itself which produces such wonderful results, but the rhythm produced by the yogi breath is such as to bring the whole system, including the brain, under perfect control, and in perfect harmony, and by this means, the most perfect condition is obtained for the unfoldment of these latent faculties. in this work we cannot go deeply into the philosophy of the east regarding spiritual development, because this subject would require volumes to cover it, and then again the subject is too abstruse to interest the average reader. there are also other reasons, well known to occultists, why this knowledge should not be spread broadcast at this time. rest assured, dear student, that when the time comes for you to take the next step, the way will be opened out before you. "when the chela (student) is ready, the guru (master) appears." in this chapter we will give you directions for the development of two phases of spiritual consciousness, i.e., (1) the consciousness of the identity of the soul, and (2) the consciousness of the connection of the soul with the universal life. both of the exercises given below are simple, and consist of mental images firmly held, accompanied with rhythmic breathing. the student must not expect too much at the start, but must make haste slowly, and be content to develop as does the flower, from seed to blossom. soul consciousness. the real self is not the body or even the mind of man. these things are but a part of his personality, the lesser self. the real self is the ego, whose manifestation is in individuality. the real self is independent of the body, which it inhabits, and is even independent of the mechanism of the mind, which it uses as an instrument. the real self is a drop from the divine ocean, and is eternal and indestructible. it cannot die or be annihilated, and no matter what becomes of the body, the real self still exists. it is the soul. do not think of your soul as a thing apart from you, for you are the soul, and the body is the unreal and transitory part of you which is changing in material every day, and which you will some day discard. you may develop the faculties so that they will be conscious of the reality of the soul, and its independence of the body. the yogi plan for such development is by meditation upon the real self or soul, accompanied by rhythmic breathing. the following exercise is the simplest form. exercise.--place your body in a relaxed, reclining position. breathe rhythmically, and meditate upon the real self, thinking of yourself as an entity independent of the body, although inhabiting it and being able to leave it at will. think of yourself, not as the body, but as a spirit, and of your body as but a shell, useful and comfortable, but not a part of the real you. think of yourself as an independent being, using the body only as a convenience. while meditating, ignore the body entirely, and you will find that you will often become almost entirely unconscious of it, and will seem to be out of the body to which you may return when you are through with the exercise. this is the gist of the yogi meditative breathing methods, and if persisted in will give one a wonderful sense of the reality of the soul, and will make him seem almost independent of the body. the sense of immortality will often come with this increased consciousness, and the person will begin to show signs of spiritual development which will be noticeable to himself and others. but he must not allow himself to live too much in the upper regions, or to despise his body, for he is here on this plane for a purpose, and he must not neglect his opportunity to gain the experiences necessary to round him out, nor must he fail to respect his body, which is the temple of the spirit. the universal consciousness. the spirit in man, which is the highest manifestation of his soul, is a drop in the ocean of spirit, apparently separate and distinct, but yet really in touch with the ocean itself, and with every other drop in it. as man unfolds in spiritual consciousness he becomes more and more aware of his relation to the universal spirit, or universal mind as some term it. he feels at times as if he were almost at-one-ment with it, and then again he loses the sense of contact and relationship. the yogis seek to attain this state of universal consciousness by meditation and rhythmic breathing, and many have thus attained the highest degree of spiritual attainment possible to man in this stage of his existence. the student of this work will not need the higher instruction regarding adeptship at this time, as he has much to do and accomplish before he reaches that stage, but it may be well to initiate him into the elementary stages of the yogi exercises for developing universal consciousness, and if he is in earnest he will discover means and methods whereby he may progress. the way is always opened to him who is ready to tread the path. the following exercise will be found to do much toward developing the universal consciousness in those who faithfully practice it. exercise.--place your body in a reclining, relaxed position. breathe rhythmically, and meditate upon your relationship with the universal mind of which you are but an atom. think of yourself as being in touch with all, and at-one-ment with all. see all as one, and your soul as a part of that one. feel that you are receiving the vibrations from the great universal mind, and are partaking of its power and strength and wisdom. the two following lines of meditation may be followed. (a) with each inhalation, think of yourself as drawing in to yourself the strength and power of the universal mind. when exhaling think of yourself as passing out to others that same power, at the same time being filled with love for every living thing, and desiring that it be a partaker of the same blessings which you are now receiving. let the universal power circulate through you. (b) place your mind in a reverential state, and meditate upon the grandeur of the universal mind, and open yourself to the inflow of the divine wisdom, which will fill you with illuminating wisdom, and then let the same flow out from you to your brothers and sisters whom you love and would help. this exercise leaves with those who have practiced it a new-found sense of strength, power and wisdom, and a feeling of spiritual exaltation and bliss. it must be practiced only in a serious, reverential mood, and must not be approached triflingly or lightly. general directions. the exercises given in this chapter require the proper mental attitude and conditions, and the trifler and person of a non-serious nature, or one without a sense of spirituality and reverence, had better pass them by, as no results will be obtained by such persons, and besides it is a wilful trifling with things of a high order, which course never benefits those who pursue it. these exercises are for the few who can understand them, and the others will feel no attraction to try them. during meditation let the mind dwell upon the ideas given in the exercise, until it becomes clear to the mind, and gradually manifests in real consciousness within you. the mind will gradually become passive and at rest, and the mental image will manifest clearly. do not indulge in these exercises too often, and do not allow the blissful state produced to render you dissatisfied with the affairs of everyday life, as the latter are useful and necessary for you, and you must never shirk a lesson, however disagreeable to you it may be. let the joy arising from the unfolding consciousness buoy you up and nerve you for the trials of life, and not make you dissatisfied and disgusted. all is good, and everything has its place. many of the students who practice these exercises will in time wish to know more. rest assured that when the time comes we will see that you do not seek in vain. go on in courage and confidence, keeping your face toward the east, from whence comes the rising sun. peace be unto you, and unto all men. aum. transcriber's note: the footnotes marked with lower-case letters were originally sidenotes which referred to sentences within the paragraph. i placed them at the end of chapters to avoid confusion with the footnotes marked with numbers, which were footnotes in the original and are at the end of the text. two old faiths essays on the religions of the hindus and the mohammedans by j. murray mitchell, m.a., ll.d. and sir william muir, ll.d., d.c.l. new york chautauqua press c.l.s.c. department, 150 fifth avenue 1891 the required books of the c.l.s.c. are recommended by a council of six. it must, however, be understood that recommendation does not involve an approval by the council, or by any member of it, of every principle or doctrine contained in the book recommended. * * * * * these essays have been selected from the admirable series of _present day tracts_, published by the religious tract society, london, and are reprinted with permission. contents. the hindu religion. page outline of the essay 7 introduction 9 the vedas 12 philosophy, and ritualism 31 reconstruction--modern hinduism 43 contrast with christianity 58 hinduism in contact with christianity 68 the rise and decline of islam. outline of the essay 83 introduction 85 the rapid spread of islam 87 why the spread of islam was stayed 125 low position of islam in the scale of civilization 129 the hindu religion. outline of the essay. the place of hinduism--which is professed by about a hundred and ninety millions in india--among the religions of the world, and its great antiquity, are pointed out. the comparative simplicity of the system contained in the vedas, the oldest sacred books of the hindus, its almost entire freedom from the use of images, its gradual deterioration in the later hymns, its gradual multiplication of gods, the advance of sacerdotalism, and the increasing complexity of its religious rites are set forth. the philosophical speculation that was carried on, the different philosophical schools, the buddhist reaction, its conflict with brahmanism, its final defeat, and its influence on the victorious system are discussed. the religious reconstruction represented by the puranas, their theological character, the modern ritual, the introduction and rise of caste, and the treatment of women are then considered. a contrast is drawn between the leading characteristics of hinduism and those of christianity, and the effect of christian ideas on modern hinduism is exhibited. the history of the brahmo somaj under keshub chunder sen is given at some length. the hindu religion. introduction. [sidenote: hinduism deserving of study. its antiquity.] the system of religious belief which is generally called hinduism is, on many accounts, eminently deserving of study. if we desire to trace the history of the ancient religions of the widely extended aryan or indo-european race, to which we ourselves belong, we shall find in the earlier writings of the hindus an exhibition of it decidedly more archaic even than that which is presented in the homeric poems. then, the growth--the historical development--of hinduism is not less worthy of attention than its earlier phases. it has endured for upward of three thousand years, no doubt undergoing very important changes, yet in many things retaining its original spirit. the progress of the system has not been lawless; and it is exceedingly instructive to note the development, and, if possible, explain it. we are, then, to endeavor to study hinduism chronologically. unless he does so almost every man who tries to comprehend it is, at first, overwhelmed with a feeling of utter confusion and bewilderment. hinduism spreads out before him as a vast river, or even what seems at first "a dark illimitable ocean, without bound, without dimension, where length, breadth, and height, and time, and place are lost." [sidenote: the discussion chronological.] but matters begin to clear up when he begins at the beginning, and notes how one thing succeeded another. it may not be possible as yet to trace all the windings of the stream or to show at what precise points in its long course it was joined by such and such a tributary; yet much is known regarding the mighty river which every intelligent man will find it profitable to note and understand. [sidenote: the christian's duty in relation to the subject.] the christian ought not to rest satisfied with the vague general idea that hinduism is a form of heathenism with which he has nothing to do, save to help in destroying it. let him try to realize the ideas of the hindu regarding god, and the soul, and sin, and salvation, and heaven, and hell, and the many sore trials of this mortal life. he will then certainly have a much more vivid perception of the divine origin and transcendent importance of his own religion. farther, he will then extend a helping hand to his eastern brother with far more of sensibility and tenderness; and in proportion to the measure of his loving sympathy will doubtless be the measure of his success. a yearning heart will accomplish more than the most cogent argument. [sidenote: the purpose of the tract.] in this tract we confine ourselves to the laying down of great leading facts and principles; but these will be dwelt upon at sufficient length to give the reader, we trust, an accurate conception of the general character and history of hinduism. we shall also briefly contrast the system with christianity. the history of hinduism may be divided into three great periods, each embracing, in round numbers, about a thousand years. i. the vedas. [sidenote: the most ancient writings of india.] regarding the earliest form of hinduism we must draw our conceptions from the veda, or, to speak more accurately, the four vedas. the most important of these is the rig veda; and internal evidence proves it to be the most ancient. it contains above a thousand hymns; the earliest of which may date from about the year 1500 b.c. the hindus, or, as they call themselves, the aryas, had by that time entered india, and were dwelling in the north-western portion, the panjab. the hymns, we may say, are racy of the soil. there is no reference to the life led by the people before they crossed the himalaya mountains or entered by some of the passes of afghanistan. it would be very interesting if we could discover the pre-vedic form of the religion. inferentially this may, to some extent, be done by comparing the teachings of the vedas with those contained in the books of other branches of the great aryan family--such as the greeks, the romans, and, above all, the iranians (ancient persians). the ancient hindus were a highly gifted, energetic race; civilized to a considerable extent; not nomadic; chiefly shepherds and herdsmen, but also acquainted with agriculture. commerce was not unknown; the river indus formed a highway to the indian ocean, and at least the phenicians availed themselves of it from perhaps the seventeenth century b.c., or even earlier. [sidenote: the hymns are strongly religious. they are a selection. pre-eminently sacerdotal. present the religious thought of the ancient hindus.] as soon as we begin to study the hymns of the veda we are struck by their strongly religious character. tacitly assuming that the book contains the whole of the early literature of india, many writers have expressed themselves in strong terms regarding the primitive hindus as religious above all other races. but as we read on we become convinced that these poems are a selection, rather than a collection, of the literature; and the conviction grows that the selection has been made by priestly hands for priestly purposes. an acute critic has affirmed that the vedic poems are "pre-eminently sacerdotal, and in no sense popular."[1] we can thus explain a pervading characteristic of the book which has taken most readers by surprise. there is a want of simplicity in the veda. it is often most elaborate, artificial, overrefined--one might even say, affected. how could these be the thoughts, or those the expressions, of the imperfectly civilized shepherds of the panjab? but if it be only a hymn-book, with its materials arranged for liturgical purposes, the difficulty vanishes.[2] we shall accordingly take it for granted that the veda presents only the religious thought of the ancient hindus--and not the whole of the religious thought, but only that of a very influential portion of the race. with all the qualifications now stated, the veda must retain a position of high importance for all who study indian thought and life. the religious stamp which the compilers of the veda impressed so widely and so deeply has not been obliterated in the course of thirty centuries. [sidenote: their religion is nature-worship.] the prevailing aspect of the religion presented in the vedic hymns may be broadly designated as nature-worship. [sidenote: physical phenomena in india. their effect on the religion.] all physical phenomena in india are invested with a grandeur which they do not possess in northern or even southern europe. sunlight, moonlight, starlight, the clouds purpled with the beam of morning or flaming in the west like fiery chariots of heaven; to behold these things in their full magnificence one ought to see them in the east. even so the sterner phenomena of nature--whirlwind and tempest, lightning and thunder, flood and storm-wave, plague, pestilence, and famine; all of these oftentimes assume in the east a character of awful majesty before which man cowers in helplessness and despair. the conceptions and feelings hence arising have from the beginning powerfully affected the religion of the hindus. every-where we can trace the impress of the grander manifestations of nature--the impress of their beneficence, their beauty, their might, their mystery, or their terribleness. [sidenote: the deities are "the bright ones," according to the language of the sacred books of india.] the sanskrit word for god is _deva_, which means _bright, shining_. of physical phenomena it was especially those connected with light that enkindled feelings of reverence. the black thunder-cloud that enshrouded nature, in which the demon had bound the life-giving waters, passed away; for the glittering thunder-bolt was launched, and the streams rushed down, exulting in their freedom; and then the heaven shone out again, pure and peaceful as before. but such a wonder as the dawn--with far-streaming radiance, returning from the land of mystery, fresh in eternal youth, and scattering the terrors of the night before her--who could sufficiently admire? and let it be remembered that in the hindu mind the interval between admiration and adoration is exceedingly small. yet, while it is the dawn which has evoked the truest poetry, she has not retained the highest place in worship. [sidenote: fire much worshiped.] no divinity has fuller worship paid him than agni, the fire (_ignis_). more hymns are dedicated to him than to any other being. astonishment at the properties of fire; a sense of his condescension in that he, a mighty god, resides in their dwellings; his importance as the messenger between heaven and earth, bearing the offerings aloft; his kindness at night in repelling the darkness and the demons which it hides--all these things raised agni to an exalted place. he is fed with pure clarified butter, and so rises heavenward in his brightness. the physical conception of fire, however, adheres to him, and he never quite ceases to be the earthly flame; yet mystical conceptions thickly gather round this root-idea; he is fire pervading all nature; and he often becomes supreme, a god of gods. [sidenote: soma highly exalted. soma becomes a very mighty god.] all this seems natural enough; but one is hardly prepared for the high exaltation to which soma is raised. soma is properly the juice of a milky plant (_asclepias acida_, or _sarcostemma viminale_), which, when fermented, is intoxicating. the simple-minded aryas were both astonished and delighted at its effects; they liked it themselves; and they knew nothing more precious to present to their gods. accordingly, all of these rejoice in it. indra in particular quaffs it "like a thirsty stag;" and under its exhilarating effects he strides victoriously to battle. soma itself becomes a god, and a very mighty one; he is even the creator and father of the gods;[3] the king of gods and men;[4] all creatures are in his hand. it is surely extraordinary that the aryas could apply such hyperbolical laudations to the liquor which they had made to trickle into the vat, and which they knew to be the juice of a plant they had cut down on the mountains and pounded in a mortar; and that intoxication should be confounded with inspiration. yet of such aberrations we know the human mind is perfectly capable. [sidenote: connection with persian, greek, and roman systems. varuna, the god of heaven. the sublimity of the vedic description of him.] we have first referred to agni and soma, as being the only divinities of highest rank which still retain their physical character. the worship paid to them was of great antiquity; for it is also prescribed in the persian avesta, and must have been common to the indo-iranian branch of the aryan race before the hindus entered india. but we can inferentially go still further back and speak of a deity common to the greeks, romans, persians, and hindus. this deity is varuna, the most remarkable personality in the veda. the name, which is etymologically connected with [greek: ouranos], signifies "the encompasser," and is applied to heaven--especially the all-encompassing, extreme vault of heaven--not the nearer sky, which is the region of cloud and storm. it is in describing varuna that the veda rises to the greatest sublimity which it ever reaches. a mysterious presence, a mysterious power, a mysterious knowledge amounting almost to omniscience, are ascribed to varuna. the winkings of men's eyes are numbered by him. he upholds order, both physical and moral, throughout the universe. [sidenote: contrast with the laudations of agni and soma. the loftier conceptions of divinity the earlier.] the winds are his breath, the sun his eye, the sky his garment. he rewards the good and punishes the wicked. yet to the truly penitent he is merciful. it is absolutely confounding to pass from a hymn that celebrates the serene majesty and awful purity of varuna to one filled with measureless laudations of soma or agni. could conceptions of divinity so incongruous co-exist? that they could not spring up in the same mind, or even in the same age, is abundantly manifest. and, as we have mentioned, the loftier conceptions of divinity are unquestionably the earlier. it is vain to speak, as certain writers do, of religion gradually refining itself, as a muddy stream can run itself pure; hinduism resembles the ganges, which, when it breaks forth from its mountain cradle at hardwar, is comparatively pellucid, but, as it rolls on, becomes more and more muddy, discolored, and unclean.[5] [sidenote: indra. his achievements.] various scholars affirm that varuna, in more ancient pre-vedic times, held a position still higher than the very high one which he still retains. this is probable; indeed, it is certain that, before later divinities had intruded, he held a place of unrivaled majesty. but, in the vedas, indra is a more conspicuous figure. he corresponds to the jupiter pluvius of the romans. in north-western india, after the burning heat, the annual return of the rains was hailed with unspeakable joy; it was like life succeeding death. the clouds that floated up from the ocean were at first thin and light; ah! a hostile demon was in them, carrying off the healing waters and not permitting them to fall; but the thunder-bolt of indra flashed; the demon was driven away howling, and the emancipated streams refreshed the thirsty earth. varuna was not indeed dethroned, but he was obscured, by the achievements of the warlike indra; and the supersensuous, moral conceptions that were connected with the former gradually faded from the minds of the people, and varuna erelong became quite a subordinate figure in the pantheon. [sidenote: number and relations of deities uncertain.] the deities are generally said in the veda to be "thrice eleven" in number. we also hear of three thousand three hundred and thirty-nine. there is no _system_, no fixed order in the hierarchy; a deity who in one hymn is quite subordinate becomes in another supreme; almost every god becomes supreme in turn; in one hymn he is the son of some deity and in another that deity's father, and so (if logic ruled) his own grandfather. every poet exalts his favorite god, till the mind becomes utterly bewildered in tracing the relationships. we have already spoken of agni, varuna, and indra, as well as soma. next to these in importance may come the deities of light, namely, the sun, the dawn, and the two asvina or beams that accompany the dawn. the winds come next. the earth is a goddess. the waters are goddesses. it is remarkable that the stars are very little mentioned; and the moon holds no distinguished place. [sidenote: hardly any fetichism in the rig veda.] in the religion of the rig veda we hardly see fetichism--if by fetichism we mean the worship of small physical objects, such as stones, shells, plants, etc., which are believed to be charged (so to speak) with divinity, though this appears in the fourth veda--the atharva. but even in the rig veda almost any object that is grand, beneficent, or terrible may be adored; and implements associated with worship are themselves worshiped. thus, the war-chariot, the plow, the furrow, etc., are prayed to. [sidenote: early tendency toward pantheism.] a pantheistic conception of nature was also present in the indian mind from very early times, although its development was later. even in the earliest hymns any portion of nature with which man is brought into close relation may be adored.[6] [sidenote: reverence of the dead.] we must on no account overlook the reverence paid to the dead. the _pitris_ (_patres_) or fathers are frequently referred to in the veda. they are clearly distinguished from the _devas_ or gods. in later writings they are also distinguished from men, as having been created separately from them; but this idea does not appear in the veda. yama, the first mortal, traveled the road by which none returns, and now drinks the soma in the innermost of heaven, surrounded by the other fathers. these come also, along with the gods, to the banquets prepared for them on earth, and, sitting on the sacred grass, rejoice in the exhilarating draught. [sidenote: the subjects of the hymns of the rig veda.] the hymns of the rig veda celebrate the power, exploits, or generosity of the deity invoked, and sometimes his personal beauty. the praises lavished on the god not only secured his favor but increased his power to help the worshiper. [sidenote: the holiest prayer.] there is one prayer (so called) which is esteemed pre-eminently holy; generally called--from the meter in which it is composed--the gayatri.[7] it may be rendered thus: "let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine son (or vivifier); may he enlighten our understandings!" it has always been frequently repeated in important rites. [sidenote: atharva veda. inferior morally and spiritually to the rig veda. explanation of deterioration.] so far we have referred almost exclusively to the rig veda. the next in importance is the atharva, sometimes termed the brahma veda; which we may render the veda of incantations. it contains six hundred and seventy hymns. of these a few are equal to those in the rig veda; but, as a whole, the atharva is far inferior to the other in a moral and spiritual point of view. it abounds in imprecations, charms for the destruction of enemies, and so forth. talismans, plants, or gems are invoked, as possessed of irresistible might to kill or heal. the deities are often different from those of the rig veda. the atharva manifests a great dread of malignant beings, whose wrath it deprecates. we have thus simple demon-worship. how is this great falling-off to be explained? in one of two ways. either a considerable time intervened between the composition of the two books, during which the original faith had rapidly degenerated, probably through contact with aboriginal races who worshiped dark and sanguinary deities; or else there had existed from the beginning two forms of the religion--the higher of which is embodied in the hymns of the rig veda, and the lower in the atharva. we believe the latter explanation to be correct, although doubtless the superstitions of the aborigines must all along have exerted an influence on the faith of the invaders. [sidenote: the offerings.] the offerings presented to the gods consisted chiefly of clarified butter, curdled milk, rice-cakes, and fermented soma juice, which was generally mixed with water or milk. all was thrown into the fire, which bore them or their essences to the gods. the soma was also sprinkled on the sacred grass, which was strewn on the floor, and on which the gods and fathers were invited to come and seat themselves that they might enjoy the cheering beverage. the remainder was drunk by the officiating priests. the offerings were understood to nourish and gratify the gods as corporeal beings. [sidenote: animal victims.] animal victims are also offered up. we hear of sheep, goats, bulls, cows, and buffaloes being sacrificed, and sometimes in large numbers. but the great offering was the asvamedha, or sacrifice of the horse. the body of the horse was hacked to pieces; the fragments were dressed--part was boiled, part roasted; some of the flesh was then eaten by the persons present, and the rest was offered to the gods. tremendous was the potency--at least as stated in later times--of a hundred such sacrifices; it rendered the offerer equal or superior to the gods; even the mighty indra trembled for his sovereignty and strove to hinder the consummation of the awful rite. [sidenote: human sacrifice.] human sacrifice was not unknown, though there are very few allusions to it in the earlier hymns. [sidenote: sacrifice deemed of very high importance.] even from the first, however, the rite of sacrifice occupies a very high place, and allusions to it are exceedingly frequent. the observances connected with it are said to be the "first religious rites." sacrifice was early believed to be expiatory; it removed sin. it was substitutionary; the victim stood in place of the offerer. all order in the universe depends upon it; it is "the nave of the world-wheel." sometimes vishnu is said to be the sacrifice; sometimes even the supreme being himself is so. elaborated ideas and a complex ritual, which we could have expected to grow up only in the course of ages, appear from very early times. we seem compelled to draw the inference that sacrifice formed an essential and very important part of the pre-vedic faith.[8] in the veda worship is a kind of barter. in exchange for praises and offerings the deity is asked to bestow favors. temporal blessings are implored, such as food, wealth, life, children, cows, horses, success in battle, the destruction of enemies, and so forth. not much is said regarding sin and the need of forgiveness. a distinguished scholar[9] has said that "the religious notion of sin is wanting altogether;" but this affirmation is decidedly too sweeping. [sidenote: no image-worship. no public worship.] the worship exemplified in the veda is not image-worship. images of the fire, or the winds, or the waters could hardly be required, and while the original nature-worship lasted, idols must have been nearly unknown. yet the description of various deities is so precise and full that it seems to be probably drawn from visible representations of them. worship was personal and domestic, not in any way public. indeed, two men praying at the same time had to pray quite apart, so that neither might disturb the other. each dealt with heaven, so to speak, solely on his own behalf. [sidenote: no temples.] we hear of no places set apart as temples in vedic times. [sidenote: the treatises on ritual.] a veda consists of two parts called _mantra_ or _sanhita_, and _brahmana_. the first is composed of hymns. the second is a statement of ritual, and is generally in prose. the existing brahmanas are several centuries later than the great body of the hymns, and were probably composed when the hindus had crossed the indus, and were advancing along the gangetic valley. the oldest may be about the date of 800 or 700 b.c. [sidenote: growth of priestly power. schools for the study of sacred books, rites, and traditions.] the brahmanas are very poor, both in thought and expression. they have hardly their match in any literature for "pedantry and downright absurdity."[10] poetical feeling and even religious feeling seem gone; all is dead and dry as dust. by this time the sanskrit language had ceased to be generally understood. the original texts could hardly receive accessions; the most learned man could do little more than interpret, or perhaps misinterpret, them. the worshiper looked on; he worshiped now by proxy. thus the priest had risen greatly in importance. he alone knew the sacred verses and the sacred rites. an error in the pronunciation of the mystic text might bring destruction on the worshiper; what could he do but lean upon the priest? the latter could say the prayers if he could not pray. all this worked powerfully for the elevation of the brahmans, the "men of prayer;" they steadily grew into a class, a caste; and into this no one could enter who was not of priestly descent. schools were now found necessary for the study of the sacred books, rites, and traditions. the importance which these attach to theology--doctrine--is very small; the externals of religion are all in all. the rites, in fact, now threw the very gods into the shade; every thing depended on their due performance. and thus the hindu ritual gradually grew up into a stupendous system, the most elaborate, complex, and burdensome which the earth has seen. [sidenote: moral character of the veda.] it is time, however, to give a brief estimate of the moral character of the veda. the first thing that strikes us is its inconsistency. some hymns--especially those addressed to varuna--rise as high as gentile conceptions regarding deity ever rose; others--even in the rig veda--sink miserably low; and in the atharva we find, "even in the lowest depth, a lower still." [sidenote: indra supersedes varuna.] the character of indra--who has displaced or overshadowed varuna[11]--has no high attributes. he is "voracious;" his "inebriety is most intense;" he "dances with delight in battle." his worshipers supply him abundantly with the drink he loves; and he supports them against their foes, ninety and more of whose cities he has destroyed. we do not know that these foes, the dasyus, were morally worse than the intrusive aryas, but the feelings of the latter toward the former were of unexampled ferocity. here is one passage out of multitudes similar: "hurl thy hottest thunder-bolt upon them! uproot them! cleave them asunder! o, indra, overpower, subdue, slay the demon! pluck him up! cut him through the middle! crush his head!" [sidenote: deterioration begins early.] indra, if provided with soma, is always indulgent to his votaries; he supports them _per fas et nefas_. varuna, on the other hand, is grave, just, and to wicked men severe.[12] the supersession of varuna by indra, then, is easily understood. we see the principle on which it rests stated in the old testament. "ye cannot serve the lord," said joshua to the elders of israel; "for he is a holy god." even so jeremiah points sorrowfully to the fact that the pagan nations clung to their false gods, while israel was faithless to the true. as st. paul expresses it, "they did not like to retain god in their knowledge." unless this principle is fully taken into account we cannot understand the historical development of hinduism. [sidenote: varuna the only divinity possessed of pure and elevated attributes.] the veda frequently ascribes to the gods, to use the language of max mã¼ller, "sentiments and passions unworthy of deity." in truth, except in the case of varuna, there is not one divinity that is possessed of pure and elevated attributes. ii. philosophy, and ritualism. [sidenote: speculation begins. rise of asceticism. upanishads. they are pantheistic.] during the vedic period--certainly toward its conclusion--a tendency to speculation had begun to appear. probably it had all along existed in the hindu mind, but had remained latent during the stirring period when the people were engaged in incessant wars. climate, also, must have affected the temperament of the race; and, as the hindus steadily pressed down the valley of the ganges into warmer regions, their love of repose and contemplative quietism would continually deepen. and when the brahmans became a fully developed hierarchy, lavishly endowed, with no employment except the performance of religious ceremonies, their minds could avoid stagnation only by having recourse to speculative thought. again, asceticism has a deep root in human nature; earnest souls, conscious of their own weakness, will fly from the temptations of the world. various causes thus led numbers of men to seek a life of seclusion; they dwelt chiefly in forests, and there they revolved the everlasting problems of existence, creation, the soul, and god. the lively greeks, for whom, with all their high intellectual endowments, a happy sensuous existence was nearly all in all, were amazed at the numbers in northern india who appeared weary of the world and indifferent to life itself. by and for these recluses were gradually composed the aranyakas, or forest treatises; and out of these grew a series of more regular works, called upanishads.[13] at least two hundred and fifty of these are known to exist. they have been called "guesses at truth;" they are more so than formal solutions of great questions. many of them are unintelligible rhapsodies; others rise almost to sublimity. they frequently contradict each other; the same writer sometimes contradicts himself. one prevailing characteristic is all-important; their doctrine is pantheism. the pantheism is sometimes not so much a coldly reasoned system as an aspiration, a yearning, a deep-felt need of something better than the mob of gods who came in the train of indra, and the darker deities who were still crowding in. even in spite of the counteracting power of the gospel mysticism has run easily into pantheism in europe, and orthodox christians sometimes slide unconsciously into it, or at least into its language.[14] but, as has been already noted, a strain of pantheism existed in the hindu mind from early times. accordingly, these hermit sages, these mystic dreamers, soon came to identify the human soul with god. and the chief end of man was to seek that the stream derived from god should return to its source, and, ceasing to wander through the wilderness of this world, should find repose in the bosom of the illimitable deep, the one, the all. the brahmans attached the upanishads to the veda proper, and they soon came to be regarded as its most sacred part. in this way the influence these treatises have exercised has been immense; more than any other portion of the earlier hindu writings they have molded the thoughts of succeeding generations. philosophy had thus begun. [sidenote: six philosophic schools.] the speculations of which we see the commencement and progress in the upanishads were finally developed and classified in a series of writings called the six sastras or _darsanas_. these constitute the regular official philosophy of india. they are without much difficulty reducible to three leading schools of thought--the nyaya, the sankhya, and the vedanta. roundly, and speaking generally, we may characterize these systems as theistic, atheistic, and pantheistic respectively. [sidenote: the nyaya.] it is doubtful, however, whether the earlier form of the nyaya was theistic or not. the later form is so, but it says nothing of the moral attributes of god, nor of his government. the chief end of man, according to the nyaya, is deliverance from pain; and this is to be attained by cessation from all action, whether good or bad. [sidenote: the sankhya.] the sankhya declares matter to be self-existent and eternal. soul is distinct from matter, and also eternal. when it attains true knowledge it is liberated from matter and from pain. the sankhya holds the existence of god to be without proof. [sidenote: the vedanta.] but the leading philosophy of india is unquestionably the vedanta. the name means "the end or scope of the veda;" and if the upanishads were the veda, instead of treatises tacked on to it, the name would be correct; for the vedanta, like the upanishads, inculcates pantheism. the form which this philosophy ultimately assumed is well represented in the treatise called the vedanta sara, or essence of the vedanta. a few extracts will suffice to exhibit its character. "the unity of the soul and god--this is the scope of all vedanta treatises." we have frequent references made to the "great saying," _tat twam_--that is, that art thou, or thou art god; and _aham brahma_, that is, i am god. again it is said, "the whole universe is god." god is "existence (or more exactly an existent thing[15]), knowledge, and joy." knowledge, not a knower; joy, not one who rejoices. [sidenote: it teaches absolute idealism.] every thing else has only a seeming existence, which is in consequence of ignorance (or illusion). ignorance makes the soul think itself different from god; and it also "projects" the appearance of an external world. "he who knows god becomes god." "when he, the first and last, is discerned, one's own acts are annihilated." meditation, without distinction of subject and object, is the highest form of thought. it is a high attainment to say, "i am god;" but the consummation is when thought exists without an object. there are four states of the soul--waking, dreaming, dreamless sleep, and the "fourth state," or pure intelligence. the working-man is in dense ignorance; in sleep he is freed from part of this ignorance; in dreamless sleep he is freed from still more; but the consummation is when he attains something beyond this, which it seems cannot be explained, and is therefore called the fourth state. [sidenote: doctrine of "the self." inconsistent statements.] the name, which in later writings is most frequently given to the "one without a second,"[16] is atman, which properly means self. much is said of the way in which the self in each man is to recover, or discover, its unity with the supreme or real self. for as the one sun shining in the heavens is reflected, often in distorted images, in multitudes of vessels filled with water, so the one self is present in all human minds.[17] there is not--perhaps there could not be--consistency in the statements of the relation of the seeming to the real. in most of the older books a practical or conventional existence is admitted of the self in each man, but not a real existence. but when the conception is fully formulated the finite world is not admitted to exist save as a mere illusion. all phenomena are a play--a play without plot or purpose, which the absolute plays with itself.[18] this is surely transcendent transcendentalism. one regrets that speculation did not take one step more, and declare that the illusion was itself illusory. then we should have gone round the circle, and returned to _sensus communis_. we must be pardoned if we seem to speak disrespectfully of such fantastic speculations; we desire rather to speak regretfully of the many generations of men which successively occupied themselves with such unprofitable dreams; for this kind of thought is traceable even from vedic days. it is more fully developed in the upanishads. in them occurs the classical sentence so frequently quoted in later literature, which declares that the absolute being is the "one [thing] without a second."[19] [sidenote: the gita.] the book which perhaps above all others has molded the mind of india in more recent days is the bhagavad gita, or song of the holy one. it is written in stately and harmonious verse, and has achieved the same task for indian philosophy as lucretius did for ancient epicureanism.[20] it is eclectic, and succeeds, in a sort of way, in forcing the leading systems of indian thought into seeming harmony. [sidenote: intellectual pride.] some have thought they could discern in these daring speculations indications of souls groping after god, and saddened because of the difficulty of finding him. were it so, all our sympathies would at once be called forth. but no; we see in these writings far more of intellectual pride than of spiritual sadness. those ancient dreamers never learned their own ignorance. they scarcely recognized the limitations of the human mind. and when reason could take them no farther they supplemented it by dreams and ecstasy until, in the yoga philosophy, they rushed into systematized mysticisms and magic far more extravagant than the wildest _theurgy_ of the degraded neoplatonism of the roman empire. a learned writer thus expresses himself: "the only one of the six schools that seem to recognize the doctrine of divine providence is the yoga. it thus seems that the consistent followers of these systems can have, in their perfected state, no religion, no action, and no moral character."[21] [sidenote: indian philosophy a sad failure.] and now to take a brief review of the whole subject. the hindu sages were men of acute and patient thought; but their attempt to solve the problem of the divine and human natures, of human destiny and duty, has ended in total failure. each system baseless, and all mutually conflicting; systems cold and cheerless, that frown on love and virtuous exertion, and speak of annihilation or its equivalent, absorption, as our highest hope: such is the poor result of infinite speculation. "the world by wisdom knew not god." o, that india would learn the much-needed lesson of humility which the experience of ages ought to teach her! [sidenote: sacerdotalism. the tyranny of sacerdotalism.] while speculation was thus busy sacerdotalism was also continually extending its influence. the brahman, the man of prayer, had made himself indispensable in all sacred rites. he alone--as we have seen--knew the holy text; he alone could rightly pronounce the words of awful mystery and power on which depended all weal or woe. on all religions occasions the priest must be called in, and, on all occasions, implicitly obeyed. for a considerable time the princes straggled against the encroachments of the priests; but in the end they were completely vanquished. never was sacerdotal tyranny more absolute; the proudest pope in mediã¦val times never lorded it over western christendom with such unrelenting rigor as the brahmans exercised over both princes and people. the feeling of the priests is expressed in a well-known stanza: "all the world is subject to the gods; the gods are subject to the holy texts; the holy texts are subject to the brahman; therefore the brahman is my god." yes, the sacred man could breathe the spell which made earth and hell and heaven itself to tremble. he therefore logically called himself an earthly god. indeed, the brahman is always logical. he draws conclusions from premises with iron rigor of reasoning; and with side-issues he has nothing to do. he stands upon his rights. woe to the being--god or man--who comes in conflict with him! [sidenote: ritual becomes extravagant.] the priests naturally multiplied religious ceremonies, and made ritual the soul of worship. sacrifice especially assumed still more and more exaggerated forms--becoming more protracted, more expensive, more bloody. a hecatomb of victims was but a small offering. more and more awful powers were ascribed to the rite. [sidenote: reaction.] but the tension was too great, and the bow snapped. buddhism arose. we may call this remarkable system the product of the age--an inevitable rebellion against intolerable sacerdotalism; and yet we must not overlook the importance of the very distinct and lofty personality of buddha (sakya muni) as a power molding it into shape. [sidenote: buddhism. moral elements of this system. conflict with brahmanism. victory of brahmanism.] wherever it extended it effected a vast revolution in indian thought. thus in regard to the institution of caste, buddha did not attack it; he did not, it would appear, even formally renounce it; as a mere social institution he seems to have acknowledged it; but then he held that all the _religious_ were freed from its restrictions. "my law," said he, "is a law of mercy for all;" and forthwith he proceeded to admit men of every caste into the closest fellowship with himself and his followers. then, he preached--he, though not a brahman--in the vernacular languages--an immense innovation, which made his teachings popular. he put in the forefront of his system certain great fundamental principles of morality. he made religion consist in duty, not rites. he reduced duty mainly to mercy or kindness toward all living beings--a marvelous generalization. this set aside all slaughter of animals. the mind of the princes and people was weary of priestcraft and ritualism; and the teaching of the great reformer was most timely. accordingly his doctrine spread with great rapidity, and for a long time it seemed likely to prevail over brahmanism. but various causes gradually combined against it. partly, it was overwhelmed by its own luxuriance of growth; partly, brahmanism, which had all along maintained an intellectual superiority, adopted, either from conviction or policy, most of the principles of buddhism, and skillfully supplied some of its main deficiencies. thus the brahmans retained their position; and, at least nominally, their religion won the day. iii. reconstruction--modern hinduism. [sidenote: revival, in an altered form, of hinduism. only the position of the brahman and the restrictions of caste retained.] but the hinduism that grew up, as buddhism faded from indian soil, was widely different from the system with which early buddhism had contended. hinduism, as it has been developed during the last thousand or twelve hundred years, resembles a stupendous far-extended building, or series of buildings, which is still receiving additions, while portions have crumbled and are crumbling into ruin. every conceivable style of architecture, from that of the stately palace to the meanest hut, is comprehended in it. on a portion of the structure here or there the eye may rest with pleasure; but as a whole it is an unsightly, almost monstrous, pile. or, dismissing figures, we must describe it as the most extraordinary creation which the world has seen. a jumble of all things; polytheistic pantheism; much of buddhism; something apparently of christianity, but terribly disfigured; a science wholly outrageous; shreds of history twisted into wild mythology; the bold poetry of the older books understood as literal prose; any local deity, any demon of the aborigines, however hideous, identified with some accredited hindu divinity; any custom, however repugnant to common sense or common decency, accepted and explained--in a word, later hinduism has been omnivorous; it has partially absorbed and assimilated every system of belief, every form of worship, with which it has come in contact. only to one or two things has it remained inflexibly true. it has steadily upheld the proudest pretensions of the brahman; and it has never relaxed the sternest restrictions of caste. we cannot wonder at the severe judgment pronounced on hinduism by nearly every western author. according to macaulay, "all is hideous and grotesque and ignoble;" and the calmer de tocqueville maintains that "hinduism is perhaps the only system of belief that is worse than having no religion at all."[22] when a modern hindu is asked what are the sacred books of his religion he generally answers: "the vedas, the sastras (that is, philosophical systems), and the puranas." some authorities add the tantras. the modern form of hinduism is exhibited chiefly in the eighteen puranas, and an equal number of upapuranas (minor puranas).[23] [sidenote: the puranas.] when we compare the religion embodied in the puranas with that of vedic times we are startled at the magnitude of the change. the pantheon is largely new; old deities have been superseded; other deities have taken their place. there has been both accretion from without and evolution from within. the thirty-three gods of the vedas have been fantastically raised to three hundred and thirty millions. siva, durga, rama, krishna, kali--unknown in ancient days--are now mighty divinities; indra is almost entirely overlooked, and varuna has been degraded from his lofty throne and turned into a regent of the waters. [sidenote: new deities, rites, and customs.] the worship of the linga (phallus) has been introduced. so has the great dogma of transmigration, which has stamped a deeper impress on later hindu mind than almost any other doctrine. caste is fully established, though in vedic days scarcely, if at all, recognized. the dreadful practice of widow-burning has been brought in, and this by a most daring perversion of the vedic texts. woman, in fact, has fallen far below the position assigned her in early days. [sidenote: the trimurtti, a triad of gods.] one of the notable things in connection with the reconstruction of hinduism is the position it gives to the trimurtti, or triad of gods--brahma, vishnu, and siva. something like an anticipation of this has been presented in the later vedic times: fire, air, and the sun (agni, vayu, and surya) being regarded by the commentator[24] as summing up the divine energies. but in the vedas the deities often go in pairs; and little stress should be laid on the idea of a vedic triad. that idea, however, came prominently forward in later days. the worship both of vishnu and siva may have existed, from ancient times, as popular rites not acknowledged by the brahmans; but both of these deities were now fully recognized. the god brahma was an invention of the brahmans; he was no real divinity of the people, and had hardly ever been actually worshiped. it is visual to designate brahma, vishnu, and siva as creator, preserver, and destroyer respectively; but the generalization is by no means well maintained in the hindu books. [sidenote: the avatara.] the puranas are in general violently sectarian; some being vishnuite, others sivite. it is in connection with vishnu, especially, that the idea of incarnation becomes prominent. the hindu term is _avatara_, literally, _descent_; the deity is represented as descending from heaven to earth, for vindication of the truth and righteousness, or, to use the words ascribed to krishna, for the preservation of the good, and the destruction of the wicked, for the establishment of religion, i am born from age to age. [sidenote: the "descents" of vishnu.] the "descents" of vishnu are usually reckoned ten. of these by far the most celebrated are those of rama and krishna. the great importance attached to these two deities has been traced to the influence of buddhism. that system had exerted immense power in consequence of the gentle and attractive character ascribed to buddha. the older gods were dim, distant, and often stern; some near, intelligible, and loving divinity was longed for. buddha was a brother-man, and yet a quasi-deity; and hearts longing for sympathy and succor were strongly attracted by such a personality. [sidenote: the god rama.] the character of rama--or ramachandra--is possessed of some high qualities. the great poem in which it is described at fullest length--the ramayana of valmiki--seems to have been an alteration, made in the interests of hinduism, of early buddhist legends; and the buddhist quality of gentleness has not disappeared in the history.[25] rama, however, is far from a perfect character. his wife sita is possessed of much womanly grace and every wifely virtue; and the sorrowful story of the warrior-god and his faithful spouse has appealed to deep sympathies in the human breast. the worship of rama has seldom, if ever, degenerated into lasciviousness. in spite, however, of the charm thrown around the life of rama and sita by the genius of valmiki and tulsida,[26] it is krishna, not rama, that has attained the greatest popularity among the "descents" of vishnu. [sidenote: krishna. his early life a travesty of the life of christ, according to the gospel of the infancy.] very different morally from that of rama is the character of krishna. while rama is but a partial manifestation of divinity krishna is a full manifestation; yet what a manifestation! he is represented as full of naughty tricks in his youth, although exercising the highest powers of deity; and, when he grows up, his conduct is grossly immoral and disgusting. it is most startling to think that this being is by grave writers--like the authors of the bhagavad gita and the bhagavata purana--made the highest of the gods, or, indeed, the only real god. stranger still, if possible, is the probability that the early life of krishna--in part, at least--is a dreadful travesty of the early life of christ, as given in the apocryphal gospels, especially the gospel of the infancy. the falling off in the apocryphal gospels, when compared with the canonical, is truly sad; but the falling off even from the apocryphal ones, in the hindu books, is altogether sickening.[27] a very striking characteristic of modern hinduism is what is termed _bhakti_, or devotion. there are three great ways of attaining to salvation: _karma marga_, or the way of ceremonial works; _jnana marga_, or the way of knowledge, and _bhakti marga_, or the way of devotion. [sidenote: doctrine of _bhakti_ introduced. influence of the system. mixed with buddhist elements. exaltation of the _guru_.] the notion of trust in the gods was familiar to the mind of india from vedic days, but the deity was indistinct and unsympathetic, and there could hardly be love and attachment to him. but there now arose the doctrine of _bhakti_ (devotion), which resolved religion into emotion. it came into the hindu system rather abruptly; and many learned men have traced its origin to the influence of christianity. this is quite possible; but perhaps the fact is hardly proved. contact with christianity, however, probably accelerated a process which had previously begun. at all events, the system of _bhakti_ has had, and still has, great sway in india, particularly in bengal, among the followers of chaitanya, and the large body of people in western india who style themselves _vaishnavas_ or _bhaktas_ (devotees). the popular poetry of maharashtra, as exemplified in such poets as tukarama, is an impassioned inculcation of devotion to vithoba of pandharpur, who is a manifestation of krishna. into the _bhakti_ system of western india buddhist elements have entered; and the school of devotees is often denominated bauddha-vaishnava. along with extravagant idolatry it inculcates generally, at least in the maratha country, a pure morality; and the latter it apparently owes to buddhism. yet there are many sad lapses from purity. almost of necessity the worship of krishna led to corruption. the hymns became erotic; and movements hopeful at their commencement--like that of chaitanya of bengal, in the sixteenth century--soon grievously fell off in character. the attempt to make religion consist of emotion without thought, of _bhakti_ without _jnana_, had disastrous issues. coincident with the development of _bhakti_ was the exaltation of the _guru_, or religious teacher, which soon amounted to deification--a change traceable from about the twelfth century a.d. [sidenote: explanations of krishna's evil deeds.] when pressed on the subject of krishna's evil deeds many are anxious to explain them as allegorical representations of the union between the divinity and true worshipers; but some interpret them in the most literal way possible. this is done especially by the followers of vallabha acharya.[28] these men attained a most unenviable notoriety about twenty years ago, when a case was tried in the supreme court of bombay, which revealed the practice of the most shameful licentiousness by the religious teachers and their female followers, and this as a part of worship! the disgust excited was so great and general that it was believed the influence of the sect was at an end; but this hope unhappily has not been realized. [sidenote: reforms attempted. kabir. nanak. failure of all reforms.] reformers have arisen from time to time in india; men who saw the deplorable corruption of religion, and strove to restore it to what they considered purity. next to buddha we may mention kabir, to whom are ascribed many verses still popular. probably the doctrine of the unity of god, as maintained by the mohammedans, had impressed him. he opposed idolatry, caste, and brahmanical assumption. yet his monotheism was a kind of pantheism. his date may be the beginning of the fifteenth century. nanak followed and founded the religion of the sikhs. his sacred book, the _granth_, is mainly pantheistic; it dwells earnestly on devotion, especially devotion to the _guru_. the sikhs now seem slowly relapsing into idolatry. in truth, the history of all attempts at reformation in india has been most discouraging. sect after sect has successively risen to some elevation above the prevalent idolatry; and then gradually, as by some irresistible gravitation, it has sunk back into the _mare magnum_ of hinduism. if we regard experience, purification from within is hopeless; the struggle for it is only a repetition of the toil of sisyphus, and always with the same sad issue. deliverance must come from without--from the gospel of jesus christ. [sidenote: influence of the tantras. worship of the sakti.] we mentioned the tantras as exerting great influence in later days.[29] in these the worship of siva, and, still more, that of his wife, is predominant. the deity is now supposed to possess a double nature--one quiescent, one active; the latter being regarded as the _sakti_ or energy of the god, otherwise called his wife. the origin of the system is not fully explained; nor is the date of its rise ascertained. the worship assumes wild, extravagant forms, generally obscene, sometimes bloody. it is divided into two schools--that of the right hand and that of the left. the former runs into mysticism and magic in complicated observances, and the latter into the most appalling licentiousness. the worship of the sakti, or female principle, has become a most elaborate system. the beings adored are "the most outrageous divinities which man has ever conceived."[30] sorcery began early in india; but it is in connection with this system that it attains to full development. human sacrifices are a normal part of the worship when fully performed. we cannot go farther into detail. it is profoundly saddening to think that such abominations are committed; it is still more saddening to think that they are performed as a part of divine worship. conscience, however, is so far alive that these detestable rites are practiced only in secret, and few, if any, are willing to confess that they have been initiated as worshipers. [sidenote: modern ritual.] we have not yet said much about the ritual of modern days. it is exceedingly complicated. in the case of the god siva the rites are as follows, when performed by a priest in the temple: [sidenote: worship of siva.] the brahman first bathes, then enters the temple and bows to the god. he anoints the image with clarified butter or boiled oil; pours pure water over it; and then wipes it dry. he grinds some white powder, mixing it with water; dips the ends of his three forefingers in it and draws them across the image. he sits down; meditates; places rice and _durwa_ grass on the image--places a flower on his own head, and then on the top of the image; then another flower on the image, and another, and another--accompanying each act with the recitation of sacred spells; places white powder, flowers, bilva-leaves, incense, meat-offerings, rice, plantains, and a lamp before the image; repeats the name of siva, with praises, then prostrates himself before the image. in the evening he returns, washes his feet, prostrates himself before the door, opens the door, places a lamp within, offers milk, sweet-meats, and fruits to the image, prostrates himself before it, locks the door, and departs. very similar is the worship paid to vishnu: [sidenote: worship of vishnu.] the priest bathes, and then awakes the sleeping god by blowing a shell and ringing a bell. more abundant offerings are made than to siva. about noon, fruits, roots, soaked peas, sweet-meats, etc., are presented. then, later, boiled rice, fried herbs, and spices; but no flesh, fish, nor fowl. after dinner, betel-nut. the god is then left to sleep, and the temple is shut up for some hours. toward evening curds, butter, sweet-meats, fruits, are presented. at sunset a lamp is brought, and fresh offerings made. lights are waved before the image; a small bell is rung; water is presented for washing the mouth, face, and feet, with a towel to dry them. in a few minutes the offerings and the lamp are removed; and the god is left to sleep in the dark. the prescribed worship is not always fully performed. still, sixteen things are essential, of which the following are the most important: "preparing a seat for the god; invoking his presence; bathing the image; clothing it; putting the string round it; offering perfumes; flowers; incense; lamps; offerings of fruits and prepared eatables; betel-nut; prayers; circumambulation. an ordinary worshiper presents some of the offerings, mutters a short prayer or two, when circumambulating the image, the rest being done by the priest."[31] we give one additional specimen of the ritual: "as an atonement for unwarily eating or drinking what is forbidden eight hundred repetitions of the gayatri prayer should be preceded by three suppressions of the breath, water being touched during the recital of the following text: 'the bull roars; he has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands, and is bound by a three-fold cord; he is the mighty, resplendent being, and pervades mortal men.'"[32] the bull is understood to be justice personified. all brahmanical ceremonies exhibit, we may say, ritualism and symbolism run mad. [sidenote: caste.] the most prominent and characteristic institution of hinduism is caste. the power of caste is as irrational as it is unbounded; and it works almost unmixed evil. the touch--even the shadow--of a low caste man pollutes. the scriptural precept, "honor all men," appears to a true hindu infinitely absurd. he honors and worships a cow; but he shrinks with horror from the touch of a mhar or mang. even brahmans, if they come from different provinces, will not eat together. thus hinduism separates man from man; it goes on dividing and still dividing; and new fences to guard imaginary purity are continually added. [sidenote: treatment of women. widows.] the whole treatment of women has gradually become most tyrannical and unjust. in very ancient days they were held in considerable respect; but, for ages past, the idea of woman has been steadily sinking lower and lower, and her rights have been more and more assailed. the burning of widows has been prohibited by enactment; but the awful rite would in many places be restored were it not for the strong hand of the british government. the practice of marrying women in childhood is still generally--all but universally--prevalent; and when, owing to the zeal of reformers, a case of widow-marriage occurs, its rarity makes it be hailed as a signal triumph. multitudes of the so-called widows were never really wives, their husbands (so-called) having died in childhood. widows are subjected to treatment which they deem worse than death; and yet their number, it is calculated, amounts to about twenty-one millions! more cruel and demoralizing customs than exist in india in regard to women can hardly be found among the lowest barbarians. we are glad to escape from dwelling on points so exceedingly painful. iv. contrast with christianity. the immense difference between the hindu and christian religions has doubtless already frequently suggested itself to the reader. it will not be necessary, therefore, to dwell on this topic at very great length. the contrast forces itself upon us at every point. [sidenote: the aryas and israelites--their probable future, about 1500 b.c. contrast of their after-history.] when, about fifteen centuries b.c., the aryas were victoriously occupying the panjab, and the israelites were escaping from the "iron furnace" of egypt, if one had been asked which of the two races would probably rise to the highest conception of the divine, and contribute most largely to the well-being of mankind, the answer, quite possibly, might have been, the aryas. egypt, with its brutish idolatries, had corrupted the faith of the israelites, and slavery had crushed all manliness out of them. yet how wonderful has been their after-history! among ancient religions that of the old testament stands absolutely unique, and in the fullness of time it blossomed into christianity. how is the marvel to be explained? we cannot account for it except by ascribing it to a divine election of the israelites and a providential training intended to fit them to become the teachers of the world. "salvation is of the jews." the contrast between the teachings of the bible and those of the hindu books is simply infinite. [sidenote: hindu theology compared with christian.] the conception of a purely immaterial being, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable, which is that of the bible regarding god, is entirely foreign to the hindu books. their doctrine is various, but, in every case, erroneous. it is absolute pantheism, or polytheism, or an inconsistent blending of polytheism and pantheism, or atheism. equally striking is the contrast between christianity and hinduism as to the attributes of god. according to the former, he is omnipresent; omnipotent; possessed of every excellence--holiness, justice, goodness, truth. according to the chief hindu philosophy, the supreme is devoid of attributes--devoid of consciousness. according to the popular conception, when the supreme becomes conscious he is developed into three gods, who possess respectively the qualities of truth, passion, and darkness. [sidenote: conception of god.] "god is a spirit." "god is light." "god is love." these sublime declarations have no counterparts in hindustan. he is "the father of spirits," according to the bible. according to hinduism, the individual spirit is a portion of the divine. even the common people firmly believe this. every thing is referred by hinduism to god as its immediate cause. a christian is continually shocked by the hindus ascribing all sin to god as its source. [sidenote: the object of worship.] the adoration of god as a being possessed of every glorious excellence is earnestly commanded in the bible. "thou shalt worship the lord thy god; and him only shalt thou serve." in india the supreme is never worshiped; but any one of the multitudinous gods may be so; and, in fact, every thing can be worshiped _except_ god. a maxim in the mouth of every hindu is the following: "where there is faith, there is god." believe the stone a god and it is so. [sidenote: the sense of sin.] every sin being traced to god as its ultimate source, the sense of personal guilt is very slight among hindus. where it exists it is generally connected with ceremonial defilement or the breach of some one of the innumerable and meaningless rites of the religion. how unlike in all this is the gospel! the bible dwells with all possible earnestness on the evil of sin, not of ceremonial but moral defilement--the transgression of the divine law, the eternal law of right. [sidenote: atonement.] how important a place in the christian system is held by atonement, the great atonement made by christ, it is unnecessary to say. nor need we enlarge on the extraordinary power it exercises over the human heart, at once filling it with contrition, hatred of sin, and overflowing joy. we turn to hinduism. alas! we find that the earnest questionings and higher views of the ancient thinkers have in a great degree been ignored in later times. sacrifice in its original form has passed away. atonement is often spoken of; but it is only some paltry device or other, such as eating the five products of the cow, going on pilgrimage to some sacred shrine, paying money to the priests, or, it may be, some form of bodily penance. such expedients leave no impression on the heart as to the true nature and essential evil of sin. [sidenote: salvation. sanctification.] salvation, in the christian system, denotes deliverance, not only from the punishment of sin, but from its power, implying a renovation of the moral nature. the entire man is to be rectified in heart, speech, and behavior. the perfection of the individual, and, through that, the perfection of society, are the objects aimed at; and the consummation desired is the doing of the will of god on earth as it is done in heaven. now, of all this, surely a magnificent ideal, we find in hinduism no trace whatever. [sidenote: views of life. the great tenet of hinduism.] christianity is emphatically a religion of hope; hinduism may be designated a religion of despair. the trials of life are many and great. christianity bids us regard them as discipline from a father's hand, and tells us that affliction rightly borne yields "the peaceable fruits of righteousness." to death the christian looks forward without fear; to him it is a quiet sleep, and the resurrection draws nigh. then comes the beatific vision of god. glorified in soul and body, the companion of angels and saints, strong in immortal youth, he will serve without let or hinderance the god and saviour whom he loves. to the hindu the trials of life are penal, not remedial. at death his soul passes into another body. rightly, every human soul animates in succession eighty-four lacs (8,400,000) of bodies--the body of a human being, or a beast, or a bird, or a fish, or a plant, or a stone, according to desert. this weary, all but endless, round of births fills the mind of a hindu with the greatest horror. at last the soul is lost in god as a drop mingles with the ocean. individual existence and consciousness then cease. the thought is profoundly sorrowful that this is the cheerless faith of countless multitudes. no wonder, though, the great tenet of hinduism is this--_existence is misery._ [sidenote: the future of the race. the struggle between good and evil.] so much for the future of the individual. regarding the future of the race hinduism speaks in equally cheerless terms. its golden age lies in the immeasurably distant past; and the further we recede from it the deeper must we plunge into sin and wretchedness. true, ages and ages hence the "age of truth" returns, but it returns only to pass away again and torment us with the memory of lost purity and joy. the experience of the universe is thus an eternal renovation of hope and disappointment. in the struggle between good and evil there is no final triumph for the good. we tread a fated, eternal round from which there is no escape; and alike the hero fights and the martyr dies in vain. it is remarkable that acute intellectual men, as many of the hindu poets were, should never have grappled with the problem of the divine government of the world. [sidenote: the future of the aryan race.] equally notable is the unconcern of the veda as to the welfare and the future of even the aryan race. but how sublime is the promise given to abraham that in him and his seed all nations of the earth should be blessed! renan has pointed with admiration to the confidence entertained at all times by the jew in a brilliant and happy future for mankind. the ancient hindu cared not about the future of his neighbors, and doubtless even the expression "human race" would have been unintelligible to him. nor is there any pathos in the veda. there is no deep sense of the sorrows of life. max mã¼ller has affixed the epithet "transcendent" to the hindu mind. its bent was much more toward the metaphysical, the mystical, the incomprehensible than toward the moral and the practical. hence endless subtleties, more meaningless and unprofitable than ever occupied the mind of talmudist or schoolman of the middle ages. [sidenote: the words of st. paul illustrated by hinduism.] but finally, on this part of the subject, the development of indian religion supplies a striking comment on the words of st. paul: "the invisible things of god are clearly seen, being understood from the things that are made. but when they knew god they glorified him not as god, neither were thankful, but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened." [sidenote: moral power.] hinduism is deplorably deficient in power to raise and purify the human soul, from having no high example of moral excellence. its renowned sages were noted for irritability and selfishness--great men at cursing; and the gods for the most part were worse. need we say how gloriously rich the gospel is in having in the character of christ the realized ideal of every possible excellence? [sidenote: ethical effect of hinduism. the people better than their religion.] _summa religionis est imitari quem colis_: "it is the sum of religion to imitate the being worshiped;"[33] or, as the hindus express it: "as is the deity such is the devotee." worship the god revealed in the bible, and you become god-like. the soul strives, with divine aid, to "purify itself even as god is pure." but apply the principle to hinduism. alas! the pantheon is almost a pandemonium. krishna, who in these days is the chief deity to at least a hundred millions of people, does not possess one elevated attribute. if, in the circumstances, society does not become a moral pesthouse it is only because the people continue better than their religion. the human heart, though fallen, is not fiendish. it has still its purer instincts; and, when the legends about abominable gods and goddesses are falling like mildew, these are still to some extent kept alive by the sweet influences of earth and sky and by the charities of family life. when the heart of woman is about to be swept into the abyss her infant's smile restores her to her better self. thus family life does not go to ruin; and so long as that anchor holds society will not drift on the rocks that stand so perilously near. still, the state of things is deplorably distressing. [sidenote: the doctrine of incarnation.] the doctrine of the incarnation is of fundamental importance in christianity. it seems almost profanation to compare it with the hindu teaching regarding the avataras, or descents of vishnu. it is difficult to extract any meaning out of the three first manifestations, when the god became in succession a fish, a boar, and a tortoise. of the great "descents" in rama and krishna we have already spoken. the ninth avatara was that of buddha, in which the deity descended for the purpose of deceiving men, making them deny the gods, and leading them to destruction. so blasphemous an idea may seem hardly possible, even for the bewildered mind of india; but this is doubtless the brahmanical explanation of the rise and progress of buddhism. it was fatal error, but inculcated by a divine being. even the sickening tales of krishna and his amours are less shocking than this. when we turn from such representations of divinity to "the word made flesh" we seem to have escaped from the pestilential air of a charnel-house to the sweet, pure breath of heaven. v. hinduism in contact with christianity. [sidenote: attempted reforms.] we have used the word _reformer_ in this tract. we formerly noted that, in india, there have arisen from time to time men who saw and sorrowed over the erroneous doctrines and degrading rites of the popular system. in quite recent times they have had successors. some account of their work may form a fitting conclusion to our discussion. [sidenote: advance of christianity in india.] with the large influx into india of christian ideas it was to be expected that some impression would be made on hinduism. we do not refer to conversion--the full acceptance of the christian faith. christianity has advanced and is advancing in india more rapidly than is generally supposed; but far beyond the circle of those who "come out and are separate" its mighty power is telling on hinduism. the great fundamental truths of the gospel, when once uttered and understood, can hardly be forgotten. disliked and denied they may be; but forgotten? no. thus they gradually win their way, and multitudes who have no thought of becoming christians are ready to admit that they are beautiful and true; for belief and practice are often widely separated in hindu minds. [sidenote: the brahma samaj.] but it was to be expected that the new ideas pouring into india--and among these we include not only distinctively christian ideas, but western thought generally--would manifest their presence and activity in concrete forms, in attempted reconstructions of religion. the most remarkable example of such a reconstruction is exhibited in the brahmo somaj (more correctly brahma samaj)--which may be rendered the "church of god." [sidenote: rammohun roy. effect of christianity upon him.] it is traceable to the efforts of a truly distinguished man, rammohun roy. he was a person of studious habits, intelligent, acute, and deeply in earnest on the subject of religion. he studied not only hinduism in its various forms, but buddhism, mohammedanism, and christianity. he was naturally an eclectic, gathering truth from all quarters where he thought he could find it. a specially deep impression was made on his mind by christianity; and in 1820 he published a book with the remarkable title, _the precepts of jesus the guide to peace and happiness_. very frequently he gave expression to the sentiment that the teachings of christ were the truest and deepest that he knew. still, he did not believe in christ's divinity. [sidenote: debendernath tagore. keshub chunder sen. formation of a new samaj.] in january, 1830, a place of worship was opened by rammohun roy and his friends. it was intended for the worship of one god, without idolatrous rites of any kind. this was undoubtedly a very important event, and great was the interest aroused in connection with it. rammohun roy, however, visited britain in 1831, and died at bristol in 1833; and the cause for which he had so earnestly labored in india languished for a time. but in the year 1841 debendernath tagore, a man of character and wealth, joined the brahmo somaj, and gave a kind of constitution to it. it was fully organized by 1844. no definite declaration, however, had been made as to the authority of the vedas; but, after a lengthened period of inquiry and discussion, a majority of the somaj rejected the doctrine of their infallibility by 1850. "the rock of intuition" now began to be spoken of; man's reason was his sufficient guide. still, great respect was cherished for the ancient belief and customs of the land. but in 1858 a new champion appeared on the scene, in the well-known keshub chunder sen. ardent, impetuous, ambitions--full of ideas derived from christian sources[34]--he could not brook the slow movements of the somaj in the path of reform. important changes, both religious and social, were pressed by him; and the more conservative debendernath somewhat reluctantly consented to their introduction. matters were, however, brought to a crisis by the marriage of two persons of different castes in 1864. in february, 1865, the progressive party formally severed their connection with the original somaj; and in august, 1869, they opened a new place of worship of their own. since this time the original or adi somaj has been little heard of, and its movement--if it has moved at all--has been retrogressive. the new somaj--the brahmo somaj of india, as it called itself--under the guidance of mr. sen became very active. a missionary institute was set up, and preachers were sent over a great part of india. much was accomplished on behalf of women; and in 1872 a marriage act for members of the somaj was passed by the indian legislature, which legalized union between people of different castes, and fixed on fourteen as the lowest age for the marriage of females. these were important reforms. mr. sen's influence was naturally and necessarily great; but in opposing the venerable leader of the original somaj he had set an example which others were quite willing to copy. [sidenote: discontent growing.] several of his followers began to demand more radical reforms than he was willing to grant. the autocracy exercised by mr. sen was strongly objected to, and a constitution of the somaj was demanded. mr. sen openly maintained that heaven from time to time raises up men endowed with special powers, and commissioned to introduce new forms or "dispensations" of religion; and his conduct fully proved that he regarded himself as far above his followers. complaints became louder; and although the eloquence and genius of keshub were able to keep the rebellious elements from exploding it was evident, as early as 1873, that a crisis was approaching. this came in 1878, when mr. sen's daughter was married to the maharaja of kuch behar. the bride was not fourteen, and the bridegroom was sixteen. now, mr. sen had been earnest and successful in getting the brahmo marriage act passed, which ruled that the lowest marriageable age for a woman was fourteen, and for a man eighteen. here was gross inconsistency. what could explain it? "ambition," exclaimed great numbers; "the wish to exalt himself and his daughter by alliance with a prince." but mr. sen declared that he had consented to the marriage in consequence of an express intimation that such was the will of heaven. mr. sen denied miracles, but believed in inspiration; and of his own inspiration he seems to have entertained no doubt. we thus obtain a glimpse into the peculiar working of his mind. every full conviction, every strong wish of his own he ascribed to divine suggestion. this put him in a position of extreme peril. it was clear that an enthusiastic, imaginative, self-reliant nature like his might thus be borne on to any extent of fanaticism. [sidenote: revolt; a third samaj. "new dispensation."] a great revolt from mr. sen's authority now took place, and the sadharan samaj was organized in may, 1878. an appeal had been made to the members generally, and no fewer than twenty-one provincial samajes, with more than four hundred members, male and female, joined the new society. this number amounted to about two thirds of the whole body. keshub and his friends denounced the rebels in very bitter language; and yet, in one point of view, their secession was a relief. men of abilities equal, and education superior, to his own had hitherto acted as a drag on his movements; he was now delivered from their interference and could deal with the admiring and submissive remnant as he pleased. ideas that had been working in his mind now attained rapid development. within two years the flag of the "new dispensation" was raised; and of that dispensation mr. sen was the undoubted head. very daring was the language mr. sen used in a public lecture regarding this new creation. he claimed equality for it with the jewish and christian dispensations, and for himself "singular" authority and a divine commission. [sidenote: its creed.] in the creed of the new dispensation the name of christ does not occur. the articles were as follows: _a._ one god, one scripture, one church. _b._ eternal progress of the soul. _c._ communion of prophets and saints. _d._ fatherhood and motherhood of god. _e._ brotherhood of man and sisterhood of woman. _f._ harmony of knowledge and holiness, love and work, yoga and asceticism in their highest development. _g._ loyalty to sovereign. [sidenote: omission of christ's name.] the omission of christ's name is the more remarkable because mr. sen spoke much of him in his public lectures. he had said in may, 1879, "none but jesus, none but jesus, none but jesus ever deserved this precious diadem, india; and jesus shall have it." but he clearly indicated that the christ he sought was an indian christ; one who was "a hindu in faith," and who would help the hindus to "realize their national idea of a yogi" (ascetic). [sidenote: "motherhood of god."] let it be noted that, from the beginning of his career, mr. sen had spoken earnestly of the fatherhood of god and the brotherhood of man--though, these great conceptions are not of hindu origin. it is difficult to see why, in later days, he insisted so much on the "motherhood of god." perhaps it was a repetition--he probably would have called it an exaltation--of the old hindu idea, prevalent especially among the worshipers of siva, that there is a female counterpart--a sakti--of every divinity. or, possibly, it may have been to conciliate the worshipers of durga and kali, those great goddesses of bengal. [sidenote: public proclamation said to be from god.] a public proclamation was soon issued, purporting to be from god himself, as india's mother. the whole thing was very startling; many, even of keshub's friends, declared it blasphemous. next, in the "flag ceremony," the flag or banner of the new dispensation received a homage scarcely distinguishable from worship. then--as if in strict imitation of the ancient adoration of agni, or fire--a pile of wood was lighted, clarified butter poured on it, and prayers addressed to it, ending thus--"o, brilliant fire! in thee we behold our resplendent lord." this was, at least, symbolism run wild; and every one, except those who were prepared to follow their leader to all lengths, saw that in a land like india, wedded to idolatry, it was fearfully perilous. [sidenote: "apostolic durbar."] in march, 1881, mr. sen and his friends introduced celebrations which, to christian minds, seemed a distressing caricature of the christian sacraments. other institutions followed; an apostolic durbar (court of apostles), for instance, was established. there was no end to mr. sen's inventiveness. in a public lecture delivered in january, 1883, on "asia's message to europe," he elaborately expounded the idea that all the great religions are of asiatic origin, and that all of them are true, and that the one thing required to constitute the faith of the future--the religion of humanity--is the blending of all these varied oriental systems into one. [sidenote: inconsistencies between mr. sen's public and private utterances. mr. sen's policy of reserve.] it was not easy to reconcile mr. sen's public utterances with his private ones--though far be it from us to tax him with insincerity. thus, in an interview extending over two hours, which the writer and two missionary friends had with him a week or so before the lecture now referred to, he said he accepted as true and vital all the leading doctrines of the christian faith, with the exception of the resurrection of christ. but another fundamental difference remained--he avowedly dissented from the orthodox creed in rejecting the miraculous element in scripture. at an interview i had with him some time before he earnestly disclaimed all intention to put christ on a level with buddha or mohammed. "i am educating my friends," he said, "to understand and approve of christianity; i have not yet said my last word about christ." it is a solemn question, had he said it when his career was ended? if so, it was far from a satisfactory word. his policy of reserve and adaptation had probably kept him from uttering all that was in his heart; but it was a sorely mistaken policy. had he temporized less he would have accomplished more. since the death of mr. sen there has been a violent dispute between his family and the "apostolic durbar," on one side, and one of his ablest followers, on the other; and the new dispensation will probably split in two, if it does not perish altogether. [sidenote: the sadharan samaj.] in the meantime, the sadharan samaj, which broke off from keshub's party in 1878, has been going on with no small vigor. vagaries, either in doctrine or rites, have been carefully shunned; its partisans profess a pure theistic creed and labor diligently in the cause of social reform. their position is nearly that of unitarian christianity, and we fear they are not at present approximating to the full belief of the church catholic. [sidenote: movements in western india. tenets of the prarthana sabha.] very similar in character to the brahmo somaj is the prarthana somaj in western india. as far back as 1850, or a little earlier, there was formed a society called the prarthana sabha (prayer-meeting). its leading tenets were as follows: 1. i believe in one god. 2. i renounce idol-worship. 3. i will do my best to lead a moral life. 4. if i commit any sin through the weakness of my moral nature i will repent of it and ask the pardon of god. the society, after some time, began to languish; but in 1867 it was revived under the name of prarthana somaj. its chief branches are in bombay, poona, ahmedabad, and surat. [sidenote: arya samaj.] an interesting movement called the arya samaj was commenced a few years ago by a pandit--dayanand sarasvati. he received the vedas as fully inspired, but maintained that they taught monotheism--agni, indra, and all the rest being merely different names of god. it was a desperate effort to save the reputation of the ancient books; but, as all sanskrit scholars saw at a glance, the whole idea was a delusion. the pandit is now dead; and the arya samaj may not long survive him. at the time we write we hear of an attempt to defend idolatry and caste made by men of considerable education. [sidenote: theosophists.] the so-called "theosophists" have, for several years, been active in india. of existing religions, buddhism is their natural ally. they are atheists. a combination which they formed with the arya samaj speedily came to an end. lastly, the followers of mr. bradlaugh are diligent in supplying their books to indian students. poor india! no wonder if her mind is bewildered as she listens to such a babel of voices. the state of things in india now strikingly resembles that which existed in the roman empire at the rise of christianity; when east and west were brought into the closest contact, and a great conflict of systems of thought took place in consequence. but even as one hostile form of gnostic belief rose after another, and rose only to fall--and as the greatest and best-disciplined foe of early christianity--the later platonism--gave way before the steady, irresistible march of gospel truth, so--we have every reason to hope--it will be yet again. the christian feels his heart swell in his breast as he thinks what, in all human probability, india will be a century, or even half a century, hence. o what a new life to that fairest of eastern lands when she casts herself in sorrow and supplication at the feet of the living god, and then rises to proclaim to a listening world "her deep repentance and her new-found joy!" may god hasten the advent of that happy day! the rise and decline of islam. outline of the essay. the progress of islam was slow until mohammed cast aside the precepts of toleration and adopted an aggressive, militant policy. then it became rapid. the motives which animated the armies of islam were mixed--material and spiritual. without the truths contained in the system success would have been impossible, but neither without the sword would the religion have been planted in arabia, nor beyond. the alternatives offered to conquered peoples were islam, the sword, or tribute. the drawbacks and attractions of the system are examined. the former were not such as to deter men of the world from embracing the faith. the sexual indulgences sanctioned by it are such as to make islam "the easy way." the spread of islam was stayed whenever military success was checked. the faith was meant for arabia and not for the world, hence it is constitutionally incapable of change or development. the degradation of woman hinders the growth of freedom and civilization under it. christianity is contrasted in the means used for its propagation, the methods it employed in grappling with and overcoming the evils that it found existing in the world, in the relations it established between the sexes, in its teaching with regard to the respective duties of the civil and spiritual powers, and, above all, in its redeeming character, and then the conclusion come to that christianity is divine in its origin. the rise and decline of islam. * * * * * introduction. [sidenote: islam pre-eminent in its rapid spread.] among the religions of the earth islam must take the precedence in the rapidity and force with which it spread. within a very short time from its planting in arabia the new faith had subdued great and populous provinces. in half a dozen years, counting from the death of the founder, the religion prevailed throughout arabia, syria, persia, and egypt, and before the close of the century it ruled supreme over the greater part of the vast populations from gibraltar to the oxus, from the black sea to the river indus. [sidenote: propagation far quicker than of christianity.] in comparison with this grand outburst the first efforts of christianity were, to the outward eye, faint and feeble, and its extension so gradual that what the mohammedan religion achieved in ten or twenty years it took the faith of jesus long centuries to accomplish. [sidenote: object of the tract.] the object of these few pages is, _first_, to inquire briefly into the causes which led to the marvelous rapidity of the first movement of islam: _secondly_, to consider the reasons which eventually stayed its advance; and, _lastly_, to ascertain why mohammedan countries have kept so far in the rear of other lands in respect of intellectual and social progress. in short, the question is how it was that, pallas-like, the faith sprang ready-armed from the ground, conquering and to conquer, and why, the weapons dropping from its grasp, islam began to lose its pristine vigor, and finally relapsed into inactivity. i. the rapid spread of islam. [sidenote: two periods in the mission of mohammed.] the personal ministry of mohammed divides itself into two distinct periods: first, his life at mecca as a preacher and a prophet; second, his life at medina as a prophet and a king. [sidenote: i. ministry at mecca, a.d. 609-622. success at mecca limited.] it is only in the first of these periods that islam at all runs parallel with christianity. the great body of his fellow-citizens rejected the ministry of mohammed and bitterly opposed his claims. his efforts at mecca were, therefore, confined to teaching and preaching and to the publishing of the earlier "suras," or chapters of his "revelation." after some thirteen years spent thus his converts, to the number of about a hundred and fifty men and women, were forced by the persecution of the coreish (the ruling tribe at mecca, from which mohammed was descended) to quit their native city and emigrate to medina.[35] a hundred more had previously fled from mecca for the same cause, and found refuge at the court of the negus, or king of abyssinia; and there was already a small company of followers among the citizens of medina. at the utmost, therefore, the number of disciples gained over by the simple resort to teaching and preaching did not, during the first twelve years of mohammed's ministry, exceed a few hundreds. it is true that the soil of mecca was stubborn and (unlike that of judea) wholly unprepared. the cause also, at times, became the object of sustained and violent opposition. even so much of success was consequently, under the peculiar circumstances, remarkable. but it was by no means singular. the progress fell far short of that made by christianity during the corresponding period of its existence,[36] and indeed by many reformers who have been the preachers of a new faith. it gave no promise whatever of the marvelous spectacle that was about to follow. [sidenote: ii. change of policy at medina, a.d. 622-632. arabia converted from medina at the point of the sword.] having escaped from mecca and found a new and congenial home in medina, mohammed was not long in changing his front. at mecca, surrounded by enemies, he taught toleration. he was simply the preacher commissioned to deliver a message, and bidden to leave the responsibility with his master and his hearers. he might argue with the disputants, but it must be "in a way most mild and gracious;" for "in religion" (such was his teaching before he reached medina) "there should be neither violence nor constraint."[37] at medina the precepts of toleration were quickly cast aside and his whole policy reversed. no sooner did mohammed begin to be recognized and obeyed as the chief of medina than he proceeded to attack the jewish tribes settled in the neighborhood because they refused to acknowledge his claims and believe in him as a prophet foretold in their scriptures; two of these tribes were exiled, and the third exterminated in cold blood. in the second year after the hegira[a], or flight from mecca (the period from which the mohammedan era dates), he began to plunder the caravans of the coreish, which passed near to medina on their mercantile journeys between arabia and syria. so popular did the cause of the now militant and marauding prophet speedily become among the citizens of medina and the tribes around that, after many battles fought with varying success, he was able, in the eighth year of the hegira[b] to re-enter his native city at the head of ten thousand armed followers. thenceforward success was assured. none dared to oppose his pretensions. and before his death, in the eleventh year of the hegira[c], all arabia, from bab-el-mandeb and oman to the confines of the syrian desert, was forced to submit to the supreme authority of the now kingly prophet and to recognize the faith and obligations of islam.[38] [sidenote: religion of mohammed described.] this _islam_, so called from its demanding the entire "surrender" of the believer to the will and service of god, is based on the recognition of mohammed as a prophet foretold in the jewish and christian scriptures--the last and greatest of the prophets. on him descended the koran from time to time, an immediate revelation from the almighty. idolatry and polytheism are with iconoclastic zeal denounced as sins of the deepest dye; while the unity of the deity is proclaimed as the grand and cardinal doctrine of the faith. divine providence pervades the minutest concerns of life, and predestination is taught in its most naked form. yet prayer is enjoined as both meritorious and effective; and at five stated times every day must it be specially performed. the duties generally of the moral law are enforced, though an evil laxity is given in the matter of polygamy and divorce. tithes are demanded as alms for the poor. a fast during the month of ramzan must be kept throughout the whole of every day; and the yearly pilgrimage to mecca--an ancient institution, the rites of which were now divested of their heathenish accompaniments--maintained. the existence of angels and devils is taught, and heaven and hell are depicted in material colors--the one of sensuous pleasure, the other of bodily torment. finally, the resurrection, judgment, and retribution of good and evil are set forth in great detail. such was the creed--"_there is no god but the_ lord, _and_ mohammed _is his prophet_"--to which arabia now became obedient. [sidenote: arabia apostatizes; but is speedily reconquered and reclaimed, a.d. 633.] but immediately on the death of mohammed the entire peninsula relapsed into apostasy. medina and mecca remained faithful; but every-where else the land seethed with rebellion. some tribes joined the "false prophets," of whom four had arisen in different parts of arabia; some relapsed into their ancient heathenism; while others proposed a compromise--they would observe the stated times of prayer, but would be excused the tithe. every-where was rampant anarchy. the apostate tribes attacked medina, but were repulsed by the brave old caliph abu bekr, who refused to abate one jot or tittle, as the successor of mohammed, of the obligations of islam. eleven columns were sent forth under as many leaders, trained in the warlike school of mohammed. these fought their way, step by step, successfully; and thus, mainly through the wisdom and firmness of abu bekr and the valor and genius of khalid, "the sword of god," the arab tribes, one by one, were overcome and forced back into their allegiance and the profession of islam. the reconquest of arabia and re-imposition of mohammedanism as the national faith, which it took a whole year to accomplish, is thus described by an arabian author, who wrote at the close of the second century of the mohammedan era: after his decease there remained not one of the followers of the prophet that did not apostatize, saving only a small company of his "companions" and kinsfolk, who hoped thus to secure the government to themselves. hereupon abu bekr displayed marvelous skill, energy, and address, so that the power passed into his hands.... and thus he persevered until the apostate tribes were all brought back to their allegiance, some by kindly treatment, persuasion, and craft; some through terror and fear of the sword; and others by the prospect of power and wealth as well as by the lusts and pleasures of this life. and so it came to pass that all the bedouin tribes were in the end converted outwardly, but not from inward conviction.[39] [sidenote: the arabs thus reclaimed were, at the first, sullen.] the temper of the tribes thus reclaimed by force of arms was at the first strained and sullen. but the scene soon changed. suddenly the whole peninsula was shaken, and the people, seized with a burning zeal, issued forth to plant the new faith in other lands. it happened on this wise: [sidenote: roused by war-cry, they issue from the peninsula, a.d. 634, _et. seq._ the opposing forces. arab enthusiasm.] the columns sent from medina to reduce the rebellious tribes to the north-west on the gulf of ayla, and to the north-east on the persian gulf, came at once into collision with the christian bedouins of syria on the one hand and with those of mesopotamia on the other. these again were immediately supported by the neighboring forces of the roman and persian empires, whose vassals respectively they were. and so, before many months, abu bekr found his generals opposed by great and imposing armies on either side. he was, in fact, waging mortal combat at one and the same moment with the kaiser and the chosroes, the byzantine emperor and the great king of persia. the risk was imminent, and an appeal went forth for help to meet the danger. the battle-cry resounded from one end of arabia to the other, and electrified the land. levy after levy, _en masse_, started up at the call from every quarter of the peninsula, and the bedouin tribes, as bees from their hive, streamed forth in swarms, animated by the prospect of conquest, plunder, and captive damsels, or, if slain in battle, by the still more coveted prize of the "martyr" in the material paradise of mohammed. with a military ardor and new-born zeal in which carnal and spiritual aspirations were strangely blended, the arabs rushed forth to the field, like the war-horse of job, "that smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting." sullen constraint was in a moment transformed into an absolute devotion and fiery resolve to spread the faith. the arab warrior became the missionary of islam. [sidenote: arabs, a military body, subsidized and mobilized by omar.] it was now the care of omar, the second caliph or ruler of the new-born empire, to establish a system whereby the spirit militant, called into existence with such force and fervor, might be rendered permanent. the entire arabian people was subsidized. the surplus revenues which in rapidly increasing volume began to flow from the conquered lands into the moslem treasuries were to the last farthing distributed among the soldiers of arabian descent. the whole nation was enrolled, and the name of every warrior entered upon the roster of islam. forbidden to settle anywhere, and relieved from all other work, the arab hordes became, in fact, a standing army threatening the world. great bodies of armed men were kept thus ever mobilized, separate and in readiness for new enterprise. [sidenote: mission of islam described by fairbairn.] the change which came over the policy of the founder of the faith at medina, and paved the way for this marvelous system of world-wide rapine and conversion to islam, is thus described by a thoughtful and sagacious writer: medina was fatal to the higher capabilities of islam. mohammed became then a king; his religion was incorporated in a state that had to struggle for its life in the fashion familiar to the rough-handed sons of the desert. the prophet was turned into the legislator and commander; his revelations were now laws, and now military orders and manifestoes. the mission of islam became one that only the sword could accomplish, robbery of the infidel became meritorious, and conquest the supreme duty it owed to the world.... the religion which lived an unprospering and precarious life, so long as it depended on the prophetic word alone, became an aggressive and victorious power so soon as it was embodied in a state.[40] [sidenote: and by von kremer.] another learned and impartial authority tells us: the mussulman power under the first four caliphs was nothing but a grand religio-political association of arab tribes for universal plunder and conquest under the holy banner of islam, and the watch-word, "there is no god but the lord, and mohammed is his apostle." on pretext of spreading the only true religion the arabs swallowed up fair provinces lying all around, and, driving a profitable business, enriched themselves simultaneously in a worldly sense.[41] [sidenote: religious merit of "fighting in the ways of the lord."] the motives which nerved the armies of islam were a strange combination of the lower instincts of nature with the higher aspirations of the spirit. to engage in the holy war was the rarest and most blessed of all religious virtues, and conferred on the combatant a special merit; and side by side with it lay the bright prospect of spoil and female slaves, conquest and glory. "mount thy horse," said osama ibn zeid to abu bekr as he accompanied the syrian army a little way on its march, out of medina. "nay," replied the caliph, "i will not ride, but i will walk and soil my feet a little space in the ways of the lord. verily, every footstep in the ways of the lord is equal in merit to manifold good works, and wipeth away a multitude of sins."[42] and of the "martyrs," those who fell in these crusading campaigns, mohammed thus described the blessed state: think not, in any wise, of those killed in the ways of the lord, as if they were dead. yea, they are alive, and are nourished with their lord, exulting in that which god hath given them of his favor, and rejoicing in behalf of those who have not yet joined them, but are following after. no terror afflicteth them, neither are they grieved.--sura iii. [sidenote: material fruits of moslem crusade.] the material fruits of their victories raised the arabs at once from being the needy inhabitants of a stony, sterile soil, where, with difficulty, they eked out a hardy subsistence, to be the masters of rich and luxuriant lands flowing with milk and honey. after one of his great victories on the plains of chaldea, khalid called together his troops, flushed with conquest, and lost in wonder at the exuberance around them, and thus addressed them: "ye see the riches of the land. its paths drop fatness and plenty, so that the fruits of the earth are scattered abroad even as stones are in arabia. if but as a provision for this present life, it were worth our while to fight for these fair fields and banish care and penury forever from us." such were the aspirations dear to the heart of every arab warrior. again, after the battle of jalola, a few years later, the treasure and spoil of the persian monarch, captured by the victors, was valued at thirty million of dirhems (about a million sterling). the royal fifth (the crown share of the booty) was sent as usual to medina under charge of ziad, who, in the presence of the caliph omar, harangued the citizens in a glowing description of what had been won in persia, fertile lands, rich cities, and endless spoil, besides captive maids and princesses. [sidenote: rich booty taken in the capital of persia, a.d. 637.] in relating the capture of medain (the ancient ctesiphon) tradition revels in the untold wealth which fell into the hands of sad, the conqueror, and his followers. besides millions of treasure, there was endless store of gold and silver vessels, rich vestments, and rare and precious things. the arabs gazed bewildered at the tiara, brocaded vestments, jeweled armor, and splendid surroundings of the throne. they tell of a camel of silver, life-size, with a rider of gold, and of a golden horse with emeralds for teeth, the neck set with rubies, the trappings of gold. and we may read in gibbon of the marvelous banqueting carpet, representing a garden, the ground of wrought gold, the walks of silver, the meadows of emeralds, rivulets of pearls, and flowers and fruits of diamonds, rubies, and rare gems. the precious metals lost their conventional value, gold was parted with for its weight in silver; and so on.[43] [sidenote: success in battle ascribed to divine aid.] it is the virtue of islam that it recognizes a special providence, seeing the hand of god, as in every thing, so pre-eminently also in victory. when sad, therefore, had established himself in the palace of the chosroes he was not forgetful to render thanks in a service of praise. one of the princely mansions was turned for the moment into a temple, and there, followed by his troops, he ascribed the victory to the lord of hosts. the lesson accompanying the prayers was taken from a sura (or chapter of the koran) which speaks of pharaoh and his riders being overwhelmed in the red sea, and contains this passage, held to be peculiarly appropriate to the occasion: "how many gardens and fountains did they leave behind, and fields of corn, and fair dwelling-places, and pleasant things which they enjoyed! even thus have we made another people to inherit the same."[44] [sidenote: "martyrdom" in the field coveted by moslem crusaders. the moslem crown of martyrdom.] such as fell in the conflict were called martyrs; a halo of glory surrounded them, and special joys awaited them even on the battlefield. and so it came to pass that the warriors of islam had an unearthly longing for the crown of martyrdom. the caliph omar was inconsolable at the loss of his brother, zeid, who fell in the fatal "garden of death," at the battle of yemama: "thou art returned home," he said to his son, abdallah, "safe and sound, and zeid is dead. wherefore wast not thou slain before him? i wish not to see thy face." "father," answered abdallah, "he asked for the crown of martyrdom, and the lord granted it. i strove after the same, but it was not given unto me."[45] it was the proud boast of the saracens in their summons to the craven greeks and persians that "they loved death more than their foes loved life." familiar with the pictures drawn in the koran of the beautiful "houries" of paradise,[46] the saracens believed that immediate fruition on the field of battle was the martyr's special prize. we are told of a moslem soldier, four-score years of age, who, seeing a comrade fall by his side, cried out, "o paradise! how close art thou beneath the arrow's point and the falchion's flash! o hashim! even now i see heaven opened, and black-eyed maidens all bridally attired, clasping thee in their fond embrace." and shouting thus the aged warrior, fired again with the ardor of youth, rushed upon the enemy and met the envied fate. for those who survived there was the less ethereal but closer prospect of persian, greek, or coptic women, both maids and matrons, who, on "being taken captive by their right hand," were forthwith, according to the koran, without stint of number, at the conqueror's will and pleasure. these, immediately they were made prisoners, might (according to the example of mohammed himself at kheibar) be carried off without further ceremony to the victor's tent; and in this respect the saracens certainly were nothing loath to execute upon the heathen the judgment written in their law. so strangely was religious fanaticism fed and fostered in the moslem camp by incentives irresistible to the arab--fight and foray, the spoil of war and captive charms. [sidenote: martial passages from koran recited on field of battle.] the courage of the troops was stimulated by the divine promises of victory, which were read (and on like occasions still are read) at the head of each column drawn up for battle. thus, on the field of cadesiya[d], which decided the fate of persia, the sura _jehad_, with the stirring tale of the thousand angels that fought on the prophet's side at bedr was recited, and such texts as these: _stir up the faithful unto battle. if there be twenty steadfast among you they shall put two hundred to flight of the unbelievers, and a hundred shall put to flight a thousand. victory is from the lord. he is mighty and wise. i the lord will cast terror into the hearts of the infidels. strike off their heads and their fingers' ends. beware lest ye turn your back in battle. verily, he that turneth his back shall draw down upon himself the wrath of god. his abode shall be hell fire; an evil journey thither._ and we are told that on the recital of these verses "the heart of the people was refreshed and their eyes lightened, and they felt the tranquillity that ensueth thereupon." three days they fought, and on the morning of the fourth, returning with unabated vigor to the charge, they scattered to the winds the vast host of persia.[47] [sidenote: defeat of byzantine army on the yermuk, a.d. 634.] nor was it otherwise in the great battle of the yermuk, which laid syria at the feet of the arabs. the virgin vigor of the saracens was fired by a wild fanatical zeal "to fight in the ways of the lord," obtaining thus heavenly merit and a worldly prize--the spoil of syria and its fair maidens ravished from their homes; or should they fall by the sword, the black-eyed houries waiting for them on the field of battle. "of warriors nerved by this strange combination of earth and heaven, of the flesh and of the spirit, of the incentives at once of faith and rapine, of fanatical devotion to the prophet and deathless passion for the sex, ten might chase a hundred half-hearted romans. the forty thousand moslems were stronger far than the two hundred and forty thousand of the enemy." the combat lasted for weeks; but at the last the byzantine force was utterly routed, and thousands hurled in wild confusion over the beetling cliffs of the yermuk into the yawning chasm of wacusa.[48] [sidenote: islam planted by aid of material force.] such, then, was the nature of the moslem propaganda, such the agency by which the faith was spread, and such the motives at once material and spiritual by which its martial missionaries were inspired. no wonder that the effete empires of rome and persia recoiled and quivered at the shock, and that province after province quickly fell under the sway of islam. it is far from my intention to imply that the truths set forth by the new faith had nothing to do with its success. on the contrary, it may well be admitted that but for those truths success might have been impossible. the grand enunciation of the divine unity, and the duty of an absolute submission to the same; the recognition of a special providence reaching to the minutest details of life; the inculcation of prayer and other religious duties; the establishment of a code in which the leading principles of morality are enforced, and the acknowledgment of previous revelations in the jewish and christian scriptures, told not only on the idolaters of arabia and the fire-worshipers of persia, but on jews and samaritans and the followers of a debased and priest-ridden christianity. all this is true; but it is still not the less true that without the sword islam would never have been planted even in arabia, much less ever have spread to the countries beyond. the weapons of its warfare were "carnal," material, and earthly; and by them it conquered. [sidenote: alternatives offered to the conquered nations: islam, the sword, or tribute.] the pressure brought to bear on the inhabitants of the countries overrun by saracen arms was of the most stringent character. they were offered the triple alternative--islam, the sword, or tribute. the first brought immediate relief. acceptance of the faith not only stayed the enemy's hand, and conferred immunity from the perils of war, but associated the convert with his conquerors in the common brotherhood and in all the privileges of islam. [sidenote: acceptance of islam, immediate relief from the sword.] reading the story of the spread of islam, we are constantly told of this and that enemy, that "being beaten, he _believed_ and embraced the faith." take as an example of an every-day occurrence the story of hormuzan. a persian prince of high rank long maintained a border warfare against the moslems. at last he was taken prisoner and sent in chains to medina. as he was conducted into the great mosque, omar exclaimed, "blessed be the lord, that hath humbled this man and the like of him!" he bade them disrobe the prisoner and clothe him in sackcloth. then, whip in hand, he upbraided him for his oft-repeated attacks and treachery. hormuzan made as if fain to reply; then gasping, like one faint from thirst, he begged for water to drink. "give it him," said the caliph, "and let him drink in peace." "nay," cried the wretched captive, trembling, "i fear to drink, lest some one slay me unawares." "thy life is safe," said omar, "until thou hast drunk the water up." the words were no sooner said than hormuzan emptied the vessel on the ground. "i wanted not the water," he said, "but quarter, and thou hast given it me." "liar!" cried omar, angrily, "thy life is forfeit." "but not," interposed the by-standers, "until he drink the water up." "strange," said omar, "the fellow hath deceived me; and yet i cannot spare the life of one who hath slain so many noble moslems. i swear that thou shalt not gain by thy deceit unless thou wilt forthwith embrace islam." upon that, "_believing_, he made profession of the true faith upon the spot;" and thenceforth, residing at medina, he received a pension of the highest grade.[49] [sidenote: tribute and humiliation. disabilities imposed on jews and christians.] on the other hand, for those who held to their ancestral faith there was no escape from the second or the third alternative. if they would avoid the sword, or, having wielded it, were beaten, they must become tributary. moreover, the payment of tribute is not the only condition enjoined by the koran. "fight against them (the jews and christians) until they pay tribute with the hand, _and are humbled_."[50] the command fell on willing ears. an ample interpretation was given to it. and so it came to pass that, though jews and christians were, on the payment of tribute, tolerated in the profession of their ancestral faith, they were yet subjected (and still are subjected) to severe humiliation. the nature and extent of the degradation to which they were brought down, and the strength of the inducement to purchase exemption and the equality of civil rights, by surrendering their religion, may be learned from the provisions which were embodied in the code named _the ordinance of omar_, which has been more or less enforced from the earliest times. besides the tribute and various other imposts levied from the "people of the book,"[51] and the duty of receiving moslem travelers quartered upon them, the dress of both sexes must be distinguished by broad stripes of yellow. they are forbidden to appear on horseback, and if mounted on a mule or ass their stirrups must be of wood, and their saddles known by knobs of the same material. their graves must not rise above the level of the soil, and the devil's mark is placed upon the lintel of their doors. their children must be taught by moslem masters, and the race, however able or well qualified, proscribed from any office of high emolument or trust. besides the churches spared at the time of conquest no new buildings can be erected for the purposes of worship; nor can free entrance into their holy places at pleasure be refused to the moslem. no cross must remain in view outside, nor any church-bells be rung. they must refrain from processions in the street at easter, and other solemnities; and from any thing, in short, whether by outward symbol, word, or deed, which could be construed into rivalry, or competition with the ruling faith. such was the so-called _code of omar_. enforced with less or greater stringency, according to the intolerance and caprice of the day, by different dynasties, it was, and (however much relaxed in certain countries) it still remains, the law of islam. one must admire the rare tenacity of the christian faith, which, with but scanty light and hope, held its ground through weary ages of insult and depression, and still survives to see the dawning of a brighter day.[52] [sidenote: continuing inducements in times of peace.] such, then, was the hostile attitude of islam militant in its early days; such the pressure brought to bear on conquered lands for its acceptance; and such the disabilities imposed upon recusant jews and christians. on the one hand, rapine, plunder, slavery, tribute, civil disability; on the other, security, peace, and honor. we need not be surprised that, under such constraint, conquered peoples succumbed before islam. nor were the temporal inducements to conversion confined to the period during which the saracens were engaged in spreading islam by force of arms. let us come down a couple of centuries from the time of mohammed, and take the reign of the tolerant and liberal-minded sovereign, al mamun. [sidenote: evidence of al kindy in second century of hegira, a.d. 830. speech of al mamun.] among the philosophers of all creeds whom that great caliph gathered around him at bagdad was a noble arab of the nestorian faith, descended from the kingly tribe of the beni kinda, and hence called _al kindy_. a friend of this eastern christian, himself a member of the royal family, invited al kindy to embrace islam in an epistle enlarging on the distinguished rank which, in virtue of his descent, he would (if a true believer) occupy at court, and the other privileges, spiritual and material, social and conjugal, which he would enjoy. in reply the christian wrote an apology of singular eloquence and power, throwing a flood of light on the worldly inducements which, even at that comparatively late period, abounded in a moslem state to promote conversion to islam. thus al mamun himself, in a speech delivered before his council, characterizes certain of his courtiers accused as secret adherents of the zoroastrian faith: "though professing islam, they are free from the same. this they do to be seen of me, while their convictions, i am well aware, are just the opposite of that which they profess. they belong to a class which embrace islam, not from any love of this our faith, but thinking thereby to gain access to our court, and share in the honor, wealth, and power of the realm. they have no inward persuasion of that which they outwardly profess."[53] [sidenote: converts from sordid motives.] again, speaking of the various classes brought over to islam by sordid and unworthy motives, al kindy says: moreover, there are the idolatrous races--magians and jews--low people aspiring by the profession of islam to raise themselves to riches and power and to form alliances with the families of the learned and honorable. there are, besides, hypocritical men of the world, who in this way obtain indulgences in the matter of marriage and concubinage which are forbidden to them by the christian faith. then we have the dissolute class given over wholly to the lusts of the flesh. and lastly there are those who by this means obtain a more secure and easy livelihood.[54] [sidenote: al kindy contrasts the christian confessor with the moslem "martyr." the christian confessor and the moslem martyr.] before leaving this part of our subject it may be opportune to quote a few more passages from al kindy, in which he contrasts the inducements that, under the military and political predominance of islam, promoted its rapid spread, and the opposite conditions under which christianity made progress, slow, indeed, comparatively, but sure and steady. first, he compares the christian confessor with the moslem "martyr:" i marvel much, he says, that ye call those _martyrs_ that fall in war. thou hast read, no doubt, in history of the followers of christ put to death in the persecutions of the kings of persia and elsewhere. say, now, which are the more worthy to be called martyrs, these, or thy fellows that fall fighting for the world and the power thereof? how diverse were the barbarities and kinds of death inflicted on the christian confessors! the more they were slain the more rapidly spread the faith; in place of one sprang up a hundred. on a certain occasion, when a great multitude had been put to death, one at court said to the king, "the number of them increaseth instead of, as thou thinkest, diminishing." "how can that be?" exclaimed the king. "but yesterday," replied the courtier, "thou didst put such and such a one to death, and lo, there were converted double that number; and the people say that a man appeared to the confessors from heaven strengthening them in their last moments." whereupon the king himself was converted. in those days men thought not their lives dear unto them. some were transfixed while yet alive; others had their limbs cut off one after another; some were cast to the wild beasts and others burned in the fire. such continued long to be the fate of the christian confessors. no parallel is found thereto in any other religion; and all was endured with constancy and even with joy. one smiled in the midst of his great suffering. "was it cold water," they asked, "that was brought unto thee?" "no," answered the sufferer, "it was one like a youth that stood by me and anointed my wounds; and that made me smile, for the pain forthwith departed." now tell me seriously, my friend, which of the two hath the best claim to be called a _martyr_, "slain in the ways of the lord:" he who surrendereth his life rather than renounce his faith; who, when it is said, fall down and worship the sun and moon, or the idols of silver and gold, work of men's hands, instead of the true god, refuseth, choosing rather to give up life, abandon wealth, and forego even wife and family; or he that goeth forth, ravaging and laying waste, plundering and spoiling, slaying the men, carrying away their children into captivity, and ravishing their wives and maidens in his unlawful embrace, and then shall call it "jehad in the ways of the lord!" ... and not content therewith, instead of humbling thyself before the lord, and seeking pardon for the crime, thou sayest of such a one slain in the war that "he hath earned paradise," and thou namest him "a martyr in the ways of the lord!"[55] and again, contrasting the spread of islam, "its rattling quiver and its glittering sword," with the silent progress of christianity, our apologist, after dwelling on the teaching and the miracles of the apostles, writes: they published their message by means of these miracles; and thus great and powerful kings and philosophers and learned men and judges of the earth hearkened unto them, without lash or rod, with neither sword nor spear, nor the advantages of birth or "helpers;"[56] with no wisdom of this world, or eloquence or power of language, or subtlety of reason; with no worldly inducement, nor yet again with any relaxation of the moral law, but simply at the voice of truth enforced by miracles beyond the power of man to show. and so there came over to them the kings and great ones of the earth. and the philosophers abandoned their systems, with all their wisdom and learning, and betook them to a saintly life, giving up the delights of this world together with their old-established usages, and became followers of a company of poor men, fishers and publicans, who had neither name nor rank nor any claim other than that they were obedient to the command of the messiah--he that gave them power to do such wonderful works.[57] [sidenote: the apostles compared with the chiefs of islam.] and yet once more, comparing the apostles with the military chiefs of islam, al kindy proceeds: after the descent of the holy ghost and the gift of tongues the apostles separated each to the country to which he was called. they wrote out in every tongue the holy gospel, and the story and teaching of christ, at the dictation of the holy ghost. so the nations drew near unto them, believing their testimony; and, giving up the world and their false beliefs, they embraced the christian faith as soon as ever the dawn of truth and the light of the good tidings broke in upon them. distinguishing the true from the false, and error from the right direction, they embraced the gospel and held it fast without doubt or wavering, when they saw the wonderful works and signs of the apostles, and their lives and conversation set after the holy and beautiful example of our saviour, the traces whereof remain even unto the present day.... how different this from the life of thy master (mohammed) and his companions, who ceased not to go forth in battle and rapine, to smite with the sword, to seize the little ones, and ravish the wives and maidens, plundering and laying waste, and carrying the people into captivity. and thus they continue unto this present day, inciting men to these evil deeds, even as it is told of omar the caliph. "if one among you," said he, "hath a heathen neighbor and is in need, let him seize and sell him." and many such things they say and teach. look now at the lives of simon and paul, who went about healing the sick and raising the dead, by the name of christ our lord; and mark the contrast.[58] [sidenote: such are the conclusions of a native of chaldea.] such are the reflections of one who lived at a mohammedan court, and who, moreover, flourishing as he did a thousand years ago, was sufficiently near the early spread of islam to be able to contrast what he saw and heard and read of the causes of its success with those of the gospel, and had the courage to confess the same. [sidenote: hinderances or inducements inherent in the faith itself.] apart, now, from the outward and extraneous aids given to islam by the sword and by the civil arm i will inquire for a moment what natural effect the teaching of islam itself had in attracting or repelling mankind. i do not now speak of any power contained in the truths it inculcated to convert to islam by the rousing and quickening of spiritual impulses; for that lies beyond my present purpose, which is to inquire whether there is not in material causes and secular motives enough in themselves to account for success. i speak rather of the effect of the indulgences granted by islam, on the one hand, as calculated to attract; and of the restraints imposed and sacrifices required, on the other, as calculated to repel. how far, in fact, did there exist inducements or hinderances to its adoption inherent in the religion itself? [sidenote: requirements of islam: prayer. prohibition of wine, games of chance, and usury. fast of ramzan.] what may be regarded as the most constant and irksome of the obligations of islam is the duty of prayer, which must be observed at stated intervals, five times every day, with the contingent ceremony of lustration. the rite consists of certain forms and passages to be repeated with prescribed series of prostrations and genuflexions. these must be repeated at the right times--but anywhere, in the house or by the wayside, as well as in the mosque; and the ordinance is obligatory in whatever state of mind the worshiper may be, or however occupied. as the appointed hour comes round the moslem is bound to turn aside to pray--so much so that in central asia we read of the police driving the backward worshiper by the lash to discharge the duty. thus, with the mass of mussulmans, the obligation becomes a mere formal ceremony, and one sees it performed anywhere and every-where by the whole people, like any social custom, as a matter of course. no doubt there are exceptions; but with the multitude it does not involve the irksomeness of a spiritual service, and so it sits lightly on high and low. the friday prayers should as a rule be attended in the mosque; but neither need there be much devotion there; and, once performed, the rest of the day is free for pleasure or for business.[59] the prohibition of wine is a restriction which was severely felt in the early days of the faith; but it was not long before the universal sentiment (though eluded in some quarters) supported it. the embargo upon games of chance was certainly unpopular; and the prohibition of the receipt of interest was also an important limitation, tending as it did to shackle the freedom of mercantile speculation; but they have been partially evaded on various pretexts. the fast throughout the month of ramzan was a severer test; but even this lasts only during the day; and at night, from sunset till dawn, all restrictions are withdrawn, not only in respect of food, but of all otherwise lawful gratifications.[60] [sidenote: little that is unpopular in these ordinances.] there is nothing, therefore, in the requirements and ordinances of islam, excepting the fast, that is very irksome to humanity, or which, as involving any material sacrifice, or the renunciation of the pleasures or indulgences of life, should lead a man of the world to hesitate in embracing the new faith. [sidenote: indulgences allowed in the matter of wives and concubines.] on the other hand, the license allowed by the koran between the sexes--at least in favor of the male sex--is so wide that for such as have the means and the desire to take advantage of it there need be no limit whatever to sexual indulgence. it is true that adultery is punishable by death and fornication with stripes. but then the koran gives the believer permission to have four wives at a time. and he may exchange them--that is, he may divorce them at pleasure, taking others in their stead.[61] and, as if this were not license enough, the divine law permits the believer to consort with all female slaves whom he may be the master of--such, namely, as have been taken in war, or have been acquired by gift or purchase. these he may receive into his harem instead of wives, or in addition to them; and without any limit of number or restraint whatever he is at liberty to cohabit with them. [sidenote: polygamy, concubinage, and divorce. practice at the rise of islam.] a few instances taken at random will enable the reader to judge how the indulgences thus allowed by the religion were taken advantage of in the early days of islam. in the great plague which devastated syria seven years after the prophet's death khalid, the sword of god, lost _forty_ sons. abdal rahman, one of the "companions" of mohammed, had issue by sixteen wives, not counting slave-girls.[62] moghira ibn shoba, another "companion," and governor of kufa and bussorah, had in his harem eighty consorts, free and servile. coming closer to the prophet's household, we find that mohammed himself at one period had in his harem no fewer than nine wives and two slave-girls. of his grandson hasan we read that his vagrant passion gained for him the unenviable sobriquet of _the divorcer_; for it was only by continually divorcing his consorts that he could harmonize his craving for fresh nuptials with the requirements of the divine law, which limited the number of his free wives to four. we are told that, as a matter of simple caprice, he exercised the power of divorce seventy (according to other traditions ninety) times. when the leading men complained to aly of the licentious practice of his son his only reply was that the remedy lay in their own hands, of refusing hasan their daughters altogether.[63] such are the material inducements, the "works of the flesh," which islam makes lawful to its votaries, and which promoted thus its early spread. [sidenote: practice in modern times. the malays of penang. lane's testimony concerning egypt. the princess of bhopal's account of mecca.] descending now to modern times, we still find that this sexual license is taken advantage of more or less in different countries and conditions of society. the following examples are simply meant as showing to what excess it is possible for the believer to carry these indulgences, _under the sanction of his religion_. of the malays in penang it was written not very long ago: "young men of thirty to thirty-five years of age may be met with who have had from fifteen to twenty wives, and children by several of them. these women have been divorced, married others, and had children by them." regarding egypt, lane tells us: "i have heard of men who have been in the habit of marrying a new wife almost every month."[64] burkhardt speaks of an arab forty-five years old who had had fifty wives, "so that he must have divorced two wives and married two fresh ones on the average every year." and not to go further than the sacred city of mecca, the late reigning princess of bhopal, in central india, herself an orthodox follower of the prophet, after making the pilgrimage of the holy places, writes thus: women frequently contract as many as ten marriages, and those who have only been married twice are few in number. if a woman sees her husband growing old, or if she happen to admire any one else, she goes to the shereef (the spiritual and civil head of the holy city), and after having settled the matter with him she puts away her husband and takes to herself another, who is, perhaps, good-looking and rich. in this way a marriage seldom lasts more than a year or two. and of slave-girls the same high and impartial authority, still writing of the holy city and of her fellow-moslems, tells us: some of the women (african and georgian girls) are taken in marriage; and after that, on being sold again, they receive from their masters a divorce, and are sold in their houses--that is to say, they are sent to the purchaser from their master's house on receipt of payment, and are not exposed for sale in the slave-market. they are only _married_ when purchased for the first time.... when the poorer people buy (female) slaves they keep them for themselves, and change them every year as one would replace old things by new; but the women who have children are not sold.[65] [sidenote: islam sanctions a license between the sexes which christianity forbids. the laws of christianity deter men from carnal indulgences. islam the "easy way."] what i desire to make clear is the fact that such things may be practiced _with the sanction_ of the scripture which the moslem holds to be divine, and that these same indulgences have from the first existed as inducements which helped materially to forward the spread of the faith. i am very far, indeed, from implying that excessive indulgence in polygamy is the universal state of moslem society. happily this is not the case. there are not only individuals, but tribes and districts, which, either from custom or preference, voluntarily restrict the license given them in the koran; while the natural influence of the family, even in moslem countries, has an antiseptic tendency that often itself tends greatly to neutralize the evil.[66] nor am i seeking to institute any contrast between the morals at large of moslem countries and the rest of the world. if christian nations are (as with shame it must be confessed) in some strata of society immoral, it is in the teeth of their divine law. and the restrictions of that law are calculated, and in the early days of christianity did tend, in point of fact, _to deter men_ devoted to the indulgences of the flesh from embracing the faith.[67] the religion of mohammed, on the other hand, gives direct sanction to the sexual indulgences we have been speaking of. thus it panders to the lower instincts of humanity and makes its spread the easier. in direct opposition to the precepts of christianity it "makes provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof." hence islam has been well called by its own votaries the _easy way_. once more, to quote al kindy: thou invitest me (says our apologist to his friend) into the "easy way of faith and practice." alas, alas! for our saviour in the gospel telleth us, "when ye have done all that ye are commanded, say, we are unprofitable servants; we have but done that which was commanded us." where then is our merit? the same lord jesus saith, "how strait is the road which leadeth unto life, and how few they be that walk therein! how wide the gate that leadeth to destruction, and how many there be that go in thereat!" different this, my friend, from the comforts of thy wide and easy gate, and the facilities for enjoying, as thou wouldst have me, the pleasures offered by thy faith in wives and damsels![68] footnotes: [a] a.d. 623. [b] a.d. 630. [c] a.d. 632. [d] a.d. 635. ii. why the spread of islam was stayed. [sidenote: islam stationary in area, and in civilization retrograde.] having thus traced the rapid early spread of islam to its proper source, i proceed to the remaining topics, namely, the causes which have checked its further extension, and those likewise which have depressed the followers of this religion in the scale of civilization. i shall take the former first--just remarking here, in respect of the latter, that the depression of islam is itself one of the causes which retard the expansion of the faith. [sidenote: the arabs ceased, in second century, to be a crusading force.] as the first spread of islam was due to the sword, so when the sword was sheathed islam ceased to spread. the apostles and missionaries of islam were, as we have seen, the martial tribes of arabia--that is to say, the grand military force organized by omar, and by him launched upon the surrounding nations. gorged with the plunder of the world, these began, after a time, to settle on their lees and to mingle with the ordinary population. so soon as this came to pass they lost the fiery zeal which at the first had made them irresistible. by the second and third centuries the arabs had disappeared as the standing army of the caliphate, or, in other words, as a body set apart for the dissemination of the faith. the crusading spirit, indeed, ever and anon burst forth--and it still bursts forth, as opportunity offers--simply for the reason that this spirit pervades the koran, and is ingrained in the creed. but with the special agency created and maintained during the first ages for the spread of islam the incentive of crusade ceased as a distinctive missionary spring of action, and degenerated into the common lust of conquest which we meet with in the world at large. [sidenote: with cessation of conquest, islam ceased to spread.] the extension of islam, depending upon military success, stopped wherever that was checked. the religion advanced or retired, speaking broadly, as the armed predominance made head or retroceded. thus the tide of moslem victory, rushing along the coast of africa, extinguished the seats of european civilization on the mediterranean, overwhelmed spain, and was rapidly advancing north, when the onward wave was stemmed at tours; and as with the arms, the faith also of islam was driven back into spain and bounded by the pyrenees. so, likewise, the hold which the religion seized both of spain and sicily came to an end with mussulman defeat. it is true that when once long and firmly rooted, as in india and china, islam may survive the loss of military power, and even flourish. but it is equally true that in no single country has islam been planted, nor has it anywhere materially spread, saving under the banner of the crescent or the political ascendency of some neighboring state. accordingly, we find that, excepting some barbarous zones in africa which have been raised thereby a step above the groveling level of fetichism, the faith has in modern times made no advance worth mentioning.[69] from the jewish and christian religions there has (again speaking broadly) been no secession whatever to islam since the wave of saracen victory was stayed, excepting by the force of arms. even in the palmy days of the abbasside caliphs, our apologist could challenge his adversary to produce a single conversion otherwise than by reason of some powerful material inducement. here is his testimony: [sidenote: al kindy's challenge to produce a christian convert to islam apart from material inducements.] now tell me, hast thou ever seen, my friend, (the lord be gracious unto thee!) or ever heard of a single person of sound mind--any one of learning and experience, and acquainted with the scriptures, renouncing christianity otherwise than for some worldly object to be reached only through thy religion, or for some gratification withheld by the faith of jesus? thou wilt find none. for, excepting the tempted ones, all continue steadfast in their faith, secure under our most gracious sovereign, in the profession of their own religion.[70] iii. low position of islam in the scale of civilization. [sidenote: social and intellectual depression.] i pass on to consider why mohammedan nations occupy so low a position, halting as almost every-where they do, in the march of social and intellectual development. [sidenote: islam intended for the arabs. wants the faculty of adaptation.] the reason is not far to find. islam was meant for arabia, not for the world; for the arabs of the seventh century, not for the arabs of all time; and being such, and nothing more, its claim of divine origin renders change or development impossible. it has within itself neither the germ of natural growth nor the lively spring of adaptation. mohammed declared himself a prophet to the arabs;[71] and however much in his later days he may have contemplated the reformation of other religions beyond the peninsula, or the further spread of his own (which is doubtful), still the rites and ceremonies, the customs and the laws enjoined upon his people, were suitable (if suitable at all) for the arabs of that day, and in many respects for them alone. again, the code containing these injunctions, social and ceremonial, as well as doctrinal and didactic, is embodied with every particularity of detail, as part of the divine law, in the koran; and so defying, as sacrilege, all human touch, it stands unalterable forever. from the stiff and rigid shroud in which it is thus swathed the religion of mohammed cannot emerge. it has no plastic power beyond that exercised in its earliest days. hardened now and inelastic, it can neither adapt itself nor yet shape its votaries, nor even suffer them to shape themselves to the varying circumstances, the wants and developments, of mankind. [sidenote: local ceremonies: pilgrimage. fast of ramzan.] we may judge of the local and inflexible character of the faith from one or two of its ceremonies. to perform the pilgrimage to mecca and mount arafat, with the slaying of victims at mina, and the worship of the kaaba, is an ordinance obligatory (with the condition only that they have the means) on all believers, who are bound to make the journey even from the furthest ends of the earth--an ordinance intelligible enough in a local worship, but unmeaning and impracticable when required of a world-wide religion. the same may be said of the fast of ramzan. it is prescribed in the koran to be observed by all with undeviating strictness during the whole day, from earliest dawn till sunset throughout the month, with specified exemptions for the sick and penalties for every occasion on which it is broken. the command, imposed thus with an iron rule on male and female, young and old, operates with excessive inequality in different seasons, lands, and climates. however suitable to countries near the equator, where the variations of day and night are immaterial, the fast becomes intolerable to those who are far removed either toward the north or the south; and still closer to the poles, where night merges into day and day into night, impracticable. again, with the lunar year (itself an institution divinely imposed), the month of ramzan travels in the third of a century from month to month over the whole cycle of a year. the fast was established at a time when ramzan fell in winter, and the change of season was probably not foreseen by the prophet. but the result is one which, under some conditions of time and place, involves the greatest hardship. for when the fast comes round to summer the trial in a sultry climate, like that of the burning indian plains, of passing the whole day without a morsel of bread or a drop of water becomes to many the occasion of intense suffering. such is the effect of the arabian legislator's attempt at circumstantial legislation in matters of religious ceremonial. [sidenote: political and social depression owing to relations between the sexes.] nearly the same is the case with all the religions obligations of islam, prayer, lustration, etc. but although the minuteness of detail with which these are enjoined tends toward that jejune and formal worship which we witness every-where in moslem lands, still there is nothing in these observances themselves which (religion apart) should lower the social condition of mohammedan populations and prevent their emerging from that normal state of semi-barbarism and uncivilized depression in which we find all moslem peoples. for the cause of this we must look elsewhere; and it may be recognized, without doubt, in the relations established by the koran between the sexes. polygamy, divorce, servile concubinage, and the veil are at the root of moslem decadence. [sidenote: depression of the female sex. divorce.] in respect of married life the condition allotted by the koran to woman is that of an inferior dependent creature, destined only for the service of her master, liable to be cast adrift without the assignment of a single reason or the notice of a single hour. while the husband possesses the power of a divorce--absolute, immediate, unquestioned--no privilege of a corresponding nature has been reserved for the wife. she hangs on, however unwilling, neglected, or superseded, the perpetual slave of her lord, if such be his will. when actually divorced she can, indeed, claim her dower--her _hire_, as it is called in the too plain language of the koran; but the knowledge that the wife can make this claim is at the best a miserable security against capricious taste; and in the case of bondmaids even that imperfect check is wanting. the power of divorce is not the only power that may be exercised by the tyrannical husband. authority to _confine_ and to _beat_ his wives is distinctly vested in his discretion.[72] "thus restrained, secluded, degraded, the mere minister of enjoyment, liable at the caprice or passion of the moment to be turned adrift, it would be hard to say that the position of a wife was improved by the code of mohammed."[73] even if the privilege of divorce and marital tyranny be not exercised, the knowledge of its existence as a potential right must tend to abate the self-respect, and in like degree to weaken the influence of the sex, impairing thus the ameliorating and civilizing power which she was meant to exercise upon mankind. and the evil has been stereotyped by the koran for all time. [sidenote: principal fairbairn on home-life under islam.] i must quote one more passage from principal fairbairn on the lowering influence of moslem domestic life: the god of mohammed ... "spares the sins the arab loves. a religion that does not purify the home cannot regenerate the race; one that depraves the home is certain to deprave humanity. motherhood is to be sacred if manhood is to be honorable. spoil the wife of sanctity and for the man the sanctities of life have perished. and so it has been with islam. it has reformed and lifted savage tribes; it has depraved and barbarized civilized nations. at the root of its fairest culture a worm has ever lived that has caused its blossoms soon to wither and die. were mohammed the hope of man, then his state were hopeless; before him could only be retrogression, tyranny, and despair."[74] [sidenote: demoralizing influence of servile concubinage.] still worse is the influence of servile concubinage. the following is the evidence of a shrewd and able observer in the east: all zenana life must be bad for men at all stages of their existence.... in youth it must be ruin to be petted and spoiled by a company of submissive slave-girls. in manhood it is no less an evil that when a man enters into private life his affections should be put up to auction among foolish, fond competitors full of mutual jealousies and slanders. we are not left entirely to conjecture as to the effect of female influence on home-life when it is exerted under these unenlightened and demoralizing conditions. that is plainly an element _lying at the root of all the most important features that differentiate progress from stagnation_.[75] [sidenote: deteriorating influence of relations established between the sexes.] such are the institutions which gnaw at the root of islam and prevent the growth of freedom and civilization. "by these the unity of the household is fatally broken and the purity and virtue of the family tie weakened; the vigor of the dominant classes is sapped; the body politic becomes weak and languid, excepting for intrigues, and the throne itself liable to fall a prey to a doubtful or contested succession"[76]--contested by the progeny of the various rivals crowded into the royal harem. from the palace downward polygamy and servile concubinage lower the moral tone, loosen the ties of domestic life, and hopelessly depress the people. [sidenote: the veil.] nor is the veil, albeit under the circumstances a necessary precaution, less detrimental, though in a different way, to the interests of moslem society. this strange custom owes its origin to the prophet's jealous temperament. it is forbidden in the koran for women to appear unveiled before any member of the other sex with the exception of certain near relatives of specified propinquity.[77] and this law, coupled with other restrictions of the kind, has led to the imposition of the _boorka_ or _purdah_ (the dress which conceals the person and the veil) and to the greater or less seclusion of the harem and zenana. [sidenote: society vitiated by the withdrawal of the female sex. mohammedan society, thus truncated, incapable of progress. the defects of mohammedan society.] this ordinance and the practices flowing from it must survive, more or less, so long as the koran remains the rule of faith. it may appear at first sight a mere negative evil, a social custom comparatively harmless; but in truth it has a more debilitating effect upon the moslem race perhaps than any thing else, for by it _woman is totally withdrawn from her proper place in the social circle_. she may, indeed, in the comparatively laxer license of some lands be seen flitting along the streets or driving in her carriage; but even so it is like one belonging to another world, veiled, shrouded, and cut off from intercourse with those around her. free only in the retirement of her own secluded apartments, she is altogether shut out from her legitimate sphere in the duties and enjoyments of life. but the blight on the sex itself from this unnatural regulation, sad as it is, must be regarded as a minor evil. the mischief extends beyond her. the tone and framework of society as it came from the maker's hands are altered, damaged, and deteriorated. from the veil there flows this double injury. the bright, refining, softening influence of woman is withdrawn from the outer world, and social life, wanting the gracious influences of the female sex, becomes, as we see throughout moslem lands, forced, hard, unnatural, and morose. moreover, the mohammedan nations, for all purposes of common elevation and for all efforts of philanthropy and liberty, are (as they live in public and beyond the inner recesses of their homes) but a truncated and imperfect exhibition of humanity. they are wanting in one of its constituent parts, the better half, the humanizing and the softening element. and it would be against the nature of things to suppose that the body, thus shorn and mutilated, can possess in itself the virtue and power of progress, reform, and elevation. the link connecting the family with social and public life is detached, and so neither is _en rapport_, as it should be, with the other. reforms fail to find entrance into the family or to penetrate the domestic soil where alone they could take root, grow into the national mind, live, and be perpetuated. under such conditions the seeds of civilization refuse to germinate. no real growth is possible in free and useful institutions, nor any permanent and healthy force in those great movements which elsewhere tend to uplift the masses and elevate mankind. there may, it is true, be some advance, from time to time, in science and in material prosperity; but the social groundwork for the same is wanting, and the people surely relapse into the semi-barbarism forced upon them by an ordinance which is opposed to the best instincts of humanity. sustained progress becomes impossible. such is the outcome of an attempt to improve upon nature and banish woman, the help-meet of man, from the position assigned by god to her in the world. [sidenote: yet the veil necessary under existing circumstances.] at the same time i am not prepared to say that in view of the laxity of the conjugal relations inherent in the institutions of islam some such social check as that of the veil (apart from the power to confine and castigate) is not needed for the repression of license and the maintenance of outward decency. there is too much reason to apprehend that free social intercourse might otherwise be dangerous to morality under the code of mohammed, and with the example before men and women of the early worthies of islam. so long as the sentiments and habits of the moslem world remain as they are some remedial or preventive measure of the kind seems indispensable. but the peculiarity of the mussulman polity, as we have seen, is such that the sexual laws and institutions which call for restrictions of the kind as founded on the koran are incapable of change; they must co-exist with the faith itself, and last while it lasts. so long, then, as this polity prevails the depression of woman, as well as her exclusion from the social circle, must injure the health and vitality of the body politic, impair its purity and grace, paralyze vigor, retard progress in the direction of freedom, philanthropy, and moral elevation, and generally perpetuate the normal state of mohammedan peoples, as one of semi-barbarism. to recapitulate, we have seen: [sidenote: recapitulation.] _first._ that islam was propagated mainly by the sword. with the tide of conquest the religion went forward; where conquest was arrested made no advance beyond; and at the withdrawal of the moslem arms the faith also commonly retired. _second._ the inducements, whether material or spiritual, to embrace islam have proved insufficient of themselves (speaking broadly) to spread the faith, in the absence of the sword, and without the influence of the political or secular arm. _third._ the ordinances of islam, those especially having respect to the female sex, have induced an inherent weakness, which depresses the social system and retards its progress. [sidenote: contrast with christianity.] if the reader should have followed me in the argument by which these conclusions have been reached the contrast with the christian faith has no doubt been suggesting itself at each successive step. [sidenote: christianity not propagated by force.] christianity, as al kindy has so forcibly put it, gained a firm footing in the world without the sword, and without any aid whatever from the secular arm. so far from having the countenance of the state it triumphed in spite of opposition, persecution, and discouragement. "my kingdom," said jesus, "is not of this world. if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight that i should not be delivered to the jews; but now is my kingdom not from hence.... for this end came i into the world, that i should bear witness to the truth. every one that is of the truth, heareth my voice."[78] [sidenote: nor by worldly inducements.] the religion itself, in its early days, offered no worldly attractions or indulgences. it was not, like islam, an "easy way." whether in withdrawal from social observances deeply tainted with idolatry, the refusal to participate in sacrificial ceremonies insisted on by the rulers, or in the renunciation of indulgences inconsistent with a saintly life, the christian profession required self-denial at every step. [sidenote: adaptive principles and plastic faculty of christianity.] but otherwise the teaching of christianity nowhere interfered with the civil institutions of the countries into which it penetrated or with any social customs or practices that were not in themselves immoral or idolatrous. it did not, indeed, neglect to guide the christian life. but it did so by the enunciation of principles and rules of wide and far-reaching application. these, no less than the injunctions of the koran, served amply for the exigencies of the day. but they have done a vast deal more. they have proved themselves capable of adaptation to the most advanced stages of social development and intellectual elevation. and, what is infinitely more, it may be claimed for the lessons embodied in the gospel that they have been themselves promotive, if indeed they have not been the immediate cause, of all the most important reforms and philanthropies that now prevail in christendom. the principles thus laid down contained germs endowed with the power of life and growth which, expanding and flourishing, slowly it may be, but surely, have at the last borne the fruits we see. [sidenote: examples: slavery. relations between the sexes.] take, for example, the institution of slavery. it prevailed in the roman empire at the introduction of christianity, as it did in arabia at the rise of islam. in the moslem code, as we have seen, the practice has been perpetuated. slavery must be held permissible so long as the koran is taken to be the rule of faith. the divine sanction thus impressed upon the institution, and the closeness with which by law and custom it intermingles with social and domestic life, make it impossible for any mohammedan people to impugn slavery as contrary to sound morality or for any body of loyal believers to advocate its abolition upon the ground of principle. there are, moreover, so many privileges and gratifications accruing to the higher classes from its maintenance that (excepting under the strong pressure of european diplomacy) no sincere and hearty effort can be expected from the moslem race in the suppression of the inhuman traffic, the horrors of which, as pursued by moslem slave-traders, their prophet would have been the first to denounce. look now at the wisdom with which the gospel treats the institution. it is nowhere in so many words proscribed, for that would, under the circumstances, have led to the abnegation of relative duties and the disruption of society. it is accepted as a prevailing institution recognized by the civil powers. however desirable freedom might be, slavery was not inconsistent with the christian profession: "art thou called being a servant? care not for it: but if thou mayest be made free, use it rather."[e] the duty of obedience to his master is enjoined upon the slave, and the duty of mildness and urbanity toward his slave is enjoined upon the master. but with all this was laid the seed which grew into emancipation. "_our father_," gave the key-note of freedom. "ye are _all_ the children of god by faith in christ jesus." "there is neither bond nor free, ... for ye are all one in christ jesus."[f] "he that is called in the lord, being a servant, is the lord's freeman."[g] the converted slave is to be received "not now as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved."[h] the seed has borne its proper harvest. late in time, no doubt, but by a sure and certain development, the grand truth of the equality of the human race, and the right of every man and woman to freedom of thought and (within reasonable limit of law) to freedom of action, has triumphed; and it has triumphed through the spirit and the precepts inculcated by the gospel eighteen hundred years ago. nor is it otherwise with the relations established between the sexes. polygamy, divorce, and concubinage with bondmaid's have been perpetuated, as we have seen, by islam for all time; and the ordinances connected therewith have given rise, in the laborious task of defining the conditions and limits of what is lawful, to a mass of prurient casuistry defiling the books of mohammedan law. contrast with this our saviour's words, "_he which made them at the beginning made them male and female.... what therefore god hath joined together let not man put asunder_."[i] from which simple utterance have resulted monogamy and (in the absence of adultery) the indissolubility of the marriage bond. while in respect of conjugal duties we have such large, but sufficiently intelligible, commands as "to render due benevolence,"[j] whereby, while the obligations of the marriage state are maintained, christianity is saved from the impurities which, in expounding the ordinances of mohammed, surround the sexual ethics of islam, and cast so foul a stain upon its literature. [sidenote: elevation of woman.] take, again, the place of woman in the world. we need no injunction of the veil or the harem. as the temples of the holy ghost, the body is to be kept undefiled, and every one is "to possess his vessel in sanctification and honor."[k] men are to treat "the elder women as mothers; the younger as sisters, with all purity."[l] women are to "adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety."[m] these, and such like maxims embrace the whole moral fitness of the several relations and duties which they define. they are adapted for all ages of time and for all conditions of men. they are capable of being taken by every individual for personal guidance, according to his own sense of propriety, and they can be accommodated by society at large with a due reference to the habits and customs of the day. the attempt of mohammed to lay down, with circumstantial minuteness, the position of the female sex, the veiling of her person, and her withdrawal from the gaze of man, has resulted in seclusion and degradation; while the spirit of the gospel, and injunctions like that of "giving honor to the wife as to the weaker vessel,"[n] have borne the fruit of woman's elevation, and have raised her to the position of influence, honor, and equality which (notwithstanding the marital superiority of the husband in the ideal of a christian family) she now occupies in the social scale. [sidenote: relations with the state. christianity leaves humanity free to expand.] in the type of mussulman government which (though not laid down in the koran) is founded upon the spirit of the faith and the precedent of the prophet the civil is indissolubly blended with the spiritual authority, to the detriment of religious liberty and political progress. the _ameer_, or commander of the faithful, should, as in the early times, so also in all ages, be the _imam_, or religious chief; and as such he should preside at the weekly cathedral service. it is not a case of the church being subject to the state, or the state being subject to the church. here (as we used to see in the papal domains) the church is the state, and the state the church. they both are one. and in this we have another cause of the backwardness and depression of mohammedan society. since the abolition of the temporal power in italy we have nowhere in christian lands any such theocratic union of cã¦sar and the church, so that secular and religious advance is left more or less unhampered; whereas in islam the hierarchico-political constitution has hopelessly welded the secular arm with the spiritual in one common scepter, to the furthering of despotism, and elimination of the popular voice from its proper place in the concerns of state. [sidenote: the koran checks progress.] and so, throughout the whole range of political, religious, social, and domestic relations, the attempt made by the founder of islam to provide for all contingencies, and to fix every thing aforehand by rigid rule and scale, has availed to cramp and benumb the free activities of life and to paralyze the natural efforts of society at healthy growth, expansion, and reform. as an author already quoted has so well put it, "_the koran has frozen mohammedan thought; to obey it is to abandon progress_."[79] [sidenote: is islam suitable for any nation?] writers have indeed been found who, dwelling upon the benefits conferred by islam on idolatrous and savage nations, have gone so far as to hold that the religion of mohammed may in consequence be suited to certain portions of mankind--as if the faith of jesus might peaceably divide with it the world. but surely to acquiesce in a system which reduces the people to a dead level of social depression, despotism, and semi-barbarism would be abhorrent from the first principles of philanthropy. with the believer, who holds the gospel to be "good tidings of great joy, _which shall be to all people_,"[o] such a notion is on higher grounds untenable; but even in view of purely secular considerations it is not only untenable, but altogether unintelligible. as i have said elsewhere: the eclipse in the east, which still sheds its blight on the ancient seats of jerome and chrysostom, and shrouds in darkness the once bright and famous sees of cyprian and augustine, has been disastrous every-where to liberty and progress, equally as it has been to christianity. and it is only as that eclipse shall pass away and the sun of righteousness again shine forth that we can look to the nations now dominated by islam sharing with us those secondary but precious fruits of divine teaching. then with the higher and enduring blessings which our faith bestows, but not till then, we may hope that there will follow likewise in their wake freedom and progress, and all that tends to elevate the human race.[80] [sidenote: no sacrifice for sin or redemptive grace.] although with the view of placing the argument on independent ground i have refrained from touching the peculiar doctrines of christianity, and the inestimable benefits which flow to mankind therefrom, i may be excused, before i conclude, if i add a word regarding them. the followers of mohammed have no knowledge of god as a _father_; still less have they knowledge of him as "_our_ father"--the god and father of the lord jesus christ. they acknowledge, indeed, that jesus was a true prophet sent of god; but they deny his crucifixion and death, and they know nothing of the power of his resurrection. to those who have found redemption and peace in these the grand and distinctive truths of the christian faith, it may be allowed to mourn over the lands in which the light of the gospel has been quenched, and these blessings blotted out, by the material forces of islam; where, together with civilization and liberty, christianity has given place to gross darkness, and it is as if now "there were no more sacrifice for sins." we may, and we do, look forward with earnest expectation to the day when knowledge of salvation shall be given to these nations "by the remission of their sins, through the tender mercy of our god, whereby the dayspring from on high hath visited us, to give light to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace."[p] [sidenote: contrast between divine and human work.] but even apart from these, the special blessings of christianity, i ask, which now of the two faiths bears, in its birth and growth, the mark of a divine hand and which the human stamp? which looks likest the handiwork of the god of nature, who "hath laid the measures of the earth," and "hath stretched the line upon it,"[q] but not the less with an ever-varying adaptation to time and place? and which the artificial imitation? [sidenote: islam.] "as a reformer, mohammed did indeed advance his people to a certain point, but as a prophet he left them fixed immovably at that point for all time to come. as there can be no return, so neither can there be any progress. the tree is of artificial planting. instead of containing within itself the germ of growth and adaptation to the various requirements of time, and clime, and circumstance, expanding with the genial sunshine and the rain from heaven, it remains the same forced and stunted thing as when first planted twelve centuries ago."[81] [sidenote: christianity compared by christ to the works of nature.] such is islam. now what is christianity? listen to the prophetic words of the founder himself, who compares it to the works of nature: "_so is the kingdom of god, as if a man should cast seed into the ground;_ "_and should sleep, and rise night and day, and the seed should spring and grow up, he knoweth not how._ "_for the earth bringeth forth fruit of herself: first the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in the ear._"[r] and again: "_whereunto shall we liken the kingdom of god, or with what comparison shall we compare it?_ "_it is like a grain of mustard-seed, which, when it is sown in the earth, is less than all seeds that be in the earth;_ "_but when it is sown, it groweth up and becometh greater than all herbs, and shooteth out great branches, so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the shadow of it._"[s] [sidenote: islam the work of man; christianity the work of god.] which is _nature_, and which is _art_, let the reader judge. which bears the impress of man's hand, and which that of him who "is wonderful in counsel, and excellent in working?" in fine, of the arabian it may be said: "_hitherto shalt thou come, but no further, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed._" but of christ: "_his name shall endure forever: his name shall be continued as long as the sun: and men shall be blessed in him: all nations shall call him blessed._ "_he shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth._ "_blessed be the lord god, the god of israel, who only doeth wondrous things. and blessed be his glorious name forever: and let the whole earth be filled with his glory. amen, and amen._"[t] footnotes: [e] 1 cor. vii, 21. [f] gal. iii, 26, 28. [g] 1 cor. vii, 22. [h] philemon 16. [i] matt. xix, 4. [j] 1 cor. vii, 3. [k] 1 thess. iv, 4. [l] 1 tim. v, 2. [m] 1 tim. ii, 9. [n] 1 pet. iii, 7. [o] luke ii, 10. [p] luke i, 77-79. [q] job xxxviii, 5. [r] mark iv, 26-28. [s] mark iv, 30-32. [t] psa. lxxii, 17, 8, 18, 19. the end. footnotes: [1] barth. [2] bergaigne, in his able treatise, _la religion vã©dique_, insists earnestly on what he calls the "liturgical contamination of the myths." see vol. iii, p. 320. [3] r.v., ix, 42, 4. [4] r.v., ix, 97, 24. [5] the religion of the indo-european race, while still united, "recognized a supreme god; an organizing god; almighty, omniscient, moral.... this conception was a heritage of the past.... the supreme god was originally the god of heaven." so darmesteter, _contemporary review_, october, 1879. roth had previously written with much learning and acuteness to the same effect. [6] muir's _sanskrit texts_, v, 412. [7] r.v., iii, 62, 10. [8] the rites, says haug, "must have existed from times immemorial."--_aitareya brã¢hmana_, pp. 7, 9. [9] weber, _history of indian literature_, p. 38. [10] max mã¼ller, _ancient sanskrit literature_, p. 389. [11] "the haughty indra takes precedence of all gods." r.v., 1, 55. [12] "these two personages [indra and varuna] sum up the two conceptions of divinity, between which the religious consciousness of the vedic aryans seems to oscillate."--bergaigne, _la religion vã©dique_, vol. iii, p. 149. [13] the meaning of the term is not quite certain. _sessions_, or _instructions_, may perhaps be the rendering. so monier williams. [14] for example, wordsworth: "thou, thou alone art everlasting, and the blessed spirits which thou includest, as the sea her waves." --_excursion_, book iv. [15] or, the thing that really is--the [greek: ontã´s on]. [16] _ekamadvitiyam._ [17] this illustration is in the mouth of every hindu disputant at the present day. [18] barth, p. 75. [19] _ekamadvitiyam._ [20] volui tibi suaviloquenti carmine pierio rationem exponere nostram et quasi musã¦o dulci contingere melle. [21] dr. j. muir, in _north british review_, no. xlix, p. 224. [22] _miscellaneous writings_ (macmillan, 1861), vol. i, p. 77. [23] but the truth is that every man is accounted a good hindu who keeps the rules of caste and pays due respect to the brahmans. what he believes, or disbelieves, is of little or no consequence. [24] yaska, probably in the fifth century b.c. [25] weber thinks that christian elements may have been introduced, in course of time, into the representation. [26] his ramayana was written in hindi verse in the sixteenth century. [27] when jhansi was captured in the times of the great mutiny english officers were disgusted to see the walls of the queen's palace covered with what they described as "grossly obscene" pictures. there is little or no doubt that these were simply representations of the acts of krishna. therefore to the hindu queen they were religious pictures. when questioned about such things the brahmans reply that deeds which would be wicked in men were quite right in krishna, who, being god, could do whatever he pleased. [28] born probably in 1649. [29] raja narayan basu (bose), in enumerating the sacred books of hinduism, excluded the philosophical systems and included the tantras. he was and, we believe, is a leading man in the adi brahma somaj. [30] barth, as above, p. 202. [31] so writes vans kennedy, a good authority. the rites, however, vary with varying places. [32] _asiatic researches_, v, p. 356. [33] cicero. [34] we learned from his own lips that among the books which most deeply impressed him were the bible and the writings of dr. chalmers. [35] see _life of mohammed_, p. 138. smith & elder. [36] _life of mohammed_, p. 172, where the results are compared. [37] _life of mohammed_, p. 341; sura ii, 257; xxix, 46. [38] the only exceptions were the jews of kheibar and the christians of najran, who were permitted to continue in the profession of their faith. they were, however, forced by omar to quit the peninsula, which thenceforward remained exclusively mohammedan. "islam" is a synonym for the mussulman faith. its original meaning is "surrender" of one's self to god. [39] _apology of al kindy, the christian_, p. 18. smith & elder, 1882. this remarkable apologist will be noticed further below. [40] principal fairbairn: "the primitive polity of islam," _contemporary review_, december, 1882, pp. 866, 867. [41] herr von kremer, _culturgeschichte des orients_, unter den chalifen, vol. i, p. 383. [42] _annals of the early caliphate_, p. 9. smith & elder, 1883. [43] gibbon's _decline and fall_, chapter li, and _annals of the early caliphate_, p. 184. [44] _ibid._; and sura xliv, v. 25. _we_--that is, the lord. [45] _annals of the early caliphate_, p. 46. [46] see, for example, sura lxxviii: "verily for the pious there is a blissful abode: gardens and vineyards; and damsels with swelling bosoms, of a fitting age; and a full cup. lovely large-eyed girls, like pearls hidden in their shells, a reward for that which the faithful shall have wrought. verily we have created them of a rare creation, virgins, young and fascinating.... modest damsels averting their eyes, whom no man shall have known before, nor any jinn," etc. the reader will not fail to be struck by the materialistic character of mohammed's paradise. [47] see sura _jehad_; also _annals of the early caliphate_, p. 167, _et. seq._ [48] _annals of the early caliphate_, p. 105, _et. seq._ [49] see _annals_, etc., p. 253. [50] sura ix, v. 30. [51] so jews and christians as possessing the bible are named in the koran. [52] see _annals_, etc., p. 213. [53] _the apology of al kindy_, written at the court of al mamun a.h. 215 (a.d. 830), with an essay on its age and authorship, p. 12. smith & elder, 1882. [54] _ibid._, p. 34. [55] _apology_, p. 47, _et. seq._ [56] alluding to the "_ansar_," or mortal "helpers" of mohammed at medina. throughout, the apologist, it will be observed, is drawing a contrast with the means used for the spread of islam. [57] _apology_, p. 16. [58] _apology_, p. 57. [59] i am not here comparing the value of these observances with those of other religions. i am inquiring only how far the obligations of islam may be held to involve hardship or sacrifice such as might have retarded the progress of islam by rendering it on its first introduction unpopular. [60] see sura ii, v. 88. [61] sura iv, 18. "exchange" is the word used in the koran. [62] each of his widows had 100,000 golden pieces left her. _life of mohammed_, p. 171. [63] "these divorced wives were irrespective of his concubines or slave-girls, upon the number and variety of whom there was no limit or check whatever."--_annals_, p. 418. [64] lane adds: "there are many men in this country who, in the course of ten years, have married as many as twenty, thirty, or more wives; and women not far advanced in age have been wives to a dozen or more husbands successively." note that all this is entirely within the religious sanction. [65] _pilgrimage to mecca_, by her highness the reigning begum of bhopal, translated by mrs. w. osborne (1870), pp. 82, 88. slave-girls cannot be _married_ until freed by their masters. what her highness tells of women _divorcing_ their husbands is of course entirely _ultra vires_, and shows how the laxity of conjugal relations allowed to the male sex has extended itself to the female also, and that in a city where, if anywhere, we should have expected to find the law observed. [66] in india, for example, there are mohammedan races among whom monogamy, as a rule, prevails by custom, and individuals exercising their right of polygamy are looked upon with disfavor. on the other hand, we meet occasionally with men who aver that rather against their will (as they will sometimes rather amusingly say) they have been forced by custom or family influence to add by polygamy to their domestic burdens. in mohammedan countries, however, when we hear of a man confining himself to _one wife_, it does not necessarily follow that he has no slaves to consort with in his harem. i may remark that slave-girls have by mohammedan laws no conjugal rights whatever, but are like playthings, at the absolute discretion of their master. [67] the case of the corinthian offender is much in point, as showing how the strict discipline of the church must have availed to make christianity unpopular with the mere worldling. [68] [sidenote: laxity among nominal christians.] _apology_, p. 51. i repeat, that in the remarks i have made under this head, no comparison is sought to be drawn betwixt the morality of nominally christian and moslem peoples. on this subject i may be allowed to quote from what i have said elsewhere: "the moslem advocate will urge ... the social evil as the necessary result of inexorable monogamy. the koran not only denounces any illicit laxity between the sexes in the severest terms, but exposes the transgressor to condign punishment. for this reason, and because the conditions of what is licit are so accommodating and wide, a certain negative virtue (it can hardly be called continence or chastity) pervades mohammedan society, in contrast with which the gross and systematic immorality in certain parts of every european community may be regarded by the christian with shame and confusion. in a purely mohammedan land, however low may be the general level of moral feeling, the still lower depths of fallen humanity are unknown. the 'social evil' and intemperance, prevalent in christian lands, are the strongest weapons in the armory of islam. we point, and justly, to the higher morality and civilization of those who do observe the precepts of the gospel, to the stricter unity and virtue which cement the family, and to the elevation of the sex; but in vain, while the example of our great cities, and too often of our representatives abroad, belies the argument. and yet the argument is sound. for, in proportion as christianity exercises her legitimate influence, vice and intemperance will wane and vanish, and the higher morality pervade the whole body; whereas in islam the deteriorating influences of polygamy, divorce, and concubinage have been stereotyped for all time."--_the koran: its composition and teaching, and the testimony it bears to the holy scriptures_, p. 60. [69] [sidenote: alleged progress of islam in africa.] much loose assertion has been made regarding the progress of islam in africa; but i have found no proof of it apart from armed, political, or trading influence, dogged too often by the slave-trade; to a great extent a social rather than a religious movement, and raising the fetich tribes (haply without intemperance) into a somewhat higher stage of semi-barbarism. i have met nothing which would touch the argument in the text. the following is the testimony of dr. koelle, the best possible witness on the subject: "it is true the mohammedan nations in the interior of africa, namely, the bornuese, mandengas, pulas, etc., invited by the weak and defenseless condition of the surrounding negro tribes, still occasionally make conquests, and after subduing a tribe of pagans, by almost exterminating its male population and committing the most horrible atrocities, impose upon those that remain the creed of islam; but keeping in view the whole of the mohammedan world this fitful activity reminds one only of these green branches sometimes seen on trees, already, and for long, decayed at the core from age."--_food for reflection_, p. 37. [70] _apology_, p. 34. [71] _annals_, pp. 61, 224. [72] sura iv, v. 33. [73] _life of mohammed_, p. 348. [74] _the city of god_, p, 91. hodder & stoughton, 1883. [75] _the turks in india_, by h.g. keene, c.s.i. allen & co., 1879. [76] _annals_, etc., p. 457. [77] see sura xxxiv, v. 32. the excepted relations are: "husbands, fathers, husbands' fathers, sons, husbands' sons, brothers, brothers' sons, sisters' sons, the captives which their right hands possess, such men as attend them and have no need of women, or children below the age of puberty." [78] john xviii, 36, 37. [79] dr. fairbairn, _contemporary review_, p. 865. [80] _the early caliphate and rise of islam_, being the rede lecture for 1881, delivered before the university of cambridge, p. 28. [81] _the koran_, etc., p. 65. transcriber's note: the following section was originally at the beginning of the text. the chautauqua literary and scientific circle. studies for 1891-92. leading facts of american history. montgomery, $1 00 social institutions of the united states. bryce, 1 00 initial studies in american letters. beers, 1 00 story of the constitution of the united states. thorpe, 60 classic german course in english. wilkinson, 1 00 two old faiths. mitchell and muir, 40 team dr. scudder's tales for little readers, about the heathen. 1849 the following work, so far as the hindoos are concerned, is principally a compilation from the writings of duff, dubois, and others. should the eyes of any christian father or mother rest upon it, i would ask them if they have not a son or a daughter to dedicate to the _missionary_ work. the duty of devoting themselves to this work of christ, or at least, of consecrating to it their money, their efforts, and their prayers, is the great duty to be perseveringly and prayerfully impressed on the minds of our children. a generation thus trained would, with aid from on high, soon effect the moral revolution of the world. blessed will be that father, blessed will be that mother, who shall take any part in such a training. and i would add, too, blessed will be that pastor, and blessed will be that sabbath-school teacher, who shall come up to their help. contents. chapter i. general remarks chapter ii. the color and ornaments of the hindoos chapter iii. dress, houses, eating, and salutation of the hindoos chapter iv. marriage among the hindoos chapter v. death and funerals among the hindoos chapter vi. the gods of the hindoos chapter vii. the three hundred and thirty millions of the gods of the hindoos--the creation of the universe--the transmigration of souls--the different hells chapter viii. hindoo castes chapter ix. hindoo temples--cars--procession of idols chapter x. festivals of the hindoos chapter xi. the worship of the serpent chapter xii. the river ganges chapter xiii. the goddess durga chapter xiv. the goddess karle chapter xv. self-tortures of the hindoos chapter xvi. the suttee, or burning of widows chapter xvii. the revengeful nature of the hindoo religion chapter xviii. the deception of the hindoos chapter xix. superstition of the hindoos chapter xx. burmah, china, etc., etc. chapter xxi. the duty of praying and contributing for the spread of the gospel chapter xxii. personal labors among the heathen chapter xxiii. success of the gospel in india and ceylon dr. scudder's tales for little readers, about the heathen. chapter i. general remarks my dear children--when i was a little boy, my dear mother taught me, with the exception of the last line, the following prayer: "now i lay me down to sleep, i pray the lord my soul to keep; if i should die before i wake, i pray the lord my soul to take; and this i ask for jesus' sake." though i am now more than fifty years old, i often like to say this prayer before i go to sleep. have you ever learned it, my dear children? if you have not, i hope that you will learn it _now_; and i hope, too, that when you say your other prayers at night, you will also say this. i think that you would be glad to see how this prayer looks in the tamul language--the language in which i am now preaching the gospel, and in which i hope that some of you will hereafter tell the heathen of the saviour. the following is a translation of it: [illustration: the lord's prayer in tamul] i wish that all the little heathen children knew this prayer; but their fathers and mothers do not teach it to them. their fathers and mothers teach them to pray to gods of gold, or brass, or stone. they take them, while they are very young, to their temples, and teach them to put up their hands before an idol, and say, "swammie." swammie means lord. as idolatry is the root of all sin, these children, as you may suppose, in early life become very wicked. they disobey their parents, speak bad words, call ill names, swear, steal, and tell lies. they also throw themselves on the ground in anger, and in their rage they tear their hair, or throw dirt over their heads, and do many other wicked things. let me give you an instance, to show you how they will speak bad words. a few months ago, a little girl about twelve years of age was brought to me, with two tumors in her back. to cut them out, i had to make an incision about eight inches in length; and as one of these tumors had extended under the shoulder-blade she suffered much before the operation was finished. while i was operating she cried out, "i will pull out my eyes." "i will pull out my tongue." "kurn kertta tayvun." the translation of this is, "the blind-eyed god." by this expression, she meant to say, "what kind of a god are you, not to look upon me, and help me in my distress?" if this little girl had had a christian father to teach her to love the saviour, she would not have used such bad language. but this father was even more wicked than his daughter, inasmuch as those who grow old in sin, are worse than those who have not sinned so long. i never saw a more hard-hearted parent. that he was so, will appear from his conduct after the operation was finished. he left his daughter, and went off to his home, about forty miles distant. before going, he said to his wife, or to one who came with her, "if the child gets well, bring her home; if she dies, take her away and bury her." i hope, my dear children, that when you think of the wicked little girl just mentioned, you will be warned never to speak bad words. god will be very angry with you, if you do. did you never read what is said in 2 kings, 2d chapter and 23d verse, about the little children who mocked the prophet elijah, and spoke bad words to him. o, how sorry must they have felt for their conduct, when they saw the paws of those great bears lifted up to tear them in pieces, and which did tear them in pieces. besides all this, little children who speak bad words can never go to heaven. god will cast them into the great fire. have you ever spoken bad words? if so, god is angry with you, and he will not forgive you unless you are sorry that you have done so, and seek his forgiveness through the blood of his dear son. chapter ii. the color and ornaments of the hindoos. my dear children--if you will take a piece of mahogany in your hands, and view its different shades, you will have a pretty good representation of the color of a large class of this heathen people--i say, of a large class, for there is a great variety of colors. some appear to be almost of a bronze color. some are quite black. it is difficult to account for the different colors which we often see in the same family. for instance, one child will be of the reddish hue to which i just referred; another will be quite dark. when i was in ceylon, two sisters of this description joined my church. one was called sevappe, or the red one; the other was called karappe, or the black one. this people very much resemble the english and americans in their features. many of them are very beautiful. this remark will apply particularly to children, and more especially to the children of brahmins and others, who are delicately brought up. but however beautiful any of this people may be, they try to make themselves appear more so, by the ornaments which they wear. these ornaments are of very different kinds, and are made of gold, silver, brass, precious stones, or glass. all are fond of ear-rings. sometimes four or five are worn in each ear, consisting of solid gold, the lower one being the largest, and the upper one the smallest. some men wear a gold ornament attached to the middle of the ear, in which a precious stone is inserted. sometimes they wear very large circular ear-rings, made of the wire of copper, around which gold is twisted so as to cover every part of it. these are frequently ornamented with precious stones. the females, in addition to ear-rings, have an ornament which passes through the rim of the ear, near the head, half of it being seen above the rim, and half of it below it. an ornamental chain is sometimes attached to this, which goes some distance back, when it is lost in the hair. they sometimes also wear a jewel in the middle of the rim of the ear, and another on that little forward point which strikes your finger when you attempt to put it into the ear. nose jewels also are worn. sometimes three are worn at the same time. holes are made through each side of the lower part of the nose, and through the cartilage, or that substance which divides the nostrils, through which they are suspended. the higher and wealthier females wear a profusion of ornaments of gold and pearls around the neck. a very pretty ornament, about three inches in diameter, having the appearance of gold, is also frequently worn by them on that part of the head where the females in america put up their hair in a knot. in addition to this, the little girls sometimes wear one or two similar but smaller ornaments below this, as well as an ornament at the end of the long braid of hair which hangs down over the middle of their backs. occasionally the whole, or the greater part of this braid is covered with an ornament of the same materials with those just described. they also wear an ornament extending from the crown of the head to the forehead, just in that spot where the little girls to whom i am writing part their hair. attached to this, i have seen a circular piece of gold filled with rubies. rings are worn on the toes as well as on the fingers, and bracelets of gold or silver on the wrists. anklets similar to bracelets, and tinkling ornaments are worn on the ankles. the poor, who cannot afford to wear gold or silver bracelets, have them made of glass stained with different colors. i have seen nearly a dozen on each wrist. the little boys wear gold or silver bracelets; also gold or silver anklets. i just alluded to finger-rings. i have seen a dozen on the same hand. in this part of the country, the little opening which is made in the ears of the children is gradually distended until it becomes very large. at first, the opening is only large enough to admit a wire. after this has been worn for a short time, a knife is introduced into the ear in the direction of the opening, and an incision made large enough to admit a little cotton. this is succeeded by a roll of oiled cloth, and by a peculiar shrub, the english name of which, if it has any, i do not know. when the hole becomes sufficiently large, a heavy ring of lead, about an inch in diameter, is introduced. this soon increases the size of the opening to such an extent, that a second, and afterwards a third, a fourth, and a fifth ring are added. by these weights, the lower parts of the ear are drawn down sometimes very nearly, or quite to the shoulders. not unfrequently the little girls, when they run, are obliged to catch hold of these rings to prevent the injury which they would receive by their striking against their necks. i need hardly say, that in due time, these rings are removed, and ornamented rings are substituted. a different plan is pursued with the mohammedan little girls. they have their ears bored from the top to the bottom of the ear. the openings which are at first made are small, and are never enlarged. a ring is inserted in each of these openings. i have seen a little girl to-day in whose ears i counted twenty-four rings. flowers in great profusion are sometimes used to add to the adornment of the jewels. i cannot conclude my account of the jewels of the little girls, without giving you a description of the appearance of a little patient of mine who came here a few days ago, loaded with trinkets. i will give it in the words of my daughter, which she wrote in part while the girl was here. "on the 17th, a little dancing-girl came to see us. she was adorned with many jewels, some of which were very beautiful. the jewel in the top of the ear was a circle, nearly the size of a dollar. it was set with rubies. nine pearls were suspended from it. in the middle of the ear was a jewel of a diamond shape, set with rubies and pearls. the lowest jewel in the ear was shaped like a bell. it was set with rubies, and from it hung a row of pearls. close by the ear, suspended from the hair, was a jewel which reached below her ear. it consisted of six bells of gold, one above the other. around each was a small row of pearls, which reached nearly to the bell below, thus forming a jewel resembling very many drops of pearls. it is the most beautiful jewel that i ever saw. in the right side of her nose was a white stone, set with gold, in the shape of a star. from it hung a large pearl. there was a hole bored in the partition between the nostrils. this hole had a jewel in it, about an inch in length, in the middle of which was a white stone with a ruby on each side. it also had a ruby on the top. from the white stone hung another, of a similar color, attached to it by a piece of gold. in the left side of the nose was a jewel about an inch in diameter. it was somewhat in the shape of a half-moon, and was set with rubies, pearls, emeralds, etc. etc. this jewel hung below her mouth. on the back of her head was a large, round gold piece, three inches in diameter. another piece about two inches in diameter, hung below this. her hair was braided in one braid, and hung down her back. at the bottom of this were three large tassels of silk, mounted with gold. her eyebrows and eyelashes were painted with black. her neck was covered with jewels of such beauty, and of such a variety, that it is impossible for me to describe them. around her ankles were large rings which looked like braided silver. to these were attached very many little bells, which rung as she walked. i believe all dancing-girls wear these rings. we felt very sad when we thought that she was dedicated to a life of infamy and shame." there is an ornament worn by the followers of the god siva, on their arms, or necks, or in their hair. it is called the _lingum_. the nature of this is so utterly abominable, that i cannot tell you a word about it. married women wear an ornament peculiar to themselves. it is called the tahly. it is a piece of gold, on which is engraven the image of some one of their gods. this is fastened around the neck by a short yellow string, containing one hundred and eight threads of great fineness. various ceremonies are performed before it is applied, and the gods, of whom i will tell you something by and by, with their wives, are called upon to give their blessing. when these ceremonies are finished, the tahly is brought on a waiter, ornamented with sweet-smelling flowers, and is tied by the bridegroom to the neck of the bride. this ornament is never taken off, unless her husband dies. in such a case she is deprived of it, to wear it no more for ever--deprived of it, after various ceremonies, by her nearest female relative, who cuts the thread by which it is suspended, and removes it. after this a barber is called, who shaves her head, and she becomes, in the eyes of the people, a _despised_ widow--no more to wear any ornament about her neck but a plain one--no more to stain her face with yellow water, nor to wear on her forehead those marks which are considered by the natives as among their chief ornaments. i have now told you something about the jewels of this people. i hope that you will never be disposed to imitate them, and load your bodies with such useless things. they are not only useless, but tend to encourage pride and vanity. all that you need is, the "pearl of great price," even jesus. adorn yourself with this pearl, and you will be beautiful indeed--beautiful even in the sight of your heavenly father. have you this pearl of great price, my dear children? tell me, have you this pearl of great price? if you have not, what have you? i just now alluded to those marks which the natives consider among their chief ornaments. these are different among different sects. the followers of siva rub ashes on their foreheads. these ashes are generally prepared by burning what in the tamul language is called [tamul:] _chaarne._ they also apply these ashes in streaks, generally three together, on their breasts, and on their arms. some besmear their whole bodies with them. the followers of vrishnoo wear a very different ornament from that just described. it consists of a perpendicular line drawn on the forehead, generally of a red or yellow color, and a white line on each side of it, which unite at the bottom with the middle line, and form a trident. another ornament consists of a small circle, which is called pottu. this is stamped in the middle of the forehead. sometimes it is red, sometimes yellow or black. large numbers of women, in this part of the country, wash their faces with a yellow water, made so by dissolving in it a paste made of a yellow root and common shell-lime. the brahmins frequently instead of rubbing ashes, draw a horizontal line over the middle of their foreheads, to show that they have bathed and are pure. sometimes the people ornament themselves with a paste of sandal-wood. they rub themselves from head to foot with it. this has a very odoriferous smell. when the people are loaded with jewels, and covered with the marks which i have just described they think themselves to be highly ornamented but after all, "they are like unto whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness." the "pearl of great price," to which i before alluded, the only pearl which is of any value in the sight of him who looketh at the heart, and not at the outward appearance, they possess not. millions in this eastern world have never even heard of it. o how incessantly ought you to pray that they may come into possession of it. how gladly should you give your money to send it to them. i wish, in this place, to ask you one question. who of you expect, by and by, to become missionaries to this land, to tell this people of the pearl of great price? chapter iii. dress, houses, eating, and salutation of the hindoos. my dear children--the dress of the hindoos is very simple. a single piece of cloth uncut, about three yards in length and one in width, wrapped round the loins, with a shawl thrown over the shoulders, constitutes the usual apparel of the people of respectability. these garments are often fringed with red silk or gold. the native ladies frequently almost encase themselves in cloth or silk. under such circumstances, their cloths are perhaps twenty yards in length. most of the native gentlemen now wear turbans, an ornament which they have borrowed from the mohammedans this consists of a long piece of very fine stuff, sometimes twenty yards in length and one in breadth. with this they encircle the head in many folds. those who are employed by european or mohammedan princes, wear a long robe of muslin, or very fine cloth. this also, is in imitation of the mohammedans, and was formerly unknown in the country. the houses of the hindoos are generally very plainly built. in the country, they are commonly made of earth, and thatched with straw. in the cities, they are covered with tiles. the kitchen is situated in the most retired part of the house. in the houses of the brahmins, the kitchen-door is always barred, to prevent strangers from looking upon their earthen vessels; for if they should happen to see them, their look would pollute them to such a degree that they must be broken to pieces. the hearth is generally placed on the south-west side, which is said to be the side of the _god of fire_, because they say that this god actually dwells there. the domestic customs of this people are very different from ours. the men and women do not eat together. the husband first eats, then the wife. the wife waits upon the husband after she has cooked the rice, she brings a brass plate, if they are possessors of one; or if not, a piece of a plantain-leaf, and puts it down on the mat before him. she then bails out the rice, places it upon the leaf, and afterwards pours the currie over it. this being done, the husband proceeds to mix up the currie and the rice with his hands, and puts it into his mouth. he never uses a knife and fork, as is customary with us. the currie of which i have spoken is a sauce of a yellow color, owing to the _munchel_, a yellow root which they put in it. this and onions, kottamaly-seeds mustard, serakum, pepper, etc., constitute the ingredients of the currie. some add to these ghea, or melted butter, and cocoa-nut milk. by the cocoa-nut milk, i do not mean the water of the cocoa-nut. this--except in the very young cocoa-nut, when it is a most delicious beverage--is never used. the milk is squeezed from the _meat_ of the cocoa-nut, after it has been reduced to a pulp by means of an indented circular iron which they use for this purpose. after the husband has eaten, the wife brings water for him to wash his hands. this being done, she supplies him with vettalay, paakku, shell-lime, and tobacco, which he puts into his mouth as his dessert. the vettalay is a very spicy leaf. why they use paakku, i do not know. it is a nut, which they cut into small pieces, but it has not much taste. sometimes the wife brings her husband a segar. this people, i am sorry to say, are great smokers and chewers, practices of which i hope that you, my dear children, will never be guilty. in ceylon, it is customary for females to smoke. frequently, after the husband has smoked for a while, he hands the segar to his wife. she then puts it into her mouth, and smokes. several years ago, one of the schoolmasters in that island became a christian. after he had partaken of the lord's supper, his wife considered him so defiled, that she would not put his segar into her mouth for a month afterwards. she, however, has since become a christian. i spoke just now of the plantain-leaf. this leaf is sometimes six feet long, and in some places a foot and a half wide. it is an unbroken leaf, with a large stem running through the middle of it. it is one of the handsomest of leaves. pieces enough can be torn from a single leaf, to take the place of a dozen plates. when quite young, it is an excellent application to surfaces which have been blistered. when this people eat, they do not use tables and chairs. they sit down on mats, and double their legs under them, after the manner of our friends the tailors in america, when they sew. this is the way in which the natives as a general thing, sit in our churches. it is not common to have benches or pews for them. carpenters and other tradesmen also sit down either on a board, or on the ground, or on their legs, when they work. it would divert you much to see their manoeuvring. if a carpenter, for instance, wants to make a little peg, he will take a small piece of board, and place it in an erect position between his feet, the soles of which are turned inward so as to press upon the board. he then takes his chisel in one hand, and his mallet in the other, and cuts off a small piece. afterwards he holds the piece in one hand, and while he shapes it with his chisel with the other, he steadies it by pressing it against his great toe. [illustration] the blacksmiths, with the exception of those who use the sledge-hammer, sit as do the carpenters while they hammer the iron. i wish you could see them at work with their simple apparatus. they have small anvils, which they place in a hole made in a log of wood which is buried in the ground. they do not use such bellows as you see in america. theirs consist of two leather bags, about a foot wide and a foot and a half long, each having a nozzle at one end. the other end is left open to admit the air. when they wish to blow the fire, they extend these bags to let in the air. they then close them by means of the thumb on one side, and the fingers on the other, and press them down towards the nozzle of the bellows, which forces the air through them into the fire. i should have said before, that the nozzle of the bellows passes through a small semicircular mound of dried mud. i mentioned that the natives do not use tables and chairs in their houses. neither do they, as a general thing, use bedsteads. they have no beds. they sleep on mats, which are spread down on the floor. sometimes they use a cotton bolster for their heads. more generally their pillows are hard boards, which they put under the mat. in addition to cooking, the females have to prepare the rice for this purpose, by taking it out of the husk. this they do by beating it in a mortar about two feet high. the pestle with which they pound it, is about five feet long, made of wood, with an iron rim around the lower part of it. three women can work at these mortars at the same time. of course they have to be very skilful in the use of the pestle, so as not to interfere with each others' operations. sometimes, while thus engaged, the children, who are generally at play near their mothers, put their hands on the edge of the mortars. in such cases, when the pestle happens to strike the edge, their fingers are taken off in a moment. the hindoos have many modes of salutation. in some places they raise their right hand to the heart. in others, they simply stretch it out towards the person who is passing, if they know him, for they never salute persons with whom they are not acquainted. in many places there is no show of salutation. when they meet their acquaintances they content themselves by saying a friendly word or two in passing, and then pursue their way. they have borrowed the word _salam_ from the mohammedans. they salute both mohammedans and europeans with this word, at the same time raising their hand to the forehead. when they address persons of high rank, they give them their _salam_ thrice, touching the ground as often with both hands, and then lifting them up to their foreheads. the other castes salute the brahmins by joining the hands and elevating them to the forehead, or sometimes over the head. it is accompanied with _andamayya_, which means, hail, respected lord. the brahmins stretch out their hands and say, _aaseervaathum_--benediction. another very respectful kind of salutation consists in lowering both hands to the feet of the person to be honored, or even in falling-down and embracing them. of all the forms of salutation, the most respectful is the _shaashtaangkum_, or prostration, in which the feet, the knees, the stomach, the head, and the arms, all touch the ground. in doing this, they throw themselves at their whole length on the ground, and stretch out both arms above their heads. this is practised before priests, and in the presence of an assembly, when they appear before it to beg pardon for a crime. relations, who have long been separated, testify their joy when they meet by chucking each other under the chin, and shedding tears of joy. i am not aware that grown persons ever kiss each other. sometimes mothers, or other individuals, will put their noses to the cheeks of little children, and draw the air through them, just as we do when we smell any thing which is agreeable. at other times they will apply the thumb and first finger to the cheek of the child, and then apply them to their own noses, and, as it were, smell them. the women, as a mark of respect, turn their backs, or at least their faces aside, when they are in the presence of those whom they highly esteem. they are never permitted to sit in the presence of men. a married woman cannot do this, even in the presence of her husband. if a person meets another of high rank, he must leave the path, if on foot, or alight, if on horseback, and remain standing until he has passed. he must at the same time take off his slippers. he also must take off his slippers when he enters a house. should he fail to do this, it would be considered a great impropriety. in addressing a person of note, they mast keep at a certain distance from him, and cover their mouths with their hands while they are speaking, lest their breath, or a particle of moisture, should escape to trouble him. when the hindoos visit a person of distinction for the first time, civility requires them to take some present as a mark of respect, or to show that they come with a friendly intention; especially if they wish to ask some favor in return. when they have not the means of making large presents, they carry with them sugar, plantains, milk, and other things of this kind. in case of mourning, visits must always be made, though at a distance of a hundred miles. letters of condolence would by no means be received as a substitute. chapter iv. marriage among the hindoos. my dear children--marriage, to the hindoos is the greatest event of their lives. in the celebration of it, many ceremonies are performed of these i will mention some of the most important. if the father of the young girl is a brahmin, and if he is rich and liberal, he will frequently bear all the expenses of the marriage of his daughter. to give a daughter in marriage and to sell her, are about the same thing. almost every parent makes his daughter an article of traffic, refusing to give her up until the sum of money for which he consented to let her go, is paid. men of distinction generally lay out this money for jewels, which they present to their daughters on their wedding-day. you will infer from what i have just said, that the parties to be married have nothing to do in the choice of each other. there are properly but four months in the year in which marriages can take place, namely march, april, may, and june. this probably arises from the circumstance that these are the hottest seasons of the year--the seasons when the people have more leisure to attend to them. from the harvest, also, which has just been gathered in, they are provided with means to perform the various ceremonies. the marriage ceremony lasts five days. the bride and bridegroom are first placed under a puntel, a kind of bower, covered with leaves, in front of the house. this is superbly adorned. the married women then come forward, and perform the ceremony called _arati_, which is as follows. upon a plate of copper, they place a lamp made of a paste from rice flour. it is supplied with oil, and lighted. they then take hold of the plate with both hands, and raise it as high as the heads of the couple to be married, and describe a number of circles with the plate and lamp. this is to prevent the evil of any jealous looks, which certain persons might make. the hindoos believe that great evils arise from wicked looks. they consider that even the gods themselves are not out of the reach of malicious eyes; and therefore after they have been carried through the streets, the ceremony of arati is always performed, to efface the evil which they may have suffered from these looks. it ought to have been mentioned, that before any thing is done, they place an image of pullian under the puntel. this god is much honored because he is much feared. and although the great ugliness of his appearance has hitherto kept him without a wife, they never fail to pay him the greatest attention, lest he should in some way or other injure them. after arati and many other ceremonies are performed, the kankanan, which is merely a bit of saffron, is tied to the right wrist of the young man, and to the left wrist of the girl. this is done with great solemnity. another remarkable ceremony succeeds this. the young man being seated with his face towards the east, his future father-in-law supposes that he beholds in him the great vrishnoo. with this impression, he offers him a sacrifice, and then, making him put both of his feet in a new dish filled with cow-dung, he first washes them with water, then with milk, and again with water, accompanying the whole with suitable muntrums or prayers. after many other ceremonies, he takes the hand of his daughter and puts it into that of his son-in-law. he then pours water over them in honor of vrishnoo. this is the most solemn of all the ceremonies, being the token of his resigning his daughter to the authority of the young man. she must be accompanied with three gifts, namely, one or more cows, some property in land, and a _salagrama_, which consists of some little amulet stones in high esteem among the brahmins. this ceremony being finished, the tahly is brought to be fastened to the neck of the bride. this, as i before said, is presented on a salver, decked and garnished with sweet-smelling flowers. incense is offered to it, and it is presented to the assistants each of whom touches it and invokes blessings upon it. the bride then turning towards the east, the bridegroom takes the tahly, repeats a muntrum or prayer aloud, and ties it around her neck. fire is then brought in, upon which the bridegroom offers up the sacrifice of _homam_, which consists of throwing boiled rice with melted butter upon the fire. he then takes his bride by the hand, and they walk three times around it, while the incense is blazing. there is another ceremony, which, perhaps, ought to be mentioned, as it is considered by some to be one of much importance. two baskets of bamboo are placed close together, one for the bride, the other for the bridegroom. they step into them, and two other baskets being brought, filled with ground rice, the husband takes up one with both hands and pours the contents over the head of the bride. she does the same to him. in the marriage of great princes pearls are sometimes used instead of rice. on the evening of the third day, when the constellations appear, the astrologer points out to the married pair a very small star, close to the middle or in the tail of _ursa major_, which he directs them to worship, and which he says is the wife of vasestha. while the assembled guests, are dining, the bridegroom and the bride also partake, and eat together from the same plate. this is a token of the closest union. this is the only instance in which they ever eat together. after all the ceremonies are finished, a procession is made through the streets of the village it commonly takes place in the night, by torchlight, accompanied with fire-works. the newly married pair are seated in one palanquin with their faces towards each other, both richly dressed. the bride, in particular, is generally covered with jewels and precious stones. the procession moves slowly; and their friends and relations come out of their houses, as they pass; the women hailing the married couple with the ceremony of _arati_, and the men with presents of silver, fruits, sugar, and betel. i once witnessed one of these marriage processions in the streets of madras at night, but can give you but little idea of its magnificence. the lamps used on the occasion could not be numbered. the shrubbery, which was drawn on carts or other vehicles, appeared exceedingly beautiful, in consequence of the light reflected from the lamps. intermingled with this shrubbery, were to be seen little girls elegantly dressed, and adorned with flowers on their heads. many elephants, with their trappings of gold and silver and red, formed a part of the procession. fire-works were also added to make the scene more brilliant. chapter v. death and funerals of the hindoos. my dear children--the death of a hindoo is followed by many ridiculous ceremonies. i will give you a description of a few, connected with the death of one who has moved in one of the higher ranks--of a brahmin. [illustration] when it is evident that a brahmin has but a little time to live, a space is prepared with earth, well spread with cow-dung, over which a cloth, that has never been worn, is spread. the dying man is placed upon this at full length. another cloth is wrapped around his loins. this being done, the ceremony of expiating his sins is performed as follows. the chief of the funeral brings on one plate some small pieces of silver or copper coin, and on another the punchakaryam, etc. a little of this punchakaryam is then put into his mouth, and, by virtue of this nauseous draught, the body is perfectly purified. besides this, there is a general cleansing, which is accomplished by making the dying man recite within himself, if he cannot speak, the proper muntrums, by which he is delivered from all his sins. after this, a cow is introduced with her calf. her horns are decorated with rings of gold or brass, and her neck with garlands of flowers. a pure cloth is laid over her body. thus decked, she is led up to the sick man, who takes hold of her tail. prayers are now offered up that the cow may conduct him, by a blessed path, to the next world. he then makes a gift of a cow to a brahmin. this gift is considered indispensable to enable the soul to go over the river of fire, which it is said all must pass after death. those who have made this gift, are met by one of these favored creatures the moment they arrive at the bank of the stream, and by her help, they are enabled to pass without injury from the flames. as soon as the breath has left his body, all who are present must weep for a reasonable time, and join in lamentations together. after various ceremonies, the body is washed, and a barber is called to shave his head. he is then clad with his finest clothes and adorned with jewels. he is rubbed with sandal-wood where the body is uncovered, and the accustomed mark is put upon his forehead. thus dressed he is placed on a kind of state bed, where he remains until he is carried to the pile. after every preparation is made to bear away the corpse, the person who is to conduct the funeral, with the assistance of some relative or friend, strips it of its clothing and jewels, and covers it with a handkerchief provided for the occasion. the corpse is then placed on a litter. those who die in a state of marriage, have their faces left uncovered. the litter, adorned with flowers and foliage, and sometimes decked with valuable stuffs, is borne by four brahmins. the procession is arranged as follows. the chief of the funeral marches foremost, carrying fire in a vessel. the body follows, attended by the relations and friends, without their turbans, and with nothing on their heads but a bit of cloth, in token of mourning. the women never attend the funeral, but remain in the house, where they set up a hideous cry when the corpse is taken out. while advancing on the road, the custom is to stop three times on the way, and, at each pause, to put into the mouth of the dead a morsel of unboiled rice, moistened. the object of stopping is considered to be very important. it is not without reason; for they say that persons supposed to be dead have been alive, or even when lifeless have been restored; and sometimes, also, it has happened that the gods of the infernal regions have mistaken their aim, and seized one person instead of another. in any view, it is right to afford the opportunity for correcting these mistakes, so as not to expose to the flames a person who is still alive. hence the propriety of these pauses, each of which continues half of the quarter of an hour. having arrived at the place for burning the dead, they dig a trench about six or seven feet in length. this is consecrated by the muntrums. it is slightly sprinkled with water to lay the dust, and a few pieces of money in gold are scattered upon it. here the pile is erected of dried wood, on which the body is laid out at full length. over the body a quantity of twigs are laid, which are sprinkled with punchakaryam the chief of the funeral then takes on his shoulders a pitcher of water, and goes around the pile three times, letting the water run through a hole made in it. after this he breaks the pitcher in pieces near the head of the corpse. at last the torch is brought for setting fire to the pile, and is handed to the chief of the funeral. before he receives it, however, he is obliged to make some grimaces to prove his sorrow. he rolls about on the ground, beats his breast, and makes the air resound with his cries. the assistants also cry, or appear to cry. fire being applied to the four corners of the pile, the crowd retire, except the four brahmins who carried the body; they remain until the whole is consumed. the funerals of the sudras differ in some particulars from those of the brahmins. deafening sounds of drums, trumpets, and other instruments of music, not in use among the brahmins, accompany their funerals. to increase the noise, they sometimes shoot off an instrument which somewhat resembles a small cannon. i do not now think of any other particular worthy of mention. by the ceremonies which are performed at their funerals, this wretched people expect to secure the pardon of all the sins of those who have died. alas, what a delusion! o, that christians had sent the gospel to this dark land in the days when they sent it to our heathen fathers. then might the hindoos now be seeking the expiation of their sins, through the blood of the ever-blessed redeemer. of this redeemer, however, they know nothing. they enter eternity, not that their souls may be consumed as their bodies have been, but to endure the flames of divine wrath for ever and ever. alas, alas, that it should be so! o, that the generation of christians now living would lay these things to heart, and do what they can, through grace, to rescue those who are yet within the reach of hope from so tremendous a doom. what, my dear children, will you do for this purpose? chapter vi. the gods of the hindoos. my dear children--the word heathen is applied to those who worship idols, or who do not know any thing about the true god. this is the case with this people. they say that there is one supreme being, whom they call brahm; but he is very different from jehovah, and is never worshipped. generally, he is fast asleep. in the place of brahm, they worship many gods--gods of all colors: some black, some white, some blue, some red--gods of all shapes and sizes: some in the shape of beasts, some in the shape of men; some partly in the shape of beasts, and partly in the shape of men, having four, or ten, or a hundred, or a thousand eyes, heads, and hands. they ride through the air on elephants, buffaloes, lions, sheep, deer, goats, peacocks, vultures, geese, serpents, and rats. they hold in their hands all kinds of weapons, offensive and defensive, thunderbolts javelins, spears, clubs, bows, arrows, shields, flags, and shells. they are of all employments. there are gods of the heavens above and of the earth below, gods of wisdom and of folly, gods of war and of peace, gods of good and of evil, gods of pleasure, gods of cruelty and wrath, whose thirst must be satiated with torrents of blood. these gods fight and quarrel with one another. they lie, steal, commit adultery, murder, and other crimes. they pour out their curses when they cannot succeed in their wicked plots, and invent all kinds of lying tales to hide their wickedness. there are three principal gods, who compose what is called the hindoo triad. their names are brumha, vrishnoo, and siva. they were somehow drawn from brahm's essence, on one occasion when he was awake. brumha, they say, is the creator of the world, vrishnoo the preserver, and siva the destroyer. brumha has no temple erected for his worship, on account of a great falsehood which he told. i will tell you what it was. once, as it is said, there was a dispute between him and vrishnoo, as to who is the greatest. while thus disputing, siva appeared between the two as a fire-post and told them that he who would find the bottom or the top of the post first, would show that he is the greatest. vrishnoo immediately changed himself into a hog, and began to root up the earth with the hope of finding the bottom of the post. brumha changed himself into a swan, flew up towards the top of the post, and cried out, i have found it, when he had not. this, you know, my dear children, was a falsehood. for this falsehood, it is said, no temple is erected for his worship. vrishnoo was a thief and a liar. he was once dwelling in the house of a dairyman, and he used constantly to be stealing butter and curdled milk from the dairyman's wife. she did not know, for a long time, what became of her butter and curdled milk; but at last she found out that vrishnoo was the thief. to punish him for his theft, she tied him to a rice mortar. siva's conduct was very bad. i will tell you but one thing about him. on one occasion he was playing at cards with his wife parvathe. vrishnoo was appointed to determine who was the best player. after playing for a little season parvathe won the game. siva then beckoned to vrishnoo to declare that he, instead of parvathe, had won it. this he did. in consequence of this falsehood, he was cursed by parvathe, and changed into a snake. and now, my dear children, why do i tell you about these gods? i tell you for the purpose of making you thankful that you were born in a christian land, where you have the bible to teach you better things. had you not the bible, you would worship just such wretched beings as these poor hindoos worship. perhaps you know that our saxon fathers, before they had the bible, were as great idolaters as are this people. they worshipped thor and woden and other similar idols, and they were even in the habit of offering up human sacrifices surely, if there is any thing which should make you give your hearts to your saviour and love him above all things, it is god's gift of the bible to you. chapter vii. the three hundred and thirty millions of the gods of the hindoos--the creation of the universe--the transmigration of souls--the different hells. my dear children--i told you that in one of those seasons when brahm was awake, brumha, vrishnoo, and siva were somehow drawn from brahm's essence. the three hundred and thirty millions of the gods of the hindoos were also drawn from this essence; as were all the atoms which compose the earth, the sun, moon, and stars. at first, these atoms were all in disorder. for the purpose of reducing them to order, brahm created what is called the great mundane egg. into this egg he himself entered, under the form, of brumha, taking with him all these atoms. after remaining in this egg four thousand three hundred millions of years, to arrange these atoms, he burst its shell and came out, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, and a thousand arms. with him, he brought out all those harmonized atoms, which, when separated, produced this beautiful universe that we see above and around us. the universe, as it came from the mundane egg, is generally divided into fourteen worlds: seven inferior or lower worlds, and seven superior or upper worlds. the seven lower worlds are filled with all kinds of wicked and loathsome creatures. our earth, which is the first of the upper worlds, it is said, is flat. the following figure will give you some idea of it. [illustration: concentric circles with labels on each from outermost to innermost: sea of sweet water. sea of milk. sea of sour curds. sea of clarified butter. sea of spirituous liquors. sea of sugar cane juice. sea of salt water. earth.] that part of the earth which is inhabited consists of seven circular islands, or continents each of which is surrounded by a different ocean. the island in the centre, where we dwell, is surrounded by a sea of salt water, the second island is surrounded by a sea of sugar-cane juice, the third island is surrounded by a sea of spirituous liquors, the fourth is surrounded by a sea of clarified butter, the fifth is surrounded by a sea of sour curds, the sixth is surrounded by a sea of milk, the seventh is surrounded by a sea of sweet water. in all the worlds above ours are mansions where the gods reside. in the third is the heaven of indra. this is the heaven to which it is said the widow goes, after she has burned herself to death on the funeral pile of her husband its palaces are of the purest gold. and such are the quantities of diamonds, and jasper, and sapphire, and emerald, and all manner of precious stones there, that it shines with a brightness superior to that of twelve thousand suns. its streets are of the clearest crystal, fringed with gold. in the seventh, or the highest of the upper worlds, is the heaven where brumha chiefly resides. this far exceeds all the other heavens in point of beauty. in the inferior worlds it is stated that there are one hundred thousand hells. these are provided for such as have been great criminals. the hindoos say, that those who have not been very wicked, can make an atonement for their sins in this world. should they neglect to do this, they must suffer for it in another birth. they believe in what is called the transmigration of souls, or the passing of the soul, after death, into another body. the soul must suffer in the next birth, if not purified in this. hence it is asserted, that if a man is a stealer of gold from a brahmin, he is doomed to have whitlows on his nails; if a drinker of spirits, black teeth; if a false detractor, fetid breath; if a stealer of grain, the defect of some limb; if a stealer of clothes, leprosy; if a horse-stealer, lameness; if a stealer of a lamp, total blindness. if he steals grain in the husk, he will be born a rat; if yellow mixed metal, a gander; if money, a great stinging gnat; if fruit, an ape; if the property of a priest, a crocodile. those persons whose sins are too great to be forgiven in this world, must be sent to one of the hells to winch i have alluded. weeping, wailing, shrieking, they are dragged to the palace of _yama_, the king of those doleful regions. on arriving there, they behold him clothed with terror, two hundred and forty miles in height, his eyes as large as a lake of water, his voice as loud as thunder, the hairs of his body as long as palm-trees, a flame of fire proceeding from his mouth, the noise of his breath like the roaring of a tempest, and in his right hand a terrific iron club. sentence is passed, and the wretched beings are doomed to receive punishment according to the nature of their crimes. some are made to tread on burning sands, or sharp-edged stones. others are rolled among thorns and spikes and putrefying flesh. others are dragged along the roughest places by cords passed through the tender parts of the body. some are attacked by jackals, tigers, and elephants. others are pierced with arrows, beaten with clubs, pricked with needles, seared with hot irons, and tormented by flies and wasps. some are plunged into pans of liquid fire or boiling oil. others are dashed from lofty trees, many hundred miles high. the torment of these hells does not continue for ever. after criminals have been punished for a longer or shorter time, their souls return to the earth again in the bodies of men. here they may perform such good acts as may raise them to one of the heavens of the gods; or commit crimes, which may be the means of their being sent again to the abodes of misery. things will go on in this way until the universe comes to an end, when every thing is to disappear, and to be swallowed up in brahm. the hindoos say, that it is now more than one hundred and fifty billions of years since the world was created. after it has continued about one hundred and fifty billions of years more, it is to come to an end. then brumha is to die, and to be swallowed up with the universe in the sole existing brahm. by what you have heard, you will learn that the hindoos expect, by their sufferings, to make an atonement for their sins. but there is no atonement for sin, except through the blood of jesus christ. we must come as lost sinners to our heavenly father, confess our transgressions to him, and plead for his forgiveness, only through the sufferings and death which christ endured. my dear children, have you done this? if not, do it speedily, or the regions of the lost must soon be your everlasting abode. chapter viii. hindoo castes. my dear children--the people of india are divided into castes, as they are called. their sacred books declare, that after brumha had peopled the heavens above and the worlds below, he created the human race, consisting of four classes or castes. from his mouth proceeded the brahmin caste. those of this class are the highest and noblest beings on earth, and hold the office of priests. at the same time there flowed from his mouth the _vedas_, or sacred books, of which the brahmins are the sole teachers to their fellow-men, they were to give such parts of these books as they thought best. from brumha's arm proceeded the military caste. the business of this class is to defend their country when attacked by enemies. from his breast proceeded the third caste, consisting of farmers and merchants. from his feet, the member of inferiority, proceeded the sudras, or servile caste. carpenters, braziers, weavers, dyers, and the manual cultivators of the soil, are included in this class. caste is not a civil, but a sacred institution. you must get some one older than yourself to explain what this means. caste is a difference of _kind_. hence, a man of one caste can never be changed into a man of another caste, any more than a lion can be changed into a mole, or a mole into a lion. each caste has its laws, the breaking of which is attended with great disgrace, and even degradation below all the other castes. for instance, if a brahmin should, by eating any forbidden thing, break his caste, he would sink below all the other castes. he would become an outcast, or pariah. for beneath the fourth, or lowest caste, there is a class of people belonging to no caste--a class of outcasts, held in the utmost abhorrence. by the system of castes, the hindoos have been divided into so many selfish sections, each scowling on all the rest with feelings of hatred and contempt. the spirit which upholds it, is similar to that spirit which says, "stand by thyself, for i am holier than thou," and, of course, is nothing but pride. this is one of the greatest obstacles to the spread of christianity in this dark land, and for the exhibition of which we were lately obliged to cut off many of the members of our churches. the brahmins, in consequence of their being of the highest caste, and of their having been taught from their infancy to regard all other classes of men with the utmost contempt, are very proud. they make great efforts to keep themselves pure, in their sense of the word, both without and within. they are exceedingly afraid of being defiled by persons of other castes. they have the utmost dread even of being touched by a pariah. for them to eat with any of these pariahs, or to go into their houses, or to drink water which they have drawn, or from vessels which they have handled, is attended with the loss of their caste. a brahmin who should enter their houses, or permit them to enter his, would be cut off from his caste, and could not be restored without many troublesome ceremonies and great expense. the pariahs are considered to be so low, that if a brahmin were to touch them, even with the end of a long pole, he would be looked upon as polluted in some districts they are obliged to make a long circuit, when they perceive brahmins in the way, that their breath may not infect them, or their shadow fall upon them as they pass. in some places their very approach is sufficient to pollute a whole neighborhood. the brahmins carry their ideas of purity very far. should a sudra happen to look upon the vessels in which they cook their food, they would be considered as defiled. they can never touch any kind of leather or skin, except the skin of the tiger and antelope. the most disagreeable of all american fashions, in their eyes, is that of boots and gloves. they rarely eat their food from plates; and when they do so, it is only at home. they use the leaf of the plantain or other trees as a substitute. to offer them any thing to eat on a metal or earthen plate which others have used, would be considered a great affront. for the same reason, they will neither use a spoon nor a fork when they eat; and they are astonished that any one, after having applied them to their mouths, and infected them with saliva, should repeat the act a second time. they have a great abhorrence of the toothpick, if used a second time. when they eat any thing dry, they throw it into their mouths, so that the fingers may not approach the lips. they do not drink as we do, by applying the cup to the lips. this would be considered a gross impropriety. they pour the water into their months. the reason why they do these things is, because they consider the saliva to be the most filthy secretion that comes from the body. it is on this account that no one is ever permitted to spit within doors. the use of animal food they consider to be defiling. not only will they not eat animal food, but they will eat nothing that has the principle of life in it. on this account, they cannot eat eggs of any kind. i was once breaking an egg in my medicine-room at panditeripo, while a brahmin was present. he told me that, under such circumstances, he could not remain with me any longer. in his view, i was committing a great sin. to kill an ox or a cow, is considered by them as a crime which can never be atoned for, and to eat their flesh is a defilement which can never be washed away. to kill a cow is, by _hindoo_ law, punishable with death. the touch of most animals, particularly that of the dog, defiles a brahmin. should a dog touch them, they would be obliged instantly to plunge into water, and wash their clothes, in order to get rid of such a stain. notwithstanding this, the dog is one of the gods worshipped by the hindoos. the hindoos consider themselves to be unclean if they have assisted at a funeral. when the ceremony is over, they immediately plunge into water for the sake of purification. even the news of the death of a relative, a hundred miles off, has the same effect. the person who hears such news is considered unclean until he has bathed. in unison with this feeling, a person is no sooner dead, than he is hastened away to be buried or burned; for, until this is done, those in the house can neither eat nor drink, nor go on with their occupations. a brahmin who is particular in his delicacy, must be careful what he treads upon. he is obliged to wash his body or bathe, if he happens to tread on a bone, or a broken pot, a bit of rag, or a leaf from which one has been eating. he must also be careful where he sits down. some devotees always carry their seats with them, that is, a tiger or antelope's skin, which are always held pure. some are contented with a mat. they may sit down on the ground without defilement, provided it has been newly rubbed over with cow-dung. this last specific is used daily to purify their houses from the defilement occasioned by comers, and goers. when thus applied, diluted with water, it has unquestionably one good effect. it completely destroys the fleas and other insects, with which they are very much annoyed. there is one thing more which i wish to mention. it is, that all the high castes consider the use of intoxicating drinks to be defiling. i hope that you, my dear children, will always have the same opinion, and never touch them any sooner than you would touch arsenic or other poisons. a person may be restored to his caste, provided he has not committed an unpardonable offence. this is done as follows. after he has gained the consent of his relations to be restored he prostrates himself very humbly before them, they being assembled for that purpose, and submits to the blows or other punishment which they may think proper to inflict, or pays the fine which they may have laid upon him. then, after shedding tears of sorrow, and making promises that, by his future conduct, he will wipe away the stain of his expulsion from caste, he makes the shaashtaangkum before the assembly. this being done, he is declared fit to be restored to his tribe. when a man has been expelled from his caste for some great offence, those who restore him sometimes slightly burn his tongue with a piece of gold made hot. they likewise apply to different parts of the body redhot iron stamps, which leave marks that remain for ever. sometimes they compel the offender to walk on burning embers; and to complete the purification, he must drink the punchakaryam, which literally means the _five things_; these all come from the cow, and must be mixed together. the first three of these i will mention, namely, the milk, butter, and curds. the other two, for the sake of delicacy, i must not mention. after the ceremony of punchakaryam is finished the person who has been expelled from his caste must give a grand feast. this finishes all he has to do, and he is then restored to favor. there are certain offences which, when committed cut off all hope that the offender will ever be restored to his caste. for instance, should he eat the flesh of the cow, no presents which he might make, nor any fines which lie might be disposed to pay, no, not even the punchakaryam itself, would be of any avail for his restoration or purification. i will make a remark here, which i might have made before. it is, that in christian countries, there is a spirit of pride which much resembles the spirit of caste. many are to be found who are very proud that they have descended from rich and honorable _ancestors_, and who look down, almost with disdain, upon those in other situations. i need hardly tell you that this is a very wicked spirit, and entirely opposed to the spirit of the gospel. no matter what may be our high thoughts of ourselves, we appear but very low in the sight of him who created us. we are all sinners, and, as such, are offensive in his sight. if we would go to heaven, the first thing which we have to do, is to humble ourselves for the pride of our hearts, and become as little children before him. we must have that spirit of which the apostle speaks, when he says, "let each esteem others better than themselves." with a humble spirit we may approach a holy god, with the assurance that he will, for christ's sake, forgive all our sins. chapter ix. hindoo temples--cars--procession of idols. my dear children--i will proceed to give you a description of the hindoo temples. these are very numerous. one is to be found in almost every village. they are to be found, also, in out-of-the-way places, distant from villages, in woods, on the banks and in the middle of rivers; but, above all, on mountains and steep rocks. this latter practice, of building temples on mountains, is very ancient. the israelites were accustomed to choose a mountain when they offered up their sacrifices to the lord. solomon, before the building of the temple, chose mount gibeon on which to offer his burnt-offerings; and when the ten tribes separated themselves, in the reign of jeroboam, they built their altars on the mountain of samaria. this practice may have come from the circumstance, that noah offered to god a great sacrifice of thanks on one of the highest mountains of armenia. probably mount ararat continued long to be remembered, by him and his descendants, as the scene of their deliverance. besides the temples of the idols, there are various objects of worship, made of earth and stone. some of the idols are carved. some consist merely of the rough stone. these are to be seen on the high-roads, at the entrance into villages, and, above all, under lofty trees. some of these are covered; but generally they are exposed in the open air. you will read in genesis, 28th chap, and 18th verse, that jacob, after his dream, rose up early in the morning and took the stone that he had put for his pillow, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it. whether it has happened from this circumstance or not, that the heathen universally pour oil over their idols, i cannot tell. all i know is, that they do it. no idol can become an object of worship until a brahmin has said his muntrums, or prayers, for the purpose of bringing down the god to live, as it is said be does, in the image, and until he has drenched it with oil and liquid butter. the idols, in the great temples, are clothed with rich garments, and adorned with jewels, which are enriched with precious stones of immense value. sacrifices are constantly made to these idols, consisting of boiled rice, flowers, fruits, etc., but, above all, of lamps, of which many thousands are sometimes seen burning. they feed them with butter, in preference to oil. the priests of the temples offer up sacrifices twice every day, morning and evening. they begin the ceremony by washing their idol. the water which is used is brought from a river or tank. every morning a procession, with music, passes before our door, with this water. every priest who offers up sacrifices, must have several lighted lamps with a bell, which he holds in his left hand. with his right hand he makes an offering to the idol, adorns it with flowers, and rubs its forehead and various parts of its body with sandal-wood and holy ashes. while all this is going on, he is alone in the temple, the door of which is closed. the unholy multitude remain without, silently waiting till he has done. what he does, they cannot know, only hearing the sound of the bell. when he has done, he comes out and distributes among the people a part of the things which have been offered to the idol. these are considered as holy. if they consist of rice and fruit, they are immediately eaten; if of flowers, the men put them in their turbans, and the girls entwine them in their hair. next to the priests, the most important persons about the temples are the dancing girls. these are persons of the vilest character. they perform their religious duties in the temple twice a day. they also assist at the public ceremonies, and dance. at the same time they sing the most abominable and filthy songs. of these wicked creatures, however, i must not tell you any thing further. the next order of persons employed in the temples, are players on musical instruments. every temple of note has a band of these musicians who, as well as the dancers, are obliged to attend the temple twice a day. they are also obliged to assist at all the public festivals. their band generally consists of wind, instruments, resembling clarionets and hautboys, to which they add cymbals and drums. they have a bass, produced by blowing into a kind of tube, widened below, and which gives an uninterrupted sound. part of the musicians sing hymns in honor of their gods. the expenses of the temples are borne by the voluntary offerings of the people, consisting of money, jewels, cattle, provisions, and other articles. in order to induce them to make such offerings, the brahmins use all kinds of deception. sometimes they will put their idols in irons, chaining their hands and feet. they exhibit them in this sad condition, declaring that they have been brought into it by creditors from whom their gods had to borrow money, in times of trouble, to supply their wants. they declare that their creditors refuse to set the gods at liberty, until the money with the interest is paid. the people, seeing the deplorable condition into which they have been brought, come forward and pay off the debt; when the chains are taken off, and the god is set at liberty. another way in which the brahmins sometimes deceive the people, is as follows. they say that the god is afflicted with some dreadful disease, brought on by the distress which he has had, because the people do not worship him as much as they should. in such cases, the idol is sometimes placed at the door of the temple where they rub his forehead and temples with various kinds of medicine. they also set before him all sorts of medicines, pretending in this way to do all they can to cure him. but as all their efforts prove to be vain, and the disease becomes worse, the brahmins send out persons to tell the sad news. the people, believing the report, hasten to bring in their gifts and offerings. the god, on beholding such proofs of their attachment to him, feels himself cured of his disease, and immediately returns to his throne within the temple. the brahmins use another kind of deception, in order to procure offerings for the temples. they declare that their gods are angry with certain individuals who have offended them, and that they have sent some evil spirit or devil to take possession of their bodies and torment them. accordingly, persons appear wandering about in different parts of the country, showing, by their dreadful convulsions, their writhings and twistings, every symptom of being possessed with the devil. the people who see them are filled with dismay, fall down before them, and offer gifts and sacrifices, for fear of being injured by them. whatever they ask is granted. the people give them to eat and drink abundantly; and when they leave a place, accompany them with instruments of music, till they arrive at some other place, where the same deception is practised. there are various other ways in which the brahmins deceive the people; but i have told you enough. at every large temple, there is at least yearly one grand procession. the idol is brought out from its inclosure, and placed in a great car or chariot, prepared for this express purpose. this stands upon four wheels of great strength, not made like ours, of spokes with a rim, but of three or four pieces of thick, solid timber, rounded and fitted to each other. the car is sometimes forty or fifty feet high, having upon it carved images of a most abominable nature. i must not tell you any thing about them. the car, when finished, presents somewhat the shape of a pyramid. [illustration] on the day of the procession, it is adorned with painted cloth, garlands of flowers, green shrubbery, and precious stuffs. the idol is placed in the centre, loaded with jewels, etc., to attract the attention of the people. having fastened ropes to this enormous car, eight or nine hundred or a thousand people catch hold of the ropes and slowly drag it along, accompanied with the awful roaring of their voices. at certain periods they stop; when the immense crowds, collected from all parts of the country, set up one universal shout, or rather yell. this, with the sound of their instruments and numerous drums, produces much uproar and confusion. sometimes the weighty car comes to a stand, from the dampness of the ground or from the narrowness of the streets, when the tumult and noise are redoubled. [illustration] perhaps you know that on some occasions, when the cars are drawn, people throw themselves under the wheels, and are crushed to death. this occurs at the drawing of the car of juggernaut, as you may learn if you will read my sermon to children, on the condition of the heathen. here is a picture of juggernaut, and on the last page you may see a picture of his car, and two men crushed to death under the wheels. not long since, five persons were thus crushed to death. many dreadful accidents also take place at the drawing of these cars. a few years ago several persons in this city had their limbs amputated, in consequence of injuries received. [illustration] when i was in america, i showed to many of the dear children an idol called pulliar, which was _formerly_ worshipped by raamu, one of our native helpers, when he was a heathen. i gave a particular description, of the i manner in which he daily worshiped it, in the sermon above mentioned here is a picture, which will give you some idea of this god. you will see that it is partly in the shape of a man, and partly in the shape of a beast. you, my dear children, would put no confidence in such vain idols; but this people do, as you may know from what i am now going to tell you. some months ago, a woman was brought to me with a cancer in her breast. it had made sad ravages. on the morning after her arrival i took it out. before she was brought to me, her brother went to the temple of the goddess meenaache, to ascertain what was her will respecting his bringing her to me, or taking her to a native doctor. in order to ascertain it, he had recourse to the following expedient. he prepared several bundles of red and white flowers--the red to represent the red or tamil man, the white to represent the white man. these flowers were carefully inclosed in leaves, so as to prevent their color being seen, and then laid down on the ground, at the entrance of the temple. after this, he called a little child to him, and then proceeded to entreat meenaache that, if it were her will that he should bring the sick woman to me, she would direct the child to take up one of the parcels containing the white flowers. it so happened that the child took up one of these parcels. of course, he brought her to me. had it taken up a parcel containing the red flowers, she would have been taken to a native doctor. may we not hope that, not meenaache, but jehovah directed him to bring her to me, that she might hear of a very different being from her goddess, even of jesus. of him she has fully heard. chapter x. festivals of the hindoos. my dear children--the hindoos have many festivals. these are all occasions of joy and gladness. on such days, the people quit their usual employments. friends and relations unite in family parties, and give entertainments according to their means. innocent pastimes and amusements of various kinds are resorted too to add to their happiness. there are eighteen principal festivals yearly, and no month passes without one or more of them. one of the most solemn of these ceremonies is held in the month of september, and appears to be principally in honor of parvathe, the wife of siva. at this time every laborer and every artisan offers sacrifices and prayers to his tools. the laborer brings his plough, hoe, and other farming utensils. he piles them together, and offers a sacrifice to them, consisting of flowers, fruit, rice, and other articles. after this, he prostrates himself before them at full length, and then returns them to their places. the mason offers the same adoration and sacrifice to his trowel, rule, and other instruments the carpenter adores his hatchet, adze, and plane. the barber collects his razors together and worships them with similar rites. the writing-master sacrifices to the iron pen or style, with which he writes upon the palm-leaf the tailor to his needles, the weaver to his loom, the butcher to his cleaver. the women, on this day, collect into a heap their baskets, rice-mill, rice-pounder, and other household utensils, and, after having offered sacrifices to them, fall down in adoration before them. every person, in short, in this solemnity sanctifies and adores the instrument or tool by which he gains a living. the tools are considered as so many gods, to whom they present their prayers that they will continue to furnish them still with the means of getting a livelihood. this least is concluded by making an idol to represent parvathe. it is made of the paste of grain, and being placed under a sort of canopy, is carried through the streets with great pomp, and receives the worship of the people. another festival of great celebrity is observed in october. at this time, each person, for himself, makes offerings of boiled rice and other food, to such of their relations as have died, that they may have a good meal on that day. they afterwards offer sacrifices of burning lamps, of fruit, and of flowers, and also new articles of dress, that their ancestors may be freshly clothed. at this festival, soldiers offer sacrifices to their weapons, in order to obtain success in war. on such occasions, a ram is offered in sacrifice to their armor. in november, a festival is observed, which is called the feast of lamps. at this season, the hindoos light lamps, and place them around the doors of their houses. this festival was established to commemorate the deliverance of the earth from a giant, who had been a great scourge to the people. he was slain by vrishnoo, after a dreadful battle. in many places, on this day, a sacrifice is offered to the _dunghill_ which is afterwards to enrich the ground. in the villages, each one has his own heap, to which he makes his offering of burning lamps, fruit, flowers, etc. the most celebrated of all the festivals, is that which is held in the end of december. it is called the feast of pongul, and is a season of rejoicing for two reasons: the first is, because the month of december, every day of which is unlucky, is about to end; and the other is, because it is to be followed by a month, every day of which is fortunate. for the purpose of preventing the evil effects of this month, the women every morning scour a place about two feet square before the door of the house, upon which they draw white lines, with flour. upon these they place several little balls of cow-dung, sticking in each a flower. each day these little balls, with their flowers, are preserved, and on the last day of the month, they are thrown into tanks or waste-places. the first day of this festival is called the pongul of rejoicing. near relatives are invited to a feast, which passes off with mirth and gladness. the second day is called the pongul of the sun, and is set apart to worship that luminary. married women, after bathing themselves, proceed to boil rice with milk, in the open air. when the milk begins to simmer, they make a loud cry, "pongul, o pongul." the vessel is then taken from the fire, and set before an idol. part of this rice is offered to the image, and, after standing there for some time, it is given to the cows. the remainder is given to the people. this is the great day for visiting among friends. the salutation begins by the question, "has the milk boiled?" to which the answer is, "it has boiled." from this, the festival takes the name of pongul, which signifies to boil. the third day is called the _pongul of cows._ in a great vessel, filled with water, they put saffron and other things. these being well mixed, they go around the cows and oxen belonging to the house several times, sprinkling them with water. after this, the men prostrate themselves before them four times. the cows are then dressed, their horns being painted with various colors. garlands of flowers are also put round their necks, and over their backs. to these are added strings of cocoa-nuts and other kinds of fruit, which, however, are soon shaken off, when they are in motion, and are picked up by children and others, who greedily eat what they gather, as something sacred. after being driven through the streets, they are suffered, during the day, to feed wherever they please, without a keeper. i have, however, told you enough. are you ready to exclaim, is it possible that a people can be guilty of such utter folly? but you, my dear children, would be guilty of just such folly, if you had not the bible. should not the gratitude, then, which you owe to your heavenly father, for your distinguished mercies, constrain you to do all that you can to send this blessed book to this dark land? chapter xi. the worship of the serpent. my dear children--if you have never heard much about the hindoos, you will be astonished to learn how numerous are the objects of their worship. they worship many living creatures, such as the ape, the tiger, the elephant the horse, the ox, the stag, the sheep, the hog, the dog, the cat, the rat, the peacock, the eagle, the cock, the hawk, the serpent, the chameleon, the lizard, the tortoise, fishes, and even insects. of these, some receive much more worship than others, such as the cow, the ox, and the serpent cobra capella. i will speak at present only of the worship of the serpent. of all the dangerous creatures found in india, there are none that occasion so many deaths as serpents. the people are very much exposed to their bite, especially at night, when they are walking. they tread upon them, and, as they generally do not wear shoes, the snakes turn their heads, and strike their fangs into those parts of the feet which are nearest to the place where the pressure is made upon their bodies. sometimes the bite is followed with instant death. the cobra capella is one of the most common snakes, and one of the most poisonous. it is said, that it has a thousand heads, one of which holds up the earth. it has a peculiar mark on its back, just behind the head. this mark very much resembles a pair of spectacles, without the handles. if you should go near it, it would raise the fore part of its body about six inches, widen out its neck, so as to be about double its common width, and prepare to strike you. the reason why the hindoos offer sacrifices and adoration to it above all the other serpents is, because it is so frequently met with, and is so much dreaded. in order to induce the people to worship this dangerous enemy, the hindoos have filled their books with tales concerning it. figures of it are often to be seen in the temples, and on other buildings. they seek out their holes, which are generally to be found in the hillocks of earth which are thrown up by the white ants; and when they find one, they go from time to time and offer milk, plantains, and other good things to it. [illustration] the hindoos, as i before observed, have eighteen annual festivals. one of these festivals is held for the purpose of worshipping this serpent. temples in many places are erected to it, of which there is one of great celebrity in mysore. when the festival occurs at this temple, great crowds of people come together to offer sacrifices to this creeping god. many serpents besides the cobra capella live within it, in holes made especially for them. all of these are kept and well fed by the brahmins with milk, butter, and plantains. by such means they become very numerous, and may be seen swarming from every crevice in the temple. to injure or to kill one would be considered a great crime. many of the natives call the cobra capella nulla paampu, that is, good snake. they are afraid to call it a bad snake, lest it should injure them. the following is the prayer which is offered before the image of this snake. o, divine cobra, preserve and sustain us. o, sheoh, partake of these offerings, and be gracious unto us. can you think of any thing, my dear children more dishonoring to a holy god, than such worship? and what have you ever done to prevent it? have you, every morning and evening, prayed that the gospel might be sent to this people? did you ever give any money to send it to them? did you ever think whether it may not be your duty, by and by, to come to them, to tell them of this gospel? chapter xii. the river ganges. my dear children--if you will look at the map of asia, and find the country of hindostan, you will see running through it a very celebrated river--the river ganges. it is called the ganges, after the goddess gunga. the hindoos say that the goddess gungu--who was produced from the sweat of vrishnoo's foot, which brumha caught and preserved in his alms-dish--came down from heaven, and divided herself into one hundred streams, which are the mouths of the river ganges. all classes and castes worship her. the sight, the name, or the touch of the river ganges is said to take away all sin. to die on the edge of the river, or to die partly buried in the stream, drinking its waters, while their bodies are besmeared with mud, is supposed to render them very holy. on this account, when it is expected that a person will die, he is hurried down to the river, whether willing or unwilling. sometimes the wood which the people bring to burn their bodies after death, is piled up before their eyes. o, how inhuman is this. after it is supposed that they are dead, and they are placed on the pile of wood, if they should revive and attempt to rise, it is thought that they are possessed with the devil, and they are beaten down with a hatchet or bamboo. were you standing on the banks of the ganges you might, perhaps, in one place see two or three young men carrying a sick female to the river. if you should ask what they are going to do with her, perhaps they would reply, we are going to give her up to gunga, to purify her soul, that she may go to heaven; for she is our mother. in another place you might see a father and mother sprinkling a beloved child with muddy water, endeavoring to soothe his dying agonies by saying, "it is blessed to die by gunga, my son; to die by gunga is blessed, my son." in another place you might see a man descending from a boat with empty water-pans tied around his neck, which pans, when filled, will drag down the poor creature to the bottom, to be seen no more. here is murder in the name of religion. he is a devotee, and has purchased heaven, as he supposes, by this his last good deed. in another place you might see a person seated in the water, accompanied by a priest, who pours down the throat of the dying man mud and water, and cries out, "o mother gunga, receive his soul." the dying man may be roused to sensibility by the violence. he may entreat his priest to desist; but his entreaties are drowned. he persists in pouring the mud and water down his throat, until he is gradually stifled, suffocated--suffocated in the name of humanity--suffocated in the name of religion. it happens, sometimes, in cases of sudden and violent attacks of disease, that they cannot be conveyed to the river before death. under such circumstances, a bone is preserved, and at a convenient season is taken down and thrown into the river. this, it is believed, contributes essentially to the salvation of the deceased. sometimes strangers are left on the banks to die, without the ceremony of drinking ganges water. of these, some have been seen creeping along with the flesh half eaten off their bones by the birds; others with their limbs torn by dogs and jackals, and others partly covered with insects. after a person is taken down to the river, if he should recover, it is looked upon by his friends as a great misfortune. he becomes an outcast. even his own children will not eat with him, nor offer him the least attention. if they should happen to touch him, they must wash their bodies, to cleanse them from the pollution which has been contracted. about fifty miles north of calcutta, are two villages inhabited entirely by these poor creatures, who have become outcasts in consequence of their recovery after having been taken down to the ganges. at the mouth of the river hoogly, which is one of the branches of the ganges, is the island sauger, which i saw as we approached calcutta after having been at sea for one hundred and twenty-eight days. now, my dear children, if you come out to india as missionaries, you will have to sail nearly one hundred and thirty days before you can reach it. sauger island is the island where, formerly, hundreds of mothers were in the habit of throwing their children to the crocodiles, and where these mothers were wont to weep and cry if the crocodiles did not devour their children before their eyes. think what a dreadful religion that must be, which makes mothers so hard-hearted. did you ever take any corn or indian meal and throw it to the chickens? and what did these chickens do? did they not come around you and eat it? well, just in this way the crocodiles would come near those mothers, and devour their children. here is a picture of a mother throwing her child to a crocodile. [illustration] i am glad to tell you, that the british have put a stop to the sacrifice of children at that place; but mothers continue to destroy their children elsewhere, and will continue to destroy them until christians send the gospel to them. it is not improbable that vast numbers of children are annually destroyed in the ganges. mothers sacrifice them, in consequence of vows which they have made. when the time to sacrifice them has come, they take them down to the river, and encourage them to go out so far that they are taken away by the stream, or they push them off with their own hands. i just remarked, that mothers will continue to destroy their children until the gospel is sent to them. that the gospel does prevent such things, the following circumstance will show. several years ago, a missionary lady went from new england to india. as she was walking out one morning, on the banks of the ganges, she saw a heathen mother weeping. she went up to her, sat down by her side, put her hand into hers, and asked what was the matter with her. "i have just been making a basket of flags," said she, "and putting my infant in it--pushing it off into the river, and drowning it. and my gods are very much pleased with me, because i have done it." after this missionary lady had heard all she had to say, she told her that her gods were no gods; that the only true god delights not in such sacrifices, but turns in horror from them; and that, if she would be happy here and hereafter, she must forsake her sins, and pray to jesus christ, who died to save sinners like herself. this conversation was the means of the conversion of that mother, and she never again destroyed any of her infants. such is the power of the blessed gospel. and what the gospel has done once, it can do again. if christians will send it to them, with the blessing of god, the time will soon come when heathen mothers will no more destroy their children. and have you nothing to do in this great work, my dear children? when you grow up, cannot you go and tell them of the saviour? here is a very pretty hymn about a heathen mother throwing her child to a crocodile. see that heathen mother stand where the sacred currents flow, with her own maternal hand, 'mid the waves her infant throw. hark, i hear the piteous scream- frightful monsters seize their prey, or the dark and bloody stream bears the struggling child away. fainter now, and fainter still, breaks the cry upon the ear; but the mother's heart is steel, she unmoved that cry can hear. send, o send the bible there, let its precepts reach the heart; she may then her children spare, act the mother's tender part. i have heard of a little boy who learned this hymn. he was deeply affected by it, and wanted very much to give something to send the gospel to india. but he had no money. he was, however, willing to labor in order to earn some. hearing that a gentleman wanted the chips removed from the ground near his woodpile, he hired himself to him, removed the chips, got his money, and, with glistening eyes, went and delivered it up, to be sent to the heathen, repeating, as he went, send, o send the bible there, let its precepts reach the heart; she may then her children spare, act the mother's tender part. about one hundred miles above the mouth of the hoogly is the city of calcutta, and about five hundred miles above that city is the city of benares. in these cities, as well as in other places, we see how much the heathen will contribute to support their wretched religion. a rich native in calcutta has been known to spend more than one hundred thousand dollars on a single festival--the festival of the goddess karle--and more than thirty thousand dollars every year afterwards during his life, for the same purpose. not long since, a rich native gave at one time to his idols more than one million two hundred thousand dollars. and what have christians ever done to honor their saviour, which will bear a comparison with what the heathen do for their idols? alas, alas, few christian men or christian women, in all the church, are willing to give even one-tenth of their annual income to the lord. most of those who are rich, hoard up their money, instead of spending it for the purpose of saving souls. and there are many persons who have never given a farthing to send the gospel to the heathen. o, what will such say, when they must meet the heathen at the bar of god? chapter xiii. the goddess durga. my dear children--from what i said, in my last chapter, about the goddess gunga, you see that the hindoos worship goddesses as well as gods. there is another goddess much worshipped the wife of the god siva. she has appeared in a thousand forms, with a thousand different names. of all these thousand forms, durga and karle are the most regarded by the people. i will speak of durga first. of all the festivals in eastern india, hers is the most celebrated. she has ten hands, in which she holds an iron club, a trident, a battle-axe, spears, thunderbolts, etc. thus armed, she is ever ready to fight with her enemies. were you to be present in the city of calcutta in the month of september, you might everywhere see the people busy in preparing for the yearly festival of this goddess. images representing her you would find in great numbers for sale, as bread or meat is sold. in the houses of the rich, images are to be found made of gold, silver, brass, copper, crystal, stone, or mixed metal, which are daily worshipped. these are called permanent images. besides these, multitudes of what are called temporary images are made--made merely for the occasion and then destroyed. they may be made of hay, sticks, clay, wood, or other such things. their size varies from a few inches to twenty feet in height. if any persons are too poor to buy one of these images, they can make them for themselves. when the festival is near at hand, people are seen in every direction taking the images to their houses. after they are thus supplied, the festival commences. it lasts fifteen days. the greater part of this time is spent in preparing for the three great days of worship. early on the morning of the first of the three great days, the brahmins proceed to consecrate the images, or to give them, as they suppose, life and understanding. until they are consecrated, they are not thought to be of any value. they are looked upon as senseless. a wealthy family can always receive the services of one or more brahmins, and a few of the poor may unite and secure the services of one of them. at length the solemn hour arrives. the brahmin, with the leaves of a sacred tree, comes near the image. with the two forefingers of his right hand he touches the breast, the two cheeks, the eyes, and the forehead of the image, at each touch saying the prayer, "let the spirit of durga descend and take possession of this image." by such ceremonies, and by repeating various _muntrums_, it is supposed that the brahmins have the power to bring down the goddess to take possession of the image. having been thus consecrated, it is believed to be a proper object of worship. having eyes, it can now behold every act of worship which is made; having ears, it can be delighted with music and with songs; having a nose, it can smell the sweet perfumes which are offered; having a mouth, it can be delighted with the rich food which is prepared for it. after the image is consecrated, the worship begins. the devotee comes near the image, and falls down before it. he then twists himself into a great variety of shapes. sometimes he sits on the floor, sometimes he stands, sometimes he looks in one direction, sometimes in another. then he sprinkles the idol with holy water, rinses its mouth, washes its feet, wipes it with a dry cloth, throws flowers over it, puts jewels on it, offers perfumes to it, and finishes by performing shaashtaangkum. the worship of the idol is succeeded by a season of carousing, joy, and festivity. on this occasion, large offerings are made to the idols. a rich native has been known to offer eighty thousand pounds of sweetmeats, eighty thousand pounds of sugar, a thousand suits of cloth garments, a thousand suits of silk, a thousand offerings of rice, plantains, and other fruits. bloody sacrifices are offered up on such occasions. the king of nudiya, some time ago, offered a large number of sheep, goats, and buffaloes on the first day of the feast, and vowed to double the offering every day; so that the whole number sacrificed amounted to more than sixty-five thousand. you may remember that king solomon offered up on one occasion twenty-two thousand oxen, and a hundred and twenty thousand sheep. if all the animals slain throughout hindostan, at the festival of the goddess durga, were collected together, they would amount to a much larger number than solomon offered. after the worship and offerings have been continued for three days, the festival closes. as the morning of the first day was devoted to the consecration of the images, the morning of the fourth is spent in unconsecrating them. this work is done by the brahmins. they profess, by various ceremonies, to send back the goddess to her heaven, concluding with a farewell address, in which they tell her that they expect her to accept of all their services, and return and pay them a visit again in the coming year. then all unite in bidding her a sorrowful adieu, and many seem affected even to the shedding of tears. soon afterwards the images are carried forth into the streets, placed on stages or platforms, and raised on men's shoulders. as the procession moves onward through the streets, accompanied with music and songs, amid clouds of dust, you might see them waving long hairy brushes to wipe off the dust, and to keep off the flies and mosquitoes, which might trouble the senseless images. but where are these processions going? to the banks of the ganges. and for what purpose? for the purpose of casting the images into the river. when all the ceremonies connected with the occasion are finished, those who carry the images suddenly fall upon them, break them to pieces, and then throw them with violence into the river. after this the people return to their homes. i have now given you a specimen of the image-worship of the hindoos; and how different is it from the worship which the bible enjoins. "god is a spirit; and they who worship him, must worship him in spirit and in truth." the very reverse of this, as you have seen, marks the worship of the heathen. they are not satisfied, unless they can have some object before them, to which they can make their offerings and their prayers. thus daily are they engaged in a service which, above all others, is the most offensive and provoking to a holy god--a service which has caused him to declare, that idolaters shall not enter the kingdom of heaven. this, too, is the service in which every person, who has never given himself to the saviour, is engaged; and, of course, in which you are engaged if you have not given your hearts to him. those who think more of their money than they think of christ, just as certainly worship the image which is stamped on a dollar or a cent, as the heathen worship their idols. those who love their fathers and mothers, and brothers and sisters more than christ, make these their idols. and are you, my dear children, yet out of christ? if so, you have your idols. and what are these idols? are they the world and its vanities? then god is as angry with you as he is with the heathen, and unless you give up these idols, you too must be lost. in a tract of mine, published by the american tract society, entitled, "knocking at the door"--a tract which i _most earnestly_ entreat you to get and read--you will find an account of the death of a young lady, who had chosen the world and its vanities as her idols. i was her physician. after having attended her for about a month, i perceived, one morning, that her disease must soon prove fatal. i told her that she could not live. she then exclaimed, "doctor, can i not live a month?" i informed her that she could not. again she exclaimed, "can i not live two weeks?" she was told that she could not live two weeks. and such a scene of horror followed as i never before witnessed, and may god be pleased to grant that i may never witness such another. until laid upon a dying bed, i fear that she had neglected to think about her soul's concerns. now she requested to be taken from it, and placed upon her knees, that she might call upon god to have mercy upon her. as her case excited much attention, some of the youth came to see her. these she warned, in the most solemn manner, not to put off repentance, as she had done, to a dying hour. looking up at me, on one occasion, she exclaimed, "doctor, cannot you save me?" alas, what could i do for the poor sufferer. witness, now, how anxious she was to obtain the favor of that god whom she had hitherto neglected. yes, so anxious that she requested her friends not to allow her to sleep, that she might spend every remaining breath in calling upon god to have mercy upon her. one very affecting circumstance occurred. she requested her trunk either to be brought to her bedside, or to be opened. from this a ring, which was set with red garnets, was taken out by herself, or by another, and handed to her. she then called a young friend to her bedside, put the ring upon her finger, and said to her, "don't you put off repentance, as i have done, until a dying hour." that ring is now in my possession. in less than forty-eight hours after i told her that she could not live, she passed into eternity. would that i could show you that mournful countenance, which continued long after the last spark of life had become extinct; yes, even up to the moment when the lid of her coffin for ever hid it from our view. never, never shall i forget it. it was a sad monument of the wreck within. now, my dear children, you would not like to die as, i fear, this young lady died. well, then, if you would die differently, you must live differently. you must live for christ, if you would die in christ. and are you christ's, or are you yet gay and thoughtless--as gay and as thoughtless as this young lady was, until laid upon her dying bed? if you are so, and if you continue to remain in this sad condition, your season of sorrow too will certainly come, and it will come when you expect it not. as the little insect which flies round and round your candle is dazzled with its brightness, and feels nothing but pleasure, until it unconsciously strikes the blaze with its little wings, and is swallowed up in the flame; so you are dazzled with the pleasures of the world, thinking nothing of the flames which may swallow you up in a moment, and put a stop to all your joys for ever. o, that the death-bed scene of miss matthews might have a happy effect upon you. o, that the solemn warning which she gave to her young friend, not to put off repentance as she had done, until a dying hour, might continue to sound in your ears, until you would no longer delay repentance. my dear children, this young lady, though dead, yet speaketh. she speaks to you. she calls upon you from her tomb--from the eternal world, to delay repentance no longer. will you, then, be so mad as to turn a deaf ear to this call? will you ever take another sip from the cup of unhallowed pleasure? will you ever direct your little feet to the ballroom, or other places of sinful amusement? will you hereafter prefer your worldly joys to christ? o, you must not, you must not. it will not do for you to be lost. who, o who can lie down in everlasting burnings? who can dwell for ever with devouring flames? chapter xiv. the goddess karle. my dear children--in the preceding chapter i spoke of karle. she, as i there mentioned, is the wife of siva, and, like her husband, has the power of destruction. from the images made of her, it would appear that she is a female, of a black or dark blue color. she has four arms. in one hand she holds a sword, and in another a human head. her hair is dishevelled, reaching down to her feet. her countenance is most ferocious. her tongue comes out of her mouth, and hangs over her chin. she has three eyes, red and fiery. her lips and eyebrows are streaked with blood. she has two dead bodies for ear-rings, and wears a girdle around her loins--a girdle made of bloody hands, which she cut off from the bodies of her enemies. she has a necklace of skulls, which she took from the bodies of the giants and others killed by her. [illustration] of all the hindoo divinities, this goddess is the most cruel and revengeful. such is her thirst for blood, that being unable at one time to procure any giants for her prey, in order to quench her thirst, she cut her own throat, that the blood issuing thence might spout into her mouth. different acts of worship are performed to appease her. if, for example, a devotee should burn his body, by applying a burning lamp to it, it would be very pleasing to her. if he should draw some of his blood and give it to her, or if he should cut off a piece of his flesh and offer it as a burnt-offering, she would be still move pleased. if he should present _whole_ burnt-offerings upon the altar, saying, "hrang, brang, karle, karle! o, horrid-toothed goddess, eat, eat; destroy all the malignant: cut with this axe; bind, bind; seize, seize; drink this blood; spheng, spheng; secure, secure; salutation to karle," she would be much delighted. it is said that she will be pleased for three months, if the people offer her the blood of a crocodile--for a thousand years, if they offer her the blood of one man, and a hundred thousand years, if they offer her the blood of three. this goddess is the patroness of thieves. to her they pay their devotions, to obtain help to carry on their wicked delights. gangs meet together, and, after having offered bloody sacrifices, and worshipped their weapons, and having drunk some intoxicating liquor, and rubbed their bodies with oil, they go forth to rob. they have a prayer, which they offer when they worship their weapons. it is as follows: "o, instrument formed by the goddess, karle commands thee to cut a passage into the house, to cut through stones, bones, bricks, wood, the earth, and mountains, and cause the dust thereof to be carried away by the wind." scattered throughout india, there is a lawless set of men whose profession it is to get their food by murder. they are called phansiagars, or thugs. they owe their origin and laws to karle. they say that she told them to become murderers and plunderers. they are called phansiagars, from the name of the instrument which they use when they murder people. phansiagar means a strangler, and they use a phansi, or noose, which they throw over the necks of those whom they intend to plunder, and strangle them. these phansiagars are composed of all castes, hindoos, mahommedans, pariahs, and chandellars. this arises from the circumstance that they never destroy the children of those whom they rob and murder. these children they take care of, and bring up to their own horrible mode of life. they always murder those whom they rob, acting upon the maxim that "dead men tell no tales." a gang of these robbers varies from a dozen to sixty or seventy persons. these divide into small parties. those whom they murder are travellers, whom they happen to meet on the road. sometimes two or three of a gang will take up their station in a choultry, or place where the traveller stops, and while he sleeps, they rouse him from his sleep, and cast the noose over his head and kill him. it takes two persons to kill a man. one casts the noose over his head, and immediately tightens it with all his strength; the other strikes him on the joint of his knees as he rises, which causes him to fall forwards. after he has fallen, they kick him on the temples till he dies, which is usually in a minute. they never commit a murder until they have taken every precaution not to be found out. they will follow a traveller for weeks, if necessary, before they destroy him. after they have murdered him, they gash the body all over and bury it. they gash it, that it may not swell, and cause cracks to take place in the ground, which might cause the jackals to dig down to the body, and thus expose their guilt. if a dog accompanies the person, they always kill it, lest the faithful creature should lead to the discovery of his master. they think it to be a very good act to give a part of the plunder, which they get when they murder a person, to their goddess. if they fail to put him to death according to their rules, they suppose that they have made her angry, and they make offerings to her, that she may be appeased. thus, you see that their religion teaches them to commit the blackest of crimes. the reason why this people gash and bury the bodies of those whom they murder, is as follows. they say that the goddess used to save them the trouble of burying the corpses of their victims by eating them, thus screening the murderers from all chance of being found out. once, after the murder of a traveller, the body was, as usual, left unburied. one of the phansiagars employed, unguardedly looking behind him, saw the goddess in the act of feasting upon it. this made her so angry, that she vowed never again to devour a body slaughtered by them; they having, by this one act of curiosity, forfeited her favor. however, as an equivalent for withdrawing her patronage, she plucked one of the fangs from her jaw, and gave it to them, saying that they might use it as a pickaxe, which would never wear out. she then opened her side and pulled out one of her ribs, which she gave them for a knife, whose edge nothing could blunt. having done this, she stooped down and tore off the hem of her garment, which she gave to them for a noose, declaring that it would never fail to strangle any person about whose throat it might be cast. she moreover commanded them to gash and bury the bodies of those whom they destroyed. the phansiagars bring up their children to their own profession. to learn this, the boy is placed under the care of a tutor. sometimes his father is his teacher. by him he is taught that it is just as proper to murder a man, as it is to kill a snake which lies in his path and would bite him as he passes. he is not permitted at first to see the murders, but merely a dead body; his mind being gradually prepared for the sight. after this, the dreadful secret of his trade is, by degrees, told him. when he expresses a wish to be engaged in this horrid business, they tell him all about it. in the meantime he is allowed a small part of the plunder, in order that his desire to commit these murders may be increased; since it is only by murder that the plunder is obtained. he is from time to time allowed to assist in some things, while the murder is taking place, or allowed to be present to see how the business is managed. it is not, however, until he becomes a man, that he is permitted to apply the noose. to attain this privilege, he usually devotes eight or ten years. before he can commit a murder, his tutor must present him with a noose. this sets him loose upon the world, as a licensed murderer. when the tutor is about to give him the noose, he takes him apart, and solemnly enjoins it upon him to use it with skill, as it is to be the means of his earning his food, and as his safety will depend upon the skill with which it is used. after he receives it, he tries his skill in strangling a person the first opportunity that offers. by the course of education which the phansiagars undergo, they become so fond of their dreadful occupation, that nothing can induce them to quit it. some who have been employed in the east india company's service, have always returned to their business when an opportunity offered of a successful enterprise. when the phansiagars become old, they do not quit the service, but act as watchers, and decoy the traveller, by some false tale of distress, into some distant place, where he is murdered. women are sometimes admitted to the society of these plunderers, and, on some occasions, are allowed to apply the noose. they select a handsome girl, and place her in a convenient spot, where, by her beauty, or by a false story of distress, she may decoy some unsuspecting traveller, and be the means of his destruction. should he be on horseback, she will induce him to take her up behind him; after which, when an opportunity offers, she throws the noose over his head, leaps from the horse, drags him to the ground, and strangles him. i will mention an instance. it happened that a horseman of coorg, in the madras presidency, was passing by a spot where one of these interesting-looking girls was stationed. she told him a piteous story of having been robbed and badly treated, and begged him to assist her. feeling sorry for her, he offered to take her behind him, on his horse, and thus assist her a few miles on her journey. she expressed much gratitude for his kindness, and mounted. soon afterwards she suddenly passed a noose over his head, and, drawing it with all her might, endeavored to pull him from his saddle. at this moment, a number of phansiagars started from the neighboring thicket and surrounded him. the murderess then slipped from the horse; but the coorg striking his heels into the horse's sides, it threw out its hind legs with great violence, and struck to the ground the girl, who immediately let go the cord. he then drew his sword, and, cutting his way through the robbers, effected his escape. he wounded two of them severely. these men were shortly afterwards taken, and, through their means, twelve others fell into the hands of the judicial officers of the king of coorg, including the girl who attempted the murder. they were all put to death. and is it possible that such persons can go to heaven? how could such ever relish its pure joys? what would they do, could they be admitted there? my dear children, it is a charity which has no foundation, to suppose that the heathen can go to heaven. i have preached the gospel to tens of thousands of them, but i never saw one who had the least atom of a qualification for that holy place. "they have all gone out of the way." every crime which the apostle paul speaks of in the latter part of the first chapter of his epistle to the romans, they commit, and crimes of so dreadful a nature that i cannot mention them--crimes which, should they be written in the bible, would cause the bible to be a sealed book for ever. chapter xv. self-tortures of the hindoos. my dear children--as the heathen have no bible to direct them, they have devised various means by which they expect to obtain the favor of their gods, and get to heaven. i will mention some of these. some burn a lamp in a temple. they think that this is a very meritorious act. some roll on the ground after the god, as he is carried in a great car or chariot around the temple. it is customary for the people to build very high cars or chariots, and cover them with very beautiful cloths. they also tie the cocoa-nut blossom and plantain-tree within them, and attach great ropes to them. when they are ready to drag these cars, or chariots, they bring their gods of gold or of brass from the temples, and place them on them. then one, two, three, six, nine hundred, and even a thousand persons, when the cars are very large, catch hold of these ropes and drag them around the temple. while they are doing this, many of the heathen, to fulfil vows which they made when in sickness, and at other times of distress, throw themselves on the ground, and roll over from side to side, and frequently much injure themselves. some swing on great hooks, which are passed through the tender parts of their backs. sometimes they swing for half an hour; sometimes an hour. the longer they can bear the torture of the swinging, the more acceptable they suppose it will be to their goddess. it occasionally happens, that the flesh in which the hooks are fastened gives way, in which case the poor creature is dashed to the ground. when this occurs, the people hold him in the greatest abhorrence. they judge him to be a great criminal, and suppose that he has met a violent death in consequence of sins which he committed in a former birth. not long since, i attended one of these hook-swingings, not far from the city of madura. it took place on the morning of june 8th, 1848, just twenty-nine years after i first left america for india. it should have taken place on the preceding afternoon; but one of the axle-trees of the car, which was to support the machine on which the man was to be elevated in the air, was broken. nothing, of course, could be done until it was repaired. the carpenters and others worked with great diligence until about eleven o'clock at night, when every thing was prepared for the swinging. i expected immediately after this to witness the ceremony. it however did not take place until the morning. while waiting for the man who was to be swung to make his appearance, i took a pencil and made a drawing of the machine to which he was to be fastened. the picture on the first page of the book will give you some idea of it. yon have, perhaps, often seen a well-sweep. the long beam in the picture is swung in the same manner as is the well-sweep, with a single exception. in addition to its usual motion, it is made to turn horizontally. the cuts which you may have seen, in two or three of my little books, differ much from the above; of course different machines are used at different times. there are stationary swingings, as well as swingings of the kind to which i just alluded. between six and seven o'clock in the morning, the man who was to be swung made his appearance for a few moments, and then disappeared. the hooks by which he was to be swung, as well as the iron rods with which a number of devotees were immediately to pierce their sides, were carried through the streets, and held up that they might be seen by the people. soon afterwards the man again appeared with the hooks in his back, and went up to the end of the beam to which he was to be fastened. this, of course, was lowered. notwithstanding the dense multitudes of people, i made my way to the same spot, determined to be satisfied whether or not there was any deception in the application of the hooks. there was no deception. they passed through the skin, on the sides of the backbone. to these hooks were attached yellow ropes, by which he was fastened to the beam, as you will perceive in the picture. this being done, the men, five or six in number, who had hold of the ropes fastened to the end of the beam which you see resting on the ground, and which was then, of course, high in the air, drew him up until the beam lay horizontally. then, after making him perform one circular motion around the car, they elevated him, as you see in the picture. when thus elevated, it was thought that he was forty feet from the ground. all being ready, the people seized the ropes which you see in front of the car, and began to draw it. mr. chandler and myself accompanied it through the streets, until it came to the place from which it set out. the distance of ground passed over was at least half a mile, and the time in which the journey was accomplished exceeded an hour. of course he was swinging more than an hour. as the car passed through the streets, the people threw plantains from the tops of the houses to the crowds below. the man who was swung was adorned with flowers and other ornaments. he had a tinselled turban on his head. his body was rubbed over with a yellow paste, made, most probably, from the sandal-wood. around his ankles were rings, hung with little bells, which he made to tinkle, as he was swinging, by striking his legs together. he wore a dark or black pair of pantaloons, which came a little below the knees, and which had a border of gold around them. he held a handkerchief in one hand, and a knife somewhat resembling a dagger, in the other. these he kept in constant motion, by moving his arms. on one occasion, a bunch of plantains was tied to one of the long ropes which you see hanging down by the side of the swinger. these he drew up, and afterwards scattered over the people on a house opposite to him. [illustration.] after following the car for a quarter of a mile or more, we went before it, and there witnessed another appalling sight. there were five or six men, who had the rods of iron which i just mentioned passed through the skin of their sides. they were dancing along, and, as they danced, they made these rods go backward and forward through the skin. after the car had reached the place from which it set out, the end of the beam from which the man was swinging was then lowered and he was untied. again i looked very carefully at the hooks in the back. the people say that no blood is shed by their introduction, and consider this to be a miracle. the falsity of this assertion was shown by the blood which i saw on the side of one of the wounds. i have been long in this country, and consequently have become so familiarized with heathenism, that my feelings, though deeply wounded at this sight, were not so keenly affected as were those of my new associate, mr. chandler. he has been on heathen ground but a short time. when they tied the man to the beam, he was unnerved and wellnigh overcome; and he told me, that during all the time he was following the car, he felt like shedding tears. while following the car, the young men of america came into my mind. they refuse to come, said i, to help these miserable creatures. o, they will not come--they will not come. i thought, that if many of the dear children of that land--children to whom i lately preached, as well as others, could witness this poor creature swinging from the end of a long beam, far above the tops of the trees, and that, too, by hooks passing through the tender parts of his back, they would say, we will, by and by, become missionaries, and, by the help of god, proclaim to the heathen that there is a saviour. on the evening of the day on which the swinging takes place, another act of great cruelty is practised. devotees throw themselves from, the top of a high wall, or a scaffold of twenty or thirty feet in height, upon a bed of iron spikes, or on bags of straw with knives in them. many are often mangled and torn. others are quickly killed. at night, many of the devotees sit down in the open air, and pierce the skin of their foreheads, by inserting a small rod of iron. to this is suspended a lamp, which is kept burning till daylight. sometimes bundles of thorns are collected before the temple, among which the devotees roll themselves without any covering. these thorns are then set on fire, when they briskly dance over the flames. other devotees swing before a slow fire; some stand between two fires, as you see in this picture. [illustration:] some have their breasts, arms, and other parts stuck entirely full of pins, about the thickness of small nails, or packing needles. another very cruel torture is practised. some of the devotees make a vow. with one hand they cover their under lip with wet earth or mud. on this, with the other hand, they place some small grains, usually of mustard-seed they then stretch themselves flat on their backs, exposed to the dews of night, and the blazing and scorching sun by day. their vow is, that from this position they will not stir, that they will not move nor turn, nor eat nor drink, till the seeds planted on their lips begin to sprout. this usually takes place on the third or fourth day. after this they arise, and then think that they are very holy. there is a class of devotees in this country called yogis, whose object it is to root out every human feeling. some live in holes and caves. some drag around a heavy chain attached to them. some make the circuit of an empire, creeping on their hands and knees. some roll their bodies from the shores of the indus to the ganges. the rev. mr. heyer, in one of his letters from india, says, that an indian devotee has spent more than nine years on a journey from benares to cape comorin, that is, from the 27th to the 7th degree of north latitude. the whole journey is made by rolling on the bare ground, from side to side. when he comes to a river, of course he cannot roll over it. he therefore fords it, or passes over it in a boat, and then rolls on the banks of the river just as far as the river is wide. by doing this, he supposes that his determination to roll all the way is fully carried out. [illustration] some devotees hold up one or both arms, until the muscles become rigid, and their limbs become shrivelled into stumps. in the above cut, you have a representation of a man with one of these shrivelled arms. see how long his finger-nails have grown. one has run through his hand and back through his arm. some stretch themselves on beds of iron spikes. some wear great square irons on their necks. i have seen not only a man, but a woman, with these great square irons around their necks, each nearly two feet in length and two feet in breadth. these they put on for the purpose of fulfilling some vow which they have made. for instance, if a mother has a very sick little boy, she will say, "now, swammie, if you will cure my little boy, i will have a square iron put on my neck, and wear it all my life." after this vow is made, if the little boy gets well, the mother thinks that her swammie has cured him, and to fulfil her engagement she will have one of these irons put on her neck. [illustration:] [illustration:] other devotees throw themselves from the tops of precipices, and are dashed to pieces; some bury themselves alive in holes, which their own relatives have dug; some bind themselves with ropes or chains to trees, until they die; some keep gazing so long and so constantly at the heavens, that the muscles of their neck become contracted, and no aliment but liquids can pass into the stomach. but i will not continue this subject. you perceive, my dear children, what a wretched religion that must be which encourages its followers to perform such acts. and how vain are all these acts--how utterly destitute are they of any merit. those who practise them are not made better by them, and they are just as far from the kingdom of heaven after having performed them, as they were before. the christian religion encourages no such things. it tells us to perform no pilgrimages to holy places, to inflict no self-tortures. but it has its requirements, and these are very simple, and may easily be performed by all who are willing to do their duty. these requirements are, repentance, forsaking sin, faith in christ, and a supreme devotedness to his service. have you, my dear children, attended to these requirements? if not, you are in a much worse condition than these poor heathen of whom you have been reading. they are not as guilty before god as you are. they know not their master's will. still, they must perish, unless the gospel is sent to them. but though they perish, their punishment will be lighter than the punishment of those who refuse to love and obey the saviour. that servant who knows his lord's will, and prepares not himself, neither does according to his will, shall be beaten with many stripes. but he that knows not, and does commit things worthy of stripes, shall be beaten with few stripes. should it be your sad lot to perish at last, it would be far better for you to go down to hell enveloped in all the darkness of a heathen land, than to go down to hell from a land of such gospel light and privileges as you enjoy. chapter xvi. the suttee, or burning of widows. my dear children--from what i have already told you, you know that the hindoos are a cruel people. but i have not told you of the extent to which they carry their cruelty. perhaps it is shown to the highest degree in their practice of the suttee, or burning of widows. the british have abolished this rite throughout their dominions in india. they have also made great exertions to have it abolished in the territories of the native princes, but i am sorry to say, that in some of these territories it is still practised. within the last three years, twenty-three of the princes just alluded to, have issued orders for its abolishment throughout their dominions. these orders have probably been issued solely in consequence of their fear of the british power, for it is a practice which is riveted in the affections of the people. this power they know that it will be dangerous to resist. in my "sermon to children, on the condition of the heathen," i mentioned, that the sacred books of the heathen encourage the suttee. i also mentioned several instances, in which widows had been burned to death with the corpses of their husbands. even though you may have seen that book, it will be well for me to give you two or three other cases, to impress your minds more fully with the horrors of the hindoo religion. the first took place in a village of tanjore. a merchant having died, his wife, who was about thirty years old, determined to burn herself with his corpse. the news of what she was going to do, quickly spread in every direction, and large numbers of people collected to witness the burning. after she was adorned with jewels and dressed in her best clothing, and after her body was tinged with the yellow infusion of sandal-wood and saffron, bearers arrived to take away the corpse with the wretched woman. the body of the man was placed on a car, ornamented with costly stuffs, flowers, etc. there he was seated like a living man, elegantly decorated with all his jewels, and clothed in rich attire. the corpse being carried first, the wife followed in a rich palanquin. as she went along, the surrounding multitudes of people stretched out their hands towards her to show how much they admired her conduct. the women in particular went up to her to wish her joy, apparently desiring to receive her blessing, or at least, that she would pronounce over them some pleasing word. she tried to satisfy them all, saying to one, that she would long continue to enjoy her worldly happiness, and to another, that she would be the mother of many beautiful children. another was informed, that she would soon arrive at great honor in the world. these, and similar expressions, she made to all who came near her, and they departed with the full belief that they would enjoy all the blessings of which she had spoken. she also distributed among them some betel-leaves, which they gladly received as relics, or something of blessed influence. during the whole procession, which was very long, her countenance was serene and even cheerful, until they came to the pile upon which she was to die. then she suddenly became pensive. she no longer attended to what was passing around her. her looks were wildly fixed upon the pile. her face grew pale. she trembled with fear, and seemed ready to faint away. the brahmins, who took the lead in this ceremony, with her relations, seeing her sad condition, ran to her, and endeavored to restore her spirits, but she seemed not to know what they said, and answered not a word. they made her quit the palanquin, and her nearest relatives took her to a pond of water which was near the pile, where they washed her. they then attended her to the pile, on which the corpse of her husband had already been laid. it was surrounded with brahmins, each with a lighted torch in one hand, and a bowl of melted butter in the other, all ready, as soon as the poor victim was placed on the pile, to envelope her in fire. the relatives armed with muskets, sabres, and other weapons, stood closely around in a double line, for the purpose, it was said, of making her afraid, if she might wish to draw back, or of frightening any body who might pity her, and endeavor to rescue her. at length the time for firing the pile being proclaimed, the young widow was stripped of her jewels, and led on towards the pile. she was then commanded to walk three times around it, two of her nearest relations supporting her by the arms. the first round she accomplished with tottering steps; but in the second, her strength forsook her, and she fainted away in the arms of those who were holding her. they were obliged to drag her between them for the third round. then senseless, she was thrown upon the corpse of her husband. at that instant, the multitude made the air to ring with their shouts of gladness, while the brahmins poured the butter on the dry wood, and applied the torches. instantly the whole pile was in a blaze. as soon as the flames began to rage, the poor woman, now in the midst of them, was called upon by name, from all sides; but as insensible as the corpse on which she lay, she made no answer. she entered eternity, suffocated at once, most probably, by the flames. the second case of suttee which i shall mention took place at the death of the rajah, or king of tanjore. he left behind him four wives. the brahmins having determined that two of these four should be burned with the corpse of their husband, and having selected the two whom they thought best to sacrifice, they told them of what awaited them. they received the information with apparent joy. a refusal would have been attended with their utter disgrace. one day only was necessary to get ready for the funeral ceremonies. they were conducted as follows: in a field somewhat distant from the palace, the people made a hollow, not very deep, but about twelve or fifteen feet square. within it they made a pyramid of the sweet-smelling sandal-wood. on the middle of the pyramid, a scaffold was built in such a manner that the posts could easily be taken away, by which means the scaffold would fall at once. on the four corners of the platform, large jars were placed, filled with melted butter, to besmear the pyramid, that it might be the more easily set on fire. the following was the order of the procession. it was headed by a great number of soldiers under arms. they were followed by a multitude of musicians, chiefly trumpeters, who made the air reã«cho with their melancholy sounds. next came the body of the king upon a splendid palanquin, richly adorned. this was surrounded by the nearest relations and by the priest of the king. they were all on foot, and without their turbans in token of mourning. a large party of brahmins formed around them as an immediate escort. the two wives who were to be burned with the corpse came next, each borne on a palanquin. during the journey they appeared calm and cheerful. the troops kept off the immense crowds who were assembled from every direction. the two queens, loaded with jewels, were attended by their favorite women, with whom they occasionally conversed, and by their relations of both sexes. to many of these they had made presents before leaving the palace. they were also accompanied by thousands of brahmins, collected from different quarters. these were followed by an innumerable multitude of persons of both sexes. when they arrived at the ground where they were to be burned, the two victims were made to descend from their palanquins, for the purpose of performing the preparatory ceremonies. they went through the whole without showing any fear until towards the close, when their countenances began to change, and their three circuits around the pile were not performed without considerable effort to maintain calmness. in the meantime, the body of the king had been placed on the scaffold over the platform. the two queens were also laid down beside the corpse, one on the right hand, and the other on the left, and they joined hands by stretching them over the body. the astrologer having then declared that the happy moment was come for firing the pile, the brahmins repeated several prayers in a loud voice, and sprinkled the pile with holy water. when these ceremonies were finished, a signal was given, and the pillars which supported the pyramid and the scaffold were suddenly taken away. immediately the women were covered with the falling mass of timber, which tumbled over them with a crash. at the same instant the pile was fired in all its parts. on one side, the nearest relative of the king applied his torch, and on the other side, the priest; while the brahmins, in every quarter, were pouring jars of melted butter on the flames, creating so intense a heat as must instantly have consumed the victims. then the multitude shouted for joy, and the relations approaching the pile also set up a loud cry, calling them by their names. they supposed that they heard a voice in answer pronouncing _enna?_ that is, _what_? but the fall of the platform, and the immediate bursting out of the flames, must have stifled them at once. such was the miserable cud of these poor unhappy queens--unhappy victims of the most cruel religion that ever disgraced the earth. not unfrequently the sons take a prominent part in destroying their mothers. this will appear from the following case. a brahmin died, and was brought to the place of burning. his wife was fastened to the pile, and the fire was kindled, but the night was dark and rainy. when the fire began to scorch the poor woman, she contrived to disentangle herself from the dead body, and creeping from under the pile, hid herself among some brushwood. in a little time it was discovered that there was but one body on the pile. the relations immediately took the alarm, and searched for the poor creature. the son soon dragged her forth, and insisted that she should throw herself on the pile again, or drown or hang herself. she pleaded for her life at the hands of her own son, and declared that she could not embrace so horrid a death; but she pleaded in vain. he urged, that he should lose his caste if she were spared, and added, that either he or she must die. unable to persuade her to hang or drown herself, the son and the others present tied her hands and feet, and threw her on the funeral pile, where she quickly perished. [illustration: burning of widows] i observed that the rite of suttee is riveted in the affections of this people. the following communications from two of the native princes who lately consented to put a stop to this rite, will show you that this is the case. the rajah of oorcha declares, that "no subject of his state shall in future be permitted to become a suttee, though according to the shasters, it is no doubt very meritorious for a widow to die of grief for the death of her husband." the rajah of sumpthem says, "the practice of suttee is so very old, and has been countenanced and encouraged by the wise men of so many generations that i have never thought myself justified in interposing to prevent it; but my anxiety to meet the wishes of the governor-general in this and in all things, is so great, that i have waived all other considerations, and forbidden suttee." if the british were to lose their power in india, the suttee would immediately be rã«established. power has put it down, but power alone will never root it out of the affections of the people. nothing but the gospel can do this. o that christians would think of this, and hasten, yea, with great haste, to send this blessed gospel to them. chapter xvii. the revengeful nature of the hindoo religion. my dear children--the sacred books of the hindoos encourage revenge. in the vedas, which are the most sacred books, are laid down forms of religious service, or acts of worship, which are designed to injure or destroy their enemies. when a person wishes to have his enemy destroyed, he goes to a brahmin or priest, and secures his supposed aid. the brahmin, before he proceeds to his work, clothes himself with a black garment. he also makes four images of the foe, and clothes these with black garments. he then kindles a sacrificial fire, and after the performance of various ceremonies, he takes pieces of some animal which has been consecrated for the purpose, and throws them into this fire. on every occasion when he makes this burnt-offering, he touches the mouth of the image of this enemy, uttering one or other of the forms of prayer which are written in the sacred books. of these, the following are a few: "o agni," god of fire, "thou who art the mouth of all gods, do thou destroy the wisdom of my enemy." "o agni, fill with distraction the mind of this my enemy." "o agni, destroy the senses of this my enemy." "o agni, make dumb the mouth of this my enemy." "o agni, fasten with a peg the tongue of this my enemy." "o agni, reduce to ashes this my enemy." how different, my dear children, is the religion of jesus from the religion of which i have been giving you a description. no precepts teach us that we may injure or destroy our enemies. on the contrary, they teach us to love them, and do them good. let me repeat to you some of the words which our saviour spoke on this point. "ye have heard that it hath been said, thou shalt love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy; but i say unto you, love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them that despitefully use you and persecute you, that ye may be the children of your father which is in heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." one of the young hindoos in dr. duff's school in calcutta, when reading the above and similar passages, was so struck with the difference between these precepts and the precepts of his shasters, that he could not but exclaim "o, how beautiful, how divine. surely this is the truth--this is the truth--this is the truth." the consequence was, that he never could rest until he had thrown aside his sacred books and his idols, and embraced that saviour whose precepts appeared to him to be so beautiful. and was this heathen so struck with the beauty of the precepts of the bible--so struck, that he had no peace until he gave himself to his saviour? and have you ever, my dear children, been struck with the precepts of your saviour--so struck with them, that you could never rest until you had given up your hearts to him? if not, how great is the contrast between you and that young hindoo. he gave his heart to the saviour. you withhold yours. he, through grace, will dwell for ever with christ in heaven. you, if you continue in your present awful condition, must be banished from his presence, and cast into hell, where you shall be tormented day and night for ever, with the devil and his angels. flee, my dear children, flee to the saviour now, if you have never yet done so. flee to him, and then you also shall dwell for ever with him. chapter xviii. the deception of the hindoos. my dear children--from what i have previously stated, you are aware that the hindoos are a very deceitful people. let me give you another instance of their deception. a late head catechist of one of my missionary brethren was, before his conversion, the priest of a temple. a man from whom about one thousand rupees' worth of jewels and similar things had been stolen, came to this priest, and promised to reward him well, if he would detect the thief, and secure to him the restoration of his property. the priest promised to comply with his wishes; and in order to effect his purpose, he had drums beaten through the village, and proclaimed, that at a certain time he would hold a meeting and detect the thief. at the appointed time, a large concourse of people assembled, the priest appearing in the midst of them with a cocoa-nut bound around with saffron-cords. he then told them, that if, after putting down the cocoa-nut, it should move of its own accord towards him, they might know that he would be able certainly to detect the thief; and added, that after it had thus moved, it would pursue the offender, and follow him until it would break his head. he then performed certain ceremonies calculated to awaken superstitious feelings in the minds of the people, and laid the cocoa-nut down at a little distance from him. to the great amazement of all present, it began to move towards the priest, and continued to move until it reached his feet. this being done, he told the people, that they might conclude from what they had seen, that the cocoa-nut would follow the thief until it would break his head. he consented, however, to give him a little grace--to spare his life until the next day; adding his advice, that the thief, whoever he might be, had better come to him privately, and tell him where the property was. in the dead of the night, a tap was heard at the door of the priest; the thief presented himself, and delivered up the property. the priest received a present from the owner of the property, and rewarded the thief for his promptness. after this man was converted, he was asked how he contrived to make the cocoa-nut move towards him. "why, sir," he answered, "if you will carefully divide a cocoa-nut, scoop out the kernel from one-half of it, enclose a strong, lively rat, put the parts of the cocoa-nut together, and bind the whole with saffron-cords, to prevent the crack being seen, and then place it on a declivity previously prepared, it is clear, that if you place yourself at the foot of this declivity the rat will twirl the cocoa-nut, and cause it to descend until it reaches your feet." chapter xix. superstition of the hindoos. my dear children--in my sermon to children, before alluded to, i mentioned a few particulars to prove that the people of india are very superstitious. let me mention a few more. it is said that no act, however good it may be, if performed on sunday, will succeed. some will not eat at all on sunday, until they have seen a certain bird--the bird on which the god vrishnoo rides. if a man rubs oil on his head on monday, and bathes, he will commit a sin equal to the sin of destroying a temple of siva. if he has his hair out on tuesday, he will become poor. even to worship the gods on wednesday, is bad. if a person takes medicine on thursday, his sickness will be increased. should he lend any thing on friday, he will lose his property. if he should buy a new cloth on saturday, take it home, and keep it there, death may be the consequence. should he die on this day, some other member of the family will die on the following week. if the foundation of a house is laid in june, the destruction of that house will follow. should a family enter a new house in march, some member of the family will die. if a marriage is celebrated in september, the husband and wife will fight with each other. should a thunderbolt fall on a house, or a vulture alight on it, some evil will befall the people living in it. if a crow should strike any person on the head with its wings, some of his relations will die. should a cat or a snake cross his path, it would be an indication of evil. in the latter case, one of his relations will die. if, when returning home, a person should meet him bearing a light, a quarrel will be the result. after a person has left his house, should he meet a single brahmin, or a woman who has had her head shaved, or a dumb or a blind man, or a washerman or a barber, the object for which he left would not succeed. or, when going out, should he hit his head against the top of the door-frame, or should any one ask him where he was going, or should he happen to sneeze, he would consider these things as hinderances to his going, and reã«nter the house. should a son or a daughter be born on the new moon in april, they will become thieves. if a person is born under the planet saturn, he will be slandered, his riches will be dissipated, and his wife, son, and friends will be destroyed. he will also be at variance with others, and endure many sufferings. should he be born under the planet mars, he will be full of anxious thoughts, be imprisoned, and oppressed with fear from robbers, fire, etc. he also will lose his lands, trees, and good name. if a person dreams that a monkey has bitten him, he will die in six months; or if he dreams that bedbugs, in large numbers, are creeping over his body to bite him, he will die in eight days. should he dream that a dog has bitten him, he will die in three years; or should he dream that a dead person has appeared to him and spoken to him, he will die immediately. if a man has a little head, he will become rich. if he has a large head, he will be poor. if his forehead is wide, he will live a hundred years. if he has a small neck, he will be a murderer. if the second toe is long, he will be a bad man. if a woman has curly hair, she will not prosper. if her nose is long, she will have a good disposition. if her ear is wide, she will tell falsehoods. if she has a mole on her nose, she will be subject to anger; if on her lips, she will be learned; if on the eyebrows she will be cunning. i could continue to fill a number of pages with things of the same description, but it will be unnecessary. i will merely mention one instance more. on a certain night in the month of november, the people will not look at the moon. the reason assigned for this, is as follows. once, when the elephant-faced god pulliar was dancing before the gods, the moon happening to see him, laughed at him, and told him that he had a large stomach, an ear like a winnowing-fan, etc. this so enraged him, that he cursed her. this curse was inflicted on the night above mentioned. how does the wretchedness of a people, both in reference to the things of this world and of the world to come, show itself where the bible is unknown. if this blessed book was not an inspired book--if it did no more than remove the temporal miseries of men, how invaluable would it be! of how much more value then, is it, in reference to the removal of their spiritual miseries? o, why is it that christians have not long since sent this bible to them? why is it that they do not send it to them _now_? this is a mystery, which we must leave to be unravelled at the judgment-seat of the last day. my dear children, you are to stand before that judgment-seat. shall any of these heathen among whom i dwell, rise up at that awful season--stretch out their hands towards you, and say, there stand the children who might have sent us the bible, but they did not send it; and now we must be lost--_lost for ever!_ chapter xx. burmah, china, etc., etc. my dear children--if you will look on your map of asia, you will see, adjoining hindostan, at the east, a country called burmah. this is another land of idols. here the "baptist general convention for foreign missions" have one of the most interesting and flourishing missions in the world. the people of burmah are, if possible, still further removed from divine knowledge than the people of india. they are in reality atheists, or, in other words, people who do not believe in a creator or preserver of the world. but still they worship gods, who, they say, have become so by acts of religious merit. he whom they now worship is called gaudama, or boodh. he is reputed to be the son of the king of benares, and, if their history be correct, was born six hundred years before christ. the boodhists are all idolaters. they have many temples erected to the honor of boodh and his image. before this image they present flowers, incense, rice, betel-nuts etc. like all other idolatrous nations, the burmese are very wicked. they do not respect their females as they should do. they treat them as an inferior order of beings. they often sell them. a very singular custom prevails in that country. it consists in paying a kind of homage to a white elephant. this elephant is sumptuously dressed and fed. it is provided with officers, like a second sovereign, and is made to receive presents from foreign ambassadors. it is next in rank to the king, and _superior_ to the queen. burmah is the country in which drs. judson and price, and messrs. hough and wade suffered so much, during the war with england several years ago. messrs. hough and wade were the first to suffer. as the ships which were to make the attack upon rangoon approached the city, they were seized and cast into prison. their legs were bound together with ropes, and eight or ten burmans, armed with spears and battle-axes, were placed over them, as a guard. they were afterwards put in irons. the next morning, as the fleet approached still nearer the city, orders were sent to the guard, through the grates of their prison, that the instant the shipping should fire upon the town, they were to kill them, together with the other prisoners confined with them. the guard, on receiving these orders, began to sharpen the instruments with which they intended to kill them, and moved them about their heads to show with how much skill and pleasure they would attend to their orders. upon the floor where they intended to butcher them, a large quantity of sand was spread to receive the blood. the gloom and silence of death reigned among the prisoners; the vast ocean of eternity seemed but a step before them. at length the fleet arrived, and the firing commenced the first ball which was thrown into the town passed, with a tremendous noise, directly over their heads. this so frightened the guard, that they seemed unable to execute their murderous orders. they shrunk away into one corner of the prison, where they remained quiet, until a broadside from one of the ships made the prison shake and tremble to its very foundation. this so alarmed them, that they burst open the doors of the prison and fled. the missionaries, with the other prisoners, were then left alone. their danger, however, was not at an end; but as god had protected them thus far, he continued to protect them until they were set at liberty, and allowed to preach the gospel again to those perishing heathen. drs. judson and price were also imprisoned, and suffered much; but they, too, were preserved and delivered. the accounts of their sufferings are so long, that i cannot now relate them all to you. you will find them in the life of mrs. judson. after the war was over, the missionaries were permitted to go everywhere to proclaim the name of the saviour; and their efforts have been very much blessed, especially among the karens. it will be impossible for me to give you an account of their many labors, and of the many tokens which they have received of god's favor towards multitudes who have become followers of the redeemer. suffice it to say, that more than six thousand have been received into the christian church. one of the native teachers not long since baptized, on one occasion, three hundred and seventy-two persons. adjoining burmah, is china, a country containing more than three hundred millions of people, about twenty times as many as there are in the united states of america. it is a country filled with idols. many of the people earn their living by making and selling these idols. there are many shops where they are sold, or repaired when they become broken or defaced. the females in that country are in a very degraded state. they are the slaves of their husbands, and live and die in the greatest ignorance. any attempt to raise themselves to the level of females in christian lands, is considered as very wicked. the little female child is tortured from her birth. you have, perhaps, heard that the women of china have small feet. these are made small by a very cruel practice--by putting bandages of cloth so tightly around them, that they cannot grow. many women have feet not larger than those of an american infant of one year old. mr. doty, missionary to china, says, that he was acquainted with a little girl whose mother had bound up her feet so tightly, that she cried two or three hours every day, on account of the great pain which she suffered. with such little feet, you may well suppose that it would be very difficult for the women to walk. it is so. they limp and hobble along, just as if their feet had been cut off, and they had to walk on stumps. the chinese do not count their daughters among their children. mr. doty says, he one day asked his chinese teacher how many children he had. he replied, that he had several. "how many of these," he then inquired, "are daughters?" "we do not count our daughters among our children," he answered. "i have three daughters, but we chinese count our sons only as children." when this missionary was in a chinese village where he had never been before, a man called to see him, bringing with him two pretty little girls, neatly dressed, about six and seven years old. he said that they were his daughters and that he wished to sell them. mr. doty refused to buy them, as it was wicked to buy and sell children; but he told him, that if he would commit them to him, he would take them home with him, and educate them, and that they might return home after they had grown. to this proposal he would not consent but said, that if he would buy them, they should be his for ever. he could have bought them both for about twenty-six dollars. the chinese have many schools, but none for their daughters, as they do not teach them, to read. when they are about thirteen years old, they shut them up in what are called "women's apartments," where they remain until the time of their marriage. then the parents sell them to those who wish to have wives for their sons. in this way, they are frequently married to persons whom they never before saw. many parents in china destroy their little girls soon after they are born, or while they are very small. this they frequently do by throwing them into rivers, or into the sea, after they have wrapped them up in coarse mats. there is a little chinese girl, named ellen, now living in newark, new jersey, whose father was about to kill her when she was three weeks old. an english lady heard of his intentions, and sent a person with ten dollars to see if she could not be bought. he was offered the ten dollars, but refused to take them. she sent ten dollars more. he consented to take the twenty dollars. this little girl was brought by this english lady to america, when she was about six years old. the friends who have her under their care, are educating her with the hope that she may go back to china, to tell its females of the saviour. did you ever, my dear girls, think why it is that your parents love you, and educate you--why it is that they try to make you happy, instead of cramping your feet, shutting you up, and, perhaps, at last selling you? it is because they have the bible. then, how anxious should you be to save what money you can, to buy bibles to send to those poor heathen. as i am now speaking of the destruction of infants, i would observe, that this crime is common in other heathen countries. it was quite common, until lately, in the island of tahiti, and other places in the south pacific ocean. when the missionaries of the london missionary society went there, many years ago, they found the females in a very degraded situation. mr. nott, one of these missionaries, declared that three out of four of the children were murdered as soon as they were born. he met a woman soon after this dreadful crime had been abolished to whom he said, "how many children have you?" "this one in my arms," was her answer. "and how many did you kill?" she replied, "eight." another woman, who was asked the same question, said that she had destroyed _seventeen_. infanticide, or, in other words, the destruction of infants, says the rev. mr. williams, was carried to an almost incredible extent in tahiti, and some other islands. he writes, "during the visit of the deputation, g. bennet, esq., was our guest for three or four days; and on one occasion, while conversing on this subject, he expressed a wish to obtain accurate knowledge of the extent to which this cruel practice had prevailed. three women were sitting in the room at the time, making european garments, under mrs. williams direction; and, after replying to mr. bennet's inquiries, i said, 'i have no doubt but that each of these women has destroyed some of her children.' mr. bennet exclaimed, 'impossible; such motherly, respectable women could never have been guilty of so great an atrocity.' 'well,' i added, 'we will ask them.' addressing the first, i said to her, 'friend, how many children have you destroyed?' she was startled at my question, and at first charged me with unkindness, in harrowing up her feelings, by bringing the destruction of her babes to her remembrance; but upon learning the object of my inquiry, she replied, with a faltering voice, 'i have destroyed _nine_.' the second, with eyes suffused with tears, said, 'i have destroyed _seven_;' and the third informed us that she had destroyed _five_. had the missionaries gone there but a few years before, with the blessing of god, they would have prevented all this. these mothers were all christians at the time this conversation was held." "on another occasion," says mr. williams, "i was called to visit the wife of a chief in dying circumstances. she had professed christianity for many years, had learned to read when about sixty, and was a very active teacher in our adult school. in the prospect of death, she sent a pressing request that i would visit her immediately; and on my entering her apartment she exclaimed, 'o, servant of god, come and tell me what i must do.' perceiving that she suffered great mental distress, i inquired the cause of it, when she replied, 'i am about to die.' 'well,' i rejoined, 'if it be so, what creates this agony of mind?' 'o, my sins, my sins,' she cried; 'i am about to die.' i then inquired what the particular sins were which so greatly distressed her, when she exclaimed, 'o, my children, my murdered children! i am about to die, and shall meet them all at the judgment-seat of christ.' upon this i inquired how many children she had destroyed, and to my astonishment she replied, 'i have destroyed _sixteen_, and now i am about to die.'" after this mr. williams tried to comfort her, by telling her that she had done this when a heathen, and during the times of ignorance, which god winked at. but she received no consolation from this thought, and exclaimed again, "o, my children, my children." he then directed her to the "faithful saying, which is worthy of all acceptation, that jesus christ came into the world to save sinners." this gave her a little comfort; and after visiting her frequently, and directing her to that blood which cleanseth from all sin, he succeeded, with the blessing of god, in bringing peace to her mind. she died soon after, rejoicing in the hope that her sins, though many, would be forgiven her. well may you exclaim, my dear children, "holy bible, book divine, precious treasure, thou art mine." infanticide still prevails in india, but as i have given a particular description of this crime in my sermon to children, on the condition of the heathen, i will here say nothing farther on the subject. chapter xxi. the duty of praying and contributing for the spread of the gospel. my dear children--there is another story connected with india, which i might have mentioned in my last chapter while writing about the destruction of infants. i will relate it now, in order that you may be constrained to pray more frequently for the heathen. some time ago, the wife of a native prince had a little daughter. the father ordered it to be put to death, immediately after it was born. had it been a son, an heir to the throne, he would have taken great care of it. a second, a third, a fourth, a fifth little daughter was born. all these were also put to death by the command of the father. when a sixth little daughter was born, the mother's heart yearned over it. "i cannot part with it," said she; "i will have it taken away and hid, so that the king may know nothing about it." this was done, but the poor mother never dared to send for her little girl. she never saw her again, but died sometime after. many of the little girls in india are very pretty. they have dark eyes, and sweet, expressive countenances. this little child grew to be a very beautiful girl; and when she was eleven years old, some of her relations ventured to bring her to her father. they thought that he would be struck with the sight of his sweet child, and that he would love her for the sake of her mother who had died. the little girl fell at his feet and clasped his knees, and looked up in his face and said, "my father." and what do you think that father did? do you think that he took her up in his arms, and kissed her? no. he seized her by the hair of her head, drew his sword from his belt, and with a single blow took off her head. now, my dear children, do you not think that you ought to pray for the poor heathen--to pray that god will send the gospel to them? i want to tell you of a little boy who heard me preach some time ago about the heathen. one night he said his prayers, and went to bed. after he got into bed, he said to the nurse, "i have forgotten to pray for the heathen, and i must get out of bed and pray for them." the nurse then told him that it would not be necessary for him to get up, as he could pray for them while in bed. "no," said he, "i must get out of bed and pray for them." and the dear little boy would not rest until he got out of bed and prayed for them. now i want all of you, my dear children, every morning and evening, to kneel down and pray for the heathen, as this little boy did. and i want you to do something more. i want you always to be punctual in attending _the usual monthly concerts of prayer,_ provided there are no juvenile monthly concerts to which you can go. i have long wished to see juvenile monthly concerts of prayer established. they would be very interesting if i am to judge from the account of one which i some time ago received from a friend of mine, the rev. mr. v----. i will give you some extracts from his letter. he writes, "according to promise, i send you an account of the first children's monthly concert, so far as i can learn, held on long island. as notice was not given either in the church or sabbath-school, the attendance was smaller than it otherwise would have been. still, about sixty interesting children attended. after a few remarks concerning the object of the meeting by the superintendent of the sabbath-school they sung with melting eyes the hymn that describes the wretched heathen mother casting her lovely babe into the jaws of the monster of the granges. prayer then was made, of about two or three minutes in length. then i gave some of the most affecting accounts of the cruelties and ignorance of the heathen, as related by the devoted williams, that martyr missionary. their silent attention and subdued countenances told that their hearts were with the wretched idolaters. after having thus spent about ten minutes, the children sung in a sweet manner, a hymn--a prayer for those laboring amid the heathen: "when worn by toil, their spirits fail, bid them the glorious future hail; bid them the crown of life survey, and onward urge their conquering way." "after which, two resolutions were passed, unanimously, by the children. first, that they will each one attend the monthly concert of prayer regularly, when able, and bring with them all their companions whom they can persuade to come. "secondly, that they, with the children of the various schools of w----, will constitute ---a life member of the w---bible society. some of the smaller children had brought their little bibles to give them to ----, that he might carry them to the poor children of the heathen. but when informed that the heathen could not understand english, they determined to raise money, and send it out to purchase bibles for the children. this interesting meeting was closed by prayer, the doxology, and benediction." but not only can you pray for the heathen, you can give _something_ to send the gospel to them. do you say that you have no money to give? but cannot you earn some? many young persons have done so. one of whom i have read, says, "besides supporting a school in ceylon, we are going to support five chinese boys. i earn six cents a week for not using tea, one for not using sugar, and three for not using coffee." another says, "i, with three others, have been making matches to the amount of ten dollars, and should have made more, but the people are pretty well supplied. i am going to dig my father's garden, and my mother is going to give me a quarter of a dollar for digging it, which i shall give to the missionaries. i am going to do all i can, and to earn all i can, and save all that i have, to support the missionaries." another says, "i am going to leave off buying candy." what is that? can little girls and boys do without sugar-candy? i am afraid that many of you, my dear children, would find it difficult to go without it. but let me quote all that this child wrote. "i am going to leave off buying candy and such little notions, unless it is necessary, and save every cent that i can get and give it to the missionaries." now, my dear children, i do think that if you would save some of those cents which you spend in buying candy, fire-crackers, and similar things, and buy bibles and tracts for the poor heathen, you would do much more good with them. i want to tell you about a little boy who belonged to one of my schools in ceylon, who has, as i hope, gone to heaven through the means of a tract which cost only two or three cents, and which was the cause of his coming under my care. after he had attended preaching for some time, he begged me to admit him to the church. as he was quite young, not eleven years old, i was afraid to receive him. this feeling, perhaps, was wrong. he never joined the church on earth. he has, however, i hope, gone to join the church in heaven. when he was about eleven years of age, he was attacked with the cholera and died. in this country, when children are very ill, the father or mother will catch up a cocoa-nut or a few plantains, and run off to the temple, and say, "now, swammie, if you will cure my little boy or little girl, i will give you this cocoa-nut, or these plantains." the mother of this boy saw that he was very ill, and she told him that she wished to go to make offerings to one of her idols, in order that he might get well. but he requested her not to do so. "i do not worship idols," said he; "i worship christ, my saviour. if he is pleased to spare me a little longer in the world, it will be well; if not, i shall go to him." the last words he uttered were, "i am going to christ the lord." now when you think about this little boy, i want you to ask yourselves, whether it is not better to give two or three cents to try and save the soul of some poor little heathen boy or girl, than to spend them in buying candy, and other useless things. but i must tell you about a little girl whom i saw some time ago, who refused to buy candy while there are so many heathen without the bible. her father is a sea-captain. being absent from home, he sent her five dollars to buy candy, or any thing else which she wished. as this little girl had heard about the heathen, she determined to throw all her money into the missionary-box, instead of spending it for her own pleasure. the mother, on learning her intentions, asked her if she would not like to spend a part of it for candy, and similar things. she replied, that she would not, and in due time she put her five dollars into the missionary-box. not long after this, she was attacked with a severe toothache. the mother proposed that the defective tooth should be extracted. the little creature, for she was only about eight years old, dreaded the operation, and seemed at first to be backward about having it performed. to encourage her to submit to it, her mother offered her twenty-five cents. this little girl did not then begin to reason, now, if i can only get those twenty-five cents, i can buy a doll, or i can buy some sugar-candy; but she reasoned thus, now, if i can get those twenty-five cents, i can go and put them into the missionary-box. so she said to her mother, i will go and have the tooth taken out. the tooth, however, ceased to ache, but still she wished to have it extracted. her mother then interfered, and told her that, as it had ceased to ache, it might be well for her not to have it drawn until it ached again. the little girl, however, persisted, saying, that if it were not taken out, she could not get the twenty-five cents to devote to the missionary cause. she therefore went to the dentist's, submitted to the operation, received her twenty-five cents, and went and threw them into the lord's treasury. was not that a noble little girl? doubtless you will all say she was. i must tell you about a noble little boy also. some time ago, i was preaching to the children of canandaigua, in the western part of new york. after i had preached there, i went on to rochester. returning from that place, i met with a lady in the cars, who told me as follows: "after you had preached in canandaigua," said she, "a young lady there, who had lost her mother, and who had six or seven or eight of her brothers and sisters under her care, formed them into a missionary society." oh, i wish that all the dear children in america were formed into missionary societies. after she had done this, she asked her little brother how he was going to get money to put into the missionary-box. "by catching mice," said he. his sister gave him two or three cents for every mouse he caught. thus it appears, that this dear little boy was going to throw all his earnings into the lord's treasury. but let me tell you a little more about the children to whom i before alluded. another says, "in some of the day-schools of this city, the girls have formed sewing societies, and make pin-cushions, needle-books, emery-bags, and the like, and send the money that is raised from the sale of them to the missionaries, to be used for the heathen. there are seven sabbath-schools in this town, and in each of them there is a missionary association; so that in all about five hundred dollars are sent from the sabbath-schools every year." now, my dear girls, i want you to think of what has now been said about the formation of sewing societies; and i want you to ask your mothers whether they will not allow you to form such societies, to meet once a week, or once in two weeks, or once a month to sew, to get some money to send the gospel to the heathen. many societies of this kind have been formed. after i had preached to the children in one of the churches in third-street, new york, the little girls who attend that church formed such a society. the account which i received of it is as follows. "you may remember, that in your address to our sabbath-school, you related instances of little girls knitting, sewing, etc., to earn something for the missionary-box the examples which you related were not lost to the girls of the sabbath-school. immediately they began to talk about forming themselves into a sewing society, and making small articles, and giving the proceeds to the missionary society. they did not stop here, but went right to work, and soon formed their society, which they styled the juvenile sewing society. they are in a very prosperous and flourishing condition at present. i know not the amount of funds they possess--they pay a cent a week into their treasury--but they have a large assortment of articles already made. i understand, also, they meet once a week to sew." after i had preached at a place called little falls, new york, the girls formed a sewing society there. the following account of this society i received from one of its little members. "when you were here last fall, and told us how much good little girls had done in having sewing societies, we thought we would see if _we_ could not do some good in the world, as well as they; and, since october, we have met weekly, and by holding a fair, we have succeeded in raising sixty-two dollars. we hope it will be the means of saving some poor heathen children." now, as i said before, i want you, my dear girls, to ask your mothers if you may not form such societies also. will you think of it? i hope you will. another of the children to whom i have twice referred, says, "i can try and save their souls, if i am not there. i can work for them, and send some money to you to buy them bibles, and i can pray for them; and if i should save some souls, o how would they thank me. but if i did not send my money, nor care any thing about them, and i should not go to heaven, and they should not, how would they rise up in judgment against me, and say, if we had had the privileges that you had, we should not be here. o, how thankful we ought to be, that we were not born in heathen lands. o, if the poor heathen could only have such privileges as we have, how thankful would they be; and if we were born in heathen lands, i have no doubt that they would come and tell us about a saviour." i have received many letters from children, breathing the same spirit which is manifested in the notes i have copied. one writes, "last winter i brought in the wood for mother, and she gave me fifty cents. i now am very glad that i have not spent it, as i can give it to you to buy tracts for the little heathen children of india." a second writes, "the enclosed fifty cents my grandmother gave me when i was a very little boy, for sitting still one hour. will you please to use it to furnish the bible and missionary to the heathen." a third writes, "i have always spent my money for candy and other trifles, but since i have heard about the darkness and misery of the heathen, i intend to save it all, and put it into the missionary-box." a fourth writes, "the enclosed i earned by knitting. i intended to save it, till i had sufficient to carry me a short journey to see some of my friends; but when i heard you tell about the little heathen girls, i thought i would give it to you, for the poor heathen children." a fifth writes, "i have enclosed twelve and a half cents, which my father gave me to go and see general tom thumb. when i heard you lecture last evening, i came home and concluded to give it to you, and let you buy bibles for the poor heathen." a sixth writes, "i remember, before my mother died, she used to tell me a great deal about the children of india, and now she is in heaven. i think she would like to have me give my heart to the saviour, and go and teach those poor children. i give you some money that was given to me to see an exhibition, which i saved to give for such things, rather than go." a seventh writes, "you told us that two cents were the means of converting a young man. i would give two cents every week, if it would convert souls to christ." an eighth writes, "my mother told me, some time ago, that every day i recited my lessons without missing a word, she would give me a penny; and not being desirous to spend it, i do wish you would take it--fifty cents--to the heathen. it may buy some tracts at the bazaar or market." a ninth writes, "we feel sorry for those poor heathen children. we will try to earn some money to buy bibles for the heathen. father has promised us some land to work next summer, and we think we can raise something and sell it to get the money." a tenth writes, "since you were here last spring, i have saved what i could--one dollar--for the heathen children, and should be glad if i could do more." an eleventh writes, "the money which you will find enclosed, i earned by working for my mother on saturday, which i intended to keep to buy a microscope; but when i heard you preach on sabbath, i concluded to give it to buy bibles for the poor heathen children." a twelfth writes, "the enclosed, five dollars, was a birthday present from my father, but i want to give it to dr. scudder, for the poor little boys in ceylon." a thirteenth writes, "please accept my mite, by the hand of my brother. i have been keeping it for the purpose of buying a geography; but when i heard you preach yesterday, i thought i had better send it to you, for the poor heathen." a fourteenth writes, "i would like much to become a missionary, as i am named after one; i hope i shall be one. i have been saving a dollar to buy myself some books, but concluded to give it to buy some books for the heathen." the last two children, whose letters you have been reading, gave to the missionary cause the money which they had been earning to buy books. when you have been earning money for the express purpose of giving it to the missionary cause, then you should devote it all to that cause; but i would advise you not to do as did the two children last mentioned. had my opinion been asked, relative to the disposal of their money, i would have recommended them to give _one-tenth,_ or perhaps a little more, of the sums they had been earning, to their saviour, and to keep the rest to buy their books. the giving of not less than one-tenth of all you earn, for charitable purposes, is the principle which i wish to have impressed fully on your minds, and i hope you will grow up under the influence of this principle, and _never, never_ depart from it. but while i thus speak, you must not suppose that i wish you to confine yourselves to the giving of one-tenth, when you can give more; i hope you will not give merely this, but one-half, or more, if you can afford it. indeed, if you do not go as missionaries to the heathen, i want you to make it your great object _to make money for christ, and to spend it for christ_. o, if the generation which is grown, were as anxious to make money for christ, and to spend it for christ, as they are to make it for themselves, and to spend it for themselves, or to hoard it up--it may be for the everlasting destruction of the souls of their heirs--there would be no complaints that money could not be had to send the gospel to the destitute, both at home and abroad. in my twelfth chapter, i spoke of the liberal donations which the heathen of india make for the support of their religion. in the city of calcutta alone, it is supposed that two millions of dollars are spent every year on the festival of a single goddess--a festival which lasts only a few days. a single native has been known to give, as i before said, more than one hundred thousand dollars at one time to this festival, and afterwards thirty thousand dollars yearly. how vast, then, must be the sums which are spent upon all the different festivals of their gods. would that we could see such liberality among christians. would that we could see the generality of them willing to give even one-tenth of their annual income to the lord. alas, what would the heathen say, if they were to learn how much greater are the sums of money which they give to their idols, than christians give to honor their saviour? would they not exclaim, it is because christianity is false, and heathenism is true, that christians give so little for christ, while we give so much for our gods? my dear children, i hope that you will never allow the heathen to say that the christian religion is false, because you do not give your money for the spread of the gospel. will you not resolve now, that you will, so long as god prospers you in worldly goods, give _at least_ one-tenth of all you earn to the lord? do, my dear children, do make the resolution now. chapter xxii. personal labors among the heathen. my dear children--you have, perhaps, often seen campbell's missionary map of the world. if not, i want you very carefully to look at it. i want you to look at the red spots on it, and think how many millions of people embrace the religion both of the greek and roman catholic churches--a religion which is nothing more nor less than paganism, with a few christian doctrines added to it. after this, i want you to look at the green spots, and think of the hundred and twenty millions of mohammedans, who spurn the name of jesus as a saviour, and who have set up mahomet as their prophet. i want you also to look at all the dark spots, where, with comparatively a few exceptions, the people are in pagan darkness, without any knowledge of god and the only saviour of sinners jesus christ. and in view of all this darkness--in view of the need of more than half a million of ministers of the gospel to preach the news of salvation to them, i want you, my dear boys, to ask yourselves whether it may not be your duty, after you grow up, to become ministers, and go and preach the gospel to them. you know that you are bound to do all the good to others which you can; and even if you do not love the saviour, you are not released from your obligations to do good. i would by no means have you become ministers without giving your hearts to christ; but this you are as much bound to do, as you are bound to do all the good you can to others. if you are not christians, i want you, through grace, to become such, and i want many of you to become ministers and missionaries. two of my sons are now missionaries in india, and four others, i hope, are preparing to come. and why should not you also come here, or go to other heathen lands? if you can be excused from coming or going, why may not all who are now little boys also be excused? in such a case, there will be no missionaries at all. and you know that this would be very wrong. but i do not merely want many of you, my dear boys, to become missionaries, i want many of you, my dear girls, to become missionaries also. many little girls and boys have expressed a desire to become missionaries. several little boys who wrote to mr. hutchings, one of my missionary brethren, and several little boys and girls who have written to me, have said that they would like to be missionaries. one writes, "i should like to go and be a missionary, and instruct the poor heathen children to love god." a second says, "i have been selling matches that i made. i got five dollars--just as many dollars as i am years old. i think i shall become a missionary, and come and help you. i hope i shall see you again when i come to ceylon. tell the heathen children they must love god, and be good children. they must not give the children to the crocodiles, nor throw them into the water; and they must not worship wooden and brass gods. they must worship the true god, and keep his commandments." a third says, "i like to send money to help the poor heathen to learn to read the bible, and other good books. i think it will be pleasant to sail across the ocean, and teach them to turn from their idols. i would teach them not to lay themselves down before the car of juggernaut, and be crushed to death; and i would teach them not to burn themselves to death on the funeral pile." a fourth says, "i mean to save something to send to you, to help support one school. should my life be spared, and the way be opened at some future day, i think i should be willing to leave my native home, to go to some distant land to tell the heathen of a saviour, whom i hope i have found." a fifth says, "if you are ever in want of money, just please to send on to me, and i will endeavor to raise all that you want. if i live to be a man, i hope be a missionary to ceylon or china." one little boy wrote to me as follows: "i have for a long time been saving three shillings, for the purpose of buying a little racoon, which i intended to do on monday. on sunday i heard you preach, and thought i would give it to you to save some poor heathen soul; and i hope you will pray for me, that i may become a minister, and go to india, and preach to the heathen." another writes, "this is to certify that i, charles d.h. frederick, pledge myself, if god spares my life, when i get to be a man, and he pardons me through christ jesus, i will go and preach to the heathen." a little girl wrote me as follows: "according to my present feelings, i should like to engage in so glorious a cause," as the missionary cause, "and i hope, when i arrive at an age to be of use to god, and the poor heathen, to embrace so glorious a cause." another little girl writes, "i felt very bad when i heard you tell about the poor heathen who worship the idols. i could not keep from weeping, when you told us about the man who came so far to get a teacher to come and tell the gospel to his friends, and was disappointed. i felt very bad sunday evening; and on monday evening i felt that the lord had given me a new heart. i felt happy, and sang some beautiful verses that i learned in one of mother's little books. i have read the day-springs, and thought a great deal about the heathen for two years. "i used to think a great deal about having nice clothes, before i thought so much about the heathen. my mother told me some time ago, that she thought she would get me a white dress when i was ten years old. i am now ten years old, and this evening mother gave me two dollars to get the dress, or dispose of it in any way i thought best; and i wish you would take it to have the poor heathen taught about the saviour. if i live, and it is the lord's will, i hope i shall come and help you teach the poor heathen about the saviour." there is a little boy in the city of new york, who formerly used to tell his mother, that he meant to be a cab-driver, and all she could say to him was of no avail in making him think differently. this little boy came with his mother to hear me preach about the heathen. after he had left the church, as he was going home, he burst into tears, and exclaimed, "mother, i mean to be a missionary to the heathen;" and so far as i know, he has never talked about being any thing else since. and i hope that many of you will never talk about being any thing else than missionaries to the heathen. i am acquainted with a little girl in ohio, who has resolved to become a missionary. she is a niece of mr. campbell, late missionary to africa. she was not quite four years old when i saw her. when she was eighteen months of age, she saw the picture of a heathen mother throwing her child into the mouth of a crocodile she was deeply impressed with the sight. when she was two and a half years old, she resolved to be a missionary, and follow her uncle to africa. from this resolution she has never drawn hack. when i was at her father's house, she was asked if she would not go to india. she replied, that she would not go to india, but to africa. she was asked why she wished to go to africa. "to teach the heathen," was her answer. "why should you teach the heathen?" "because they worship idols." her mother told me, that ever since she began to get money, she has contributed to the missionary cause; and this money has generally, if not always, been earned by some act of self-denial on her part. i hope that many of you will feel just as this little girl felt, and do just as she did. when i was in america, i used continually, when preaching, to ask the dear children whether they would not become missionaries. i used also to beg them to write down what i had asked them. many complied with my request. while i was at the avon springs, one of the daughters of a physician there, not only wrote it down, but gave me what she had written. the following is a copy of what she wrote, _august 18, 1844._ _dr. scudder requested me to come to india to help him when i am grown._ s. p. s. _avon springs_ could i raise my voice loud enough to reach america, i would beg of _you_ to write down the following sentence: dr. scudder asks me, to-day, whether i will not hereafter become a missionary to the heathen. perhaps you will write it down _immediately_. now, my dear boys, if you will come out to india, or go to burmah or china, to tell the heathen of the saviour, you may, with the blessing of god, do as much good as swartz and carey, and others have done. and if you, my dear girls, will do the same, you also may do much good. this will appear from what i am going to tell you about a little girl in ceylon. this little girl belonged to the boarding-school at oodooville. she early gave her heart to the saviour, and joined the church when she was thirteen years old. i should like to know if there are any of you who have not followed her example. if so, this is not right. my dear children, it is not right. shall this little girl, in a heathen land, a land filled with idols, give her heart to christ; and you, in a christian land, a land of sabbaths, and sabbath-schools, and bibles, not give your hearts to him? this is not right. you know that it is not right. but let me go on with my account of the little girl. after she had joined the church, she wanted to go and see her mother, who was a heathen, for the purpose of conversing with her about her soul's concerns. now, in this country, when children who have been absent from their parents for any length of time go home, the mother spreads a mat down on the floor, and tells them to sit down upon it, adding that she will go and cook rice for them. they have no seats to sit on, as you have in america. well, this little girl went home. when her mother saw her, she was very glad; and after she had spread a mat for her, and told her to sit down, she said that she would go and cook rice for her. the little girl told her that she was not hungry, and did not wish to eat, but wanted to talk with her. "you cannot talk with me," said her mother, "until i have cooked rice for you." "mother," said the little girl, "you worship idols, and i am afraid that you will lose your soul, and i want to talk with you about jesus christ." the mother became quite angry with her, and rebuked her. but still the little girl continued to talk with her about her soul. the mother then became so angry, that she told her to be silent, or she would punish her. the little girl replied, "mother, though you do whip me, i must talk to you about jesus christ," and she burst into tears. the mother's heart was broken. she sat down on the mat, and her little daughter talked with her, and prayed with her. after this the little girl was so troubled, fearing that her mother's soul might be lost, that she was heard praying for her during all parts of the night. and god heard her prayers. her mother forsook her idols, and became a christian, and her conversion was followed by the conversion of one or two others. now, my dear little girls, if you will give your hearts to the saviour, and in due time come here, or go to other heathen lands, and tell the people of a saviour, you may, with the help of the holy spirit, be as useful as this little girl was. female missionaries have done much good among the heathen. i mentioned an instance on page 88, to prove this. let me mention another instance more. in the year 1838, an english lady, miss aldersey, went to the east, at her own expense to promote female education among the chinese. at that time, she could not go to china, as that country was not open to missionaries she therefore went to java, where there was a colony of chinese. here she hired a house, and collected about twenty-five girls, whom she clothed, and boarded, and taught. the lord blessed her labors, and several of these girls were hopefully converted. when their parents saw that they would no longer worship idols, they became much opposed to the school, and some of them took their daughters from it. in the year 1842, god opened the door for the entrance of the gospel into china. this missionary then broke up her school in java, went to that country, and resided in the city of ningpo. of the girls who had become christians while under her care, two were much persecuted by their parents. they were whipped and beaten, with the hope that they would again return to their idols; but all the efforts which were made to induce them to forsake the saviour were in vain. they declared that they would sooner die than forsake him. when their parents saw that stripes and blows were of no avail, they determined to marry them to men who were much devoted to their idols. this stratagem, they thought, might succeed in destroying all their interest in their new religion. here, however, they were again foiled. the girls became alarmed, and fled from their parents. an english gentleman, but who was not a professor of religion, felt deeply interested for them, and assisted them to get on board a ship going to batavia. here they were pursued but escaped from the pursuers by going on board of a ship which sailed for singapore. from singapore they sailed for china, where they were permitted to join the old friend who had been the means of their conversion. this lady collected a school at ningpo of more than thirty girls. thus you see how much good female missionaries have done by going to heathen lands. and are none of you willing to follow their example? are none of you willing to say, here am i, lord, send me? chapter xxiii. success of the gospel in india and ceylon. my dear children--i have told you that india is a very dark land, but there are a few bright spots in it. through the blessing of god upon the prayers of his people in christian lands, and upon the prayers and labors of his missionary servants, many of the heathen of india and ceylon have forsaken their idols, and are now enlisted under the banner of jehovah jesus. in the travancore and tinnivelly districts to say nothing of the success of the gospel in other places, thousands and tens of thousands of the people have embraced christianity. in hundreds of villages where but a few years ago the name of jesus had never been heard, it is now known and adored. you have often heard of ceylon. if you will look at the map of hindostan, you will find it close to that country. here christianity has begun to prevail. this island is two hundred miles long, and in some places quite wide. a large part of it is covered with what is called jungle. jungle and wilderness mean the same thing. in this jungle there are many wild beasts, such as elephants, bears, wild hogs, and buffaloes. in it also, there are men, women, and children, running wild, just like the wild beasts. this people are called verders, or wild people. they wear scarcely any clothing. they have no houses. when it rains, they creep into holes, or go under overhanging rocks. their beds consist of a few leaves. sunk almost to the level of the brute, they live and die like their shaggy companions of the forest. even upon these the gospel has tried its power. more than fifty families have settled down, forming two pleasant, and now christian villages. they have schoolmasters and christian teachers. i must give you a description of two revivals of religion which occurred while i was in the island of ceylon, in the year 1833. before those revivals took place, there was no particular manifestation of much seriousness at any of our stations. it was in the month of october of that year, that we began to feel that we must labor more, and pray more for the conversion of perishing souls. a protracted meeting was spoken of, and it was determined that one should be held at our seminary in batticotta--a seminary which was established for the purpose of raising up a native ministry. on the morning of the day in which the meeting was commenced, mr. spaulding and myself went to that station to assist mr. poor, the principal of the seminary, in laboring with the students. in these labors we spent five days. it was good to be there. no sooner had we begun our exercises, than a blessing from on high was experienced. the windows of heaven were opened, and the holy ghost descended. this was evident from the spirit of prayer which was poured out upon the pious students of the seminary. they were heard "a great while before day" pleading, in their social circles, that god would have mercy upon their impenitent companions, and bring them into the kingdom of his grace. we trust, also, that a spirit of prayer was given to those of us who took a prominent part in the meeting. at the termination of our exercises, with the exception of a few lads belonging to a tamul class, who had lately been admitted to the seminary, there was not, so far as i know, an individual connected with it, who was not humbled at the foot of the cross, either to lie there until healed of his wounds, or to show, if he perished, that he must perish under circumstances of a very aggravated nature. after we had finished our meeting at batticotta we went to the female seminary at oodooville, to hold similar meetings. before we reached that station, the church-members there, after having heard what god was doing at batticotta, became very much aroused to pray for the influences of the holy spirit to descend upon the impenitent in their seminary also. soon after we reached the station, we held a meeting with the girls. some of them were then deeply concerned for the salvation of their souls; but it was not until wednesday afternoon, that we knew how powerfully the spirit of god had been at work. the meeting which we held with the seminarists at that time was one of the most solemn meetings which i ever attended. one of them, a girl of high caste, and of a very good family, said to her companions in that meeting, "my sisters, i have been a proud one among you. i hope that if you ever see me proud again, you will tell me of it. i used to tell the missionaries, that i had given myself to the saviour, but i had not done it." another of the girls burst into tears, and cried out aloud. as she could not restrain her feelings, and did not wish to disturb the assembly, she arose and left it. she retired to one of the prayer-rooms adjoining the seminary, there to weep alone. she, however, was not left alone. mr. poor, one of my missionary associates, followed her, and endeavored to administer the consolations of the gospel to her; but she refused to be comforted. all her distress seemed to arise from a single source. "i told you a falsehood," said she, "last monday, in saying that i had dedicated myself to the saviour, when i had not." perhaps she thought at that time, that she had thus dedicated herself to the saviour, but afterwards found that she had deceived herself. in this wretched state of mind, she continued until half-past ten o'clock that night, when she came into mr. spaulding's house, where i then was, and wished to know what she must do to be saved. she was told, as she had often been told before, that she must dedicate herself entirely to her saviour. she went away, and returned the same night at about half-past eleven o'clock, saying, that she had found him. "friends, is not my case amazing? what a saviour i have found." my dear young friends, are there any of you who have never given your hearts to christ? if so, let me entreat you to follow the example of that dear little girl of whom i have now been speaking. she found it to be necessary to give her heart to the saviour, and i hope that she did give it to him. o that you too might give up your hearts to him. alas, if you do not, you must soon go down to eternal burnings where you will be constrained to cry out, lost, lost, lost for ever! be careful, my dear children, o be careful that this young girl does not rise up against you in the last day, and condemn you. she must do so--she will do so, if you do not, like her, choose christ as your portion. but i am digressing, and must go back to the point i left. the next day, one of our missionary sisters, who had lately reached ceylon from america, came to oodooville, to witness the nature of the work which she heard was in progress at that place. as she was entering mr. spaulding's house, she was met by one of the most consistent church-members of the seminary, who declared that she had lost her hope of being a christian. perhaps this church-member was disposed to write bitter things against herself because she did not feel all that warmth in religion which marked the conduct of those who, at that time, were indulging the hope that they had passed from death to life. after the sister to whom i alluded had been in the house a little while, she requested mrs. spaulding to allow her to have an interview with such of the girls as were entertaining a hope of their interest in the saviour. these were twenty-two in number. this interview was granted. as she knew nothing about the tamul language, i acted as her interpreter. through me, she requested the girls to give a statement of their feelings. one of them arose, and said, "i feel as happy as an angel. i feel joys that i can express to no one but my saviour; and i am just as certain that my sins are forgiven, as if i had sent up a karduthaase," that is, a letter to heaven, "and received an answer to it." another of the girls said, that the missionaries had often talked with her about her dedicating herself to the saviour, but that she did not then know what it meant. "i now know," added she, "what it means, for god has taught it to me." another of the girls said, "though they put me in the fire, i will never forsake the saviour." now, my dear children, i must bid you farewell probably i shall never see you, unless you come to this heathen land, until i meet you at the judgment-seat of christ. if you do not become missionaries, most of you will probably die, and be buried where you now are. probably i shall die in this heathen land. but we shall not always sleep in our graves. after a little season, the archangel's trumpet will sound, and you in america, and i in india, shall hear his voice proclaiming, "awake, ye dead, and come to judgment." and we shall all at once rise from our graves, and stand before our judge. and where shall i then see you? shall i see any of you on the left hand of christ, and hear him say, "depart, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels?" o, if i should hear that dreadful sentence pronounced against you, how would my heart die within me. how could i bear to hear it. oh, i could not--i could not bear to hear it. my dear children, if you are yet out of christ, i entreat you, _at this very moment_, to lay down this book, and throw yourselves at the feet of your saviour. tell him, that you are lost sinners, deserving to be cast into everlasting burnings. tell him, that though you have been wicked children, you will leave off your wickedness, and be his for ever. plead with him, with as much earnestness as a _drowning_ man would plead with you to save him, to give you the influences of his holy spirit, to create within you a clean heart, and renew within you a right spirit, without which you are eternally undone; and continue to plead, until he pardons you, and receives you as his children. by all the sufferings of the son of god, by all the joys of heaven, by all the torments of hell, by the solemnities of your dying bed, by the value of your immortal souls _which, if once lost, must be lost for ever_, i beseech you thus _immediately_ to throw yourselves at his feet, and plead with him to make you his. neglect this duty--neglect giving yourselves to christ, even for one minute, and it may be, that you will be lost, yea, lost for ever. chaitanya's life and teachings from his contemporary bengali biography the _chaitanya-charit-amrita_: translated into english by jadunath sarkar, m.a., i.e.s. second edition, _revised and enlarged, with topographical notes._ 1922 m. c. sarkar & sons, calcutta, luzac & co., london. rs. 2. published by s. c. sarkar m. c. sarkar & sons, 90/2a, harrison road, calcutta. printer: s. c. mazumdar sri gouranga press _71/1, mirzapur street, calcutta._ 1481/21. to _professor_ raja gopalachariar, m.a., b.l., who has done so much to make the vaishnav saints of the south known to us, i dedicate this attempt to place the original life of chaitanya--the greatest vaishnav teacher of the north within the reach of all readers of english who know not the bengali tongue. patna college, _10th april, 1913._ j. sarkar the author and his book krishna-das kaviraj, the author of the _chaitanya-charit-amrita_, was born in the vaidya caste, at jhámatpur, a village of the kátwá sub-division of the burdwan district in bengal, (1496 a.d.) having lost his parents in early life, he was brought up by his late father's sister. he read persian at the village school, and then began to study sanskrit in order to qualify himself for practising hindu medicine, the profession of his caste. every part of his great poem bears evidence to his profound mastery of sanskrit literature, particularly of the _bhágabat purán_. the young orphan, while still unmarried, was converted to vaishnavism by nityánanda, and begged his way on foot to brindában, where he spent the remainder of his long life in religious study, meditation and worship. he was initiated as a vaishnav monk by raghunath-das, who along with swarup damodar had been body-servants to chaitanya during that saint's stay at jagannáth. from his _guru_, krishna-das learned the particulars of chaitanya's life and teaching which he has embodied in the present biography. his first efforts at authorship were in sanskrit and dealt with the mysteries of _bhakti_ and the service of krishna. the great work of his life was the composition of his old age, and was undertaken at the request of the faithful. every evening the bengali vaishnavs of brindában used to gather together and hear the acts of their master read out from his poetical biography, the _chaitanya bhágbat_ composed by brindában-das. but this book dealt with the saint's last years in too meagre and concise a fashion to satisfy the curiosity of his followers. they, therefore, led by haridas pandit, the chief servitor of the govindaji temple, pressed krishna-das to write a new and fuller life of the master. the poet was old and infirm, but he regarded the request as a solemn charge which he was not free to decline. that very evening he prayed to the image of madanmohan, and the god's approbation was shown by a sign,--a garland of flowers slipping down from his neck at the end of the prayer! on the bank of the radha-kunda tank, the aged krishna-das completed his _chaitanya-charit-amrita_ in 1582 after nine years of unremitting toil. it is divided into three books, the _adi lilá_, the _madhya lilá_, and the _antya lilá_, dealing respectively with the three stages of chaitanya's life, _viz._, (i) the 24 years from his birth to the time of his entering the monastic order, (ii) the six years of his pilgrimage, and (iii) the last eighteen years of his life, which were spent in residence at puri. in spite of its epic length, prolixity, and repetitions, the _chaitanya-charit-amrita_ is a masterpiece of early bengali literature, and has the further merit of making the subtle doctrines of the vaishnav faith intelligible to ordinary people. indeed, the older school of vaishnav fathers, as represented by jiv goswámi, had at first objected to its publication, lest the merits and completeness of this vernacular work should cause the learned sanskrit treatises on _bhakti_ exegetics to be neglected by the public! the author's manuscript is still preserved in the radha-damodar temple of brindában, and worshipped as a holy relic. the second book (_madhya lilá_), which is the longest and most detailed of the three and the foremost authority on chaitanya's teachings, life and character, and contains the clearest and fullest exposition of vaishnav philosophy, has been here translated into english for the first time. in the second edition, many long extracts from the third book (_antya lilá_) have been added, to complete the story of chaitanya's doings and sayings at puri till his death. readers to whom the bengali tongue is unknown, will here find an unvarnished account of chaitanya as his contemporaries knew him, without any modern gloss, interpolation or criticism. my version is literal; only, in certain places needless details have been curtailed, all repetitions have been avoided, and the texts so freely quoted by our author from the sanskrit scriptures have been indicated by reference to chapter and verse, instead of being done into english. the word _prabhu_, applied by the author to chaitanya, has been rendered by me as _master_. there are three other contemporary lives of chaitanya in old bengali. the earliest of them is the _chaitanya bhágabat_, composed in 1535 a.d., by the brahman brindában-das, a sister's son of shribas pandit of navadwip. this author (b. 1507, d. 1589) was a votary of god as incarnate in nityánanda; to him chaitanya was almost a secondary object of adoration. his poem is encumbered with miracles and digressions, and far inferior to krishna-das's work in wealth of philosophic exposition and description of men and events. trilochan-das (born 1523) wrote the _chaitanya-mangal_ at the age of fourteen! it is full of marvellous incidents and should be classed with romances rather than with sober histories. its text is still sung by wandering minstrels and is appreciated by the lower ranks of the vaishnav community. jayananda mishra (b. about 1511) wrote his _chaitanya-mangal_ about 1568, and his poem gives us much new information about the saint and his family. he is our only authority for the narrative of chaitanya's death, which i have translated at the end of this work. * * * * in the second edition parts of two chapters of the first edition, _viz._, xviii. pp. 254-269 and xxii. pp. 290-303, have been omitted, as they can be understood only by very learned sanskrit scholars, the remaining part of ch. xxii has been incorporated with ch. xxi, while ch. xxiii has been renumbered as xxii. in the present edition, all the chapters from xxiii to the end are taken from the _antya lilá_. in preparing the second edition, the translation has been carefully compared with the text and minutely revised. many mistakes have been detected and corrected; some of them came no doubt from the manuscript from which the first edition was printed, but most of the others were due to the inefficiency and carelessness of the press. in going through the original a second time i have in a few places modified my interpretation of the text made twelve years ago. a long and important appendix has now been added, giving the exact situation and some description of the various holy places visited by chaitanya, (with references to the best and most modern sources of information, such as gazetteers and maps). a short life of chaitanya navadwip, a town in the nadia district of bengal, situated on the river ganges, 75 miles north of calcutta, was a great trading centre and seat of hindu learning in the 15th century. sanskrit logic (_nyáy_) for which bengal is most famous among all the provinces of india, was very highly developed and studied here, and the fame of its scholars was unsurpassed in the land. but, if we may believe the biographers of chaitanya, the atmosphere of the town was sceptical and unspiritual. there was a lack of true religious fervour and sincere devotion. proud of their intellectuality, proud of the vast wealth they acquired by gifts from rich hindus, the local _pandits_ despised _bhakti_ or devotion as weak and vulgar, and engaged in idle ceremonies or idler amusements. vedantism formed the topic of conversation of the cultured few; wine and goat's meat were taken to kindly by the majority of the people, and such _shakta_ rites as were accompanied by the offering of this drink and food to the goddess and their subsequent consumption by her votaries, were performed with zeal and enthusiasm. jagannáth mishra, surnamed purandar, a brahman of the vaidik sub-caste, had emigrated from his ancestral home in sylhet and settled here in order to live on the bank of the holy ganges. his wife was shachi, a daughter of the scholar nilámbar chakravarti. one evening in february or march, 1485 a.d., when there was a lunar eclipse at the same time as full moon, a son was born to this couple. it was their tenth child; the first eight, all daughters, had died in infancy, and the ninth, a lad named vishwarup, had abandoned the world at the age of sixteen when pressed to marry, and had entered a monastery in the madras presidency. the new-born child was named vishwambhar. but the women, seeing that his mother had lost so many children before him, gave him the disparaging name of nimái or short-lived in order to propitiate nemesis. the neighbours called him _gaur_ or _gauránga_ (fair complexioned) on account of his marvellous beauty. that the child was born amidst the chanting of hari's name all over navadwip on the occasion of the eclipse, was taken to be an omen that he would prove a teacher of _bhakti_. passing over the lucky signs of his horoscope, and the miracles and krishna-like antics with which pious imagination has invested his boyhood, we may note that he showed great keenness and precocity of intellect in mastering all branches of sanskrit learning, especially grammar and logic. on the death of his father, vishwambhar, while still a student, married lakshmi, the daughter of vallabh acharya, with whom he had fallen in love at first sight. he now became a householder, and began to take pupils like many other brahmans of navadwip. as a _pandit_ he surpassed the other scholars of the place and even defeated a renowned champion of another province, who was travelling all over india holding disputations. on his return from a scholastic tour in east bengal, in which he received many gifts from pious householders, he found that his wife had died of snake-bite during his absence. after a while the widower married vishnu-priya. at this time his head was turned by the pride of scholarship, and his victories in argument made him slight other men. during a pilgrimage to gayá, he met ishwar puri, a vaishnav monk of the order of mádhavácharya and a disciple of that mádhavendra puri who had first introduced the cult of bhakti for krishna among the _sannyasis_. vishwambhar took this ishwar puri as his guru or spiritual guide. a complete change now came over his spirit. his intellectual pride was gone; he became a _bhakta_; whatever subject he lectured on, the theme of his discourse was love of krishna. indeed, he developed religious ecstasy and for some time behaved like a mad man: he laughed, wept, incessantly shouted krishna's name, climbed up trees, or raved in abstraction imagining himself to be krishna. he now made the acquaintance of the elderly scholar and _bhakta_ adwaita acharya, and was joined by a sannyasi named nityánanda, who became to him even more than what paul was to christ. many people of navadwip now believed chaitanya to be an incarnation of krishna and did him worship, while nityánanda came to be regarded as balaram, (the elder brother of krishna). religious processions were frequently got up, in which the devout, headed by the two, went dancing and singing through the streets or assembled in the courtyards of houses. this was the origin of the _nam-kirtan_ ('chanting god's name') which has ever been the most distinctive feature of this creed. chaitanya's greatest achievement at this time was the reclamation of two drunken ruffians, jagái and mádhái, who were a terror to the city. the apostles of _bhakti_ had also to face mockery and persecution from scoffers and unbelievers (_páshandi_), which were overcome by supernatural signs. we pass over the scenes of ecstasy, tireless exertion in _kirtan_, madness and miracles, which form the extant history of this period of chaitanya's life. but the conversions among the learned were few, and chaitanya at last in despair resolved to turn hermit for their salvation, arguing thus, "as i must deliver all these proud scholars, i have to take to an ascetic life. they will surely bow to me when they see me as a hermit, and thus their hearts will be purified and filled with _bhakti_. there is no other means." so, he induced keshav bhárati to initiate him as a _sannyasi_ (1509) under the name of krishna-chaitanya, usually shortened into chaitanya, which we have anticipated in this sketch. he was then 24 years of age. his mother, who had often before urged him not to desert her as his elder brother had done, was heart-broken at the loss of her sole surviving child, but chaitanya consoled her in every possible way, and bowed to her wishes in many points in his after years as obediently as he had done before renouncing the life of a householder. the next six years were passed by him in pilgrimages to orissa, the southern land, and brindában, and in the preaching of _bhakti_ in many parts of india, as described in detail in the present volume. thereafter, at the age of 30, he settled at puri, and spent his remaining days in the constant adoration of jagannáth. disciples and admirers from many places, chiefly bengal and brindában, visited him here; and he edified them by his discourses, acts of humility, and penances. towards the close of his life he had repeated fits of religious ecstasy in which he acted in utter disregard of his life,--once leaping into the blue ocean, at another time battering his face against the walls of his room. at last in june-july, 1533, his physical frame broke down under such prolonged mental convulsion and self-inflicted torments, and he passed away under circumstances over which the piety of his biographers has drawn the veil of mystery. in his lifetime his disciples had organized a mission. in bengal the new creed was preached and spread far and wide by nityánanda, who afterwards came to be regarded as a god, co-ordinate with chaitanya. modern brindában, with its temples, sanskrit seminaries and haunts for recluses, is the creation of the bengali vaishnavs, and it has eclipsed the older city of mathura. here the brothers rup and sanátan,--descended from a prince of karnat who had settled in bengal and whose descendants had become completely bengalized, joined chaitanya's church. these two and their nephew jiv goswámi were great sanskrit scholars and their devotional works, commentaries, &c. encouraged a revival of sanskrit studies in general in that muslim age. these three, with gopal bhatta, nephew of the celebrated vedantist prakashananda who was latterly converted to _bhakti_ by chaitanya and changed his name into prabodhananda, and raghunath bhatta, son of an up-country brahman bhakta, and the last raghunath-das, a kayastha saint of the saptagram zamindar family of the hugli district and the guru of our author, formed the six fathers of chaitanya's church. except rup and sanátan, most of the other disciples of chaitanya adopted the bengali tongue as their medium, and greatly enriched it with their songs, biographies, poems, travels, and translations of the bhakti literature from sanskrit. the vaishnav goswamis, both at brindában and navadwip, have kept up the study of sanskrit to our own day. a classified list of chaitanya's disciples is given in book i. canto x and those of nityánanda and adwaita's disciples in cantos xi and xii respectively. glossary _abadhut_--an ascetic who has renounced the world. _acharya_--a family name or title of brahmans, _lit._, teacher. _adwaita acharya_--an elderly scholar of shantipur and associate in chaitanya's devotions before he became a sannyasi. _arati_--divine service performed to a god in the early morning or after dusk, with lamps, incense, and instrumental music, especially bells. _balarám_--the elder brother of krishna; the images of the two with that of their sister subhadrá between them, are worshipped in the temple of jagannáth. _baniá_--grocer, (also acts as banker). _bhágabat_--an adorer of bhagabán or vishnu as god; the bhágabat, the name of a puran, regarded by the vaishnavs as their scripture. _bhakta_--a devotee, who seeks salvation through faith. _bhakti_--faith, devotion. _bhárati_--the title of an order of monks. _bhattáchárya_--a title of brahmans. _bhog_--see _prasád_. _dhoti_--a sheet of cloth worn round the lower limbs by hindu males. _gandharva_--a class of celestial musicians. _garuda_--a bird ridden by vishnu, sacred to the vaishnavs. _gaur_--(1) a city in the malda district, the capital of bengal during the pathan period; also applied to the whole country of bengal, (gaur). (2) or _gauránga_, a title of chaitanya. _gauriyá_--a native of bengal. _ghághar_--a musical instrument. _ghát_--bathing stairs in a river, usually sacred. _ghee_--melted butter. _gopis_--milk-maids of brindában with whom krishna disported. _goswámi_--a title of respect, usually given to spiritual leaders among the vaishnavs. _govardhan_--a sacred hill near brindában. _guru_--spiritual preceptor, initiator into learning or a faith. _haridás_--a muhammadan who had turned vaishnav under chaitanya's influence. there was another haridas, a born hindu, among chaitanya's followers. _jagannáth_--or lord of the universe, name of the idol of krishna worshipped in the temple at puri; also applied to the town of puri. _jhárikhand_--the jungle country, chota nagpur and the santhal parganas. _kali yug_--the present or iron age of the world. _katak_--the capital of orissa and the seat of king pratap rudra of the gajapati dynasty. _kholan_--instrument of music, being a long earthenware drum covered at both ends with leather; distinctive of the bengali vaishnavs. _kirtan_ or _sankirtan_, chanting god's name to the accompaniment of dance and song. _kulin_--(1) a man of blue blood (kul), descended from a mythical ancestor of high character or social position in a very far-off age. (2) the name of a village in bengal. _kunda_--a pool of water, sacred to some god or saint. _lilá_--the antic or sport of a god, particularly of krishna. _mádhav pun_--also madhavendra, a monk, the spiritual guide of that ishwar puri who was the guru of chaitanya. _mahá-pátra_--minister of the rajah of orissa. _mahá-prasád_--food offered to jagannáth and thereafter considered as holy. _mangal-árati_--early morning worship, see _árati_. _mantra_--spell, sacred verse (usually in sanskrit). _mahánta_--the abbot of a hindu monastery. _niláchal_--the blue mountain. name of the mound on which the temple of jagannáth at puri is situated. _nimái_--a nick-name of chaitanya. _nupur_--bells tied to the feet in dancing. _odhra_--orissa. _pándás_--attendants at a temple (such as jagannáth); they act as guides to pilgrims for a consideration. _pandit_--scholar, one versed in sanskrit. _parichhá_--the highest servitor of the temple of jagannáth. _prasád_--food dedicated to a god at his worship, and thereafter eaten by the faithful as something holy. _prayág_--the town of allahabad, at the junction of the ganges and the jamuna. _prem_--love, the highest form of bhakti or devotion. _puri_--(1) a town on the sea-coast in orissa, containing the temple of jagannáth. (2) the title of an order of monks. _purushottam_--a title of vishnu; usually applied to the temple of jagannáth at puri. _rárh_--the upland of burdwan and birbhum districts, west of the ganges. _sankirtan_--see _kirtan_. _sannyási_--ascetic, monk, religious mendicant. _sárvabhauma_--i.e., "universal doctor," a man of encyclopaedic knowledge. in the book this title is applied to a great scholar and vedántic philosopher of navadwip, who had settled at puri and was held in high honour by the local king. his father was the scholar visharád, a fellow-student of chaitanya's maternal grandfather. his sister's husband was gopinath acharya, who, too, lived at puri. also called the bhattáchárya, and bhatta; not to be confounded with the bhattáchárya (i.e., balabhadra) of ch. xv-xxiii. _shálgrám_--a round dark pebble, worshipped as an emblem of vishnu, (found in the gandak river). _shántipur_--a town on the ganges, some miles below navadwip. _shástra_--scripture. _shikdár_--the revenue collector of a district, local governor. _shloka_--a complete verse, couplet or quatrain. _shripád_--a title of respect, here applied to nityánanda. _shri-vaishnav_--one of the four main sects of the vaishnavs; they adore náráyan and lakshmi (=_shri_), instead of krishna and rádhá. _shudra_--the lowest caste among the hindus. _subhadrá_--the sister of krishna. _thug_--a class of professional robbers who used to strangle or poison their victims, after mixing with them on the way, disguised as travellers. _tirtha_--sacred place, usually containing a bathing place. _tulsi_--(1) the indian basil plant, sacred to vishnu, and venerated by the vaishnavs as almost divine. "she is the indian daphne" (_birdwood_). (2) the name of a minister of the king of orissa. _vaikuntha_--the heaven of vishnu. _vaishnav_--worshipper of vishnu, the preserver, one incarnation of whom is krishna. the shaivas are the worshippers of shiva the destroyer, while the shaktas are the worshippers of shakti or energy, the wife of shiva. _varáha_--the "boar," the 3rd incarnation of vishnu. _vidyá-nagar_--rajmahendri, in the madras presidency. _vrihaspati_--the teacher of the gods; hence, a man versed in all the branches of learning. _vishwarup_--chaitanya's elder brother, who turned a sannyási under the title of shankaráyana and died in the monastery of pandharpur in southern india. _yug_--era or cycle of time. [illustration: king pratap rudra bowing to chaitanya] (from an old painting in the possession of the zamindar of kunjagháta) chaitanya-charit-amrita chapter i at the house of adwaita glory to shri chaitanya! glory to nityánanda, to adwaita, and to all followers of gaur! in the month of mágh when the master completed his twenty-fourth year, in the bright fortnight, he turned hermit. then led by devotion he set off for brindában, and wandered for three days in the rárh country, hallowing it with his footsteps and chanting the following verse in rapture: _"i too shall cross the terrible and dark ocean of the world by means of devotion to the supreme being, as the sages did of yore, by service at the lotus-like feet of mukunda."[1]_ the master said, "true are the words of this brahman, who chose the service of mukunda as his life's task. the highest robe [in which a man can clothe himself] is devotion to the supreme soul, the service of mukunda which brings salvation. that robe he put on. now shall i go to brindában and serve krishna in solitude." so saying the master moved day and night, the picture of religious ecstasy, heedless which way he walked. nityánanda, acharya ratna, and mukunda, all three followed him. all who saw him, cried "hari! hari!" in devotion, and forgot sorrow and loss. the cow-boys shouted hari's name, at the sight of the master, who stroked their heads saying, "go on with your chant," and thanked them saying, "blessed are ye! ye have gratified me by pouring hari's name into my ears!" nityánanda took the boys apart and thus tutored them, "when the master asks you about the road to brindában, show him the path leading to the ganges." this they did and he took that path. nityánanda spoke to acharya ratna, "hasten to adwaita and tell him that i shall lead the master to his house. he should keep a boat ready at the riverside. thence go to navadwip and fetch shachi and all the disciples." sending him off, nityánanda came before the master and showed himself. "whither are you going, shripád?" the master asked. "with thee to brindában" was the reply. "how far is brindában?" "behold, yonder is the jamuna!" so saying nityánanda led the master to the ganges. this river he mistook for the jamuna. he thanked his stars that he had beheld the jamuna, sang its praise, and after bowing bathed in it. he had no second clothing except his loin-cloth with him. just then adwaita arrived in a boat, with a fresh loin-cloth and upper garment, and appeared bowing before the master, who was puzzled to see him and asked, "you are the acharya goswámi. why have you come here? how did you know that i was at brindában?" the acharya replied "it is brindában wherever you are. it is my good luck that you have come to the ganges bank." the master said, "so, nityánanda has played me a trick: he has led me to the ganges and called it the jamuna!" the acharya replied, "false are not the words of shripád. you have now indeed bathed in the jamuna, for the ganges and the jamuna flow in one channel, the eastern waters being called ganga and the western (in which you have bathed) jamuna. change your wet cloth for a dry one. four days have you fasted in fervour of love. come to my house to-day, i invite thee. i have cooked a handful of rice, with dry coarse curry, broth and green herbs." saying this he took the master on board to his house, and joyfully washed his feet. his wife had al ready done the cooking. the acharya himself dedicated the food to vishnu, and served it in three equal portions. [description of the dinner omitted.] the master said, "long have you made me dance, now leave it off. dine with mukunda and haridas." then the acharya broke his fast with those two, to his heart's content. the people of shantipur, hearing of the master's arrival, flocked to gaze on his feet. in joy they cried "hari! hari!" and wondered at his beauty. his fair complexion, which eclipsed the sun in splendour, was set off by his red robe. endless streams of people came and went throughout the day. at dusk the acharya began a _sankirtan_; he danced, while the master gazed on. goswámi nityánanda danced hand in hand with the acharya, and haridas behind them. this song accompanied their dance: _"how shall i speak of my bliss to-day? the beloved (krishna) has entered my temple for ever!"_ with perspiration, thrill, tears of joy, shout, and roar, they turned and turned, touching the master's feet now and then. the acharya embraced him and said "long did you wander after escaping from me. now that i have got you in my house, i shall hold you fast!" so the achaiya continued dancing and singing for three hours after nightfall. the master was in an attitude of longing as he had not yet gained union with krishna, and this separation made his love burn the more fiercely. impatiently he fell down on the ground, at which the acharya stopped his dance. mukunda, who knew the master's heart well, began to sing verses apt for his passion. the acharya raised him to make him dance. at the verses, the master could no longer be held back. he was all tears, tremour, thrill, sweat, and broken accents,--now rising up, now falling down, now weeping. the song: [radha speaks] _woe is me, dear sister, for my present state!_ _the love of krishna has caught my body and soul like a poison._ _my heart burns day and night; i know no peace._ _o that i could fly where kanu (krishna) is to be found!_ sweetly did mukunda sing the above ditty, which made the master's heart burst, as the emotions of penitence, melancholy, rapture, frolicsomeness, pride, and humility struggled with it. he was stricken down by the force of his passion, and lay down breathless on the ground. the faithful grew alarmed, when lo! he sprang up with a shout, overcome with ecstasy and saying "chant, chant, [the name of hari]." none could under stand the strong tides of his emotion. nityánanda moved on holding him, while the acharya and haridas danced behind them. three hours did he pass thus, now joy now sadness surging in his heart. the dinner had come after five days of fasting; so the wild dance greatly fatigued him, but he felt it not to his ecstasy. nityánanda held him back by main force; the acharya ended the _kirtan_, and laid the master in his bed with every care. in the same way ten days were passed in dinners and singing. in the morning the acharya brought mother shachi in a litter followed by the faithful. all the people of navadwip came,--old and young, men and women,--forming a vast crowd. the master was dancing and singing the name, when shachi arrived at adwaita's house and he fell prone at her feet. she took him up into her bosom and wept, both of them being rapt at seeing each other. shachi was distracted at seeing his shaven crown: she wiped his body, kissed his mouth, and gazed at him intently; but could not see anything as tears filled her eyes. she mourned saying, "my darling nimái! be not cruel to me as vishwarup was, whom i never saw after he had turned hermit. if _you_ too do so, it will be the death of me." the master replied amidst tears, "listen, mother! this body is your gift and not my own. my birth is from you, my body has been nursed by you. in ten million births i cannot repay my debt to you. true, i have become a _sannyasi_ with or without your consent, but i shall never slight your wishes. i shall live wherever you bid me, i shall do whatever you command." so saying he bowed to her again and again, while she joyfully clasped him repeatedly. then the acharya led her in, and the master made haste to receive the faithful, welcoming them, looking into their faces and embracing them, one after another. they grieved at the sight of his bare head, and yet delighted at his beauty. how can i name all the devotees shrivas, ramai, vidyanidhi, gadadhar, gangadas, vakreshwar, murari, shuklambar, buddhimanta khan, nandan, shridhar, vijay, vasudev, damodar, mukunda and sanjay? graciously he smiled on meeting the people of navadwip. they danced in delight singing "hari, hari." the acharya's house was turned into vishnu's heaven. from navadwip and many villages men flocked to see the master. for many days the acharya supplied them all with food, drink and quarters; his store was inexhaustible, the more he spent the more was it filled again. from that day forward shachi herself did the cooking, and the master dined in the company of the faithful. in the day they had the acharya's love and the sight of the master, at night his dance and song. while he was singing all passions swept over him, now he stood still, now trembled, now shed tears of joy or uttered broken words, now he fainted. at times he fell down on the ground, at which mother shachi wept, saying "methinks nimái's body has been shattered." then she piteously prayed to vishnu, "grant me this reward for my worship of thee since my infancy, that when nimái falls on the ground, it may not hurt him!" the loving mother shachi was out of herself with transports of delight and meekness. shrinivas and other brahmans wanted to feast the master. but shachi entreated them saying, "where again shall i see nimái? you will meet him elsewhere, but for me, miserable one, this is his only visit. therefore, so long as he lives with the acharya, i shall feed him. i beg this favour of you all." the faithful bowed in assent to the mother's wish. the master too, caught his mother's love-longing and said to his assembled followers: "i had started for brindában without your consent. so my journey was cut short by a hindrance. true, i have embraced the monastic life all of a sudden, yet i shall not be dead to you all. i shall not leave you in life, nor shall i leave my mother. it does not, however, become a hermit to live with his kindred in his birth-place. let me not lay myself open to this charge. devise a means by which i can be true to both my duties." at these sweet words, the acharya and others went to shachi and told her of his wish. shachi, the mother of the world, answered, "i shall be happy if he stays here, but if he is blamed it will grieve me. this plan strikes me as a happy solution: let him live on the niláchal (puri), which is as it were a next door house from navadwip; men pass frequently between the two places, and i shall always get news of him. you all may come and go, and he too may sometimes visit navadwip at the ganges bath. i count not my own joy or sorrow. what makes him happy is happiness to me." the faithful praised her, "mother, thy words are like an oracle of the gods!" at their report the master rejoiced, did reverence to the people of navadwip and other adorers, and said, "you are my greatest friends. grant this my prayer, all of you, that you may ever in your homes sing krishna's _sankirtan_, krishna's name, krishna's deeds, krishna's worship. now give me leave to go to the niláchal; i shall visit you between whiles." smiling he bade them farewell with due respect. but when he wished to start, haridas cried piteously "you are going to the niláchal, but what will be my salvation? i have not strength enough to go there. how can this lowly one hold to his sinful life without getting sight of you?" the master answered, "have done with thy self-abasement. it agitates my mind. for thy sake i shall pray to jagannáth; i shall take thee to purushottam". then the acharya meekly begged him to stay for a few days more, and the master listened to him and did not go away. so, the acharya, shachi, and the faithful rejoiced. daily did the acharya hold the grand celebration the sweet discourse on krishna in the company of the devout in the day-time, and the revelry of _sankirtan_ at night. joyfully did shachi cook, and merrily did the master dine with the faithful. the service of the master brought fulfilment to acharya's reverence, devotion, home, and wealth, while shachi delighted in gazing on her son, and feasting him to her heart's content. thus did the faithful beguile some days in the acharya's house in great bliss. at last the master told them, "go you all to your own homes; there make krishna's _sankirtan_. we shall meet again; sometimes you will go to puri, at others i shall come to you at the bathing in the ganges." goswámi nityánanda, pandit jagadananda, pandit damodar, and mukunda datta, these four[2] were sent by the acharya to bear the master company. comforting his mother, he bowed at her feet, walked round her, and then set off. the cry of lamentation rose in the acharya's house, but the master quickened his pace, heedless of it. adwaita followed him some distance weeping, when he turned back with clasped hands, solaced him, and spoke these gentle words, "you should comfort my mother and look after the congregation, for if you give way to grief they will all die!" embracing he turned adwaita back, and passed on freely. to the bank of the ganges he went with the four, and then to puri by way of chhatrabhog.[3] [_madhya lilá_, text, canto 3.] [1] from the brahman mendicant's speech reported in the _shrimad bhágabat_, xi. xxiii. verse 53. [2] the _chaitanya bhágabat_ mentions two others, govinda and gadadhar, (iii. 2). [3] _chhatrabhog_. a village where the ganges divides into innumerable branches before falling into the sea. it is famous for its submerged shiva styled _ambu-linga_. [illustration] chapter ii. the miracles of madhav puri so the master went to the niláchal, with his four companions, absorbed in the _kirtan_ (singing) of krishna. one day he entered a village and brought back a large quantity of rice by personally begging for alms. on the way the ferrymen did not refuse him a crossing. he blessed them and came to remuna, [1] where he devoutly visited the charming image of gopinath. as he bowed down at the feet of the image, the bunch of flowers on its crown dropped upon his head. at this master rejoiced and danced and sang long with the faithful. the attendants of gopinath marvelled at his power, ardour, beauty, and accomplishments, and served him in many ways. there he passed the night, in desire of the _kshir prasád_ (condensed milk) of which he had heard from ishwar puri before. the god was known as the _gopinath who stole the kshir_, because, as the devotees told the tale, he had once stolen _kshir_ for madhav puri. in days gone by madhav puri had wandered on to govardhan, near brindában, in his ecstasy heeding not whether it was day or night, and falling down to the ground without caring what sort of place it was. after making a circuit of the rock, he came to the govinda-_kunda_ (pool), bathed, and sat down under a tree in the evening. a cow-boy came and held a pail of milk before him, saving with a smile, "puri! drink this milk. why don't you take what you have longed for? what are you musing on?" the child's beauty charmed the heart of the puri, and his sweet words took away his hunger and thirst. the puri asked, "who are you and where do you live? how did you know that i was fasting?" the boy answered, "i am a milk-man of this village. in _my_ village none can remain fasting. some beg for rice, some for milk. i convey food to those who do not beg. the women who had come to draw water saw you, and sent me with this milk for you. i must be off now to milk my cows, but i shall come again for my pail." then the boy went away and was not seen again. madhav puri wondered, laid the emptied pail down, and began to pray without sleeping. towards the end of the night he dozed off into unconsciousness, and dreamt that the boy came and led him by the hand to a bower saying "here i dwell, suffering much from cold and rain, wind and sun. bring the villagers together, remove me from the bower to the hill-top and there lodge me properly in a monastery. bathe me profusely in cold water. long have i looked forward to the day when madhav would come to serve me. moved by thy love i have accepted thy service, and i shall appear in the flesh to save the world by my sight. i am gopal, the uplifter of govardhan hill. my image was installed by king bajra,[2] and is the guardian deity of this place. my attendant, in fear of the misbelievers, removed me from the hill to this grove for concealment and then fled. since then i have been here. it is well that you have come. now bring me out carefully." so saying the boy disappeared. madhav puri awoke, and judging that he had seen shri krishna without recognizing him, he rolled on the ground in a transport of devotion. after some weeping he calmed his mind and set about to carry out the lord's bidding. after his morning bath he went into the village, called the people together, and said, "the lord of your village, the uplifter of govardhan, is in a grove. let us seek him out. the grove is dense and hard to enter. take hatchets and spades with yourselves to make a door." the villagers joyfully accompanied him, and cut an entrance into the grove, where they found to their joy and wonder the image lying hidden under earth and grass. removing the covering they knew (the image). but it was very heavy, so the strongest men joined together to take it up the hill. there the idol was placed on a stone seat, with another big stone at its back as a support. the brahmans of the village fetched water from the govinda-_kunda_ in fresh pots. nine hundred pots of water were brought; many musical instruments were played; the women sang. it was a great festival with dancing and singing. all the curd milk and _ghee_ in the village were brought there with sweets, and all other articles of offering. the image was bathed by madhav puri himself, worshipped and installed there. all the food available in the village was brought to the hill, offered to the god and an _anna-kut_ (pyramid of consecrated food) was formed. in one day's preparation this grand feast was accomplished. the image was laid on a bedstead, a straw thatch built over it, with walls of straw. the goswámi puri ordered the brahmans to feast all the villagers, old and young. they dined, the brahmans and brahmanis first, then the others in due order. the people who came from other villages looked at gopal and got his _prasád_. men wondered at the power of the puri who had produced the pyramid of rice. he brought all the brahmans to vaishnavism and employed them in the various services (of the god). again, at close of day he roused the god, offered some light refreshments as _bhog_. it was noised abroad that gopal had appeared there, and people flocked from neighbouring villages to see the god. the villagers joyfully gave feasts in honour of him on different days, each building up a pyramid of rice. at night the image was laid to rest; the puri drank a little milk. next morning the same kind of service began. the people of a village came with all their milk, curd, _ghee_ and rice, and offered them to gopal. the brahmans cooked as before and gopal tasted of the heap of rice. the people of brindaban love gopal of themselves, and he too loves them. they all came, partook of the holy _prasád_ and forgot their sorrow and loss at the sight of him. from other provinces men arrived with presents when they heard that gopal had appeared there. the rich men of mathura sent costly offerings out of devotion. gold, silver, cloth, incense and food stuffs were daily presented in vast quantities and swelled the store (of the temple). one very rich kshatriya built the temple (at his own cost), some one else the kitchen, another the walls. the citizen of brindában presented a cow each, and thus gopal got a thousand cows. two brahman hermits came from bengal, and the puri received them with attention, made them his disciples, and entrusted to them the service of the god. so he waited on the god for some two years, glad to see him served right royally. one night the puri had a dream, in which gopal spoke to him, "i burn, i burn! rub me with sandal wood from the blue mountain, and from nowhere else, and then shall i be cooled. go there quickly." the puri, inspired by devotion, travelled to the eastern country to do the lord's behest, appointing others to carry on the service. at shantipur he visited adwaita acharya, who was moved by his devotion to get himself initiated by him and became his disciple. thence the puri proceeded south [i.e., to orissa], and at remuna saw the gopinath, whose beauty threw him into ecstasy. after singing and dancing he sat down in the vestibule and asked the (attendant) brahman about the different dishes served to the god. the splendour of the service made him infer that the _bhog_ was excellent. so he resolved to inquire into the character of the _bhog_ and appoint it for his gopal too. the brahman described to him how twelve earthen pots full of _kshir_, called _amrita-keli_ (the cream of nectar) famous and unmatched in the world, were offered to the god every evening. just then that _bhog_ was presented. the puri only thought, "if i can get a little of the _kshir prasád_ unasked, i may learn its taste for the purpose of establishing it as my gopa's _bhog_." but the longing shamed him and he prayed to vishnu. then the _bhog_ was removed and the _árati_ was celebrated. the puri bowed and went out without saying a word. he was passionless, indifferent to the world, vowed not to ask for anything. if he got anything unasked he ate it, otherwise he fasted; the nectar of love was enough for him, he felt not hunger or thirst. that he had coveted the _kshir_ struck him as a sin. so he sat down in the deserted square of the village-market singing hymns. in the meantime the priest laid the image to sleep, finished his duties, and went to bed, where he had a dream. the god came and told him, "up, priest, and open my door. i have kept a pot of _kshir_ for the hermit. you will find it concealed under the skirt of my lower garment. you all did not notice it under my illusion. take the _kshir_ quickly to madhav puri who is sitting in the market place." the priest arose, bathed, opened the shrine, and found the _kshir_ under the lappet of the god's _dhoti_. he washed the spot and went into the village with the pot of _kshir_ and walked through the market crying, "take this _kshir_, whosoever is named madhav puri! for your sake gopinath had concealed this _kshir_. take it and eat it, puri, thou luckiest man in the three worlds." at this the puri disclosed himself. the priest gave him the _kshir_, bowed, and told the whole story, to the rapture of the puri. the attendant priest marvelled at his devotion and said, "it is only fitting that krishna should be obedient to him." lovingly did the puri drink the _kshir_, then he washed the pot, broke it, and tied the sherds in a corner of his sheet, eating one of the broken pieces every day, at which he grew wonderfully enraptured. at the close of the night he set off for puri (jagannáth), bowing to gopinath then and there, in fear that a crowd would gather round him next morning, when they heard that the lord had sent him _kshir_. so he fared on, till he came to puri in the blue mountain; the sight of jagannáth threw him into an ecstasy, he rose up and fell down, he laughed, danced, and sang, in intense delight. it was noised abroad that madhav puri had come to the holy place: men flocked to do him reverence. such is the nature of fame, it comes god-sent to those who seek it not. in fear of public notice the puri had fled thither, but fame clung to this devotee of krishna all the way. eager as he was to escape from the place, the need of sandal for his god held him back. he told the story of gopal to the attendants of jagannáth and the _mohants_, and begged sandal wood for him. the faithful exerted themselves for it. those who knew the rajah's minister (_pátra_) begged him and thus collected the camphor and sandal. a brahman and a servant for carrying the sandal were sent with the puri, and given their travelling expenses. royal passports were given to the puri by the minister, addressed to the officers of the frontier outposts and the ferries. so he returned to remuna after some time, made many bows to gopinath, and danced and sang long in rapture. the servitors of the temple did him reverence and fed him on the _kshir prasád_. while sleeping in the temple, he had a dream at the close of night: gopal came and told him, "hark thee, madhav! i have got all the camphor and sandal. rub this sandal with camphor and anoint gopinath with it daily. gopinath's body is one with mine! lay the sandal on him and i shall feel the cooling effect. doubt not, hesitate not, believe and give up the sandal as i bid you." so saying, gopal vanished; the goswámi awoke, called together the servitors of gopinath, and told them, "the lord bids you rub all this sandal and camphor on gopinath's person; for thus will gopal be cooled. he is the supreme lord and his order is mighty. in summer gopinath should be anointed with sandal paste." the servitors rejoiced at it. the puri set the two men to rub the sandal into paste and hired two other men also [for the work]. so he daily rubbed the sandal and the attending priests laid it on gleefully. he stayed there doing this till the sandal was all gone. at the end of summer he again went to the niláchal and passed there four months. the master told his disciples of the sweet life of madhav puri and remarked, "think of it, nityánanda; happiest of men is the puri. krishna appeared to him on the pretext of giving him milk. thrice did he appear to him in dream to lay his commands. his love so influenced the god that he revealed himself, accepted the puri's service, and saved the world. for his sake gopinath stole the _kshir_ and got the surname of "_kshir_-stealer." on the god's body did he lay camphor and sandal, and his love overflowed at it. hard it is to carry camphor and sandal through a muslim country (bengal and upper india). gopal knew that the puri would be put in distress in doing this task. so, the gracious god, ever tender to his devotees, himself took the sandal (at remuna) in order that the puri's task might be done. think of the puri's extreme devotion! it transcends nature, it amazes the mind! he is silent, passionless, indifferent to every earthly thing. he keeps with himself no companion, lest he should have to speak on any ungodly material subject. that such a man, on receiving gopal's command, travelled two thousand miles to beg for sandal! he lay fasting and yet did not ask for food! such a man carried the sandal one _maund_ of sandal and 20 _tolas_ of camphor, rejoicing that he would lay them on gopal! the frontier custom-officer of orissa stopped him but he showed the royal pass and was set free. he never reflected how he would carry the sandal through the muslim land, long distance, and countless hindrances. he had not a shell (_kowri_) with him to pay duty at the custom barrier, and yet in his enthusiasm he set forth to carry the sandal. such is the natural effect of true love,--not to think of one's own sufferings and troubles! gopal had bidden him bring the sandal, only to show to the world the puri's deep devotion. and he brought it joyfully through all hardships to remuna. gopal had meant by it only to try him, and when the trial was over the god grew gracious. we are powerless to understand the depth of his love for krishna and krishna's graciousness to his devotee." so saying the master recited a stanza of the puri's composition, which has lighted the world like the moon. discourse on the stanza only revealed its full beauty, just as the odour of sandal wood spreads with rubbing. i deem this stanza the rarest gem in poetry. radha speaks it through the mouth of madhavendra. how did chaitanya relish it! none besides these three can know its full flavour. the puri finally attained to the supreme realization [_i.e._, death], reciting this stanza: the stanza [radhika speaks]:- _"o lord! gracious to the lowly! thou art now in mathura. when wilt thou come to me? darling mine! my heart runs about in pain of longing to see thee. what shall i do?"_ on reciting the stanza the master fell down on the ground in a trance, senseless with the intensity of love. nityánanda hurriedly took him up in his arms. chaitanya rose weeping, and ran hither and thither in a transport of devotion, shouting, laughing, dancing, and singing. oft did he repeat the first word of the stanza, his voice choked with emotion and tears running down his cheeks. he trembled, perspired, wept with joy, stood still, changed colour, now showing remorse, now grief, now stupor, now pride or meekness. the stanza opened the gate of his love. the servitors of gopinath gazed on tke master's outpouring of love. but he came back to himself on seeing a crowd gathering. the _bhog_ was performed, then the _árati_. the priest laid the god to rest, came out of the shrine and placed the twelve pots of _kshir_ before the master, who joyfully took five pots for himself and his disciples and returned the other seven to the priest. true, the sight of gopinath had been food enough for him; but he now drank the _kshir_ as a mark of reverence. the night was passed in singing the name. in the morning he attended the _mangal árati_ and then departed. [text, canto 4.] [1] _remuna_, 10 miles north-west of baleshwar in orissa. [2] the great-grandson of krishna and his successor on the throne of mathura. chapter iii the legend of gopal the witness glory to chaitanya! glory to nityánanda! glory to adwaita! and glory to the followers of chaitanya! on his way the master came to the village of jajpur, where he bowed to the image of varáha. he danced and sang in love and prayed long, passing the night in that village. to katak[1] he went to see the sakshi-gopal, whose beauty threw him into a rapture. after dance and song he prayed to the gopal with abstraction. that night during his halt there with his disciples he heard the legend of gopal. nityánanda in his former pilgrimage had come to katak, seen the sakshi-gopal, and heard the legends of the god, which he now narrated to the master. once on a time two brahmans of vidya-nagar [rajmahendri] set out on a pilgrimage, and after visiting gaya, benares, allahabad, &c., reached mathura. they made a tour of the [mahá-] ban, and beheld govardhan and the twelve woods, known as _dwádash ban_, finally going to brindában. in the great temple gopal was worshipped with great pomp. they bathed at the keshi ghát, the pool of káliya, and other places, and rested in the temple of gopal, whose beauty ravished their hearts. there they blissfully passed a few days. one of the brahmans being old had been tended carefully by the younger one. the old man, pleased with his attendance, said, "long have you served me, and through your help have i performed my pilgrimage. even a son does not serve his father so lovingly. through your kindness i have been saved every trouble. it will be rank ingratitude if i do not honour you. so i shall wed my daughter to you." the youth replied, "listen, sir! why talk of that which cannot be? you are a high _kulin_, great in learning and wealth, while i am a non-_kulin_ lacking in scholarship and riches. i am no worthy match for your daughter. through love of krishna have i served you, as he is pleased with attention to brahmans. what pleases the lord increases the store of faith." the elder answered, "doubt not. what wonder is there in it that i should give you my daughter?" the younger brahman rejoined, "you have a large circle of kindred, friends and sons, without whose consent you cannot possibly wed your daughter to me. witness the case of bhishmak, the father of rukmini, who was opposed by his son in giving his daughter, as he wished, to krishna." the old man answered, "my daughter is my property. who can oppose me in giving away what is mine? i shall give you my daughter in despite of all. don't doubt it, but derive your consent." the youth said, "if you have really decided to give me your daughter, make a vow before gopal." the old brahman addressed gopal and said, "know that i shall give my daughter to this man." the youth added, "lord, be thou my witness, and i shall summon thee to give thy testimony if he breaks his promise." so saying the two returned to their homes, the young man serving the other like an elder. the old man now reflected, "i pledged my word to this brahman in a holy place, but how can i keep it? i must consult my wife, sons, kindred and friends." so, one day he gathered his own folk and told them the whole story, at which they lamented and cried "never utter such words again! you will lose your _kul_ if you wed your daughter to a low-born man. you will be a laughing stock to all!" the brahman urged, "how can i retract a promise made in a holy place? come what may, i will give him my daughter." his kinsfolk threatened to boycott him, and his wife and children to take poison. the brahman pleaded, "he will make a case of it by calling his witness. when he wins my daughter by a decree, my faith will be proved worthless!" his son answered, "oh! the witness is an idol in a far-off land. who will bear testimony against you? do not be alarmed. you need not tell the lie that you had never made him such a promise; you will only have to pretend forgetfulness. if you do that i shall beat the brahman in court." at this the brahman, full of anxiety, prayed intently to gopal, "gopal, to thee i appeal: save my faith and save my kindred, save both sides!" one day the younger brahman visited him, bowed reverently, and said with folded hands, "you promised me your daughter, but are now silent on the point! is this your sense of justice?" the old man remained silent; but his son ran with a stick to beat the visitor, crying, "wretch! you want to wed my sister! dwarf, you wish to catch the moon!" the youth fled, but another day he called all the villagers together, who summoned the old man. then the younger brahman spoke, "this man promised his daughter to me. ask him why he does not give her up now." on being questioned by the people, the elder brahman replied, "listen, friends, i do not remember what i said so long ago." at this his son got the chance to put in his words boldly, "my father had much money with him during his pilgrimage. this villain, his only companion, coveted the money, intoxicated him with _dhuturá_, robbed him and said that thieves had taken away his money, and then spread the tale that he had promised his daughter to him. judge ye all, whether he is a worthy match for my sister." the assembled people were filled with suspicion, as greed often makes men commit sin. the younger brahman pleaded, "hear, my masters, he is lying to win the case. his father, pleased with my attendance, promised me his daughter voluntarily, and when i declined alleging my unworthiness and our disparity in wealth, learning and _kul_, he repeatedly pressed me to accept her, and at my suggestion called gopal to witness his promise. i conjured the god to bear testimony for me, should this brahman break his word. he is my witness, whose word is held true in the three worlds." the old man replied, "this is good. if gopal appears here and bears testimony, i shall certainly give you my daughter." his son agreed to it. the old man only thought, "kind is krishna. surely he will bear my word out." his son was confident that the image would not come to act as a witness. so thinking diversely they agreed. at the younger brahman's request both parties signed a written deed of agreement to abide by this test, to prevent future disputes. it was left with an umpire. the young man continued, "listen, all ye here! this brahman is pious and true of speech, never wishing to retract his word. it is only his fear of the suicide of his kinsfolk that has made him tell a lie. thanks to his piety, i will bring krishna as a witness and enable hm to keep his word." at this the sceptics laughed; some said, "god is good, he may come." then the younger brahman went to brindában, prostrated himself and prayed to the image, "god of the brahmans! thou art ever kind. have pity and save the honour of two brahmans. i mind not whether i get the girl or not, but it would be a great pity if a brahman's promise is broken. for this reason, do thou bear witness, for he who will not bear testimony to the truth that he knows, commits a sin." krishna replied, "brahman! return home, assemble the public, and meditate on me. i shall appear and give my evidence. but my image can not be taken there." the brahman protested, "even if you appear in your four-armed form, none will believe you. but if this very image goes there and speaks out of its mouth, then all will deem it true." krishna said, "nobody ever heard of an idol travelling!" the brahman replied "why do you speak of being an idol? you are not a mere image but the darling of brindában. do an unprecedented act for the sake of a brahman." laughingly gopal said, "hear, brahman, i shall travel after you; but do not look behind, or else i shall stop there. you will hear (on the way) only the jingling of my _nupur_, and thus know that i am going on. give me one _seer_ of rice [daily], which i shall eat when accompanying you." next day, after taking the lord's leave, the brahman set out on his return, delighted to hear the jingle of the _nupur_ behind him, and offering excellent rice to the image. so he arrived near his village and then thought, "now have i come to my village and shall go home and tell the people of the arrival of my witness. but i cannot believe if i do not see him with my own eyes. it will be no harm if he stays here. so he looked behind him; and gopal stopped there, saying with a smile, "go home; here will i stay without going any further." when the brahman reported the tale, the people marvelled at it, and came to see the witness. they bowed to gopal, delighted with his beauty and amazed to hear that the image had travelled thither. then the old brahman in joy prostrated himself before gopal, who gave his evidence before the people, and the younger brahman got his betrothed bride. the lord spoke to the two brahmans, "you will be my servants birth after birth. i am pleased with you; beg a boon." they prayed together, "grant us this that you remain here, so that all may know your favour to your servants." gopal remained there, and the two served him. the people of the country flocked to see him. the king of the land heard the wonderful legend and beheld the gopal with supreme delight. he built a temple and endowed the service of the god, who became famous under the name of gopal the witness. thus has _sakshi-gopal_ accepted, worship and stayed at vidya-nagar for long. purushottam, the rajah of orissa, conquered the country in battle and seized the many-jewelled throne named _mánik-sinhásan_. purushottam dev was a great devotee and entreated gopal to go to his capital. gopal, pleased with his piety, consented and was taken to katak, where his worship was installed. the rajah gave the _mánik-sinhásan_ to jagannáth. his queen, when visiting gopal, gave him many ornaments in devotion. a costly pearl hung from her nose, and wishing to give it too she reflected, "ah, if there had been a hole in the lord's nose, i, his hand maid, could have made him put this pearl on!" with this thought she bowed and returned home. at the end of the night gopal appeared to her in a dream and said, "in my infancy my mother had bored my nose and very tenderly hung there a pearl. the hole is there still. make me wear the pearl you wished to give." the queen spoke to her husband, and the two went to the temple with the pearl, hung it from the hole in the nose which was found out, and a great festival of joy was held. from that day on has gopal stayed at katak and been known as _sakshi-gopal_. the master with all his disciples heard the legend of gopal from nityánanda and was delighted. while he stood before gopal, the faithful seemed to see them both as of one body, of one complexion, large-limbed, red-robed, grave of mien, beaming with glory, lotus-eyed, moon-faced, both of them in rapture for each other. at the sight of both, nityánanda in great joy winked at the faithful and they all smiled. so the night was passed in great entertainment, and next morning, after witnessing the matin service, they set off. brindában-das has described fully how he visited bhubaneshwar on the way (to the blue mountain). at kamalpur he bathed in the bhagi [2] river, and gave his mendicant's stick to nityánanda to carry. with his disciples he went to see kapoteshwar [shiva]. here nityánanda broke the master's stick into three and threw it (into the river). from that shiva shrine the master returned, and was thrown into ecstasy by the sight of the spire [3] of the temple of jagannáth. he prostrated himself and danced in love; the disciples too, in love, danced and sang, following the master on the highway. he laughed, wept, danced, roared and shouted, and made a thousand leagues of those six miles. on reaching athára-nála (eighteen water courses) the master came to his senses a little and asked nityánanda for his stick. but nityánanda answered, "it was broken into three bits. you fell down in a swoon of devotion, and as i caught you, we two tumbled on the stick which was broken by our weight. i know not where it was dropped. through my fault was your stick broken. punish me as you think fit." the master was sad and spoke a little bitterly, "you have all done me great good, forsooth, by coming to the blue mountain! you could not even preserve the stick, my only property. you go before me to see jagannáth or let me go there before you. but we will not go together." mukunda datta said, "master, go thou before us; we shall arrive after and not in thy company". the master hastened there. none could understand the cause why one master broke the other's stick and why the latter suffered it to be done, or was angry at the result. the deep mystery of the breaking of the stick can be understood only by him who has constant faith in the two masters. [text, canto 5.] [1] the image of _sakshi-gopal_ is now installed at a village of the same name 48 miles south of katak town. [2] _indian atlas_ (sheet 116) names the river here as _bargovee_. [3] the place meant is evidently jagannáth vallabh, six miles north of puri; from this place the spire of the temple of jagannáth can be seen. _athára-nála_ is two miles north of puri. chapter iv the conversion of sárvabhauma the master went in an ecstatic mood to the temple of jagannáth, and was beside himself with love at the sight of the god. he rushed to embrace the image, but fell down on the temple floor, senseless with devotion. happily sárvabhauma noticed him, and stopped the door keeper (_parichhá_, mace-bearer) who was about to beat the master. sárvabhauma marvelled exceedingly as he gazed on the beauty of the master and his transport of love. the hour of _bhog_ arrived, yet the master did not come to his senses. sárvabhauma then thought of a plan, and had him conveyed by his disciple the door-keeper to his house and laid him down on a clean spot. but the master showed no respiration, no heaving of the chest. the bhattáchárya grew alarmed. he held a fine piece of cotton to the master's nose; it stirred, and he was reassured. the bhattáchárya sat musing thus, "this is the _sáttvika_ form of the passion for krishna. it is named the "bright-pure" (_sudipta sáttvika_), and is displayed only by a devotee who has attained to constant realization (_nitya-siddhi_). this ecstasy is possible only in one whose devotion is extreme. i wonder to see it manifested in an [ordinary] man's person." while he was pondering thus, nityánanda and the others arrived at the main gate, and overheard the people talking among themselves, "a _sannyasi_ came here and swooned away at the sight of jagannath; he is still in a trance. sárvabhauma has conveyed him to his own house." they knew from this that it was the great master. just then came there gopinath acharya, the son-in-law of visharad of nadia, and a devotee and acquaintance of the master. he knew mukunda from before, and was surprised to see him there. mukunda bowed, the acharya embraced him and asked him news of the master. mukunda replied, "the master has come here, and we with him." the acharya bowed to nityánanda goswámi, and again asked them all about the master. mukunda said, "after taking the monastic vow, the master came to the blue mountain taking us with him. leaving us behind he came to visit this temple, and we have arrived now to seek him. from what we have heard from others, we conclude that he is in sárvabhauma's house, whither he was removed on fainting at the sight of the god. i have met you luckily, just as i was wishing for your sight. let us go to sárvabhauma's house, and after seeing the master we shall visit the temple." gopinath in delight conducted them to sárvabhauma's house, where he beheld the master and felt mingled joy and grief. he introduced them all to sárvabhauma, and took them inside. sárvabhauma bowed to nityánanda goswámi and saluted the others in the proper mode. then he sent them all in charge of his son chandaneshwar, to the temple. they joyed to behold the god. nityánanda went out of himself in devotion, but the others quieted him. the servitor of the shrine presented them with the garland and _prasád_ of the god, to their great delight. then they returned to the master, and chanted the divine name loud and long. in the third quarter [of the day], chaitanya awoke, and rose up shouting, _hari! hari!_ reverently sárvabhauma took the dust of his feet [to place it on his own head], and entreated him, "take your midday meal soon. i shall feed you to-day with jagannath's _mahá-prasád_." the master quickly came back from his bath in the sea, and feasted with his followers on the rice, broth and other kinds of _prasád_, which sárvabhauma served to them from golden dishes. the master said, "help me with the hash of gourd (_lau_) and other vegetables, and serve these others with cakes and sweets." but the bhattáchárya entreated him with folded palms, "how has jagannáth himself fed? do you too taste all of these," and so made him eat the cakes and sweets too. after the dinner, he helped the master to wash, then took leave to retire with gopinath acharya and eat their own meals. when they returned, [the acharya] bowed saying "i salute náráyan," and the master responded with "be thy mind constant in krishna!" at these words sárvabhauma knew him to be a vaishnav hermit. he then asked gopinath acharya about the worldly life of the master. the acharya replied, "his home was at navadwip; his father jagannáth mishra, surnamed purandar mishra, gave him the name of vishwambhar. his maternal grandfather was nilambar chakravarti." sárvabhauma added "nilambar chakravarti! why, he was a fellow-student of my father vishárad, who, i know, had a high regard for purandar mishra, too. i honour both for their connection with my father." delighted to hear that chaitanya was a man of nadia, sárvabhauma thus addressed him, "you are of honourable birth, and a _sannyasi_ in addition. make me, therefore, your personal disciple." at this the master cried out, "o vishnu! o vishnu!" and then spoke humbly to the bhattáchárya, "you are the teacher of the world and the benefactor of mankind. you teach _vedánta_ and [thereby] benefit men of monastic life. i am a young monk, ignorant of good and evil. i have sought refuge with you, regarding you as my teacher. for your society have i come here, hoping that you will train me in all ways. you saved me in my great danger to-day." the bhattáchárya said, "never go to the temple alone, but always with me or one of my men." the master replied, "i shall not enter the shrine, but gaze from the garuda [pillar in the quadrangle]." then sárvabhauma addressed gopinath acharya, "you will be guide to this goswami in visiting the temple. lodge him in the house of my mother's sister, which is a quiet place, and look to all his needs." so he did. next day gopinath took the master to the temple to show him jagannáth as he rose from his bed. mukunda datta led him back to sárvabhauma's house, who spoke thus, "this _sannyasi_ is meek in disposition, lovely in form. i daily love him the more. tell me what order he has joined and what name he has chosen." gopinath replied, "he has been named shri krishna-chaitanya; his spiritual guide is keshav bhárati, blessed man!" sárvabhauma remarked, "his name is well-chosen, but the bhárati order is not ranked high [among the ten classes of _sannyasis_]." gopinath answered, "he does not care for outward [dignity]. hence his indifference to the more famous orders of monks." the bhattáchárya joined in, "ah, he is in the full bloom of youth. how can he keep the monastic rules? however, i shall ceaselessly teach him vedánta, and lead him on to the rank of a recluse of the monist school (_adwaita_). if he then wishes it, i shall robe him anew with the yellow robe of a yogi, purify him, and enter him into one of the higher orders." gopinath and mukunda grieved to hear it; and the former expostulated, "bhattáchárya! you know not his greatness. the signs of divinity have reached their extreme limit in him! hence he is famed as the great god. but in a place of ignorance even the wise know nothing." the [sárvabhauma's] disciples asked, "what proof is there of his divinity?" the acharya replied, "the belief of the wise is proof of divinity." the disciples objected, saying, "it is by inference that god is recognized." but the acharya answered, "no, god is not known by inference, but only by those on whom he bestows his grace, even a particle of it. witness brahma's praise of vishnu in the _shrimad bhágabat_, book x. canto xiv. verse 28: _"'lord! true it is that knowledge can gain salvation, but thy glories can be known only by him who has been blessed even with a particle of favour from thy lotus-like feet. o perfect being! a man lacking thy grace, may be free from earthly lusts, may have studied the scriptures for ages, but still he cannot know thee fully!'_ "o sárvabhauma, you may be the world's teacher, a master of theology, unrivalled in the world in scholarship. but you have not gained god's grace, hence you cannot know god. i do not blame you, but the scripture says clearly that the knowledge of god cannot come from mere scholarship." sárvabhauma replied, "weigh thy words well, acharya! how do you prove that you have gained god's grace?" the acharya replied, "we know a material thing by observing it. our knowledge of the nature of a thing is proved by grace. on this sannyasi's person are all the marks of divinity. you yourself witnessed his ecstasy of spiritual love. and yet you know not god! such are the ways of god's illusion, materialists see him and yet recognize him not!" smilingly spoke sárvabhauma, "we are arguing in a friendly spirit. don't get warm. blame me not, i am only arguing from the strict standpoint of view of _shastra_. chaitanya goswámi is [i admit] a great saint. but there is no incarnation of vishnu in the kali era. hence vishnu's epithet _tri-yug_ or the lord of three. but scripture tells us that the kali era is without an incarnation." sadly did the acharya answer, "you pride yourself on your knowledge of scripture, but you do not mind the _bhágabat_ and the _mahábharat_, which are the chief of scriptures. both of them assert that god will appear in the human form in the kali era, and yet you maintain the contrary! as god will not appear in kali for mere earthly exploits [but only for purifying faith], we call him _tri-yug_. in every era krishna appears for the spiritual needs of the age. you are a logician, and yet you do not perceive this!" texts quoted in support; _bhágabat_, x viii. 9, xi. v. 28, 29; _mahabharat_, anushasan parva, dan-dharma, canto 149, v. 75-92. "i need not waste these many words on you. they will bear no more fruit than seed sown on sterile soil. when his grace is on you, you will be convinced. your disciple, who is plying me with all sorts of sophistic arguments, i blame him not; he is under illusion (_máyá_). as the _bhágabat_, book vi. canto iv. verse 26, puts it: _[the words of daksha to god], i bow to the omnipotent supreme god, whose power of illusion raises endless controversies among logicians fond of dispute, and keeps their souls ever wrapt in delusion!_ "again, the _bhágabat_, xi. xxii. 3, [krishna's words to uddhava]." then sárvabhauma said, "go to the monk [chaitanya] and invite him and his followers to my house. first feed them with _prasád_, and then give me lessons [in theology]!" the acharya, being sárvabhauma's sister's husband, could [boldly] blame, praise, laugh at or school him. mukunda was greatly pleased with the acharya's reasoning, as he was inly grieved and angry at the speech of sárvabhauma. the acharya came to chaitanya's house and invited him on behalf of the bhattáchárya. as he talked with mukunda he spoke ill of sárvabhauma in a pained spirit. but the master broke in with, "say not so. the bhattáchárya has really favoured me; he wants to safeguard my monastic life, and has taken pity on me out of tenderness. why blame him for it?" next day, the master visited the temple of jagannáth in the company of the bhattáchárya, and then accompanied him to his house. the bhattáchárya seated the master first and began to teach him _vedánta_. with mingled tenderness and reverence he said, "it is a _sannyasi's_ duty to hear the vedánta read. you should constantly attend to it." the master answered, "show me thy favour. whatever you bid me is indeed my duty." for seven days did the master thus listen to the expounding of the vedánta, without making any comment of his own. on the eighth day, sárvabhauma asked him, "for seven days have you heard me in unbroken silence. i know not whether you follow me or not." the master replied, "i am ignorant, and have not studied [the subject]. i merely listen at your bidding. i listen only because such is a sannyasi's duty. but i cannot follow your interpretation." the bhattáchárya retorted, "he who is conscious of his own ignorance asks for a second explanation. but you remain ever silent as you listen. i know not your mind's workings." the master replied, "i understand the verses clearly enough. but it is your commentary that puzzles me. a commentary should elucidate the text, whereas your exposition conceals the text! you do not expound the plain meaning of the aphorisms, but cover them up with your fanciful interpretation. the primary meaning is the plain sense of the terms of the _upanishad_, and vyas says it in his aphorisms. you [on the other hand] let the primary sense go, and give a conjectural secondary sense. you reject the meanings of words as given in lexicons, and attribute to them meanings evolved from your imagination. _shruti_ is the chief of proofs. the primary meaning as given by _shruti_ can alone carry conviction. "what are conchshells and cowdung but naturally unclean things, _viz._, the bone and ordure of animals? and yet they are taken as very pure, because _shruti_ says so. of the spiritual truth that is held forth [in vedánta] the meaning is plain and self-evident. fanciful interpretation only spoils the clear sense. the sense of vyas's aphorisms is clear like the sun; you are only enveloping it with the cloud of your conjectural commentary. the _vedas_ and the _purans_ tell us how to discern brahma. that brahma is [only another name for] god in his totality. the supreme being is full of all powers, and yet you describe him as formless? the _shrutis_ that speak of him as abstract (_nir-bishesha_), exclude the natural and set up the unnatural. "from brahma originates the universe, it lives in brahma, and it is merged again in the same brahma. the three attributes of god are that he is the three cases, ablative, instrumental and locative [in relation to the universe]. these three qualities particularize god. when he desired to be many, he looked at [=employed] his natural powers. the physical mind and eye could not have then existed. therefore, the immaterial brahma had an eye to see and a mind to will with. the terms brahma means the perfect supreme being (_bhagabán_), and the scriptures affirm that krishna is the supreme being. the meaning of the vedas is too deep for human understanding, the purans make their senses clear. witness brahma's address to god in the _bhágabat_, x. xiv. 31:-_'blessed, blessed are nanda the cowherd and other citizens of mathura, whose friend is the beatific perfect eternal brahma'._ "_shruti_ itself denies to brahma material hands and feet, and yet it says that god moves swiftly and receives everything! therefore, _shruti_ asserts brahma to be particular (_sa-bishesha_). it is only a fanciful interpretation as opposed to a direct one, that speaks of brahma as abstract (_nir-bishesha_). how do you call that god formless who has the six qualities and is supremely blissful? you conclude him to be powerless, who has the three natural powers, as is evident from the _vishnu puran_, vi. vii. 60 and 61, and i. xii. 41. "god's nature consists of _sat_, _chit_ and _ánanda_. the _chit_ power assumes three different forms in three aspects; it becomes _hládini_ from the _ánanda_ aspect; it becomes _sandhini_ in the _sat_ aspect, and _sambita_ (known as knowledge of krishna) in the _chit_ aspect. the _chit_ power is god's very essence [or inner nature]; the life power (_jiba-shakti_) appertains to him only occasionally; _máyá_ is entirely outside him [i.e., affects creation only]. but all these three offer devotion in the form of love. the lord's six powers are only manifestations of the _chit_ power. and yet you have the presumption to deny such a power? god and creation differ as the master and the slave of illusion respectively, and yet you affirm that creation is identical with the creator! in the _gitá_ creation is recognized as a force exerted by god, and yet you make such creation one with god! see the _gitá_, vii. 4, the words of shri krishna to arjun:-_earth, water, fire, air, ether, mind, sense, and self-consciousness these eight powers (or natures) have emanated from me._ "again, the next verse in the _gitá_: _valiant hero! the eight natures_ (prakriti) _about which i have already spoken to you, are inferior. beyond them i have a higher or living nature which upholds this universe._ "god's form is composed of _sat_, _chit_ and _ananda_; and yet you assert that form to be a corruption of the _satwa_ quality! he is a wretch who denies form to god; touch not, behold not that slave of death. the buddhists are atheists from not respecting the vedas. atheism in a believer of the vedas is a worse heresy than buddhism. vyas composed his aphorisms for the salvation of men, but the interpretation of these aphorisms by the 'school of illusion' (_máyá-vádi_) is the cause of perdition. "vyas's aphorisms accept the theory of effect (_parinám_). god is an incomprehensible power, but he is manifested as creation. the philosopher's stone produces gold without undergoing any change in itself, similarly god takes the form of creation without suffering any corruption. objecting to this aphorism as an error of vyas, you have set up the theory of _bivarta_ by a fanciful interpretation [of it]. error consists in a creature imagining i am one with the creator. but creation is not unreal, it is only perishable. the great word _pranaba_ is the image of god; from that _pranaba_ all the vedas have sprung in this world. the words thou art that (_tat-twam asi_) when applied to creation are only fractional (_prádeshika_), but you, without minding the _pranaba_, call these words the supreme truth." thus did the master find a hundred faults with the fanciful interpretation [of the vedantists]. the bhattáchárya supported his own position, using refutation, feint, pressure, and other logical devices. but the master answered them all and established his own view. the vedas [he maintained] assert only three things about god, _viz._, our relation to him, devotional exercises, and love (our need) as the fruit of devotion. all the rest [attributed to him] is mere conjecture. the words of the veda are self-evident, and should not be interpreted with the help of conjecture. but sárvabhauma was not to blame for it; he was merely carrying out god's will, in expounding atheistical philosophy based on fancy. _vide_ the _padma puran_, part ii. canto 62, verse 31. the bhattáchárya was speechless and motionless with wonder as he heard these words. the master addressed him, "marvel not, o bhattáchárya! the supreme manhood consists in faith in god. even those who directly commune with god (_átmáram_) adore him, the supreme being's attributes are so incomprehensible! witness the _bhágabat_, i. vii. 10, suta's words to saunaka and others: _'such are the attributes of hari that even mystical and passionless recluses feel for him unreasoning devotion.'_ the bhattáchárya said, "sir, i long to hear this verse interpreted." the master replied, "do you first explain it, and then i shall say what i think of it." the bhattáchárya expounded the verse, like a logician, in nine different ways in accordance with the scriptures. but the master smiled as he said, "i know, bhattáchárya, that you are a veritable vrihaspati, and surpass all other men in interpreting the scriptures. but your interpretation shows mere scholarship. the verse has yet another sense!" then at the bhattáchárya's request the master gave his own interpretation; passing by the nine interpretations given by the bhattáchárya, he gave 18 other explanations of his own. first he determined the meaning of each of the eleven words contained in the verse, as taken separately; then he gave different explanations in connection with _átmárám_, laying emphasis on each of the eleven words in succession. the lord, his powers, and his attributes, all three are incomprehensibly, unspeakably great! these three steal the heart of the devotee, to the neglect of all other forms of devotion. sanak, shukadev and others bear witness to this. his diverse expositions filled the bhattáchárya with wonder, and the self-abasing belief that the master was krishna indeed. "alas!" thought he, "he is krishna incarnate, but i in my ignorance have grievously sinned by showing pride to him." penitently he sought refuge with the master, who graciously appeared to him in his divine form, first as four-armed (vishnu), then as krishna playing on the flute. at this vision sárvabhauma fell prostrate on the ground, then rose again and prayed to him with clasped hands. the master's grace made spiritual knowledge illumine his heart, he now knew the glory of god's name, faith, gift, the esoteric meanings of the letters of the alphabet, &c. in a moment he composed a hundred verses, such as even vrihaspati would have failed to frame. the delighted master embraced him, and the bhattáchárya fainted in an ecstasy of joy, weeping, standing still, tumbling down at the master's feet. the sight delighted gopinath acharya. the master's disciples smiled at the dance of sárvabhauma. gopinath spoke to the master, "you have so transformed that bhattáchárya!" the master replied, "you are a devotee, your society has so wrought on him through the great grace of jagannáth." then he composed bhattáchárya, who thereafter praised him long, saying, "it was a light work to thee to save the world, in comparison with the wonderful power thou hast manifested in converting me. logic had made me hard like an ingot of iron. thou hast, melted me. oh thy wondrous might!" the master returned to his quarters; sárvabhauma feasted him by means of gopinath acharya. next day he went to jagannáth's temple, and beheld the god rise from his bed. the attending priest presented to the master the garland and offered rice of the god. the master rejoiced at it, tied the gifts to the hem of his garment, and hastened to bhattáchárya's house. it was dawn; bhattáchárya awoke just then and cried out "o krishna! o krishna!" to the delight of the master. coming out bhattáchárya met the master, bowed at his feet in a tumult of reverence, and seated him. the master untied the knot in his skirt and presented the _prasád_ to sarvabhaurna, who joyously ate it after reciting the following verse, though he had not yet bathed, nor said his matin prayer, nor even cleaned his teeth,--because chaitanya's grace removed all stupor from his mind. from the _padma purán_, _taste the mahá-prasád as soon as you get it, though it may be dry, stale or brought from a distance. wait not for a more proper time in this case._ then, again, hari has said, '_in tasting the mahá-prasád no rule of time or place should be observed; a good man should eat it as soon as he gets it.'_ at this the master was delighted and embraced sárvabhauma in a transport. they both danced, master and pupil, clasping each other, perspiring, trembling, shedding tears in ecstasy. the master said, "to-day have i conquered the three worlds lightly! to-day have i ascended baikuntha! to-day all my wishes are realized! because sárvabhauma has shown faith in the _mahá-prasád_. to-day you have taken refuge in krishna with all your heart. krishna has taken pity on you without any reserve. to-day he has removed your bondage to flesh; to-day you have torn off the meshes of illusion. to-day your heart has been made worthy to gain krishna, because you have eaten the _prasád_ in violation of vedic ceremonies. as the _bhágabat_, ii. vii. 41, puts it: _"those whom the lord favours and who take refuge at his feet with all their heart and without reserve, can conquer illusion. then they no longer look ubon this fleshly body the food of dogs and jackals as 'i' or 'mine'."_ so saying the master returned home. thenceforth bhattáchárya lost his pride (of learning). thenceforth he knew of nothing except chaitanya's feet, and expounded no scripture except that of _bhakti_. at his deep vaishnavism, gopinath acharya danced, clapping his hands and crying _hari! hari!_ next day bhattáchárya came to visit the master, without having first gone to jagannáth. he lay prostrate, and thanked the master much, penitently recounting his own former follies. as he wished to hear of the chief means of cultivating faith, the master instructed him by chanting hari's name. _"hari's name, hari's name, hari's name alone; in the kali era there is no other means of salvation, no other, indeed no other!" [vrihad narad puran.]_ in full detail did the master hold forth on the meaning of the above verse. bhattáchárya was filled with wonder. gopinath acharya said, "bhattáchárya! i told you before that you would come to this!" bhattáchárya bowed to him thankfully and replied, "the master has blessed me by reason of my being related to you. you are a great devotee, and i a blind logician. for your sake has the master favoured me." pleased with his meekness, chaitanya embraced him and then said, "now go and see the god". bhattáchárya, after visiting jagannáth, came home with jagadánanda and damodar [two disciples of chaitanya], and sent to chaitanya many kinds of choice _prasád_ with his own cook in their company, and also put two verses of his own written on a palm leaf into the hands of jagadánanda for chaitanya. when they arrived at the master's house, mukunda datta took the letter from his hand, and wrote the two verses on the outer wall. then jagadánanda took the letter inside to chaitanya, who read and tore it up, but the followers learnt the verses by rote from the wall. the verses are given in _chaitanya-chandrodaya_, act vi. sc. 32: _i seek refuge with that unequalled supreme man, who has become incarnate as shri krishna chaitanya, in order to teach passionlessness (_bairágya_) and devotion through faith (_bhakti-yog_). may my mind, like a bee, settle firmly on the lotus-feet of the lord shri krishna chaitanya, who has appeared in order to revive his own bhakti-yog, which had perished through the wickedness of ages._ sárvabhauma became a disciple of the master, attending to nothing but his service. ever did he meditate, pray, and recite the name 'shri krishna-chaitanya, the son of shachi, the abode of virtues!' one day he came to the master, bowed, and recited brahma's hymn to god from the _bhágabat_, changing two letters near its end. the _bhágabat_, x. xiv. 8: _'lord! that man alone enters into the inheritance of thy salvation like a true heir, who in eager longing for the day of thy grace passes his life worshipping thee with all his mind body and speech and enjoying the fruits of his actions without being attached to them.'_ the master interrupted him saying, "the text has thy salvation (_muktipada_). why do you read it as thy faith (_bhaktipada_)?" bhattáchárya answered, "salvation is not the fruit at which the faithful fix their gaze; as for those who lack faith in the lord, salvation becomes a sort of punishment to them [as they are annihilated in the lord without being able to serve and love him]. he who does not admit the incarnate krishna, and he who blames and fights against that incarnation, both of them are punished by being merged in the lord (_brahma sáyujya mukti_). the devotee does not long for emancipation. there are five kinds of salvation, _viz._, _sálokya_ (living in the same plane with god), _sámipya_ (nearness to god), _sárupya_ (assuming the same form as god), _sárshti_ (equalling the glory of god) and _sáyujya_ (absorption in the deity). though the first four afford means of serving the lord, yet true devotees seldom elect them, but they dread and despise the _sáyujya_ emancipation, preferring hell to it. 'absorption in the abstract god (_brahma_)' and 'absorption in the god clad in attributes (_saguna ishwar_)' are two forms of the same thing, indeed the latter is worse still. _vide_ the _bhágabat_ iii. xxix. ii, kapila's speech to devahuti." the master objected, "the term _muktipada_ has other senses too; it means god himself, i.e., he whose feet are the means of salvation. it may also mean the abode of salvation, which is the 9th object [mentioned in the _bhágabat_, ii. x. 1]. both etymologies yield the sense of krishna. why need you change the text to _bhaktipada_?" bhattáchárya replied, "no, i cannot adopt the reading. though you interpret the term _muktipada_ in the same sense of _bhaktipada_, yet the former is objectionable as ambiguous. though _mukti_ has five connotations, yet its principal meaning is absorption in god. so, the word _mukti_ fills me with fear and contempt, while _bhakti_ kindles delight in the heart". at this the delighted master smiled and clasped bhattáchárya firmly to his bosom. it was a pure act of grace on chaitanya's part that bhattáchárya, who had been a student and teacher of the doctrine of illusion, spoke thus. we recognize the philosopher's stone only when it touches a piece of iron. so all men knew the master for the veritable darling of braja (krishna) when they saw the deep the vaishnav spirit of [his disciple] bhattáchárya. then did kashi mishra and others of the blue mountain come and seek asylum at the master's feet. i shall first describe how sárvabhauma served the master, and how carefully he fed him. [text, canto 6.] chapter v healing the leper vasudev the master renounced the world in the bright fortnight of mágh, and came to reside at puri in fálgun. at the end of the latter month he witnessed the swinging ceremony of jagannáth and danced and sang long in ecstasy. in chaitra he liberated sárvabhauma. early in baishakh he wished to travel to the south. he assembled his followers, embraced them, held them by the hand, and spoke humbly, "i know you to be dearer than life. life i can part with, but not with you. you my friends have done me a good turn by bringing me here to see jagannáth. now i beg one favour from you all, give me leave to go to the south. i must set out to seek vishwarup [my elder brother], and i will travel alone, taking none with me. do you all stay at puri till i return from setubandha." they all knew that vishwarup had attained to liberation, and that the quest of him was only a ruse of the master for carrying salvation to southern india. greatly did they grieve on hearing his words, and sat silent with woe-begone faces. nityánanda said, "how can that be? we cannot let you go alone. one or two of us must bear you company, lest mishap should befall you. choose any two that you like. i know the roads to the holy places of the south. bid me, master, go with you." the master replied, "i am as a dancer and you are like the manager (_sutradhár_) of the play. i dance as you make me. on turning hermit i set out for brindában, but you brought me to adwaita's house. on the way to the niláchal you broke my staff. your deep love is marring my [life's] work. jagadánanda wants me to turn a worldling. in fear of him i have to do whatever he bids, me. if ever i disobey him he in anger speaks not to me for three days! mukunda grieves at the rigours of my monastic life: the three baths daily even in winter, the sleep on the bare ground. he grieves inly, though he speaks not of it; but his sorrow makes me doubly unhappy. i am a _sannyasi_, damodar is a brahmachari, and yet he constantly holds the pedagogue's rod over me. i did not know his character before. my conduct must be quite different from his. having gained the favour of krishna, he cares not for the opinions of other men; but i cannot be so regardless of the public. do you all, therefore, stay behind at puri, while i make my pilgrimage alone for some time." under the pretext of picking their faults the master really pointed out the merits which had made them win his heart. words cannot describe chaitanya's love for his devotees. he himself bore the hardship of an ascetic's life, but when one of his devotees grieved at the sight of these hardships, the master could not bear the sight of his grief! he set forth on his pilgrimage as a solitary hermit. four of them entreated him hard for permission to accompany him, but he followed his own will and did not listen to them. at last nityánanda urged, "as you please. it is my duty [to obey you], be the result my happiness or sorrow. but one further request i must make: consider whether you can accept it. your loin-band wrapper and gourd of water, these are the only articles that you will take with you. but your two hands are ever busy in counting your recitation of hari's name [on the notches of your fingers]. how, then, will you carry your wrapper and gourd? who will take care of these when you fall down on the road in a trance? keep my word: take this honest brahman krishna-das with you. he will only carry your wrapper and gourd, and never say a word, whatever you may do." the master consented. they took him to sárvabhauma's house, who seated them all after salutation. after a varied discourse on krishna, the master said, "i have come to beg your permission. i must search for vishwarup who retired as a hermit to the south. give me leave to go south. your permission will enable me to return in safety." at these words sárvabhauma was much grieved at heart; clasping the master's feet he said piteously, "through the accumulated merit of many previous births have i gained your society. but fate has now parted our company. i can bear the death of a son through a stroke of lightning, but not the pang of separation from you! you are your own master and shall go; but stay some days more and let me gaze on your feet." his humility relaxed the master's resolution and he lingered for some time longer. eagerly did the bhattáchárya invite and feast him with dishes cooked in his own house. his wife, called shathi's mother, cooked the meal: her history is marvellous, and i shall narrate it in detail later on. after a halt of five days at the bhattáchárya's place, the master asked leave to start. his eagerness forced the bhattáchárya to consent. he went with him to the temple and sought the permission of jagannáth. the serving priest presented the master with the god's garland, which he joyously took as a symbol of permission. the lord gaur started for the south in joy, after walking round jagannáth in the company of his disciples and the bhattáchárya. he took the road of alálnáth, along the shore. sárvabhauma sent gopinath acharya to bring from his house four loin-bands and wrappers and some prasád, to the vipradwár gate. then he begged the master, "you must keep my request. on the bank of the godavari dwells rámananda ráy, governor of vidya-nagar.[1] despise him not as a shudra and worldling. see him for my sake. he is worthy of your society. the world has not another appreciative devotee like him. in him scholarship and faith have reached their extreme points. when you talk with him you will know his worth. i used to laugh at him as a vaishnav, because i failed to understand his superhuman words. but thy grace has now made me know his true merit. conversation with him will disclose his greatness." the master agreed, embraced him and bade him farewell saying, "worship krishna at home and bless me, so that through your favour i may return to puri." when the master turned to go, sárvabhauma fell down there in a faint, but the master moved on quickly, without heeding him. who can understand the heart and mind of the master? the hearts of the great are at once tender as flowers and hard as the thunderbolt. nityánanda raised bhattáchárya and sent him home with his men. the faithful quickly overtook the master, and gopinath also arrived with the clothes and _prasád_. the master went with them to alálnáth, where he sang hymns for a long time, dancing and singing in rapture. the persons present flocked to gaze on the scene: they shouted _hari! hari!_ while the master danced in ecstasy in their midst. the people marvelled as they gazed at his golden hue, his crimson robe, and his tears of delight, his tremour and perspiration, which set off his beauty. all who came to see it forgot their homes and stayed to join in the dance and song of shri krishna gopal; men and women, old and young, all were swept away by the tide of spiritual love. seeing it nityánanda said to the faithful, "he will dance thus at every village [on the way]." it was high time, but the people did not leave him; so nityánanda contrived a plan: he took the master away for his noonday bath, the people rushing on all sides to look on. after the bath he led the master to the temple, and as soon as his own men had entered he shut the door. he fed the master, and they all ate his leavings. the crowd gathered outside the gate, shouting _'hari! hari!'_ then he opened the door and the people entered joyfully to gaze on the master. the stream of people thus passed and repassed till the evening. they all became vaishnavs and danced and sang [with the master]. he passed the night there with the faithful, in delightful discourses on krishna. next morning after the morning bath, he bade farewell to the faithful. they fainted, but he looked not at them. the master wended his way grieving at separation from them, krishna-das following him with the gourd. the faithful passed the day there in a fast, and returned sorrowing to puri the next day. like a raging lion the master walked forth, chanting god's name in a transport of love. his words were: _krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! o!_ _krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna!_ _krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! save me!_ _krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! krishna! deliver me!_ _ram raghav! ram raghav! ram raghav! save me!_ _krishna keshav! krishna keshav! krishna keshav! deliver me!_ as the lord gaur walked on reciting the above verses he met a wayfarer and asked him to chant hari's name. mad with love that man cried 'hari! krishna!' and followed the master out of longing to gaze at him. after a long embrace the master dismissed him, filled with spiritual power. the man on returning home made all his village vaishnav, talking of krishna, laughing, weeping, dancing incessantly, and urging all to take krishna's name. chance visitors from other villages became like him from the sight of him, and spread vaishnavism in their own villages. in this way was the whole southern country converted to vaishnavism. in this way did the master make hundreds vaishnav by embracing them in his travels. if he lodged and dined in anybody's house in a village, all the villagers flocked to see him. through the master's grace they became great _bhaktas_, and acted as apostles for the deliverance of mankind. all the way to setubandha, he did this; connection with him made all the land vaishnav. the power he had not manifested at navadwip, he now put forth for the salvation of the south. he who worships the master gains his favour and realizes the truth of these miracles. he who believes not in supernatural miracles loses both this world and the next. in this way the master travelled to the shrine of the tortoise[2] [the second incarnation], saluted and praised the god, dancing, singing, smiling and weeping in rapture, to the wonder of by-standers. crowds gathered to see him; the very sight of his marvellous beauty and devotion made them vaishnavs. they danced with uplifted arms chanting krishna's name in deep emotion. these very men converted other villages. thus did the nectar of krishna's name overflow the country, vaishnavism spreading from man to man. after a time the master came back to his senses. the priest of the tortoise did him great reverence. this happened everywhere that he went. in that village a vaidik brahman named kurma, very reverently invited the master, brought him home, washed his feet, and with his whole family drank the washing of his feet; then he lovingly fed the master with many kinds of dishes, and they all partook of the leavings. he praised the master thus: "thy lotus-like feet, which brahma himself adores, have come to my house. o my boundless good fortune! to-day my birth, race, and faith have been glorified. lord, have mercy on me and take me with thee! i cannot bear the sorrows of this worldly life." but the master replied, "say not so! stay at home and recite krishna's name ceaselessly. teach krishna's lore to whomsoever you meet with. at my bidding be thou an apostle and save this land! the world will never entangle you, but you will see me here again." every one at whose house he dined, made this request, and received this charge from the master. everywhere in his pilgrimage, till the return to puri, it was exactly what he did at the tortoise temple. the night spent there, next morning, the master bathed and resumed his journey; the brahman kurma followed him long, but at last the master persuaded him to return home. a high-minded brahman named vasudev, was covered with leprosy, but as the maggots dropped from his rotting limbs he used to pick them up and restore them to their places. [3] at night he heard of chaitanya's arrival, and next morning went to kurma's house to see him; on hearing that the master was gone, he fell down in a faint, and lamented in many ways. just then the master returned, embraced him, and lo! his leprosy as well as grief was gone at the touch and his body became sound and beautiful! he marvelled at the master's grace and clasped his feet and praised him by repeating the verse in the _bhágabat_ x. lxxxi. 14, (rukmini's message sent to krishna by the mouth of a brahman). long did he thank the master, saying, "listen, gracious one! no man has your virtue. even wretches fled from me at the stench of my body. but thou, supreme lord, hast touched me! better for me my former state of misery, because henceforth my heart will swell with pride." the master soothed him saying, "no, you will not be puffed up. ever take krishna's name and save men by teaching them about krishna. soon will krishna accept you". so saying the master vanished. the two brahmans wept with joy at his grace, clasping each other by the neck. [text, canto 7.] [1] _vidya-nagar_. evidently _rajmahendri_, now on the left bank of the godavari. it was an important strategic point, being on the natural frontier between kalinga and the kingdoms of the madras coast. in 1459 a minister of the gajapati king was ruling in this town; in 1470 it was captured by the muhammadan sultan of the bahmani dynasty. soon after 1480 it was taken by the king of orissa; about 1515 it was captured by krishna dev, the king of vijayanagar, but restored. in 1543 we find it ruled by vidyádri, a prince of the gajapati line, who lost it finally to the muhammadans in 1571. (_godavari gazetteer_, 244-245.) [2] _sri kurmam_, 8 m.e. of chicacole and the greatest place of pilgrimage to the telegus. (_ganjam manual_ 62). [3] in christian hagiology the same story is told about a saint of europe, who addressed the maggots, "eat, brothers, eat!" chapter vi the meeting with rámánanda ráy thus did the master wend his way. on reaching the temple of the nrisingha (man-lion) incarnation at jiyad,[1] he made his bow and rapturously sang and danced long in honour of the god, saying, "glory to nrisingha! glory to nrisingha! prahlad's lord! glory to you, o lotus-lipped, o bee on the lotus!" [the _bhágabat_, vii. ix. i. verse quoted in shridhar goswámi's commentary]. many such verses did the master recite as he prayed to the god. the serving priest presented him with the god's garland. as before, a brahman invited and fed the master, who passed the night there. next morning he took up his journey again, his emotion of faith making him heedless of outer things day and night. as before, he made the people turn vaishnav, and after a long time reached the bank of the godavari, which reminded him of the jamuna, while the wood on the bank suggested brindában. after dancing in the wood, he crossed the river and bathed there. sitting at the water's edge away from the _ghát_, the master chanted krishna's name. just then arrived rámánanda ráy in a litter, attended by jiyad musicians and many vaidik brahmans, to bathe. he bathed and performed the rites duly. the master at first sight knew him for rámánanda ráy, and longed to meet him, but sat checking his eagerness. rámánanda ráy came up to him on seeing a _sannyási_, and wondered as he gazed on his person beaming like a hundred suns, his robe of the hue of the morning sun, his large vigorous frame, his eyes like the lotus. as he prostrated himself before the master, the latter stood up and said, "rise, and chant krishna's name", and though thirsting with desire to embrace him, he asked, "art thou rámánanda ráy?" the man answered, "yes, i am that slave, a vile shudra." passionately did the master embrace him, and both tumbled down on the ground in excess of devo tion, senseless with love, inert or perspiring, weeping, trembling, with hair standing on end, pale of hue, and lisping 'krishna! krishna!' the vaidik brahmans marvelled as they beheld it, and inly thought, "this _sannyasi_, we see, is powerful like brahma. why does he weep after embracing a shudra? this noble is a grave and learned man; why then has he been maddened by the touch of the _sannyasi_?" the master checked himself on seeing strangers. the two composed themselves and sat down there. smilingly the master began, "sárvabhauma bhattáchárya has spoken to me of your merits, and pressed me to see you. for that purpose have i come here. it is well that i have met you so easily." the ray replied, "sárvabhauma knows me for his servant, and is ever on the watch to do me good even indirectly. through his grace have i met you, and to-day my life has become a success. that you have graciously touched this untouchable shudra is the proof of your mercy and that of sárvabhauma. thou art the god náráyan himself, and i a royal servant, a worldling, a wretch! in touching me thou didst not feel repulsion or fear of the vedas! the vedas forbid you even to look at me. thy mercy leads thee to perform a forbidden act. thou art god indeed; who can know thy ways? for delivering me hast thou come here, o fountain of mercy! o saviour of the fallen! such is the habit of the great, to sate a wretch he goes out of his way to pay him a visit! _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. viii. 2, nanda's words to garga: _'master, that saints travel from their own hermitages is only for doing [spiritual] good to those householders who cannot leave their houses; there is no other purpose in it.'_ "the thousand men, brahmans and others, in my train, have had their hearts melted by thy sight. all of them are shouting _krishna! hari!_ all are tremulous, all are weeping in joy. verily you have every characteristic, internal and external, of god. no mortal can possess such supernatural power!" the master replied, "you are the greatest of devotees. it is your sight that has softened the hearts of all. why impute it to another? i am only a _sannyasi_ holding the theory of illusion (_máyá-vád_), but even i have been steeped in the love of krishna by your touch. knowing that my heart is hard to reform, sárvabhauma had asked me to meet you." thus did the two praise each other, each delighted to see the other. then a vaishnav vaidik brahman bowed and invited the master, who accepted the invitation knowing him to be a vaishnav. smiling, the master said to rámánanda, "i wish to hear the discourse of krishna from your lips. i hope i shall see you again." the ray replied, "you have come here to save this sinner. but my wicked heart has not been cleansed by the mere sight of you. stay for 5 or 7 days to purge my hard heart of its sins." rámánanda ray bowed and went away, though loth to part, while the master went to the brahman's house to dine. eagerly did the two look for their meeting in the evening. as the master was sitting after his sunset bath, the ráy arrived with a servant. he bowed to the master, who embraced him. the two conversed in a retired spot. the master bade him recite the verses indicating the means of gaming devotion (_sádhya_). the ray replied, "we acquire faith in vishnu by doing the duties of our rank. as the _vishnu puran_, iii. viii. 8, says, '_worship the supreme being vishnu by doing the prescribed duties of your caste. there is no other means of pleasing him._'" the master objected, "this is only an external means. mention one more advanced." the ray replied, "the highest means of acquiring devotion is to resign to krishna the fruits of our acts, as the _gitá_, ix. 27, puts it: _'o son of kunti, consign to me whatever you do, be it eating, performing the horn ceremony, alms-giving, or austerity._'" the master again objected, "this too is external. go deeper into the subject." the ray answered, "the highest means of devotion is abandoning one's caste-duties [out of love for krishna], as the lord says to uddhav in the _bhágabat_, xi. xi. 32: _'he too is the highest of holy men, who knowing well the gain and loss of such a course, worships me by renouncing the vedic rites and ceremonies of his caste, though these too were ordained by me.'_ "also, as the _gitá_, xvvi. 66, has it: _'take refuge in me alone, giving up all religions. grieve not; i will deliver thee from all sins.'_ but to this the master objected, "this too is external. tell me of a still higher means." the ray answered, "faith based on knowledge is the highest means of devotion. as shri krishna says to arjun in the _gitá_, xviii. 54: _'the peaceful soul that dwells on brahma, and feels not sorrow or desire, but is the same in all states, gains my supreme bhakti.'"_ again the master objected as before. the ray answered, "faith independent of knowledge is the highest instrument of devotion. witness brahma's words to god in the _bhágabat_, x. xiv. 3: _'lord, hard as thou art to be won in the universe, yet they realize thee who reject the quest of theological knowledge but stay at home, listening to thy story as told by holy men and accepting it with all their mind, body and soul.'"_ the master remarked, "it is so; but mention a higher still." the ray said, "the highest devotion is _love)_ (_prem-bhakti_). witness the following verses of rámánanda ráy quoted in the _padyávali_, cantos xi and xii respectively: _'we relish food and drink only so long as we have hunger and thirst. similarly, the devotee delights not in worshipping his heart's darling with elaborate preparations, but in love alone.'_ _'get a heart inspired with love of krishna, if ever you can get it. its only price is greed,--a price which we cannot acquire even by the accumulated merits of ten millions of births.'"_ the master remarked as before. the ray replied, "the love of a servant is the highest devotion. witness the speech of durváshá in the _bhágabat_, ix. v. 11:-_'what is too hard for the lord's servants to gain, as the very listening to his name purifies all creatures?'"_ the master remarked, "it is so, but give a still deeper cause." the ray replied, "love as for a comrade is the highest form of devotion. witness shukdev's words to parikshit, in the _bhágabat_, x. xii. 10: _'god is known to the good as the consciousness of divine pleasure (brahma-sukhánubhuti), and to his servants as the supreme object of adoration. that such a god played with the deluded cow-boys in the garb of a human child, was due to their excessive merit.'"_ the master said, "this too is good. mention a higher one still." the ray went on, "the highest devotion is love as for a _child_. witness the following verses of the _bhágabat_: _'shukdev! what high-class meritorious deeds did nanda perform, and what did the blessed yashoda do that she suckled the divine being?"_ (x. viii. 36). _'the bliss that the cowherd's wife yashodá derived from her saviour-son was never gained by brahma, or shiva, or even by lakshmi though clasped to his person.'_ (x. ix. 15.) the master said, "this is good, no doubt. but mention a higher still." the ray replied, "passion as for a lover is the highest form of devotion. witness the following verses of the _bhágabat_: _'verily the favour shown by the supreme being to the fair ones of brindában, when in the rasa sport he clasped them round the neck with his arms, was not enjoyed even by lakshmi, who is held to his heart, nor by the heavenly nymphs though blooming and odorous like the lotus; not to speak of other women.'_ (x. xlvii. 53) the ray continued, "many are the means of attaining to krishna, and there are degrees of such attainment. by whichever of these means a man is inspired, it appears as the highest to him. it is only when we judge from a position of detachment that we can discriminate them as good, better, and best. "the preceding five passions are arranged in the order of their upward development. with the increase of quality there is an increase of deliciousness at each step. the _shánta_ passion attains its maturity in the _dásya_, the _dásya_ in the _sákhya_, the _sákhya_ in the _bátsalya_, and all of these four are concentrated in the _mádhura_, just as the properties of the four elements, _viz._, sky, air, &c. increase in an advancing order and are all united in the fifth element, the earth. the full attainment of krishna results from this last passion of conjugal love (_premá_). the _bhágabat_ asserts that krishna is a slave to devotion in the form of _premá_. "krishna's purpose remains constant in all ages: he makes a return to our adoration in exactly the same form in which we offer it. but he cannot reciprocate this _prem_ adoration to the full, and so remains our debtor, as the _bhágabat_ affirms. (x. xxxii. 21, krishna's words to the milk-maids). "true, krishna is the highest type of beauty and grace, but even his charm increases when he is in the company of the lady of braja. witness the _bhágabat_, x. xxxiii. 6: _'as the beauty of the emerald is set off when it is placed amidst golden-coloured gems, so shines krishna when girt round by the beaming girls of brindában.'"_ the master remarked, "this is indeed the extreme point among the means of devotion. kindly tell me if there is anything beyond it!" the ray said, "i did not know before that the earth contained any man who would inquire beyond this point! of all kinds of conjugal passion radha's love is celebrated in all our scriptures as the highest". the master said, "speak on! i delight to hear. a wondrous stream of nectar is flowing out of your lips. show how krishna abducted rádhá for fear of interruption by the other cow-herd girls; because a love that extends to others than the beloved is not deep enough. if you can show that for radha's sake krishna openly forsook the other gopis, then i shall know that he passionately loved her." the ray replied, "hear, then, of this glorious power of love. the three worlds cannot match radha's love. krishna broke away from the circle of the _rása_ dance of the gopis and wandered through the woods mourning for radha. witness the _git-govinda_, canto iii. verses 2 and i, and the _ujjwala-nilmani_, verse 43. radha left the dance in anger and wounded pride. krishna grew restless as he lost her. his whole heart was set on the _rása_ dance, and radha was the chain that bound his heart to it. in her absence, the _rása_ dance palled on his taste. so he left the circle of dancers to seek her out. as he roamed hither and thither, without finding her, he grieved, stricken with cupid's dart. a thousand million gopis could not satiate his passion. from this you may infer radha's merit!" the master said, "i have now learnt those spiritual mysteries for which i came to you. now have i learnt how to ascertain the various methods of adoration. but i long to hear more: tell me of krishna's form, of radha's form, what mystery is _rása_, what is the essence of love (_prem_). be kind and tell me these mysteries; none but you can expound them." the ray answered, "i know nothing of these things, but only utter what you inspire me with, as the parrot repeats what it has learnt by rote. you are god incarnate; who can comprehend your artifice? you send your message to my heart, and make my tongue deliver it, without my knowing whether i am speaking well or ill!" the master answered, "i am merely a _sannyasi_, a slave to the theory of illusion and ignorant of the mysteries of faith (_bhakti_). the society of sárvabhauma has purified my mind, and i asked him to speak on devotion to krishna. but he replied that he knew not krishna's lore, and referred me to you as a master of it. so i came to you, on hearing of your reputation, and yet you praise me because i am a _sannyasi_! be he a brahman, be he a hermit, be he even a shudra, if he knows krishna's mysteries, he is a guru. cheat me not of such knowledge for my being a sannyasi. fill my mind by holding forth on the mysteries of radha and krishna." the ray was a great devotee and adorer of vishnu, and his mind was proof against krishna's illusion. but he yielded to the master's pressing, and his will was shaken. so he said, "i am a dancer and you are the manager of the theatre; i dance as you make me. my tongue is merely a harp, and you the musician who plays on it. i utter whatever you think of in your mind. "krishna is the highest god, the perfect being himself, the source of all incarnations, the chief of all causes. he is the source of the eternal heaven, the eternal incarnation, the eternal universe. his body is composed of _sat_, _chit_ and _ánanda_; he is the son of mathura's lord, full of all wealth, all power, all _ras_. _vide_ the _brahma samhita_ v. i. at brindában he appeared as the supernatural youthful cupid, at whose adoration the formula recited is love, the offering presented is the seed of love. there he drew all hearts of men and women, of the animate and the inanimate. he was cupid's self, the conqueror of hearts. witness the _bhágabat_, x. xxxii. 2. "he ravished the hearts of incarnations like lakshmi's husband, [_vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. lxxxix. 32]; he drew to himself women like lakshmi [_vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. xvi. 32.] "his own beauty charmed his own heart, and he wished to embrace himself [_vide_ the _lalita-mádhav_, act viii. verse 28.] "such in brief is krishna's form. now let me tell you a little of radha's self. krishna's powers are infinite, but three of them are the chief, _viz._, the _chit_ power, the illusion power (_máyá_), and the preservation power (_jiba_). these three i call the internal, the external, and the marginal (or adjacent). the highest is the internal _swarup_ power. witness the _vishnu puran_, vi. vii. 60. "krishna's self is composed of _sat_, _chit_ and _ananda_. therefore his _swarup_ power must be of three kinds: in the _ánanda_ portion it is _hládini_, in the _sat_ portion it is _sandhini_, in the _chit_ portion it is _sambita_. witness the _vishnu puran_, i. xii. 48: "what delights krishna is named the _ahladini_ power, by which he enjoys delight. krishna is himself delight, and yet he tastes delight. _hladini_ has been created to give enjoyment to the faithful. the essence of _hladini_ is named _prem_ (love). the story of _prem_ is filled with the emotions of _ánanda_ and _chit_. the supreme emotion (_mahábhába_), is the quintessence of _prem_. the lady radha is the personation of that supreme emotion. [vide the _brahma samhita_, v. 33]" * * * * * the master spoke, "this is the limit of the thing adored. through your grace i have learnt it of a verity. none can gain the adorable without adoration. tell me kindly the way to gain him." the ray answered, "i speak as you make me, without my knowing what i say. where in all the three worlds can we find the constant man who cannot be shaken by your illusive play? you are speaking through my mouth; yet you are my listener! hear, then, the deep mystery of adoration. the play of radha with krishna is extremely deep, and cannot be learnt from the _dásya_, _bátsalya_ and other moods. the _sakhis_ (female associates) alone are qualified for it; from them has this play (_lilá_) spread. this play cannot be kept up without _sakhis_; they alone relish this _lilá_ in full. _sakhis_ alone have a right to this _lilá_, i.e., those who adore krishna in the spirit of his _sakhis_. such votaries can practise devotion in the form of attending on krishna and radha in their secret bower. there is no other means of mastering this form of devotion. witness the _git-govinda_, x. 17: _'what man versed in the deepest mystery (ras) will not take refuge at the feet of the sakhis, the personations of the chief power, without whose help radha and krishna's pleasure-force and pleasure-manifestation, though self-expressive, cannot for a moment attain to fulness of development?'"_ "the character of the _sakhis_ baffles description. a _sakhi_ does not long to play with krishna all by herself; but she feels a keener delight in contriving krishna's dalliance with radha. radha is verily the wishing creeper (_kalpalatá_) of the love of krishna, and the _sakhis_ are the leaves, flowers, and shoots of this creeper! if the nectar of dalliance with krishna waters the creeper, the leaves, &c. delight in it ten million times more than if they themselves had been watered! _vide_ the _git-govinda_, x. 16. "the _sakhis_ do not wish for krishna's embrace, but they exert themselves to make krishna embrace radha. for this purpose they send krishna to her under a thousand pretexts. thereby they gain a pleasure ten million times sweeter than that of selfish enjoyment. the unselfish devotion of these towards each other strengthens the deliciousness (_ras_), and the sight of such unselfish love delights krishna. the love felt by the gopis is not truly earthly lust; for the sake of analogy we call it lust (_kám_). "earthly lust seeks sensual gratification for one's own self. the passion of the gopis, on the other hand, seeks krishna's enjoyment, abandoning all idea of self. they hanker not for their own pleasure, but if they embrace krishna it is only to please _him_. "he whose heart is lured by the nectar of the gopi's passion, adores krishna abandoning vedic worship. that man wins in brindában the darling of braja's lord, who adores him by following the path of passionate love (_rág_). he who adores krishna in the spirit of any of the people of braja [contemporaneous with krishna], is born at braja in his next birth in the form of that person whose passion he imitated, and thus gains krishna. this is proved by the _upanishads_ and the _shrutis_. witness the _bhágabat_, x. lxxxvii. 19. "in that verse the term _samadrisha_ indicates adoration in that spirit, the term _samáh_ speaks of the acquisition by the gods of the persons of the gopis, _anghri padma sudhá_ means the delight of krishna's society. at braja you will not gain krishna by following the path of prescribed ceremonies. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. ix. 16: _'ascetics proud of their conquest of the flesh, and scholars centred in themselves, cannot gain the supreme lord so easily as his devotees (_bhaktas_) can.'_ "therefore, having taken on ourselves the attitude of the gopis, we daily meditate on krishna's dalliance with radha. in the _siddhi_ body we meditate and serve it, and in the next birth we gain radha-krishna's feet by being born as _sakhis_. you cannot gain krishna, however much you adore him, if you only meditate on him as a divinity and not serve him as a gopi. see, how lakshmi adored him, but could not gain him in braja. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. xlvii. 3." on hearing all this the master embraced him, and the two wept holding each other by the neck. thus did they pass the night in transports of devotion, and at dawn parted, each to his own work. when taking leave, rámánanda ráy clasped the master's feet and begged him, "you have come here out of pity for me. stay here therefore for some ten days to reform my sinful heart. none but you can deliver mankind; none else can impart love for krishna." the master answered, "i came here on hearing of your merits, to purify my own mind by listening to your discourses on krishna. you are indeed worthy of your reputation. you are the limit of human knowledge as regards the mystery of the love of krishna and radha. what of ten days? so long as i live, i cannot part with you. let us two dwell together at puri, passing our days happily in talk about krishna." so they parted. in the evening the ray came again. the two sat together in seclusion and held a delightful dialogue, the master asking and rámánanda answering throughout the night. the master asked, "which science is the chief of sciences?" the ray answered, "there is no [true] science except devotion to krishna." "what is the greatest glory in a creature?" "the fame of being a devotee of krishna's love." "what wealth is estimable among human possessions?" "he is wealthy indeed who loves radha and krishna." "what is the heaviest of sorrows?" "there is no sorrow other than lack of devotion to krishna." "whom should we consider as truly liberated?" "he is the foremost of the emancipated who loves krishna." "what song among all songs is peculiarly own to creatures?" "that ditty which speaks of the amorous sports of krishna and radha." "what is the best of right courses?" "there is no right course except the society of krishna's devotees." "whom does creation ceaselessly remember?" "the name, virtues, and exploits of krishna are the chief things to be remembered." "what is the proper subject of meditation for mankind?" "the lotus-feet of radha and krishna are the chief object of meditation." "where ought a man to live abandoning all else?" "brindában, the land of braja, where the _rása_ play was performed." "what is the best thing for a creature to hear?" "the love-dalliance of radha and krishna is a potent medicine to the ear." "what is the chief object of worship?" "the highest objects of adoration are the coupled names radha-krishna." "what are the respective destinations of those who desire liberation and devotion?" "one gets an immovable body, the other a celestial person. the foolish crow pecks at the ash-fruit (_nimba_), while the connoisseur cuckoo feeds on the mango-blossom of love. the luckless scholar tastes arid theological knowledge, while the lucky [devotee] drinks the nectar of krishna's love." thus did the two while away the night in talking of krishna, dancing, singing, and weeping. at dawn they returned, each to his own duties. next evening the ray came again, and after discoursing on krishna in a loving communion for some time, he clasped the master's feet and implored him, "the mysteries of krishna, radha, love, _rása_, and _lilá_, are diverse. but you have made them all clear to my heart. it has been as if náráyan taught the vedas to brahma. such are the ways of the searcher of hearts; he does not outwardly tell us of a thing, but reveals it to our hearts. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, i. i. i. "there is one doubt still in my heart. be good enough to resolve it. when i first saw you, you looked like a _sannyasi_; but now i behold in you krishna, the cowherd! "lo, there stands before you a golden idol, the golden hue of which envelopes all your body. that reveals the flute held to your lips and your lotus-eyes glancing with many emotions! i marvel as i behold you in this form. tell me truly the cause of it." the master replied, "deep is your love for krishna. know this to be the effect of love that when the true devotee gazes on any object, animate or inanimate, krishna is manifested to him in that object. the object gazed at may be inanimate or animate, but he sees not its natural form; his adored deity appears in everything. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, xi. ii. 43, hari's words to janak:-_'he is the highest of devotees who beholds in every creature the god of his adoration, and all creation in the spirit of god.'_ "also, the _bhágabat_, x. xxxv. 5, the speech of the gopis to krishna: _'then the fruit and flower laden branches of plants and creepers felt as it were within themselves the god who was manifesting himself, and with their limbs thrilling with delight began to shed drops of honey.'_ "deep is your love for radha and krishna; hence you behold them in everything." the ray objected, "master, leave thou thy tricks. conceal not thy true form from me. having taken on thyself the emotion and beauty of radhiká, thou hast become incarnate in order to taste thy own delight. thy secret object is the enjoyment of love; incidentally thou hast filled the universe with love. thou hast come of thy own accord to deliver me. and now thou deludest me! what sort of conduct is this?" then the master smiled and manifested his true form in which were blended krishna, the prince of delight (_ras_) and god, the supreme emotion. in rapture rámánanda fainted and rolled on the ground. the master touched his arm and brought him back to his senses. then the ray beheld the master looking like a _sannyasi_; but the latter embraced him and soothed him thus, "who else than you can behold this form? you know fully my essence and mysterious exploits (_lilá_); hence have i shown you this form. my body is not of a fair complexion, but this complexion is due to contact with radha's body. she touches none except the prince of the cowherds. i make my own heart imagine her emotions, and thus i taste the delicious sweetness of krishna. my acts are not hidden from you. even if i were to conceal any, you would know it by the compelling force of your love. keep this matter a secret from the public, lest people should laugh at my endeavours as those of a mad man. i am a mad man, and so are you; we two are a match!" thus did the master spend ten days happily in sweet discourse about krishna with rámánanda ray. much did he discuss the secret pleasure-sport of brindában, but could not come to the end of the subject. if a man discovers a mine with copper, bronze, silver, gold, gem, and the wishing stone deposited in successive layers, he comes upon richer and richer things as he goes on digging. similarly did the master question rámá ráy and get his answer. next day he took leave of the ray and ordered him, "give up your earthly concerns and go to puri, where i shall soon return after finishing my pilgrimage. there we shall live together passing our days happily in talking about krishna." so saying he sent rámánanda home with an embrace, and then lay down to sleep. at dawn the master saw a hanuman (monkey), bowed to it, and set out. all classes of people at vidya-pur, on meeting with the master, quitted their own faiths and turned vaishnav. rámánanda was distracted by the absence of the master and ever meditated on him, utterly disregarding all his own affairs. chaitanya's character is by nature like thickened milk, rámánanda's character is sugar added to it, and the dalliance of radha and krishna is like camphor thrown into this compound, which only the fortunate can taste. he who once drinks it in through his ears, can never leave it for its deliciousness. all spiritual truths are learnt if you hear it; it creates faith and love in radha-krishna's feet. know the hidden truth of chaitanya from this episode. attend to it with faith; do not reason. this supernatural deed is deeply mysterious. you can realize it if you believe, but reasoning will only set it afar off. this precious thing is for them only whose sole riches are the feet of shri chaitanya, nityánanda, and adwaita! i have celebrated the meeting with rámánanda on the basis of damodar swarup's diary (_karchá_). [text, canto 8.] [1] evidently simhachalam, a hill five miles north of vizagapatam, containing a temple to narasimha. this is the most famous, richest and best sculptured shrine in vizagapatam. an inscription shows that a queen of gonka iii. covered the image with gold. architecturally the temple apparently deserves high praise. (_vizagapatam gazetteer_, 323-325, 28-29.) chapter vii the pilgrimage to the south the master travelled very extensively in the south, visiting thousands of holy places. at his touch they became the holiest of holy places. under the pretext of a pilgrimage he delivered the people of that country. i shall only give a list of the places without arranging them in the order in which they were visited. as before, whoever met him on the way and all the people of every village that he lodged in, were turned into vaishnavs and made to chant hari's name. _they_ in their turn converted other villages. diverse were the people of the south, some scholars, some ritualists, some extreme sceptics, lo! the marvellous effect of the sight of the master! all such men gave up their own creeds and turned vaishnav. even among the vaishnavs [of the south] some were worshippers of vishnu in the incarnation of ram, some the followers of madhwacharya, some of ramanuj's sect of shri vaishnavs. all of them, on meeting with the master, became worshippers of vishnu in the incarnation of krishna, and began to chant krishna's name. the master journeyed on, reciting the verse: _o ram raghav! o ram raghav! o ram raghav! deliver me!_ _o krishna keshav! krishna keshav! krishna keshav! save me!_ he bathed in the ganga gotami (godavari). at mallikárjun he visited the shrine of mahesha, where he made all the people recite krishna's name. he beheld the rámdás mahádev, and also the man-lion at ahobal, bowing to and glorifying the latter. at siddha-bat is the image of sita's lord; the master bowed to the image of ram and sang hymns to it. there he was invited by a brahman of the place, who incessantly took ram's nume and no other. after passing the day in his house as his guest, the master proceeded on. at skanda-kshetra he visited kártik, and at tri-matha the god tri-vikrama, whence he returned to that brahman's house at siddha-bat, but found him chanting krishna's name! after dinner the master asked him, "why, brahman! has this change come over you? formerly you used to cry 'ram, ram' and now you chant krishna's name!" the brahman replied, "this is the effect of your visit. the sight of you changed my life-long habit. from childhood have i been chanting ram's name; but when i met you i once tittered the word krishna, and since then krishna's name has settled on my tongue. it is krishna's name that comes out of my mouth, while the name of ram has disappeared. it had been my practice since my boyhood to collect the texts bearing on the glory of god's names. in the _padma purán_, we read: _'yogis sport (rama) in the eternal god, whose self is composed of_ sat, chit, _and_ ananda. _hence the term ram means the supreme god.'_ "again, the _mahábharat_, udyog parba, canto lxxi. 4, says _'the term 'krishna', meaning the supreme god, has been derived from the verb_ krish _meaning existence and the inflexion_ na _meaning cessation.'_ "so, the two names _ram_ and _krishna_ appeared equal, but i next found texts making a discrimination between them. the _padma purán_ has this: _'o perfect-featured darling! my heart's delight! reciting the word ram thrice earns as much merit as taking [god's] name a thousand times!'_ "the _brahmánda purán_ asserts, _'a single utterance of the name of krishna is as efficacious as reciting god's thousand sacred epithets three times in succession.'_ "the last text proves the immeasurable excellence of krishna's name. and yet i could not repeat it, only because i found delight in the name of _ram_, the god of my vows (_ishtadev_), and took the latter incessantly. when at your visit the word _krishna_ rose [to my lips], my heart recognized its glory. and i truly inferred that you are krishna himself." so saying the brahman fell at the master's feet, who after bestowing his grace left him the next day. at vriddha kashi the master visited shiva, and thence went on to another village, where he lodged with the brahmans. so great was his power that countless people,--hundreds of thousand, millions even,--came to see [him]. beholding the beauty and religious ecstasy of the master they all chanted krishna's name, and the whole region was converted to vaishnavism. he refuted and proved faulty all the doctrines of the logicians, _mimánsakas_, illusionists, with the followers of sánkhya, patanjal, smriti, purán, and veda, though they were strong in defending their tenets. everywhere the master established the dogmas of vaishnavism, which none could refute. his vanquished antagonists accepted his creed, and so he made the south vaishnav. on hearing of his scholarship the sceptics (_páshandi_) came to him, boastfully bringing their pupils with them. a very learned buddhist professor held forth on the nine doctrines of his church before the master. though the buddhists are unfit to be talked to or even to be looked at, yet the master argued with him to lower his pride. the very buddhist philosophy of nine tenets, though rich in logical reasoning, was torn to pieces by the master's argumentation. the buddhist professor raised all his nine questions, but only to be refuted by the master's vigorous logic. the great philosophers were all vanquished; the audience tittered; the buddhist felt shame and alarm. knowing that the master was a vaishnav, the buddhists retired and hatched a wicked plan: they placed before the master a plate of unclean rice, describing it as vishnu's _prasád_. but just then a huge bird swooped down and carried off the plate in its beak! the rice falling on the bodies of the buddhists was [openly] rendered impure; the plate fell down slanting on the buddhist professor's head, cutting it open, and throwing him down in a fit. his disciples lifted up their voices in lamentation, and sought the master's feet imploring him, "thou art god incarnate! o forgive us! out of thy grace restore our teacher." the master replied, "cry out, all of you, krishna's name. pour the word loudly into your teacher's ears, and he will recover." they did it, the professor rose up and began to chant _hari! hari!_ he did reverence to the master saluting him as krishna, to the wonder of all. after this playful act the son of shachi vanished; none could see him. he arrived at tirupati tirumal, where he beheld the four-armed idol, and then advanced to venkátár. at tirupati he beheld the image of ram, to which he bowed and sang hymns. the people marvelled at his powers. then he came to the man-lion of páná, which he saluted and extolled in a transport of love. at shiva kánchi he visited shiva; his power turned the worshippers of shakti and shiva into vaishnavs. at vishnu kanchi he beheld lakshmi and náráyan, to whom he bowed and prayed long, danced and sang in fervour. his stay of two days bowed the hearts of men to krishna. thence by way of tirunal he went to tri-kál-hasti, and bowed to the image of mahadev there. and so on to the paksha-tirtha, the shiva, the vriddhakál-tirtha (the shrine of the white boar), pitambar [probably chidambaram] (the shrine of shiva), the shiyáli bhairabi devi, the bank of the kaveri, gosamáj (shaiva holy place) and bedáwan, (where he adored the amrita-linga shiva). everywhere the worshippers at shiva's shrines were turned into vaishnavs. thence he reached devasthan, a vaishnav shrine, and there kept constant company with the shri-vaishnavs. proceeding further he visited the lake formed by kumbhakarna's skull, the shiva-kshetra, pápa-náshan (a shrine of vishnu), and shri-rangam, where he bathed in the kaveri and then adored ranganath, bowing and hymning to the god to his heart's satisfaction, and dancing and singing in rapture, to the marvel of all beholders. here a shri-vaishnav named venkata bhatta invited the master to his house, reverently washed his feet and with his family drank of the water. after feeding he besought the master thus: "master, the four months of asceticism (_cháturmásya_) are at hand. i pray thee pass them in my house, and of thy grace save me by discoursing on krishna." at his house the master stayed for four months, passing the time happily in talking about krishna with the bhatta. daily he bathed in the kaveri, visited shri ranga, and danced in ecstasy. all men flocked to gaze on his beauty and rapture of devotion, and at the sight they forgot sorrow and misery. from all quarters flocked hundreds of thousands, and as they beheld the master they chanted krishna's name and no other term. all became worshippers of krishna, to the marvel of mankind. the brahmans resident at shri ranga invited him on successive days; but when the four months were over there were some brahmans left who had had no opportunity to entertain him. in that holy place dwelt a brahman devoted to vishnu, who recited the _gitá_ in the temple. in the fervour of delight he read the 18 cantos, making mistakes, at which some scoffed, some laughed, some chid him, but he heeded them not and went on with his readings in a rapt mood. the master delighted as he beheld the reader's tears of delight, tremour, and perspiration at his task, and asked him, "hark you, sir! what [deep] meaning inspires you with such rapture?" the brahman replied, "i am an ignorant man, not knowing the meanings of words. the _gitá_ i read at my _guru's_ bidding, correctly or incorrectly as it may be. my heart is rapt when i behold [before my mind's eye] the dark beauty of krishna as he sits as driver in arjun's chariot giving moral lessons. i can never bring myself to give up reading the _gitá_, because i ever behold him so long as i read the book." to him the master spoke thus, "thou alone art truly worthy to read the _gitá_, as thou knowest the essence of its meaning." so saying he embraced the brahman, who, however, clasped his feet and prayed, "the sight of you gives me double the joy. verily i think you are that krishna." he could recognize the true nature of the master, as the love of krishna had purged his mind [of its grossness]. but the master cautioned him not to tell it to any one else. the brahman became a devout admirer of the master and never parted from him in those four months, which he spent at the bhatta's house in blissful discourse about krishna. the bhatta's household gods were lakshmi and náráyan. the master, pleased with his devotion, ever treated the bhatta like a friend, constantly joking with him, as is the manner of friendship. one day he asked, "bhatta! your lakshmi is the type of devoted and chaste wives. my god is krishna, a cow-herd. how could such a chaste lady seek this other man's society? why did she for this object discard pleasure and perform endless austerities? witness the following verse of the _bhágabat_, x. xvi. 32: _"lord! out of a longing to be worthy to touch the dust of thy feet, lakshmi, though a [weak] woman, abstained from enjoyment and went through long penances, etc."_ the bhatta answered, "krishna and náráyan are essentially one; only krishna showed more of sportiveness and charm. hence lakshmi's chastity was not marred when she, for the sake of delight, sought krishna's company [quotation from the _bhakti-rasdmrita-sindhu_]. playful lakshmi desired krishna for the sake of the greater gain and _rása_ delight afforded by his society. what harm is there in it? why are you joking?" the master rejoined, "i know there is nothing to blame in it. the _shastra_ asserts that lakshmi never enjoyed the _rása_ dance with krishna [_vide bhágabat_, x. xlvii. 53]. but the shrutis attained to krishna's society by their austerities. [_ibid_, x. lxxxvii. 19]. what was the reason of this difference?" "my mind fails to explain the reason, as i am a petty creature with a weak understanding, while god's acts are infinite like the deep ocean. you are krishna's self and know your own; exploits. their inner meaning is known only to those on whom you have bestowed such knowledge." the master said, "such is the natural characteristic of krishna that by his sweetness he wins all hearts. the men of brindában knew him not as god, because he came to them as one of themselves. one tied him to the wooden pestle [_udukhal_], fancying him to be her son. some mounted on his back, taking him to be a play-fellow. the people of brindában knew him as the son of braja's chief, and not as the godhead. he who adores krishna in the manner of the people of brindában, can alone attain to him there. _vide bhágabat_, x. ix. 16. the shrutis imitated the milk-maids [_gopis_] and by taking the form of the gopis they obtained the son of the queen of mathura. they were incarnated in the bodies of the gopis of braja, and so disported with krishna in the _rása_ play. krishna was of the milkman caste; the gopis were his dear ones; so krishna refused goddesses and other women. lakshmi wanted to unite with krishna in his form of a milkman, and yet she did not seek him by assuming the shape of a gopi. but in no other form than that of a gopi can the _rása_ pleasure be consummated, as vyas has said in his verses, _viz._, _bhágabat_, x. xlvii. 53." before this the bhatta used to think in his pride, "náráyan is god himself, and the worship of him is the highest stage. and therefore the worship offered by the shri-vaishnavs is the highest form of adoration." but the master, to dash his folly down, opened all this controversy by means of a jest. he addressed him thus, "bhatta, doubt not, know of a verity that krishna is god himself. náráyan is only the manifestation of the power (_vilás_) of krishna, therefore could krishna steal the hearts of lakshmi and others. (_vide bhágabat_ i. iii 28). krishna surpassed náráyan in power. hence did lakshmi ever long for krishna. the verse you have read proves that krishna is god incarnate. (_vide bhakti-rasámrita-sindhu_, pt. i. ii. 32). krishna stole the heart of lakshmi but náráyan could not (conversely) win the love of the gopis. what to speak of náráyan? even krishna him self, when he assumed the form of the four-armed náráyan to amuse the gopis, failed to win their love in that shape! (_vide lalita-madhav_, vi. 13)." thus did the master humble his pride, but then he gave a new turn to the conclusion to soothe the bhatta's feelings, saying, "grieve not, bhatta, i have only jested. listen to the teaching of the _shastra_ in which vaishnavs believe: just as náráyan and krishna are one essence, so are lakshmi and the gopis identical and not diverse. lakshmi in the garb of the gopis tasted krishna's company. in theology it is a sin to recognize a plurality of gods. the devotee meditates on one and the same god [diversely according to his fancy]; he gives different images to the same deity." the bhatta spoke, "i am a miserable creature, while thou art that krishna, the incarnate god. i know nothing of the unfathomable ways of god, but i hold as truth whatever you tell me. fully have i been blessed by lakshmi-náráyan, as his grace has enabled me to see thy feet. thou hast graciously spoken to me of the glory of krishna, whose beauty, qualities and powers are beyond human calculation. now have i learnt that devotion to krishna passes all else. you have blest me by unfolding this truth." so saying the bhatta clasped the master's feet, who graciously hugged him to his bosom. the four months came to an end. the master took leave of the bhatta and from shri-rangam set out for the south. the bhatta wanted to leave his home and follow him, but with great effort the master turned him back. when he left, the bhatta fainted away (in grief). thus did shachi's son disport himself. to the rishava peak he went and there prayed to the deity náráyan, and visited paramananda puri, who was spending his "four months" there. the master bowed at the feet of the puri, who embraced him. for three days they lived together in that brahman's house, lovingly talking on krishna's delightful lore. the puri said, "i am going to jagannáth, whence i shall proceed to bengal to bathe in the ganges." the master answered, "go to the niláchal, where i shall shortly join you on my return from setubandha. i long to keep company with you. do kindly visit the niláchal." so he parted from the puri and joyfully proceeded further south. the puri went to the niláchal, while the master visited shri-shaila, where lived a brahman named shiva-durga. rejoicing to see the master, he feasted him for three days, and the two dis coursed of mysteries in secret. after friendly association with him, the master left him and went to the city of kámakoshti, and thence to the southern mathura [madura], where he was invited by a brahman, noble-minded, detached from the world, and a worshipper of ram. after bathing in the kritamala, the master went to his house; but as the brahman never cooked, he could place no food before the guest. the master asked, "hark you, sir, it is noon and yet you are not cooking? why is it?" the brahman replied, "master, i live in the forest, where at present nothing can be had for cooking. but lakshman will bring some wild herbs, fruits, and roots, and then will sita cook them." the master was pleased with the brahman's devotion. the host now hurriedly began cooking and the master was fed in the third quarter of the day. but the brahman himself fasted, at which the master asked, "why do you fast? what grieves you? why mourn you?" the brahman replied, "i have no need to live; i shall destroy myself by jumping into fire or water. the divine sita, the mother of the world and the emblem of supreme goodness, was (rudely) touched by a demon, as i hear. so i ought not to live. this sorrow consumes me, though my spirit does not leave the body." to him the master thus: "think not so any longer. you are learned and yet you do not judge the matter in your mind! sita, the beloved of god, is the embodiment of spirituality and bliss (_chit ánanda_). physical senses cannot see her, not to speak of touching her. ravan abducted only an illusive image of sita, while the true sita had disappeared.[1] the vedas and the purans constantly teach this truth that the material cannot take cognisance of what is non-material. believe my words, and never harbour such sad thoughts again." reassured by the master's words the brahman dined and took delight in life. after bathing in the kritamálá, the master went to durbesan, where he saw the image of raghunath. thence to mahendra hill, where he adored parashu ram. at setubandha he bathed in the dhanu-tirtha (bow shrine). visiting rameshwar, he rested there. an assembly of brahmans was listening to the reading of the _kurma puran_, in the course of which the episode of chaste women was reached. the narrative declared that ravan stole only a false phantom of sita. at the sight of ravan the true sita sought refuge with fire, who lodged her with parvati, while he deluded ravan by giving up to him a false image of sita. after ram had slain ravan, and sita submitted to the ordeal of fire, the false sita vanished, while the real sita was delivered to ram by fire. the master was delighted to hear this theory. so he borrowed from the brahman the leaf (containing the passage), and made a copy for being placed in the book, while he took the old leaf for creating conviction and returned to the southern mathura, where he gave the leaf to the brahman rámdas. at this the brahman was overjoyed and clasped the master's feet weeping and saying, "thou art ram incarnate, visiting me in the disguise of a _sannyasi_, and raising me from deep sorrow. do consent to dine at my house to-day, because on that day i was too melancholy to entertain thee worthily. it is my good fortune that thou hast come again!" so saying the brahman cooked deliciously and feasted the master nicely. after passing the night under his roof, the master went to the támraparni in the pandya land, where he bathed in the river and wandered on the bank gazing at the nine tirupadis in wonder. thence he visited chiyartálá (the shrine of ram lakshman), til kánchi (the shrine of shiva), gajendra-mokshan (where there was an image of vishnu), páná-garhi (shrine of ram), chámtápur (ram lakshman), shri vaikuntha (vishnu), the malay mountain (agastya), kanyá kumári [cape comorin], amlitalá (ram), the mallar land (where the bhattamáris dwelt), and then after seeing tamal kártik, he reached betápáni (raghunath's shrine), where he passed the night. the master's companion, the brahman krishna-das, met a bhattamari, who tempted the simple brahman by offering him a woman and money. in the morning krishna-das went away to the bhattamari. soon the master came in quest of him and addressed the bhattamari tribe thus, "why have you detained my brahman (follower)? i am, as you see, a _sannyasi_; and so are you too. it is unfair of you to put me in trouble." at this the bhattamaris took up arms and flocked round the master to thrash him. but the weapons dropped from their hands and struck their own limbs, so that they fled away on all sides. lamentation rose in their houses. the master dragged krishna-das away by the hair, and that day reached the payaswini river, in which he bathed and visited the temple of adi keshav, where he bowed, prayed, danced and sang for a long while in rapture, to the amazement of the beholders. all the people treated him very respectfully and he joined the assembly of the very devout there. here he got a manuscript of the book _brahma-samhitádhyáya_ to his boundless delight, tremour, weeping, thrill, perspiration, stupor, and frenzy (of joy), because the _brahma samhita_ is unrivalled among works of exegetics (_siddhanta shastra_) and it is the chief instrument for teaching the glory of govinda, as it expresses vast dogmas in a few words. it is the very cream of vaishnav sacred writings. very carefully did he get the book copied. thence he went to ananta padmanáv, where he spent two days, to shri janárdan, where also he hymned and danced for some two days, to payoshni, where shankar náráyan is worshipped, to the monastery of shringeri, the seat of sankaracharya, to _matsya-tirtha_ (fish shrine), to the river tungabhadrá, and to [upidi], the seat of madhwáchárya, the spokesman of spiritual truth. here he gazed devotedly on the udupa-krishna. the image of krishna in the form of the dancing young cowherd (_gopal_) was very charming. madhwáchárya was moved by a dream to rescue this image from a cargo of consecrated earth [_gopichandan_] in a sunken ship, and to install it [at udipi], where it is worshipped to this day. the master was overjoyed to see the image of krishna, and in fervour of devotion danced and sang (before it) for many a day. the _tattwavádis_, taking the master for a _máyávadi_, at first slighted him, but afterwards they marvelled at his religious ecstasy, and venerated him greatly as a (true) vaishnav. aware of their pride in vaishnavism, the master began a discourse with them. the high priest of the _tattwavádis_ was an expert in all the holy books. the master, assuming the tone of a humble inquirer, put questions to him: "i do not clearly comprehend _sádhya_ (end) and _sádhan_ (means). do please enlighten me on the subject." the high priest replied, "to the worshipper of krishna the highest _sádhan_ is to resign to krishna the religious system centring round caste and ashram. translation to vishnu's heaven, after attaining to the fivefold salvation, is the supreme _sádhya_. thus speak the _shastras_." the master objected, "the _shastras_ assert that the supreme _sádhan_ of the love and service of krishna is listening to and singing his praise. _vide bhágabat_, vii. v. 18. "from listening to and singing hymns, one comes to love krishna. that is the fifth human end, the limit of human attainment. _vide bhágabat_, xi. ii. 38. all kinds of scripture condemn (devotion to) work and teach us to abstain from the fruit of our works. therefore from work cannot spring love and devotion to krishna. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xi. 32; also _gitá_, xviii. 66; _bhágabat_, xi. xx. 9. truly devoted men renounce the fivefold salvation; in their eyes salvation is worthless, no better than hell! _vide bhágabat_, iii. xxix. 11; v. xiv. 43; vi. xvii. 23. "the devout abjure salvation and work alike. and you establish these two things as the end and means! ah! you are only befooling me as i am a [mere] _sannyasi_. you have not told me of the true characteristics of end and means." at this the high priest of the tattwa school was inly ashamed, while he marvelled at the vaishnav spirit of the master. so he replied, "your exposition is the true one. all _shastras_ declare this to be the vaishnav dogma. yet our order holds the views laid down by madhwacharya." the master rejoined, "the votary of work and the votary of knowledge are alike lacking in faith. in your order i see signs of these two. i see only one merit in your order: you have fixed, upon the true god." after thus humbling the pride of that sect the master went to the falgu shrine, then to tritakup (the shrine of vishálá), panchápsára, gokarna (where shiva is worshipped), dwaipáyani, supárak, kolhápur (where he beheld lakshmi and kshir bhagavati), nánga-ganesh, chor párvati, and pándupur [=pandharpur]. here before vitha's image he sang and danced long. a brahman of the place invited and reverently fed the master. learning the good news that shri ranga puri, a disciple of madhav puri, was residing in another brahman's house in that village the master went to see him. as he prostrated himself before the puri in devotion, he wept, trembled and was thrilled and covered all over with sweat. shri ranga puri wondered at the sight and cried out, "rise, blessed one. surely you are connected with my _guru_, or you could not have displayed such fervour of devotion". so, he raised and embraced the master, and the two wept clasping each other's neck. after a spell of rapture, the two came round, and the master said how he was related to ishwar puri. (at this) their love welled out wondrously and each honoured the other. day and night they held forth on krishna for a week or so. the puri asked about his birth-place. the master replied navadwip. shri ranga puri had once visited that town in the train of madhav puri. he spoke how he had been feasted in the house of jagannáth mishra, how delicious the hash of green banana-flower (_mochá_) had tasted, what a chaste woman and tender to the world like a mother was jagannáth's wife, how she was matchless in the universe for her skill in cookery, and how she had feasted the _sannyasis_ as lovingly as if they were her own sons, how one of her sons had turned monk in youth with the title of shankaráranya and had attained to death in that very place (_viz._, pandupur). the master broke in, "in his earthly life shankar was my brother. jagannáth mishra was my father." so they had a friendly assembly, and then shri ranga puri set out to visit dwáráka. the master was detained for some four days by his brahman host. he bathed in the bhimarathi and visited the shrine of vithal. then he walked by the bank of the krishna-binna, visiting the temples at the many holy places there. the brahmans of the country were vaishnavs and studied the _krishna-karnamrita_, of which book the master joyfully made a copy. the world has nothing like the _karnamrita_, which kindles pure devotion to krishna. he only knows the fulness of the beauty and sweetness of krishna's exploits, who ceaselessly reads the _karnamrita_. he carried with himself the manuscripts of the _brahma samhita_ and the _karnamrita_ like two precious jewels. after bathing in the tápti, he went to the city of maheshwati, and then visiting many holy places on the way, reached the bank of the narmadá. after visiting the shrine of the bow (_dhanu-tirtha_), he bathed in the nirbindhya, and then passed on to the rishyamukha mountain and the dandaka forest, where he beheld a _saptatál_ tree, very old stout and high. as the master embraced the _saptatál_, the tree disappeared bodily, at which the people marvelled and cried out, "this _sannyasi_ is an incarnation of ram, for lo! the _tál_ tree has flown up to vishnu's heaven. who but ram can work such a miracle?" then the master bathed in the lake of pampá, and rested in the panchavati wood. from násik and trimbak he passed on to brahma-giri, to kushávarta (the source of the godavari), the seven (branches of the) godavari, and many other shrines, and finally returned to vidyá-nagar. on hearing of his arrival, rámánanda ráy joyfully hastened to him and prostrated himself; but the master raised him and clasped him to his bosom. both wept in delight and their minds were unstrung by rapture. after recovering composure they talked of many things together. the master gave a narrative of his pilgrimage, and showed him the _karnamrita_ and the _brahma samhita_, saying "these two books bear out the theories of devotion (_prem_) which you had expounded to me." the ray in delight tasted the books in the master's company and took copies of them. the whole village was agitated by the news of the _sannyasi's_ return and all men flocked to see him. at this rámánanda went back to his own house. at noon the master rose for his meal. rámánanda returned at night and the two kept a vigil discoursing of krishna. thus five or six days were spent blissfully, the two holding forth on krishna day and night. rámánanda said, "with thy leave, master, i petitioned my king, and he has permitted me to visit the nilachal. i have already begun my preparations for departure." the master replied, "i have come here only to take you to the niláchal." but the ray objected, "master, go you in advance. a noisy throng of elephants, horses and soldiers surrounds me. let me first dispose of them, and then after ten days i shall follow you." the master consented and returned to the niláchal by the route he had previously followed, the people every where chanting hari's name as they saw him. he rejoiced at it. from alalnath he sent krishna-das in advance to call nityánanda and others of his own folk. at the news, nityánanda went to meet the master, his devotion knowing no bounds. jagadananda, damodar, gopinatli acharya and mukunda pandit went along dancing, unable to contain their delight. they all met the master on the way, and he lovingly embraced them, all weeping in delight. sárvabhauma bhattáchárya joined the master on the beach of the ocean and fell at his feet; but the master raised him up and held him to the bosom, sárvabhauma weeping in rapture. the whole party went to visit jagannáth's shrine, where the master had a transport of devotion, trembling, perspiring, weeping in delight, dancing and singing again and again. the servitors of the temple offered him the dedicated garlands and food of the god, at which the master regained composure. the attendants of jagannáth joyfully flocked together. káshi mishra (the high priest) fell at his feet, but the master did him honour and embraced him. the _parichhá_ of jagannáth, too, did him obeisance. sárvabhauma took the master to dinner at his own house, and fed him and his party at noon on sumptuous dishes from the temple. thereafter he made the master lie down and rubbed his feet; but the master bade him go and dine; and he passed the night also in sárvabhauma's house to please him, narrating the story of his pilgrimage all night to his followers and host, and saying, "in all the holy places i have visited i did not meet with a single vaishnav who can equal you. only rámánanda ráy gave me intense delight." the bhatta replied, "it was just for that reason that i had asked you to see him." [text, canto 9.] [1] this is exactly like the version of the legend of the abduction of helen given by stesichorus and accepted by euripides in his _helena_. notes on the places visited by chaitanya in the south [in this connection we should bear in mind that no record of chaitanya's pilgrimage was kept at the time it was made. his disciples heard of it, evidently piece-meal, from his lips long after-wards. a diary constructed on this basis by govinda-das has been lost. our author, krishna-das kaviraj, frankly admits (at the beginning of canto ix) that he has not been able to name the holy places, of the south in the order in which they were visited by the master. we should also note that this pilgrimage was performed between april 1510 and january 1512 and that the great and widespread revival of temple building which resulted from the restoration of the vijaynagar empire under krishna dev just began at the time of chaitanya's visit, but was completed long afterwards. hence many of the famous shrines of the south dating from the early 16th century were not seen by him, as they were completed after his visit]. _ahobal.--ahobilam_, in the sirvel taluq of the karnul district. the most sacred vishnu temple in the district, it is dedicated to narasimha. together with other temples in the neighbourhood, it forms a group known as the nava (nine) narasimha, represent ing nine different forms of vishnu. the original temple is supported by 64 pillars, each of which is beautifully carved into several miniature pillars. in front is a fine unfinished mantapam with large pillars of white sand-stone, about 3 feet in diameter, elaborately sculptured. (_kurnool manual_, 183-184, 145). _ananta padmanava_.--the famous padmanava temple in trivandrum. _betapani_.--_bhutapandi_ in travancore, in the tobala taluq, n. of nagarcoil, with temple of bhutanath. [r. m. ghose.] _brahma-giri_.--there is a brahmagiri near sopara (_bom. gaz._ xiv. 315); but that is not the place meant in our text. the reference is to the _brahma mountain_, in the ridge joining which to the trimbak mountain the kikvi, a larger and more distant branch of the godavari (than the one issuing at trimbak) takes its rise. (_bombay gaz_. rvi. 7). _chamtapur.--chenganur_ in travancore state. [r. m. g.] _chiyár-talá.--shertalá_ near nagarcoil, [according to r. m. ghose]. _courtallam_, 7 m. s. w. of tenkashi in the tinnevelly district, 450 ft. above sea-level. the falls of the chittar (a river which joins the tamraparni 15 m. n. j e. of tinnevelly) at this place are famous among the hindus for their virtue of cleansing from sin. [_tinn. man._ 96.] _dhanu-tirtha.--dhanus-kodi_, terminus of the s. i. railway, 12 m. south-east of rameshwaram. [r. m. g.] _durbesan.--darvashayan_, on the sea-coast seven miles east of ramnad. [r. m. g.] _gajendra-mokshan_.--probably devendra-mokshan or suchindram, 2 m. s. of nagarcoil. here indra was cleansed of his sin and built a temple to sthanu-linga shiva. [r. m. g.] _ganga gotami_.--the godavari river. at kobur, opposite rajmahendri, was the hermitage of the sage gautama, from whom this river is named. _gokarna_.--on the west coast, about 20 miles s. e. of karwar, famous for its temple of mahabaleshwar and a very popular place of pilgrimage. (_bombay gazetteer_, kanara, xv. pt. 2, pp. 289-301). _kolhapur_.--out of about 250 temples in this city at present six are well-known, namely, the temples of ambábái or mahálakshmi, vithoba, temblai, mahákali, phirangai or pratyangiras, and yallamma. (_bombay gaz_. xxiv. 309-311). _kumbha-kama.--kumbakonam_ in the tanjore district, 20 miles north-east of tanjore town. it contains 12 principal shaiva and 4 vaishnav temples and one dedicated to brahmá. (_tanjore gaz_. 217-219). _madura_--on the river vaigai, the minor basin of which is called _kritimá-nadi_ (the _krita-mala_ of our text). its temples are described in the _madura gazetteer_, 267-274. _mahendra hill_.--there is a peak of this name in the travancore state, but too far from cape comorin. _malay mountain (agastya)_.--(i) there is a temple to the sage agastya in the village agastyampalli, close to vedaranniyam, near point calimere in the tanjore district; but it cannot be the place meant, (ii) _palni_ in the madura district contains a famous temple to subrahmanya on the top of a hill (shivagiri) created by agastya. but there is no temple to agastya here. (_madura gaz._ 304-306). (iii) r.m. ghose is inclined to identify it with _pothia_ hill (near cape comorin), the reputed abode of agastya (k. pillai's _tamils 1,800 years ago_, 21.) (iv) the tamraparni rises on either side of a fine conical peak known as _agastiar-malai_ or agastya's hill. (_tinn. man._ 91). _mallar land._--malabar. _mallikarjun.--shri-shailam_, on the south bank of the krishna, 70 miles below karnul. in the centre of the enclosure is the temple of mallikarjun shiva, the chief deity worshipped here, and considered as one of the _jyotir-lingas_. (_kurnool manual_, 181-183, 144). there is another and much less famous temple to mallikarjun at bezvada on the krishna river. _matsya-tirtha_.--either (1) _mahé_, the french possession on the coast of the malabar district. or (2) _matsya-gundam_, a curious pool on the macheru river, near the village of matam, six miles north north-west of pacleru (in the padwa taluq of the vizaga-patam district). a barrier of rocks runs right across the river there, and the stream plunges into a great hole and vanishes beneath this, reappearing again about a hundred yards lower down. just where it emerges from under the barrier it forms a pool which is crowded with _mahseer_ of all sizes. (_vizagapatam gaz._ 285). _nine tripadi.--alwar tiru-nagari_, 17 m. s. e. of tinnevelly. around it are 9 temples to vishnu (_tirupati_), the idols of which are assembled in this town on holy days. [r. m. g.] _paksha-tirtha.--pakshi-tirtham_ or _tiru-kadi-kundram_, 9 miles south east of chingleput. [r. m. g.] "the hill of the sacred kites." it is a ridge terminating in a spiked hill, some 500 feet above sea-level, on which stands a shiva temple. the name of the hill is vedagiri or vedachalam, and the idol is called veda-girishwar. every day two birds of the kite species come to the mountain and are fed by an attendant brahman. the same two are believed to have come from benares to receive this daily dole from time immemorial. (_chingleput man_. 106-107). _pampá_.--the ancient and puranic name of the tungabhadra. the village of hampi (the site of the famous capital vijaynagar) was originally known as pampa-tirtha. this name (also _pampá-saras_) is now borne by a tank on the haidarabad side of the tungabhadra near anegundi. (_bellary gazetteer_, 6, 261). _pána_.--panakal narasimha at mangal-giri, 7 m. south of bezvada. but it is too far to the north. [r. m. g.] when visitors offer a draught to narasimha-swami, the image in the temple refuses to drink more than half of it. (_kistna dist. man._ 179). _páná-garhi.--panagodi_, 30 m. s. s. w. of tinnevelly on the road to trivandrum. [r. m. g.] but the temple there is to ramlinga-swami shiva and not to ram. _panchavati_.--identified with nasik in the bombay presidency. nasik and trimbak (at the source of the godavari) are described in _bombay gazetteer_, xvi. _pandupur.--pandharpur_, on the bhima river, 38 miles due west of sholapur; famous for its temple to vithoba. (_bombay gaz_. xx. 415-481). _papa-nashan_.--eight miles s. w. of kumbakonam (tanjore gaz. 221). there is another city of this name 29 miles west of palamkota, (in the tinnevelly district). here near a pagoda the tamraparni river takes its last fall from the hills to the level country. (_tinn. man._ 91). _payaswini.--tiru-vattar_ in the travancore state. [r. m. g.] _pitambar_.--evidently chidambaram, 26 miles south of cuddalore. famous for its great pagoda, covering 39 acres in the centre of the town, and sourrounded on all four sides by a street 60 feet wide. it contains the akasa-linga. (_s. arcot manual_, 400-407). _rishava peak--anagarh-malai_, 12 miles north of madura. [r. m. g.] _rishyamukh_.--identified with the hill on the nizam's side of the narrowest of the gorges in the tungabhadra near hampi. (_bellary gaz._ 261). _shiva image_.--either vedagiris at pakshi-tirtham or the _lingam_ in the shore temple at mahavalipuram (seven pagodas). _shiva kanchi_.--the modern _conjeveram_, also called the southern benares, 56 miles south-west of madras. the shiva temple is dedicated to ekambara-swami. south-east of it stands _vishnu kanchi_ or little conjeveram, with its temple to vishnu under the name of varada-ráj. _shiva-kshetra_.--there is a shiva-ganga tank at tanjore. the great brihatishwar temple of this town seems to be meant in our text. (_tanjore gaz._ 269-271). _shiyali_.--the head-quarters of a taluq of that name in the tanjore district, about 48 miles n. e. of tanjore town. it has a famous shiva temple with a large tank, a shrine dedicated to the tamil saint tiru-jnan sambandhar, and some other separate shrines, and evidently an image of shiva's consort who is said to have given suck to this saint when he visited this temple as a child. (_tanjore gaz_. 258). _shri janardan_.--near the varkala railway station, 26 miles north of trivandrum. _shringeri_.--in the kadur district of mysore. situated 13 25 n. 75 19 e., on the left bank of the tunga, 7 miles s. of hariharpur. its full name is rishya-shringa-giri. it is the head-quarters of the jagat-guru or successor of shankaracharya in the headship of the smartas. (rice, _mysore gazetteer_, ii. 443-445). _shri-rangam_.--the famous vishnu temple in an island between the kolerun and the kaveri, north of trichinopoly. (_trichinopoly manual_, 337-340 and _gazetteer_, 45-51, 91-126, 319). _shri-shaila_.--the most famous place of this name is the one in the karnul district, described above under mallikarjun. but that place cannot be meant in this context, which suggests some hill between trichinopoly and madura, sacred to shri or lakshmi. _shri-vaikuntha_.--_shri vaikuntham_, four miles n. of alwar tirunagari. [r. m. g.], on the left bank of the tamraparni and 16 m. s. e. of tinnevelly. _siddha-bat.--sidhout_, 10 miles east of cuddapa town. sometimes known as the dakshina kashi or the southern benares. the name is derived from _siddha-vatam_ or the hermit's banyan tree. eight miles south of it is ontimetta ('the solitary hill') with a large and very holy pagoda and a tank. the pagoda is dedicated to kodanda-ram-swami. (_cuddapah manual_, 48-49). _suparak-sopara_--(in the thana district), 26 miles north of bombay. it was the capital of the konkan from very ancient times to 1,300 a.d. (_bombay gaz_. xiv. 314-342). _tamal-kartik.--tobala_, 44 m. s. of tinnevelly, 2 m. e. of aramvali pass, temple of subrahmanya. [r. m. g.] _tamraparni_.--a river on the left bank of which tinnevelly stands. _til kanchi_.--probably _tenkashi_, 30 m. n. w. of tinnevelly town. _tirupati_.--a very famous holy city in the chandra-gin taluq of the n. arcot district. in lower tirupati, which stands in the plain, there are 15 templesf the chief of them being dedicated to govinda-raja-swami (the brother of venkateshwar) and ramswami. upper tirupati, usually called _tirumala_ (from _tirumalai_, holy hill), stands on the top of the range, six miles north west of lower tirupati. its chief divinity is venkateshwar. (_north arcot manual_, 142-153). _tri-kal-hasti.--shri kalahasti_, popularly called _kalahastri_, on the right bank of the suvarnamukhi river, 22 miles n. e. of tirupati. famous for its shrine of the vayu-linga shiva. (_n. arcot man_. 220-222). _udipi_.--36 miles north of mangalore (in the south kanara district), the principal seat of the madhavacharya priests. the temple of krishna is said to have been founded by madhavacharya himself, who set up in it an image of krishna originally made by arjun. there are also eight ancient _maths_, each with a swami. (_s. canara manual_, ii. 263. for a full description, see _bombay gazetter_, xxii. 56). _vedaban.--vedáranniyam_ or the forest of the vedas, in the south east corner of the tirutturaippundi taluq of the tanjore district and five miles north of point calimere. orthodox brahmans consider it second only to rameshwaram in sanctity. (_tanjore gaz_. 284). _vriddha-kal_.--varaha-swami temple, a monolithic pagoda, n. w. of "arjun's penance" and 3/4 m. s. of valipitham, at mahavalipuram or seven pagodas; image of vishnu with a huge boar's head, overcanopied by the shesha nag. _vriddha-kashi.--vriddhachalam_, on the manimukta (an affluent of the vellar), in the s. arcot district. sometimes called vriddha-kashi. (_s. arcot manual_, 438-440). it cannot be the place meant, if the order of holy places given in our text be correct. chapter viii the reunion of the vaishnavs after the master had set out for the south, king pratap rudra summoned sárvabhauma, seated him after due salutation, and asked him concerning the master, saying, "i hear that a very gracious person has come to your house from bengal. people say that he has shown you much kindness. do please help me to see him." the bhatta replied, "true is what you have heard. but you cannot see him; he is a _sannyasi_ withdrawn from the world, living in seclusion, and not visiting kings even in dreams. i could, however, have contrived somehow an interview between him and you: but he has recently gone to the south." the king asked, "why did he leave jagannáth's shrine?" the bhatta replied, "such is one of the deeds of saints. they visit holy places on the plea of making pilgrimages, but they thereby bring salvation to worldly men. _vide bhágabat_, i. xiii. 8. such is the unalterable character of a vaishnav: he is not a man but rather a particle of god." the raja rejoined, "why did you let him depart? you ought to have clasped his feet and importuned him to stay here." bhattáchárya answered, "he is a god and a free being. he is krishna's self and not a dependent creature. still i had tried to detain him, but could not succeed as god is free." the raja said, "bhatta! you are the chief of wise men. as you call him krishna, i must believe it. when he comes here again, may i see him once and gratify my eyes?" the bhatta replied, "he will soon return. we want a suitable place for him to lodge in; it must be near the temple and yet secluded. choose such a lodging for him." the king said, "kashi mishra's house is just that sort of place, close to jagannath and yet very retired." the king thereafter remained expectant. bhattáchárya informed kashi mishra, who said, "blessed am i that such a holy master will lodge under my roof." thus did all the people of puri live in ever-growing expectation of seeing the master, when he returned from the south. all rejoiced at the news, and they all begged sárvabhauma thus, "lead us to the master, that through thy mediation we may reach chaitanya's feet." bhattáchárya replied, "to-morrow the master will go to kashi mishra's house, where i shall introduce you to him." next day the master visited jagannáth in company with bhattáchárya, in great delight. the servitors met him with the god's food and he embraced them all. after the visit bhattáchárya led him to kashi mishra's house. kashi mishra fell at his feet, and gave up to him not his house only but his soul also. the master appeared to him in the four-armed shape, and embraced him to make him one of his own followers. then the master took his seat there. around him sat nityánanda and other devotees, the master was pleased with the arrangements of the house, which satisfied all his needs. then sárvabhauma said, "master, this house is worthy of you. accept it, as kashi mishra prays." the master replied, "my body is under your control. what you bid me, i must do, as in duty bound." then sárvabhauma, seating himself at the right hand of the master, began to introduce one after another all the people of puri, saying, "all these men have been residing in the niláchal in eager longing to meet you. they have fared like the thirsty _chátak_ bird that cries in anguish for water. all were determined [to see you]. this one is janárdan, a constant attendant on the person of jagannáth. this other is krishna-das who holds the golden rod [in the temple]. here is shikhi mahanti, the officer in charge of the [temple] secretariate. this, pradyumna mishra, is foremost among vaishnavs, and he waits on jagannáth during the god's sleep. murari mahanti, the brother of shikhi mahanti, has no refuge save your feet. [these are] chandaneshwar, singheshwar, murari brahman, and vishnu-das, all of whom meditate on your feet. here are the high-minded praharáj mahápátra, and his kinsman paramánanda mahápátra. these vaishnavs are the ornaments of this holy place, and all devotedly intent on your feet." they all prostrated themselves on the ground before the master, who graciously held them to his bosom. just then came there bhabánanda ray, with his four sons; and they all fell at the master's feet. sárvabhauma introduced them, "this is bhabánanda ray whose eldest son is rámánanda ray." the master embraced him and spoke in praise of rámánanda adding, "one cannot adequately describe to the world the greatness of him whose son is a jewel like rámánanda. truly, you are pandu, your wife is kunti, and your five high-souled sons are the five pandav brothers." the ray replied, "i am a shudra, a worldling and a wretch. that you have touched me is the only holy thing [about me]. i lay down at your feet myself with my house, belongings, servants, and five sons. this youth vánináth will constantly wait on you, to do whatever you bid him. know me as your own, feel no delicacy, but order whatever you desire." the master answered, "what delicacy can there be? you are not a stranger to me. in birth after birth you with your family have been my servants. in some five days rámánanda will arrive here. his society will complete my bliss." so saying he embraced the father, while the four sons laid their heads at his feet. they were all sent home, only vánináth patta nayak was retained by the master. bhattáchárya sent away the other people. thereafter the master called for deaf krishna-dás, and said "listen, bhattáchárya, to the story of this man. he had accompanied me to the south, but left me to join the tribe of bhattamári. but i rescued him from their hands. having brought him back here i give him his discharge. let him go wherever he likes; i have no longer any concern with him." at this krishna-dás set up a lamentation. when the master went away for his noonday worship, nityánanda, jagadánanda, mukunda, and dámodar laid their heads together, saying, "we have to send a messenger to bengal to report the master's arrival to his mother. adwaita, shribas and others of the faithful will all flock hither on hearing of his return. let us send krishna-dás (for the purpose)." with this they consoled krishna-dás. next day they prayed to the master, "allow us to send a man to bengal, as mother shachi, adwaita and other devotees have all been plunged in concern since they heard of your setting out for the south. let a man go and give them the glad tidings (of your safe return)." the master assented, "do as you like." so they sent krishna-dás to bengal, with a present of the _mahá-prasád_ for the vaishnavs there. deaf krishna-dás reached bengal, saw mother shachi at navadwip, bowed, and gave her the _mahá-prasád_ and the news of the master's return from the south. the mother rejoiced at the news, and so did the faithful led by shribas. then krishna-dás went to the house of adwaita acharya, gave him the _prasád_, bowed, and told him all about the master. the acharya in rapture danced, sang, and shouted for a long time. how shall i name all the flock who exulted at the news,--haridás thákur, vásudev datta, murári gupta, shivananda, acharya ratna, pandit vakreshwar, acharya nidhi, the pandits gadadhar, shrirám, dámodar, shrimán, and rághav, vijay, shridhar, and acharya nandan. they all went in a body to adwaita, bowed at his feet, and were clasped to his bosom. two or three days were spent by the acharya in great rejoicing (with them), and then he confirmed the desire to make a pilgrimage to the niláchal. gathering together at navadwip, they set off for jagannáth with mother shachi's leave. at the report about the master, satyaráj and rámánanda from the kulin village joined them, and so did mukunda and narahari from raghunandan khand. just then paramánanda puri arrived at nadia from the south, travelling along the banks of the ganges. he lodged in comfort in the temple of mother shachi, who honourably fed him. on hearing there of the master's return, the puri too wished to hasten to the niláchal. he set off thither with the master's devotee, the brahman kamalákánta, and soon arrived in the master's presence, who rejoiced at the meeting and lovingly saluted his feet, while the puri embraced him. the master said, "i long to live in thy company. make the niláchal thy abode, as thou lovest me." the puri replied, "it is because i desire your society that i came hither from bengal. the news of your return from the south has gladdened the heart of shachi. the other devotees are coming to see you, but as they made delay i had started quickly (before them)." the master assigned to the puri a retired room in káshi mishra's house and an attendant. next day arrived swarup dámodar, who had touched the inmost recess of the master's spirit. his name in the world was purushottam acharya, and he waited on the master at navadwip. wild at the master's renunciation of the world, he went to benares and turned monk there. his _guru_, chaitanyananda, bade him study the _vedánta_ and expound it to the people. he was totally withdrawn from the world and a deep scholar, having taken refuge in krishna with all his body and soul. he had turned _sannyasi_, in a wild longing to worship krishna in freedom from every (earthly) thought and care. as a _sannyasi_ he cast off his sacred thread and took the tonsure, but did not put on the yogi's dress. swarup was the new name given to him. with his _guru's_ permission he came to the niláchal, being day and night out of his senses in the bliss of loving krishna. he was a perfect scholar, holding converse with none, and living in seclusion unknown to the world, he had known the mystery of the love of krishna; his very body was a picture of love; he seemed the exact second self of the master. every book, verse, or song brought to the master had to be first examined by swarup before he would hear it. the master took no delight in compositions that clashed with the theory of _bhakti_ and lacked the spirit of delight (_ras_). so, swarup goswámi tasted books and read to the master only such as were correct. vidyápati, chandidás and _git-govinda_ were the poetry that delighted the master. dámodar surpassed others, as he was a veritable gandharva in musical skill and a vrihaspati in shastric lore. he was a darling to adwaita and nityánanda, and the very life of shribas and other faithful ones. such was dámodar who came and prostrating him self clasped the master's feet while he recited stanza 20 of act viii. of the drama _chaitanya-chandrodaya_. the master raised and embraced him. the two swooned away in ecstasy. after a while regaining composure the master began thus: "i have dreamt that you would come to-day. it is good (that you have come); i am like a blind man who has got back his two eyes." swarup answered, "pardon my sin, master i erred grievously when i left you and sought another (_guru_). i had not a particle of faith in your feet, but, sinner that i was, i had left you to go to another country! i had no doubt left you, but _you_ did not forsake me. thy grace has been a chain round my neck, dragging me to thy feet." then swarup bowed at nityánanda's feet, who lovingly embraced him. he also did due courtesy as he met jagadánanda, mukunda, shankar, sárvabhauma, and paramananda puri. the master gave him a quiet room with a servant to draw water and do other services. one day the master sat surrounded by sárvabhauma and other faithful ones, holding sweet discourse on krishna, when govinda arrived, prostrated himself, and said, "i am govinda, a servant of ishwar puri, at whose bidding i have come to you. the puri, when attaining to _siddhi_ (death) told me to go and serve krishna-chaitanya. kashishwar will come (here) after visiting holy places. at my master's bidding i have hastened to your feet." to this the master replied, "ishwar puri loved me like a son, and has sent you to me as a favour." at this sárvabhauma asked, "how could the puri retain a shudra attendant?" the master answered, "god is supremely independent. his mercy is not bound by (the rules of) the vedas. god's grace defies caste and family distinctions." witness how krishna dined at the house of bidur. love and service are mere instruments of krishna's mercy. when actuated by mercy he acts independently [of the conventions of religion]. loving treatment is a million times more blissful than dignity. the very hearing of it gives intense delight." so saying the master embraced govinda, who then bowed at the feet of all. the master spoke, "bhattáchárya, solve this problem: the very servant of my _guru_ is honourable to me, and it is not seemly that he should serve me. and yet the _guru_ has commanded it. what should i do?" the bhatta answered, "a _guru's_ command is most strong, and the shastras direct us not to violate it. witness the _raghuvamsa_, xiv. 53, and valmiki's _ramayan_, ayodhya-kanda, xxii. 9." then the master consented and permitted govinda to serve his body. all honoured him as the master's favourite attendant, while govinda made arrangements for all the vaishnavs. he was accompanied by the two haridases (who were surnamed the greater and lesser chanters), rámái and nandái, in tending the master. govinda's good fortune baffles description. one day mukunda datta said to the master, "brahmánanda bhárati has come to see you. permit me to bring him hither." but he replied, "the bhárati is my guru. it is i who should go to him." so saying, he went to brahmánanda, with all his followers. at the sight of brahmánanda clad in deer skin, the master grieved at heart, pretended not to have observed him, and asked mukunda where the bhárati was. mukunda replied, "here, before you!" but the master objected, "you do not know. it is not he, but somebody else whom you are ignorantly pointing out. why should the bhárati goswámi wear a skin?" at this brahmánanda inly reflected, "he likes not my robe of deer skin. he has spoken well. a skin is worn as a mark of pride (of asceticism). the wearing of it cannot give me salvation from the world. henceforth i shall renounce this garment." the master learnt of his thought, and had a cloth brought, which brahmánanda put on after discarding the skin. then the master bowed at his feet, but the bhárati objected saying, "these your acts are for instructing the people. never bow down to me again, it frightens me. here are now two gods, _viz._, jagannáth the stationary, and you the moving god. you are the fair god, while jagannáth is the dark deity. these two (between them) have redeemed the world." the master demurred, "the truth is that your coming has revealed two brahmas at purushottam: your name is brahmánanda, and (you are) the fair-coloured moving brahma, while jagannáth is the dark and motionless one." the bhárati cried out, "be thou the judge between us, sárvabhauma, and attend to my logical dispute with him. the shastras tell us that creation is _vyápya_, while brahma is _vyápak_. he has reformed me by taking away my skin robe. this shows that one is _vyápya_ and the other is _vyápak_. _vide mahabharat_, dan-parva, ch. 149, stanza 1091. to the master truly belong those (divine) epithets, sandal-pasted _prasád_, _dor_, two-armed _angad_." bhattáchárya replied, "o bhárati, the victory is thine, as i see." the master said, "whatever you say must be true. in a logical disputation, the disciple must always yield to the _guru_." but the bhárati objected, "no, no, the reason (of my victory) is otherwise. it is thy nature to admit defeat at the hands of thy _bhaktas_. listen to another feat of thine. all my life i had worshipped the formless deity, but when i saw thee, krishna became manifest before my eyes. krishna's name broke forth from my lips, krishna's image was stamped on my heart and eye. my soul thirsts for thee as thou resemblest krishna. my condition is truly like that of billamangal, as described in the _bhakti-rasámrita-sindhu_." the master rejoined, "deep is your love of krishna, so that whatever your eye glances on, you see a krishna there." bhattáchárya replied, "yes, but only after krishna had first revealed himself in the flesh. love alone can enable us to see him. his favour is the (only) means of seeing him." the master cried out, "holy god! holy god! what art thou saying, sárvabhauma? your praise in hyperbole is satire in disguise." so saying he led the bhárati to his own house and lodged him there. rám bhattáchárya and bhagabán acharya waited on the master, leaving all other works. another day kashishwar goswámi arrived and was honourably lodged by the master with himself. he used to escort the master to the temple of jagannáth, removing the crowd from before him. as all rivers and brooks unite in the ocean, so did the master's worshippers, wherever they might have been, all come together at his feet. he graciously kept them at his house. thus have i described the master's assembling of vaishnavs. [text, canto 10.] chapter ix the grand chanting (bera kirtan) one day sárvabhauma said, "master, may i make bold to submit a thing?" he replied, "say thy say without hesitation. if it is a proper request, i shall keep it, if not, not." sárvabhauma said, "here is pratap rudra ray, eager to meet you." the master clapped his hands to his ears, murmured an appeal to god, and replied, "why such an improper speech, sárvabhauma? i am a hermit withdrawn from the world. for me to meet a king or a woman is fatal like a draught of poison." sárvabhauma entreated, "true are thy words. but this raja is a votary of jagannáth and the chief of devotees." "still, a king is only the deadly snake in another form, just as the touch of even the wooden statue of a woman causes mental perturbation. say not so again. if you do, you will miss me from this place." alarmed, sárvabhauma retired to his own house. at this time king pratap rudra of the gajapati dynasty arrived at puri. with him came rámánanda ray, who first of all interviewed the master in great delight. the ray prostrated himself, the master embraced him, and the two shed tears of joy. at this loving intercourse, all the _bhaktas_ wondered. the ray said, "i reported your behest to my king, who relieved me of my office, as you wished. i told him that if he would let me i should remain at chaitanya's feet, as i no longer wished to manage affairs (of state). at the mention of thy name the king in delight rose from his throne and embraced me. on hearing thy name he was enraptured; he held my hand and very graciously told me, 'enjoy your salary as before, and adore chaitanya's feet in freedom from all cares. i, worthless wretch, am unfit to behold him. blessed are they in life that adore him. right gracious is he, the son of braja's lord. in some other birth he will certainly grant me the sight of him.' i myself have not a tithe of the passion of devotion which i saw in the raja." the master replied, "you are the foremost of the adorers of krishna. he is fortunate who loves you. krishna will accept the raja because of the great favour he has shown to you. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xix. 21, iii. vii. 20, and two verses from the _adi puran_ and the _padma puran_." the ray bowed at the feet of the four apostles, _viz._, the puri, the bhárati, swarup and nityánanda, and properly met jagadananda, mukunda, and the other faithful ones. the master asked, "ray! have you visited jagannáth?" the ray replied, "i am going to see the god now." at this the master cried out, "what hast thou done, ray? why did you come to me before visiting the god?" the ray answered, "my feet are my carriage, my heart is the driver; wherever they take me i, as rider, must go. what can i do? my heart brought me hither, and did not suggest the idea of visiting jagannáth first." the master replied, "hasten to see the god; go to your kindred and home afterwards." at the master's command the ray went to see the god. who can fathom the mystery of the ray's devotion? on reaching puri, the king summoned sárvabhauma, and after bowing to him asked, "did you submit my prayer to the master?" sárvabhauma replied, "i have entreated him hard, but he still refuses to grant interview to kings. if we press him further he will go away from this place." at this the king lamented, "his advent is for redeeming the sinful and the lowly. he has saved jagái and madhái. has he incarnated himself with the determination to deliver the whole world excepting pratap rudra, alone? well, he has vowed not to see me, and i now vow to give up this life if i cannot see him. if i am not rich in the great master's grace, what boots my kingdom, my body? everything is useless to me." hearing this sárvabhauma grew alarmed, and he marvelled at the ardour of the king's devotion. so he said, "my liege! grieve not. the master will surely take pity on you. he can be compelled by love, and your love is most profound; he cannot help doing you grace. still, i suggest a device by which you can see him. at the car festival, the master with all his followers will dance in rapture in front of jagannáth's car, and enter the garden in an ecstatic mood. just then, clad in a plain robe and reciting the _krishna-rása-panchádhyáyi_ all alone, you will run and clasp the master's feet. he will then be oblivious of the outer world, and on hearing krishna's name will embrace you as a vaishnav. to-day rámánanda ray has lauded your devotion to the master, whose mind has been turned by it." at these words the king rejoiced and accepted this plan of meeting with the master. he learnt from the bhatta that the bathing festival would occur three days afterwards. thus consoling the king, the bhatta returned home. at the bathing festival, the master greatly rejoiced to see the ceremony; but when jagannáth withdrew to retirement, he deeply mourned for it, and in anguish of separation, like the milkmaids during krishna's absence, he retired to alalnath, leaving his followers behind. they afterwards joined him, and reported that many of the faithful had arrived from bengal. sárvabhauma brought the master back to his quarters in puri, and informed the king of the fact. just then gopinath acharya arrived at the court, blessed the king, and said, "hark thee, bhattáchárya, two hundred vaishnavs are coming from bengal,--all of them followers of the master and very spiritual personages. they have appeared in the city. arrange for their being given lodgings and consecrated food." the king replied, "i shall order the _parichhá_, to assign them lodgings &c., as they require. show me, bhattáchárya, the master's followers arrived from bengal, one by one." the bhatta said, "climb to the roof of the palace. gopinath will point them out as he knows them all, i know none, though i long to do so. gopinath will introduce each." so saying the three ascended to the roof, while the vaishnavs came near them. damodar swarup and govinda, sent on by the master, welcomed the vaishnavs on the way with the god's garlands and _prasád_. to the rajah's query bhattáchárya said, "this one is swarup damodar, the _alter ego_ of the master. that is his servant govinda. by their hands has he sent the garlands as a mark of honour." swarup and govinda successively garlanded adwaita and bowed to him. but the acharya knew not govinda and asked who he was. damodar swarup answered "he is govinda, a highly meritorious servant of ishwar puri, who had ordered him to tend our master, and by him is govinda now retained." the king asked, "who is the high spiritual chief to whom both have given garlands?" the acharya replied, "he is adwaita acharya, respected by our master and highly honoured by all. that one is shribas pandit, and those are vakreshwar pandit, vidyánidhi acharya, gadadhar pandit, acharya ratna, purandar acharya, gangarlas pandit, shankar pandit, murari gupta, nara-yan pandit, haridas thakur (the purifier of the world), hari bhatta, nrisinghánanda, vásudev datta, shivánanda, govinda, mádhav, vásu ghosh (three brothers, whose chanting delights the master), rághav pandit, acharya nandan, shriman pandit, shrikanta náráyan, shridhar (the white robed), vijay, vallabh sen, sanjay, satyaraj khan (a resident of kulin village), rámánanda, mukunda-das, narahari, raghunandan, chiranjib (of khanda), sulochan, and many more. how can i name them all? they all follow chaitanya and hold him as their life." the king answered, "the sight fills me with wonder. i have never before beheld such radiance among vaishnavs. they are all resplendent of hue like a million suns. never before have i heard such entrancing street singing. nowhere else have i seen such devotion, such dancing, such shouting of hari's name, and nowhere else have i seen or heard the like of it." bhattáchárya said, "true are thy words. chaitanya has created this devotional procession-singing (_sankirtan_). his incarnation is for preaching religion; in the kali age the _sankirtan_ of krishna's name is the (only) religion. wise are those who worship krishna by means of _sankirtan_; all other men are overpowered by the spirit of kali. _vide bhagabat_, xi. v. 29". the king asked, "the shastras prove that chaitanya is krishna (incarnate). why then do scholars turn away from him?" the bhatta answered, "he alone whom chaitanya favours even a bit can know him as krishna. he who has not chaitanya's grace is nowise a scholar, as he sees and hears chaitanya without recognizing the god in him. _vide bhágabat_, x. xiv. 28." the king asked, "why are they all hastening to chaitanya's lodgings without first visiting jagannáth?" the bhatta replied, "such is the natural consequence of devotion. their hearts are yearning to see the master. they will see him first, and then led by him will visit jagannáth." the king next said, "vánináth, the son of bhabánanda ray, is conveying the _mahá-prasád_ by five or six porters to the master's house. why is such a huge quantity needed?" the bhatta answered, "knowing that the faithful were coming, the master had bidden him bring the _prasád_". the king objected, "it is the custom for pilgrims to fast on reaching a holy place (before they see the god). but why are these men breaking their fast?" the bhatta answered, "what you mention is the rule of religion. but in this path of devotion there is a subtle inner meaning. god's indirect (or general) command is that pilgrims should first shave their heads and fast. but the master's direct (or immediate) order is feasting on the _prasád_. where the _mahá-prasád_ is not available, fasting is the rule; but it is a sin to refuse the _prasád_ when the master bids one eat it; especially when he is distributing it with his own hands, who will reject such blessedness in order to fast? before this he had one morning offered me the _prasád_, and i had eaten it before rising from my bed! he whose heart receives chaitanya's gracious call discards the vedas and conventional religion, and seeks refuge in krishna alone. _vide bhágabat_, iv. xxix. 43." then the king descended from the palace terrace. he summoned kashi mishra and the _parichha_ officer and bade them, "the master's followers have come to him. give them food and board to their comfort, and make it easy for them to see the god. heedfully obey the master's behests. even when he does not speak out, carry out his hinted purpose." so saying he dismissed them. sárvabhauma then went away to visit the temple. gopinath acharya and sárvabhauma from afar beheld how the master met the vaishnavs. the vaishnavs (from bengal) took the way to kashi mishra's house, leaving jagannáth's lion-gate on their right. just then the master coming with his attendants met them on the way in great glee. adwaita bowed at his feet, but he embraced him. in rapture of devotion the two were greatly excited, but in consideration of the occasion the master composed himself somewhat. the new arrivals all bowed to him, and he embraced and addressed each of them in turn, took them inside his house (which was filled with the throng of countless vaishnavs), seated them by himself, and personally gave them garlands and sandal-paste. then gopinath and sárvabhauma arrived there and saluted all in proper terms. sweetly did the master address adwaita, "thy coming has made me complete to-day." but adwaita objected, "such is the nature of god. he is full and the source of all power, and yet he exults in the society of the faithful and ever disports in many ways with them." the master, delighted to meet vasudev, stroked his body and said, "mukunda has beeh my companion from my childhood. but the sight of you gives me even more delight." vasudev replied, "that mukunda has gained your society is a second birth to him. therefore is his rank higher than mine, though i am his elder brother. your grace has made him excel in all virtues." then the master added, "i have brought two manuscripts from the south for you. they are with swarup; take copies of them." vasudev was pleased to get the books, and every vaishnav (from bengal) took a copy of them; so that gradually the two works spread everywhere. lovingly did the master address shribas and others, "you four brothers have bought me (with your kindness)," to which shribas replied, "why do you speak just the contrary of the fact? we four are bondsmen purchased by your grace." seeing shankar, the master spoke to damodar [his elder brother], "my love for you is mixed with respect, whereas towards shankar i feel pure affection. therefore keep him in your company." damodar replied, "shankar was born after me, but your grace has made him my elder brother." to shivananda he said, "i knew before [this your first introduction to me] that you were ardently devoted to me." at these words shivananda was enraptured; he prostrated himself on the ground and recited an extempore sanskrit stanza. murari gupta, without coming to the master at first, lay prostrate out of doors. the master searched for him, and many ran out to bring murari in. murari presented himself before the master holding two blades of grass between his teeth as a mark of abject humility. as the master advanced to yyelcome him, murari stepped back shouting, touch me not, lord, i am a sinner, my body is unworthy of your touch." the master replied, "away with your lowliness, murari; the sight of it pierces my heart." so saying he embraced murari, seated him by his side and patted him on the back. similarly, with words of praise and repeated embraces did the master receive acharya ratna, the vidyanidhi, gadadhar pandit, gangadas, hari bhatta, and purandar acharya. then he asked, "where is haridas?" but haridas lay prostrate far away on the edge of the public road, whence he had first beheld chaitanya. he had not resorted to the master's reception, but stopped at a distance. the devotees hurried there to lead him in, but haridas said, "i am a low person, of no caste, and debarred from going close to the temple. if i can get a little retired space in the garden, i shall lie there and pass my time in loneliness, so that no servitor of jagannáth may have anv occasion to touch me. that is my prayer." at the report of this speech the master was pleased. just then kashi mishra and the _parichha_ arrived and did obeisance to the master. delighted to see so many vaishnavs, they were introduced to all with due courtesy. then they entreated the master, "permit us to make arrangements for these vaishnavs. we have chosen lodgings for all and shall serve them with the _mahá-prasád_." the master replied, "gopinath! take the vaishnavs with you and bestow them in the lodgings chosen for them. deliver the _mahá-prasád_ to vaninath, who will distribute it to all. close to my place is a very lonely house in this flower-garden. let me have it, as i need it for lonely meditation." then mishra said, "all is thine, and this begging is needless. take whatever houses you please. we two are slaves waiting for your bidding. be pleased to command us in whatever you wish for." the two now left with gopinath and vaninath; the former was shown all the lodging-houses, and the latter was given immense quantities of the _mahá-prasád_ (for the whole party). thereafter vaninath returned with the consecrated rice and cakes, and gopinath after cleaning the lodgings. the master said, "hear, all ye vaishnavs! go to your respective lodgings. after bathing in the ocean and gazing at the pinnacle of the temple, come here for your dinner." after bowing to the master, they were led away to their quarters by gopinath. then he came to receive haridas, who was chanting god's name in rapture. haridas fell flat at the master's feet, who clasped him to his bosom. both wept in fervour of love,--the master overcome by the disciple's merits and the disciple by the master's. haridas cried, "touch me not, master, i am a low untouchable wretch." but the master answered, "i touch you to be purified myself, because i lack your pure religion. every moment you acquire as much piety as by bathing in all holy places, or by performing sacrifice, austerities, and alms-giving, or by reading the vedas. you are holier than a brahman or a _sannyasi_! _vide bhágabat_ iii. xxxiii. 7." so saying he took haridas into the garden and gave him a room all apart, adding, "live here, chanting his name. daily will i come and join thee. bow to the discus on the top of the temple of jagannáth (which you can see from here). the _prasád_ will be sent to you here." nityánanda, jagadananda, damodar, and mukunda rejoiced on meeting with haridas. after bathing in the sea the master returned to his quarters. adwaita and his party also bathed in the sea, gazed (reverently) at the pinnacle of the temple, and came to the master's house for dinner. chaitanya seated them in proper order and himself distributed the food. so lavish was his hand that he gave two or three men's food to each. but all the faithful held their hands back from the dinner so long as the master fasted. swarup reported this to him, saying, unless you sit down to meal, none else will dine. gopinath acharya has invited the party of _sannyasis_ to dine with you. he has brought the _prasád_, and the puri and bhárati were waiting for you. do you sit down to dinner with nityánanda, while i serve the vaishnavs." then the master carefully sent the _prasád_ to haridas by the hand of govinda, and himself sat at meals with all the _sannyasis_, while the acharya served them in delight. swarup damodar and jagadananda served the vaishnavs, who ate all sorts of cakes and syrups, joyously shouting hari's name every now and then. after they had dined and washed their hands, the master gave each a garland and a sandal-paste mark. they then retired to their lodgings for rest. in the evening they came to him again, when rámánanda also arrived. the master introduced him to all the vaishnavs. with the whole party he went to jagannáth's temple, and began to chant (_kirtan_). after the burning of evening incense he began a _sankirtan_. the _parichhá_ presented him with a garland and sandal-paste. four parties sang on four sides, while in their midst danced shachi's darling. eight _dholes_ and 32 cymbals were played on. all shouted "hari! hari!" and cheered. the blissful sound of _kirtan_ penetrated through the 14 regions to the empyrean. as the _kirtan_ began, devotion welled out; the people of puri ran thither and marvelled at the singing, having never seen such transports of love before. next the master went round jagannáth's temple, dancing and singing, while the four parties of chanters preceded and followed him. as he was falling down, nityánanda held him up. men wondered as they beheld his weeping, tremour, perspiration, and deep shouting. the tears ran down his cheeks like jets from a syringe and bathed the men around. after dancing round the temple for a long time, he performed _kirtan_ behind it, the four parties singing in a high pitch, while chaitanya danced wildly in the middle. after dancing long he stopped and permitted the four apostles to dance with the four parties, nityánanda, adwaita acharya, vakreshwar pandit, and shrinibas while the master from the centre gazed on. here he manifested a miraculous power: every one who danced around him saw that the master was gazing only at him! he manifested this power only because he wished to behold the dance of the four. every one noticed his attentive gaze but did not know how he could gaze on four sides! just as at the feast on the jamuna's bank, krishna in the midst of his comrades seemed to be gazing at every one of them at the same time. as each came up to him dancing, the master firmly clasped him to his bosom. the people of puri swam in a sea of delight as they beheld such grand dancing, devotion, and _sankirtan_. the king himself on hearing of the splendour of the _kirtan_, ascended to the terrace of his palace with his court to gaze at it. the sight increased his admiration and his eagerness to be introduced to the master. after finishing the chanting and beholding the ceremony of showering flowers on jagannáth, the master returned home with all the vaishnavs. the parichha brought to him plenty of prasád which he divided among all. then he dismissed them and retired to bed. all the time they were with him, they daily performed _kirtan_ in this style. [text, canto n.] chapter x cleansing jagannath's garden-house before this, when the master returned from the south, king pratap rudra gajapati, eager to see him, wrote to sárvabhauma from katak to get the master's consent to an interview. on bhattáchárya replying that the consent was withheld, the king wrote again, "entreat the _bhaktas_ of the master to intercede with him for me. through their favour i may reach his feet. i like not my kingship if i cannot gain his grace. if chaitanya does not take pity on me, i shall give up my throne and turn a religious mendicant." bhattáchárya in great alarm went to the _bhaktas_, told them of the king's plight and showed them the letter. they marvelled at the king's devotion to the master and said, "he will never receive the king. if we entreat him, it will only grieve him." but sárvabhauma said, "let us all go to him. we shall tell him about the king's conduct without pressing him to grant an interview." so they all repaired to the master's presence, eager to speak and yet silent. he asked, "what is it that you have all come to say? i see you have of something in your minds. why then do you not speak it out?" nityánanda replied, "we have a prayer to make. we cannot keep it back, and yet we fear to speak. proper or improper we shall report it all to you. if you do not see him the king wishes to turn hermit." the master's heart was secretly softened by the speech, but with a show of harshness he said, "i see that you all wish to take me to see the king at katak! not to speak of the next world, even the people (of the earth) will blame me. not to speak of other people, even damodar will condemn me. if i ever receive the king it will be with damodar's approval and not at your request." damodar said, "you are god and a free being. you know best what is proper (for you) and what is not. how can a petty creature like me lay down the rule to you? i shall witness your granting him an audience of your own accord. the king loves you, love compels you, therefore his love will make you touch him. a free god as you are, it is your nature to be swayed by love." nityánanda broke in, "where is the man that dares bid you interview the king? but it is the nature of devoted ones that they give up their lives if they fail to obtain the object of their adoration. witness how the sacrificing brahman's wife gave up her life on failing to go out and see krishna [_bhágabat_, x. xxiii]. there is one way, however, if you will only listen to it, by which you will not meet the king and yet his life will be saved: give him of thy grace thy wearing apparel, by getting which he will hold to life." the master replied, "you are all highly learned. do whatever you think fit." then nityánanda begged from govinda one of the _dhotis_ of the master, and sent it by sárvabhauma to the king, who gleefully adored the cloth as if it were the master himself. thereafter when rámánanda ray came back from the south and entreated the king to let him stay with the master, the king gladly consented, and pressed him to entreat the master, whose favourite he was, to grant him an interview. then the two arrived at puri, and rámánanda waited on the master and reported to him the king's love and devotion. he repeatedly took occasion to mention the subject, being a minister expert in diplomacy, and succeeded in softening the master's mind. pratap rudra could not contain himself in his eagerness, and again pressed rámánanda, who begged the master to show his feet only once to the king. but the master replied, "judge for yourself, rámánanda, whether a hermit ought to receive a king. such an interview ruins a hermit in this world and the next, and makes him a butt of ridicule." rámánanda pleaded, "you are god and your own master; whom fear you? you are subject to none!" the master replied, "i am a _sannyasi_ living in human habitations, and i fear worldly dealings with all my soul and body. even the most trifling failing of a _sannyasi_ is talked of by all men, just as a spot of ink on a white cloth cannot be hidden." the ray urged, "you have saved (by your touch) many a sinner, while this king is a devotee of god and your _bhakta_." the master parried the argument thus, "just as a jar full of milk is shunned if it contains even one drop of wine, so is pratap rudra, clad in all the virtues, defiled by his title of king. still, if you are keen about it, introduce his son to me. the shastras say, _the son is one's own self born again_. my interview with the son will be equivalent to a meeting with the father." the ray reported it to the king and conducted the prince to the master. the royal youth was handsome and dark, clad in a yellow robe and jewels, --so that he reminded one of krishna. on seeing him, the master thought of krishna, lovingly received him, and said, "a very pious personage is this youth, the sight of whom makes all men remember the darling of braja's lord. blessed am i that i have seen him." so saying he repeatedly embraced the prince, who was transported by the touch and began to perspire, tremble, weep, exult and stand inert, and (then) danced and wept chanting krishna's name. the _bhaktas_ present praised his good fortune. then the master composed him and bade him come there daily. the ray took the prince away to the king who rejoiced at his son's exploit, and in embracing his son felt the touch of the master's person as it were. thenceforth the lucky prince was numbered among the master's _bhaktas_. so did he pass his time blissfully in ceaseless _sankirtan_ with his followers. he was feasted with his companions by the acharya and others successively. thus some time passed and the day of the car festival approached. at the outset he called for kashi mishra, the _parichhá_ minister and sárvabhauma, and smilingly said, "i beg to undertake the service of cleansing the gundicha temple." the _parichhá_ replied, "we are all your servants, bound to do whatever you wish for. on me has been laid the special command of my king to quickly perform whatever you bid. cleaning the temple is not a task worthy of you; but it is one of your playful acts; do whatever you like. but many pitchers and brooms will be required. permit me to bring them here to-day." so he delivered to the master a hundred new pitchers and brooms. next morning the master rubbed his followers over with sandal-paste, gave each a broom and went with them to the gundicha temple to clean it. first he swept and cleaned the inside, the roof, and the throne. the two temples, large and small, were swept and washed, and then the dancing-hall in front. the hundred _bhaktas_ plied their brooms, the master in the middle guiding them by his own manner of sweeping. following him they gleefully chanted krishna's name while at work. the dust covered his fair form; now and then his tears washed the ground. the god's dining-hall was swept and then the court-yard. at last all the rooms were cleaned. he made a bundle of the collection of straw, dust and pebbles in his outer clothing and threw them outside. so did his followers, too. the master said, "i shall learn the amount of the labour done by each from the size of his bundle of sweepings." so their bundles were heaped together, but the master's own bundle was seen to exceed the entire heap. after cleansing the interior, he divided the work again among them, telling them to make the place thoroughly tidy by removing all the fine dust, small straws and gravel. he rejoiced to see the cleansing finished a second time by his party of vaishnavs. a hundred other followers had been waiting with a hundred pitchers of water from the outset, for their turn. as soon as the master called for water they placed the hundred pots before him. he first washed the temple, top-floor, wall, and the throne in the interior. the water was dashed in earthen cups on to the top, and thus the upper walls were washed. he himself washed the throne, while the _bhaktas_ washed the inner shrine, and scrubbed it with their own hands. some poured water on the master's hands, some on his feet, and some covertly drank up the water (so consecrated). some begged this water from others. after the temple had been cleansed they poured water into the drain and thus the court-yard was submerged. with his own cloth the master wiped the building and the throne. it took a hundred pitchers of water to wash the temple. the purified temple became spotless, cool and delicious, like his own mind laid bare to view. a hundred filled their pitchers at the tank, or, if crowded out, at the well. a hundred _bhaktas_ brought the filled pitchers in, while another hundred ran off with the empty ones. only nityánanda, adwaita, swarup, the bhárati, and the puri did not draw water. (in their hurry) many pitchers were knocked together and broken, but men brought hundreds of new pots to replace them. they shouted _krishna! krishna!_ as they filled their pots, or broke them, delivered the filled pitchers or begged for new ones. no other word was uttered there; krishna's name became a mystic word to express all their different purposes. in ecstasy of devotion the master chanted krishna's name and did alone the work of a hundred men, as if he had put forth a hundred arms in washing and scrubbing. he also went up to each to instruct him, praising those whose tasks were well done and gravely chiding those who were slovenly. "you have done well, teach others to do the like,"--at these words of his they were put on the alert and did their work with all their heart. then they washed the _jagmohan_[1] the dining room, the dancing-hall, the court-yard, the kitchen, the environs of the temple, and all nooks and private places. just then an honest simple bengali emptied his pitcher at the master's feet and drank the water. at this the master turned angry and sorry. he inly felt pleased, but for the instruction of others outwardly professed anger, calling out to swarup "look at the conduct of your _gauriyá_. he has washed my feet in god's temple and drunk the water. from this sin where can i hope for salvation? your bengal man has caused me this misery." then swarup took the man by the nape of his neck, shoved him out of the temple, and on his return entreated the master to pardon the man. the master was now satisfied. he seated all in two rows and sat in the middle, picking up straws and brambles with his own hands. "i shall see what a heap the gleaning of each can make. he whose collection is small must forfeit his cake and syrup to me!" thus was the temple made clean, cool and pure, like his own mind. the water running down the drain looked like a new river flowing to the ocean. he then cleansed the man-lion temple in and out, rested a little, and then set up dancing. and in the same manner he swept the roads in front of the temple. the _bhaktas_ danced around, while the master danced in their midst like a raging lion, perspiring, trembling, turning pale, being thrilled, and roaring. after washing his body he marched in advance, showering down tears, while the _bhaktas_ washed themselves clean, like unto the deluge of rain from the clouds in the month of _shrávan_. the loud _sankirtan_ filled the sky, the vigorous dance of the master shook the earth. the resonant singing of swarup pleased the master, who danced wildly in delight. after dancing thus, he took rest at the proper time. shri gopal, the son of the acharya, when allowed by the master to dance, was so overcome by devotion that he fell down in a fit. the father hurriedly took him up in his arms, and was afflicted to see his breathing stopped. uttering with a sky-splitting roar the "spell of nrisingha" he dashed water on the youth's face. but the youth did not regain consciousness, in spite of all their efforts. the acharya wept, the _bhaktas_ wept too. then the master laid his hand on the youth's breast and cried out, "rise gopal!" and lo! at the cry gopal came round. the _bhaktas_ danced chanting hari's name. after a short rest, the master disported with his followers in the tank. on rising from the water he put on dry clothes, bowed to nrisingha, and went to sit in the garden, with his followers around him. then vaninath, accompanied by kashi mishra and tulsi _parichhá_, brought to him the _mahá-prasád_, rice, cakes, and syrup, enough to feed five hundred men. the master delighted at the sight. on the terrace he sat down to meal with the puri, brahmánanda bhárati, adwaita acharya, nityánanda, acharya-ratna, acharya-nidhi, shribas, gadadhar, shankar nyáyáchárya, raghav, vakreshwar and sárvabhauma. then the _bhaktas_ sat down in the successive terraces below them, in due order. the garden was filled with them. the master repeatedly called for haridas, who from afar off replied, "partake of thy repast with the _bhaktas_, master. i am all too unworthy to sit with thee. govinda will afterwards give me _prasád_ outside the gate." knowing his intent, the master did not press him further. the food was served up by swarup, jagadananda, damodar, kashishwar, gopinath, vaninath and shankar, while the _bhaktas_ shouted _hari! hari!_ at intervals. the master remembered the picnic on the jamuna bank which krishna had held of yore. he checked, as inopportune, the rapture of devotion which seized his mind (at the thought), and said, serve me with sauce and fry only, and let the _bhaktas_ have the sweets. being omniscient he knew who liked which dish, and directed swarup to serve each according to his taste. jagadananda, in the course of his serving, dropped sweet things unawares on the master's plate, and though the master angrily protested, he supplied more by force or cunning, as such serving was his delight. as jagadananda came there on his rounds again and gazed at the sweets he had served before, the master in fear of him ate a little of them, lest jagadananda should himself fast! swarup with his hands full of sweet _prasád_ stood before the master praying "taste a little of this _maha-prasád_ and see what jagannath has eaten!" he placed them on the plate, and the master moved by his kindness, ate a little. thus did these two _bhaktas_ repeatedly show their wonderful tender regard for him. sárvabhauma, who sat at the master's side, smiled at their loving conduct. the master ordered sweets to be served to sárvabhauma and repeatedly pressed him to eat. gopinath acharya placed nice dishes before sárvabhauma and said sweetly, "bhattáchárya! where is your former line of conduct now? whence do you feel such supreme bliss? answer me that." sárvabhauma replied, "i was a sophistical disputant. your grace has made me attain to this fortune. the master is the only gracious one. who else could have turned a crow (like me) into a _garuda_ (the favourite bird of vishnu)? formerly i used to howl with the sophist jackals, and now out of the same mouth i utter krishna's name! what was my former concourse with externalist logician disciples, and what is this society of saints like merging in the ocean waves!" the master said, "your devotion to krishna had already matured (before i met you). it is your society that has made us all devoted to krishna!" there is none like the master, in the three worlds, to exalt the glory of the _bhakta_ and to soothe a _bhakta's_ heart. then the master sent cakes and syrup from the leavings of his plate, to each _bhakta_ by name. adwaita and nityánanda, sitting together began a mock quarrel, the former saying, "i have dined in the same row with a hermit (_abadhut_). who knows what my fate will be in the next world? the master himself is a _sannyasi_, and as such is above defilement from food-contact (with a casteless man like an _abadhut_), for so the shastras say. but i am a brahman householder, and therefore liable to defilement. it has been a great sin on my part to dine in the same row with a man whose birth, pedigree, conduct and character are unknown to me!" nityánanda replied, "you are adwaita acharya. according to the theory of _adwaita_ system (monism), the duty is abstract _bhakti_. he who accepts your theory recognizes only one principle and no second. with such a person as you have i dined! i know not what led me to join your company." so they wrangled, really praising one another in the garb of abuse. after the dinner, the vaishnavs rose up shouting _hari_ loudly enough to split earth and heaven. the master gave to each of them a garland with his own hand. next the waiters, swarup and the other six, sat down to their repast within the room. govinda laid aside the leavings of the master's plate, to be given to haridas. the _bhaktas_ and even govinda himself took a little of this hallowed food. various are the sports of the free god, such as this ceremony of washing and cleaning. for a fortnight the people had been denied sight of the god jagannath [while his image was being painted anew]; and their grief changed into joy when, at the expiry of the period, the eye-painting (i.e., the last stage) being over, they could again see him. the master went thither with all his followers. first marched kashishwar, making a lane through the crowd, next went govinda with a bowl of water. in front of the master walked the puri and the bhárati, and by his side swarup and adwaita, the other _bhaktas_ bringing up the rear. anxiously did he go to jagannáth's temple and in passion of longing stepped beyond the rules, asking to see the fair face of the god in the dining room. the thirsty eyes of the master ardently drank in the face of krishna, like a pair of bees sucking in a lotus. the god's eyes surpassed the blooming lotus in beauty, his cheeks flashed radiance like a polished turquoise mirror, his lower lip was sweet as the bandhuli flower, a light smile spread a ripple of nectar over his form. as the _bhaktas_ gazed on, the charm of the god's countenance increased every moment; their thirst increased with its gratification; their eyes could not move from that face. thus did the master with his following gaze at the god till noon, perspiring, trembling, weeping incessantly, and again checking these outbursts in order to have a clearer view of the deity. at the time of _bhog_ he began to sing _kirtan_, forgetful of everything else in the bliss of gazing. the _bhaktas_ led him back to his quarters at noon. the servitors offered to the god a double quantity of prasád, knowing that the car festival would take place next morning. [text, canto 12.] [1] a quadrangle in front of the inner shrine, where the worshippers stand when gazing on the idol. chapter xi the dance before jagannáth's car. next day the master took care to bathe with his followers before it was dawn. pratap rudra himself accompanied by his court showed the master's _bhaktas_ the ceremony of jagannáth leaving his throne to take his seat in the car. girt round by adwaita, nityánanda and other _bhaktas_, the master delightedly witnessed the scene. the stout _pándás_ [attendants on an idol] like so many wild elephants, conveyed jagannáth in their arms, some holding the god's neck and some his feet. a strong thick rope was fastened to his waist, and the _pándás_ raised the image by pulling at the two ends of the rope. thick and high heaps of cotton were placed at different points, and the god was raised from one and quickly rested on another of them; but the touch of his feet broke up the heaps and scattered the cotton with a loud sound. (in fact) jagannáth supports the universe; who can move him? he moves of his own will, to disport himself. shouts of "great lord! master! master!" rose up, but nothing could be heard amidst the clang of many instruments of music. then pratap rudra, with his own hands, swept the path with a golden broom-stick, and sprinkled sandal water on the ground. he was a king accustomed to sit on the throne, but in as much as being so high he did such lowly services, he gained jagannáth's grace. the master rejoiced at the sight, and this lowly service of the king gained for him the master's regard. men marvelled as they beheld the trappings of the car. it was covered with fresh gold and high as the sumeru mountain. hundreds of fly-whiskers and polished mirrors hung from it; above were flags and a pure canopy. the _ghágar_ rattled, bells jingled on it. many coloured silk cloths covered it. jagannáth mounted one car, subhadra and balaram two others. for fifteen days had jagannáth remained (behind a screen), dallying in secret with lakshmi, and now with her leave he came out for a ride in his car to give delight to his adorers. the fine white sand on the road suggested a river bank, and the gardens on both sides made the place look like brindában. jagannáth went along in his car, pleased with what he saw on both sides. bengali athletes dragged the car joyfully. it sped at one time, slackened at another, and sometimes stopped altogether. in fact it moved of its own will, and not under the force of men. then the master with his own hands gave to the _bhaktas_ sandal paste and garlands then he divided the chanters (_kirtaniás_) into four parties, consisting in all of 24 singers and eight men playing on the _khol_, their chiefs being swarup and shribas. then he bade nityánanda, adwaita, haridas, and vakreshwar dance. in the first party swarup was the leading singer, while the other five were damodar, náráyan, govinda datta, raghav pandit and shri govindananda; with them danced adwaita. of the second party the spokesman was shribas, his followers being gangadas, haridas, shriman, shuvananda, and shri ram pandit. here danced nityánanda. mukunda led the third party, consisting of vásudev, gopinath, murari, shrikánta, and vallabh sen, with haridas thákur as the dancer. the fourth party was composed of haridas, vishnudas, raghav, madhav ghosh and his brother vásudev ghosh, their leader being govinda ghosh, and their dancer vakreshwar pandit. other parties of _kirtan_ singers were formed by the pilgrims from the kulin village, (with rámánanda and satyaraj as their dancers), the acharyas of shantipur (with achyutánanda as their dancer), the men of khand (with narahari and shri raghunandan as their dancers). in short four parties preceded the car of jagannáth, two walked on the flanks, and one in the rear. these seven parties played on 14 _khols_ in all, the music of which maddened the vaishnavs present. the cloud of vaishnav enthusiasm melted in showers, their eyes dropped tears along with the nectar of _kirtan_. the shout of _kirtan_ filled the three worlds and drowned all other sounds. the master visited the seven positions shouting "hari" and "glory to jagannáth!" with uplifted arms. another miracle did he manifest: at the same moment he was present with all the seven parties, so that each cried out, "the master is with us. out of his grace for us he has not gone elsewhere." no one can describe the inscrutable power of the master, only the pure-souled esoteric _bhakta_ can know it. jagannáth, pleased with the _sankirtan_, stopped his car. at this pratap rudra marvelled exceedingly and became overcome with excess of devotion. he spoke of the master's greatness to kashi mishra, who replied, "you are, o king, fortunate beyond limit." the king and sárvabhauma exchanged glances, as none else knew the secret manipulation of chaitanya;--only those whom he favours can know him; without his grace even brahmá cannot recognize him. he had been delighted with the lowly service done by the king, and for that reason had revealed his mystery to him. true, he had shown himself to the king only indirectly; but who can pierce through this illusion of chaitanya? sárvabhauma and kashi mishra were amazed at the grace shown to the king. thus did the master play for some time, singing and making his followers dance, now assuming one form, now many, ever putting forth his powers according to the work to be done. in the ardour of play he forgot himself, and wished not to put a stop to it. every moment did he do supernatural feats, as he had in a preceding birth performed _rása_ and other sports at brindában. dancing thus, the master swept the people away on the wave of enthusiasm as jagannáth was going to the gundichá garden-house, the master performed _kirtan_ before the god for a long time. first he made his _bhaktas_ dance, and then, wishing to dance himself, united the seven parties, placed nine men (shribas, rámái, raghu, govinda, mukunda, haridas, govindánanda, madhav, and govinda) under swarup to sing and move in the master's company, while the other parties sang around him. after bowing to jagannáth, with folded palms and uplifted face the master prayed: _"salutation to shri krishna! who is the divine god, the protector of brahmans and kine, and benefactor of the universe. to krishna, to govinda, i bow again and again!"_ (_vishnu puran_, pt. i. xix. 48.) _"victory attend devaki's son, the lamp of the vrishni race, the lord! deep blue like the clouds is his colour, tender are his limbs. he is the redeemer of the world from its load of sin. victory to him! victory!"_ (_padávali_, c. 108.) also _bhágabat_, x. xc. 24 and _padávali_, c. 63. reciting these verses the master bowed low again, while the _bhaktas_ with folded palms adored god. dancing impetuously with loud roars, he moved in circles, like a lathe. wherever his feet touched the ground, the "earth with its hills and oceans trembled. he manifested stupor, perspiration, joyous weeping, tremour, turning pale, all sorts of helplessness, pride, exultation and humility. stumbling he rolled on the ground, like a golden hill thrown on the earth. nityánanda and adwaita hastened to raise him up in their arms, shouting _hari! hari!_ three circles were formed to keep the crowd back. the first was formed by nityánanda, the second was composed of kashishwar, mukunda and other _bhaktas_ locking their hands together. outside pratap rudra with his ministers formed another ring to keep the spectators in check. the king, with his hand resting on the shoulder of his prime-minister, was gazing in absorption at the master's dance. as shrinibas, sunk in devotion, was standing before the king, the prime-minister touched him and said "step aside." but shrinibas in the ardour of his dancing was forgetful of all else. he was pushed repeatedly and at last grew angry and slapped the minister to stop his pushing. at this the minister in anger wanted to rebuke him, but pratap rudra checked him saying, "blessed art thou, to be touched by him. such happiness has not been my share!" not to speak of the people, even jagannáth himself wondered at the dancing of the master, stopped his car, and gazed at the dance with winkless eyes. subhadra and balarám smiled in delight at the sight of the dance. a strange change came over the master while dancing with all his might: all the eight spiritual phases (_sátwik bháb_) manifested themselves at the same time. his hair stood on end, with their roots in the skin bulging out, like a _shimul_ tree girt round with thorns. his teeth clashed together fearfully, as if they would be dislocated. blood and sweat ran over his body. he lisped _ja--ja--ga--ga_ inarticulately. his eyes poured down tears like syringes, and moistened the men around. fair was his complexion, at times turning into rosy, at times resembling the _malliká_ flower. at times he stood inert, at times he rolled on the ground; at times motionless like a dry wood, at other times prostrate on the ground and breathing faintly, to the alarm of his _bhaktas_. at times water oozed out of his eyes and nostrils and foam out of his mouth,--as the moon sheds bubbles of nectar. shuvánanda, mad with passion for krishna, collected and drank up that froth; highly fortunate was he. after dancing violently for some time the master wished to manifest another mood. leaving the dance he bade swarup sing. swarup, knowing his taste, began,-_"i have met the lord of my life, for whose sake i had been withering in the fire of cupid."_ loudly did swarup sing this burden, while the master in delight danced tenderly. slowly jagannáth's car moved on, shachi's son dancing before it. with eyes fixed on jagannáth all danced and sang. (at times) the master walked behind the car with the party, of _kirtan_ singers,--his arms making the action of song. when chaitanya lagged behind, jagannáth stopped his car; when the master walked ahead the god propelled his car slowly. thus did the two urge each other on! in the course of dancing another change of mood came over the master: with uplifted arms he loudly recited the following stanza. (_kavya-prakash_, i. canto 4 and also _padávali_ c. 380). again and again did he read the stanza, of which the meaning was known to swarup only. it meant in effect that as the milkmaids at kurukshetra were delighted to see krishna, so was the master gratified at the sight of jagannáth. under that emotion he had the burden sung (by swarup). at last radhá prays to krishna, "you are the same [beloved] and i am the same [lover, as during your incarnation as krishna], and yet brindában steals my heart. appear at brindában again! here there are crowds and the din and bustle of elephants, horses and chariots;--there only flowery woodlands, the bee's murmur, the cuckoo's cooing! here you are dressed as a king girt round by warriors, there you were a cow-boy, in the company of flute players! here i have not a drop of the ocean of bliss i used to taste in thy society at brindában. take me with thee to dally at brindában again. thus only can my heart be gratified." in the ardour of his devotion the master recited the stanzas of the _bhágabat_, voicing radhiká's longing. but other people could not understand the verses; swarup alone knew their meaning but spoke not. (afterwards) rup goswámi proclaimed the sense. (_vide bhágabat_ x. lxxxii. 35 and 31). in swarup's company had the master day and night enjoyed the sense of these verses in his house. during his dance the same emotion overcame him; so he recited the stanzas and danced gazing at jagannáth. swarup,--fortunate beyond expression in being absorbed body and soul in the master,--sang, while the master drank in his music in abstraction. under passion's sway the master sat down and with bowed head traced letters on the ground with his finger. lest his finger should be hurt, swarup prevented him. swarup's song was in exact accord with the master's emotion; he gave a vocal shape to every mood of the master's heart. as he gazed at jagannáth's lotus-like face, flashing in the sunlight, his beautiful eyes, his perfumes, robes, garlands and ornaments, the ocean of joy surged up in the master's heart, a wild storm swept through him; rapture and wildness raised a tumult, the different emotions fought in him like hostile armies. a passion rose, a passion subsided, it came to terms with another, and at last his normal mood of spirituality (_sátwik_) asserted itself. the master's body was a pure hill of gold; his emotion a tree with every flower in bloom. the sight drew the hearts of all; with the nectar of love he moistened their minds. all the servitors of jagannáth, all the courtiers of the king, the pilgrims, and the residents of puri,--all marvelled at the master's dance and rapture, and all felt devotion to krishna. in enthusiasm they danced, sang, and set up a din. the pilgrims by joining the dance increased the happiness fourfold. jagannáth hiniself moved on slowly to witness the master's dance. thus dancing, the master advanced to where pratap rudra stood, and was about to fall down when the king held him up. on seeing him the master recovered composure and cried shame on himself for having touched a king, a worldling, adding, "in his rapture nityánanda has ceased to be heedful [of me]. kashishwar, govinda and others, too, are at a distance." true, the master had been pleased to see pratap rudra numbly serving jagannáth as a sweeper, and had meant to meet the king, yet he professed anger in order to warn his followers against consorting with worldly-minded men. the king grieved at the master's speech, but sárvabhauma told him not to lose heart, "the master is pleased with you; he is only instructing his followers by means of you. i shall seize a proper time for entreating him. you will then go and meet him." then the master walked round the car, and standing behind it pushed it with his head. at his push the car ran on with a clatter; the people around shouted _hari! hari!_ next the master led his followers away to dance before the cars of subhadrá and balarám, and when that was done he returned to dance before jagannáth's car. so the cars reached balgandi, where they stopped, and jagannáth looked on both sides: on the left were the abodes of brahmans in cocoanut groves, on the right a flower garden resembling brindában. it is the rule that jagannáth breakfasts here on ten million dishes. every devotee of jagannáth, whatever his position, offers his best food to the god. the king, his wives, ministers and courtiers, all citizens of puri, great and small, the pilgrims from various lands, the people of the province, all offered him their respective _bhog_. no order was observed, each deposited his offering of food in front, behind, on the two sides of the god, or in the garden, wherever he could find a spot. the crowd grew immense at the time of the _bhog_, and so the master stopped dancing and entered the garden, where he lay prostrate on the veranda of the garden house, overcome with love; the exertion of dancing made him perspire copiously and he enjoyed the fragrant cool wind. all the _bhaktas_ who had been singing _kirtan_ came and rested under the trees. [text, canto 13.] chapter xii the hora-panchami procession of lakshmi as the master lay thus in the trance of love, pratap rudra entered the garden alone, casting off his royal robes and dressed as a [common] vaishnav, according to the advice of sárvabhauma. with folded hands he took permission of every bhakta and then mustered enough courage to fall down clasping the master's feet. the master lay on the ground, his eyes closed in love; the king eagerly nursed his feet. pratap rudra recited the stanzas of the rasa dance, (_bhágabat_, x. xxxi. i). infinite was the master's delight as he heard the verses, and he repeatedly cried "go on." when the king proceeded to the stanza beginning with _"the nectar-like discourse of thee"_, the master in devotion rose up and embraced the king, saying "you have given me many priceless gems. i have nothing to give in return, save this embrace." so saying he read the verses over and over again, both quivering and showering tears. _"the nectar-like discourse of thee, o darling! is life to the afflicted, the theme of praise to sages, and the antidote to sin. the hearing of it does good and gives peace. blessed are they who spread it far and wide on earth, for they are truly givers of much alms."_ (_bhágabat_, x. xxxi. 9). crying the 'giver of much alms', the master embraced the king, not knowing now who he was. the king's lowly service had won for him the master's pity, who now made him a gift of his grace without any inquiry. lo! the power of chaitanya's grace, which bears fruit without questioning. the master asked, "who art thou, my benefactor, that hast poured by surprise into my ears the nectar of krishna's deeds?" the king replied, "i am the slave of thy slaves. my only desire is that you may make me the servant of your servants." then the master revealed his godhead to the king, forbidding him to tell it to anybody. though knowing everything at heart, he outwardly showed as if he did not know that the visitor was a king. the _bhaktas_ extolled the king for his good fortune. pratap rudra took leave after prostrating him self, and then with folded palms bowed to all the _bhaktas_, and went away. at noon the master with his followers breakfasted on the plentiful prasád sent by the king by the hands of vaninath, sárvabhauma and rámánanda. the prasád from the balgandi _bhog_ was excellent and of infinite variety, but none of them was cooked food. [details of the dishes.] . . . knowing the fatigue of the _kirtan_ singers, chaitanya resolved to feast them. he seated them in rows and began to serve the food himself. each man was given one leaf and ten cups of _keyá_ leaves. swarup informed him that as none would dine before the master, he ought to sit down to meal. then the master sat down with his circle and fed all to their fill. the excess of _prasád_ that was left over sufficed to feed a thousand men. govinda, at the master's bidding, brought in beggars to eat this food. at the sight of the beggars feast the master taught them to chant hari's name, and they were carried away on the stream of love as they shouted _hari-bol_. now came the time for dragging the car of jagannáth. the bengal athletes pulled at the rope, but the car did not move. so they gave up the work in despair. the king and his court hastened thither in alarm. he set the wrestlers to draw the car and applied his own hand to it; but still the car did not move. then powerful elephants were harnessed to the car, but it did not advance a step in spite of their utmost efforts. hearing this the master arrived with his followers and gazed at the furious elephants pulling at the car. the elephants shrieked at the blows of the goad, but the car stirred not, and the people lamented. then the master took away the elephants, gave the ropes to his followers, and himself pushed the car from behind with his head. the car sped along rattling. the _bhaktas_ merely held the ropes; they had not really to pull, as the car advanced of itself. in delight the people shouted "glory! glory to jagannáth!" no other sound was heard. in a twinkle the car reached the gate of the gundicha garden, the people marvelling at the power of chaitanya. they set up a roar of "glory to gaurchandra! glory to krishna-chaitanya!" at the sight of the master's might, pratap rudra and his courtiers swelled with enthusiasm. then the servitors performed the ceremony of dismounting jagannáth from his car and conveying him to the gundicha people. the three images were placed on their thrones, and the ceremony of the gods bath and dinner commenced. the master began a joyous dance and _kirtan_ in the courtyard in delight. his love welled out in blissfulness, and the sight of it swept away the beholders in a torrent of love. in the evening he witnessed the adoration with lamps, and came to the _ai-totá_ garden for reposing. adwaita and eight other leading followers invited him for nine days. among the rest as many got a chance of entertaining him as there were days in the "four months," while the rank and file of his followers had a day free for each individually; so two or three of them combined to give him a joint entertainment on one day. thus did the master play at dining out. after his morning bath he visited jagannáth, where he danced and sang with his followers, now bidding adwaita dance, now nityánanda, haridas, achyutánanda, vakreshwar or some other bhakta. thrice in the day did he sing _kirtan_ in the gundicha garden, imagining that krishna had come to brindában and that the period of separation was over. cherishing in his heart the idea that krishna was then dallying with radha there, he remained absorbed in that emotion (of gratification), acting in many gardens the feats of krishna at brindában, disporting in the tank of indradyumna, splashing his _bhaktas_ with water, while they splashed him from all sides, now forming one circle, now many, and clapping their hands while croaking like frogs. sometimes a pair of them wrestled in the water, the master looking on to see who would win. adwaita and nityánanda tried to overwhelm each other with water; the former was beaten and vented his feelings in abuse. vidyanidhi struggled with swarup, shribas with gadadhar, raghav pandit with vakreshwar, sárvabhauma with rámánanda ray. the gravity of the last two disappeared and they became boys again! seeing their excitement the master smiled and said to gopinath acharya, "both are grave scholars and venerable men, but they are acting like wild boys. stop them." gopinath replied, "when the ocean of your grace surges up, a single drop of it can easily drown tall mountains like meru and mandár, what to speak of these two small stones? it is thy grace only that has given the nectar of _lilá_ to one whose life was formerly spent in chewing the dry husks of logical disputation." laughing, the master brought adwaita there and made him lie on his back on the water like the _shesha_ serpent, while he himself reclined on him (like vishnu). thus did he act the _lilá_ of vishnu reposing on the serpent. adwaita, putting forth his strength, began to float on the water bearing the master. after disporting in the water for some time he returned with his followers to the _ai-totá_. at the acharya's house he dined with his leading followers. the _prasád_ brought by vaninath served to feed the other followers. in the evening he visited the god and danced before him, and at night returned to the garden to sleep. in the garden, in company with his _bhaktas_ he sported as at brindában. the trees and creepers blossomed at his sight, the bee and the black-bird sang, the zephyr blew. under each tree he danced, vasudev datta alone singing. each (_bhakta_) sang under a different tree; chaitanya alone danced in supreme rapture. then he bade vakreshwar dance, while he sang. swarup and other _kirtaniás_ joined the master in singing, forgetful of all else in the vehemence of their love. after performing this woodland sport, he went to the narendra tank for water-sport. then he returned to the garden and dined out with his _bhaktas_. for the nine days that jagannáth remained at gundichá, such was the master's life. he lodged in the large flower garden named _jagannáth-vallabh_. when the time came for the ceremony of _horá-panchami_, the king spoke earnestly to kashi mishra, "to-morrow is horá-panchami, the day of lakshmi's triumph. let the celebration be of unprecedented splendour, so that the master may be filled with wonder. let extraordinary arrangements be made for the ceremony. let coloured cloths, bells, fly-whiskers and umbrellas be brought out of my wardrobe as well as jagannáth's, and let the flagstaff, flag, bell, &c. be decorated. let (lakshmi's) litter be set forth with varied music and dance. the expenditure should be double (the ordinary), so that the ceremony may eclipse the car festival. act so that the master may be drawn to come out with his followers to behold it." next morning the master with his party visited jagannáth at gundichá, and then returned to the temple eager to behold the horá-panchami festival. kashi mishra with great honour seated the master and his party in a good position. chaitanya wished to hear about a particular emotion and smilingly asked swarup, "though jagannáth lives at dwaraka, manifesting his natural be-pretext of a ride in his car. from the temple he goes to visit brindában. the parks here resemble brindában; he longs to see them therefore, and leaves his temple on the pretext of a ride in his car. from the temple he goes to gundichá and there disports day and night in the many gardens. but why does he not take lakshmi with him?" swarup answered, "listen, master, to the reason. lakshmi has no access to brindában, as krishna's playmates there are milk-maids. so none but the latter can ravish krishna's heart." the master continued, "krishna sets out on the plea of a ride. subhadra and baladev accompany him. his dalliance with the milk-maids is done in secret in the parks, unknown to others. krishna does not overt offence. why then does lakshmi fly into a rage at his journey to gundichá?" swarup replied, "such is the nature of a loving mistress. indifference on the part of her sweetheart rouses her anger." just then lakshmi arrived in an angry mood at the lion gate, riding a golden litter set with many gems, and accompanied by rows of men bearing flags, fly-whiskers, umbrellas and standards, with many musicians, and preceded by the dedicated dancing-girls (_devdási_). a hundred richly dressed hand-maids bearing betel-leaf caskets, goglets of water, fans and fly-whiskers, and much display of wealth and retinue came in her train. her maids chained the chief servitors of jagannáth and dragged them to her feet, punishing them like thieves and fining them heavily. she beat them till they almost fainted, and abused them in feigned anger. the master's followers laughed hiding their faces with their hands as they beheld the forwardness of lakshmi and her maids. [swarup gave a long explanation of lakshmi's mood, with illustrative quotations from sanskrit treatises on love]. at his words shribas laughed and said "hark you, dámodar! behold the vast wealth of my lakshmi. brindában can boast of only flowers, leaves, hills, peacock plumes, and the _gunchhá_ fruit. and yet jagannáth has gone to visit brindában! lakshmi might naturally suspect krishna's motive in leaving such wealth for poor brindában." as he was laughing lakshmi turned to chastise him, saying "behold, your god has left such splendour and gone to the gundichá garden for the sake of flowers, leaves and fruits! why does the chief of the wise act thus? bring your lord before lakshmi!" so saying, lakshmi's handmaids brought the master's attendants tied with their waist-bands, made them bow at her mercy. they beat (jagannáth's) car with their sticks, and treated jagannáth's officers like thieves, until they cried with folded hands, "to-morrow shall we produce jagannáth before you." then lakshmi was pacified and returned to her abode. . . [swarup again shows lakshmi's conduct as natural in a true lover]. the master listened with absorption to his exposition of the pure emotion of radha, and began to dance in rapture while swarup sang. "sing on! sing on!" he cried with ears on the alert. his enthusiasm welled forth on hearing the song of the love-making at brindában, and he flooded the village of puri with devotion. lakshmi went back to her own place in time, but the master danced on till the third quarter of the day. the four parties grew tired with singing, but his ardour became doubly intense. under the influence of radha's love he became an image of the passion. nityánanda seeing him from afar prayed to him, but came not near in consideration of his ecstasy. none but nityánanda could hold the master [and force him to stop dancing]. his ecstasy did not cease, and the _kirtan_ therefore had to continue. so, swarup by gesture informed him how the party was exhausted. at this the master came to himself, and returned to the garden. after taking rest he had his midday bath and dined pleasantly with his party on the many dishes sent from jagannáth's and lakshmi's prasád. in the evening he bathed again and visited jagannáth, dancing and singing before the god. he sported in the narendra tank with his _bhaktas_, and held a picnic in the garden. thus he spent eight days, after which came the return journey of jagannáth in his car to his temple, at which the master in supreme delight danced and sang as during the outward ride. when jagannáth again occupied his throne, the master returned with his followers to his quarters. [text, canto 14.] chapter xiii the dinner at sárvabhauma's house thus did the master live at the niláchal with his followers, engaged in dancing, singing, and delight. in the first year (of his stay) he used to visit jagannáth to whom he bowed, hymned, danced and sang. when the god's _upala-bhog_ was offered, he issued from the temple and took haridas home with himself, and there chanted hari's name. adwaita arriving there adored the master, washed his feet with perfumed water, rubbed him all over with fragrant sandal-paste, placed a garland round his neck and the tufted _tulsi_ flower on his head, prostrated himself at the master's feet, and adored him with folded palms. the master adored the acharya with the flowers and tulsi leaves left over on the ritual tray, and recited the verse "i bow to thee, that art what thou art!" then he made a playful sound with his lips and had a laugh at the acharya. thus did the two honour each other. the acharya repeatedly asked the master to dinner. . . the master with his party dined at the houses of the different _bhaktas_ on successive days. thus did they spend four months in his company, witnessing all the festivals of jagannáth. on krishna's nativity day took place the ceremony of nanda's grand festival, at which the master with his _bhaktas_ personated the cowherds [of mathura]. on his own shoulders did he carry the loads of milk and curds to the place of the ceremony, shouting hari's name. kánái khuntiá played the _róle_ of nanda and jagannáth mahanti that of the queen of braja. with pratap rudra himself, kashi mishra, sarvabhaunia, and the _parichhá_ (minister) tulsi, the master danced and sported, spattering all their bodies with milk, curds and yellow liquid. adwaita said, "bear with me when i tell the truth. i shall know you for a cowherd only if you can brandish a staff!" at this the master began to play with the staff. he tossed it in the air and caught it repeatedly as it fell. he swung it round his head, behind, before, on the two sides, and between the legs, spectators laughing. the stick circled round and round like a lathe, all men wondering at the sight. similarly nityánanda too played with his staff. who can fathom the deep cowherd mood of these two? at the king's command, tulsi parichha brought out a costly cloth, once worn by jagannáth, and tied it round the master's head. [other clothes] were presented to the acharya and other followers of the master. kanai khuntia and jagannáth mahanti, in their enthusiasm, gave away all the wealth of their houses. at this the master was greatly delighted, and bowed to them as his parents (_i.e._, as nanda and his wife, the foster-parents of krishna). in deep spiritual exaltation did he return to his quarters. thus did chaitanya play. on the _bijaya-dashami_, the day of the storming of lanka, the master with his followers played the part of the monkey army [of ram]. transported by the spirit of hanuman, he seized a branch and broke it off as if it were the citadel of lanka, shouting in a rage, "where art thou, ravan! thou hast kidnapped the mother of the world. wretch! i shall destroy thee with thy kith and kin." the people marvelled at his passion and exclaimed "glory! glory!" so, too, did he witness the celebration of _rása-yátrá_, _dipávali_ and _utthán-dwádashi_. one day he and nityánanda formed a plan in secret, the nature of which his followers afterwards guessed only from the result. calling all his _bhaktas_ together, he said, "return ye all to bengal. come here every year and visit the gundichá garden with me." on adwaita acharya he honourably laid his command, "teach the lesson of faith in krishna to all men, down to the chandals." nityánanda was bidden, "go to bengal. freely proclaim the gospel of devotion and love. ramdas, gadadhar and some others will assist you. now and then i shall be with you, and standing unseen shall witness your dancing." embracing shribas pandit, he clung to his neck and said tenderly, "in the _kirtan_ at your house i shall always dance. you alone of all men will be able to see me. give my mother this cloth and all this _prasád_ bow to her and beg her pardon for all my faults. i have turned a monk leaving her service; this has been an act of irreligion and not of religion on my part. i am bound by her love; service to her is my religion. it has been madness on my part to quit it. tell her to have pity on me, as no mother finds fault with a crazy child. what need have i of monachism? love is wealth to me; i must have gone out of my mind when i turned _sannyasi_. at her command i am staying at the niláchal. i shall occasionally go home to see her. daily do i go and behold her feet; she feels a delighted sensation but does not admit it as true. one day [for instance] she cooked rice, five or six vegetable soups, _sák_, _mochághanta_, fried _patal_, _nim_ leaves, lemon, bits of ginger, curds, milk, and sugar and cream, and offered these many dishes to _saligrám_. taking up the _prasád_ she lamented, all these were nimái's favourite dishes. he is not here. so i went there quickly and ate up every thing. on seeing the empty dish she wiped her tears and asked, who has eaten the rice and soups? why is the dish empty? has the young gopal (idol) eaten them up? or has an illusion seized my mind? has some animal came in and devoured them? or did i by mistake serve no food on the plate at all? so thinking she looked again at the cooking-pots and found them full, to her wonder and suspicion [of defilement by some beast or demon]. she then called ishan, had the place cleaned, and offered rice to the god gopal afresh. thus, whenever she cooks nice dishes, she weeps in eager desire to feed me on them. her affection compels me to eat (the food there); and she is pleased at heart, though outwardly she is disconsolate. this happened on the last _bijayá-dashami_ day. say unto her and make her believe." though overcome in making this speech, the master composed himself in order to bid farewell to the _bhaktas_. to raghav pandit he spoke feelingly, "your pure devotion has made me your servant. hear, all ye, the story of his serving krishna in the most pious and excellent manner. let me speak of one thing only, namely his offering of cocoanut as _bhog_. in his place cocoanut sells at five _gandás_ [i.e., quarter anna each]. though his orchards have hundreds of cocoanut palms yielding _lakhs_ of fruits, yet wherever he hears of very sweet cocoanuts, he procures them at the price of four annas for one, even from 20 miles distance. every day he strips the fibre off five or six fruits and cools them in water. then at _bhog_ he smoothes them and making small holes at the top offers the fruits to krishna, who drinks the milk within, and leaves the fruits empty or full of liquid at different times. when the fruit is empty of milk, the pandit rejoices, cracks the nut and spreading the kernel on a hundred dishes, offers them to krishna, while he meditates outside (the god's dining room). krishna eats the offering, and leaves the dishes bare, or fills them again with the kernel. at this the pandit's devotion grows and he swims in the ocean of love. "one day his servant brought ten cleaned cocoanuts to be offered to the god; but while waiting outside the door he happened to touch the wall above with his hand and then placed the same hand on the fruits. on seeing this the pandit threw away the fruits as defiled and unworthy of offering to the god, because the dust raised by the feet of people entering at the door sticks to the wall above. by such pure loving service he has surpassed the world . . . similarly whenever he hears of any good fruit like plantain, mango, or jack, in far off villages, he carefully buys them dear, washes, cleans, and offers them to the god. so, too, vegetables, roots, fruits, _chirá_, _hurum_, confects, cakes, sweet drinks, condensed milk, _káshandi_, pickles, scents, cloth, ornaments, and the pick of all things he offers cleanly to the god. his loving service is unmatched and soothes the eyes of all who behold it." so saying the master embraced raghav, and showed due respect to the other _bhaktas_. to shivananda sen he spoke in terms of honour, "do you look after vasudev datta, who is so charitable that every day he spends all his day's earnings, saving nothing. but he is a householder and ought to save, for without saving a man cannot support his kinsmen. you have the charge of the income and expenditure of his house. in your capacity as head man arrange (his affairs properly). come every year with all the _bhaktas_ to the gundichá garden, taking care of them." to the pilgrims from the kulin village he said, "come here every year with striped silk cloth (for jagannáth). gunaraj khan wrote the _shri krishna vijay_, one devotional sentence of which, 'nanda's darling krishna is the lord of my life', has made me the bondsman of his line. not to speak of you, even a dog of your village is dear to me, above all others." at this satyaraj khan and rámánanda too entreated the master, "i am a worldly man; how can i practise devotion? i beg thee to lay commands on me." the master replied, "ever serve krishna, ever serve vaishnavs, ever sing krishna's name." satyaraj asked, "how shall i know a vaishnav? tell me of his general characteristics." the master answered, "whosoever utters krishna's name even once is to be honoured above all other men. krishna's name alone washes away all sins and kindles many forms of faith. it does not make a man wait for religious initiation or priestly ministration, but as soon as the word is formed on the tongue, it redeems all men down to the chandál caste. along with that, krishna's name destroys our bondage to the world and draws the heart to the love of krishna. _vide_ shridhar swami's stanza in the _padávali_, xviii. therefore, he who utters krishna's name alone is truly a vaishnav. honour him as such." of the pilgrims from khanda the leaders were mukunda-das, raghunandan, and narahari. to the first, shachi's son spoke thus, "tell me truly whether you are the father and raghunandan your son, or the converse? dispel my doubt." mukunda replied, "i verily believe that raghunandan is my father and i his son, because our devotion to krishna has been imbibed from him." the delighted master broke out, "true are thy words. he who gives us faith in krishna is our _guru_." bliss it is to the master to unfold the greatness of _bhaktas_, and he holds forth on the subject through five mouths as it were. turning to his followers he said, "hark ye about mukunda's faith. it is a pure and deep love, like unalloyed gold. outwardly he is a physician royal and serves his master. but who can fathom his heart's devotion? one day the musalman king was talking with him about medicine, on a high dais, when a servant held a peacock-feather fan over the nawab's head. at the sight (of krishna's crest), mukunda in a rapture of devotion tumbled down from the height. the nawab, thinking that he was overcome by death, dismounted, restored him to his senses, and asked where he had been hurt. mukunda replied that he did not feel much pain. then to the nawab's query about the cause of his fall, he replied that he was subject to epilepsy. the nawab was very wise, he discerned the real reason and thenceforth regarded mukunda as a great devotee." raghunandan served at krishna's temple, in front of which there was a tank with a _kadamba_ tree blooming all the year round on its _ghát_. daily two flowers blossomed there (as if) derived from krishna. the master continued, turning to mukunda, "your business is to earn money, raghunandan's to serve krishna. his heart has no other desire. let narahari remain with my _bhaktas_. do you three ever perform these duties respectively." graciously he addressed the two brothers, sárvabhauma and vidyá-váchaspati, "krishna is at present manifest in the form of wood and water, the sight and ablution of which saves mankind. as the wooden god he lives at puri, while the deity as water is the river bhagirathi. let sárvabhauma worship the wooden god and vachaspati the water-deity". embracing murari gupta, the master extolled his sincere devotion thus, "listen, o ye _bhaktas_! i had formerly often tempted him saying, 'passing sweet is the lad of braja's lord, o gupta! krishna is god himself, in all his fulness, the refuge of all. love is pure, clean, the source of all passions (_ras_), the ocean in which all virtues are stored like gems. he is wise, expert, sedate, the chief of the masters of emotions. sweet is his character, sweet is his fascination; his sports are marked by cleverness and skill. worship that krishna, seek refuge in him. the heart cannot accept any other object of adoration'. his respect for me somewhat influenced him and he replied that he was my servant, ready to do my bidding, without free will. going home, he was restless at the thought of giving up his idol raghunath, and cried, 'how can i quit the feet of raghunath? kill me to-night, o lord! so he spent the whole night watching and weeping, sore at heart. in the morning he returned, clasped my feet and cried, i have sold my head at raghunath's feet, and cannot draw it away now, so great would be the pain of it. i cannot leave raghunath's feet, and on the other hand thy command will be disobeyed. i have no help for it. take pity, therefore, on me, o kind one; and let me die before thee, so that the conflict within me may be ended'. at these words i rejoiced exceedingly, raised and embraced him, saying, 'excellent! excellent! firm is your devotion, o gupta, as my words have not shaken your purpose. it is the devotion of servants of this kind that ought to be offered at the lord's feet,--when the lord draws away his feet the devotee does not let go his grasp. that i urged you repeatedly was only to test this your earnest faith. you are hanuman himself, the servant of ram. why then should you leave his lotus feet? this is that murari gupta [addressing the other _bhaktas_], the very life of me. my heart breaks to see his meekness of spirit." then he embraced vasudev, and dwelt on his merits with a thousand tongues. the datta, blushing to hear his own praise, begged at the master's feet, "thou hast come down to deliver the world. grant one prayer of mine. it can be easily granted, if thou willest, o gracious one! my heart breaks to see the sorrows of mankind. lay thou the sins of the rest of mankind on my head; let me suffer in hell under the load of their sins, so that, master, thou mayest remove the earthly pangs [_i.e._, birth on earth] of all other beings." these words melted the master's heart. trembling and weeping he answered in broken accents, "this request is no surprise, coming from you who are a prahlád. full is krishna's grace on you. krishna brings to fruition whatever his servants ask for; he has no other work than to gratify his servants wishes. you have prayed for the salvation of all the creatures of the universe. (i say) they will all be delivered, without suffering for their sins. the task is not too much for krishna, who is omnipotent. why should he make you (alone) undergo the due chastisement for (their) sins? those whose good you desire are vaishnavs, all of whose sins are removed by krishna. witness the _brahma samhitá_, v. 60. "at your mere wishing, the universe will be redeemed. it is no labour for krishna to deliver all men. ten million figs (_dumbur_) can grow on one tree; similarly ten million universes float in the water of the pure. the tree knows not the loss, if a fruit drops and perishes. so, too, if one universe is set free [from re-birth], krishna does not regard it even as a trifling loss. endless are krishna's possessions. vaikuntha and other places belong to him. they are girt round by the ocean of the cause of creation. countless illusive universes float in that ocean, just as a pot of oil-seeds may float in the ditch round a city. the loss of one seed-grain out of it matters nothing. so, too, krishna does not feel the loss if one universe is gone. even if illusion and all the universes subject to it perish, krishna does not mind the loss. the illusion [-created world] is no more to krishna than a she-goat is to the owner of ten millions of cows giving inexhaustible milk. _vide bhágabat_, x. lxxxvii, 10." in such terms did the master speak of the different merits of all his followers, embrace and give them leave. they wept at parting from him, while his mind, too, was saddened. gadadhar pandit stayed with him and was settled by him at jaleswar [in jagannáth-puri]. the puri, jagadánanda, swarup damodar, damodar pandit, govinda, and kashishwar,-these lived with the master at puri. he visited jagannáth every morning. one day sárvabhauma solicited him with folded palms thus, "now that all the vaishnavs have returned to bengal, i have got an opportunity of entertaining you. be pleased to be a guest at my house for a month." the master replied, "it is opposed to my rules of duty. i can't do it." sárvabhauma persisted, "let it be for twenty days only." but the master objected, no, that too is opposed to the rules of a _sannyasi_." sárvabhauma came down to fifteen days, but the master insisted on dining with him for one day only. then sárvabhauma, clasping his feet, begged for ten days out of which the master gradually reduced five, and accepted the invitation for five days only. then sárvabhauma made another prayer, saying, "there are ten monks with you, out of whom the puri will dine with me for five days, as i told you before. damodar swarup, my friend, will go to my house with you and at times alone. the other eight will be my guests dining singly for two days each. thus a month is filled up with engagements. i fear lest i should fail to show due hospitality if so many monks come to me together. you, too, will visit my house with your shadow, and sometimes in the company of swarup damodar." glad of the master's nod [of assent] he invited him that very day. the bhattáchárya's wife was called shathi's mother; she was greatly devoted to the master and a very mother in tenderness. [the cooking, the courses, and the dinner described in great detail]. the master said, "it is impossible to eat so much rice" [_viz._, three maunds]. the bhatta replied, "i know what is a sufficient quantity for you. at puri you [as jagannáth] eat _bhog_ 52 times a day, and the quantity for each time is hundreds of loads. at dwaraka you [as king krishna dine daily] at the houses of your 16,000 queens, 108 mothers, and the yádav clan. at brindában you dine twice daily at the houses of your kinsmen and cowherd comrades. at the govardhan sacrifice heaps of rice were brought for you, in comparison with which my dishes form less than a mouthful. you are god indeed. i am a wretched little creature. consent to take only a little mouthful of food at my house." smiling, the master sat down, the bhatta serving him with the _prasád_ of jagannath. just then there came amogh, the son-in-law of bhattáchárya and the husband of shathi. he was a _kulin_ and a fault-finder. he wished to see the feeding, but could not come, as bhattáchárya kept watch at the door stick in hand! when bhattáchárya was busy serving the _prasád_, amogh came in and looking at the rice began to criticise, "what! a single monk is eating this rice, on which ten or twelve others can feed to their fill!" hearing these words bhattáchárya looked over his shoulders, and amogh fled away. . . . his father-in-law cursed him and his mother-in-law prayed for her daughter's widowhood. that night amogh spent in hiding, and next morning he was seized with cholera. at the news that he was dying, bhattáchárya exclaimed, "the gods are on my side, and are doing my work. a sin against god bears immediate fruit. witness the _mahabharat_, bana-parva, ccxli. 17, and _bhágabat_, x.iv.3i." when gopinath acharya went to see the master, in answer to a question about bhattáchárya, he said, "the couple had fasted at night. amogh is dying of cholera." at this the merciful master hastened there, laid his hand on amogh's breast and said, "pure by nature is this brahman's heart,--a fit place for krishna to sit on. why have you seated the chandál envy here, and thus defiled a very holy spot? your sins are ended by the society of sárvabhauma. when sin is gone, men recite krishna's name. rise, thou, amogh! chant krishna's name. soon will god have mercy on you." at these words, amogh rose up with the cry of _krishna! krishna!_ and began to dance in an ecstasy, of devotion, weeping, trembling, standing stockstill, perspiring, lisping. the master smiled at seeing the surging up of his love. but he begged the master, holding his feet, "gracious master! forgive my fault." with this he slapped his own cheeks till they were swollen. gopinath acharya held his hand to stop him, and the master stroked his body to console him saying, "you are an object of affection to me, being related to sárvabhauma. even the very servants and dogs of his house are dear to me above all others. thou hast not offended. chant krishna's name." so saying the master came to sárvabhauma's house, who clasped his feet, but the master embraced him, took his seat and began, "amogh is a child. he cannot offend. why are you fasting, why are you angry with him? up, bathe, visit jagannáth, and break your fast soon, if you want to please me. i shall wait here so long as you do not return with the _prasád_ (for your dinner)." clasping his feet sárvabhauma asked "amogh was dying. why did you revive him?" the master replied, "amogh is your child. the father, especially if he is the nourisher, does not take note of the offence of his boy. he has now turned vaishnav; his sin is gone; do you then look kindly on him." the bhatta said, "go, master, to see the god. i shall quickly join you there after taking my bath." but he replied, "gopinath! stay here. when the _prasád_ comes to him, inform me of it." then he went to see the god, while the bhatta bathed, prayed, and dined. this amogh became extremely devoted to the master. a very sedate man, he incessantly recited krishna's name. [text, canto 15.] chapter xiv the return to bengal pratap rudra grew sad when he heard that the master wished to visit brindában; calling sárvabhauma and rámánanda, the king entreated them, "the master's mind is inclined to go away from puri. try to keep him here. without him this kingdom is of no delight to me. try every means to detain the hermit." when the master was taking counsel with the two about making a pilgrimage to brindában, they said, "wait to see the car festival, and set out in the month of kártik." in kártik they urged, "it is mid-winter now. better set out after witnessing the swinging festival." so they plied all arts to put off his departure; and gave not their consent in fear of parting with his company. true, the master was a free agent, under nobody's control. yet he did not depart against the wishes of his followers. in the third year of his stay, the bengal followers wished to go to puri. so, they all resorted to adwaita acharya, who set out joyfully to see the master. nityánanda, though charged by him to stay in bengal and preach the faith of love, nevertheless went to see him. who can understand the display of nityánanda's love? who can number the _bhaktas_ that started? acharya ratna, vidyanidhi, shribas, ramai, vasudev, madhav, and govinda (the three brothers), raghav pandit with his casket fitted up, the residents of the kulin village with their striped silk cloth (for jagannáth), narahari and raghunandan of khanda, in short all of the _bhaktas_ went; who can count them? shivananda sen made arrangements about the stages of the road, and guided the whole party in comfort, supplying all their needs and securing lodgings, as he knew all about the road to orissa. that year the ladies too set out to visit the master: with the acharya went achyuta's mother, malini with shribas pandit, with shivananda his wife and son named chaitanya-das, with acharya ratna his wife. all the ladies took from their houses all kinds of choice things formerly dear to him, to feed the master with. shivananda looked after their needs, provided them with lodgings by winning over the officers of the halting stations (_ghátiál_), and everywhere nourished them with provisions. at remuná they saw gopinath (idol), at whose temple the acharya danced and sang. nityánanda knew all the servitors of the god; so they highly honoured the party. the night was passed there; nityánanda distributed among them the twelve pots of condensed milk (_bhog_) presented by the servitors. then nityánanda told them the whole story of madhav puri, the installation of the gopal, the begging of sandal by gopal, the stealing of _kshir_ by gopinath for the puri,--as he had heard it from the master. the vaishnavs rejoiced. so they wended their way to katak. after visiting the witness gopal they spent the night there. nityánanda told the legend of the god, to the increased delight of the vaishnavs, who pushed on to puri, eager at heart to meet the master. when they reached athára-nálá (bridge of 18 spans), govinda, sent by the master with two garlands to welcome them, met the party and placed the garlands on the necks of adwaita and abadhut goswámi, to their intense bliss. there the two began the _sankirtan_ of krishna and advanced dancing. next swarup and other followers, sent by the master, received them with garlands at the narendra tank. when they reached the lion gate, chaitanya himself came out to meet them all. he took them to see jagannáth, and then led them to his own lodgings. with his own hands he served them the _prasád_ brought by vaninath and kashi mishra. they were then sent to take rest in the houses respectively occupied by them in the previous year. thus the _bhaktas_ spent four months at puri, joining in his _kirtan_. when the season of the car festival arrived, he took them, as on the last occasion, to wash the gundichá temple, presented to jagannáth the striped silk brought by the people of the kulin village, danced long before the car, and then returned to the garden. while he was reposing on the bank of the tank, krishna-das, a brahman of west bengal (rárh) and a disciple of nityánanda, was so fortunate as to pour on the master's head a pot of water, to his great relief. the master dined with all his followers on the numerous dishes of _balgandi bhog_ sent to him. as before, they witnessed the car procession and the _horá-panchami_ procession with him. the master was invited to dinner by acharya goswámi, at which a rain storm burst. then shribas invited him, and the master's favourite dishes were cooked by malini, who was his handmaid in devotion, but a mother in tenderness. acharya ratna and other leading disciples gave dinners to the master at intervals. when the four months were over he again took counsel in secret with nityánanda. the acharya whispered to the master mystic hints; he seemed to be muttering and none could know his meaning. chaitanya laughed at seeing the gestures of his face. this the acharya took to be a mark of assent, and he began to dance in delight; none knew what the request and the consent were. but the master embraced and dismissed him. then he addressed nityánanda, "listen, shripad! i pray thee grant this request of mine. don't come to puri every year, but stay in bengal to carry out my will, for i see none else who can do the work. you alone can accomplish my hard undertaking." nityánanda replied, "i am but the body; you are the life of it. it is admitted that the body cannot live apart from life; yet you, by your incomprehensible power, are performing such an impossibility. well, i shall do whatever you make me. i am not subject to any [other] law." the master embraced and gave him leave, and so to the other _bhaktas_ too. the pilgrims from the kulin village begged, as before, "master, appoint us our duty," to which he replied, "serve vaishnavs, chant krishna's name. these two will lead you soon to krishna's feet." the men asked, "by what signs can a vaishnav be known?" the master knew their real thoughts, smiled, and answered, "he is the true vaishnav, who has krishna's name ever on his lips. adore his feet." next year they put the very same question, and the master by his answer taught them the gradations of vaishnavs: "know him to be the besf of vaishnavs, the sight of whom brings krishna's name on your tongue." thus did he describe in succession the three grades of vaishnavs: good, better, and best. all the vaishnavs returned to bengal. vidyanidhi alone stayed at puri that year. he formed a close friendship with swarup, and the two lived together engaged in discourse on krishna. he gave _mantra_ anew to gadadhar pandit. on the day of _orani shashthi_ he witnessed the procession, and felt contempt at beholding jagannáth wearing a cloth with the size not washed out of it. that very night jagannáth and balaram visited him [in his sleep] and laughingly slapped his cheeks. vidyanidhi was inly glad at finding his cheeks swollen. . . . thus did the _bhaktas_ of bengal come every year and witness the god's procession in the master's company. i shall describe only the years in which something special happened. four years did the master pass in this way: two years [after he took the monastic vow] were taken up by the pilgrimage to the south and the return; the next two years he [stayed at puri] wishing to go to brindában, but unable to stir at rámánanda's opposition. in the fifth year the bengal pilgrims returned home immediately after witnessing the car festival without staying [for four months]. then the master embraced sárvabhauma and rámánanda and said, "very eager am i to visit brindában. at your objection i have not set out these two years. i _must_ go now. do you both consent, for i have no other refuge save you. in bengal my two refuges are my mother and the river ganges, both gracious ones. on my way i shall see them. permit me freely to depart." at these words they reflected, "it is not good to oppose him too much," and then told him, "it is now the rainy season, which makes travel impossible. you will certainly depart on the _vijayá-dashami_." on that day the master set out, taking with himself all the _prasád_ of jagannáth that had been given him, and also the sandal wood and coloured threads. taking leave of jagannáth, he started in the morning, and sent back the oriya disciples who were following him. with his men he reached bhabánipur, rámánanda ray coming behind in his litter. they spent the night there, feeding on the copious _prasád_ sent by vaninath. next day the master reached bhubaneshwar. at katak he saw the [sakshi-] gopal image. here a brahman named swapneshwar bade him to dinner, while rámánanda ray invited his followers. the master lodged in the outer garden, and after dinner reposed under the _bakul_ tree. rámánanda ray went to inform king pratap rudra, who hastened thither in joy and repeatedly prostrated himself at the master's feet in ecstasy, and prayed to him with tremour and tears. the master, pleased with his faith, rose up and embraced him. the king hymned and bowed to him again, his body bathed with the tears of the master's grace. rámánanda composed and seated the king, and the master showed his favour to him in body mind and speech. so great was the favour shown that he became famous in the world under the name of "the saviour of pratap rudra." the royal ministers adored the master, who then dismissed the king. coming out pratap rudra sent letters to all officers in his kingdom, bidding them, "build new houses in different villages [on the route]; fill six or seven such rooms with provisions. there lodge the master and wait on him day and night with your rods [of authority] in hand." his ministers harichandan and mangraj he ordered, "conduct all this business. bring a new boat to the river [mahanadi] bank. when the master after bathing crosses the river, plant a staff there to mark the spot as a holy _tirtha_. i shall daily bathe there. may i die there. hang out fine new cloths at the four gates. rámánanda, go you back to the master." the king heard that the master would resume his journey in the evening. so he transported his wives in covered litters on the backs of elephants, which were drawn up in a line along the route. in the evening the master proceeded with his followers and bathed at the _ghát_ of the chitrotpala [mahanadi] river. the queens bowed when they saw him, and at the sight of him they were filled with devotion, chanting krishna's name with tears in their eyes. in the three worlds has not been heard of such another gracious saint, whose very view from a distance inspires love of krishna. then he crossed over in a boat, and in the moonlit night reached "the four gates" (_chatur dwár_). here he passed the night, and next morning bathed and ate the _mahá-prasád_ of jagannáth, which the parichhá used to send him daily in huge quantities at the king's command by means of a host of servants. then the master wended his way, served by rámánanda, mangraj, and hari chandan, the three [officers of the king]. he was accompanied by the puri goswámi, swarup damodar, jagadananda, mukunda, govinda, kashishwar, haridas thakur, vakreshwar pandit, gopinath acharya, damodar pandit, ramái, nandái and many other _bhaktas_, of whom i have named the chief only, for who can count them all? when gadadhar pandit followed him, the master forbade him to quit the seat of his monastic devotions. the pandit pleaded, "where you are, there is my puri. let my seat of monachism go to wrack and ruin." the master said, "stay here, worshipping gopinath;" but the pandit insisted, "the sight of thy feet is worth ten million worship of gods." the master argued, "if you give up the worship, mine will be the sin. stay here and worship, if you want to please me." the pandit answered, "let the entire sin rest on me. i shall go alone, and not in your company. i am going [to nadiá] to see the mother, and not to bear you company. i am ready to bear the sin of quitting the worship i had vowed to perform." so saying the pandit proceeded alone. at katak the master called him. the pandit's devotion to chaitanya passes comprehension: he gave up the vowed worship of krishna as lightly as a straw. the master was inly pleased at his conduct, but in loving anger he told him, holding his hand, "your object of quitting your promised worship has been fulfilled, as you have already arrived far [from the temple of your god at puri]. by wishing to stay with me, you are seeking your (selfish) pleasure. i grieve to see you losing both your _dharmas_ (duties). if you wish to make me happy, return to puri. i shall swear an oath, if you insist any further." so saying the master embarked, while the pandit swooned away on the bank. he bade sárvabhauma lead the pandit away. sárvabhauma said, "get up! such is the master's play. you know how krishna broke his own vow to keep the vow of his adorer bhishma. _vide bhágabat_, i. ix. 34. similarly the master has endured separation from you in order to keep your vow sacred." so saying he consoled gadadhar, and the two returned full of grief to puri. for his sake his _bhaktas_ renounced their religious and earthly duties, but the master could not bear that they should sin thus. at jájpur he dismissed the two royal ministers who had been escorting him, after talking day and night about krishna. at every village (on the way) the royal officers, under orders, entertained the master with various things in the newly built houses. so faring forth he reached remuna [1], where he dismissed rámánanda ray. the ray fell down on the ground in a dead faint; the master took him up in his arms and wept. then he reached the boundary of the odhra country, where the royal officer met him, tended him for three or four days, and told him about the path in front. "before you lies the land of a wine-bibing muslim king, through fear of whom none can travel on the road. his territory extends to pichhaldá. none dares cross the river in awe of him. stay here for some days, while we negotiate with him to secure a safe voyage for you." just then an oriya servant of the muslim had visited katak in disguise. this hindu spy, witnessing the wonderful deeds of the master, reported to his king, "a monk has come from jagannáth, with many pious persons in his train. they sing of krishna incessantly, laughing, dancing, singing, weeping. the people flocked in _lakhs_ to see him, but after once seeing him they could not return home, as they became almost mad, chanting krishna's name, dancing, weeping and rolling on the ground. he cannot be described in words, but has to be seen, to be understood fully. his power shows that he is god." so saying the spy chanted _hari! krishna!_ laughing, weeping, and dancing like mad. this turned the muslim king's mind. he sent his own confidential hindu minister to the oriya king's [frontier] officer. the man bowed to the master and became overwhelmed with love as he cried _krishna! krishna!_ then he composed himself and spoke to the oriya king's officer, "the muslim governor has sent me to you to seek your permission for him to come here and meet the master. he is very anxious to do it, and entreats you. fear not any attack, it will be a peaceful journey." at this the frontier-officer cried out in wonder, "a muslim's heart! who could have done this to it? surely the master himself turned his heart, as the sight and (even) thought of him saves the world. then he turned to the confidential minister and said, "he is lucky. let him come here to see the master, unarmed and with only six or seven attendants, if i am to trust in him." on hearing this, the muhammadan governor arrived in a hindu dress, and prostrated himself with tears of joy on seeing the master from afar. the frontier-officer led him forward with due honour, and the governor with folded palms stood before the master reciting krishna's name and saying, "why have i been born in a low muhammadan family? why did not fate send me to earth as one of the hindu race, for then i could have come near thy feet? my life is useless. let me die!" the frontier-officer, moved by these words, praised the master after clasping his feet, "this man has got a view of thee, whose very name when heard purifies a chandál. what wonder that he will be saved? such is the efficacy of looking at thee!" witness the _bhágabat_, iii. xxxiii 6. then the master looked benignly at the muslim and in soothing terms told him to repeat krishna's name. the governor replied, "as i have found acceptance with thee, bid me serve thee. let me earn deliverance from the sin of hurting brahmans, cows and vaishnavs, of which i have been too often guilty." then mukunda datta broke in, "listen, sir, our master wishes to reach the bank of the ganges. help him to go there. it is a great command and a good service." the muslim bowed to the master and his party and set off gleefully. the frontier-officer embraced him, formed a friendship with him, and gave him many presents. next morning the muslim governor sent out many decorated boats with his hindu minister to escort the master. the oriya frontier-officer, too, accompanied him. the master placed his men in the cabin of a new boat, and dismissed the frontier-officer, who stood on the bank gazing at the voyagers with tears in his eyes. the governor after bowing at the master's feet, started the flotilla, with ten boat-loads of soldiers as a defence against pirates. he crossed the terrible river mantreshwar, and proceeded to pichhaldá, at which (frontier) village the master sent him back. the new disciple's expressions of devotion on the occasion were indescribable. in that boat the master reached pániháti, and robed the captain in the robe of his favour. the report of his coming created a sensation: men crowded together on land and water. raghav pandit came and led the master to his house, making their way through the press of men with great difficulty. the master halted there one day. next morning he reached kumárhati, where shribas dwelt. thenoe he proceeded to the houses of shivananda and vasudev. when lodging with the váchaspati, he one night fled to the kulia village shrinking from the crowd. here in the house of madhav-das millions had a view of him, and here he stayed a week saving all the sinners. thence he went to the acharya's house at shantipur, where he met mother shachi for soothing her grief. thence he visited rámkeli and the dancing-hall, returning to shantipur for a ten days halt. here raghunath-das met him. there were two brothers, hiranya and govardhan-das, the owners of sapta-grám and twelve _lakhs_ of rupees. both were very charitable and rich brahmans, well-behaved, high-born, and foremost in piety, the support of the brahmans of navadwip, whom they helped with land and money. their guru was nilambar chakravarti, who treated them like his brothers. as they had formerly served purandar mishra, they were well-known to the master. raghunath-das was the son of this govardhan, and averse to the world from his childhood. on the master's coming to shantipur after turning hermit, raghunath had come and fallen down at his feet in a rapture of love. the master had graciously touched him with his toe. raghunath's father always did good turns to the acharya who did raghunath a favour, helping him to eat the leavings of the master's dinner. after staying at the master's feet for a week, he had been sent away by the master when he went to puri. raghunath returned home, turned mad with love, and repeatedly ran away from his father's house to go to puri. but his father seized him on the way and kept him tied up, with five watchmen to guard him day and night and four servants and two cooks, in all eleven guards. raghunath was brooding over his failure to go to puri, when he heard of the master's present visit to shantipur and begged his father thus: "let me go and see the master's feet, or my soul will quit my body." his father then sent him with many men and things and an order to return soon. raghunath spent a week at shantipur in the master's company, ever pondering on his heart's wish, "how shall i escape from my guards? how shall i go to puri with the master?" the omniscient chaitanya, knowing his mind, told him soothingly by way of instruction, "peace! go home. turn not wild. it is only gradually that men reach the shore of the world-ocean. don't ape renunciation of the world, in order to make a show before the people. enjoy your worldly possessions duly, without setting your heart on them. cherish piety in your heart, while outwardly you discharge your temporal affairs. soon will krishna deliver you. when i return here from brindában on my way to puri, come to me by some device. krishna will at that time inspire you with the device. who can hold back one whom krishna favours?" raghunath returned home, followed the master's advice, outwardly gave up his mania and other-worldliness, and did his proper work without being absorbed in it. his parents were pleased at the change and relaxed their rigour. here at shantipur, the master embraced adwaita and other _bhaktas_ one by one and said, "permit me, ye all, to go to puri. as i have met you all here, you need not go to puri this year. from this place i will proceed to brindában. grant your permission, so that my journey may be safe." holding his mother's feet he long entreated her and got her consent to visit brindában, and then sent her back to navadwip. he then set out for puri with his followers, being served on the way by the same men as before. on his arrival at puri there was a bustle in that village: his joyful _bhaktas_ came and were all embraced by him,--kashi mishra, rámánanda, pradyumna, sarvabhanma, vaninath, shikhi, gadadhar pandit and others. to them he said, "i wanted to go to brindában by way of bengal, after seeing my mother and the ganges. when i arrived in bengal a thousand followers gathered round me; myriads of people flocked there to see the fun. the crowd blocked the roads. wherever i put up, the houses and walls were broken down by their pressure. wherever the eye rested there was a sea of heads. with great difficulty i reached the rámkeli village, where two brothers rup and sanátan came to me. they were foremost of devotees, winners of krishna's grace, outwardly royal ministers and governors, old in knowledge faith and wisdom, and yet behaving as meeker than grass. their humility could have pierced a stony (heart). highly pleased i gave them leave saying, 'it is good to be lowly and curb one's own pride. soon will krishna deliver you.' when going away sanátan spoke a riddle: 'to be followed by a million men is not the right manner of visiting brindában.' at that time i did not mind the saying, and next morning reached a village named kanai's dancing-hall. here at night i pondered over sanátan's dark saying and it struck me, 'he has spoken well. with so many men following me, people will point at me as parading saint-ship. lonely is that brindában, hard to win, difficult of access. i must go there alone or with only one companion.' madhavendra puri had gone there all alone, and (hence) had krishna appeared to him on the pretext of serving him with milk. and i,--i am going there like a travelling showman. it is not fit to visit brindában with a host. a pilgrimage thither accords only with solitary travelling. instead of my going there alone (as is proper), an army is accompanying me beating drums! o shame on me! o shame on me! so saying i became unsettled, gave up the journey and returned to thfe ganges. leaving my _bhaktas_ at different places i have arrived here with only five or six. favour me and give me your counsel how i may peacefully go to brindában. i have failed to reach brindában because i left gadadhar behind here and thus pained him!" at this gadadhar in rapture seized the master's feet and spoke meekly, "wherever you are, there is brindában, there jamuna, ganges and all holy places. you are going to brindában only to give an object-lesson to men. you will do what your heart likes. the rainy season is coming. spend these four months at puri. thereafter do as you list. go or stay as you like. who can prevent you?" the other _bhaktas_ joined in and said, "gadadhar has voiced our thoughts." yielding to their wishes, the master stayed there four months. pratap rudra was glad to hear of it. that day gadadhar feasted the master and his _bhaktas_. [text, canto 16.] [1] the author, however, tells us in canto 1 that rámánanda ray accompanied the master to bhadrak. remuna is 5 miles west and bhadrak 28 miles south of baleshwar. chapter xv the pilgrimage to brindában with the coming of early autumn the master's mind turned to his pilgrimage. he secretly took counsel with rámánanda and swarup, saying, "if you two help me, i can visit brindában. at night i shall quit my bed and escape by the forest path without taking a single attendant. if any one afterwards seeks to follow me, do you detain him, letting none depart. mind not the sorrow. be of good cheer and give me leave. if i leave you pleased, my way-faring will be happy." the two replied, "you are god and a free agent; you act your will, subject to none. but listen to one request of ours. you have just now said that our happiness would make you happy. well, then, sir, grant this our prayer. you must take a good brahman with you. he will cook your food and carry your pots. in the forest path you will not meet with any brahman whose cooking is fit to be eaten. give us leave to send a brahman along with you." the master replied, "no, i shall take none of my own comrades with me. if i take one, the others will be grieved. some sweet-souled stranger may be my companion. i can take one such if i can get him." swarup suggested, "here is balabhadra bhattáchárya, tender to you, a scholar, a pious man and a gentleman. he had come from bengal with you during your first advent. he wishes to visit all the _tirthas_. he has a brahman servant; he will do your cooking on the way. we shall all be happy if you take him with you, as then you will feel no hardship in making your way through the forest. the brahman servant will carry your cloth, water, and pots, while bhattáchárya will cook your food." the master agreed to it and took balabhadra bhattáchárya with him. the night before, he visited jagannáth and took the god's leave, and before sunrise he slipped away unperceived. in the morning the _bhaktas_ missed him and ran about anxiously seeking him. swarup stopped them, and they stayed, knowing such to be the master's wish. leaving the beaten track the master took to by-paths, and passing by the left of katak entered the jungle. in the lonely forest he fared forth, chanting krishna's name,--elephants and tigers moved away from the path at the sight of him. in an ecstatic mood he passed through herds of tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses and boars. bhattáchárya shrank in terror, but they stepped aside cowed by the master's power. one day a tiger was lying across the path. the master in abstraction trod on it and cried, "speak krishna's name!" and lo! the tiger stood up and began to dance, while chanting _krishna! krishna!_ another day he was bathing in the river, when a herd of wild elephants came there to drink. they arrived before him as he was offering the oblation of water. bidding them repeat krishna's name he rushed sprinkling the water on them. every elephant touched by that water shouted _krishna_ and danced and ran about in love. some rolled on the ground, some bellowed, to the marvel of bhattáchárya. on the way the master sang _kirtan_ aloud. the deer flocked thither, drawn by his sweet voice, and marched with him on two sides, while he patted their backs and playfully recited the verses, _bhágabat_, x. xxi. 11. just then six or seven tigers came up and joined the deer in accompanying the master. the sight reminded the master of brindában and he recited the verses descriptive of the virtues of brindában. _bhágabat_, x. xiii. 55. when the master shouted "chant krishna's name," the deer and the tigers danced together (peacefully) shout ing krishna! krishna! a wonderful sight to balabhadra bhattáchárya. the tigers and deer embraced and kissed each other, the master smiling at the fun of it. leaving them there he went on. the peacock and other birds, on seeing him, proceeded in his company singing _krishna!_ and dancing like mad. the master shouted, 'say _hari_!' trees and creepers rejoiced at the sound. to all the animate and inanimate things in the jungle of chota nagpur (_jhárikhand_) he communicated the name of krishna and maddened them with love. in every village that he passed through or halted in, all the men were filled with devotion. if one heard the name of krishna from his lips, he spread it to a second, the second to a third, and so on. all chanted krishna-hari's name, danced, wept, and laughed; from one to another the whole land became vaishnav. though for fear of drawing a crowd the master concealed his devotion and gave no outward exhibition of it, yet the very sight of him, the hearing of his words, and his power made all the people vaishnpv. travelling in central bengal, east bengal, west bengal, and orissa, he had delivered the people there. now, on the pretext of a pilgrimage to mathura, he came to jharikhand and saved the ruffianly bearish people by teaching them the faith that springs from krishna's name. the wood suggested brindában, every hill looked like govardhan, every river seemed to him a jamuna. there he danced in ecstasy, and fell down weeping. bhattáchárya gathered all green leaves, roots and fruits wherever he found them on the way. when they halted at a village, six or seven brahmans would invite him; one supplied bhattáchárya with rice, another with milk, curds, _ghee_, or sugar. where there was no brahman inhabitant, all the shudra merchants invited bhattáchárya. he cooked the wild vegetables, which delighted the master. he kept a store of rice to last for three or four days. in the lonely parts of the jungle, where there was no human habitation, bhattáchárya cooked that rice with soup of wild vegetables. the picnic delighted the master exceedingly and the solitude gratified him. bhattáchárya served him as tenderly as a slave, his brahman carrying the water-pot and clothing. thrice daily he bathed in the hot springs, twice he warmed himself by the fire, as fuel was abundant; ever did he move in solitude rapt in love. feeling the bliss (of such a life) he said, "much have i travelled, but nowhere have i found any trace of the (alleged) hardships of journeying in forests. passing gracious has krishna been to me: he has directed me to this forest path to give me varied delight. previously when i had resolved to visit brindában after seeing my mother, the ganges and my _bhaktas_, and taking a party of my followers faith me, and with that aim went to bengal, and after delighting myself with the sight of those dear ones, i set out joyfully with my followers, a million people joined me. then krishna instructed me through the mouth of sanátan; he hindered that journey and brought me to this forest path. o ocean of mercy! gracious unto this humble wretch! there can be no pleasure without thy grace!" then embracing bhattáchárya he said, "all this pleasure have i through thy help." but bhattáchárya replied, "you are krishna, you are the gracious one! i am a despicable being; you have taken pity on me; you have (deigned to) take me with you, and to eat food cooked by me. i am a wretch. but you have ennobled this crow to the rank of _garuda_. you are god himself, a free being!" thus did balabhadra hymn the master and please his mind by his loving service. thus enjoying much bliss he reached benares and bathed at noon at the mani-karnika ghát. tapan mishra was then bathing there, and felt some surprise on seeing the master, as he had previously (only) heard of chaitanya having turned hermit. when the recognition became certain, he was filled with rapture, and wept clasping the master's feet, but he raised and embraced him. the mishra guided the master to the temple of vishweshwar and bindu madhav, and at last brought him to his own house, where he served him, danced (in ecstasy) with his garment fluttering, drank with his whole family the washings of the master's feet, fed him, honoured balabhadra bhattáchárya, and arranged for his cooking. after taking his meal the master lay down, the mishra's son, raghu, shampooing his feet. the mishra family ate the leavings of the master's plate. chandra-shekhar, a scribe of the vaidya caste, resident in benares, a friend of the mishra and a devotee of the master, came there on hearing of his arrival. as he wept at his feet, chaitanya lifted up and graciously embraced him. chandra-shekhar said, "great is thy grace, master that thou hast appeared to thy servant! at my first coming to benares i used to hear nothing but the words 'illusion' (_máyá_) and brahma. here nothing was preached except expositions of the six systems of philosophy. then the mishra kindly told me of krishna, and we two meditated ceaselessly on thy feet. omniscient god! thou hast appeared to us. let us both serve thee for some days before thou goest to brindában, as we hear." the mishra added, "master, during your stay at kashi do not consent to dine anywhere except in my house." thus the master, compelled by his two devotees, stayed there for some ten days against his will. a maratha brahman came to see him, marvelled at his beauty and devotion, and invited him, but he declined saying that he was already engaged for the day. with the same plea he put him off day after day in fear of some _sannyasis_ joining his company. prakashánanda used to deliver public lectures on vedánta to his many pupils. the maratha brahman, after having viewed the master, described him to prakashánanda thus, "a _sannyasi_ has come here from jagannáth, whose glory and power i cannot adequately describe. big of limbs, fair as the purest gold, long-armed, lotus-eyed, clad in all the marks of god-head, as one can see. o, marvel! the sight of him convinces one that he is náráyan. whosoever beholds him chants krishna's _sankirtan_. all the marks of a great _bhágabat_ as described in the _bhágabat_ are evident in him. ever does his tongue sing krishna's name, his eyes run tears like the ganges stream. now he dances, now laughs, now sings and now weeps, or at times roars like the lion. the world's benefactor is he, named krishna-chaitanya. his name, appearance, and virtues, all are matchless. to see him is to know him as fashioned in god's mould. hearing will not make one credit this marvellous tale." the philosopher laughed much and scoffed at the brahman, saying, "i have heard that there is a _sannyasi_ in bengal, an emotionalist, a disciple of keshav bhárati and a fraud on the public. he is named chaitanya, and with his emotional band he roams over the country dancing. everyone who sees him calls him god. such is his spell, all beholders are bewitched. i hear that the great scholar sárvabhauma bhattáchárya has turned mad in this chaitanya's company. he is a _sannyasi_ in name only, but really a great wizard. but his stock in trade of sentimentality will not sell at kashi! attend to vedánta; do not resort to him! the companionship of the wild man will ruin you in life and death." grieved at these words, the maratha brahman left the place appealing to krishna. his mind having been purged by the master's sight, he came to him and unfolded the tale of his sorrow. the master smiled. the brahman continued, "when i first mentioned you to him, he said that he knew you. when he uttered your name in the course of his abuse of you, he thrice used the form _chaitanya_ without adding krishna! it grieved me to hear him speak your name in such a contemptuous manner. tell me the reason of his conduct, for my lips uttered krishna's name as soon as i saw you." the master replied, "the philosophers who hold the doctrine of illusion sin against krishna. they constantly prate about _brahma_, _atma_ and _chaitanya_, and cannot utter the name of krishna, because that is equivalent to krishna's self. the name, the image, and the self of a god are all one; there is no distinction between them; the three are of the form of soul's bliss (_chidánanda_). between krishna's body and personality, between his name and krishna himself there is no difference. in the case of creatures, no doubt, name, body, and personality are different from one another. _vide hari-bhakti-vilas_ xi. 269. "therefore krishna's name, body, and action (_vilás_) cannot be comprehended by the natural senses; they manifest themselves. his name, qualities, and antics are the soul's bliss (_chidánanda_) like krishna's own form. from delight in god comes the fuller pleasure of appreciating krishna's actions (_lilá_), which attract and conquer the spiritual man. _vide bhágabat_, xii. xii. 52. "from delight in god comes the fuller pleasure (of relishing) krishna's merits, which attract the inmost spirit of the soul. _vide bhágabat_, i. vi. 10. not to speak of krishna's feet, even the odour of the _tulsi_ plant captivates the inmost sense of the soul. _vide bhágabat_, iii., xv. 43. "therefore does krishna's name fail to rise to his lips; the illusionists are mere phenomenalists. he has said that i have come to kashi with a parcel of sentiments for which there is no customer here, and i must take it all back! well, how shall i carry away this heavy load? i will sell it here even for a trifle!" so saying and making that brahman his own, next morning he set out for mathura. the three followed him, but he sent them home from a distance. in his absence they used to meet together and sing his praise, mad with love. at allahabad he bathed in the triveni, and danced and sang in devotion before the image of madhav. in rapture at the sight of the jamuna, he jumped into it, but was hurriedly dragged out by bhattáchárya. three days he spent thus at allahabad saving men by imparting to them the love and name of krishna. on the way to mathura wherever he halted, he made the people dance to krishna's loved name. he now made the people of the west vaishnavs, as he had formerly done those of the south. wherever he came to the jamuna on the way, he leapt into it, senseless with love. on approaching mathura, he prostrated himself in an ecstasy of devotion at the sight of the city. here he bathed in the vishram ghát, and bowed to kesav's image at the place of his nativity. he danced, sang, and shouted in rapture,--men marvelling at his fervour. one brahman clasped his feet and then began to dance with him over come with love. both danced in rapture, embraced each other, and cried _hari! krishna!_ with uplifted arms. the spectators shouted _hari! hari!_--there was a tumult; the attendant of the image garlanded the master. marvelling at the sight of the master, the people said, "such beauty and such devotion can never be human. verily, he is the incarnation of krishna, come to mathura to save mankind, because at the sight of him men are intoxicated with love and laugh weep dance and sing krishna's name!" then the master took the brahman apart and asked him secretly, "you are a brahman, noble-minded, simple and old. whence did you acquire such wealth of love?" the man replied, "when madhavendra puri came here on his travels, he was pleased to be my guest; he made me his disciple and ate of my cooking. that great soul revealed the (concealed) gopal, who is worshipped at govardhan to this day." at this the master touched his feet, but the brahman in alarm fell down at the master's feet. the master explained, "you are my _guru_, and i am almost a disciple to you. the _guru_ should not bow to the disciple." the brahman in fear and surprise asked, "why do you, a _sannyasi_, use such language? but stay! your fervour makes me infer that you are connected with madhavendra puri [by the tie of initiation]. he was filled with love of krishna: nowhere do we find even the savour of such love except jmong those connected with him." then bhattáchárya explained the master's relation to the puri, at which the brahman began to dance in rapture. he conducted the master to his own house, and of his own will served him in many ways. he made bhattáchárya cook the master's meal, but he smilingly said, "the puri has dined with you. do thou feed me. this is an instruction for me. _vide gitá_, iii. 21." though the brahman was a _sanoria_, at whose house _sannyasis_ do not dine, yet the puri, drawn by his truly vaishnav behaviour, had initiated and dined with him. now that the master begged to eat of his cooking, the brahman humbly said, "great is my fortune that i shall feast you. you are god, unfettered by rule and practice. but the ignorant will blame you, which i cannot bear to hear." the master answered, "the _shruti_, the _smriti_ and all the sages are not of one opinion, but at variance with one another. the actions of good men are for confirming religion. the puri's action is the essence of that religion. _vide ekádashi-tattwa_, vyas's words: _'logical reasoning cannot establish our duty. the shrutis are conflicting. not a rishi whose views do not differ from those of others. the truth of religion is hidden in a cave. follow therefore the path trodden by good men.'"_ then the brahman feasted the master, to see whom the citizens of mathura came in _lakhs_. the master appeared to them outside the house, and with uplifted arms cried "chant _hari! hari!_" the men raised a shout of _hari!_ and danced mad with love. he bathed at the 24 gháts of the jamuna, and was shown by that brahman all the holy sites: swayambhu, vishram, dirgha-vishnu, bhuteshwar, mahavidya, gokarna, &c. wishing to see the woods, he took the brahman with him and visited the madhu-ban, the tál-ban, kumud and bahulá, in all of which he sang in a fervour of love. the cows grazing by the way surrounded the master with loud bellowings, but grew still at the sight of his over flowing devotion, and licked his limbs tenderly. when he became quiet, he rubbed their backs, and they would not leave him as he advanced. the cowherds stopped them with great difficulty. his voice drew to him herds of deer, which gazed at his face, licked his body, and followed him on the way without fear. the black-bird and the bee sang sweetly on seeing him; the peacocks strutted dancing before him. at his coming the trees and creepers of brindában put forth sprouts (as if they were thrilled) and shed honey like tears. branches laden with flowers and fruits, bowed to his feet, as friend hastens to greet friend with a present. at the sight of him, the animate and inanimate things of brindában rejoiced, as on meeting with their friend. seeing their affection the rapt master played with them all, over come by their influence. each tree and creeper he embraced; in thought he offered every flower and fruit to krishna. weeping, trembling, shaken with love, he shouted, 'say _krishna! krishna!_' the living and the inert shouted _krishna_ as if echoing his deep voice. clasping the necks of the deer he wept, while the deer trembled and shed tears. the green parrot with its mate appeared on the branches, and on his wishing to hear their speech they flew on to his hand and recited verses in praise of krishna. _vide govinda-lilámrita_, xiii. 29 &c. wonder and enthusiasm seized the master at these words, and the birds flew back to the branch. delighted he gazed at the dance of the peacocks, the neck of the bird reminding him of krishna, and he swooned away in rapture. the (local) brahman and bhattáchárya nursed him, sprinkled him with water and fanned him with his cloth. loudly they poured krishna's name into his ears, (at which) he awoke and rolled on the ground. the brambles of the rough jungle path scratched his limbs, but bhattáchárya took him in his lap to soothe him. krishna's love had filled his mind, so he sprang up with the cry of "chant! chant!" and began to dance. bhattáchárya and the (mathura) brahman sang krishna's name, while the master wended his way dancing. the brahman marvelled at the fervour of his love and grew concerned about his safety. his passion of devotion on the way to brindában grew tenfold of what it had been at puri; it increased a thousandfold on seeing mathura, and a hundred thousand times when he roamed the woods of brindában. when he was in other lands the mention of brindában had caused his love to well out; and now he had actually come to that brindában! his soul was steeped in love day and night, and he bathed and dined (unconsciously) as a matter of habit. [text, canto 17.] chapter xvi the master's doings at brindában dancing thus the master reached the village of arith, where he suddenly recovered his senses. he asked the people about the rádhá pool (_kunda_); but they knew it not, nor did the brahman guide. but the omniscient discovered the hidden _tirthas_ and bathed in shallow pools in two rice-fields. the villagers wondered at the spectacle. the master began to praise the radha pool in love: "radha is dearest to krishna among all the milk-maids. so is the radha-_kunda_ dear (to him) as the bathing-place of his darling. in this pool krishna ever sported in the water with radha and on the bank he dallied in the _rása_ dance. whosoever bathes once here gets from krishna a love rivalling that of radha. the pool is charming like radha's self; its glory is great like radha's." recollecting krishna's acts in the pool, he danced in rapture on the bank, and painted his forehead with its mud. bhattáchárya took a little of the mud. next, the master went to the suman tank. at the sight of the govardhan hill he was affected, prostrated himself before it, and madly embraced a rock. in a frenzy of devotion he proceeded to the village of govardhan, where he bowed to the god hari-dev, the first incarnation of náráyan, who dwelt on the western edge of mathura. before the god he danced in rapture, the people at the wondrous news flocking to see him, and admiring his beauty and devotion. the attendant of the image entertained him. bhattacharya cooked in the brahma-_kunda_ and the master bathed, dined, and passed the night in the temple. at night he cogitated, "no, i must not ascend govardhan. how then can i get the sight of gopal?" he remained silent over the matter, but gopal knowing his mind, played a trick. the god gopal was installed at anna-kut, a village of the rajputs. some one informed the headman at night that the turks were arming to sack the village, and so they should all flee at night with their god. the villagers in alarm first transferred gopal to the ganthuli village, where the god was worshipped in secret in a brahman's house. then they all fled, leaving the village empty. thus did gopal migrate repeatedly in fear of the muslims, being removed from temple to bower or to another village. in the morning the master after bathing in the mánas gangá, set out to walk round govardhan. moved to rapture at the sight of the hill, he advanced dancing and chanting the verses, _bhágabat_, x. xxi. 18. bathing at the govinda-kunda and other holy spots, he learnt that gopal had gone to ganthuli, whither he proceeded to see the god, before whom he danced and sang in a transport of devotion. moved by gopal's beauty he recited a _shloka_ and danced till the close of the day. for three days did he view gopal; on the fourth day gopal came away with him, as he walked singing and dancing, and went back to his former temple [on the hill], while the master stayed at the foot of it. the people in delight cheered aloud _hari! hari!_ thus does the tender gopal descend from the hill on some pretext, in order to show himself to the devotee who passionately longs to see him and yet declines to set foot upon govardhan. thus did he appear to rup and sanátan. when rup was too old to walk and yet longed to see gopal's charms, the god took refuge for a month in the vithaleshwar temple at mathura in fear of the muslims. then rup with his disciples saw him there for a month. [rup's disciples named]. after a month gopal went back to his temple, while rup returned to brindában. then the master visited the kámya forest, and all other places in brindában in the manner described before. thence to nandishwar, at the sight of whom he fell into an ecstasy. after bathing in the pában and other pools, he climbed the hill and asked if there was any temple on the top. being directed by the local people, he entered the cave and there beheld the image of the fair dancing child between his robust parents. he bowed at the feet of nanda and yashodá, and in rapture touched all the limbs of the child krishna. after dancing and singing there all day, he visited the khadir wood, the vishnu reposing on the sesha snake, khelá-_tirtha_, the bhándir wood, the bhadra wood (across the jamuna), the shri-ban, the ivauha-ban, the mahá-ban, (the birth-place of radha), where he beheld the site of the killing of yamalárjun, to the over flowing of his love. after visiting gokul he returned to mathura. here he stayed at that brahman's house, visiting krishna's birth-shrine; but he left mathura on account of its press of people and dwelt in seclusion at akrur-_tirtha_. another day he visited brindában, bathed in the kaliya lake and praskandan. from the twelve suns (_dwádash aditya_) he went to the kashi _tirtha_. at the place of _rása_ he fainted away in love, and on recovering rolled on the ground, laughed, wept, danced, recited verses, and sang. in such deeds was the day spent there, in the evening he returned to akrur for breakfast. next morning he bathed at the chiraghát of brindában, and rested under a very ancient tamarind tree of the age of krishna's exploits, with a smooth platform built round its trunk. close by flowed the jamuna; cool breezes blew; the water of the jamuna gazed at the beauty of brindában. after singing the holy names under the tamarind tree, the master performed his noonday prayer and breakfasted at akrur. the people of the village crowded in such numbers to see him that he could not dance freely. so he came back to brindában, and sitting apart sang the holy names till noon. in the third quarter of the day he appeared to the people and advised them all to make _sankirtan_ of krishna's name. then arrived a vaishnav, of the rajput race, named krishna-das, a householder living in a village on the other side of the jamuna. after bathing in the keshighát he was going to the kali lake when he suddenly beheld a holy man sitting under the tamarind tree. admiring the beauty and fervour of the master, he bowed to him in devotion. to the master's query as to who he was, he replied, "i am a miserable householder, a rajput from across the river. i long to be servant to a vaishnav. last night in sleep i saw a vision which exactly agrees with you." as the master graciously embraced him, the rajput mad with love danced crying _hari! hari!_ he followed the master at noon to the akrur-_tirtha_ and ate his leavings. next morning he bore the master's water-pot [to brindában] and kept his company, leaving his wife, children and home. everywhere men began to say that krishna had again appeared at brindában. one morning the citizens of mathura were returning from brindában with a great noise, when the master met them and asked them whence they were coming. they replied, "krishna has appeared in the water of the káli-daha lake. he is dancing on the hood of the snake káliya, whose jewel is flashing in the water. we have seen it with our own eyes. it is beyond doubt." the master smiled and remarked, "it is all very true." thus for three nights people flocked there, all saying on their return that they had beheld krishna. when they said in the master's presence that they had seen krishna, saraswati indeed moved them to speak the truth, for in seeing _him_ they were beholding the true krishna; while they were neglecting the real before their eyes in order to behold the unreal [apparition of krishna in the lake]. when bhattáchárya begged leave to behold krishna there, the master slapped him and said, "you are a learned man, and yet you have turned a fool, believing the story of fools! why should krishna appear in that lake? fools in their delusion are making a fuss [about nothing]. don't lose your senses. stay at home. to-morrow at night go and see krishna." in the morning a quiet man came to the master, and he asked him if he had seen krishna. the man replied, "a fisherman was catching fish in the lake with a lamp in his boat. people seeing him from a distance mistook him for krishna dancing on the snake; the boat was regarded as the snake's hood, and the lamp as its crown-jewel! true, krishna _has_ come to brindában, but it is not true that the people have seen him. far from seeing him they are holding a false notion, just as an imbecile [_sthánu_] man takes things in a contrary light." the master asked, "where have you seen krishna?" the man replied, "you are a _sannyasi_ a walking náráyan. you have come to brindában, as the incarnation of krishna, to deliver all men by your appearance." the master invoked god in horror and cried, "say not so! never regard this, the humblest of creatures, as krishna. a _sannyasi_ is a particle of _chit_, a creature is like a single ray of light; but krishna, full of all the six powers, is like the sun. a creature and the creator can never be equal, any more than a blazing fire and a solitary spark can be. the fool who speaks of a creature as equal to god is a sinner, destined to be punished by yama." the man replied, "you have not the human mind. your appearance and character are like krishna's. in form you resemble the son of braja's lord; your bright complexion eclipses your yellow robe. the musk's fragrance cannot be concealed even if it is tied up in a cloth; so too your godly nature cannot be kept hidden. supernatural is your character, your wisdom unfathomable, the sight of you has driven the world mad with the love of krishna. woman, child, old man, a chandál, or even a muslim,--whosoever once beholds you, dances madly, chanting krishna's name. he becomes a teacher unto others and converts the world. not to speak of seeing you, the mere hearing of your name throws a man into a frenzy of devotion to krishna and makes him a spiritual deliverer to all others. your name sanctifies even chandáls. super human are your powers,--beyond description. _vide bhágabat_, iii. xxxiii. 6. such is your glory, you have the attributes of detachment. your form and attributes prove you to be krishna!" the master favoured these men, and they returned home wild with love. thus did he stay a few days at akrur, saving men by imparting to them the love of krishna's name. that disciple of madhav puri invited every householder in mathura. the people of mathura, brahmans and good men, in parties of ten or twenty every day invited bhattáchárya, who could accept only one of the invitations. the people, getting no opportunity of giving dinners, pressed that brahman to accept their hospitality. kanauji, deccani, and vaidik brahmans all humbly asked the master to dinner. they came to akrur in the morning, cooked, offered the food to the _shálgrám_, and fed the master on it. one day, sitting on the akrur ghát, the master reflected, "here did aknir see vaikuntha, and the people of brindában got a view of heaven. so saying he jumped into the water; krishna-das set up a loud lamentation; bhattáchárya hurried there and dragged the master out. then he took secret counsel with the (local) brahman, saying, "the master was rescued only because i was at hand. but if he is drowned at brindában who will save him? here we have crowds of visitors and the plague of invitation every day. it is not good for him to be constantly in an ecstasy. the best plan would be to remove him from brindában." the brahman (host) replied, "let us take him to prayág; we shall enjoy the journey along the bank of the ganges. you should ask his consent to bathe in the ganges at soron and then start with him by the same route. it is now the month of mágh; if we start now, we shall reach prayág in time for bathing during capricorn. after saying something of your own sorrows, broach to him the request to lead you to prayág during capricorn. tell him also of the joy of following the bank of the ganges." then bhattacharva besought the master thus "i cannot bear this disturbance by the people. they worry me to accept their invitations. when people come in the morning and fail to find you, they plague me to death. i shall be happy if i follow the bank of the ganges, and starting now reach prayág in time for bathing in capricorn. my mind is restless. i cannot bear [our life here]. i submit to whatever the master may be pleased to command." though unwilling to leave brindában, the master, to gratify his _bhakta_, said sweetly, "never shall i be able to repay my debt to you for your having escorted me to brindában. i shall do your wish. take me wherever you desire." in the morninq-he bathed and became overcome with devotion at the thought of leaving brindában. unconscious of the things outside, he fell into a trance of love. bhattáchárya took him in a boat across the river to mahá-ban. the devoted krishna-das and that brahman knew the route along the ganges. on the way he sat down under a tree with his party, in order to refresh them from fatigue. many cows were grazing there, and the sight filled him with delight. suddenly a cowherd played on his flute, and at once rapture seized the master; he fell down in a swoon, foaming at the mouth and his breathing stopped. just then ten pathan cavalrymen arrived there, dismounted, and gazing at the master jumped to the conclusion that his five companions were sharpers who had poisoned him with _dhuturá_ in order to rob him of his gold. so they tied up the five and threatened to behead them. the bengalis began to tremble; only the rajput krishna-das was fearless and that brahman bold of speech. the brahman cried out, tathan! i appeal to your padshah! take me with you to the _shikdar_. this hermit is my _guru_; i am a brahman of mathura. i have a hundred acquaintances at the royal court. this hermit has a disease which makes him fall down in a fit. he will soon recover consciousness. wait a little here. keep us tied up. after inquiring of him, slay us if we deserve. the pathan replied, "you two are up-country men; here are three bengali _thugs_ quaking in fear." krishna-das said, "i live in this village, with 100 troopers and 200 bowmen under me. if i raise a shout they will come here, kill you, and take away your horses and accoutrement. the bengalis are not sharpers. you are rogues, as you want to rob pilgrims and to kill them!" at this the pathan hesitated. just then the master came to his senses, rose up with a shout of _hari! hari!_ and danced in rapture with uplifted arms. his devotional cry pierced the heart of the muslim, who in fear released the five, so that the master saw not the captivity of his followers. bhattáchárya held and seated the master, who became aware of the things around him when he saw the muslims. the pathans bowed at his feat and charged the five with having poisoned him with _dhuturá_. but he replied, "they are not _thugs_, but my companions. i am a begging hermit, with no wealth to be robbed. occasionally i fall into epileptic fits, when these five kindly nurse me." one of the muslims, a grave man clad in black and called a pin, was melted at heart on seeing the master. he propounded monotheism and one common god, on the basis of his holy book (_viz._, the _quran_). but the master refuted all his propositions by arguments based on the muslim scripture, till the man was silenced. the master continued, "your scripture establishes one common god [in the beginning] and refuting that theory sets up in the end a particular god, who is full of all powers, dark of hue, the embodiment of _sat_, _chit_ and _ananda_, the perfect spirit, the soul of all, all-pervading, eternal, the self of every thing, the source of creation life and destruction, the refuge of all universes whether gross or fine, the most excellent, adorable by all, the first cause of everything. men are saved by faith in him,, and freed from the bondage of the world only by serving him. delight in him is the supreme human attainment, while salvation can give only a particle of that bliss. the highest beatitude comes only from serving his feet. after first insisting on work, knowledge and mental abstraction, these are then set aside and the service of god is laid down as the final duty. your theologians have no knowledge of their own scriptures; they forget that where there are two injunctions, the latter is sronger. decide after studying your own holy books, and see what is laid down as the final conclusion." the muslim replied, "true are your words. men cannot realize god as described in the scriptures. they discourse on the abstract god (_gosáin_); nobody thinks of adoring the incarnate god. you are such, god's own self. have mercy on me, unworthy sinner! much have i read, but cannot ascertain the _sádhya_ and _sádhan_ from the muslim scriptures. at the sight of you my tongue utters krishna's name, and i have been cured of my proud confidence in my own knowledge. tell me graciously what are _sádhya_ and _sádhan_." so saying he fell at the master's feet, who said, "rise! in repeating krishna's name you have been washed pure from the sins of million births. say _krishna! krishna!_" they chanted the name and were filled with rapture. the master renamed him rámdás. there was another pathan named bijuli khan, a young prince and the master of rámdás and other pathan troopers. he too fell down at the master's feet, with the cry of krishna! the master touched his head with his toe, and went on his way. all the pathans turned _bairágis_ and were famous as "pathan vaishnavs." they roamed everywhere singing the master's praise. the bijuli khan became a very spiritual person honoured in every _tirtha_. at soron he bathed in the ganges and walked along the river bank to prayág. when he dismissed the mathura brahman and krishna-das, they begged with folded palms, "let us follow you to prayág. where again shall we see your feet? it is a muslim country, you may be oppressed anywhere. your companion, bhattáchárya, is a mere pandit and does not know how to address people." the master smilingly consented and they followed him. everyone who beheld him turned frantic with love and sang _sankirtan_ aloud. they communicated their faith to others, and these to others again, so that the whole land became vaishnav, just as the master had previously converted the south during his pilgrimage. so walking he reached prayág, where he bathed for ten days at the junction of the three rivers during the sun's progress through capricorn. [text, canto 18.] chapter xvii how the master favoured rup rup and sanátan, after meeting the master at the village of rámkeli, went back to their own quarters. the two brothers devised how to get rid of their worldly ties. they secured two priests with costly gifts, and performed two ceremonies preparatory to a journey (_purashcharan_) in the mantra of krishna, hoping thereby to attain speedily to chaitanya's feet. then rup came to his own house by boat with much wealth, of which he distributed one half to brahmans and vaishnavs, one quarter to his kinsmen for their support, and laid by the other quarter for paying the fine. the money was lodged with good brahmans, and ten thousand rupees were deposited with a grocer at gaur, subject to expenditure by sanátan. when rup heard of the master's journey to puri and of his intention to go to brindában by the forest route, he sent two agents to puri to bring quickly word about the date of the master's starting for brindában, as he wanted to shape his own course accordingly. at gaur sanátan thought within himself, "the sultan's love for me is a tie (keeping me here). if he were only to turn angry, it will be my deliverance." on the plea of illness he stayed at home, gave up his official work, and discontinued his visits to the court. the greedy writers (_káyastha_) transacted the business of state (in his absence), while he at home discussed the _shástras_. with twenty or thirty bhattáchárya pandits he discussed the _bhágabat_ in assembly. one day the sultan with only one attendant suddenly entered sanátan's meeting. at the sight of the king, all hurriedly stood up, and seated him with due honour. the sultan said, "i sent a physician to you, who reported that you were in perfect health. all my affairs depend on you, and yet you are staying at home neglecting them! you have ruined all my business. tell me what you really mean by it?" sanátan replied, "i am unable to do the work. get some one else for the purpose." the sultan in anger cried out again and again, "your elder brother is acting like a robber. he has desolated the districts (_chákla_) under him by killing men and cattle. and here you are ruining all my affairs!" sanátan pleaded, "you are the free king of bengal; punish all offenders." at this the sultan returned to his palace and imprisoned sanátan lest he should escape. when the king set out to invade orissa, he asked sanátan to accompany him. the minister replied, "i cannot bear you company, as you are going to molest my gods." then the sultan set out, leaving sanátan in prison. when the master set out for brindában, the two messengers brought news of it to rup. at this rup wrote to sanátan, "chaitanya has started for brindában. we two brothers are going to join him. do you run away from gaur by hook or crook. i have left ten thousand rupees with a grocer there. spend it to secure your release soon, and fly to brindában by any way that you can find." then rup went to prayág with his youngest brother, anupam mallik (surnamed?) shri-vallabh, devout vaishnav. the master delighted at the news. as he was going to visit bindu madhav, _lakhs_ of men came to meet him, some weeping, some laughing, some singing and dancing, others rolling on the ground while shouting _krishna! krishna!_ the master drowned prayág in the flood of krishna's love, while the ganges and the jamuna between them had failed to submerge the land! seeing the crowd, rup and his brother stood apart. the master was thrown into ecstasy when beholding madhav, and danced with uplifted arms shouting 'say _hari! hari!_' men marvelled at his greatness. his feats at prayág baffle description. a deccani brahman who knew him, took him to his house, where the master was sitting down in seclusion when rup and vallakh came to him. with two blades of grass between their teeth, they fell down prone on seeing him from afar. again and again they rose up and fell down, reciting many verses, overcome with love at the sight of him. graciously did the master speak, "rise, rise! rup, come to me! krishna's grace passes all speech: he has plucked you from the well of worldliness in which you were sunk. witness the _hari-bhakti-vilas_, x. 91; the words of god: _'it is not by studying the four vedas that one can become my bhakta. even low-caste chandals can win my love by their faith. to such bhaktas i grant my love and accept their love, and they are worthy of adoration like myself'."_ repeating the above verse he embraced both and placed his feet on their heads as a favour. at this they praised him humbly with folded palms. [verses]. then the master seated them by himself and asked for the news of sanátan. rup answered, "he is in the king's prison. if you save him then only can he be released. the master said, "sanátan has been set free and will soon join us all. the brahman invited the master to dinner. rup passed the day there. balabhadra bhattáchárya bade both the brothers to dinner, and the two ate the leavings of the master's plate. the master lodged in a house on the junction of the rivers; rup and vallabh took a house near it. there was then one vallabh bhatta[1] at the village of ambuli. he came on hearing of the master's arrival, bowed to him, received his embrace, and the two discoursed long on krishna, at which the master's devotion surged up, but he checked himself in the presence of the bhatta, who detected the uncontrollable fervour within him and marvelled exceedingly. then the bhatta invited the master, who introduced to him the two brothers. they very humbly bowed to the bhatta from a distance, and as he ran to meet them they receded further crying, "touch not untouchable sinners like us!" the bhatta marvelled; the master was delighted and told their story to the bhatta, adding, "touch not these; they are of a low caste, while you are a vaidic sacrificial brahman, old and a _kulin_." hearing krishna's name incessantly on their lips, the bhatta, taking hint from the master's winking, remarked, "krishna's name is dancing on their tongue. they cannot be low; they are the best of men. witness the _bhágabat_ iii. xxxiii. 7." the master, pleased to hear it, praised him much and in rapture recited these verses: _"wise men will honour even a chandál who has been purified in consequence of the sins of his low birth having been burnt away by the blazing fire of pure faith; while an atheist is not to be honoured even though learned in the vedas. vain are high pedigree, scholarship, repetition of the holy name, and austerities, in a man who lacks faith in god. as a lifeless doll is dressed up only for show to people, so are the virtues of a faithless man futile._ (_hari-bhakti-sudhodaya_, iii. 12 and 11.)" the bhatta wondered as he gazed at the master's passion of devotion, power, true faith, and beauty. he took him with his followers in a boat to his own house for dinner. beholding the sparkling blue waters of the jamuna, the master was overcome by love, and leaped into the river with a roar. they were all seized with concern at it and hurriedly pulled him out of the water. he began to dance on the boat, which rolled right and left under his weight and shipped a good deal of water, being ready to sink. his love was uncontrollable; still in the presence of the bhatta the master checked himself, as his transport was inopportune, and disembarked at the ambuli ghát. the anxious bhatta, after keeping his company at bath, brought him to his own house, gave him a fine garment, washed his feet and poured the water on the heads of himself and his family. he clothed the master in a new waist-band and _dhuti_, and adored him with scents, flowers, incense and lights. bhattáchárya cooked and the master dined; so did rup and his brother; rup and krishna-das were given the leavings of his dinner. after chewing spices the master lay down to repose, the bhatta rubbing his feet. sent away by the master, the bhatta despatched his own dinner and came back to his feet. now came there raghupati upádhyáya, a great scholar and vaishnav of north bihar (tirhut). as he bowed, the master greeted him with "be thy mind fixed on krishna,"--to the great delight of the upádhyáya. at the master's request he recited verses of his own composition describing krishna's deeds. [verses.] the master had a transport of love as he listened and urged the poet to proceed further. the upádhyáya marvelled at such fervour, and knew him to be krishna himself and not a mortal. the master asked, "upádhyáya! what do you consider most excellent?" the poet replied, "black is the best of colours." "where is the best abode of the black complexion?" the poet answered, "mathura is the best of cities." "which is the best age--boyhood, maturity, or adolescence?" the upadhyaya replied, "adolescence is the only age fit for our meditation." "which do you think is the best among emotions?" "love is the highest of all emotions (_ras_)." the master remarked, "thou hast taught me the true lore", and then in a tremulous voice recited madhavendra puri's verses (embodying the above answers). in rapture he embraced the upádhyáya, who began to dance in a frenzy of love. vallabh bhatta marvelled at the sight. with his two sons he fell down at the master's feet. the villagers flocked thither to see him, and at his sight became worshippers of krishna. vallabh bhatta stopped the brahmans who were inviting the master, saying, "this holy man jumped into mid-jamuna in ecstasy. i must not detain him here, but convey him back to prayág. invite him there, if you list." so saying he carried the master across in the boat. avoiding the press of the people, the master went to the dashashwamedh ghát and there taught rup about krishna's essence, the path of _bhakti_, the lore of emotions, the conclusions of the _bhágabat_. he imparted to rup all the doctrines he had learnt from rámánanda, and infused (his own) force into rup's heart, in order to make him a perfect doctor of vaishnav theology. (verses quoted from the _chaitanya-chandrodaya_.) thanks to the master's grace on them, rup and sanátan became objects of favour and pride to all his leading devotees and associates. chaitanya's attendants used to ask every one who returned to bengal from brindában, "tell us how rup and sanátan are living there. tell us of their asceticism, their meals, their adoration of krishna all day." then praising the two, the returned pilgrims would answer, "the two are living homeless, sleeping every night under a different tree. in the brahman houses they get coarse food, in contrast with the sweetmeats they formerly fed upon. they chew dry bread or gram, leaving all enjoyments. in their hands is the beggar's gourd, they are wrapped in tattered quilts; they speak of krishna, chant his name, dance, and exult. throughout the day and night they recite krishna's praise, and sleep for two hours, and sometimes, absorbed in the passion of chanting the name, they deny themselves even that short sleep. at times they compose works on _bhakti_, hear discourses about chaitanya, and meditate on him." these words greatly pleased the fathers of the church. what wonder [that such should be their life], when chaitanya's grace was on them? thus passing ten days at prayág, the master taught rup and inspired him with strength, adding, "listen, rup! to the signs of a _bhakta_, which i shall describe in brief sentences, without going into detail. i speak to you only of one drop of the shoreless profound ocean of _bhakti_, in order to give you a smack of it. behold in the universe countless beings that pass through 84 lakhs of births. the nature of a creature is as minute as a hundredth part of a hundredth part of the point of a hair. [verses from the _shruti-byákhyá_, and the _panchadashi_, 83.] _'o, immutable god! if we admit that bodied beings are limitless, eternal and omnipresent, then we cannot maintain the law that they are subject to you. then the creatures, though subject to birth, will be law-givers unto themselves, even though they have not risen above their mortal nature. those who say that god and beings are equal, know not thy true nature and their doctrines are false._ (_bhágabat_, x. lxxxvii. 26.)' "among creatures we must distinguish between the animate and the inanimate. among the animate are many classes, such as sky-dwellers, land animals, water animals &c., men being only a minority of them. [eliminate from] men the mlechchhas, pulindas, bauddhas, and shabars; and from the followers of the vedas one-half who follow the vedas in lips only, doing sins condemned by the vedas and disregarding piety. among religious people many are devoted to work [as the means of salvation]. for ten million men devoted to work we have one devoted to knowledge, and therefore superior to the former. among ten million men devoted to knowledge we have only one liberated soul. and among ten million liberated souls hardly one devotee of krishna is found. the _bhakta_ of krishna is passionless and tranquil, while those who covet enjoyment, salvation or _siddhi_ are perturbed. witness the _bhágabat_, vi. xiv 4. "in roving through the universe, lucky is the man who gets the seed of the creeper of faith (_bhakti_) through the grace of his _guru_ and krishna. he sows the seed like a gardener, waters it with hearing and chanting [the holy name]. as the creeper grows it pierces through the universe, passes beyond the _birajá brahma_ world to the _para-byom_, and above that to the heavenly brindában, where it creeps up the wishing-tree of krishna's feet, spreads and bears fruit in the form of love (_prem_). if any sin against vaishnavism is done, it uproots or tears the creeper like a wild elephant, its leaves wither. then the gardener on earth carefully covers it, to save it from the elephant of sin. but if parasites, like love of enjoyment or salvation and countless other things,--or forbidden practices like rubbish,--slaughter of living beings,--thirst of gain or fame, adhere to the creeper, then these parasites flourish from the watering, while the main creeper's growth is arrested. cut off the parasites first; then will the main branch reach the heavenly brindában. when the mature fruit of love drops down, the gardener tastes it, and proceeding up the creeper he reaches the wishing-tree. there (in vishnu's heaven) he tends the wishing-tree, and blissfully tastes the juice of the fruit of love. that is the highest fruit, the supreme human bliss, in comparison with which the four human attainments are as straw. from pure faith is born love. therefore i tell you of the signs of pure faith: leaving desire for others, worship of others, knowledge and work, devote all your senses to the cultivation of krishna. this is pure faith, the source of love. its signs are described in the _narada-pancha-ratra_ and the _bhágabat_, iii. xxix. 10--12 &c. "if one desires enjoyment, salvation, &c., he cannot kindle love, even by means of devotion (_sádhan_). from the culture of _bhakti_ ardour is born; when ardour deepens it is called love (_prem_). as love grows it is successively called _sneha_, _mán_, _pranaya_, _rág_, _anurág_, _bháb_, _mahá-bháb_, just as we have successively cane-seed, sugarcane juice, molasses, sugar, and fine sugarcandy. all these are the enduring forms of _bhakti_ in krishna, if they are joined by provocation and addiction of mind. when the spiritual (_sátwik_) and extensive (_byabhichári_) emotions mingle together, _bhakti_ in krishna becomes a veritable nectar in taste, just as curd, when mixed with sugar, ghee, pepper, and camphor, becomes deliciously sweet. in different _bhaktas_ the inclination (_rati_) assumes different forms, _viz._, the _shánta_, the _dásya_, the _sakhya_, the _bátsalya_, and the _madhur_. from these differences in the nature of the passion, the mood (_ras_) of krishna's love assumes five forms of the same name, which are called the chief _rasas_, while there are seven minor _rasas_, _viz._, the comic, the grotesque, the heroic, the pathetic, the rude, the horrible, and the timid. the five former moods permanently occupy the minds of _bhaktas_; while the seven minor moods rise fitfully when they get a favourable occasion. the nine sages [who instructed king nimi] and sanak and others are examples of _bhaktas_ of the _shánta_ mood. countless are the _bhaktas_ everywhere who illustrate the _dásya_ mood. the _sakhya_ mood is typified in shridám and other [cow-boys] and in bhim and arjun of hastinapur. the _bhaktas_ of the _bátsalya_ mood are father, mother and other elders. of the _madhur_ mood of _bhakti_, the examples are chiefly the milkmaids of brindában, krishna's queens, lakshmi and countless others. "again, ardour (_rati_) for krishna is of two kinds: (1) accompanied by a sense of his godhead, and (2) pure and simple. at gokul the latter was displayed, free from any consciousness of his godhead, while at mathura, dwaraka, vaikuntha and other places the former prevailed. where the sense of his godhead is predominant, love [for him] is contracted; whereas the way of pure ardour is to disregard his godhead even when it is openly shown. in the _shánta_ and _dásya_ emotions this consciousness of his godhead is a little kindled, but in the _batsalya_, _sakhya_ and _madhur_ it is shrunk up. when krishna bowed at the feet of vasudev and devaki, they were frightened by the sense of his godhead. witness the _bhágabat_, x. xliv. 35. "arjun was awe-struck at beholding the vision of krishna as god, and begged his pardon for having treated him familiarly under the notion of a friend. vide the _gitá_, xi. 41. when krishna jested with rukmini, she became mortally afraid lest he should quit her. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. ix. 23. "the pure love called _kebalá_ (unmixed) ignores his divinity, and in case it does recognize him as god, it disavows its loving connection with him. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. viii. 35, ix. 12, xviii. 14, xxx. 32, xxxi. 16. "the _shánta ras_ consists in recognizing the true nature of krishna and fixing the mind on him only. krishna has himself said, 'devoting the mind exclusively to me is the virtue of _shama_'. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, xi. xix. 33: _'shama consists in fixing the mind on me; dama is control of the organs of the senses; titikshá is endurance of sorrow; and dhriti is checking what rises on the tongue.'_ "it is the duty of a _shánta_ votary to give up thirst for everything except krishna; hence a _shánta_ and a _bhakta_ of krishna are identical terms. krishna's devotee regards heaven and even salvation as no better than hell. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, vi. xvii. 23. "devotion to krishna and conquest of desire are the two marks of a _shánta bhakta_. all the five kinds of _bhaktas_ are necessarily marked by these qualities, just as sound, the attribute of the sky, is possessed by the other four elements also. a _shánta_ votary's attachment to krishna is like an odourless flower; he has _only_ acquired a true sense of god's nature, as the supreme spirit and divinity. the _dásya_ mood better develops the cognition of krishna as the lord of full powers. a _dás bhakta_ constantly gratifies krishna by serving him with a sense of his divinity, honour, and great glorification; _dásya ras_ has the merit of the _shánta ras_ plus service, _i.e._, it has two merits. the _sakhya ras_ possesses these two merits [plus absolute trust in krishna]. in _dásya_ krishna's service is marked by honour and glorification; in _sakhya_ by reliance. "a _sakhá bhakta_ sits on krishna's back, or carries him on his shoulders, or has a mock fight with him; he serves krishna and at times makes krishna serve him! the chief characteristic of the _sakhya ras_ is free comradery, without any feeling of respect or awe. so this _ras_ has _three_ qualities; in it krishna is loved more ardently, as he is held equal to the _bhakta's_ self; hence this _ras_ captivates the good. in the _batsalya ras_ there are the above three qualities, plus tenderness, which in its excess leads to chiding and chastisement. such a devotee regards himself as the patron and krishna as the _protégé_; his service takes the form of paternal care. this _ras_, therefore has _four_ qualities, and is like nectar. "in the _madhur ras_ all the above four qualities are present in a heightened form, and in addition to them the votary serves krishna as a lover offering him his or her own person. here _five_ qualities are present. all the [four] emotions find their synthesis in the _madhur_, just as in the case of the five elements (sky, air, light, water and earth) the attributes of the first four are all united in the fifth. hence is the _madhur ras_ of wondrous deliciousness. this emotion has been fully described. reflect how to spread it. while meditating, krishna will illuminate your heart. through krishna's grace, even an ignorant man reaches the farthest shore of the emotions." so saying the master embraced rup and started for benares next morning. rup begged leave to accompany him as he could not bear the pang of parting. but the master objected, "let me lay down your duty. you are now within easy reach of brindában; go there. thence return to bengal and join me at puri." after giving him a (parting) embrace the master embarked. rup fell down there in a swoon. the deccani brahman took him to his house. then rup and his brother went to brindában. when the master reached benares, chandra sekhar met him outside the village, as he had dreamt the previous night that the master had come to his house and so he had come out of the village to wait for him. delighted to see the master, he bowed at his feet and took him home with him. at the news, tapan mishra came to the master; forming a select assembly he invited him and made him dine at his house. chundra shekhar invited bhattáchárya. after the feast tapan mishra begged him, "grant me kindly one favour that i beg of thee. so long as thou stayest at kashi do not dine anywhere except in my house." the master accepted his invitation as he knew that he would stay for a week only and would not dine with hermits. he lodged with chandra shekhar. the maratha brahman and many good men of the brahman and kshatriya castes visited the master. [text, canto 19.] [1] the celebrated vallabh-acharya (born in 1479), the founder of the pushtimarga school of vaishnavism. _ambuli_ is evidently _arail_, a village on the jamuna opposite allahabad, which contains a temple of the vallabh-acharya sect. chapter xviii sanátan meets the master and is taught of god's forms at gaur, sanátan lay in prison, when to his delight he received rup's letter. then he spoke to his muslim jailor: "you are a living saint, a very pious man, well-read in the _quran_. [there it is written that] if a man ransoms a captive with his wealth, god gives him salvation. formerly i had done you good turns; now show your gratitude by reliasing me. i offer you five thousand rupees. accept the sum, and by setting me free gain both money and religious merit." the muslim replied, "hark you, sir, i can let you off, but i fear the sultan." sanátan rejoined, "fear not the sultan. he has gone to orissa. if he comes back, tell him that when sanátan was sent to the bank of the ganges to ease himself, he jumped into the river, sank down with his fetters, and could not be traced after much search. fear not, i shall not live in this country, but turn _darvesh_ and go to mecca." the muhammadan was still reluctant. so sanátan heaped up seven thousand rupees before him, at the sight of which his greed was roused. at night he sent sanátan across the river after filing off his fetters. sanátan avoided the road by telia garhi, the gate of bengal, and travelling day and night entered the pátrá hills. there he besought a rustic land owner to guide him over the hill. a palmist present with the landowner whispered to him that sanátan had eight gold coins with himself. at this the man gladly promised to convey sanátan over the hill by his own servants at night and asked to prepare his meal in the meantime. with marks of honour he gave him rice. sanátan bathed in the river, broke his two days fast, and reflected, "why does this land-owner show respect to me?" then he asked [his attendant] ishán if he had any property with himself. ishan replied, "seven gold coins." at this sanátan rebuked him saying, "why have you brought this deadly thing with yourself?" then he gave the seven pieces to the land-owner and sweetly said, "take these from me and honestly conduct me over the hill. i am a run-away from the king's prison and cannot take the telia garhi road. you will acquire merit if you help me to cross the hill." the land-owner replied, "i knew before that your servant had eight gold pieces with him, and i had determined to murder you at night for the money. it is well that you have told me of the money, and so i have been saved from the sin of murder. i am so pleased that i shall not take the coins, but guide you gratis for the sake of merit." but sanátan urged, "some one else will murder me for the money. accept it and save my life." then the land-owner sent four footmen of his own, who led sanátan across the hill by the forest paths at night. emerging from the hill sanátan asked ishan, "i know you have still something left." "yes, one gold coin," answered ishán. sanátan said, "return home with it." so, leaving him, the holy man set out alone, a bowl in his hand, a tattered quilt on his back, and (therefore) fearless (of robbers). in course of time he reached hajipur,[1] and in the evening sat down in a garden. his brother-in-law, shrikánta, a royal officer, lived here, entrusted by the sultan with three _lakhs_ of rupees to buy and despatch horses. from a height he discerned sanátan, and at night came to him with only one attendant. the two had a friendly meeting, and sanátan told the tale of his escape. shrikanta said, "stay here a day or two. put on decent robes and cast off your rags." sanátan replied, "no, i shall not linger a minute here. help me to cross the ganges, i shall go away at once." shrikánta with care gave him a bhutia blanket and ferried him over. sanátan in time reached benares, where he was glad to hear of the master's arrival. going to chandra shekhar's house, he sat down at the gate. the master, knowing it, told chandra shekhar, "there is a vaishnav at the gate. bring him in." chandra shekhar reported to the master that there was no vaishnav but only a _darvesh_ at the gate. the master replied, "well, bring him in." glad to be called, sanátan entered. when he was in the court-yard, the master rushed out and embraced him in rapture. at his touch sanátan was overcome by love and cried out in a faltering voice, "touch me not! touch me not!" the two wept ceaselessly, clasping each other's necks, to the wonder of chandra shekhar. then the master took him by the hand and seated him by his side on the _veranda_ of the house, stroking sanátan's body with his own hands. sanátan cried, "touch me not, master!" but the master answered, "i touch you to purify myself. through the strength of your faith you can cleanse the whole universe. witness the _bhágabat_, i. xiii. 8, vii. ix. 9. by seeing, touching, and praising a _bhakta_ like you, all my senses are gratified, as the scripture asserts. _vide_ the _hari-bhakti-sudhodaya_, xiii. 2." the master continued, "listen, sanátan! krishna is very kind, the saviour of the fallen. he has delivered you from the worst hell (_rauraba_). limitless and profound is the ocean of his mercy." sanátan objected, "i know not krishna. i recognize your grace as having effected my deliverance." then at the master's request he told the whole story of his flight. the master told him, "i met both your brothers, rup and anupam, at prayág. they have gone to brindában." then he introduced sanátan to tapan mishra and chandra shekhar. tapan mishra invited him, the master adding, "go, sanátan, shave yourself," and telling chandra shekhar to take away the rags of sanátan. they made him bathe in the ganges, and chandra shekhar gave him a new garment, which he refused to accept. at this the master was delighted exceedingly. after his noon-day prayer, the master went with sanátan to dine at tapan mishra's house. as he sat down to his meal he ordered the mishra to serve sanátan also, but he replied, "sanátan has some rites to perform. you dine first. i shall give him your _prasád_." after dinner the master rested. the mishra gave sanátan his leavings and offered him a new cloth, which sanátan declined to accept, asking instead for one of the mishra's old clothes. so the mishra gave him an old cloth, which he cut into a waist-band and wrapper. sanátan was introduced by the master to the maratha brahman, who gave him a general invitation to dinner during the whole of his stay at kashi. but sanátan declined saying, "i shall rove (begging alms) like the bee. why should i procure all my food from one brahman's house." exceedingly pleased was the master at sanátan's detachment from the world, and he often cast glances at the bhutia blanket, from which sanátan guessed that he disapproved of it. so sanátan planned to get rid of the blanket. when he went to the ganges to perform his noon-day rites, he met a bengali drying his quilt, and asked him to exchange it for his blanket, as a favour. the man retorted, "why are you, a venerable man, mocking me? why should you exchange your costly blanket for a quilt?" sanátan replied, "i am not joking but am in earnest. do make the exchange." so saying he gave up the blanket, placed the quilt on his shoulders and came to chaitanya. at the master's query he told the whole tale. the master remarked, "i have thought of it. krishna, who has delivered you from attachment to earthly goods, cannot have left a remnant of that attachment in you. no good physician leaves even a trace of the disease unremoved. you were living on alms from door to door, and yet there was a three rupee blanket on your back! it spoiled your virtue and made you a mock unto the beholders." sanátan replied, "he who has released me from worldly ties has also cured this last remnant of worldliness in me." the pleased master showed grace to him, and thus emboldened him to put questions. formerly the master had put questions to rámánanda ray, which the latter had answered under his inspiration. so, now, inspired by the master, sanátan put questions, while he established spiritual truths. then sanátan, biting a blade of grass as a token of abjectness, clasped the master's feet; and said, "low-born, with low comrades, a fallen wretch, i have wasted my life, plunged in the well of vile worldliness. i know nothing of my own good or evil, but i have held as truth whatever was approved in vulgar practice. as you have graciously saved me, tell me of your grace what my duties are. who am i? why are the three afflictions (_tápa_) oppressing me? i know not what will do me good. i know not even how to ask about the truth of _sádhya_ and _sádhan_. do you of your own accord, unfold all these truths to me." the master replied, "full is krishna's grace to you. you know all the truths and are not subject to the three afflictions. you are strong in krishna's strength, you know the truths already. it is the nature of _sádhus_ to inquire about what they know, only to confirm it. "you are a proper agent for preaching _bhakti_. listen to all the truths as i tell them in due order: "the soul of man is the eternal servant of krishna. the _tatasthá_ power of krishna manifests differences [between the creator and his creatures], just as a ray of the sun transforms itself into a flame of fire. krishna has by nature three powers:-_viz._, the _chit_, the life, and the illusion powers. _vide_ the _vishnu puran_ i. xxix. 50, vi. vii. 60 and 61, i. iii. 2, the _gitá_ vii. 5 and 14, and the _bhágabat_, xi. ii. 35. "when a creature forgets krishna, his face is ever turned to external things, and therefore under the influence of illusion he undergoes the misery of being born in the world, now rising to heaven, now sinking to hell, just as a criminal is ducked in water by royal command. "if under the teaching of true scripture, a man turns to krishna, he is saved, he gets rid of illusion. a creature labouring under illusion remembers not krishna. so krishna kindly created the vedas and purans. he makes himself known through scripture, _guru_, and the soul; and man comes to realize 'krishna is my lord and saviour'. the vedas treat of relation, epithet, and needs; that relation is the attaining of krishna, faith is the means of this attainment, the epithets are his names; love is the (supreme) need, the most precious treasure and the highest achievement of humanity. _madhur_ service is the means of gaining krishna. by serving him we can enjoy the relish of him. the following parable will illustrate it: an all-knowing seer visited a poor man and seeing his misery said, 'why are you so poor? your father has left you a large legacy. he died elsewhere and therefore could not inform you of it.' at these words the man began to hunt for his treasure. in the same manner the _vedas_ and _purans_ instruct men about krishna. the counsel of the seer is the source, the treasure is the consequence. by his own knowledge the man could not attain to his father's treasure the seer had to tell him the method of discovering it: 'here lies the treasure. if you dig in the south, hornets will rise and not money. if you dig west a gnome will show itself and hinder you. in the north your diggings will discover a dark serpent, which will swallow you up. but by digging a little on the east side you will get the pots of treasure.' similarly the _shastras_ assert that leaving work, knowledge and abstraction (_yog_), one can influence krishna by faith alone. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, xi. xiv. 19 & 20. "therefore is faith the only means of gaining krishna, and it is described in all _shastras_ as _abhidheya_. as wealth gives pleasure and drives away sorrow of itself, so _bhakti_ kindles love of krishna, and when love is turned to krishna man is freed from bondage to the world. the fruit of love is not riches or the cessation of re-birth, but its chief object is the enjoyment of the beatitude of loving." [a long discourse on krishna's forms, omitted in the second edition.] [text, canto 20.] [1] the town of hajipur on the north bank of the ganges, opposite patna, was the seat of the governor of bihar on behalf of the sultans of bengal. (_riyaz-us-salatin_, eng. tr. 134 _n_.) chapter xix on the sweetness of krishna's attributes [the master continued his teaching of sanátan thus:] "god in his all-embracing form dwells in the highest space (_para-byom_). the diverse vaikunthas are beyond count. the extent of each vaikuntha is millions and millions of miles. _ananda_ inspired by _chit_ fills all the vaikunthas. all of [his] attendants are filled with the six attributes (_aishwaryya_). the endless vaikunthas and space are his retinue; above all of them is krishna's heaven, like the seed-pod of the lotus. thus, [krishna's] six attributes are [only] places of [his] incarnation. even brahma and shiva cannot count them, what to speak of men? _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. xiv. 21, brahma's hymn to krishna. "thus krishna's celestial attributes are endless; brahma, shiva, sanak and others cannot see their end. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, x. xiv. 7. "not to speak of brahma and others, even ananta with his thousand tongues, is eternally singing [of his attributes] without being able to finish them. vide bhágabat, ii. ii. 40. "even krishna, the omniscient and supreme being, cannot find the end of his own attributes, but remains eagerly longing [to know of them]. _vide bhágabat_, x. lxxxvii. 37. "the mind fails to comprehend his exploits, even of the time when he incarnated himself in brindában. at one and the same time he created the natural and the supernatural groups of cow-herds and kine, as described in _bhágabat_, [x. xiii and xiv], countless vaikuntha-born embryos, with their respective lords. such a marvel is heard of no other [god]. the hearing of it makes the heart overcome [with rapture]. in that miracle of his every one of the millions and millions of calves, cowboys, their rods, pipes, horns, clothes and ornamems, all assumed the form of the four-armed lord of vaikuntha, each with a separate universe, and brahma adored him. from the body of one krishna all these appeared! and after a moment they all disappeared in that body! the sight amazed and fascinated brahma, and after hymning [to krishna], he declared this, let him who says that he knows the full extent of krishna's power, know it. but as for me, i admit with all my body and mind that not a drop of this endless ocean of your power is cognizable by my speech or intellect! _vide bhágabat_, x. xiv. 36. "many are the glories of krishna; who can know them? think of the wondrous quality of the place brindában: the _shastras_ speak of it as 32 miles in extent, and yet in one corner of it the embryos of the universe floated! krishna's divine power is boundless beyond calculation." the master, himself the ocean of divine attributes, was seized with ecstasy in speaking of krishna's divine attributes; his mind became absorbed in the subject and he lost consciousness. he (then) recited _bhágabat_, iii. ii. 21, and expounded it, relishing with delight its sense. "krishna is the supreme deity, god himself. none else is greater than he or even equal to him. _vide brahma samhita_, v. i. brahma, vishnu, and shiva, the lords of creation, [preservation, and destruction], all obey krishna; he is their suzerain. _vide bhágabat_, ii. vi. 30. "hear the meaning of the phrase _unequalled supreme lord_: three _purush_ incarnations are the causes of the universe, _viz._, mahá-vishnu, padmanava, kshirodak swámi. these three occupy the souls of everything, gross or subtle. these three are the refuge of all, and the lords of the universe. and yet they are mere particles of krishna, who is supreme [over them]. _vide brahma samhita_, v. 54. "this interpretation is only external. listen to the esoteric sense. the _shastras_ speak of three abodes of krishna, _viz._, antahpur, golok, and brindában, in which [last] ever dwell [his] parents and friends; where he manifested his sweet attributes, tenderness, mercy, &c.; where the illusion of _yog_ was his bondmaid, and where _rása_ and other exploits took place. "below it the supreme space named vishnu's heaven, where dwell náráyan and other eternal forms of him, is situated. the middle abode of krishna is the store-house of the six attributes, where he dwells in his eternal form (_ananta_). the vaikunthas are endless, and there the rooms and attendants (even) are full of the six attributes. _vide brahma samhita_, v. 49, [and other sanskrit verses]. "below it is his external abode, beyond the _birajá_, where the universes are endless, and the rooms are illimitable. it is named devidhám, where creatures dwell. the lakshmi of the universe nourishes it; illusion dwells there as his slave. "in these three places does krishna dwell as the supreme lord, _viz._, golok, the supreme space, and nature. the region where he manifests his _chit_ power is called the three-fold divinity (_tripád aishivaryya_), whereas the places of the display of his power of illusion are called one-fold (_ekapád_). "the three-fold divinity of krishna is beyond speech. hear, therefore, of the one-fold divinity. all the brahmas and shivas of the eternal universe are embraced by the term 'eternal rulers of spheres' (_chira-loka-pála_). one day brahma came to dwaraka to see krishna; the porter took the message to krishna, who asked 'which brahma? what is his name?' the porter returned and asked brahma, who replied in amazement, 'go, tell him, it is the four-headed father of sanak.' after taking krishna's permission, the porter introduced him. brahma prostrated himself at krishna's feet, who showed him honour and reverence and asked for the reason of his visit. brahma replied, 'i shall tell you of that afterwards. first solve one problem of my mind. what did you mean by asking 'which brahma?' what brahma other than i can there be in the universe?' at this krishna smiled and plunged into meditation, and immediately innumerable troops of brahmas came there, some with ten heads, some with twenty, hundred, thousand, million, even a milliard, beyond the power of counting. rudras came with millions of millions of heads. indras appeared with millions of eyes. at the sight the four-headed brahma became senseless, like a hare surrounded by a herd of elephants. all these brahmas prostrated themselves before krishna's seat, which was touched by their crowns. none can [adequately] describe the unimaginable power of krishna. in one body there were as many images as there were brahmás. his seat, struck with the crowns of the brahmas, set up a sound, as if the crowns recited praises of his seat! with folded palms, brahma rudra and other deities hymned krishna thus: 'lord! great is thy mercy to us, as thou hast shown us thy feet. oh our good fortune! thou hast called and accepted us as thy slaves. bid us, and we shall place thy behest on our heads.' krishna replied, 'i longed to see you, and so called you all together. be ye all happy! have you any thing to fear from the demons?' they said, 'thanks to thy grace, we are everywhere triumphant. latterly thou hast, by incarnating thyself, destroyed the load of sins which used to weigh the earth down.' this proves the divine nature of dwaraka and other [spheres], each of which imagines 'krishna dwells in _my_ region.' the presence of krishna made dwaraka feel glory (_baibhaba_); they had all met together, and yet none could see the others. then krishna gave leave to all the brahmás, and they returned home after bowing to him. the four-headed brahma was amazed at the sight, and again bowed at krishna's feet, saying, 'i have to-day witnessed an example of what i had previously known for certain in my mind.' _vide bhágabat_, x. xiv. 36. "krishna replied, 'this universe, though 500 million leagues in extent, is very small; hence you have four heads only. other universes are a thousand million, a _lakh kror_, or even a _kror kror_ leagues in extent, and their brahmas have heads proportioned to these sizes. thus do i uphold the whole system of universes. even my one fold divinity cannot be measured. who will measure my three-fold divinity?' so saying krishna dismissed brahma. the divine form of krishna cannot be explained. the phrase _supreme lord_ has another deep meaning: the term _tri_ means the three regions of krishna, _viz._, gokul (named golok), mathura, and dwáráka. in these three he always dwells naturally. these three places are full of his inner complete divinity. of these three krishna himself is the lord. the guardians of directions in all the aforesaid universes, and the eternal guardians of creation in _ananta_ and vaikuntha, all bow to krishna's seat, touching it with the jewel of their crowns. in his own _chit_ power krishna dwells ever. this property of _chit_-power is called the six divine attributes; it is also styled lakshmi in the form of supreme bliss. hence, the vedas declare krishna to be god himself. i cannot plunge in the boundless nectar-oceah of krishna's divine power, but have touched only a drop of it". the master paused for a while, and after composing himself continued to teach sanátan. [text, canto 21.] chapter xx discourse on devotion as the aim [the master continued his address to sanátan thus]: "the vedas teach that krishna is the sole essence. now let me speak of the signs of the aim (_abhidheya_), from which one can get krishna and the treasure of krishna's love. all the _shastras_ speak of faith in krishna as the aim. hence the sages declare, _'we know for certain that thou, o lord, art our refuge, because the mode of thy worship that mother shruti lays down in answer to our questions, is also indicated by sister smritis and brother purans'._ "this truth is taught by the monist school that krishna is god himself; he dwells in the form of the _swarup_ power; spreading out in the forms of _swámsha_ and _bibhinnámsha_, he disports himself in ananta, _vaikuntha_, and brahmanda. the four-sided incarnations are his _swámsha_ extension. the created world is the example of his _bibhinnámsha_ power. such creatures are of two classes, _viz._, one ever liberated, the other ever fettered to the world. the ever liberated are ever eager for krishna's feet; they are named krishna's followers and they enjoy the bliss of serving him. the ever fettered are ever excluded from krishna, and ever feel the sufferings of hell; the fury, illusion, ever torments them for that reason; the three internal agonies scourge them; they are kicked at by lust, anger [and other deadly sins] whose slaves they are. if in the course of their life's wanderings they meet with a saint as their healer, his teaching like a charm exorcizes the demon (illusion) out of them; then they feel _bhakti_ for krishna and come to him. faith in krishna is the supreme end (_abhidheya_). worthless are the fruits of other kinds of devotion, such as work, _yog_, and knowledge,--in comparison with the bliss of _bhakti_; the former cannot give us krishna unless we have _bhakti_ in him. _vide bhágabat_ i. v. 12 and ii. iv. 16. knowledge dissociated from _bhakti_ cannot give salvation; but a man devoted to krishna can gain salvation without knowledge. _vide bhágabat_, x. xiv. 4 and the _gitá_, vii. 14. "creation, the eternal slave of krishna, forgot this fact; hence illusion tied a rope round its neck. if a creature adores krishna and serves his _guru_, he is released from the meshes of illusion and attains to krishna's feet. if, while observing the rules of his caste, a man does not adore krishna, he will be plunged in hell in spite of his doing his caste-duties. _vide bhágabat_, xi. v. 2 & 3. the votary of knowledge imagines that he has attained to the condition of one liberated even in earthly life; but in truth his mind cannot be purified without faith in krishna. _vide bhágabat_, x. ii. 26. krishna is like the sun, while illusion is as darkness; hence illusion has no power to remain where krishna is. _vide bhágabat_, ii. v. 13. even if a man prays once saying krishna i am thine, he is saved by krishna from the bonds of illusion. if the seeker after enjoyment, salvation and attainment (_siddhi_), is wise, he adores krishna with deep _bhakti_. _vide bhágabat_, ii. iii. 10. if a man adores krishna in longing for other [material] gains, he gives the votary his own feet unasked, arguing, 'in adoring me he is soliciting for material joys. what a great fool is he, in thus begging for poison instead of nectar! i am wiser, why then should i grant this fool [his coveted] earthly pleasures? let me give him the nectar of my feet, so that he may forget earthly joys'. _vide bhágabat_, v. xix. 28. if a man adores krishna even for fleshly lusts, he [soon] longs to abandon his desires and become a slave of krishna. in going through this worldly life, some are fortunate enough to gain salvation; just as a log of wood drifting down the current now and then lands on the bank. _vide bhágabat_, x. xxxviii. 4. by good luck some men's bondage to the world is about to be severed, [when] they are emancipated by the society of holy men, and are inspired with devotion to krishna. _vide bhágabat_ x. ii. 35. if krishna favours any blessed man, he teaches him as his _guru_ seated in the heart. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xxix. 6. if in the company of holy men a man feels inclined towards _bhakti_ in krishna, he gets love, the fruit of _bhakti_, and is freed from the world. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xx. 8. save through the favour of the noble a man cannot feel _bhakti_ in anything; not to speak of his gaining devotion to krishna, he is not even freed from bondage to the world. _vide bhágabat_, v. xx. 12 and vii. v. 25. all _shastras_ recommend the companionship of the holy. as soon as such society is resorted to, it gives success in everything. _vide bhágabat_, i. xvii. 13. the gracious krishna, in addressing arjun [in the _gitá_], has laid down instructions for the salvation of mankind. vide the _gitá_, xviii. 64 and 65. "god had first commanded the vedic religion, work, _yog_, and knowledge. after these had been observed, he finally commanded _bhakti_, which must, therefore, be superior [to the former]. if, in accordance with this [latest] dispensation, a devotee feels _shraddhá_, he leaves all works and adores krishna. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xx. 9. the term _shraddhá_ means firm and unquestioning faith. if one adores krishna, it is equivalent to his doing all the prescribed ceremonies [of religion]. _vide bhágabat_, iv. xxxi. 12. "men who have _shraddhá_ are qualified for bhakti, and are ranked as superior, average, and inferior, according to the quality of their _shraddhá_. he whose _shraddhá_ is confirmed by listening to the reasoning contained in the _shástras_ is a superior 'entitled to _bhakti_', and he is liberated from the world. he whose _shraddhá_ is strong in spite of his ignorance of _shástric_ arguments, is an average 'entitled to _bhakti_'; he, too, is very fortunate. he whose _shraddhá_ requires a visible object [of adoration] is an inferior 'entitled to _bhakti_'; in time he will advance to the stage of a superior _bhakta_. there are different grades of _bhakti_, according to differences of ardour and passion, as has been described in the eleventh _skanda_ of the _bhágabat_, (xi. ii. 43-45). "all the high attributes are found in the person of a vaishnav, because krishna's attributes spread to his _bhaktas_. (_ibid_, v. xviii. 12). the following qualities mark a vaishnav; they cannot be exhaustively named, i only take a rapid view: he is compassionate, spiteless, essentially true, saintly, innocent, charitable, gentle, pure, humble, a universal benefactor, tranquil, solely dependent on krishna, free from desire, quiet, equable, a victor over the six passions (_sharguna_), temperate in diet, self-controlled, honouring others and yet not proud himself, grave, tender, friendly, learned, skilful and silent. _vide bhágabat_, iii. xxv. 20, v. v. 2. the society of holy men is the root of the birth of devotion to krishna (_bhágabat_, x. li. 35, xi. ii. 28, xxv. 22). the principal limb that springs up from it is love of krishna. it is proper conduct for a vaishnav to abjure the society of the wicked. the man who consorts with women is one kind of sinner, while the man lacking in faith in krishna belongs to another kind. (_bhágabat_ iii. xxxi. 35, 33 & 34). leaving these [temptations] and the religious system based on caste, [the true vaishnav] helplessly takes refuge with krishna. _vide_ the _gitá_, xviii. 66; _bhágabat_, x. xlviii. "if a learned man happens to sing krishna's praise, he adores krishna to the exclusion of all other deities, as is proved by the case of uddhav. _vide bhágabat_, iii. ii. the helpless and the refugee [among devotees] have the same characteristics. then comes resignation in. after taking refuge in krishna, the votary gives himself entirely up to krishna, who then elevates him to his own nature. _vide hari-bhakti-vilas_, xi. 417 & 418; _bhágabat_, xi. xxix. 32." "give ear, o sanátan, while i turn to speak of the attainment (_sádhan_) of _bhakti_, which gives us the rich treasure of love for krishna. hearing [chant] and other acts [of the physical organs] are the _swarup_ signs of it; while in the _tatastha_ sign love is born. love for krishna is ever an end (_siddha_); it is never a means (_sádhya_). it is kindled in a pure heart by listening [to krishna's praise], and other acts of the organs. the _sádhan_ of _bhakti_ is of two kinds: one following the ordinances of religion, the other following the [heart's] inclination. the man without a natural desire [for krishna] adores him in obedience to the bidding of the _shastras_; such _bhakti_ is called regular (_baidhi_). _'king! it is the duty of the men who seeks liberation to hear, to praise, and to meditate about god, the universal soul, the supremely beautiful, and the liberator from bondage.'_ (_bhágabat_, ii. i. 5. and also xi. v. 2.) "the modes of cultivating _bhakti_ are many; i shall only tell you briefly of the chief of them: [they are] taking refuge at the feet of the _guru_, initiation, service of the _guru_, inquiry into the true religion, following the path of saints, renunciation of enjoyment out of love for krishna, residence at holy places associated with krishna, accepting alms no further than suffices [for one's sustenance], fasting on the tenth day of the moon, reverence to foster-mothers, fig trees, kine, brahmans and vaishnavs, shunning from a distance all offences against adoration and the holy name, abjuring the company of non-vaishnavs, taking only a few disciples, avoiding the study and exposition of too many books and arts, looking at loss and gain as alike, control of grief and other passions, abstention from abusing other gods and scriptures, never listening to scandal about vishnu or vaishnavs nor to village gossip, giving no shock by thought or speech to any creature that lives, listening [to chant], hymn-singing, keeping god in remembrance, worship, adoration [in words], attendance [on idols], assuming the attitudes of servant and comrade [to krishna], dedication of one's own self [to god], dancing, singing, petitioning and prostration before [krishna's image], rising to welcome [his image], and following it as a mark of respect, visiting shrines at _tirthas_, walking round shrines, hymning, reading scriptures, reciting the holy name, _sankirtan_, enjoying incense garlands perfumed essence and the _mahá-prasád_, witnessing the grand celebration of _árati_ and the divine image, giving up whatever is dear to one's own self, meditation, and serving him. "the service of the following four is approved by krishna:--the _tulsi_ plant, vaishnavs, mathura, and the book _bhágabat_. "direct all your efforts to [the service of] krishna, witness his mercies, celebrate his nativity and other days in the company of _bhaktas_. ever fly to him for refuge, celebrate kártik and other _bratas_. "these are the sixty-four modes of cultivating bhakti. the five chief of them are (1) the society of holy men, (2) _kirtan_ of krishna's name, (3) listening to the reading of the _bhágabat_, (4) dwelling at mathura, and (5) reverential service of his image. even a little of these five creates love for krishna. "some _bhaktas_ pursue only one of these modes, some many. when the mind has become steady, the wave of love surges up [in it]. many _bhaktas_ have attained to success by following one mode only. ambarisha and other _bhaktas_ cultivated many modes. (_vide bhágabat_, ix. iv. 15-17)-the man who by renouncing desire adores krishna in obedience to the injunctions of the _shastras_, is not indebted to the gods the _rishis_ or the manes of his ancestors. (_bhágabat_, xi. v. 37). he who adores krishna's feet rejecting _shastric_ rites, feels nevertheless no temptation for forbidden sins. even if he commits a sin unwittingly, krishna purifies him and he need not practise penance for it. (_bhágabat_, xl v. 38). theological knowledge and monachism are not at all necessary means of cultivating bhakti; krishna's society gives inoffensiveness and discipline. _vide bhágabat_, xi. xx. 31. "hitherto i have held forth on the cultivation of _bhakti_ in accordance with the shastric teaching. now, let me tell you, sanátan, about _bhakti_ in compliance with natural inclination. this latter kind of _bhakti_ is chiefly found in the people of brindában, and those who cultivate it are called _rágánuga_ ('inclination-led'). a passionate longing for the object of desire is the _swarup_ characteristic of inclination (_rág_); absorption in the object of desire is its _tatastha feature_. the nature of an 'inclination-led' _bhakta_ pays no heed to _shastric_ reasoning. "its two types are _external_ and _internal_. in the external, the devotee through his physical organs performs listening (to chant) and chanting, while in his mind he imagines himself to be identical with his ideal [such as any _sakhi_ or cowherd mate of krishna], and thus [in fancy] serves krishna at brindában day and night. with drawing himself into his own mind, such a votary ever remains close to his object, the dearest krishna, and thus serves him incessantly. in the path of inclination (_rág_), he takes krishna as the object of his chief emotion, _viz._, as master, comrade, child or sweetheart. (_bhágabat_, iii. xxv. 35) "from the sprout of love (_prem_) issue two things, _rati_ (addiction) and _bháb_ (emotion). these two conquer the lord for us. thus have i expounded _ebhidheya_, from which we gain the treasure of love for krishna." [text, canto, 22.] chapter xxi on love, the fruit of devotion [the master continued]--"listen now, sanátan, to love, the fruit of _bhakti_, the hearing of which gives knowledge of the spirit of _bhakti_. when passion (_rati_) in krishna is deepened it is called _prem_ (love), the permanent form of _bhakti_ in krishna. it also has two aspects, _viz._, _swarup_ and _tatastha_. if any man has the grace to feel _shraddhá_, he consort with pious men, from which companionship result the hearing and chanting of krishna's name. from the attainment of _bhakti_, all his troubles are removed, and as a consequence of the latter, his faith becomes constant, which gives him a taste for the listening and [hymning of krishna's name]. from taste (_ruchi_) comes strong inclination (_ásakti_), which gives birth to the sprout of passion for krishna in the soul. when this emotion is deepened, it takes the name of love (_prem_). that love is the (ultimate) fruit, the source of every bliss. _vide bhágabat_, iii. xxv. 22. the man in whose heart this emotion sprouts up is marked by the many qualities named in the _shastras_. (_bhakti-ras-amrita-sindhu_, i. rati-bhakti, verse 11, _bhágabat_ i. xix. 13). no earthly affliction can disturb his mind. such a man never wastes his time without communing with krishna. he never fears [attack by] enjoyment, material success, or the objects of sensual gratification. (_bhágabat_, v. xiv. 42). even the noblest _bhakta_ considers himself as lowly, and firmly believes that krishna will take pity on him. he is ever expectant, ever passionately longing [for union with krishna]. ever does he relish the work of singing krishna's names, and ever engages in it. at all times is he addicted to holding forth on krishna's charms. ever does he reside at the scenes of krishna's exploits. "so far i have described the marks of _rati_ for krishna. now let me describe the characteristics of love for krishna. even the wise fail to comprehend the speech, acts and gestures of the man whose heart is full of love for krishna. (_bhágabat_, xi. ii. 38). as love develops, it takes the forms of _sneha_, _mán_, _pranaya_, _rág_, _anurág_, _bháb_, and _mahábhab_, just as, from the same source of sugar-juice we have molasses, _gur_ (_khanda_), black sugar, [yellow] sugar-candy, and white sugar-candy. as these grow successively purer and more delicious, so too do the above stages in the development of love. in relation to its subject, _rati_ is of five kinds _viz._, _shánta_, _dásya_, _sakhya_, _bátsalya_, and _madhur_. these five permanent emotions (_bháb_) have five different flavours, which delight the _bhakta_ and over-power krishna. the permanent emotions of love etc., on meeting with the proper ingredient, mature in the form of krishna-_bhakti ras_. the permanent emotion (_bháb_) on being mingled with _ras_ is changed into these four,--_bibhába_, _anubhába_, _sátivika_, _byabhichári_;--just as curd, on being mixed with _gur_, black pepper, and camphor, becomes a thing of matchless deliciousness named _rasál_. _bibhába_ is of two kinds, (i) _álamban_, which is kindled by krishna, etc., and (ii) _uddipan_, by the notes of his flute, etc. _anubhába_ is stimulated by smile, dance and song. stupor and other sensations are included in _sátwika anubhába_. _byabhichári_ is of 33 kinds, such as delight, rapture, &c. "_ras_ is of five kinds,--_shánta_, _dásya_, _sakhya_, _bátsalya_, and _madhur_. in the _shánta ras_, _rati_ advances to the stage of _prem_; in the _dásya_ to _rág_, _sakhya_ and _bátsalya_ attain to the limit of _anurág_ (as was the case with subal and others love for krishna). "krishna, the darling of braja's lord, is the chief of lovers, while the lady radha is at the head of mistresses. krishna's qualities are endless, even a single one of them when unfolded can soothe the ears of a _bhakta_. "countless are radhiká's qualities, of which 25 are the principal ones, which have conquered krishna. "the lover and his mistress are the themes of two _rasas_, and the foremost of the class are radha and krishna. similarly, in the _dásya ras_, the subject is a servant, in the _sakhya_ a comrade, in the _bátsalya_ the parents. "this _ras_ is tasted only by krishna's _bhaktas_; those who are not devoted to him have not the lot to enjoy it. before this, at allahabad i discoursed on _ras_ and inspired with my power your brother rup goswámi. do you preach the lore of _bhakti_; do you discover the lost shrines of mathura. at brindában teach the adoration of krishna, the proper conduct of vaishnavs, and the scriptures of the creed of _bhakti_." thus did the master teach sanátan all about the temperate conquest of passions (_bairágya_) and condemned arid _bairágya_ which consists of (mere) knowledge. _vide_ the _gitá_, xii. 13 _et seq_ and _bhágabat_, ii. ii. 5. then sanátan asked about the metaphorical interpretations (_siddhánta_) of all the acts of krishna's life and the master clearly explained them. at last sanátan clasped his feet and biting a wisp of grass in sign of abjectness prayed to him thus: "i am a wretch, of low caste, and the servant of the unclean. and yet thou hast taught me theological expositions which even brahmá knows not! my despicable mind cannot contain even a single drop of this ocean of exposition that thou hast poured into it. thou canst make even the lame dance, if so thou wishest. lay thy feet on my head and pronounce on me the blessing that all that thou hast taught me may become bright within me. may i derive power from thy power!" and the master blessed him accordingly. [text, canto 23.] again did sanátan clasp the master's feet and ask him, "i have heard that you explained to sárvabhauma in eighteen different ways the following couplet of the _bhágabat_, i. vii. 10:-[sanskrit words] "my mind, on hearing of it, has been seized with wonder and curiosity. if thou tellest it [again] graciously, my ears will be charmed." the master answered, "i am a mad man; sárvabhauma took my mad words for truth. i do not remember what ravings i uttered in his house. but should your company inspire me i may possibly recollect a little of it. my mind is not naturally enlightened as to the sense of the verses; what i shall say is only the outcome of the influence of your company." [his 61 subtle interpretations of the above stanza and the rules of sanskrit grammar lexicography and logic appealed to by the master in support of them, are omitted here in the 2nd edition.] listening to these [sixty-one diverse] explanations, sanátan was filled with wonder, and praised the great master, clinging to his feet, "thou art god incarnate, the darling of braja's lord. thy breath called into being all the vedas. thou art the speaker in the _bhágabat_, and thou knowest its meaning, which none else can under stand!" the master objected, "why praise me? why not consider the nature of the _bhágabat_, which is like krishna, all-embracing, the refuge of all. every couplet, nay every letter of it breathes a variety of senses. by means of a dialogue this fact has been established in the _bhágabat_ itself. (i. i. 23 and iii. 42). these my interpretations of the _shloka_ are like the ravings of a mad man. who will accept them? if any one be mad like me, he will understand the meaning of the _bhágabat_ from this [specimen]." again did sanátan with folded palms entreat him, "master, thou has bidden me write the sacred code (_smriti_) of vaishnavs. i am a man of low caste, ignorant of ceremonial cleanness (_áchár_). how can _smriti_ be taught by me? if you teach me an outline of it in the form of _sutras_ (aphorisms), if you yourself enter my heart, then the sketch will inspire the mind of a low man like me. thou art god; whatever thou makest me speak will prove true". the master replied, "whatever you wish to do, krishna will inspire your mind with [knowledge of it]. i, however, give you a rapid survey of the different points [which you should deal with in compiling the vaishnav sacred code] (_a long list, not translated here_). in every case quote as your authority the sayings of the puráns. when you will write, krishna will inspire you." [text, canto 24.] chapter xxii the master converts the people of benares and returns to jagannáth thus did the master in two months instruct sanátan in the entire lore of the philosophy of faith. chandra shekhar's comrade, paramánanda kirtaniá, an expert artist, performed _kirtan_ before the master. as the master had slighted the _sannyasis_ they everywhere spoke ill of him. at this the maratha [brahman] sadly reflected, whosoever has a close view of the master's character feels him to be god indeed, and admits him as such. if i can bring them and him together, they will perceive this [quality] and become his followers. i have always to dwell in káshi, and if i do not effect this, it will be a matter of everlasting regret to me." so, he invited all the _sannyasis_, and himself went on a visit to the master. chandra shekhar and tapan mishra, grieved to hear him defamed, were humbly entreating him, and his mind, too, was thinking of the conversion of the _sannyasis_, in order to remove the grief of his _bhaktas_. just then the maratha brahman arrived and clasping the master's feet by much entreaty induced him to accept his invitation. at noon he went to his host's house, and bestowed salvation on the _sannyasis_ in the manner described in part i. of this book. from the day on which he blessed the _sannyasis_, a sensation was created in the village; crowds flocked to behold the master; scholars of various schools came to discuss theology with him, but he refuted all their philosophies and established faith as the final truth. by his reasoned speech he turned the minds of them all, and they followed his instruction and began to chant krishna's name. all men laughed, sang, and danced. the _sannyasis_ submitted to him; quitting their studies they formed assemblies of their own [to discourse on faith]. a disciple of prakáshananda, equal to him in attainments, spoke reverently of the master in open meeting thus, "chaitanya is náráyan himself. he explains the aphorisms of vyás most charmingly. his exposition of the root meaning of the _upanishads_ gratifies the hearing and mind of scholars even. our teacher [prakáshánanda] gives a fanciful explanation of the aphorisms of the _upanishads_ leaving their essential meaning out. on hearing his fanciful explanations scholars pretend to approve, but are not inwardly convinced, whereas chaitanya's words feel to be truth indeed. in the kali yug, one cannot vanquish the world by asceticism; the highest conclusion and true source of bliss is contained in the exposition which he gave of the verses '_hari's name alone &c_'. the _bhágabat_ asserts that there cannot be salvation without faith, and that rapture in the name [of hari] can give an easy deliverance in the kali yug. (_bhágabat_, x. xiv. 4 and ii. 26). "the term _brahma_ connotes god full of the six divine attributes. to describe him as abstract is to impair his fulness. the _shruti purans_ deal with the manifestations of krishna's _chit_ power. philosophers laugh at it irreverently. they look upon krishna's _chidánanda_ images as a mere piece of illusion. in this they sin grievously. chaitanya's view is the true one. (_bhágabat_, iii. ix. 3 and 4; _gitá_, ix. n and xvi. 19). the aphorisms [of vedánta] teach the theory of _parinám_ (result), but our teacher disregards it, calls vyás ignorant, and asserts the theory of _bivarta_. this fanciful interpretation does not satisfy the mind. fancies at variance with scripture prove a man a wretch. engaged in vain disputation, i have hitherto forgotten to know the supreme essence. oh! how shall i merit krishna's grace? our teacher has obscured the meaning of vyás's aphorisms, whereas chaitanya has revealed it. true are his words; all other theories are false and futile." so saying he began to sing krishna's _sankirtan_. at this parkashananda remarked, "the acharya was eager to establish monism, and he had therefore to twist the sense of the aphorisms. if you admit god's _bhagawánship_, you cannot establish monism. so the acharya had to refute all the _shástras_. no author who wishes to set up his own theory can give the plain meaning of the scriptures. a philosopher of the _mimánsa_ school speaks of god as a part and parcel of [his] work; the _sánkhya_ speaks of him as the cause of nature all over the universe. the _nyáya_ asserts that the world was composed out of atoms; the illusionist speaks of the abstract brahma as the cause. patanjal (alone) tells us of the true nature of krishna; so he is the true god, according to the _vedas_. none recognizes god as the supreme cause, each school of philosophy only sets up its own theory by refuting the views of its rivals. thus from the six schools of philosophy we cannot know the [spiritual] truth. only the words of great men are reliable. chaitanya's words are a stream of nectar. what he says is the essence of spiritual truth. hearing all this, the maratha brahman in delight went to report it to the master, whom he met going to visit bindu madhav after his bath in the five streams. at the brahman's narration he was pleased. beholding the beauty of bindu madhav hewas enraptured and danced in the courtyard [of the temple] in love, while chandra shekhar, paramananda, tapan and sanátan joined in a _sankirtan_ chanting,-_"hail to hari and hara! to krishna the yadav, to gopál, govinda, ram and madhusudan."_ _lakhs_ of men surrounded them shouting _hari! hari!_ the blessed cry filled earth and heaven. hearing it near him, prakashananda came there with his pupils, moved by curiosity. beholding the master's charm of person and dancing, he with his disciples joined the cry of _hari! hari!_ the master trembled, spoke in a choking voice, perspired, changed colour, or at times stood rigidly inert, bathing the bystanders with his tears, his body thrilled with ecstasy like the _kadamba_ tree. he displayed every passion, exultation, abjectness, lightness &c., to the marvel of the people of benares. on seeing the crowd, the master recovered his senses, and stopped his dance before the _sannyasis_. he bowed very low to prakashananda, who, however clasped his feet. the master cried out, "you are the instructor of the world, and beloved [of all], while i am not worthy to be your pupil's pupil. why should a high one like you bow to a low one like me? as you are god-like, by so doing you are destroying me [in sin]. though everything becomes you, as it becomes god, yet, for the sake of holding up a lesson before the people, you should cease acting thus [humbly]." prakashananda replied, "by touching your feet i have washed away all the sin of my former abuse of you!" (_bhágabat_, i. v. 12, chakravarti's commentary, quotation from the appendix cited in the _básaná-váshya_, also x. xxxiv. 7). the master cried out, "o god! o god! i am a despicable creature. it is a sin to regard any creature as vishnu. even if a god-like person holds a creature to be vishnu, then god will rank him among the infidels. (_hari-bhakti-vilás_, i. 71)." prakashananda replied, "you are god himself. but even if you insist on being regarded as god's slave, you tire still worthy of being honoured above us. that i once abused you will be the cause of my ruin. (_bhágabat_ vi. xvi. 4, x. iv. 31, and vii. v. 25). i now bow at your feet, that i may kindle faith in them." so saying he sat down there with the master, and asked him, "the errors you have pointed out in the theory of illusion, are, i know, the fanciful interpretations of shankar acharya. your exposition of the essential meaning of the aphorisms has charmed the minds of all. you are god and can do everything. tell me then briefly, i long to hear [your interpretation of vyás's aphorisms]. the master protested, "i am a creature insignificant in knowledge. vyás was god's self and his aphorisms have a deep meaning, which no creature can know. hence he has himself explained his aphorisms. when the writer is his own commentator, men can understand his meaning. the meaning of _pranaba_ in the _gáyatri mantra_ is explained at length in the four verses of the _bhágabat_, ii. ix. 30-33. first god imparted these four verses to brahmá, who taught them to nárad, and the latter to vyás, who reflected, "i shall make the _bhágabat_ itself a commentary on any aphorisms." so he accumulated the teaching of the four _vedas_ and the _upanishads_. every _rik_ which is the subject matter of a particular aphorism, is formed into a separate verse in the _bhágabat_. the _bhágabat_ and the _upanishads_, therefore, speak with one voice; the former is nothing more than a commentary on the latter. _bhágabat_, viii. i. 8, says, _"'everything that exists in the world is the abode of god. therefore enjoy what god has given you, and covet not another's possessions.'_ "the above verse takes a bird's-eye view of the whole subject. similarly every verse of the _bhágabat_ is like a rik. in the 'four verses' the _bhágabat_ has unfolded the characteristics of connection, means (_abhidheya_), and need. connection with 'i' is the truth; perception of 'i' is the highest knowledge, the devotion and faith necessary to attain to 'i' is called the means. the fruit of devotion is love, which is the radical need. that love enables a man to enjoy 'i'. _vide_ the _bhágabat_, ii. ix. 30, god's words to brahmá: _'the knowledge of me is deeply mysterious. accept as spoken by me whatever is united to supreme knowledge (bijnán), attended by mystery, and a part of tat.' or in other words, god says here, 'these three truths have i explained to you, because being a creature you could not have understood them, viz., my nature, my dwelling (sthiti), and my attributes, works, and six powers. my grace will inspire you with all these.'_ so saying god imparted the three truths to brahmá: (i) _bhágabat_ ii. ix. 31,-_'may you, through my grace, at once attain to true knowledge about the nature of my form (swarup), my component element (sattwa), and my attributes and acts.'_ (god's speech to brahma). "or in other words, god says 'before creation, being myself endowed with the six divine powers, and drawing into myself _prapancha_-nature, i create while dwelling within it. the _prapancha_ that men beholds is no other than me. in destruction my remaining attributes manifest themselves, completing me and so _prapancha_-nature finds absorption in me.' "(2) again, _bhágabat_, ii. ix. 32, god speaks to brahmá:-_'this i alone existed before creation, and none else. nature, the cause of the gross and subtle universes, did not then exist. this i alone exist even after creation; this universe is indeed myself. whatever will survive the destruction (pralaya) of the world will also be this i.'_ "in this verse the phrase 'this i' occurs thrice and determines the dwelling of the full-power divine incarnation (_vigraha_). he has (clearly) pronounced on this point in order to rebuke those (philosophers) who do not admit incarnations (_vigraha_). the term '_this_' indicates _jnán_, _vijnán_, and _vivek_. illusion is god's work, therefore god's self ('_i_') is different from illusion, just as a faint glow shines in the sky where the sun was, but it cannot appear of itself without aid of the sun. it is only by going beyond illusion that we can perceive. here the truth of connection [with god] has been unfolded. "(3) next in _bhágabat_, ii. ix. 33, god tells brahmá,-_'know that to be my illusion which being unreal appears to the (human) mind as real, or being real is not recognized by the mind; just as the reflection in the water of the moon of the sky, though unreal, seems to be a second moon indeed; or as the rahu of darkness, though real, escapes man's perception.'_ "listen to an exposition of faith as a means of devotion. in religious rites we have to observe distinctions according to person, locality, time and condition. but in the practice of _bhakti_ no such difference has to be made; it is the duty of all in every place, condition and time. ask a _guru_ about faith, and learn its nature from him. (_bhágabat_, ii. ix. 35). _'the man who seeks spiritual truth will admit that that substance alone is the soul (átmá) which dwells at all times and within everything by acting as the anwaya (necessary) and byatireka (non-necessary) causes [of things].'_ "attachment to '_i_' is love, the needful thing. i shall describe its marks by means of actions. as the five spirits (_pancha-bhut_) dwell within and without all creation, similarly i inspire my _bhaktas_ within and without. (_bhágabat_, ii. ix. 34),-_'as the great spirits (mahá-bhutáni) enter material objects after their creation, but remained outside them as causes before their creation, so i too remain at once within and without all created things.'_ 'my _bhakta_ has confined me to his lotus-like heart. wherever he glances he beholds me.' (_bhágabat_, xi. ii. 50 and 43, x. xxx. 4). "thus does the _bhágabat_ explain three things, connection, means, and need. (_bhágabat_, i. ii. 1). "now listen to the _abhidheya_ faith, which inspires every line of the _bhágabat_ (xi. xiv. 20). "now hear about love, the radical need, whose marks are joyous tears, dance and song. (xi. iii. 32 and ii. 38). "therefore is the _bhágabat_ that author's own commentary on the _brahma sutra_; it settles the meaning of the _[mahá] bhárat_, explains the _gáyatri_, and amplifies by gloss the meaning of the _vedas_, as is said in the _garuda purán_. _vide_ also the two verses from the same purán quoted by shridhar swami in his commentary on the _bhágabat_, i. 1, also _bhágabat_, i. i. 1-3 and 19, the _gitá_, xviii. 54, _bhágabat_, ii. i. 9, iii. xv. 43, i. vii. 10." then the maratha brahman told the assembled people how the master had explained the last mentioned verse in sixty-one different ways. the men wondered and pressed the master, who gave his interpretations again. they marvelled exceedingly and concluded that chaitanya was krishna incarnate. this said, the master left the place. men bowed to him and shouted _hari! hari!_ all the people of benares began to make _sankirtan_ of krishna's name, laughing, dancing and singing in love. the _sannyasi_ philosophers took to the study of the _bhágabat_. (in short) the master saved the city of benares, which became a second navadwip [in fervour]. returning to his quarters with his attendants, the master said jestingly, "i had come to benares to sell my sentimental stuff, for which there was no purchaser here. i could not carry my merchandise back to my country, as you would have been grieved to see me carrying the load! so, to please you all, i have distributed my goods freely!" they all replied, "you have come to deliver mankind. before this you had carried salvation to the south and the west. benares alone was adverse to you, and now you have redeemed it, to our delight." the sensation at benares spread. millions of country people began to come to the city. they could not see the master at the place of _sankirtan_, but formed lines on both sides of the road to watch him going to bathe or visit vishweshwar. with uplifted arms he ordered them to chant hari's name; they prostrated themselves and shouted _hari! hari!_ five days were thus passed in delivering the people, and then the master grew anxious. when he started walking away at night, his five _bhaktas_ followed him,--_viz._, tapan mishra, raghunath, the maratha brahman, chandra shekhar, and the singer paramananda,--all wishing to accompany him to puri. but the master sent them back gently, giving them leave to come afterwards, as he was returning alone by the jhárikhand route. to sanátan he said, "go to brindában, to your two brothers. if my _bhakta_ beggars, clad in quilt and bowl in hand, go there, cherish them." so saying he embraced and left them, while they all fell down fainting. recovering they sadly took the way back to home. when rup reached mathura, at the dhruba ghát he met subuddhi ray, who had once been governor of gaur with sayyid husain khan as his servant. husain was ordered to dig a tank, and on his committing some fault, his master, the ray, flogged him. when, afterwards, husain shah became sultan of bengal, he greatly promoted subuddhi ray. but the sultana, noticing the scar of the lash on husain's back, pressed him to murder the ray. the sultan declined saying that the ray was his former patron, a father unto him. but the queen urged him to destroy the ray's caste while sparing his life. husain answered that subuddhi would not survive the loss of his caste. the king was hard pressed by the queen, and at last forced water from his own goglet into the ray's mouth. at this the ray left all his possessions, fled to bewares, and asked the _pandits_ there about the proper penance. thev replied, "give up your life by drinking steaming _ghee_. this is not a venial sin!" the ray remained perplexed, but when the master arrived there, he told him all. chaitanya advised him to go to brindában and ceaselessly chant krishna's name, as one utterance of the name would wash away all his sins and a repetition of it would gain him krishna's feet. the ray reached mathura by way of prayág, ayodhyá, and the naimish forest (where he lingered some days). in the meantime the master returned from brindában to prayág, and subuddhi on reaching mathura grieved to miss him. the ray sold dry faggots at mathura, at five or six piece per bundle. he lived by chewing one pice worth of gram and lodged the rest of his earnings with a _baniá_. whenever he met a poor vaishnav, he fed him, and to bengali pilgrims he gave curd, rice and oil for anointing the body. rup greatly favoured him, and took him through the "twelve woods" in his own company. after a month at brindában, rup hurriedly left to search sanátan out. hearing that the master had taken the ganges route to prayág, rup and his brother anupam followed that path. but sanátan from prayág went to mathura by the king's highway, and so missed rup, who had taken a different route, as subuddhi ray told sanátan on his arrival at mathura. tenderly did the ray treat sanátan, who cared not for tender treatment; being very averse to the world, he roamed through the woods, passing a day and night under each tree and grove. securing a copy of the holy book named _mathurá mahátmya_, he searched the forests to discover the forgotten shrines. rup with his youngest brother came to kashi and there met the maratha brahman, chandra shekhar, and tapan mishra. he lived with chandra shekhar, dined with the mishra, and heard from the latter how the master had taught sanátan. delighted was he to hear from them about the master's doings at kashi and his grace to the _sannyasis_, and to see the devotion of the people to him, and hear them chanting _kirtan_. after a ten days stay there, rup left for bengal. the master wended his way to puri, feeling intense bliss in the lonely jungle path. balabhadra accompanied him, and he sported with the deer and other animals as during his first journey. reaching athára-nálá he sent bhattáchárya in advance to summon his followers. at the news of his return, they got a new life as it were, ran to him in rapture and met him at the narendra tank. the master touched the feet of the puri and the bhárati, who embraced him lovingly. damodar swarup, gadadhar pandit, jagadananda, kashishwar, govinda, vakreshwar, kashi mishra, pradyumna mishra, damodar pandit, haridas thakur, shankar pandit, and all other _bhaktas_ fell down at his feet. he embraced each and was over come with love. the faithful swam in the ocean of bliss. with them he went to visit jagannáth, before whom he with his party danced and sang long in rapture. the servitor of the god presented him with a garland and _prasád_, while tulsi parichha bowed at his feet. the master's arrival was [soon] noised abroad in the village. sárvabhauma, rámánanda, and vánináth joined him. with them all he repaired to kashi mishra's house. sárvabhauma bade him to dinner, but he declined, and ordering some _mahá-prasád_ to be brought, feasted there with all his followers. [text, canto 25.] chapter xxiii[1] the master teaches his disciples at puri; the meeting with sanátan _author's words in commencing the last acts (antya lila)_:--"i bow to the lord god krishna-chaitanya, whose grace enables a cripple to cross mountains and a dumb man to recite the scriptures. i am blind; this path is difficult, and i am again and again stumbling on it. may the saints be my support by lending me the staff of their compassion! "i adore the feel of my six _gurus_,--rup, sanátan, raghunath bhatta, jiv, gopal bhatta, and raghunath-das,--who will remove evil (from my path) and fulfil my desire. in the _madhya lila_ i have given a brief outline of the _antya lila_. i am now stricken with the decrepitude of age, and know death to be near. therefore, i write in detail such acts of the _antya lila_ as have not been described before." when the master returned from brindában to niláchal, swarup goswámi sent word of it to bengal. shachi rejoiced to hear of it; all the _bhaktas_ rejoiced. they all set off for niláchal. the men of kulin village and the men of khand all joined acharya shivananda. shivananda sen undertook to pass them through the police out posts (_gháti_) of the road, looked after them, and secured lodgings for them. when they arrived at niláchal, they all met the master, as in past years. at the end of four months, the master sent the _bhaktas_ back to bengal. every year the bengali adorers used to come, meet the master, and then return home. from other provinces, too, people used to come to jagannáth-puri and attain the bliss of gazing at the feet of chaitanya. but there were many householders who could not come. for their salvation the master inspired worthy disciples in those countries with his own force, and thus all countries were made vaishnav. bhagabán acharya, a great vaishnav, very learned and high-born (_árya_), lived at jagannáth-puri, seeking the master's company, as the cow-boys [of mathura did krishna's]. he was a comrade of swarup goswámi, and took absolute refuge at the feet of chaitanya. at times he used to invite the master and made him dine alone in his house. one day, when the acharya had bidden the master to dinner at his house, he called the master's chanter, the lesser haridas, and told him to bring on his behalf a _maund_ of white rice from the sister of shikhi mahiti. she was named madhavi devi, an old anchorite and devout vaishnav. at his meal the master praised the rice and learnt that it had been supplied by madhavi through the lesser haridas. when he returned to his lodgings, he ordered govinda to exclude haridas from the place from that day onwards. haridas grieved at the master's doors being closed to him. for three days he fasted. none knew the reason of his exclusion. then swarup and others asked the master, who replied, "i cannot look at the face of a bairagi who speaks to a woman. our passions are hard to control and take hold of their natural objects of gratification. even the wooden statue of a woman can steal the heart of an ascetic." (they prayed for his pardon, but in vain. when even puri goswámi interceded for haridas, the master in anger threatened to leave his disciples there and migrate alone to alalnath). at the sight of haridas's punishment, terror seized all the _bhaktas_. they gave up conversing with women even in dreams. thus did haridas pass a year, and yet the master did not feel any grace for him. so, one night haridas bowed to the master [from a distance] and went away to allahabad without telling anybody. he concentrated his mind on attaining to the master's feet [in the next life] and gave up his life by plunging into the junction of the three rivers, (_triveni_ at allahabad). an oriya brahman boy, handsome, gentle of manner, but fatherless, used to visit the master at puri daily, bow to him and hold converse with him. the master was as life unto him, and he enjoyed the master's favour. damodar could not bear to see this attachment, and again and again forbade the boy [to come]. but he could not live without seeing the master; he came daily and the master showed him great love; it is natural for a boy to come where he meets with love. the sight grieved damodar, but he could not say any thing as the boy heeded not his prohibition. one day the boy visited the master, who lovingly inquired after his [health]. after a time the boy left. damodar could not contain himself any longer, but burst out with, "in other connections you are called a _goswámi_. we shall soon know what sort of _goswámi_ you are! all men will soon sing the praise of our _goswámi!_ his reputation will be now established at puri!" the master, hearing it, asked, "what is this that you are talking, damodar?" the man replied, "you are a free god. you act as you please. who can forbid you? but who can shut the mouth of the garrulous world? you are a wise man. why then do you not reflect deeply? why do you love a widow's son? true, she is chaste and an ascetic; but she has the faults of being beautiful and young. you too are youthful and extremely handsome. this will give an opportunity to scandal-mongers to whisper." damodar ceased speaking. the master, pleased at heart, smiled and reflected, thinking "this is a current of the purest love. i have no well-wisher like damodar." another day, the master took damodar aside and said, "damodar, go to navadwip, and stay there with my mother. i do not see any other guardian for her than you. you have warned me even! i have no candid friend like you among my followers. unless a man is candid (_lit._, impartial), virtue cannot be guarded. you have done something which even i cannot do. you have reprimanded me, what shall we say of others? go to my mother's house and remain at her feet. in your presence nobody can act freely. come here occasionally to see me, and then return there quickly. convey to mother my millions of salutation. make her happy with the news of my happiness. say that i have sent you to her to tell her constantly of me. so saying delight her heart." (the miracles of the vaishnav saint haridas thakur, _not translated_). when rup goswámi, after visiting the master at puri, went to bengal for returning to brindában, his brother sanátan came from mathura to niláchal. he travelled by the jharikhand jungles (santal parganas), now fasting, now chewing [dry grains]. scabs broke out on his skin from the bad water of jharikhand and the irregularity of diet, and exudations ran down his body. on the way he sadly reflected, "i belong to a low caste. my body is vile. i shall fail to see the master when i go to puri. he lives, i hear, near the temple. but i dare not go near it, as the servitors of jagannáth are constantly passing there on business and it will be a sin if i [accidentally] touch them. therefore, i shall renounce my body by throwing myself under the wheels of jagannáth's car when the god is taken out in the car procession; thus shall i attain at a holy place relief from my pangs and the salvation of my soul." so resolving, he came to niláchal and alighted at haridas's place. he bowed at the feet of haridas, who learning his name embraced him. his heart yearned for the sight of the master. haridas assured him that he would soon come. the master, after witnessing the _upala-bhog_ of jagannáth, came there with his disciples to meet haridas. the two prostrated themselves at his feet. the master raised haridas and embraced him. haridas said, "here is sanátan, bowing to you." the master looked at sanátan with interest and advanced to embrace him, while sanátan ran backwards shouting, "touch me not, master, i beseech thee. i am of low caste, and in addition my skin is running with exudations." but the master embraced him by force, and his fair body was stained with sanátan's sores. he introduced all his disciples to sanátan, who bowed at their feet. with them all the master sat down on the raised terrace, while haridas and sanátan sat below. he inquired after sanátan's health, who replied "my supreme bliss is that i have gazed on thy feet." the master then asked about the vaishnavs of mathura, and sanátan reported that they were well. the master said, "rup [your brother] was here for ten months, and he left for bengal only ten days ago. your [youngest] brother anupam has died on the bank of the ganges. he was a staunch devotee of ram." sanátan replied, "i have been born in a low family; all sorts of wickedness and wrongdoing were my hereditary burden. such a family thou hast accepted, without scorning it! my whole family has been blessed by thy grace. this anupam was devoted to ram-worship from his childhood. day and night he used to meditate on the name of ram, hear the _ramayan_ read, and chant it. he used to live with rup and myself constantly and listen with us to krishna's deeds and the _bhágabat_. we one day tested him saying, listen, dear, krishna is very delicious; he abounds in beauty, sweetness, love, and grace. do you, therefore, adore krishna in our company. we three brothers shall dwell together in the delights of discourses on krishna. so we two urged him again and again. our influence turned his mind a little and he responded, how long can i resist your command? initiate me in the mantra and i shall adore krishna [in future]. so saying, he paced up and down all the night, waking and crying how he could leave ram's feet. next morning he told us, i have sold my head to the feet of ram, and it pains me excessively to draw my head away thence, have mercy on me and permit me to worship ram's feet birth after birth. then we two embraced him and praised him saying noble is the firmness of thy faith. master, when you bless a family, it enjoys every good, and all its troubles, disappear." the master replied, "just in the same way did i test murari gupta before. that _bhakta_ is noble who does not leave his lord's feet. that master is blessed who does not abandon his own devotee. it is well that you have come here. dwell in the same house with haridas." one day the master came there, as was his daily wont, to meet the two, and began abruptly to speak, "sanátan! if giving up life could have made one gain krishna, i could have sacrificed my life a million times over in a moment. it is not by courting death but by adoration that we can gain krishna. there is no other way of gaining him than _bhakti_. suicide and the like are a low dark (_támas_) kind of _dharma_. but the _támas_ and _rajas_ kinds of _dharma_ cannot give us the essence of krishna. without _bhakti_ there cannot be love, and without love krishna cannot be attained. "suicide and the like are a _támas dharma_, and the cause of sin; through them a devotee cannot attain to krishna's feet. the loving _bhakta_ wishes to quit his body when separated from his lord; but when love has brought krishna to him, he cannot think of death. "give up your evil intention and listen to the _kirtan_, and soon will you get the treasure of love for krishna. even a low-caste man is not unfit to adore krishna. even a well-born brahman is not, [merely by reason of his birth] worthy to adore him. he who adores is great; the man wanting in devotion is low and despicable. in the worship of krishna there is no distinction of caste or pedigree. the lord is more gracious to the lowly, while the high-born, the learned, and the rich are too proud [in his eyes]. "among the methods of adoration the chief are the nine kinds of _bhakti_, which is most potent in giving us, krishna's love, even krishna himself. the highest of these is _nám-sankirtan_, chanting the name. chant the name with a pure soul and you will win the treasure of divine love!" sanátan marvelled when he heard all this, thinking "the master is omniscient. he has divined my plan of suicide and forbidden it." then he clasped the master's feet, crying, "you are omniscient, gracious, free, and god. i move like a wooden machine as you turn my handle. i am lowly, a wretch, and wicked of disposition. what would you gain by keeping me alive?" the master replied, "your body is my property. you have given yourself up to me. how dare you think of destroying what is another's property? cannot you distinguish between a crime and a just deed? your body is my chief instrument; with it i shall carry out many purposes. the exposition of the nature of devotion, the devotee and krishna-_prem_, the duties and daily practices of vaishnavs, the establishing of devotion to krishna, love for krishna and service, the restoration of forgotten holy places, the teaching of asceticism, the preaching of this faith at mathura and brindában which are my favourite places, all these i wish for. but by my mother's command i live at niláchal, and therefore i cannot preach the religion at mathura in person. the body by means of which i want to do all these works, you want to give up. how can i allow it?" at this sanátan said, "i bow to thee. who can fathom the depths of thy heart? as the juggler makes the wooden puppet dance, while it knows not what it plays or what it sings, so, too, does the man whom you inspire, dance with out knowing why he is dancing or through whom." thereafter the master embraced the two and left for his home to do his noontide devotions. haridas mourned to sanátan, "none can be compared with you in good fortune. the master has declared your body to be his own property. he will do through you at mathura the work that he cannot do in his own person. through you he will compose the exegetics of _bhakti_, and lay down its scriptures and practices. [alas!] my body has been of no service to the master. my body, though born in the [holy] land of bhárat, has become futile." but sanátan consoled him saying, "who else is your equal? among the master's followers you are the most fortunate. the work of his incarnation is the preaching of the name, and that work he does through you. daily do you chant the name three hundred thousand times. before all do you hold forth on the glory of the name." the bengal _bhaktas_ came on pilgrimage, as before, on the occasion of the car festival, and stayed with the master for the four months of the monsoon. the master introduced to them sanátan who bowed at their feet and they favoured him. his excellent character and [deep] scholarship endeared sanátan to all. in the month of jyaishtha the master went to yameshwar tota (garden) to dine at the entreaty of his _bhaktas_. at noon he called for sanátan, who delighted to hear of it, and went to him by way of the sea-beach. he reached the master with his two feet blistered [by the hot sand]. the master asked "by what route have you come, sanátan?" he replied, "by the sea-side." then the master said, "why did you come over the hot sand? why did you not take the cool path before the lion gate (_singhá-dwár_)? the hot sand has blistered your feet. you cannot walk; how could you bear the journey?" sanátan replied, "it was no great hardship. i did not feel that my feet were being blistered. i am not entitled to pass by the _singhá-dwár_ road, especially, as the servitors of the god jagannáth frequently pass along it and it would be a disaster if i touch any of them." the master's heart was pleased to hear of it, and he began to tell sanátan, "though you are the saviour of the world and your touch can purify even the gods and sages, yet it is the sign of a [true] _bhakta_ to respect the dignity [of rank or caste]. it is an ornament to a _sadhu's_ character to observe distinctions (_maryádá_) of rank. not to do so is to court public ridicule and to destroy one's own earthly life and spiritual welfare as well." sanátan's body was covered with running eruptions. the master embraced him in spite of prohibition, and his body was stained with the exudation, at which sanátan grieved. but the master said, "the body of a vaishnav is not material. it is supra-physical and full of the _chit_ and _ánanda_ of _bhakti_. at the time of his initiation the _bhakta_ surrenders himself to krishna, who then renders him equal to his own self, and fills the body with his own _chit_ and _ánanda_. the lord krishna has visited sanátan's body with sores only to test me. if i had in disgust refused to embrace him, i should have been guilty in the eyes of krishna." so saying, he embraced sanátan again, and lo! the sores disappeared and his body assumed a golden hue! after the _dol-yatrá_ he was given leave to depart to brindában with minute instructions as to what he should do there to propagate the faith. [a long list of the vaishnav literature produced by rup, sanátan, and their nephew jiv, the son of their youngest brother vallabh anupam,--_not translated here_]. [1] chapters xxiii-xxvii are taken from the _antya lila_ or third book of the text. chapter xxiv meeting with vallabh bhatta; the master stints his food thus did the luminous gaur (chaitanya) perform many feats in many a playful way with his _bhaktas_ at niláchal. though his heart was inly pierced with the pang of separation from krishna, yet he did not express it outwardly lest his disciples should grieve. when, however, his intense love-sickness [for krishna] did break forth, his agony baffled description. the krishna-talk of rámánanda and the [sacred] singing of swarup saved the master's life amidst the pain of separation from krishna. in the day time his mind was diverted by the diverse company that he met, but in [the solitude of] night his love-sickness waxed strong. to please him these two always kept him company and consoled him with verses and songs about krishna. [account of how raghunath-das, the son of a very rich revenue-farmer, escaped from his home at saptagram in bengal, joined the master at puri and lived in utter lowliness by begging.] one year vallabh bhatta came and met the master, bowing at his feet. the master embraced him as an adorer of vishnu (_bhágabat_) and with honour made him sit close to himself. meekly did the bhatta address the master, "long have i desired to see you and to-day jagannáth has gratified that wish. lucky is he who can behold you, for you are as it were god in a visible form. even to remember you [from a distance] hallows a man. no wonder, then, that the sight of you makes one blessed. (_bhágabat_, i. xix. 30.) the distinctive religion of the modern age is the _kirtan_ of krishna's name, and this religion cannot be established without krishna's own power. that you have founded this faith proves that you are inspired with krishna's divine force. whosoever beholds you, swims in the stream of the love of krishna. only krishna's spirit can call forth this love, as the scriptures say that krishna is the sole inspirer of _prem_ (love)." the master replied, "listen, great-minded bhatta! i was a _sannyasi_ following the theory of illusion (_máyá-vád_); i knew not _bhakti_ for krishna. the goswámi adwaita acharya is god incarnate; _his_ society has cleansed my mind. he has no peer in the knowledge of all the shastras and in devotion to krishna, and therefore he has been rightly named _a-dwaita_ without a second. nityánanda, sárvabhauma bhattáchárya, rámánanda ray, damodar swarup, haridas thakur, acharya ratna and many other _bhaktas_ have all taught me krishna-love and true _bhakti_, and have preached to the world love for the krishna-name." so spoke the master artfully, as he knew the bhatta to be very proud of his learning, and to have long cherished the conceit that he knew all the _bhakti_-theology of the vaishnavs and could expound the _shrimad bhágabat_ best. the master's words curbed this pride of the bhatta, and he longed to know the many disciples whose vaishnav character the master had just extolled. he asked, "where do these vaishnavs live? how can i meet them?" the master replied, "some live here, some on the bank of the ganges (_i.e._, at navadwip, panihati etc.). these latter have all come here for the car festival, and have taken up lodgings in this place. here will you meet all of them." next day when all the vaishnavs came to the master's place, he introduced them to the bhatta. their vaishnav-splendour filled the bhatta with amazement and he looked like a firefly in their company. then he feasted the master and his disciples on huge quantities of _mahá-prasád_. the _sannyasis_ sat down with paramananda puri on one side. the master sat down between adwaita and nityánanda, while his disciples sat before and behind. the _bhaktas_ from bengal were countless; they filled the yard row on row. vallabh bhatta marvelled at the sight of them and bowed at the feet of each. he himself served the _mahá-prasád_ to the master and the _sannyasis_. they shouted _hari! hari!_ on receiving the _prasád_. the roar of hari's name filled the universe. the bhatta gave away garlands, sandal-paste, betel-leaf and nuts and delighted all with his reverence. on the day of the car procession, the master began _kirtan_. as before, he formed seven distinct groups of singers, under adwaita, nityánanda, haridas, vakreshwar, shribas, raghav pandit, and gadadhar, who sang at different places. the master roamed about shouting _hari_, while fourteen drums (_mádal_) lifted up the din of the _sankirtan_. the sight filled vallabh bhatta with marvel; he flew into a transport of delight and could not control himself. then the master stopped the dance of the others and began to dance himself. as he gazed on the master's beauty and the exuberance of his _prem_, the bhatta believed that the master was krishna himself! after the festival the bhatta begged the master, saying, "i have written a commentary on the _bhágabat_ and want to read it to you." the master replied, "i do not understand the meaning of the _bhágabat_ and am not qualified to hear [and judge] any interpretation of it. i only sit down and recite krishna's name, and even then fail to complete the promised number of recitations in twenty-four hours." the bhatta rejoined, "i have made an exposition of the meaning of krishna's name in my commentary. listen to it." but the master objected, "i do not pay any regard to the many senses of krishna's name; i only know that he is yashoda's darling son and darkly beautiful [like the _tamál_ leaves]. this only i know for truth, and i have not arrived at any other meaning of the name." at the master's slight, the bhatta went back to his quarters, downcast in mind. (he took his commentary to the chief disciples, and even read out parts of his own motion, but they slighted it and he was abashed). daily did vallabh bhatta go to the master's place and dispute with [adwaita] acharya and other disciples. whenever he established a proposition, the acharya used immediately to refute it. before them vallabh bhatta appeared like a crane in the company of majestic swans. one day the bhatta asked the acharya, "mankind is feminine, and krishna is their husband, so you hold. no devoted wife utters her husband's name. and yet you repeat krishna's name. what sort of _dharma_ is this?" the acharya replied, "_dharma_ in the flesh is sitting before you. ask him, and he will justify it." then the master broke in, "you do not know the essence of _dharma_. it is the _dharma_ of a true wife to obey her husband's commands. our husband has commanded us to chant his name ceaselessly. no true wife can disobey his command, and so we chant his name and derive from it the fruit of the birth of love for krishna's feet." this silenced vallabh bhatta and he went home sorrowing at his public humiliation. another day he came to the master's assembly and said rather boastfully, "i have refuted [shridhar] swami's commentary on the _bhágabat_. i cannot accept his interpretation where his view differs from mine, i do not follow the swami." the master smiled and remarked,. "one who does not follow (her) _swami_ (=husband) is ranked among harlots!" chaitanya had come to earth as an _avatár_ for the good of mankind; by various humiliations he purified the proud heart of the bhatta. at night vallabh bhatta began to reflect in his own house, "formerly the master favoured me greatly at allahabad, when he accepted my invitation to dinner in the company of his disciples. why then is his heart turned away from me now? let my heart be free from the pride of gaining victories in debate. the god-souled does good to all. i am filled with the pride of asserting myself, and he humiliates me in order to cure me of this pride." so thinking, next morning he came to the master and meekly praising him took refuge at his feet, saying, "i am ignorant and have foolishly displayed my learning before you. you are god and out of your natural grace you have removed my pride by means of disgrace. the blindness of pride has been removed from my eyes through the collyrium of your grace now, and true knowledge has dawned on me. i have sinned. forgive me; take refuge with thee; lay thy feet on my head." the master checked him saying, "you are a scholar and a devotee at the same time. where these two qualities are present, there pride cannot exist. you have written a commentary on the _bhágabat_ in scorn of shridhar swami! i understand the _bhágabat_ through the grace of shridhar swami; he is the world's _guru_, my _guru_. what you write contrary to shridhar is labour lost; no one will accept it. therefore, write your commentary on the _bhágabat_ in the footsteps of shridhar. leave off your pride and adore the lord krishna. give up your failings and join the _kirtan_ of krishna, and you will soon attain to krishna's feet." then the master agreed to dine at vallabh bhatta's house once again. the bhatta used to meditate on god as the child gopal. but the society of gadadhar pandit turned his mind, and he longed to adore the youthful gopal. he begged the pandit to teach him the _mantra_ and ceremonial of this kind of adoration, but gadadhar declined to act without the master's permission ... another day gadadhar pandit invited the master, who agreed and at the dinner permitted vallabh bhatta to be initiated by gadadhar. how the master stinted his food ramchandra puri goswámi came to niláchal and there met the master and paramananda puri jagadananda pandit invited ramchandra puri and fed him on the _prasád_ of jagannáth. after the meal the puri asked jagadananda to feed on the food left over, and serving the _prasád_ repeatedly made him eat much. and thereafter, washing his hands and mouth, ramchandra puri began to cavil, "i had heard that chaitanya's _bhaktas_ were great gluttons. now i see it with my own eyes to be true. by gorging _sannyasis_ with so much food, their piety is destroyed. you are _bairagis_ and yet you are such huge eaters! your _bairagya_ is not sincere." ramchandra puri was notorious as the universal fault finder, having been cursed for it by his own religious preceptor, madhavendra puri. he now dwelt at niláchal, detached by nature, staying at one place for some time, taking his meal at some [other] place without having been bidden, and taking note of what others ate. the master was daily fed at different houses, at a cost of four _pan_ of _cowries_ [_i.e._, one anna] for the three of them,--the master, kashishwar, and govinda (his body-servant.) ramchandra puri closely inquired into the master's abode, manners, food, bed and travels. he could not reach the master's merits, but roaming in search of his defects, could not find any. then he began to slander the master to all the people, saying, "he is a _sannyasi_ and yet eats sweetmeats. how can such luxury enable him to control the lusts of the flesh?" he daily came to visit the master, but only to pry into his shortcomings,--for that was the only work of the puri,--while the master did him reverence as his _guru_. he knew of the slanders spoken by the puri [against him], but welcomed and honoured him greatly. one day the puri came to the master's house in the morning, and noticing some ants on the floor, delivered this covert attack, "verily sweetmeats were brought here last night, for ants are running about. a wonder _sannyasis_ dead to the world have such gluttonous cravings!" and then he left in a hurry. the master now saw with his own eyes what he had only heard before, [about the slander spread against him]. he called govinda and told him, "from to-day my meal will be one packet of rice and curry of the _pinda-bhog_ worth 20 cowries [i.e., one quarter-anna]. don't accept any food above this for me. if you bring more, you will not see me here." half of this the master ate and the other half he left for govinda, and both remained famished. then he commanded govinda and kashishwar to beg their food elsewhere. thus some days passed in great hardship. hearing of it, ramchandra puri came to the master and smiling told him, "it is not a sannyasi's _dharma_ to gratify his appetite. he eats just enough to fill his stomach anyhow. i find you lean and hear that you eat only half your fill. this drying _bairagya_ is not a sannyasi's _dharma_. a sannyasi performs true _jnan-yog_ when he fills his stomach as far as is necessary but does not enjoy his food. (_gitá_, vi. 16-17.)" the master replied, "i am an ignorant child and your pupil. it is my good fortune that you are teaching me." ramchandra puri then left. next day the _bhaktas_ headed by paramananda puri complained to the master against ramchandra as a universal fault-finder and instigator of gluttony, which he afterwards censured. they urged him not to listen to ramchandra and famish himself, but to return to his old diet and accept invitations. but the master replied, "why do you blame ramchandra puri? he expounds the natural _dharma_, and has done no wrong. it is very wrong for a sannyasi to have a lustful palate. it is a sannyasi's duty to eat just as little as will keep body and soul together." they all pressed him hard, and yielding to their entreaty he fixed his rations at one-half of its former cost, _viz._ at two pan of _cowries_ [_i.e._, half anna], which was shared by two, sometimes three persons. if a brahman whose cooking he could not eat, invited him, he took only _prasád_ worth two _pan_ of _cowries_. if it was a brahman whose cooking he could eat, he took a little of _prasád_ [purchased with money] and a little of the meal cooked in his host's house. but at the houses of pandit goswámi, adwaita acharya, and sárvabhauma, he ate whatever they asked him, for there he had no independence; he had come down to earth to render his devotees happy. after a time ramchandra ptiri left niláchal on a pilgrimage, to the intense delight of the vaishnavs, who felt that a heavy stone had been lifted from their heads! they now freely invited the master to _kirtan_ and dance, and all freely partook of the _prasád_. chapter xxv the love of the pilgrims from bengal the bengal _bhaktas_ came to niláchal [carrying loving presents,--food and preserves, for the master]. it was the day of jagannáth's sporting in the water of the narendra tank. the master came there with his followers to see the water-sport and there the bengal pilgrims met him. the bengal musical parties were singing the _kirtan_; on meeting the master they began to weep in love. the water-sport, instrumental music, song, dance and _kirtan_ created a tumult on the bank, while the boats plied merrily on the water. the mingled din of the _kirtan_ and weeping of the bengalis filled the universe. then the master entered the water with his disciples and sported gleefully with them all. these water-sports have been described in detail by brindában-das in his _chaitanya-mangal_. i shall not repeat them here. another day the master went with his party to behold jagannáth at his rising from bed. there he began the _berá kirtan_. seven parties began to sing, and seven chiefs danced in them, adwaita acharya, nityánanda, vakreshwar, atrhyutananda, shribas pandit, satyaraja khan and narahari-das. the master visited all the seven groups, each thinking that he was with it only! the roar of the _kirtan_ filled the earth; all the citizens came out to see it; the king came with his court and gazed from a distance, the queens beheld the scene from the roofs of houses. the earth trembled under the influence of the _kirtan_. men shouted _hari!_ thus adding to the din. after a while, the master was inclined to dance himself. around him the seven parties sang and beat their instruments; in the centre he danced in supreme transport of love. he recollected the oriya verse, _jagamohan parimundá jáun!_ 'charmer of the universe! i abase myself before thee', and bade swarup sing it. to this air he danced in ecstasy, while all the men around swam in tears of love. with uplifted arms he cried, "chant! chant!" and they in delight shouted _hari! hari!_ at times he fell down in a trance and ceased to breathe, then suddenly started up with a roar. frequent tremour burst over his body, making it look like the _shimul_ tree, now it was quivering and now it stiffened. the sweat burst through every pore in his skin. with faltering speech he muttered _ja ja, ga ga, pari pari_,--every tooth in his mouth shaking as if about to be loosened. even in the third quarter of the day his dance did not cease. all the people in ecstasy forgot [fatigue of] body and [the distinction of] self and others. then nityánanda resorted to a device; he silenced the _kirtan_-singers gradually, and only the leaders of the seven groups continued singing with swarup, but in a low tone. at the cessation of noise, the master came to himself somewhat. then nityánanda told him how fatigued all were. the master at this put an end to the _kirtan_ and went to bathe in the sea with them all. then with all his _bhaktas_ he partook of the _prasád_, dismissed them, and retired to sleep at the door of the _gambhira_ (room). govinda came to rub his feet, as was the usual practice, before going to feed on his leavings the master had stretched himself at full length across the doorway; govinda could not enter the room and begged him to move aside a little, but he declined saying that he was too weak lo stir his limbs, and told govinda to do whatever he liked. then govinda threw his sheet over the master's body and entered the room leaping over him. his shampooing threw the master into a sweet a sleep and relieved him of his fatigue. after two _dandas_ (48 minutes) he woke, and seeing govinda there, asked in anger, "why are you here still, _adi-basyá?_ why did you not go away for your meal when i fell asleep?" govinda replied, "you lay blocking the doorway, and i found no path for going out of the room." but the master rejoined, "how, then, could you come in? why did you not go out in the same way that you entered? govinda returned no answer, but reasoned within him self, "i must do my appointed work, even if i have to commit any fault or go to hell for so doing. for the sake of doing my duty i do not hesitate to commit a million sins, but i fear even the touch of sin for my own personal needs." this year the bengal pilgrims came in large numbers,--two to three hundred of them, including many women. shivananda sen acted as their guide and caretaker on the way. they came to puri and met the master, the women gazing at him from a distance. they were all given lodging-houses and invited by the master to eat the _mahá-prasád_. the entire family of shivananda enjoyed his grace. after the meal he told govinda to give the leavings on his plate to shivananda's wife and sons so long as they stayed there. a sweetmeat-seller (_modak_) of nadia, named parameshwar, had his shop close to the master's paternal house. in his boyhood he used to visit this man's shop and the man used to treat him to confects made with milk. he loved the master from his infancy, and this year came to see him. he prostrated himself before the master saying, "i am parameshwar." in delight at seeing him the master asked, "parameshwar! are you well? it is a happy thing that you have come." the man added "mukunda's mother has come", [meaning his own wife]. the master was shocked to hear the name of a woman, but out of love for parameshwar said nothing. the loving simple-minded grocer did not know the ways of the learned; these qualities inly delighted the master. four months passed away in the usual way, and then he permitted the pilgrims to return to bengal. they invited him to dinner and he lovingly spoke to them all, "every year you come here to see me, undergoing many hardships on the two journeys. for this reason i feel inclined to forbid your coming, but the pleasure of your society tempts my heart. i had commanded nityánanda to live in bengal. he has come here in defiance of my order; what can i say to him? the [old] adwaita acharya, leaving his wife, children and home behind, performs a long and difficult journey to meet me. how can i repay the debt of his love? i merely sit here at niláchal without having to do any exertion for your sake. i am a _sannyasi_, without wealth. with what shall i repay my debt to you? my only property is my body, and this i give up to you. sell it, if you list." the master's speech melted their hearts; tears ran down their cheeks without ceasing. he, too, wept clasping their necks, and weeping embraced them. so, they could not set out on their journey home that day, but passed five or seven days more at puri in the same way. at last the master consoled them and gave them leave to depart with composure of mind. the _bhaktas_ left the city weeping. the master remained there in sadness of heart. last year jagadananda, the master's companion, had by his leave gone to nadia to see mother shachi. she in delight listened day and night to his discourse on the master and his doings. all the _bhaktas_ of nadia met him and entertained him in their houses, listening in rapture to his talk about the master's inmost things. at the house of shivananda he prepared a pot of medicated oil, scented with sandal-wood, and taking it to niláchal asked govinda to rub it on the master's head, to cure him of bile, wind and other sickly humours. govinda reported it, but the master replied, "a _sannyasi_ is forbidden to rub oil, especially scented oil. present it to the temple of jagannáth, where it will be used in lighting lamps, and his labour will be supremely rewarded." some ten days afterwards, govinda repeated jagadananda's request that he should accept the oil. the master burst forth in anger, "very well, engage a servant to rub me with the oil! is it for such pleasures that i have turned _sannyasi_? what is ruin to me is a sport to you! every one who will smell the fragrant oil on my person in the streets, will call me a carnal _sannyasi_!" govinda remained silent on hearing this. next morning, when jagadananda came to the master, he said, "pandit! you have brought for me oil from bengal. but i am a _sannyasi_ and cannot accept it. present it to jagannáth to light the lamps of the temple. that will be the reward of your labour." the pandit replied, "who has told you this piece of falsehood? i never brought any oil from bengal." so saying, he brought out of the room the pot of oil and broke it on the floor of the yard in the master's sight. then he ran back to his own house, bolted the door of his bed-room from within, and shut himself up there [without taking any food]. on the third day the master went to his door and cried out, "rise, pandit! you must feed me to-day on your own cooking. i shall come back at noon. i am now off to see jagannáth." so saying, he left the house. the pandit rose from his bed, bathed, cooked, and at noon, when the master returned, placed the dishes before him on the leaves and bark of the plantain-tree. the master said, "you must dine with me. serve your meal, on another leaf." but the pandit entreated him to eat first and let him sit down to his meal after his guest. the vegetable soup was delicious and the master cried out, "when one cooks in anger, it tastes so sweet! this is a proof of krishna's grace on you." the pandit served and the master ate, willing but unable to rise from the feast, and eating ten times his usual food, in fear lest the pandit should fly into a rage again and fast himself! after the dinner, the master went back to his lodgings, leaving govinda there to see that the pandit broke his fast. jagadananda sent govinda back to rub the master's feet, and put him to sleep. but he again bade govinda go and see that the pandit was really eating! when govinda reported the fact, then the master lay down in bed in peace of mind. chapter xxvi the master's love-sickness for krishna; his visions and transports of bhakti the master felt his separation from krishna just as the milk-maids did after krishna had left brinidabán for mathura. gradually he began to break out in wild lamentations, even as rádhá had talked in delirium on meeting with uddhav. ever did the master consider himself as radha, and felt [and acted] like her. no wonder, for such is the course of _divya-unmád_ (spiritual ecstasy). one night when he was sleeping, he dreamt of krishna in the _rása_ dance; the god was bending his body gracefully and playing on the flute, wearing a yellow garment and garlands of flowers, and looking like the picture of love; the milkmaids were dancing in a circle, joining their hands together, while in the centre krishna frolicked with radha. the sight inspired the master with the same mood; he felt that he was at brindában and had gained krishna's company. as he was late in rising, govinda wakened him; but he saddened when he became conscious of the real world. after performing the necessary acts of the morning he went to behold jagannáth. he stood close to the image of garuda, while hundreds of thousands of worshippers thronged in front of him. an oriya woman, unable to see the god on account of the crowd, climbed upon the garuda and rested one foot on the master's shoulder. govinda saw it and hurriedly pushed her a way, but the master forbade him to make her dismount from his shoulder, saying, "don't remove her. let her gaze at jagannáth to her heart's content". the woman, however, quickly got down on seeing the master and fell at his feet. the master remarked, "jagannáth has not inspired _me_ with this woman's passionate longing for him. her body mind and soul are so absorbed in the god that she did not notice that she was treading on my shoulder! she is blessed. let me worship her feet that i too may have her intensity of devotion." sadly did the master return home, and sitting down on the ground began to draw lines on the floor with his finger-nails. tears streamed from his eyes and blinded his vision. "alas!" he cried, "after gaining krishna, i have lost him. who has taken away my krishna? where have i come?" in his trances he quivered with delight; but when he regained consciousness, he felt that he had lost his treasure, and sang and danced like mad, though he went through his bath, dinner etc. by mechanical habit. the ten forms of love-sickness possessed him day and night, never giving him rest. rámánanda ray by reciting verses [from vidyápati, chandidás and _git-govinda_] and swarup by singing songs on krishna's acts, brought the master somewhat back to his senses. at midnight they laid him to bed in the inner room, and rámánanda returned to his own house, while swarup and govinda slept at the door. it was the master's wont to wake all night, loudly chanting krishna's name. [to-night] noticing the silence within, swarup pushed the door open. he found the other three doors [also] closed from within, but the master was not in the room. they became alarmed at his absence, lighted their lanterns, and went out in search of him. they found the master lying on an open space a little north of the lion-gate of the temple. his body was 5 or 6 cubits long; he was unconscious and his breathing had ceased! each arm and leg was three cubits long and consisted only of bones and skin. his hands feet neck and waist were disjointed from the trunk by half a cubit and the places of junction were covered with the bare skin. he was foaming at the mouth and his eyes were fixed in a deadly stare. this sight of him made the _bhaktas_ very life go out of their bodies. then swarup with all the disciples loudly dinned the name of krishna into the master's ears. after a long while the name entered his heart, and he shouted _hari-bol!_ he became conscious and his limbs were joined to his trunk again, as before. this miracle of the master has been reported by raghunath-das in his _chaitanya-staba-kalpa-briksha_. as raghunath-das always lived with the master, i accept as true and write here what i have heard from him. one day the master, on the way to the sea, suddenly looked at the chatak hillock, and taking it to be the govardhan hill, he ran towards it in rapture with the speed of the wind. govinda could not overtake him. a hue and cry was raised and there was a great bustle. everyone ran up from where he was,--swarup, jagadananda, gadadhar, rámái, nandái, nilái pandit, shankar puri, bhárati goswámi, all went to the sea-shore. the lame bhagabán achárya hobbled slowly behind. after running at first like the wind, the master suddenly became stiff on the way, unable to move further. every pore of his skin swelled like a boil, the hair stood on end on them like the _kadamba_ flower. blood ran out of his pores like sweat. his throat gurgled, not a syllable could he utter. ceaseless tears ran down both his cheeks he lost colour and became death-pale like a conch-shell. then a quivering burst over his frame like a tempest on the bosom of the sea. trembling, he fell down on the ground, and then govinda came up with him, sprinkled him with water from the flask, and fanned him with his sheet. swarup and the rest now arrived and all began to weep at the master's plight. they loudly sang the _kirtan_ in his hearing and sprinkled him with cold water. after they had done so many times, he rose up with the cry of _hari-bol!_ the vaishnavs in delight shouted _hari! hari!_ the sound of joy rose up from all sides. half-conscious again, the master addressed swarup, "you have brought me back from govardhan to here. you have snatched me away from viewing krishna's lilá among the herds of cows and calves, radha and her handmaids, on govardhan hill why have you brought me away thence, only to cause me grief?" so saying, he wept, and the vaishnavs wept at his plight. thus did the master live at niláchal, plunging day and night in the ocean of grief at separation from krishna. in the early autumn nights radiant with the moon in a cloudless sky, he roamed up and down with his disciples, visiting garden after garden in delight and reciting or listening to the songs of _rása lilá_. at times, overcome with love, he danced and sang; at other times he imitated the _rása lilá_ in that mood; at times in a transport of passion he ran hither and thither, at others he rolled on the ground in a faint. as soon as he recollected a verse of the _rása lilá_ he expounded it. i cannot describe all the acts he performed from day to day in these twelve years [of residence at puri], lest it should make my poem too long. while rambling thus, the master one night suddenly caught a sight of the sea from _ai-tota_. the moonlight silvered the heaving billows they sparkled like the water of the jamuna. unseen by others, the master went to the sea and leaped into it. he fainted and knew not what he was doing;--the waves now sank him, now floated him; on the waves he was carried about like a dry tree-trunk. on the waves he drifted towards konárak, now under water, now above it,--and he dreamt all the time of krishna sporting in the jamuna with the milkmaids. in the meantime, swarup and other followers were startled when they missed him. uncertain whither he had gone, to the jagannáth or any other temple, to some other garden, the _gundichá_ house or the narendra tank, to the chatak hill or to konárak,--they searched for him everywhere. a party of them came to the beach and there walked, looking out for him, till near daybreak, when they concluded that he had disappeared from the earth. they all thought that the worst had happened. they took counsel on the beach, and some of them went towards the chiráyu hill, while swarup moved east wards with a party searching for the master in the sea-water. overwhelmed with sorrow, almost out of their senses, they still walked on searching for him in their love. they met a fisherman coming towards them with his net on his shoulders, laughing weeping dancing and singing "hari! hari!" swarup questioned him in surprise, "tell us, fisherman, have you met a man on this side? why are you in this mood?" the fisherman answered, "i have not seen any man here. but a dead body was caught in my net, and i carefully dragged it ashore, thinking it to be a big fish. the sight of a corpse frightened me, and when i was clearing my net i happened to touch it. at once the spirit of the dead entered my body, striking me with tremor, weeping, choking of voice, and bristling up of hair. it lay stiff as a corpse, with a fixed stare in the eyes, but at times it groaned, at others remained inert. if i die of the possession of this ghost, how will my wife and children live? if i can find an exorcist, he will expel the evil spirit from me. i work at my trade of catching fish alone at night, but no ghost can seize me as i remember the god nrisingha. this ghost, however, holds me with a double grip when i repeat nrisingha's name. don't go there, i advise you, lest this ghost should possess you, too." from these words, swarup understood it all, and told the fisherman gently, "i am a great ghost-doctor, and i know how to lay spirits." he uttered some verses, laid his hand on the fisherman's head, gave him three slaps, and cried out "the evil spirit has left you. fear no more." the man now became a little composed. swarup reassured him, "he whom you have taken for an evil spirit, is no ghost, but the lord sri krishna-chaitanya. in a transport of love he had jumped into the sea. him have you raised in your net. his touch has thrilled you with krishna's love, which you have mistaken for the possession of a ghost. now that your fear is gone and your mind has been calmed, show me where you have landed him." the fisherman said, "i have often beheld the master. it cannot be he; it is more than man's size." the fisherman led them all to the place. they beheld him lying on the ground, huge-bodied, pale-skinned from immersion in water, coated with sea-sand. his limbs were abnormally long, loose and with the skin flapping. over such a long path they could not carry him home; so they removed his wet loin-cloth and put a dry one on him, and laid him down on a sheet of cloth after brushing away the sand. then they lifted up the chant of krishna's _kirtan_ and poured it into his ears. after a time the word entered his brain and he leaped up with a roar; his limbs were rejoined and returned to their proper places. half-unconscious still, he looked hither and thither [in perplexity]. he spoke, as if from the sky, "beholding the jamuna [in the ocean] i went to brindában, and there found braja's darling sporting in the water; with radha and the other milkmaids. i stood on the bank gazing on the scene, while one of the _sakhis_ (female comrades of radha) pointed out the mysteries to me. [a long but highly poetical description, _not translated_.] krishna, radha, and their companions rose from the water, dressed themselves, partook of a rich picnic, and all retired to sleep. my heart was filled with bliss at the sight. just then you caught hold of me, and with a great noise brought me here. ah! where is the jamuna, where brindában, where krishna, and where the milkmaids? you have destroyed that bliss!" then swarup made him bathe [in the sea] and brought him home, to the delight of all. chapter xxvii the master's last year on earth thus did the master in love-madness for krishna lament night and day. jagadananda pandit was very dear unto him, and was every year sent by him to nadia to console his forlorn mother shachi. "go to nadia", so the master charged jagadananda, "convey my salutation to mother, touch her feet on my behalf. tell her to remember that i go there daily (in the spirit) to bow to her. that i have taken the _sannyasi's_ vow leaving her service only shows that i am mad and have really undone all _dharma_. mother! pardon this fault of mine. i am obedient to thee, i am thy son. it is at thy bidding that i am living at niláchal. i cannot leave thee while life remains to me." the master presented to his mother (at the puri's suggestion) the consecrated cloth that he had received at the _gopa-lilá_ with choice _prasád_ of jagannáth. he was the crowning example of filial piety, for even though a _sannyasi_ he served his mother. after receiving an enigmatic message in verse from the acharya goswámi (of shantipur) through jagadananda when he returned to puri, the master plunged into a deeper trance. his ecstasy at krishna-separation was doubled. he raved frantically day and night, identifying himself with radha. suddenly imagining that krishna was leaving brindában for mathura, he (in the character of radha) was seized with dizziness and developed madness, mourning deliriously while clasping the neck of rámánanda and addressing swarup as one of the _sakhis_ (i.e., radha's companions). he repeated the verse which radha had spoken to vishákhá (her handmaid) and held forth on it. thus did gauránga weep, saying, "alas! alas for krishna! where hast thou gone?" swarup and rámánanda consoled him in many ways, singing joyous songs, which calmed him a little. these lamentations were carried on to midnight. then swarup laid the master to bed in his room. rámánanda left for his home, and govinda lay down at the door of the room. love for krishna was thrilling the master's heart; he awoke and began to sing the name; the pang of separation convulsed his heart, and he began to rub his face against the wall; his face, cheeks, nose were all lacerated, but in the vehemence of ecstasy he knew not of the blood streaming down. all night he battered his face thus. swarup, noticing the groaning sound, lighted a lamp, entered the room and saw his face. in intense grief the two brought him back to his bed and soothed him. swarup asked, "why didst thou do this?" the master answered, "i could not contain myself in the room in my [love] anxiety. i rushed in search of the door in order to go out very soon. i could not find the door and only knocked my face against the four walls. it was torn, it bled, but still i could not go out." then, swarup in anxiety took counsel of the other _bhaktas_ next day and made shankar pandit sleep in the master's room, nursing his feet. in fear of shankar he could not leave the room nor knock his face against the walls. these feats raghunath-das has described in his _chaitanya-staba-kalpa-briksha_. one _baishakh_ night, when it was full moon, the master went with his _bhaktas_ to visit the great jagannáth-vallabh park. the trees and creepers were in full bloom as at brindában, the green parrots, bees and cuckoos were discoursing [love]. the zephyr was blowing laden the scent of flowers, and freshening made the tree-tops dance. under the bright moonlight the plants and creepers blazed in a silvery sheen. spring pervaded the atmosphere. the sight threw the master into a rapture. he bade the stanza _lalita labanga latá_ [of the _git-govinda_, canto ix. verse 6] be sung, and moved up and down dancing with his followers. passing thus from tree to tree, he came under an _ashoka_ tree and lo! he beheld krishna standing there. he rushed to meet krishna, who disappeared laughing. the master, losing krishna after having caught sight of him, fell down in a faint. the odour of krishna's person filled the garden; it took away the master's senses, it maddened him, and he began to sing and hold forth on the verses that radha, enamoured of the scent of krishna's body, had addressed to her _sakhi_. swarup and rámánanda sang, the master danced in rapture, and thus the night wore on to dawn. the last charge to the apostles thrilled with delight, the master spoke, "listen, swarup and rámánanda ray! the supreme healer in this iron age is _sankirtan of the name_. it is [equivalent to] the vedic sacrifice, and the true sacrificer in it is rewarded with krishna's feet. sankirtan enables us to conquer sin and the world; it creates purity of soul, all kinds of _bhakti_ and devotional practice. chant the name at meals, in bed, here there and every where. it is not restricted to a particular place or time, it works everywhere. it bears the name of _sarva-shakti_ (omnipotent). "listen, rámánanda, to the way in which the name should be recited in order to conceive a passion for it. the devotee, if high of rank, should regard himself as lowly like the grass. he should learn patience from the tree, which does not cry out even when it is cut down and which does not beg for water even when it is perishing of drought, but on the other hand gives away its possessions to all who ask of it, bears sun and rain itself but protects others from them. the vaishnav, however high, should be free from pride; he should venerate all forms of life as animated by krishna. take krishna's name thus, and you will be inspired with _prem_." as he spoke he was filled with growing meekness of spirit and began to beg for pure _bhakti_ at krishna's hands. the true devotee, as is the law of love, holds that he has not even a particle of faith in krishna! _"lord! i ask not for wealth or followers or the gift of poesy. give me in birth after birth only unreasoning instinctive devotion to god."_ in utter lowliness of spirit he proclaimed himself a worldly-minded creature and prayed to be inspired with a slave's devotion (_dásya bhakti_). _"o nanda's son! have pity on this thy servant sunk in the dread ocean (of the world)! look on me as a particle of dust on thy lotus-feet!"_ next, he was seized with the anxiety of humility and begged of krishna, "without the wealth of thy love my life is poor and futile. make me thy slave and give me the treasure of thy love as my wages." then came the mood of melancholy-humility: _"my eyes are running with tears like the rainy sky. a moment is as long to me as an aeon. the absence of govinda (krishna) has made the universe empty to me!"_ in this way he recited his own eight sanskrit verses on the different moods of _bhakti_ and expounded them all. for twelve years he thus tasted the sweets of krishna-love day and night with his two friends. these acts of his are endless, even a thousand narratives cannot arrive at their end. therefore, i bow my head and conclude his _lilás_ here. i bow at the feet of all my vaishnav hearers and end my history of chaitanya's acts. the last scene (translated from the _chaitanya-mangal_ of jayananda, p. 150): when dancing at the bijayá of the car festival in the month of ashárh, his left toe was suddenly pierced by a brick [lying on the road]. when adwaita left for bengal, the master secretly told him [of his coming disappearance]. with all his followers he sported in the water of the narendra tank [for the last time]. on the sixth day of the moon, the pain in his toe grew severer, and he was forced to take to his bed in the garden. here he told the pandit goswámi that he would leave the earth next night at 10 o clock. celestial garlands of many-coloured flowers were thrown on him from the unseen. celestial singers (_vidyádhar_) began to dance on the highway. the gods began to cry out, "bring the heavenly chariot!" the master mounted into vishnu's car with the figure of garuda on its spire. his material body lay behind on the earth, while he went to vaikuntha (vishnu's heaven). many of his servants killed themselves by serpent-bite. meteors and thunderbolts fell on the earth. at the news nityánanda and adwaita acharya, vishnupriya and shachi swooned away. purushottam and other servitors of the master grew speechless at his departure. nityánanda consoled the disciples and vowed before them, "we will keep the name alive. we will make all men down to the chandáls, vaishnavs. we will not differentiate [low] castes like the chandáls or muslims, but will give them all love and _bhakti_ and make them all dance [with us] at _kirtan_. we will make the realms of bengal and orissa blessed." the vaishnavs shouted applause at his words. faith--tendency of ancient and modern theories to lower the general estimate of man--the dignity with which the new testament invests him--the ethical tendency of the doctrine of evolution--the opinion expressed on the subject by goldwin smith--peschel's frank admission--the pessimistic tendency of all anti-biblical theories of man's origin, life, and destiny--buddha, schopenhauer, and the agnostics--the more hopeful influence of the bible--the tendency of all heathen religions and all anti-christian philosophies toward fatalism--pantheism and the philosophy of spinoza agreeing in this respect with the hindu vedantism--the late samuel johnson's "piety of pantheism," and his definition of fatalism--what saves the scriptural doctrine of fore-ordination from fatalism--the province of faith and of trust. lecture x. the divine supremacy of the christian faith 338 the claim that christianity is the only true religion--the peculiar tendencies of modern times to deny this supremacy and monopoly--it is not enough in such times to simply ignore the challenge--the unique claim must be defended--first: christianity is differentiated from all other religions by the fact of a divine sacrifice for sin--mohammedanism, though founded on a belief in the true god and partly on the old testament teachings, offers no saviour--no idea of fatherhood is found in any non-christian faith--the gloom of buddhism and the terror of savage tribes--hinduism a system of self-help merely--the recognized grandeur of the principle of self-sacrifice as reflected from christ--augustine found a way of life only in his divine sacrifice--second: no other faith than christianity is made effectual by the power of a divine and omnipotent spirit--the well-attested fact of radical transformations of character--other systems have made converts only by warlike conquest or by such motives as might appeal to the natural heart--christianity rises above all other systems in the divine personality of christ--the contrast in this respect between him and the authors of the non-christian systems--his attractions and his power acknowledged by all classes of men--the inferiority of socrates as compared with christ--bushnell's tribute to the perfection of this divine personality--its power attested in the life of paul--the adaptation of christianity to all the circumstances and conditions of life--abraham and the vedic patriarchs, moses and manu, david's joy and gratitude, and the gloom of hindu or buddhist philosophy--only christianity brings man to true penitence and humility--the recognized beauty and the convincing lesson of the prodigal son--the contrast between mohammed's blasphemous suras, which justify his lust, and the deep contrition of david in the fifty-first psalm--the moral purity of the old and new testaments as contrasted with all other sacred books--the scriptures pure though written in ages of corruption and surrounded by immoral influences--christ belongs to no land or age--the gospel alone is adapted to all races and all time as the universal religion of mankind--only christianity recognizes the true relation between divine help and human effort--it encourages by omnipotent co-operation--the all-comprehensive presentation of the gospel. appendix 381 oriental religions and christianity lecture i. the need of understanding the false religions it is said that the very latest among the sciences is the science of religion. without pausing to inquire how far it admits of scientific treatment, certain reasons which may be urged for the study of the existing religions of the world will be considered in this lecture. it must be admitted in the outset that those who have been the pioneers in this field of research have not, as a rule, been advocates of the christian faith. the anti-christian theory that all religions may be traced to common causes, that common wants and aspirations of mankind have led to the development of various systems according to environment, has until recently been the chief spur to this class of studies. accordingly, the religions of the world have been submitted to some preconceived philosophy of language, or ethnology, or evolution, with the emphasis placed upon such facts as seemed to comport with this theory. meanwhile there has been an air of broad-minded charity in the manner in which the apologists of oriental systems have treated the subject. they have included christ in the same category with plato and confucius, and have generally placed him at the head; and this supposed breadth of sentiment has given them a degree of influence with dubious and wavering christians, as well as with multitudes who are without faith of any kind. in this country the study of comparative religion has been almost entirely in the hands of non-evangelical writers. we have had "the ten great religions," from the pen of rev. james freeman clarke; "the oriental religions," written with great labor by the late samuel johnson; and mr. moncure d. conway's "anthology," with its flowers, gathered from the sacred books of all systems, and so chosen as to carry the implication that they all are equally inspired. many other works designed to show that christianity was developed from ancient sun myths, or was only a plagiarism upon the old mythologies of india, have been current among us. but strangely enough, the christian church has seemed to regard this subject as scarcely worthy of serious consideration. with the exception of a very able work on buddhism,[1] and several review articles on hinduism, written by professor s.h. kellogg, very little has been published from the christian standpoint.[2] the term "heathenism" has been used as an expression of contempt, and has been applied with too little discrimination. there is a reason, perhaps, why these systems have been underestimated. it so happened that the races among whom the modern missionary enterprise has carried on its earlier work were mostly simple types of pagans, found in the wilds of america, in greenland and labrador, in the west indies, on the african coast, or in the islands of the pacific; and these worshippers of nature or of spirits gave a very different impression from that which the apostles and the early church gained from their intercourse with the conquering romans or the polished and philosophic greeks. our missionary work has been symbolized, as sir william w. hunter puts it, by a band of half-naked savages listening to a missionary seated under a palm-tree, and receiving his message with child-like and unquestioning faith. but in the opening of free access to the great asiatic nations, higher grades of men have been found, and with these we now have chiefly to do. the pioneer of india's missions, the devoted ziegenbalg, had not been long in his field before he learned the mistake which the churches in europe had made in regard to the religion and philosophy of the hindus. he laid aside all his old notions when he came to encounter the metaphysical subtleties of hindu thought, when he learned something of the immense hindu literature, the voluminous ethics, the mystical and weird mythologies, the tremendous power of tradition and social customs--when, in short, he found his way hedged up by habits of thought wholly different from his own; and he resolved to know something of the religion which the people of india already possessed. for the benefit of others who might follow him he wrote a book on hinduism and its relations to christianity, and sent it to europe for publication. but so strong were the preconceived notions which prevailed among his brethren at home, that his manuscript, instead of being published, was suppressed. "you were not sent to india to study hinduism," wrote franke, "but to preach the gospel." but ziegenbalg certainly was not wanting in his estimate of the chief end in view, and his success was undoubtedly far greater for the intelligent plan upon which he labored. the time came when a change had passed over the society which had sent him forth. others, less friendly than he to the gospel of christ, had studied hinduism, and had paraded it as a rival of christianity; and in self-defence against this flank movement, the long-neglected work of ziegenbalg was brought forth from obscurity and published. it is partly in self-defence against similar influences, that the christian church everywhere is now turning increased attention to the study of comparative religion. in great britain a wider interest has been felt in the subject than in this country. and yet, even there the church has been far behind the enemies of evangelical truth in comparing christianity with false systems. dr. james stalker, of glasgow, said a few months since that, whereas it might be expected that the advocates of the true faith would be the first to compare and contrast it with the false systems of the world, the work had been left rather to those who were chiefly interested in disparaging the truth and exalting error. yet something has been done. such men as sir monier williams, sir william muir, professors rawlinson, fairbairn, and legge, bishop carpenter, canon hardwick, doctors caird, dodds, mitchell, and others, have given the false systems of the east a thorough and candid treatment from the christian standpoint. the church missionary society holds a lectureship devoted to the study of the non-christian religions as a preparation for missionary work. and the representatives of that society in the punjab have instituted a course of study on these lines for missionaries recently arrived, and have offered prizes for the best attainments therein. though we are later in this field of investigation, yet here also there is springing up a new interest, and it is safe to predict that within another decade the real character of the false religions will be more generally understood. the prejudice which has existed in regard to this subject has taken two different forms: first, there has been the broad assumption upon which franke wrote to ziegenbalg, that all knowledge of heathenism is worse than useless. good men are asking, "is not such a study a waste of energy, when we are charged with proclaiming the only saving truth? is not downright earnestness better than any possible knowledge of philosophies and superstitions?" and we answer, "yes: by all means, if only the one is possible." another view of the subject is more serious. may there not, after all, be danger in the study of false systems? will there not be found perplexing parallels which will shake our trust in the positive and exclusive supremacy of the christian faith? now, even if there were at first some risks to a simple, child-like confidence, yet a timid attitude involves far greater risks: it amounts to a half surrender, and it is wholly out of place in this age of fearless and aggressive discussion, when all truth is challenged, and every form of error must be met. moreover, in a thorough study there is no danger. sir monier williams tells us that at first he was surprised and a little troubled, but in the end he was more than ever impressed with the transcendent truths of the christian faith. professor s.h. kellogg assures us that the result of his careful researches in the oriental systems is a profounder conviction of the great truths of the gospel as divine. and even max müller testifies that, while making every allowance for whatever is good in the ethnic faiths, he has been the more fully convinced of the great superiority of christianity. really, those are in danger who receive only the superficial and misleading representations of heathenism which one is sure to meet in our magazine literature, or in works like "robert elsmere" and "the light of asia." one cannot fail to mark the different light in which we view the mythologies of the greeks and romans. if their religious beliefs and speculations had remained a secret until our time, if the high ethical precepts of seneca and marcus aurelius had only now been proclaimed, and socrates had just been celebrated in glowing verse as the "light of greece," there would be no little commotion in the religious world, and thousands with only weak and troubled faith might be disturbed. but simply because we thoroughly understand the mythology of greece and rome, we have no fear. we welcome all that it can teach us. we cordially acknowledge the virtues of socrates and assign him his true place. we enrich the fancy and awaken the intellectual energies of our youth by classical studies, and christianity shines forth with new lustre by contrast with the heathen systems which it encountered in the roman empire ages ago. and yet that was no easy conquest. the early church, when brought face to face with the culture of greece and the self-assertion of roman power, when confronted with profound philosophies like those of plato and aristotle, with the subtleties of the stoics, and with countless admixtures of persian mysticism, had, humanly speaking, quite as formidable a task as those that are presented in the heathen systems of to-day. very few of the champions of modern heathenism can compare with celsus, and there are no more subtle philosophies than those of ancient greece. evidently, the one thing needed to disenchant the false systems of our time is a clear and accurate knowledge of their merits and demerits, and of their true relation to christianity. it will be of advantage, for one thing, if we learn to give credit to the non-christian religions for the good which they may fairly claim. there has existed a feeling that they had no rights which christian men were bound to respect. they have been looked upon as systems of unmixed evil, whose enormities it were impossible to exaggerate. and all such misconceptions and exaggerations have only led to serious reactions. anti-christian writers have made great capital of the alleged misrepresentations which zealous friends of missions have put upon heathenism; and there is always great force in any appeal for fair play, on whichever side the truth may lie. where the popular christian idea has presented a low view of some system, scarcely rising above the grade of fetichism, the apologists have triumphantly displayed a profound philosophy. where the masses of christian people have credited whole nations with no higher notions of worship than a supreme trust in senseless stocks and stones, some skilful defender has claimed that the idols were only the outward symbols of an indwelling conception of deity, and has proceeded with keen relish to point out a similar use of symbols in the pictures and images of the christian church. from one extreme many people have passed to another, and in the end have credited heathen systems with greater merit than they possess. a marked illustration of this fact is found in the influence which was produced by sir edwin arnold's "light of asia." sentimental readers, passing from surprise to credulity, were ready to invest the "gentle indian saint" with christian conceptions which no real buddhist ever thought of. mr. arnold himself is said to have expressed surprise that people should have given to his poem so serious an interpretation, or should have imagined for a moment that he intended to compare buddhism with the higher and purer teachings of the new testament. in considering some of the reasons which may be urged for the study of false systems, we will first proceed from the standpoint of the candidate for the work of missions. and here there is a broad and general reason which seems too obvious to require much argument. the skilful general or the civil engineer is supposed, of course, to survey the field of contemplated operations ere he enters upon his work. the late dr. duff, in urging the importance of a thorough understanding of the systems which a missionary expects to encounter, illustrated his point by a reference to the great akbar, who before entering upon the conquest of india, twice visited the country in disguise, that he might gain a complete knowledge of its topography, its strongholds, and its points of weakness, and the best methods of attack. while all religious teachers must understand their tasks, the need of special preparation is particularly urgent in the foreign missionary, owing to his change of environment. many ideas and methods to which he has been trained, and which would serve him well among a people of his own race, might be wholly out of place in india or china, ram chandra bose, m.a.--himself a converted brahman--has treated with great discrimination the argument frequently used, that the missionary "need only to proclaim the glad tidings." he says: "that the simple story of christ and him crucified is, after all, the truth on which the regeneration of the christian and the non-christian lands must hang, no one will deny. this story, ever fresh, is inherently fitted to touch the dead heart into life, and to infuse vitality into effete nationalities and dead civilizations. but a great deal of rubbish has to be removed in heathen lands, ere its legitimate consequences can be realized. and a patient, persistent study of the false religions, and the complicated systems of philosophy associated with them, enables the missionary to throw out of the way those heaps of prejudices and errors which make it impossible for the story of the cross to reach and influence the heart."[3] it has been very wisely said that "any fragment of truth which lies in a heathen mind unacknowledged is an insuperable barrier against conviction: recognized and used, it might prove a help; neglected and ignored, it is insurmountable."[4] the late dr. mullens learned by careful observation, that the intellectual power of the hindus had been so warped by false reasoning, that "they could scarcely understand how, when two principles are contradictory, one must be given up as false. they are prepared to receive both sides of a contradiction as true, and they feel at liberty to adopt that which seems the most comfortable. and nothing but a full exposure of evil, with a clear statement of the antagonistic truth, will suffice to awaken so perverted an intellect."[5] the missionary has often been surprised to find that the idea which he supposed was clearly understood, was wholly warped by the medium of hindu thought, as a rod is apparently warped when plunged into a stream, or as a beautiful countenance is distorted by the waves and irregularities of an imperfect mirror. to the preacher, sin, for example, is an enormity in the sight of god; but to his hindu listener it may be only a breach of custom, or a ceremonial uncleanness. the indwelling of the holy spirit, as it is set forth in paul's epistles, is to the missionary a union in which his personality is still maintained in blest fellowship with god, while to his audience it may be only that out and out pantheism in which the deity within us supplants all individual personality, and not only excludes all joy, but all responsibility. professor w.g.t. shedd has clearly pointed out the fact that the modern missionary has a harder task in dealing with the perversions of the heathen mind than that to which the apostles of the early church were called, owing to the prevalence in india and elsewhere of that pantheism which destroys the sense of moral responsibility. he says: "the greek and roman theism left the human will free and responsible, and thus the doctrine of sin could be taught. but the pantheistic systems of the east destroy free will, by identifying god and man; and hence it is impossible to construct the doctrine of sin and atonement except by first refuting the pantheistic ethics. the missionary can get no help from _conscience_ in his preaching, when this theory of god and the world has the ground. but st. paul appealed confidently 'to every man's conscience in the sight of god,' and called upon the ethics and theology of the greek and roman philosophers for a corroboration. the early apologists, tertullian and others, did the same thing." the testimonies which have been given within the last few years, by the most intelligent and observing missionaries in eastern lands, are of such peculiar significance and force, that i shall be justified in quoting a few at some length. rev. george william knox, d.d., of tokio, japan, in accepting an election to an honorary membership of the american society of comparative religion, wrote, december 17, 1890: "i am deeply in sympathy with the objects of the society, as indeed every missionary must be. we have practical demonstrations of the value of research into the ethnic religions. even at home the value of such research has already been great, but in these non-christian lands it is indispensable. it is true that non-christian systems, as found among the people, rarely exhibit the forms or the doctrines which we learn from books, but i presume the same would be said by an intelligent asiatic, were he to study our sacred books and then compare results with much of the religion which calls itself christian in the west. and yet for the study even of the most debased forms of christianity in south america or mexico, let us say, we must needs begin with our sacred books. and so it is with debased buddhism in japan. the buddhism of ceylon and of the books is unknown to this people, and when it is used as the basis of argument or exposition we do not hit the mark. yet, after all, our debt is immeasurable to the societies and scholars that have made accessible the sources that have yielded at last such systems as are dominant here. "the study of non-christian systems is essential to the missionary, even though he does not refer to them in his preaching, but contents himself with delivering the gospel message. and that is the rule with missionaries, so far as i know. but a knowledge of the native systems is imperative, that we may properly present our own. otherwise we waste time in teaching over again that which is already fully known, or we so speak that our truth takes on the form of error, or we so underestimate the thought of those whom we address, that the preaching of the wisdom of god sounds in their ears the preaching of foolishness. the adaptation of preaching to the hearers of asiatic lands is a task that may well make us thankful for every help that may be furnished us.... the missionary is far too apt to come from the west with exalted notions of his own superiority, and with a feeling of condescending pity for men who, perhaps, have pondered the deep things of the universe far more than he. let him really master a philosophy like the confucian, and he will better illustrate the christian grace of humility, and be so much the better prepared for his work. his study will show him how astonishing is the light that has shone upon those men whom he has thought of as wholly in darkness. it will thus show him the true way of approach, and enable him to follow the lines of least resistance. it will also reveal to him what is the essential character of the divine message which he himself bears. he will separate that peculiar and spiritual truth which is the word of life, and will bring it as glad tidings of great joy. surely no man can study these ethnic faiths, no matter with what appreciation of their measure of truth, and rejoicing in it, without a constantly growing conviction that the one power that converts men and establishes god's kingdom on earth is the word that is eternal, the son of god. he gathers in himself all the truth of all the religions, and he adds that divine salvation and life for which all the nations have waited, and without which the highest and deepest thought remains unable to bring men into living communion with the god and father of us all." rev. martyn clark, d.d., missionary of the church missionary society at umritsur, india, has given thorough study to the sanscrit, and has thereby been enabled to expose the fallacies and misrepresentations which the arya somaj, in its bitter controversy with the gospel, has put forth as to the real character of the vedic literature. no man is better able to judge of the importance of a correct understanding of the errors of the non-christian systems than he. in a letter accepting an honorary membership of the above-named society he says: "the object of the society is one in which i am deeply interested, and i shall at all times do what i can to further its aims. i am convinced that there is much that is helpful to the cause of christ to be learned in this field of research." rev. h. blodgett, d.d., veteran missionary of the american board in peking, in accepting a similar honor, says: "my interest in these studies has been deep and growing. it is high time that such a society as you represent should be formed. the study of comparative religion has long enough been in the hands of those who hold all religions to be the outcome of the natural powers of the human mind, unaided by a revelation from god. it is time that those who believe in the revelation from god in the old testament, and in the new testament founded upon the old, should study the great ethnic religions in the light derived from the bible." rev. james s. dennis, d.d., long a missionary of the presbyterian mission in beyrout, syria, says in the same connection: "the great missionary movement of our age has brought us face to face with problems and conflicts which are far more deep and serious than those which confront evangelistic efforts in our own land, and it is of the highest importance that the church at home should know as fully as possible the peculiar and profound difficulties of work in foreign fields. these ancient religions of the east are behind intrenchments, and they are prepared to make a desperate resistance. those who have never come into close contact with their adherents, and discovered by experience the difficulty of dislodging them and convincing them of the truth of the gospel, may very properly misunderstand the work of the foreign missionary and wonder at his apparent failure, or at least his slow progress. but i wonder at the success attained in the foreign field, and consider it far more glorious and remarkable than it is generally accounted to be. a fuller acquaintance with the strength, and resources, and local éclat, and worldly advantages of these false religions, will give the church at home greater patience and faith in the great work of evangelizing the nations."[6] a specific reason for the study of the non-christian religions is found in the changes which our intercourse with eastern nations has already wrought. with our present means of intercommunication we are brought face to face with them, and the contact of our higher vitality has aroused them from the comparative slumber of ages. even our missionary efforts have given new vigor to the resistance which must be encountered. we have trained up a generation of men to a higher intellectual activity, and to a more earnest spirit of inquiry, and they are by no means all won over to the christian faith. and there are thousands in india whom a government education has left with no real faith of any kind, but whose pride of race and venerable customs is raised to a higher degree than ever. they have learned something of christianity; they have also studied their own national systems; they have become especially familiar with all that our own sceptics have written against christianity; still further, they have added to their intellectual equipment all that western apologists have said of the superiority of the oriental faiths. they are thus armed at every point, and they are using our own english tongue and all our facilities for publication. how is the young missionary, who knows nothing of their systems or the real points of comparison, to deal with such men? it is very true that not all ranks of hindus are educated; there are millions who know nothing of any religion beyond the lowest forms of superstition, and to these we owe the duty of a simple and plain presentation of christ and him crucified; but in every community where the missionary is likely to live there are men of the higher class just named; and besides, professional critics and opposers are now employed to harass the bazaar preacher with perplexing questions, which are soon heard from the lips of the common people. a young missionary recently wrote of the surprise which he felt when a low caste man, almost without clothing, met him with arguments from professor huxley. missionary boards have sometimes sent out a specialist, and in some sense a champion, who should deal with the more intelligent classes of the heathen. but such a plan is fraught with disadvantages. what is needed is a thorough preparation in all missionaries, and that involves an indispensable knowledge of the forces to be met. the power of the press is no longer a monopoly of christian lands. the arya somaj, of india, is now using it, both in the vernacular and in the english, in its bitter and often scurrilous attacks. one of its tracts recently sent to me contained an english epitome of the arguments of thomas paine. the secular papers of japan present in almost every issue some discussion on the comparative merits of christianity, buddhism, evolution, and theosophy, and many of the young native ministry who at first received the truth unquestioningly as a child receives it from his mother, are now calling for men whom they can follow as leaders in their struggle with manifold error.[7] even mohammedans are at last employing the press instead of the sword. newspapers in constantinople are exhorting the faithful to send forth missionaries to "fortify africa against the whiskey and gunpowder of christian commerce, by proclaiming the higher ethical principles of the koran." great institutions of learning are also maintained as the special propaganda of the oriental religions. el azar, established at cairo centuries ago, now numbers ten thousand students, and these when trained go forth to all arabic speaking countries.[8] the sanskrit colleges and monasteries of benares number scarcely less than four thousand students,[9] who are being trained in the sankhyan or the vedanta philosophy, that they may go back to their different provinces and maintain with new vigor the old faiths against the aggressions of christianity. and in kioto, the great religious centre of japan, we find over against the christian college of the american board of missions, a buddhist university with a japanese graduate of oxford as its president. in a great school at tokio, also, buddhist teachers, aided by new england unitarians, are maintaining the superiority of buddhism over western christianity as a religion for japan.[10] another reason why the missionary should study the false systems is found in the greatly diversified forms which these systems present in different lands and different ages. and just here it will be seen that a partial knowledge will not meet the demand. it might be even misleading. buddhism, for example, has assumed an endless variety of forms--now appearing as a system of the baldest atheism, and now presenting an approximate theism. gautama was certainly atheistic, and he virtually denied the existence of the human soul. but in the northern development of his system, theistic conceptions sprang up. a sort of trinity had appeared by the seventh century a.d., and by the tenth century a supreme and celestial buddha had been discovered, from whom all other buddhas were emanations. to-day there are at least twelve buddhist sects in japan, of which some are mystical, others pantheistic, while two hold a veritable doctrine of salvation by faith.[11] china has several types of buddhism, and mongolia, thibet, nepaul, ceylon, burmah, and siam present each some special features of the system. how important that one should understand these differences in order to avoid blundering, and to wisely adapt his efforts! in india, under the common generic name of hinduism, there are also many sects: worshippers of vishnu, worshippers of siva, worshippers of krishna. there are sikhs, and jains, and devil worshippers; among the dravidian and other pre-aryan tribes there are victims of every conceivable superstition. now, a missionary must know something of these faiths if he would fight with "weapons of precision." paul, in becoming all things to all men, knew at least the differences between them. he preached the gospel with a studied adaptation. he tells us that he so strove as to win, and "not as those who beat the air." how alert were the combatants in the arena from which his simile is borrowed! how closely each athlete scanned his man, watched his every motion, knew if possible his every thought and impulse! much more, in winning the souls of darkened and misguided men, should we learn the inmost workings of their minds, their habits of thought, and the nature of the errors which are to be dislodged. but how shall the false systems of religions be studied? first, there should be a spirit of entire candor. truth is to be sought always, and at any cost; but in this case there is everything to be gained and nothing to be lost by the christian teacher, and he can well afford to be just. our divine exemplar never hesitated to acknowledge that which was good in men of whatever nationality or creed. he could appreciate the faith of roman or syro-phoenician. he could see merit in a samaritan as well as in a jew, and could raise even a penitent publican to the place of honor. it was only the pharisees who hesitated to admit the truth, until they could calculate the probable effect of their admissions. the very best experience of missionaries has been found in the line of christ's example. "the surest way to bring a man to acknowledge his errors," says bishop bloomfield, "is to give him full credit for whatever he had learned of the truth."[12] "what should we think," says a keen observer of the work of missions--"what should we think of an engineer who, in attempting to rear a light-house on a sandbar, should fail to acknowledge as a godsend any chance outcropping of solid rock to which he might fasten his stays?"[13] but in urging the duty of candor, i assume that an absolute freedom from bias is impossible on either side. it is sometimes amusing to witness the assurance with which professed agnostics assume that they, and they alone, look upon questions of comparative religion with an unbiased and judicial mind. they have no belief, they say, in any religion, and are therefore entirely without prejudice. but are they? has the man who has forsaken the faith of his fathers and is deeply sensible of an antagonism between him and the great majority of those about him--has he no interest in trying to substantiate his position, and justify his hostility to the popular faith? of all men he is generally the most prejudiced and the most bitter. we freely admit that we set out with a decided preference for one religious system above all others, but we insist that candor is possible, though an absolutely indifferent judgment is out of the question. paul, who quoted to the athenians their own poet, was fair-minded, and yet no man ever arraigned heathenism so terribly as he, and none was so intensely interested in the faith which he preached. archbishop trench, in discussing the exaggerations from which a careful study of the oriental religions would doubtless save us, says, "there is one against which we are almost unwilling to say a word. i mean the exaggeration of those who, in a deep devotion to the truth as it is in christ jesus, count themselves bound, by their allegiance to him, to take up a hostile attitude to everything not distinctly and avowedly christian, as though any other position were a treachery to his cause, and a surrender of his exclusive right to the authorship of all the good which is in the world. in this temper we may dwell only on the guilt and misery and defilements, the wounds and bruises and putrefying sores of the heathen world; or if aught better is brought under our eye, we may look askant and suspiciously upon it, as though all recognition of it were a disparagement of something better. and so we may come to regard the fairest deeds of unbaptized men as only more splendid sins. we may have a short but decisive formula by which to try and by which to condemn them. these deeds, we may say, were not of faith, and therefore they could not please god; the men that wrought them knew not christ, and therefore their work was worthless--hay, straw, and stubble, to be utterly burned up in the day of the trial of every man's work. "yet there is indeed a certain narrowness of view, out of which alone the language of so sweeping a condemnation could proceed. our allegiance to christ, as the one fountain of light and life for the world, demands that we affirm none to be good but him, allow no goodness save that which has proceeded from him; but it does not demand that we deny goodness, because of the place where we find it, because we meet it, a garden tree, in the wilderness. it only requires that we claim this for him who planted, and was willing that it should grow there; whom it would itself have gladly owned as its author, if, belonging to a happier time, it could have known him by his name, whom in part it knew by his power. "we do not make much of a light of nature when we admit a righteousness in those to whom in the days of their flesh the gospel had not come. we only affirm that the word, though not as yet dwelling among us, yet being the 'light which lighteth every man that cometh into the world,' had also lighted them. some glimpses of his beams gilded their countenances, and gave to these whatever brightness they wore; and in recognizing this brightness we are ascribing honor to him, and not to them; glorifying the grace of god, and not the virtues of man."[14] in marked contrast with this, and tending to an extreme, is the following, from the pen of bishop beveridge. it is quoted by max müller, in the opening volume of "the sacred books of the east," as a model of candor. "the general inclinations which are naturally implanted in my soul to some religion, it is impossible for me to shift off; but there being such a multiplicity of religions in the world, i desire now seriously to consider with myself which of them all to restrain these my general inclinations to. and the reason of this my inquiry is not, that i am in the least dissatisfied with that religion i have already embraced; but because 'tis natural for all men to have an overbearing opinion and esteem for that particular religion they are born and bred-up in. that, therefore, i may not seem biased by the prejudice of education, i am resolved to prove and examine them all; that i may see and hold fast to that which is best.... indeed, there was never any religion so barbarous and diabolical, but it was preferred above all other religions whatsoever by them that did profess it; otherwise they would not have professed it.... and why, say they, may you not be mistaken as well as we? especially when there are, at least, six to one against your christian religion; all of which think they serve god aright; and expect happiness thereby as well as you.... and hence it is that in my looking out for the truest religion, being conscious to myself how great an ascendancy christianity holds over me beyond the rest, as being that religion whereunto i was born and baptized; that the supreme authority has enjoined and my parents educated me in; that which everyone i meet withal highly approves of, and which i myself have, by a long-continued profession, made almost natural to me; i am resolved to be more jealous and suspicious of this religion than of the rest, and be sure not to entertain it any longer without being convinced by solid and substantial arguments of the truth and certainty of it. that, therefore, i may make diligent and impartial inquiry into all religions and so be sure to find out the best, i shall for a time look upon myself as one not at all interested in any particular religion whatsoever, much less in the christian religion; but only as one who desires, in general, to serve and obey him that made me in a right manner, and thereby to be made partaker of that happiness my nature is capable of."[15] second, in studying the false systems it is important to distinguish between religion and ethics. in the sphere of ethics the different faiths of men may find much common ground, while in their religious elements they may be entirely true or utterly false. the teachings of confucius, though agnostic, presented a moral code which places the relations of the family and state on a very firm basis. and the very highest precepts of buddhism belong to the period in which it was virtually atheistic. many great and noble truths have been revealed to mankind through the conscience and the understanding, and these truths have found expression in the proverbs or ethical maxims of all races. to this extent god has nowhere left himself without witness. but all this is quite apart from a divinely revealed religion which may be cherished or be wholly lost. the golden rule is found not only in the new testament, but negatively at least in the confucian classics;[16] and the shastras of the hindus present it in both the positive and the negative form. and the still higher grace of doing good to those who injure us, was proclaimed by laotze, five hundred years before christ preached the sermon on the mount. the immense superiority of the ethical standard in christianity, lies in its harmony and completeness. confucius taught the active virtues of life, laotze those of a passive kind; christianity inculcates both. in heathenism ethical truths exist in fragments--mere half truths, like the broken and scattered remains of a temple once beautiful but now destroyed. they hold no relation to any high religious purpose, because they have no intelligent relation to god. christian ethics begin with our relations to god as supreme, and they embrace the present life and the world to come. the symmetry of the divine precept, "thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy heart, and thy neighbor as thyself," finds no counterpart in the false religions of the world. nowhere else, not even in buddhism, is found the perfect law of love. the great secret of power in christianity is god's unspeakable love to men in christ; and the reflex of that love is the highest and purest ever realized in human hearts. thirdly, the false systems should be studied by the christian missionary, not for their own sakes so much as for an ulterior purpose, and they should be studied in constant comparison with the religion which it is his business to proclaim. his aim is not that of a savant. let us not disguise it: he is mainly endeavoring to gain a more thorough preparation for his own great work. the professional scholar at oxford or leipsic might condemn this acknowledged bias--this pursuit of truth as a means and not as an end--but if he would be entirely frank, he would often find himself working in the interest of a linguistic theory, or a pet hypothesis of social science. it was in this spirit that spencer and darwin have searched the world for facts to support their systems.[17] i repeat, it is enough for the missionary that he shall be thoroughly candid. he may exercise the burning zeal of paul for the gospel which he proclaims, if he will also exercise his clear discrimination, his scrupulous fairness, his courtesy, and his tact. let him not forget that he is studying religions comparatively; he should proceed with the bible in one hand, and should examine the true and the false together. contrasts will appear step by step as he advances, and the great truths of christianity will stand out in brighter radiance, for the shadows of the background. if the question be asked, when and where shall the missionary candidate study the false systems, i answer at once; before he leaves his native land; and i assign three principal reasons. first: the study of a new and difficult language should engross his attention when he reaches his field. this will prove one of the most formidable tasks of his life, and it will demand resolute, concentrated, and prolonged effort. second: in gaining access to the people, studying their ways and winning their confidence, the missionary will find great advantage in having gained some previous knowledge of their habits of thought and the intricacies of their beliefs. third: the means and appliances of study are far greater here at home than on the mission fields. a very serious difficulty with most missionaries is the want of books on special topics; they have no access to libraries, and if one has imagined that he can best understand the faiths of the people by personal contact with them, he will soon learn with surprise how little he can gain from them, and how little they themselves know of their own systems. those who do know have learned for the purpose of baffling the missionary instead of helping him. the accumulation and the arrangement of anything like a systematic knowledge of heathen systems has cost the combined effort of many missionaries and many oriental scholars; and now, after three generations have pursued these studies, it is still felt that very much is to be learned from literatures yet to be translated. such as there are, are best found in the home libraries. let us for a few moments consider the question how far those who are not to become missionaries may be profited by a study of false systems. to a large extent, the considerations already urged will apply to them also, but there are still others which are specially important to public teachers here at home. dean murray, in an able article published in the "homiletic review" of september, 1890, recommended to active and careworn pastors a continued study of the greek classics, as calculated to refresh and invigorate the mind, and increase its capacity for the duties of whatever sphere. all that he said of the greek may also be said of the hindu classics, with the added consideration that in the latter we are dealing with the living issues of the day. sir monier williams, in comparing the two great epics of the hindus with those of homer, names many points of superiority in the former.[18] it is safe to say that no poems of any other land have ever exercised so great a spell over so many millions of mankind as the ramayana and the mahabharata, of india, and no other production is listened to with such delight as the story of rama as it is still publicly read at the hindu festivals. of philosophies, no system of india has approached so near to veritable divine revelation as that of plato, but in variety and subtlety, and in their far-reaching influence upon human life, the indian schools, especially the vedanta, are scarcely excelled to this day. and they are _applied_ philosophies; they constitute the religion of the people. max müller has said truly that no other line of investigation is so fascinating as that which deals with the long and universal struggle of mankind to find out god, and to solve the mystery of their relations to him. unfortunately, human history has dealt mainly with wars and intrigues, and the rise and fall of dynasties; but compared with these coarse and superficial elements, how much more interesting and instructive to trace in all races of men the common and ceaseless yearnings after some solution of life's mysteries! one is stirred with a deeper, broader sympathy for mankind when he witnesses this universal sense of dependence, this fear and trembling before the powers of an unseen world, this pitiful procession of unblest millions ever trooping on toward the goal of death and oblivion. and from this standpoint, as from no other, may one measure the greatness and glory of the gospel of jesus christ. to my mind there is nothing more pathetic than the spectacle of world-wide fetichism. it is not to be contemplated with derision, but with profoundest sympathy. we all remember the pathos of scott's picture of his highland heroine, with brain disordered by unspeakable grief, beguiling her woes with childish ornaments of "gaudy broom" and plumes from the eagle's wing. but sadder far is the spectacle of millions of men made for fellowship with god, building their hopes on the divinity dwelling in an amulet of tiger's teeth or serpent's fangs or curious shells. and it ought to enlarge our natures with a christ-like sympathy when we contemplate those dark and desperate faiths which are but nightmares of the soul, which see in all the universe only malevolent spirits to be appeased, which, looking heavenward for a father's face, see, as richter expressed it, "only a death's head with bottomless, empty sockets" instead of a loving smile.[19] and what a field do the greater but equally false systems present for the study of the human mind and heart! how was it that the simple nature worship of the indo-aryans grew into the vast deposit of modern hinduism, and developed those social customs which have become walls of adamant? how could buddhism grow out of such a soil and finally cast its spell over so many peoples? what were the elements of power which enabled the great sage of china to rear a social and political fabric which has survived for so many centuries? how was it that islam gained its conquests, and what is the secret of that dominion which it still holds? these surely are questions worthy of those who are called to deal with human thought and human destiny. and when by comparison we find the grand differentials which raise christianity infinitely above them all, we shall have gained the power of presenting its truths more clearly and more convincingly to the minds and hearts of men. there are some specific advantages flowing from the study of other religions of which i will give little more than an enumeration. 1. it impresses us with the universality of some more or less distinct conception of god. i am aware that from time to time explorers imagine that they have found a race of men who have no notion of god, but in almost every instance subsequent investigation has found a religious belief. such mistakes were made concerning the aborigines of australia, the dyaks of borneo, the papuans, the patagonians, and even the american indians. the unity of the race finds a new and striking proof in the universality of religion. 2. the study of false systems brings to light an almost unanimous testimony for the existence of a vague primeval monotheism, and thus affords a strong presumptive corroboration of the scriptural doctrine of man's apostasy from the worship of the true god. 3. the clearest vindication of the severities of the old testament theocracy, in its wars of extermination against the canaanites and phoenicians, is to be found in a careful study of the foul and cruel types of heathenism which those nations carried with them wherever their colonies extended. a religion which enjoined universal prostitution, and led thus to sodomy and the burning of young children in the fires of moloch, far exceeded the worst heathenism of africa or the islands of the pacific. the phoenician settlements on the mediterranean have not even yet recovered from the moral blight of that religion; and had such a cultus been allowed to spread over all europe and the world, not even a second deluge could have cleansed the earth of its defilement. the extermination of the canaanites, when considered as a part of one great scheme for establishing in that same palestine a purer and nobler faith, and sending forth thence, not phoenician corruption, but the gospel of peace to all lands, becomes a work of mercy to the human race. 4. the ethics of the heathen will be found to vindicate the doctrines of the bible. this is a point which should be more thoroughly understood. it has been common to parade the high moral maxims of heathen systems as proofs against the exclusive claims of christianity. but when carefully considered, the lofty ethical truths found in all sacred books and traditions, corroborate the doctrines of the scriptures. they condemn the nations "who hold the truth in unrighteousness." they enforce the great doctrine that by their own consciences all mankind are convicted of sin, and are in need of a vicarious righteousness,--a full and free salvation by a divine power. my own experience has been, and it is corroborated by that of many others, that very many truths of the gospel, when seen from the stand-point of heathenism, stand out with a clearness never seen before. many prudential reasons like those which we have given for the study of false systems by missionaries, pertain also to those who remain at home. both are concerned in the same cause, and both encounter the same assailments of our common faith. we are all missionaries in an important sense: we watch the conflict from afar, but we are concerned in all its issues. the bulletins of its battle-fields are no longer confined to missionary literature; they are found in the daily secular press, and they are discussed with favorable or unfavorable comments in the monthly magazines. the missionary enterprise has come to attract great attention: it has many friends, and also many foes, here at home; it is misrepresented by scoffers at our doors. the high merits of heathen systems, set forth with every degree of exaggeration, pass into the hands of christian families, in books and magazines and secular papers. apostles of infidelity are sent out to heathen countries to gather weapons against the truth. natives of various oriental lands, once taught in our mission schools perhaps, but still heathen, are paraded on our lecture platforms, where they entertain us with english and american arguments in support of their heathen systems and against christianity. young pastors, in the literary clubs of their various communities, are surprised by being called to discuss plausible papers on buddhism, which some fellow-member has contributed, and they are expected to defend the truth. or some young parishioner has been fascinated by a plausible theosophist, or has learned from robert elsmere that there are other religions quite as pure and sacred as our own. or some chance lecturer has disturbed the community with a discourse on the history of religious myths. and when some anxious member of a church learns that his religious instructor has no help for him on such subjects, that they lie wholly outside of his range, there is apt to be something more than disappointment: there is a loss of confidence. it is an unfortunate element in the case that error is more welcome in some of our professedly neutral papers than the truth: an article designed to show that christianity was borrowed from buddhism or was developed from fetichism will sometimes be welcomed as new sensation, while a reply of half the length may be rejected. there is something ominous in these facts. whether the secular press (not all papers are thus unfair) are influenced by partisan hatred of the truth or simply by a reckless regard for whatever is most popular, the facts are equally portentous. and if it be true that such publications are what the people most desire, the outlook for our country is dark indeed. the saddest consideration is that the power of the secular press is so vast and far reaching. when celsus wrote, books were few. when voltaire, hume, and thomas paine made their assailments on the christian faith, the means of spreading the blight of error were comparatively few. but now the accumulated arguments of german infidels for the last half-century may be thrown into a five-cent sunday paper, whose issue will reach a quarter of a million of copies, which perhaps a million of men and women may read. these articles are copied into a hundred other papers, and they are read in the villages and hamlets; they are read on the ranches and in the mining camps where no sermon is ever heard. it is perfectly evident that in an age like this we cannot propagate christianity under glass. it must grow in the open field where the free winds of heaven shall smite and dissipate every cloud of error that may pass over it, and where its roots shall only strike the deeper for the questionings and conflicts that may often befall it. error cannot be overcome either by ignoring it or by the cheap but imbecile scolding of an ignorant pulpit. i cannot express the truth on this point more forcibly than by quoting the trenchant words of professor ernest naville, in his lectures on "modern atheism." after having admitted that one, who can keep himself far from the strifes and struggles of modern thought, will find solitude, prayer, and calm activity, pursued under the guidance of conscience, most conducive to unquestioning faith and religious peace, he says: "but we are not masters of our own ways, and the circumstances of the present times impose on us special duties. the barriers which separate the school and the world are everywhere thrown down; everywhere shreds of philosophy, and very often of very bad philosophy, scattered fragments of theological science, and very often of a deplorable theological science, are insinuating themselves into the current literature. there is not a literary review, there is scarcely a political journal, which does not speak on occasion, or without occasion, of the problems relating to our eternal interests. the most sacred beliefs are attacked every day in the organs of public opinion. at such a juncture can men, who preserve faith in their own souls, remain like dumb dogs, or keep themselves shut up in the narrow limits of the schools? assuredly not. we must descend to the common ground and fight with equal weapons the great battles of thought. for this purpose it is necessary to state questions which run the risk of startling sincerely religious persons. but there is no help for it if we are to combat the adversaries on their own ground; and because it is thus only that we can prove to all that the torrent of negations is but a passing rush of waters, which, fret as they may in their channels, shall be found to have left not so much as a trace of their passage upon the rock of ages." the fact that professor naville's lectures were delivered in geneva and lausanne, to audiences which together numbered over two thousand five hundred people, affords abundant proof that the people are prepared to welcome the relief afforded by a clear and really able discussion of these burning questions. in the ordinary teaching of the pulpit they would be out of place, but every public teacher should be able to deal with them on suitable occasions. in a single concluding word, the struggle of truth and error has become world-wide. there are no ethnic religions now. there is christianity in calcutta, and there is buddhism in boston. the line of battle is the parallel that belts the globe. it is not a time for slumber or for mere pious denunciation. there must be no blundering: the warfare must be waged with weapons of precision, and then victory is sure. it is well if our missionary effort of a century has drawn the fire of the enemy; it is well if the time has come to hold up the truth face to face with error, and to fight out and over again the conflict of elijah and the priests of baal. footnotes: [footnote 1: _the light of asia and the light of the world_. macmillan & co.] [footnote 2: the late professor moffat, of princeton theological seminary, published a _comparative history of religions_, but its field was too broad for a thorough treatment.] [footnote 3: _methodist quarterly_.] [footnote 4: quoted in _manual of india missions_.] [footnote 5: _manual of india missions._] [footnote 6: similar views, though in briefer terms, have been presented by rev. william a.p. martin, d.d., of peking; rev. john l. nevins, d.d., of chefou; rev. a.p. happer, d.d., and rev. b.c. henry, d.d., of canton; professor john wortabet, m.d., of beyrout; rev. jacob chamberlain, d.d., missionary of the reformed church in madras; rev. z.j. jones, d.d., missionary of the american m.e. church at bareilly, india; rev. k.c. chattergee and ram chandra bose, both converts from high caste hinduism and both eminent ministers of the gospel in india; and rev. e.w. blyden, d.d., the accomplished african scholar of liberia.] [footnote 7: the _japan mail_ of september 30, 1891, in reviewing the progress of religious and philosophic discussion as carried on by the native press of the empire, says: "the buddhist literature of the season shows plainly the extent to which the educated members of the (buddhist) priesthood are seeking to enlarge their grasp by contact with western philosophy and religious thought. we happen to know that a prominent priest of the shinsu sect is deeply immersed in comte's humanitarianism. in _kyogaku-roushu_ (a native paper) are published instalments of spencer's philosophy. another paper, the _hauseikwai_, has an article urging the desirability of a general union of all the (buddhist) sects, such as colonel olcott brought about in india between the northern and the southern buddhists."] [footnote 8: _leaves from an egyptian note-book._] [footnote 9: papers of rev. mr. hewlett in the _indian evangelical review_.] [footnote 10: in an address given in tokio, by rev. mr. knapp, of boston, buddhists in japan were advised to build their religion of the future upon their own foundations, and not upon the teachings of western propagandists.] [footnote 11: _the twelve buddhist sects of japan_, by bunyiu nanjio, oxon.] [footnote 12: quoted in _manual of india missions_.] [footnote 13: quoted in _manual of india missions_.] [footnote 14: _hulsean lectures_, 1846.] [footnote 15: private thoughts on religion, part i., article 2.] [footnote 16: confucius not only taught that men should not do to others what they would not have done to them, but when one of his disciples asked him to name one word which should represent the whole duty of man, he replied "reciprocity."] [footnote 17: whoever will read the preface of mr. spencer's work on sociology will be surprised at the means which have been used in collecting and verifying supposed facts; a careful perusal of the book will show that all classes of testimony have been accepted, so far as they were favorable. adventurers, reporters, sailors, and that upon the briefest and most casual observation, have been deemed capable of interpreting the religious beliefs of men. even peschel doubts many of their conclusions.] [footnote 18: see _indian wisdom_.] [footnote 19: archbishop trench, after speaking in his hulsean lectures of the advantages which we may gain from an earnest study of the struggles of thoughtful men, who amid heathen darkness have groped after a knowledge of the true god, and of the gratitude which we ought to feel who have received a more sure word of prophecy, adds in words of rare beauty: "and perhaps it shall seem to us as if that star in the natural heavens which guided those eastern sages from their distant home, was but the symbol of many a star which, in the world's mystical night, such as, being faithfully followed, availed to lead humble and devout hearts from far-off regions of superstition and error, till they knelt beside the cradle of the babe of bethlehem, and saw all their weary wanderings repaid in a moment, and all their desires finding a perfect fulfilment in him."] lecture ii. the methods of the early christian church in dealing with heathenism the coincidences of our present conquest of the non-christian races with that to which the apostolic church was called are numerous and striking. not even one hundred years ago was the struggle with heathen error so similar to that of the early church. to a great extent the missionary efforts of the mediæval centuries encountered only crude systems, which it was comparatively easy to overcome. the rude tribes of northern europe were converted by the christianity of the later roman empire, even though they were conquerors. their gods of war and brute force did not meet all the demands of life. as a source of hope and comfort, their religion had little to be compared with the christian faith, and as to philosophy they had none. they had inherited the simple nature worship which was common to all branches of the aryan race, and they had expanded it into various ramifications of polytheism; but they had not fortified it with subtle speculations like those of the indo-aryans, nor had their mythologies become intrenched in inveterate custom, and the national pride which attends an advanced civilization. at a later day christian missionaries in britain found the norse religion of the saxons, jutes, and angles, scarcely holding the confidence of either rulers or subjects. they had valued their gods chiefly for the purposes of war, and they had not always proved reliable. the king of northumbria, like clovis of france, had vowed to exchange his deities for the god of the christians if victory should be given him on a certain battle-field; and when he had assembled his thanes to listen to a discussion between the missionary paulinus and the priests of woden on the comparative merits of their respective faiths, the high priest frankly admitted his dissatisfaction with a religion which he had found utterly disappointing and useless; and when other chief counsellors had given the same testimony, and a unanimous vote had been taken to adopt the christian faith, he was the first to commence the destruction of the idols.[20] the still earlier missionaries among the druid celts of britain and france, though they found in druidism a more elaborate faith than that of the norsemen, encountered no such resistance as we find in the great religious systems of our day. where can we point to so easy a conquest as that of patrick in ireland, or that of the monks of iona among the picts and scots? the druids claimed that they already had many things in common with the christian doctrines,[21] and what was a still stronger element in the case, they made common cause with the christians against the wrongs inflicted on both by pagan rome. the roman emperors were not more determined to extirpate the hated and, as they thought, dangerous influences of christianity, than they were to destroy every vestige of druidism as their only hope of conquering the invincible armies of boadicea. and thus the mutual experience of common sufferings opened a wide door for the advancement of christian truth. the conquests of welsh and irish missionaries in burgundy, switzerland, and _germany_, encountered no elaborate book religions, and no profound philosophies. they had to deal with races of men who were formidable only with weapons of warfare, and who, intent chiefly on conquest and migration, had few institutions and no written historic records. the peaceful sceptre of the truth was a new force in their experience, and the sympathetic and self-denying labors of a few missionaries tamed the fierce vikings to whom britain had become a prey, and whose incursions even the armies of charlemagne could not resist. how different is our struggle with the races now under the sceptre of islam, for example--inflated as they are with the pride of wide conquest, and looking contemptuously upon that christian faith which it was their early mission to sweep away as a form of idolatry! how different is our task in india, which boasts the antiquity of the noble sanskrit and its sacred literature, and claims, as the true representative of the aryan race, to have given to western nations their philosophy, their religion, and their civilization! how much more difficult is our encounter with confucianism, which claims to have laid the foundations of the most stable structure of social and political institutions that the world has ever known, and which to-day, after twenty-five centuries of trial, appeals to the intellectual pride of all intelligent classes in a great empire of four hundred millions! and finally, how different is our task with buddhism, so mystical and abstruse, so lofty in many of its precepts, and yet so cold and thin, so flexible and easily adapted, and therefore so varied and many sided! the religious systems with which we are now confronted find their counterparts only in the heathenism with which the early church had to deal many centuries ago; and for this reason the history of those early struggles is full of practical instruction for us now. how did the early church succeed in its great conquest? what methods were adopted, and with what measures of success? in one respect there is a wide difference in the two cases. the apostles were attempting to convert their conquerors. they belonged to the vanquished race; they were of a despised nationality. the early fathers also were subjects of pagan powers. insomuch as the roman emperors claimed divine honors, there was an element of treason in their propagandism. the terrible persecutions which so long devastated the early church found their supposed justification in the plea of self-defence against a system which threatened to subvert cherished and time-honored institutions. candid writers, like archdeacon farrar, admit that christianity did hasten the overthrow of the roman empire. but we find no conquering powers in our pathway. christianity and christian civilization have become dominant in the earth. the weakness of the christian church in its conquests now is not in being baffled and crippled by tyranny and persecution, but rather in the temptation to arrogance and the abuse of superior power, in the overbearing spirit shown in the diplomacy of christian nations and the unscrupulous aggressions of their commerce. there is also a further contrast in the fact that in the early days the advantages of frugality and simple habits of life were on the side of the missionaries. roman society especially was beginning to suffer that decay which is the inevitable consequence of long-continued luxury, while the church observed temperance in all things and excelled in the virtues which always tend to moral and social victory.[22] on the other hand, we who are the ambassadors to the heathen of to-day, are ourselves exposed to the dangers which result from wealth and excessive luxury. our grade of life, our scale of expenditure, even the style in which our missionaries live, excites the amazement of the frugal heathen to whom they preach. and as for the church at home, it is hardly safe for a persian or a chinaman to see it. everyone who visits this wonderful eldorado carries back such romantic impressions as excite in others, not so much the love of the gospel as the love of mammon. when the church went forth in comparative poverty, and with an intense moral earnestness, to preach righteousness, temperance, and the judgment to come; when those who were wealthy gave all to the poor--like anthony of egypt, jerome, ambrose, and francis of assisi--and in simple garments bore the gospel to those who were surfeited with luxuries and pleasures, and were sick of a life of mere indulgence, then the truth of the gospel conquered heathenism with all that the world could give. but whether a church in the advanced civilization of our land and time, possessed of enormous wealth, enjoying every luxury, and ever anxious to gain more and more of this present world, can convert heathen races who deem themselves more frugal, more temperate, and less worldly than we, is a problem which remains to be solved. we have rare facilities, but we have great drawbacks. god's grace can overcome even our defects, and he has promised success. but in the proud intellectual character of the systems encountered respectively by the ancient and by the modern church, there are remarkable parallels. the supercilious pride of brahminism, or the lofty scorn of mohammedanism, is quite equal to that self-sufficient greek philosophy in whose eyes the gospel was the merest foolishness. and the immovable self-righteousness of the stoics has its counterpart in the confucianism of the chinese literati. a careful comparison of the six schools of hindu philosophy with the various systems of greece and rome, will fill the mind with surprise at the numerous correspondences--one might almost say identities. and that surprise is the greater from the fact that no proof exists that either has been borrowed from the other. the atomic theory of creation advanced by lucretius is found also in the nyaya philosophy of the hindus. the pessimism of pliny and marcus aurelius was much more elaborately worked out by gautama. the hindus had their categories and their syllogisms as well as aristotle. the conception of a dual principle in deity which the early church traced in all the religious systems of egypt, phoenicia, and assyria, and whose influence poisoned the life of the phoenician colonies, and was so corrupting to the morals of greece and rome, was also elaborated by the sankhya philosophy of kapila, and it has plunged hindu society into as deep a degradation as could be found in pompeii or herculaneum.[23] the indian philosophy partook far more of the pantheistic element than that of greece. plato and aristotle had clearer conceptions of the personality of the deity and of the distinct and responsible character of the human soul than any school of hindu philosophers--certainly clearer than the vedantists, and their ethics involved a stronger sense of sin. german philosophy has borrowed its pantheism from india rather than from greece, and in its most shadowy developments it has never transcended the ancient vedantism of vyasa. as in the early centuries, so in our time, different systems of religion have been commingled and interwoven into protean forms of error more difficult to understand and dislodge than any one of the faiths and philosophies of which they were combined. as the alexandrian jews intertwined the teachings of judaism and platonism; as manichæans and gnostics corrupted the truths of the old and new testaments with ideas borrowed from persian mysticism; as various eclectic systems gathered up all types of thought which the wide conquests of the roman empire brought together, and mingled them with christian teachings; so now the increased intercommunication, and the quickened intellectual activity of our age have led to the fusion of different systems, ancient and modern, in a negative and nerveless religion of humanity. we now have in the east not only indian, but anglo-indian, speculations. the unbelieving calcutta graduate has hegel and spinoza interwoven with his vedantism, and the eclectic leader of the brahmo somaj, while placing christ at the head of the prophets and recognizing the authority of all sacred bibles of the races, called on christians, hindus, buddhists and mohammedans to unite in one theistic church of the new dispensation in india. not even the old gnostics could present so striking an admixture as that of the arya somaj. it has appropriated many of those christian ethics which have been learned from a century of contact with missionaries and other christian residents. it has approved the more humane customs and reforms of christendom, denouncing caste, and the degradation of woman. it has repudiated the corrupt rites and the degrading superstitions of hinduism. at the same time its hatred of the christian faith is most bitter and intense. and there are other alliances, not a few, between the east and the west. in india and japan the old buddhism is compounded with american spiritualism and with modern evolution, under a new application of the ancient name of theosophy. in japan representatives of advanced unitarianism are exhorting the japanese buddhists to build the religion of the future on their old foundations, and to avoid the propagandists of western christianity. the bland and easy-going catholicity which professes so much in our day, which embraces all faiths and unfaiths in one sweet emulsion of meaningless negations, which patronizes the christ and his doctrines, and applies the nomenclature of christianity to doctrines the very opposite of its teachings, finds a counterpart in the smooth and vapid compromises of the old gnostics. "gnosticism," says uhlhorn, "combined greek philosophies, jewish theology, and ancient oriental theosophy, thus forming great systems of speculative thought, all with the object of displaying the world's development. from a pantheistic first cause, gnosticism traced the emanation of a series of æons--beings of light. the source of evil was supposed to be matter, which in this material world holds light in captivity. to liberate the light and thus redeem the world, christ came, and thus christianity was added as the crowning and victorious element in this many-sided system of speculation. but christ was regarded not so much as a saviour of individual souls as an emancipator of a disordered kosmos, and the system which seemed to accord great honor to christianity threatened to destroy its life and power." so, according to some of our modern systems, men are to find their future salvation in the grander future of the race.[24] not only do we encounter mixtures of truth and error, but we witness similar attempts to prove that whatever is best in christianity was borrowed from heathenism. porphyry and others maintained that pythagoras and theosebius had anticipated many of the attributes and deeds of christ, and philostratus was prompted by the wife of severus to write a history of appolonius of tyana which should match the life of christ. and in precisely the same way it has been variously claimed in our time that the story of christ's birth, childhood, and ministry were borrowed from buddha and from krishna, and that the whole conception of his vicarious suffering for the good of men is a clever imitation of prometheus bound. now, in the earlier conflict it was important to know the facts on both sides in order to meet these allegations of porphyry, marinus, and others, and it is equally important to understand the precise ground on which similar charges are made with equal assurance now.[25] the very same old battles are to be fought over again, both with philosophy and with legend. and it is very evident that, with so many points of similarity between the early struggle of christianity with heathenism and that of our own time, it is quite worth our labor to inquire what were the general methods then pursued. then victory crowned the efforts of the church. that which humanly speaking seemed impossible, was actually accomplished. from our finite standpoint, no more preposterous command was ever given than that which christ gave to his little company of disciples gathered in the mountains of galilee, or that last word before his ascension on mt. olivet, in which he placed under their responsible stewardship, not only jerusalem, but all judea and samaria, and the "uttermost parts of the earth." the disciples were without learning or social influence, or political power. they had no wealth and few facilities, and so far as they knew there were no open doors. they were hated by their jewish countrymen, ridiculed by the ubiquitous and cultured greeks, and frowned upon by the conquering powers of rome. how then did they succeed? how was it that in three or four centuries they had virtually emptied the roman pantheon of its heathen deities, and had gained the sceptre of the empire and the world? it is easy to misapprehend the forces which won the victory. the disciples first chosen to found the church were fishermen, but that affords no warrant for the belief that only untutored men were employed in the early church, or for the inference that the salvation army are to gain the conquest now. they were inspired; these are not; and a few only were chosen, with the very aim of setting at naught the intolerant wisdom of the pharisees. but when the gospel was to be borne to heathen races, to the great nations whose arrogance was proportionate to their learning and their power, a very different man was selected. saul of tarsus had almost every needed qualification seen from a human point of view. standing, as he must, between the stiff bigotry of judaism and the subtleties of greek philosophy, he was fortunately familiar with both. he was a man of rare courtesy, and yet of matchless courage. whether addressing a jewish governor or the assembled philosophers and counsellors of athens, he evinced an unfailing tact. he knew how to conciliate even a common mob of heathen idolators and when to defy a high priest, or plead the immunities of his roman citizenship before a roman proconsul. in tracing the methods of the early church in dealing with heathenism, we begin, therefore, with paul; for although he was differentiated from all modern parallels by the fact that he was inspired and endowed with miraculous power, yet that does not invalidate the force of those general principles of action which he illustrated. he was the first and greatest of all missionaries, and through all time it will be safe and profitable to study his characteristics and his methods. he showed the value of thorough training in his own faith, and of a full understanding of all the errors he was to contend with. he could reason with jews out of their own scriptures, or substantiate his position with greeks by citing their own poets. he was certainly uncompromising in maintaining the sovereignty of the one god, jehovah, but he was not afraid to admit that in their blind way the heathen were also groping after the same supreme father of all. the unknown god at athens he accepted as an adumbration of him whom he proclaimed, and every candid reader must admit that in quoting the words of aratus, which represent zeus as the supreme creator whose offspring we are, he conveys the impression of a real resemblance, if not a partial and obscured identity. the essential principle here is that paul frankly acknowledged whatever glimpses of truth he found in heathen systems, and made free use of them in presenting the fuller and clearer knowledge revealed in the gospel. no man ever presented a more terrible arraignment of heathenism than that which he makes in the first chapter of his epistle to the romans, and yet, with marvellous discrimination he proceeds, in the second chapter, to show how much of truth god has imparted to the understandings and the consciences of all men. and he seems to imply the holy spirit's regenerative work through christ's atonement, when he maintains that whoever shall, "by patient continuance in well doing, seek glory and immortality," to him shall "eternal life" be given; but "tribulation and anguish upon every soul of man that doeth evil, to the jew first, and also to the gentile." peter was not prepared to be a missionary till he had been divested of his jewish narrowness by witnessing the power of grace in the roman centurion at cesarea. that widened out his horizon immensely. he saw that god in his ultimate plan was no respecter of persons or of races. there has been great difference of opinion as to whether the annual worship of the supreme god of heaven in the great imperial temple at peking is in any degree a relic of the worship of the true god once revealed to mankind. such chinese scholars as martin and legge and douglass think that it is; others deny it. some men raise a question whether the allah of the mohammedan faith is identical with the jehovah of the old testament. sales, the profoundest expositor of islam, considers him the same. moslems themselves have no doubt of it: the intent of the koran is that and nothing else; old testament teachings are interwoven with almost every sura of its pages. i think that paul would have conceded this point at once, and would the more successfully have urged the claims of jesus, whom the koran presents as the only sinless prophet. of course mohammedans do not recognize the triune god as we now apprehend him, from the new testament standpoint; neither did ancient believers of israel fully conceive of god as he has since been more fully revealed in the person and the sacrifice of his son--jesus christ. both the teachings and the example of paul seem to recognize the fact that conceptions of god, sometimes clear and sometimes dim, may exist among heathen nations; and many of the great christian fathers evidently took the same view. they admitted that plato's noble teachings were calculated to draw the soul toward god, though they revealed no real access to him such as is found in christ. archbishop trench, in his hulsean lectures on "christ the desire of the nations," dwells approvingly upon augustine's well-known statement, that he had been turned from vice to an inspiring conception of god by reading the "hortensius" of cicero. augustine's own reference to the fact is found in the fourth book of his "confessions," where he says: "in the ordinary course of study i fell upon a certain book of cicero whose speech almost all admire--not so his heart. this book contains an exhortation to philosophy, and is called 'hortensius.' but this book altered my affections and turned my prayers to thyself, o lord, and made me have other purposes and desires. every vain hope at once became worthless to me, and i longed with an incredible burning desire for an immortality of wisdom, and began now to arise that i might return to thee. for not to sharpen my tongue did i employ that book: nor did it infuse into me its style, but its matter." the "hortensius" of cicero has not survived till our time, and we know not what it contained; but we cannot fail to notice this testimony of a mature and eminent saint to the spiritual benefit which he had received at the age of thirty-one, from reading the works of a heathen philosopher. and a most interesting proof is here furnished for the freedom with which the spirit of god works upon the hearts of men, and the great variety of means and agencies which he employs,--and that beyond the pale of the christian church, and even beyond the actual knowledge of the historic christ. it would be interesting to know whether the regeneration of augustine occurred just then, when he says in such strong language, that this book altered his affections and turned his prayers unto god, and made him "long with an indescribable burning desire for an immortality of wisdom." all men are saved, if at all, by the blood of christ through the renewing of the holy ghost; but what was the position of such men as augustine and cornelius of cesarea before they fully and clearly saw jesus as the actual messiah, and as the personal representative of that grace of god in which they had already reposed a general faith, is at least an interesting question. not less positive is the acknowledgment which augustine makes of the benefits which he had received from plato. and he mentions many others, as virgininus, lactantius, hilary, and cyprian, who, like himself, having once been heathen and students of heathen philosophy, had, as he expresses it, "spoiled the egyptians, bringing away with them rich treasures from the land of bondage, that they might adorn therewith the true tabernacle of the christian faith." augustine seems to have been fond of repeating both this argument and this his favorite illustration. in his "doctrine of christ" he expands it more fully than in his "confessions." he says: "whatever those called philosophers, and especially the platonists, may have said conformable to our faith, is not only not to be dreaded, but is to be claimed from them as unlawful possessors, to our use. for, as the egyptians not only had idols and heavy burdens which the people of israel were to abhor and avoid, but also vessels and ornaments of gold and silver and apparel which that people at its departure from egypt privily assumed for a better use, not on its own authority but at the command of god, the very egyptians unwittingly furnishing the things which themselves used not well; so all the teaching of the gentiles not only hath feigned and superstitious devices, and heavy burdens of a useless toil, which we severally, as under the leading of christ we go forth out of the fellowship of the gentiles, ought to abhor and avoid, but it also containeth liberal arts, fitter for the service of truth, and some most useful moral precepts; as also there are found among them some truths concerning the worship of the one god himself, as it were their gold and silver which they did not themselves form, but drew from certain veins of divine providence running throughout, and which they perversely and wrongfully abuse to the service of demons. these, the christian, when he severs himself from their wretched fellowship, ought to take from them for the right use of preaching of the gospel. for what else have many excellent members of our faith done? see we not how richly laden with gold and silver and apparel that most persuasive teacher and most blessed martyr, cyprian, departed out of egypt? or lactantius, or victorinus, optatus, hilary, not to speak of the living, and greeks innumerable? and this, moses himself, that most faithful servant of god, first did, of whom it is written, that 'he was learned in all the wisdom of the egyptians.'" let us for a moment pause and see of what these treasures of egypt consisted, and especially what plato taught concerning god. like socrates, he ridiculed the absurd but popular notion that the gods could be full of human imperfections, could make war upon each other, could engage in intrigues, and be guilty of base passions. and he earnestly maintained that it was demoralizing to children and youth to hold up such beings as objects of worship. such was his condemnation of what he considered false gods. he was equally opposed to the idea that there is no god. "all things," he says, "are from god, and not from some spontaneous and unintelligent cause." "now, that which is created," he adds, "must of necessity be created by some cause--but how can we find out the father and maker of all this universe? if the world indeed be fair, and the artificer good, then he must have looked to that which is external--for the world is the fairest of creatures, as he is the best of causes." plato's representation of the mercy of god, of his providential care, of his unmixed goodness, of his eternal beauty and holiness--are well-nigh up to the new testament standard. so is also his doctrine of the immortality of the soul. the fatal deficiency is that he does not _know_. he has received no divine revelation. "we will wait," he said in another passage, "for one, be it a god or a god-inspired man, to teach us our religious duties, and as athene in homer says to diomede, to take away the darkness from our eyes." and in still another place he adds: "we must lay hold of the best human opinion in order that, borne by it as on a raft, we may sail over the dangerous sea of life, unless we can find a stronger boat, _or some word of god which will more surely and safely carry us_."[26] there is a deep pathos in the question which i have just quoted, "how can we find out the father and maker of all this universe?" and in the last sentence quoted, plato seems to have felt his way to the very threshold of the revelation of christ.[27] augustine shows a discrimination on this subject too important to be overlooked, when he declares that while the noble philosophy of the platonists turned his thoughts away from his low gratifications to the contemplation of an infinite god, it left him helpless. he was profited both by what philosophy taught him and by what it could not teach: it created wants which it could not satisfy. in short, he was prepared by its very deficiencies to see in stronger contrast the all-satisfying fulness of the gospel of eternal life. plato could tell him nothing of any real plan of redemption, and he confesses with tender pathos that he found no revealer, no divine sacrifice for sin, no uplifted cross, no gift of the transforming spirit, no invitation to the weary, no light of the resurrection.[28] now, just here is the exact truth; and augustine has conferred a lasting benefit upon the christian church by this grand lesson of just discrimination. he and other christian fathers knew where to draw the lines carefully and wisely with respect to heathen errors. we often have occasion to complain of the sharpness of the controversies of the early church, but it could scarcely be otherwise in an age like that. it was a period of transitions and of rude convulsions. the foundations of the great deep of human error were being broken up. it was no time for flabby, jelly-fish convictions. the training which the great leaders had received in philosophy and rhetoric had made them keen dialectics. they had something of paul's abhorrence of heathen abominations, for they saw them on every hand. they saw also the specious admixtures of gnosticism, and they met them squarely. tertullian's controversy with marcion, augustine's sharp issue with pelasgius, ambrose's bold and uncompromising resistance to arianism, origen's able reply to celsus, all show that the great leaders of the church were not men of weak opinions. the discriminating concessions which they made, therefore, were not born of an easy-going indifferentism and the soft and nerveless charity that regards all religions alike. they found a medium between this pretentious extreme and the opposite evil of ignorant and narrow prejudgment; and nothing is more needed in the missionary work of our day than that intelligent and well-poised wisdom which considers all the facts and then draws just distinctions; which will not compensate for conscious ignorance with cheap misrepresentation or wholesale denunciation. 1. now, first of all, in considering the methods of the early church and its secret of power in overcoming the errors of heathenism, it must be borne in mind that the victory was mainly due to the _moral earnestness_ which characterized that period. in this category we must place the influence which sprang from the martyrdom of thousands who surrendered life rather than relinquish their faith. that this martyr spirit did not always produce a true symmetry of christian character cannot be denied. the tide of fanaticism swept in, sometimes, with the current of true religious zeal, and inconsistencies and blemishes marred even the saintliest self-sacrifice; but there was no resisting the mighty logic of the spirit of martyrdom as a whole. the high and the low, the wise and the unlettered, the rich and the poor, the old and the young, strong men and delicate women, surrendered themselves to the most cruel tortures for the love of christ. this spectacle, while it may have served only to enrage a nero and urge him on to even more satanic cruelty, could not be wholly lost upon the more thoughtful marcus aurelius and others like him. it was impossible to resist the moral force of so calm and resolute a surrender unto torture and death. moreover, an age which produced such relinquishment of earthly possessions as was shown by men like anthony and ambrose, who were ready to lay down the emoluments of high political position and distribute their large fortunes for the relief of the poor; and such women as paula and others of high position, who were ready to sacrifice all for christ and retire into seclusion and voluntary poverty--an age which could produce such characters and could show their steady perseverance unto the end, could not fail to be an age of resistless moral power; and it would be safe to say that no heathen system could long stand against the sustained and persistent force of such influences. were the christian church of to-day moved by even a tithe of that high self-renunciation, to say nothing of braving the fires of martyrdom, if it possessed in even partial degree the same sacrifice of luxury and ease, and the same consecration of effort and of influence, the conquest of benighted nations would be easy and rapid. the frugality of the early christians, the simplicity of life which the great body of the church observed, and to which even wealthy converts more or less conformed, was also, doubtless, a strong factor in the great problem of winning the heathen to christ. probably in no age could christian simplicity find stronger contrasts than were presented by the luxury and extravagance, the unbridled indulgence and profligacy, which characterized the later periods of the roman empire. universal conquest of surrounding nations had brought untold wealth. the government had hastened the process of decay by lavish distribution to the people of those resources which obviated the necessity of unremitting toil. it had devoted large expenditures to popular amusements, and demagogues had squandered the public funds for the purpose of securing their own preferment. over against the moral earnestness of the persecuted christian church, there was in the nation itself and the heathenism which belonged to it, an utter want of character or conviction. these conditions of the conquest, as i have already indicated, do not find an exact counterpart with us now. there is more of refined christian culture than existed in the early church; probably there is also more of organized christian effort. in many points the comparison is in our favor, but earnestness, and the spiritual power which attends it, are on a lower grade. there is no escape from the conviction that just here lies the reason why the christian church, with all her numbers, her vast material resources, and her unlimited opportunities, cannot achieve a greater success. 2. but, on the intellectual side, and as relating to the methods of direct effort, there are many points in which imitation of the early example is entirely practicable. and first, the wise discrimination which was exercised by augustine and other christian leaders is entirely practicable now. there has prevailed in our time an indiscriminate carelessness in the use of terms in dealing with this subject. the strong language which the old testament employed against the abominations of baalism, we have seemed to regard as having equal force against the ethics of confucius or gautama. "heathenism" is the one brand which we have put upon all the non-christian religions. i wish it were possible to exchange the term for a better.[29] baalism was undoubtedly the most besotted, cruel, and diabolical religion that has ever existed on the earth. when we carefully study it we are not surprised at the strong language of denunciation which the old testament employs. but as i have already shown, we find in the new testament a different spirit exercised toward the types of error which our saviour and his disciples were called to meet. there is only gentleness in our lord's dealings with those who were without the jewish church. his strongest denunciations were reserved for hypocrites who knew the truth and obeyed it not. he declared that the men of nineveh would rise up in judgment against those who rejected the clear message of god's own son. the man who goes forth to the great mission fields with the feeling that it is his province to assail as strongly as possible the deeply-rooted convictions of men, instead of winning them to a more excellent way, is worse than one who beats the air; he is doing positive harm; he is trifling with precious souls. he does not illustrate the spirit of christ. the wisest of the early fathers sometimes differed widely from each other in their methods; some were denunciatory, others were even too ready to excuse. the great african controversialist, tertullian, was unsparing in his anathemas, not only against heathen customs, which were vile indeed, but against the teachings of the noblest philosophy. he had witnessed the former; he had not candidly studied the latter. with a blind zeal, which has too often been witnessed in the history of good causes, he denounced plato, aristotle, and even socrates with a violence which marred the character of so great a man. on the other hand, justin martyr and clement of alexandria were perhaps excessively broad. of two noted alexandrines, archdeacon farrar says: "they were philosophers in spirit; they could enforce respect by their learning and their large, rounded sympathy, where rhetorical denunciation and ecclesiastical anathemas would only have been listened to with a frown of anger, or a look of disdain. pagan youths would have listened to clement when he spoke of plato as 'the truly noble and half-inspired,' while they would have looked on tertullian as an ignorant railer, who could say nothing better of socrates than to call him the 'attic buffoon,' and of aristotle than to characterize him as the 'miserable aristotle.'" tatian and hermes also looked upon greek philosophy as an invention of the devil. irenæus was more discriminating. he opposed the broad and lax charity of the alexandrines, but he read the greek philosophy, and when called to the bishopric of lyons, he set himself to the study of the gallic druidism, believing that a special adaptation would be called for in that remote mission field.[30] basil was an earnest advocate of the greek philosophy as giving a broader character to christian education. there were among the fathers many different types of men, some philosophically inclined, others better able to use practical arguments. some were more successful in appealing to the signs of the times, the clear evidences of that corruption and decay to which heathenism had led. they pointed to the degradation of women, the prevalence of vice, the inordinate indulgence in pleasures, the love of excitement, the cruel frenzy of the gladiatorial shows, the unrest and pessimism and despair of all society. one of the most remarkable appeals of this kind is found in a letter of cyprian to his friend donatus. "he bids him seat himself in fancy on some mountain top and gaze down upon what he has abandoned (for he is a christian), on the roads blocked by brigands, the sea beset by pirates, the camps desolated by the horrors of many wars, on the world reeking with bloodshed, and the guilt which, in proportion to its magnitude, was extolled as a glory. then, if he would turn his gaze to the cities, he would behold a sight more gloomy than all solitudes. in the gladiatorial games men were fattened for mutual slaughter, and publicly murdered to delight the mob. even innocent men were urged to fight in public with wild beasts, while their mothers and sisters paid large sums to witness the spectacle. in the theatres parricide and infanticide were dealt with before mixed audiences, and all pollution and crimes were made to claim reverence because presented under the guise of religious mythology. in the homes was equal corruption; in the forum bribery and intrigue ran rife; justice was subverted, and innocence was condemned to prison, torture, and death. luxury destroyed character, and wealth became an idol and a curse."[31] arguments of this kind were ready enough to hand whenever christian teachers were disposed to use them, and their descriptions found a real corroboration in society as it actually appeared on every hand. none could question the counts in the indictment. 3. while the christian fathers and the missionaries differed in their estimates of heathenism, and in their methods of dealing with it, one thing was recognized by all whom we designate as the great leaders, namely, the imperative necessity of a thorough knowledge of it. they understood both the low superstition of the masses and the loftier teaching of the philosophers. on the other hand, they had the same estimate of the incomparable gospel of christ that we have; they realized that it was the wisdom of god and the power of god unto salvation as clearly as the best of us, but they did not claim that it was to be preached blindly and without adaptation. the verities of the new testament teachings, the transforming power of the holy ghost, the necessity for a new birth and for the preternatural influence of grace, both in regeneration and in sanctification, were as strongly maintained as they have ever been in any age of the church; but the fathers were careful to know whether they were casting the good seed upon stony places, or into good ground where it would spring up and bear fruit. the liberal education of that day was, in fact, an education along the old lines of heathen philosophy, poetry, history, and rhetoric; and a broad training was valued as highly as it has been in any subsequent period. it was thoroughly understood that disciplined intellect, other things being equal, may expect a degree of influence which can never fall to the lot of ignorance, however sanctified its spirit. there has never been a stronger type of men than the christian fathers. they were learned men, for the age in which they lived, and their learning had special adaptations to the work assigned them. many of them, like cyprian, clement, hilary, martin of tours, had been born and educated in heathenism; while others, like basil, gregory, origen, athanasius, jerome, and augustine, though born under gospel influences, studied heathen philosophy and poetry at the instance of their christian parents. 4. some of the leaders familiarized themselves with the speculations of the day, not merely for the sake of a wider range of knowledge, but that they might the more successfully refute the assailants of the faith, many of whom were men of great power. they were fully aware that it behooved them to know their ground, for their opponents studied the points of comparison carefully. the infidel celsus studied christianity and its relation to the old testament histories and prophecies, and he armed himself with equal assiduity with all the choicest weapons drawn from greek philosophy. how was such a man to be met? his able attack on christianity remained fifty years unanswered. to reply adequately was not an easy task. doubtless there were many, then as now, who thought that the most comfortable way of dealing with such things was to let them alone. but a wiser policy prevailed. origen was requested to prepare an answer, and, although such work was not congenial to him, he did so because he felt that the cause of the truth demanded it. his reply outlived the attack which it was designed to meet, and in all subsequent ages it has been a bulwark of defence.[32] origen was not of a pugnacious spirit--it was well that he was not--but with wide and thorough preparation he summoned all his energies to meet the foe. archdeacon farrar says of him, that he had been trained in the whole circle of science. he could argue with the pupils of plato, or those of zeno, on equal terms, and he deems it fortunate that one who was called, as he was, to be a teacher at alexandria, where men of all nations and all creeds met, had a cosmopolitan training and a cosmopolitan spirit. no less resolute was the effort of ambrose in resisting the errors of arianism, and he also adapted himself to the work in hand. he had not been afraid of platonism. on the other hand, we are told that plato, next to his bible, constituted a part of his daily reading, and that, too, in the period of his ripest christian experience, and when he carried his studies and his prayers far into the hours of the night. but in dealing with arianism he needed a special understanding of all its intricacies, and when among its advocates and supporters he encountered a powerful empress as well as her ablest advocates, he had need of all the powers within him--that power of moral earnestness which had led him to give all his property to the poor--that power of strong faith, which prepared him, if need be, to lay down his life--the power of a disciplined intellect, and a thorough knowledge of the whole issue. 5. the early fathers not only studied the heathen philosophies of plato and aristotle, but they learned to employ them, and their successors continued to employ them, even to the middle ages, and the period of the reformation. as an intellectual framework, under which truth should be presented in logical order, it became a strong resource of the early christian teachers. let me refer you on this point to the clear statements of professor shedd.[33] he has well said that "when christianity was revealed in its last and beautiful form by the incarnation of the eternal world, it found the human mind already occupied by human philosophy. educated men were platonists, or stoics, or epicureans. during the age of apologetics, which extended from the end of the apostolic age to the death of origen, the church was called to grapple with these systems, to know as far as possible what they contained, and to discriminately treat their contents, rejecting some things, utilizing others." "we shall see," he continues, "that plato, aristotle, and cicero exerted more influence than all other philosophic minds united upon the greatest of christian fathers, upon the greatest of the school men, and upon the greatest of the theologians of the reformation, calvin and melancthon; and if we look at european philosophy, as it has been unfolded in england, germany, and france, we can perceive that all the modern philosophic schools have discussed the principles of human reason in very much the same manner in which plato and aristotle discussed them twenty-two centuries ago." i need hardly say, in closing, that it is not necessary to borrow from the heathen systems of to-day as extensively as the fathers did from the systems of greece and rome, and it would be discordant with good taste to illustrate our sermons with quotations from the hindu poets as lavishly as good jeremy taylor graced his discourses with gems from the poets of greece. but i think that we may so far heed the wise examples furnished by church history as to face the false systems of our time with a candid and discriminating spirit, and by a more adequate knowledge to disenchant the bugbears with which their apologists would alarm the church. we are entering upon the broadest and most momentous struggle with heathen error that the world has ever witnessed. again, in this later age, philosophy and multiform speculation are becoming the handmaids of hindu pantheism and buddhist occultism, as well as of christian truth. the resources of the east and the west are combined and subsidized by the enemy as well as by the church. as in old rome and alexandria, so now in london and calcutta all currents of human thought flow together, and truth is in full grapple with error. it is no time to be idle or to take refuge in pious ignorance, much less to fear heathen systems as so many haunted houses which superstitious people dare not enter--as if the gospel were not as potent a talisman now as it was ages ago. let us fearlessly enter these abodes of darkness, throw open the shutters, and let in the light of day, and the hobgoblins will flee. let us explore every dark recess, winnow out the miasma and the mildew with the pure air of heaven, and the sun of righteousness shall fill the world. footnotes: [footnote 20: _the norsemen_, maclear.] [footnote 21: the druid bard taliesen says: "christ, the word from the beginning, was from the beginning our teacher, and we never lost his teaching. christianity was a new thing in asia, but there never was a time when the druids of britain held not its doctrines."--_st. paul in britain_, p. 86.] [footnote 22: uhlhorn's _conflict of christianity with heathenism_.] [footnote 23: the same dualism of the male and the female principle is found in the shinto of japan. see chamberlain's translation of the _kojiki_.] [footnote 24: the late george eliot has given expression to this grim solace, and mr. john fiske, in his _destiny of man_, claims that the goal of all life, from the first development of the primordial cell, is the perfected future man.] [footnote 25: voltaire found great delight in the so-called _ezour veda_, a work which claimed to be an ancient veda containing the essential truths of the bible. the distinguished french infidel was humbled, however, when it turned out that the book was the pious fraud of a jesuit missionary who has hoped thus to win the hindus to christianity.] [footnote 26: quoted by uhlhorn in _the conflict of christianity with heathenism_, p. 70. he also quotes seneca as saying: "oh, if one only might have a guide to truth!"] [footnote 27: plato showed by his writings and his whole life that he was a true seeker after the knowledge of god, whom he identified with the highest good. though he believed in an efficient creatorship, he held that matter is eternal. ideas are also eternal, but the world is generated. he was not a pantheist, as he clearly placed god outside of, or above, the universe. he regarded the soul of man as possessed of reason, moral sensibility, and appetite. on the doctrine of future immortality plato was most emphatic. he also believed that the soul in a previous state had been pure and sinless, but had fallen. he taught that recovery from this fallen condition is to be accomplished by the pursuit of philosophy and the practice of virtue (not as merit but as discipline), by contemplating the highest ideal which is the character of god, and by thinking of eternity. plato regarded suffering as disciplinary when properly improved. true philosophy may raise the soul above the fear of death. this was proved by socrates. both socrates and plato seemed to believe in a good demon (spirit) whose voice was a salutary and beneficent guide. as to eschatology, plato looked forward to a heaven where the virtuous soul shall dwell in the presence of god, and in the enjoyment of pure delights. aristotle's idea of god was scarcely less exalted than that of plato. he expressed it thus: "the principle of life is in god; for energy of mind constitutes life, and god is this energy. he, the first mover, imparts motion and pursues the work of creation as something that is loved. his course of life must be similar to what is most excellent in our own short career. but he exists forever in this excellence, whereas this is impossible for us. his pleasure consists in the exercise of his essential energy, and on this account vigilance, wakefulness, and perception are most agreeable to him. again, the more we examine god's nature the more wonderful does it appear to us. he is an eternal and most excellent being. he is indivisible, devoid of parts, and having no magnitude, for god imparts motion through infinite time, and nothing finite, as magnitude is, can have an infinite capacity. he is a being devoid of passions and unalterable."--quoted in _indian wisdom_, p. 125.] [footnote 28: "those pages present not the image of this piety, the tears of confession, thy sacrifice, a troubled spirit, a broken and a contrite heart, the salvation of the people, the bridal city, the earnest of the holy ghost, the cup of our redemption. no man sings there, 'shall not my soul be submitted unto god? for of him cometh my salvation, for he is my god and my salvation, my guardian, i shall no more be grieved.' no one there hears him call 'come unto me all ye that labor.'"--_confessions_, bk. vii., xxi. "but having then read those books of the platonists, and thence being taught to search for incorporeal truth, i saw thy invisible things, understood by the things which are made; and though cast back, i perceived what that was which, through the darkness of my mind, i was hindered from contemplating, being assured 'that thou wert and wert infinite, and yet not diffused in space, finite or infinite, and that thou truly art who art the same ever, in no part nor motion varying; and that all other things are from thee.... of these things i was assured, yet too insecure to enjoy thee. i prated as one skilled, but i had not sought thy way in christ our saviour; i had proved to be not skilled but killed."--_confessions_, bk. vii., xx.] [footnote 29: we may judge of the bearing of the common term heathen as applied to non-christian nations, when we consider that the greeks and romans characterized all foreigners as "barbarians," that mohammedans call all christians "infidels," and the chinese greet them as "foreign devils." the missionary enterprise as a work of conciliation should illustrate a broader spirit.] [footnote 30: _the celts_, maclear.] [footnote 31: _lives of the fathers_, farrar.] [footnote 32: "christianity," says max müller, "enjoyed no privileges and claimed no immunities when it boldly confronted and confounded the most ancient and the most powerful religions of the world. even at present it craves no mercy and it receives no mercy from those whom our missionaries have to meet face to face in every part of the world; and unless our religion has ceased to be what it was, its defenders should not shrink from this new trial of its strength, but should encourage rather than depreciate the study of comparative theology."--_science of religion_, p. 22.] [footnote 33: _history of christian theology_, vol. i., p. 52.] lecture iii. the successive developments op hinduism the religious systems of india, like its flora, display luxuriant variety and confusion. hinduism is only another banyan-tree whose branches have become trunks, and whose trunks have produced new branches, until the whole has become an intellectual and moral jungle of vast extent. the original stock was a monotheistic nature worship, which the hindu ancestors held in common with other branches of the aryan family when dwelling together on the high table-lands of central asia, or, as some are now claiming, in eastern russia. wherever may have been that historic "cradle" in which the infancy of our race was passed, it seems certain from similarities of language, that this aryan family once dwelt together, and had a common worship, and called the supreme deity by a common name. it was a worship of the sky, and at length of various powers of nature, _surya_, the sun: _agni_, fire: _indra_, rain, etc. it is maintained by many authors, in india as well as in europe, that these designations were only applied as names of one and the same potential deity. this is the ground held by the various branches of the modern somaj of india. yet we must not suppose that the monotheism of the early aryans was all that we understand by that term; it is enough that the power addressed was _one_ and personal. even henotheism, the last name which professor max müller applies to the early aryan faith, denotes oneness in this sense. the process of differentiation and corruption advanced more rapidly among the indo-aryans than in the iranian branch of the same race, and in all lands changes were wrought to some extent by differences of climate and by environment.[34] the norsemen, for example, struggling with the wilder and sterner forces of storm and wintry tempest, would naturally differ in custom, and finally in faith, from the gentle hindu under his indian sky; yet there were common elements traceable in the earliest traditions of these races, and the fact that religions are not wholly dependent upon local conditions is shown by both christianity and buddhism, which have flourished most conspicuously and permanently in lands where they were not indigenous. "in the vedas," says sir monier williams, "unity in the conception of deity soon diverged into various ramifications. only a few of the hymns appear to contain the simple conception of one divine, self-existent, omnipresent being, and even in these, the idea of one god, present in all nature, is somewhat nebulous and undefined." one of the earliest deifications that we can trace was that of _varuna_, who represented the overhanging sky. the hymns addressed to varuna are not only the earliest, but they are the loftiest and most spiritual in their aspirations. they find in him an element of holiness before which sin is an offence; and in some vague sense he is the father of all things, like the zeus whom paul recognized in the poetry of greece. but, as already stated, this vague conception of god as one, was already in a transition toward separate impressions of the different powers of nature. if the idea of god was without any very clear personality and more or less obscure, it is not strange that it should come to be thus specialized as men thought of objects having a manifestly benign influence--as the life-quickening sun or the reviving rain. it is not strange that, without a knowledge of the true god, they should have been filled with awe when gazing upon the dark vault of night, and should have rendered adoration to the moon and her countless retinue of stars. if there must be idolatry, let it be that sublime nature worship of the early aryans, though even that was sure to degenerate into baser forms. one might suppose that the worship of the heavenly bodies would remain the purest and noblest; and yet the sun-worship of the assyrians and the phoenicians became unspeakably vile in its sensuousness, and finally the most wicked and abominable of all heathen systems. india in her darkest days never sank so low, and when her degradation came it was through other conceptions than those of nature worship. in the early vedic hymns are to be found many sublime passages which seem to suggest traces of those common traditions concerning the creation--the fall of man and the deluge, which we believe to have been the earliest religious heritage of mankind. they contrast strongly with the later and degrading cosmogonies of degenerate heathen systems, and especially with the grotesque fancies of the subsequent hindu mythology. in the xth mandala of the rig veda we find the following account of primeval chaos, which reminds one of the mosaic genesis: "in the beginning there was neither aught nor naught, there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. what then enshrouded all the teeming universe? in the receptacle of what was it contained? was it enveloped in the gulph profound of water? there was then neither death nor immortality. there was then neither day nor night, nor light nor darkness. only the _existing one_ breathed calmly self-contained, naught else but him there was, naught else above, beyond; then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom, next all was water, chaos indiscreet in which the _one_ lay void, shrouded in nothingness, then turning inward by self-developed force of inner fervor and intense abstraction grew." in the early vedic period many of the corruptions of later times were unknown. there was no distinct doctrine of caste, no transmigration, no mist of pantheism, no idol-worship, no widow-burning, and no authorized infanticide. the abominable tyranny which was subsequently imposed upon woman was unknown; the low superstitions of the aboriginal tribes had not been adopted; nor, on the other hand, had philosophy and speculation taken possession of the hindu mind. the doctrine of the trimurti and the incarnations had not appeared.[35] the faith of the hindus in that early period may be called _aryanism_, or _vedism_. it bore sway from the aryan migration, somewhere about one thousand five hundred, or two thousand, years before christ, to about eight hundred years before christ.[36] by that time the priestly class had gained great power over all other ranks. they had begun to work over the vedas to suit their own purposes, selecting from them such portions as could be framed into an elaborate ritual--known as the brahmanas. the period during which they continued this ritualistic development is known as the brahmana period. this extended from about eight hundred to five hundred b.c.[37] these, however, are only the approximate estimates of modern scholarship: such a thing as ancient history is unknown to the hindu race. this brahmana period was marked by the intense and overbearing sacerdotalism of the brahmans, and by an extreme development of the doctrine of caste. never was priestly tyranny carried to greater length than by these lordly brahmans of india. one of the chief abuses of their system was their depravation of sacrifice. the earliest conception of sacrifice represented in the vedas is that of a vicarious offering of parusha, a divine being. very obscure references to this are found in the oldest of the four vedas, dating probably not later than 1200 b.c. it is brought out still more clearly in a brahmana which was probably composed in the seventh century b.c. it is there said that the "lord of creatures offered himself a sacrifice for the gods." principal fairbairn finds vedic authority for the idea that the creation of the world was accomplished by the self-sacrifice of deity; and manu ascribes the creation of mankind to the austerities of the gods. sir monier williams, the late professor banergea, and many others, have regarded these references to a divine sacrifice for the benefit of gods and men as dim traces of a revelation once made to mankind of a promised atonement for the sins of the world.[38] but so far as the actual observances of the early hindus were concerned, they seem to have made their offerings rather in the spirit of cain than in the faith of abel. they simply fed the gods with their gifts, and regaled them with soma juice, poured forth in libations; the savor of melted butter also was supposed to be specially grateful. still there is reason to believe that the piacular idea of sacrifice was never wholly lost, but that the hindus, in common with all other races, found occasion--especially when great calamities befell them--to appease the gods with the blood of sacrifice. in the early days human sacrifices were offered, and occasionally at least down to a late period.[39] it was a convenient policy of the priesthood, however, to hypothecate the claim for a human victim by accepting the substitution of a goodly number of horses or cows. a famous tradition is given, in the aitareya brahmana, of a prince[40] who had been doomed to sacrifice by a vow of his father, but who bought as a substitute the son of a holy brahman--paying the price of a hundred cows. when none could be found to bind the lad on the altar, the pious father offered to perform the task for another hundred cows. then there was no one found to slay the victim, and the father offered for still another hundred to do even that. as the victim was of high caste the gods interposed, and the brahman was still the possessor of a son plus the cattle. the incident will illustrate the greed of the priesthood and the depravation of sacrifice. it had become a system of bargaining and extortion. the sacrifices fed the priesthood more substantially than the gods. there was great advantage in starting with the human victim as the unit of value, and it is easy to see how substitution of animals became immensely profitable. the people were taught that it was possible, if one were rich enough in victims, even to bankrupt heaven. even demons by the value of their offerings might demand the sceptre of indra.[41] hand in hand with this growth of the sacrificial system was the development of caste; the former was done away by the subsequent protest of buddhism and the philosophic schools; but the latter has remained through all the stages of hindu history.[42] such was _brahmanism_. its thraldom has never been equalled. the land was deluged with the blood of slain beasts. all industries were paralyzed with discouragement. social aspiration was blighted, patriotism and national spirit were weakened, and india was prepared for those disastrous invasions which made her the prey of all northern races. it was in protest against these evils that gautama and many able philosophers arose about 500 b.c. already the intellectual classes had matched the brahmans by drawing upon vedic authority for their philosophy. as the brahmans had produced a ritual from the vedas, so the philosophers framed a sort of philosophic veda in the _upanishads_. men had begun to ask themselves the great questions of human life and destiny, "whence am i? what is this mysterious being of which i am conscious?" they had begun to reason about nature, the origin of matter, the relation of mortals to the infinite. the school of the upanishads regarded themselves as an aristocracy of intellect, and held philosophy as their esoteric and peculiar prerogative. it was maintained that two distinct kinds of revelation had been made to men. first, that simple kind which was designed for priests and the common masses, for all those who regarded only effects and were satisfied with sacerdotal assumption and merit-making. but, secondly, there was a higher knowledge which concerned itself with the origin of the world and the hidden causes of things. even to this day the upanishads are the vedas of the thinking classes of india.[43] as the brahmanas gave first expression to the doctrine of caste, so in the upanishads we find the first development of pantheism and the doctrine of transmigration. the conclusion had already been reached that "there is only one being who exists: he is within this universe and yet outside this universe: whoe'er beholds all living creatures as in him, and him the universal spirit, as in all, thenceforth regards no creature with contempt." the language of hindu speculation exhausts its resources in similes by which to represent personal annihilation. man's origin and relations are accounted for very tersely by such illustrations as these: "as the web issues from the spider, as little sparks proceed from fire, so from the one soul proceed all breathing animals, all worlds, all the gods, all beings." then as to destiny: "these rivers proceed from the east toward the west, thence from the ocean they rise in the form of vapor, and dropping again, they flow toward the south and merge into the ocean. and as the flowing rivers are merged into the sea, losing their names and forms, so the wise, freed from name and form, pass into the divine spirit, which is greater than the great."[44] another favorite illustration is that of the moon's reflection in the water-jar, which disappears the moment the moon itself is hidden. "if the image in the water has no existence separate from that of the moon," says the hindu, "how can it be shown that the human soul exists apart from god?" the mundaka upanishad, based upon the atharva veda (one of the latest,--the upanishad being later still), contains this account of the universe: "as the spider spins and gathers back (its thread); as plants sprout on the earth; as hairs grow on a living person; so is this universe here produced from the imperishable nature. by contemplation the vast one germinates; from him food (or body) is produced; and thence successively, breath, mind, real (elements) worlds, and immortality resulting from (good) deeds. "the omniscient is profound contemplation consisting in the knowledge of him who knows all; and from that, the (manifested) vast one, as well as names, forms, and food proceed; and this is truth."[45] it is a great blemish upon the upanishads, that while there are subtle, and in some respects sublime, utterances to be found here and there, the great mass is fanciful and often puerile, and in many instances too low and prurient to bear translation into the english language. this is clearly alleged by mr. bose, and frankly admitted by max müller.[46] in the common protest which finally broke down the system of brahmanical sacrifice, and for a time relaxed the rigors of caste tyranny, buddhism then just appearing (say 500 b.c.), joined hand in hand with the philosophies. men were tired of priestcraft, and by a natural reaction they went to an opposite extreme; they were tired of religion itself. buddha became an undoubted atheist or agnostic, and six distinct schools of philosophy arose on the basis of the upanishads--some of which were purely rationalistic, some were conservative, others radical. some resembled the greek "atomists" in their theory,[47] and others fought for the authority, and even the supreme divinity, of the vedas.[48] all believed in the eternity of matter, and the past eternity of the soul; all accepted the doctrine of transmigration, and maintained that the spiritual nature can only act through a material body. all were pessimistic, and looked for relief only in absorption. but the progress of hindu thought was marked by checks and counter-checks. as the tyranny of the priesthood had led to the protest of philosophy, so the extreme and conflicting speculations of philosophic rationalism probably gave rise to the conservatism of the code of manu. no adequate idea of the drift of hindu thought can be gained without assigning due influence to this all-important body of laws. they accomplished more in holding fast the power of the brahmans, and enabling them to stem the tide of intellectual rebellion, and finally to regain the sceptre from the hand of buddhism, than all other literatures combined. their date cannot be definitely known. they were composed by different men and at different times. they probably followed the upanishads, but antedated the full development of the philosophic schools. many of the principles of manu's code had probably been uttered as early as the seventh century b.c.[49] the ferment of rationalistic thought was even then active, and demanded restraint. the one phrase which expresses the whole spirit of the laws of manu is intense conservatism. they stand for the definite authority of dogma; they re-assert in strong terms the authority of the vedas; they establish and fortify by all possible influences, the institution of caste. they enclose as in an iron framework, all domestic, social, civil, and religious institutions. they embrace not only the destiny of men upon the earth, but also the rewards and punishments of the future life. whatever they touched was petrified. abuses which had crept in through the natural development of human depravity--for example, the oppression of woman--the laws of manu stamped with inflexible and irreversible authority. the evils which grow up in savage tribes are bad enough, the tyranny of mere brute force is to be deplored, but worst of all is that which is sanctioned by statute, and made the very corner-stone of a great civilization. probably no other system of laws ever did so much to rivet the chains of domestic tyranny.[50] the code of manu has been classified as, 1st, sacred knowledge and religion; 2d, philosophy; 3d, social rules and caste organization; 4th, criminal and civil laws; 5th, systems of penance; 6th, eschatology, or the doctrine of future rewards. no uninspired or non-vedic production has equal authority in india. we can only judge of its date by its relative place among other books. it applies vedic names to the gods, though it mentions brahma and vishnu, but it makes no reference to the trimurti. pantheism was evidently in existence and was made prominent in the code. the influence of manu over the jurisprudence of india was a matter of growth. at first the code appears to have been a guide in customs and observances, but as it gained currency it acquired the force of law, and extended its sway over all the tribes of india. it was not, however, maintained as a uniform code throughout the land, but its principles were found underlying the laws of all the provinces. its very merits were finally fruitful of evil. human weal was sacrificed to the over-shadowing power of a system of customs cunningly wrought and established by brahmanical influence. the author was evidently a brahman, and the whole work was prepared and promulgated in the interests of brahmanism as against all freedom of thought. its support of the vedas was fanatical. thus: "a brahman by retaining the rig veda in his memory incurs no guilt, though he should destroy the three worlds." again: "when there is contradiction of two precepts in the veda, both are declared to be law; both have been justly promulgated by known sages as valid law." the laws of manu make no mention of the doctrine of _bakti_ or faith, and there is no reference to the worship of the _sakti_; both of these were of later date. the doctrine of transmigration, however, is fully stated, and as a consequence of this the hells described in the code, though places of torture, resolve themselves into merely temporary purgatories, while the heavens become only the steps on the road to a union with deity. there is reason to believe that the practice of employing idols to represent deity was unknown at the time the code was compiled. there is no allusion to public services or to teaching in the temples, the chief rites of religion were of a domestic kind, and the priests of that age were nothing more than domestic chaplains. manu's theory of creation was this: "the self-existent, having willed to produce various beings from his own substance, first with a thought created the waters and placed on them a productive seed or egg. then he himself was born in that egg in the form of brahma. next he caused the egg to divide itself, and out of its two divisions there came the heaven above and the earth beneath. afterward, having divided his own substance he became half male, half female. from that female was produced viraj, from whom was created the secondary progenitor of all beings. then from the supreme soul he drew forth manu's intellect." this mixed cosmogony is supposed to indicate a diversity of authorship. it will be seen that this is much less philosophical than the theory of creation quoted above from the mundaka upanishad.[51] if we compare manu's account with the description of the "beginning" found in one of the hymns of the rig veda,[52] we shall see that there has been a downward trend of hinduism from the simple and sublime conceptions of the early poets to that which is grotesque, and which has probably been worked over to suit the purposes of the brahmans. no mythological legend was too absurd if it promoted the notion of the divine origin of the manus (sages) and the brahmans. manu makes much of the vedic passage which refers to the origin of caste.[53] he maintained that this distinction of caste was as much a law of nature and divine appointment as the separation of different classes of animals. the prominence accorded to the brahmans was nothing short of divine. "even when brahmans employ themselves in all sorts of inferior occupations (as poverty often compels them to do) they must under all circumstances be honored, for they are to be regarded as supreme divinities." "a brahman's own power is stronger than the power of the king, therefore by his own might he may chastise his foes." "he who merely assails a brahman with intent to kill him, will continue in hell for a hundred years, and he who actually strikes him must endure a thousand years." it is always the truth that is mingled with the errors of any system which constitutes its life and gives it perpetuity, and there is much in the code of manu to be admired. like the confucian ethics, it laid its foundations in the respect due from childhood to parents, and in guarding the sanctities of the home. it aimed at fairness between ruler and subject, in an age when over most of the asiatic continent the wildest caprice of rulers was the law of their respective realms. manu taught the duty of kings toward their subjects in most emphatic terms. they were to regard themselves as servants, or rather as fathers, of the people; and rules were prescribed for their entire conduct. they were the representatives of deity in administering the affairs of mortals, and must realize their solemn responsibility.[54] it must ever be acknowledged that the hindu laws respecting property were characterized by wisdom and equity. taxation was not subject to caprice or injustice; where discriminations occurred they were in favor of the poor, and the heaviest burdens were laid where they should be laid, upon the rich. there were wise adaptations, calculated to develop the industry and self-help of the weakest classes, and care was taken that they never should become oppressive. no political or civic tyranny could be allowed; but that of the priesthood in its relations to all ranks, and that of the householder toward his wife and toward all women, were quite sufficient. in this last regard we scarcely know which was the greater--the heartless wickedness of the code, or its blind and bigoted folly. how it was that laws could be framed which indicated such rare sagacity, which in many other respects were calculated to build up the very highest civilization, and which, at the same time, failed to foresee that this oppression of woman must result in the inevitable degeneracy of succeeding generations of men, must ever remain a mystery.[55] we have glanced at the purer and simpler aryanism of the early period, at the bigoted, tyrannical brahmanism, with its ritual, its sacrifices, its caste. we have merely alluded to the rationalistic reaction of the philosophers and the buddhists. we shall now see that the brahman power is not broken, but that it will regain all and more than it has lost, that it will prove elastic enough to embrace all that has gone before; that while buddhism will be banished, many of its elements will be retained, and the whole woven into one marvellous texture which we will call _hinduism_.[56] even during the period of buddhism's greatest triumphs, say, two or three centuries before christ, changes of great moment were going on in the brahmanical faith. the old sacrificial system had lost its power, but the flexible and inexhaustible resources of brahmanical cunning were by no means dormant. in the border wars of the aryans, with rival invaders on the one hand, and with the conquered but ever restless aborigines on the other, great and popular heroes had sprung up. the exploits of these heroes had been celebrated in two great epics, the ramayana and the mahabharata, and the popularity of these poems was immense. the heroes were of the soldier caste, and gave to that caste a prestige which seemed to the brahmans formidable and dangerous.[57] the divine prerogatives of their order were all in jeopardy. the remedy chosen by the brahmans was a bold and desperate one. these heroes must be raised out of the soldier caste by making them divine. as such they would hold a nearer relation to the divine brahmans than to the soldiers. the legends were therefore worked over--brahmanized--so to speak.[58] rama, who had overcome certain chieftains of ceylon, and krishna, who had won great battles in rajputana, were raised to the rank of gods and demi-gods. by an equal exaggeration the hostile chiefs of rival invaders were transformed to demons, and the black, repulsive hill tribes, who were involved as allies in these conflicts, were represented as apes. as a part of this same brahmanizing process, the doctrine of the trimurti was developed, and also the doctrine of incarnation. most conspicuous were the incarnations of vishnu; rama and krishna were finally placed among the ten incarnations of that deity. this was a skilful stroke of policy, for it was now no longer the heroes of the soldier caste who had won victory for the aryans; it was vishnu, the preserver, the care-taker, and sympathizer with all the interests of mankind. the development of the doctrines of the trimurti and of incarnation undoubtedly followed both the rise of buddhism and the promulgation of the laws of manu. meanwhile the brahmans were shrewd enough to adapt themselves to certain other necessities. the influence of buddhism was still a force which was not to be disregarded. it had demonstrated one thing which had never been recognized before, and that was the need of a more human and sympathetic element in the divine objects of worship. men were weary of worshipping gods who had no kindly interest in humanity. they were weary of a religion which had no other element than that of fear or of bargaining with costly sacrifices. they longed for something which had the quality of mercy. buddha had demonstrated the value of this element, and by an adroit stroke of policy the brahmans adopted gautama as the ninth avatar of vishnu. meanwhile they adopted the heroic krishna as the god of sympathy--the favorite of the lower masses who were not too critical toward his vices. we have now reached the fully developed form of _hinduism_.[59] the brahmans had embraced every element that could give strength to their broad, eclectic, and all-embracing system.[60] the doctrine of the trimurti had become a strong factor, as it furnished a sort of framework, and gave stability. as compared with the early aryanism, it removed the idea of deity from merely natural forces to that of abstract thoughts, principles, and emotions, as active and potent in the world. at the same time it retained the old vedic deities under new names and with new functions, and it did not abate its professed regard for vedic authority. the brahmans had rendered their system popular in a sense with the intellectual classes by adopting all the philosophies. they had stopped the mouth of buddhist protest by embracing the buddha among their incarnations. they had shown an advance in the succession of incarnations from the early embodiments of brute force, the fish, the tortoise, the boar, up to heroes, and from these to the ninth avatar, the buddha, as a moralist and philosopher.[61] they left on record the prediction that a tenth should come--and he is yet to come--who, in a still higher range of moral and spiritual power, should redeem and renovate the earth, and establish a kingdom of righteousness. meanwhile, in this renaissance of the hindu faith, this wide, politic, self-adapting system, we find not only buddhism, philosophy, the early aryanism, and the stiff cultus of brahmanism, but there is also a large infusion of the original superstitions of the dravidians, kohls, santals, and other nature worshippers of the hill tribes. much of the polytheism of the modern hindus--the worship of hills, trees, apes, cattle, the sun, the moon, unseen spirits, serpents, etc.--has been adopted from these simple tribes, so that the present system embraces all that has ever appeared on the soil of india--even mohammedanism to some extent; and as some contend, very much also has been incorporated from the early teachings of the so-called st. thomas christians of malabar. such is the immense composite which is called hinduism. it continued its development through the early centuries of the christian era, and down even to the middle ages. since then there has been disintegration instead of growth. the brahmans have not only retained the aryan deities, and extended vishnu's incarnate nature over the epic heroes, but in the puranas they have woven into the alleged lives of the incarnate gods the most grotesque mythologies and many revolting vices. it may be interesting to trace for a moment the influence of the different lines of hindu literature upon the general development of national character. of course, the early vedic literature has never lost its influence as the holy and inspired source of all knowledge to the hindu race; but we have seen how much more potential were the brahmanas and the upanishad philosophy drawn from the vedas, than were those sacred oracles themselves; how the brahmanas riveted the chains of priestcraft and caste, and how the philosophies invigorated the intellect of the people at a time when they were most in danger of sinking into the torpor of ignorance and base subserviency to ritual and sacrifice; how it gave to the better classes the courage to rise up in rebellion and throw off every yoke, and think for themselves. we have seen how buddhism by its protest against sacerdotalism crippled for a time the power of the brahmans and raised a representative of the soldier caste to the chief place as a teacher of men; how its inculcation of pity to man and beast banished the slaughter and cruelty of wholesale and meaningless sacrifice, and how its example of sympathy changed hinduism itself, and brought it into nearer relations with humanity. driven from india, though it was, it left an immense deposit of influence and of power. we have seen how, as a counter-check to philosophy and buddhism, the code of manu reasserted the authority of the vedas, and riveted anew the chains of caste, and how it compensated for its oppressiveness by many wholesome and benign regulations--accomplishing more, perhaps, than all other literatures combined to maintain the stability of hinduism, through its many vicissitudes, and in spite of the heterogeneous elements which it received and incorporated. scarcely less important was the influence of the great epics--the ramayana and the mahabharata--with their doctrine of trimurti and the incarnations of vishnu in the national heroes. this conciliated the soldier caste, subsidized the most popular characters in hindu tradition, at the same time that it made them tenfold more glorious than before. the epics widened out the field of hindu mythology immensely. never before had there been such a boundless range for the imagination. the early brahmans had cramped all intellectual growth, and held mankind by the leash of priestly ritual. the philosophies had been too strait and lofty for any but the higher class; manu's laws had been a stern school-master to keep the people under curbs and restraints; even the brahmans themselves were the slaves of their own ritual. but all the people could understand and admire rama's wonderful victories over the demon ravana. all could appreciate the devotion of the lovely sita, and weep when she was kidnapped and borne away, like grecian helen, to the demon court in ceylon; and they could be thrilled with unbounded joy when she was restored--the truest and loveliest of wives--to be the sharer of a throne. the epics took such hold of the popular heart that any fact, any theory, any myth that could be attached to them found ready credence. the mahabharata especially became a general texture upon which any philosophy, or all the philosophies, might be woven at will. and for a long period, extending from three or four centuries b.c. onward far into the christian era, it was ever ready to receive modifications from the fertile brain and skilful hand of any devout brahman. a striking example of this was the introduction of the bhagavad gita. when this was composed, somewhere about the second or third century of our era, there was no little conflict between the different schools of philosophy; and its unknown author attempted to unite them all in a poem which should harmonize their contradictions and exalt the virtues of each, and at the same time reiterate all the best maxims of hinduism. some centuries later, the pronounced vedantist sancarakarya revamped the poem and gave its philosophy a more pantheistic character; later still the demigod krishna was raised to full rank as the supreme vishnu--the creator and upholder of all things.[62] it is important to notice that in the trend of hindu literature through so many ages there has been no upward movement, but rather a decline. nowhere do we find hymns of so pure and lofty a tone as in the early vedas. no philosophy of the later times has equalled that of the upanishads and the six darsanas. no law-giver like manu has appeared for twenty-four centuries. no sanskrit scholarship has equalled that of the great grammarian panini, who lived in the fourth century b.c. and although no end of poetry has succeeded the great epics, it has shown deterioration. the puranas, written at a later day, reveal only a reckless zeal to exalt the incarnate deities. they may properly be called histories of the incarnations of brahma, vishnu, siva, and glorifications of krishna. and the very nature of the subjects with which they deal gives free scope to an unbridled imagination and to the most reckless exaggeration. if anything more were wanting to insure their extravagance, it may be found in the fact that they were inspired by the rivalry of the respective worshippers of different gods. the puranas mark the development of separate sects, each of which regarded its particular deity as the supreme and only god. the worshippers of vishnu and the worshippers of siva were in sharp rivalry, and they have continued their separation to this day.[63] those who came to worship vishnu as incarnate in krishna, gained an advantage in the popular element associated with a favorite hero. yet this was matched by the influence of the sankhya philosophy, which assigned to siva a male and female dualism, a doctrine which finally plunged hinduism into deepest degradation. it brought about a new development known as saktism, and the still later and grosser literature of the tantras. in these, hinduism reached its lowest depths. the modern "aryas" discard both the tantras and the puranas, and assert that the popular incarnations of vishnu were only good men. they take refuge from the corruptions of modern hinduism in the purer teachings of the early vedas. _the contrasts of hinduism and christianity._ hinduism has some elements in common with christianity which it is well to recognize. it is theistic; it is a religion, as distinguished from the agnostic and ethical systems of india and china.[64] hinduism always recognized a direct divine revelation which it regards with profound reverence; and through all its variations and corruptions it has inculcated in the minds of the indian races a deeply religious feeling. it has been claimed that it has made the hindus the most devotional people in the world. like christianity, hinduism appeals to man's intellectual nature, and it is inwrought with profound philosophy. it does not, however, like some modern systems, teach that divine truth has been revealed to man by natural processes; rather it regards the early revelation as having suffered obscuration.[65] it also has its trinity, its incarnations, and its predictions of a messiah who shall restore the truth and establish righteousness. the hindu traditions maintain that mankind descended from a single pair;[66] that the first estate of the race was one of innocence; that man was one of the last products of creation; that in the first ages he was upright, and consequently happy. "the beings who were thus created by brahma are said to have been endowed with righteousness and perfect faith; they abode wherever they pleased, unchecked by any impediment; their hearts were free from guile; they were pure, made exempt from toil by observance of sacred institutes. in their sanctified minds hari dwelt; they were filled with perfect wisdom by which they contemplated the glory of vishnu." hartwell has pointed out the fact that the early hindu traditions here unite with the scriptural account in virtually denying all those theories of evolution which trace the development of man from lower animals.[67] but compared with christianity, its contrasts are far greater than its resemblances. first, as to the nature of god, there is an infinite difference between the cold and unconscious brahman, slumbering for ages without thought or emotion or any moral attribute, and the god of israel, whose power and wisdom and goodness, whose mercy and truth and tender compassion, are so constantly set forth in the bible. the latter compares himself to a father who cares for his children, and who has redeemed the world by an infinite sacrifice. even in the most popular emanation of brahman--even in vishnu--there is nothing of a fatherly spirit, no appeal as to children, no kindly remonstrance against sin, no moral instruction, or effort to encourage and establish character, no promise of reward, no enkindling of immortal hope. second, there is a striking contrast in the comparative estimates which hinduism and christianity place upon the human soul. unlike buddhism, hinduism does recognize the existence of a soul, but it is only a temporary emanation, like the moon's reflection in the water. it resembles its source as does the moon's image, but coldly and in a most unsatisfactory sense; there is no capacity for fellowship, and the end is absorption.[68] on the other hand, christianity teaches us that we are created in god's image, but not that we _are_ his image. we are separate, though dependent, and if reunited to him through christ we shall dwell in his presence forever. third, the two systems are in strong contrast in the comparative hopes which they hold out for the future. the doctrine of transmigration casts a gloom over all conscious being; it presents an outlook so depressing as to make life a burden, and the acme of all possible attainment is individual extinction, or what amounts to the same thing, absorption into deity. the logic of it is that it would be better still not to have been born at all. christianity promises an immediate transfer to a life of unalloyed blessedness, and an endless growth of all our powers and capacities; but why should hinduism urge the cultivation of that whose real destiny is "effacement?" hinduism finds the explanation of life's mysteries and inscrutable trials in the theory of sins committed in a previous existence. christianity, while recognizing the same trials, relieves them with the hope of solutions in a future life of compensating joy. the one turns to that which is past, unchangeable and hopeless, and finds only sullen despair; the other anticipates an inheritance richer than eye hath seen, or ear heard, or heart conceived. fourth, hinduism has no saviour and no salvation. it is not a religion in the highest sense of _rescue_ and reconciliation. it avails us of no saving power higher than our own unaided effort. it implies the ruin of sin, but provides no remedy. it presents no omnipotent arm stretched forth to save. its fatalism places man under endless disabilities, and then bids him to escape from the nexus if he can; but it reveals no divine helper, no sacrifice, no mediator, no regenerating spirit. it has no glad tidings to proclaim, no comfort in sorrow, no victory over the sting of death, no resurrection unto life. though at a period subsequent to the preaching of the gospel in india--perhaps the seventh or eighth century a.d.--a doctrine of faith (_bakti_) was engrafted upon hinduism, yet it had no hint of a saviour from sin and death.[69] fifth, in hinduism there is no liberty for the free action of the human spirit. though the life of a brahman is intensely religious, yet it is cramped with exactions which are not only abortive but positively belittling. the code of brahmanism never deals with general principles in the regulation of conduct, but fills the whole course of life with punctilious minutiæ of observances. instead of prescribing, as christ did, an all-comprehensive law of supreme love to god and love to our neighbor as ourselves, it loads the mind with petty exactions, puerile precepts, inane prohibitions. "unlike christianity, which is all spirit and life," says dr. duff, "hinduism is all letter and death." repression takes the place of inspiration and the encouragement of hope. there are a thousand subtle principles in hinduism whose influence is felt in society and in the state, and to which the faith and power of the gospel present the very strongest contrasts. for example, while christianity has raised woman to a position of respect and honor, and made her influence felt as something sacred and potential in the family and in all society, hinduism has brought her down even from the place which she occupied among the primitive aryans, to an ever-deepening degradation. it has made her life a burden and a curse. pundita ramabai, in her plea for high-caste hindu women, quotes a prayer of a child widow in which she asks, "o father of the world, hast thou not created us? or has perchance some other god made us? dost thou only care for men? o almighty one, hast thou not power to make us other than we are, that we too may have some part in the blessings of life?" even in this last decade of the nineteenth century the priesthood of bengal are defending against all humane legislation those old customs which render the girlhood of hindu women a living death.[70] in its broad influence christianity has raised the once savage tribes of europe to the highest degree of culture, and made them leaders and rulers of the world; but hinduism has so weakened and humbled the once conquering aryans that they have long been an easy prey to every invading race. christianity shows in its sacred book a manifest progress from lower to higher moral standards--from the letter to the spirit, from the former sins that were winked at to the perfect example of christ, from the narrow exclusiveness of judaism to the broad and all-embracing spirit of the gospel, from prophecy to fulfilment, from types and shadows to the full light of redemption; the sacred books of hinduism have degenerated from the lofty aspirations of the vedic nature-worship to the vileness of saktism, from the noble praises of varuna to the low sensuality of the tantras, from vedic conceptions of the creation, sublime as the opening of st. john's gospel, to the myths of the divine turtle or the boar, or the escapades of the supreme and "adorable krishna."[71] christianity breaks down all barriers which divide and alienate mankind, and establishes a universal brotherhood in christ; hinduism has raised the most insurmountable barriers and developed the most inexorable social tyranny ever inflicted on the human race. the hebrew economy also recognized a priestly class, but they were chosen from among their brethren and were only a distinct family; they made no claim to divine lineage, and they were guiltless of social tyranny. christianity enjoins a higher and purer ethic than it has ever found in the natural moral standards of any people; it aims at perfection; it treats the least infraction as a violation of the whole law; it regards even corrupt thoughts as sins; it bids us be holy even as he is holy in whose sight the heavens are unclean. hinduism, on the other hand, is below the ethical standard of respectable hindu society. the better classes are compelled to apologize for it by asserting that that which is debasing in men may be sinless in the gods. the offences of krishna and arjuna would not be condoned in mortals; the vile orgies of the "left-handed worshippers" of siva would not be tolerated but for their religious character. the murders committed by the thugs in honor of kali were winked at only because a goddess demanded them. the naked processions of chaitanya's followers would be dispersed by the police anywhere but in india. it is the peculiar distinction of india that it has been the theatre of nearly all the great religions. brahmanism, buddhism, and mohammedanism have all made trial of their social and political power and have failed. last of all came christianity. the systems which preceded it had had centuries of opportunity; and yet christianity has done more for the elevation of hindu society in the last fifty years than they had accomplished in all the ages of their dominion. neither buddhism nor mohammedanism had made any serious impression on caste; neither had been able to mitigate the wrongs which brahmanism had heaped upon woman--mohammedanism had rather increased them. the horrors of the satti and the murder of female infants--those bitterest fruits of priestly tyranny--were left unchecked until the british government, inspired by missionary influence and a general christian sentiment, branded them as infamous and made them crimes. but now even the native sentiment of the better classes in india is greatly changed by these higher influences, and the conventional morality is rising above the teachings of the national religion. widow-burning and infanticide belong almost wholly to the past. child-marriage is coming into disrepute, and caste, though not destroyed, is crippled, and its preposterous assumptions are falling before the march of social progress. perhaps the very highest tribute which hinduism has paid to christianity is seen in the fact that the modern arya somaj has borrowed its ethics and some of its religious doctrines, and is promulgating them under vedic labels and upon vedic authority.[72] it has renounced those corruptions of hinduism which can no longer bear the light--such as enforced widowhood and the general oppression of woman. it denounces the incarnations of vishnu as mere inventions, and therefore cuts up by the roots the whole krishna cult and dissipates the glory of the bhagavad gita. it abhors polytheism, and not only proclaims the supremacy of one only true god, self-existent, the creator and upholder of all things, but it maintains that such was the teaching of the vedas. but although this modern eclectic system adopts the whole ethical outcome of christian civilization in india for its own purposes, it shows a most uncompromising hostility to christianity. though it claims to be positively theistic, it seems ready to enter into alliance with any form of atheism or agnosticism, eastern or western, against the spread of christian influence in india. in speaking of the movement of revived aryanism i assume that with the more intelligent and progressive classes of india the old hinduism is dead. of course, millions of men still adhere to the old corruptions. millions in the remoter districts would retain the festival of juggernaut, the hook-swinging, even infanticide and widow-burning, if they dared. the revolting orgies of kali and doorga, and the vilest forms of siva worship, even the murderous rites of the thugs, might be revived by the fanatical, if foreign influence were withdrawn; but, taking india as a whole, these things are coming to be discarded. the people are ashamed of them; they dare not undertake to defend them in the open day of the present civilization. all intelligent hindus are persuaded to accept the situation, and look to the future instead of the past. the country is full of new influences which must be counted as factors. british rule is there, and is there to stay. education has come--good, bad, and indifferent. english university training is bringing forward a host of acute thinkers of native blood. but the forces of western infidelity are also there, grappling with western christianity on indian soil, and before the eyes of the conquered and still sullen people. the vilest of english books and the worst of french novels in english translations are in the markets. all the worst phases of european commerce are exhibited. the opium monopoly, the liquor traffic, and all the means and methods of unscrupulous money-getting, with the wide-spread example of drinking habits, and unbounded luxury and extravagance. and, in opinions, the war of aggression is no longer on one side only. while the foreigner speaks and writes of superstition, of heathenism, of abominable rites now passing away, the native hindu press is equally emphatic in its condemnation of what it calls the swinish indulgence of the anglo-saxon, his beer-drinking and his gluttony, his craze for money and material power, his disgust at philosophy and all intellectual aspiration, his half-savage love for the chase and the destruction of animal life. educated hindus throw back against the charge of idolatry our idolatry of pelf, which, as they claim, eclipses every other thought and aspiration, leads to dishonesty, over-reaching, and manifold crime, and sinks noble ethics to the low level of expediency or self-interest; the conquest is not yet won. a hundred varieties of creed have sprung up beneath this banyan-tree which i have called hinduism. there are worshippers of vishnu, of siva, of kali, of krishna as bacchus, and of krishna as the supreme and adorable god. there are sikhs, and jains, and buddhists; theosophists, vedantic philosophers, mohammedans, brahmos, parsees, evolutionists, and agnostics; devil-worshippers, and worshippers of ghosts and serpents; but in considering these as forces to be met by christian influence, we must regard them all as in virtual alliance with each other. they are all one in pride of race and of venerable custom. they are all one in their hatred of foreign dominion, and of the arrogance and overbearing assumption of the european.[73] the hindu religions, therefore, however divided, and however weak and moribund they may be taken singly, find a real vitality in the union of common interests, in the sentiments of patriotism, in the pride of their philosophy, in the glory of their ancient history as the true and original aryans, compared with whom western nations are mere offshoots. their religious faith is mixed and involved with patriotism, politics, and race prejudice, and on the other hand christianity in india is handicapped by political and commercial interest and a hated domination. on both sides these combined influences must be considered in estimating the future issues of the great conflict. the question is not how christianity and hinduism would fare in a conflict pure and simple, unembarrassed by complications, but how christianity with its drawbacks is likely to succeed against hinduism with its manifold intrenchments. but, while weighing well the obstacles, how great are the encouragements! what an auspicious fact that even a hostile organization has appropriated the christian cultus bodily, and can find no better weapons than its blessed truths. christianity is felt as a silent power, even though under other names. it is, after all, the leaven that is working all-powerfully in india to-day. there was a period in the process of creation when light beamed dimly upon the earth, though the sun, its source, had not yet appeared. so through the present hinduism there is a haze of christian truth, though the sun of righteousness is not yet acknowledged as its source. but the spirit of god broods over the waters, and the true light of the world will break on india. footnotes: [footnote 34: the fact that environment has to a certain extent affected the religions of mankind is entirely overworked, when men like buckle make it formative and controlling.] [footnote 35: instead of the later and universal pessimism, there was in the vedic religion a simple but joyous sense of life.] [footnote 36: _hinduism_, p. 31.] [footnote 37: _chips from a german workshop_, vol. i., p. 15.] [footnote 38: _aryan witness_, p. 204; also _hinduism_, p. 36.] [footnote 39: ibid., p. 37.] [footnote 40: a son of hariscandra. _hinduism_, p. 37.] [footnote 41: this is in strong contrast with the old testament precepts, which everywhere had greater respect to the heart of the offerer than to the gifts.] [footnote 42: the brahmans had found certain grades of population marked by color lines, shaded off from the negroid aborigines to the dravidians, and from them to the more recent and nobler aryans, and they were prompt also to seize upon a mere poetic and fanciful expression found in the rig veda, which seemed to give countenance to their fourfold caste distinction by representing one class as having sprung from the head of brahma, another from the shoulders, the third from his thighs, and a fourth from his feet. altogether they founded a social system which has been the wonder of the ages, and which has given to the _brahmans_ the prestige of celestial descent. the _kshatreych_ or soldier caste stands next, and as it has furnished many military leaders and monarchs who disputed the arrogant claims of the brahmans, conflicts of the upper castes have not been infrequent. the _vaishya_, or farmer caste, has furnished the principal groundwork of many admixtures and subdivisions, until at the present time there are endless subcastes, to each of which a particular kind of employment is assigned. the _sudras_ are still the menials, but there are different grades of degradation even among them.] [footnote 43: _hindu philosophy_, bose, p. 47.] [footnote 44: _indian wisdom_ on the brahmanas and upanishads. also _hindu philosophy_, bose.] [footnote 45: _colebrook's essays_, foot-note, p. 85.] [footnote 46: see _introduction to the sacred books of the east_, vol. i.] [footnote 47: vaiseshika philosophy, in _indian wisdom_.] [footnote 48: mimansa philosophy. ibid.] [footnote 49: sir monier williams assigns the code of manu _in its present form_ to the sixth century b.c. _indian wisdom_, p. 215. other oriental scholars consider it older.] [footnote 50: these tendencies were more intensely emphasized in some of the later codes, which, however, were only variations of the greater one of manu.] [footnote 51: see p. 82.] [footnote 52: quoted on p. 76.] [footnote 53: see note, p. 80.] [footnote 54: sir monier williams declares that some of mann's precepts are worthy of christianity. _indian wisdom_, p. 212.] [footnote 55: it should be set down to the credit of the code of manu that with all its relentless cruelty toward woman it nowhere gives countenance to the atrocious custom of widow-burning which soon afterward became an important factor in the hindu system and desolated the homes of india for more than two thousand years. there would seem to be some dispute as to whether or not widow-burning is sanctioned in the rig veda. colebrooke, in his _essays_ (vol. i., p, 135), quotes one or two passages which authorize the rite, but sir monier williams (_indian wisdom_, p. 259, note) has shown that changes were made in this text at a much later day for the purpose of gaining vedic authority for a cruel system, of which even so late a work as the code of manu makes no mention, and (page 205 ibid.) he quotes another passage from the rig veda which directs a widow to ascend the pyre of her husband as a token of attachment, but to leave it before the burning is begun.] [footnote 56: as the spread of buddhism had owed much to the political triumph of king ashoka, so the revival of hinduism was greatly indebted to the influence of a new dynasty about a century b.c.] [footnote 57: _indian wisdom_, p. 314.] [footnote 58: ibid., p. 317.] [footnote 59: brahmanism and hinduism are often used interchangeably, but all confusion will be avoided by confining the former to that intense sacerdotalism which prevailed during the brahmana period, while the latter is used more comprehensively, or is referred particularly to the later and fully developed system.] [footnote 60: _hinduism_, pp. 12, 13.] [footnote 61: the brahmans were careful, however, to brand the buddha, while admitting him as an avatar. their theory was that vishnu appeared in gautama for the purpose of deluding certain demons into despising the worship of the gods, and thus securing their destruction. this affords an incidental proof that gautama was regarded as an atheist.--see _indian wisdom_, p. 335.] [footnote 62: see _aryan witness_, closing chapter; also _christ and other masters_, p. 198, notes 1, 2, and 3.] [footnote 63: see _brahmanism and hinduism_, monier williams.] [footnote 64: hardwick traces similarities between hindu traditions and christianity in such points as these: 1, the primitive state of man; 2, his fall by transgression; 3, his punishment in the deluge; 4, the rite of sacrifice; 5, the primitive hope of restoration.--_christ and other masters_, p. 209.] [footnote 65: the hindus hold that "truth was originally deposited with men, but gradually slumbered and was forgotten; the knowledge of it returns like a recollection."--_humboldt's kosmos_, ii., p. 112.] [footnote 66: _professor wilson's lectures_, p. 52.] [footnote 67: _vishnu puranas_, p. 45, note 4.] [footnote 68: buddhism is still more disheartening, since it denies the separate conscious existence of the ego. there cannot be divine fellowship, therefore, but only the current of thoughts and emotions like the continuous flame of a burning candle. not our souls will survive, but our karma.] [footnote 69: _christ and other masters_, p. 182.] [footnote 70: yet in spite of manu and the inveteracy of old custom, there gleams here and there in hindu literature and history a bright ideal of woman's character and rank; while the _ramayana_ has its model sita, the _mahabharata_, i., 3028, has this peerless sketch: "a wife is half the man, his truest friend; a loving wife is a perpetual spring of virtue, pleasure, wealth; a faithful wife is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss; a sweetly-speaking wife is a companion in solitude; a father in advice; a mother in all seasons of distress; a rest in passing through life's wilderness." this, however, is a pathetic outburst: the tyranny of the ages remains.] [footnote 71: even in the later development of the doctrine of faith (bakti) hinduism fails to connect with it any moral purification or elevation. see quotations from elphinstone and wilson in _christ and other masters_, p. 234.] [footnote 72: see a recent _catechism_ published by the arya somaj.] [footnote 73: the following hymn, quoted from the arya _catechism_, reveals the proud spirit of revived aryanism: "we are the sons of brave aryas of yore, those sages in learning, those heroes in war. they were the lights of great nations before, and shone in that darkness like morning's bright star, a beacon of warning, a herald from far. have we forgotten our rama and arjun, yudistar or bishma or drona the wise? are not we sons of the mighty duryodani? where did shankar and great dayananda arise? 'in india, in india!' the echo replies. ours the glory of giving the world its science, religion, its poetry and art. we were the first of the men who unfurled the banner of freedom on earth's every part, brought tidings of peace and of love to each heart."] lecture iv. the bhagavad gita and the new testament no other portion of hindu literature has made so great an impression on western minds as the bhagavad gita, "the lord's lay," or the "song of the adorable." it has derived its special importance from its supposed resemblance to the new testament. and as it claims to be much older than the oldest of the gospels or the epistles, it carries the inference that the latter may have borrowed something from it. a plausible translation has been published in boston by mr. mohini m. chatterji, who devoutly believes this to be the revealed word of the supreme creator and upholder of the universe.[74] he admits that at a later day "the same god, worshipped alike by hindus and christians, appeared again in the person of jesus christ," and that "in the bible he revealed himself to western nations, as the bhagavad gita had proclaimed him to the people of the east." and he draws the inference that "if the scriptures of the brahmans and the scriptures of the jews and christians, widely separated as they are by age and nationality, are but different names for one and the same truth, who can then say that the scriptures contradict each other? a careful and reverent collation of the two sets of scriptures will show forth the conscious and intelligent design of revelation." the fact that the bhagavad gita is thoroughly pantheistic, while the bible emphasizes the personality of god in fellowship with the distinct personality of human souls, seems to interpose no serious difficulty in mr. chatterji's view, since he says "'the lord's lay' is for philosophic minds, and therefore deals more at length with the mysteries of the being of god." "in the bhagavad gita," he says, "consisting of seven hundred and seventy verses, the principal topic is the being of god, while scarcely the same amount of exposition is given to it in the whole bible;" and he adds, "the explanation of this remarkable fact is found in the difference between the genius of the hebrew and the brahman race, and also in the fact that the teachings of jesus christ were addressed to 'the common people.'"[75] the air of intellectual superiority which is couched in these words is conspicuous. mr. chatterji also finds an inner satisfaction in what he considers the broad charity of the brahmanical scriptures. he quotes a passage from the narada pancharata which speaks of the buddha as "the preserver of revelation for those outside of the vedic authority." and he concludes that when one such revealer is admitted there can be no reason for excluding others; therefore christianity also should be allowed a place. he declares on vedic authority that whosoever receives the true knowledge of god, however revealed, attains eternal life. and for a parallel to this he quotes the saying of christ, that "this is eternal life that they might know thee the only true god, and jesus christ whom thou hast sent." "the brahmanical scriptures," he says, "are of one accord in teaching that when the heart is purified god is seen; so also jesus christ declares that the pure in heart are blessed, for they shall see god." our translator discards the often-repeated theory that the christian scriptures have copied the wise sayings of krishna; and it is very significant that an argument to which superficial apologists constantly resort is discarded by this real hindu, as he supports the theory that as both were direct revelations from vishnu, there was in his view no need of borrowing. his contention is that god, who "at sundry times and in divers manners" has spoken to men in different ages, made known his truth, and essentially the same truth, both on the plains of india and in judea. and he reminds hindus and christians alike, that this knowledge of truth carries with itself an increased responsibility. he says: "the man who sees the wonderful workings of the spirit among the nations of the earth, bringing each people to god by ways unknown to others, is thereby charged with a duty. to him with terrible precision applies the warning given by gamaliel to the pharisees, 'take heed to yourselves what ye intend to do ... lest ye be found to fight even against god.' if one be a brahman, let him reflect when opposing the religion of jesus what it is that he fights. the truths of christianity are the same as those on which his own salvation depends. how can he be a lover of truth, which is god, if he knows not his beloved under such a disguise? and if he penetrates behind the veil, which should tend only to increase the ardor of his love, he cannot hate those who in obedience to the same truth are preaching the gospel of christ to all nations. indeed he ought to rejoice at his brothers' devotion to the self-same god, and to see that he is rendering service to him by helping others to carry out the behests given to them by the divine master. if, on the other hand, he be a christian, let him remember that while he is commanded to preach repentance and remission of sins in the saviour jesus, he is also warned against 'teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.'" all this seems like charity, but really it is laxity. and here is the very essence of hinduism. its chief characteristic, that which renders it so hard to combat, is its easy indifference to all distinctions. to reason with it is like grasping a jelly-fish. its pantheism, which embraces all things, covers all sides of all questions. it sees no difficulties even between things which are morally opposites. contradictions are not obstacles, and both sides of a dilemma may be harmonized. and to a great extent this same vagueness of conviction characterizes all the heathen systems of the east. the buddhists and the shintoists in japan justify their easy-going partnership by the favorite maxim that, while "there are many paths by which men climb the sides of fusyama, yet upon reaching the summit they all behold the same glorious moon." the question whether all do in fact reach the summit is one which does not occur to an oriental to ask. this same pantheistic charity is seen in the well-known appeal of the late chunder sen, which as an illustration is worth repeating here: "cheshub chunder sen, servant of god, called to be an apostle of the church of the new dispensation, which is in the holy city of calcutta; to all the great nations of the world and to the chief religious sects in the east and west, to the followers of moses and of jesus, of buddha, confucius, zoroaster, mohammed, nanak, and of the various hindu sects; grace be to you and peace everlasting. whereas sects, discords, and strange schisms prevail in our father's family; and whereas this setting of brother against brother has proved the prolific source of evil, it has pleased god to send into the world a message of peace and reconciliation. this new dispensation he has vouchsafed to us in the east, and we have been commanded to bear witness to the nations of the earth ... thus saith the lord: 'i abominate sects and desire love and concord ... i have at sundry times spoken through my prophets and my many dispensations. there is unity. there is one music but many instruments, one body but many members, one spirit but many gifts, one blood but many nations, one church but many churches. let asia and europe and america and all nations prove this new dispensation and the true fatherhood of god and the brotherhood of men.'" this remarkable production--so pauline in style and so far from paul in doctrine--seems to possess everything except definite and robust conviction. and its limp philosophy was not sufficient to withhold even chunder sen himself from the abandonment of his principles not long afterward. this sweet perfume of false charity, with which he thus gently sprayed the sects and nations of mankind, lost its flavor ere the ink of his message was fairly dry; while he who in similar language announced his call to an apostleship eighteen centuries ago, is still turning the world upside down. "charity" is the watchword of indifferentism in the west as well as in the east; and the east and the west are joining hands in their effort to soothe the world into slumber with all its sins and woes unhealed. some months ago an advanced unitarian from boston delivered a farewell address to the buddhists of japan, in which he presented three great unitarians of new england--channing, emerson, and parker--in a sort of transfiguration of gentleness and charity. he maintained that the lives of these men had been an unconscious prophecy of that mild and gentle buddhism which he had found in japan, but of which they had died without the sight.[76] thus the transcendentalism of new england joins hands with the buddhism and the shintoism of japan, and the brahmanism of calcutta, and all are in accord with mr. chatterji and the bhagavad gita. even the theosophists profess their sympathy with the sermon on the mount, and claim christ as an earlier prophet. the one refrain of all is "charity." all great teachers are avatars of vishnu. the globe is belted with this multiform indifferentism, and i am sorry to say that it is largely the gospel of the current literature and of the daily press. in it all there is no saviour and no salvation. religions are all ethnic and local, while the _ignis fatuus_ of a mystic pantheism pervades the world. mr. chatterji's preface closes with a prayer to the "merciful father of humanity to remove from all races of men every unbrotherly feeling in the sacred name of religion, which is but one." the prayer were touching and beautiful on the assumption that there were no differences between truth and error. and there are thousands, even among us, who are asking, "why may not christians respond to this broad charity, and admit this hindu eclectic poem to an equal place with the new testament?" more or less indifferent to all religions, and failing to understand the real principles on which they severally rest, they are ready to applaud a challenge like that which we are considering, and to contrast it with the alleged narrowness and intolerance of christian theism. i have dwelt thus at length upon mr. chatterji's introduction, and have illustrated it by references to similar specious claims of other faiths, in order that i might bring into clearer view the main issue which this book now presents to the american public. it is the softest, sweetest voice yet given to that gospel of false charity which is the fashion of our times. emerson and others caught it from afar and discoursed to a generation now mostly gone of the gentle maxims of confucius, krishna, and gautama. but now krishna is among us in the person of his most devout apostle, and a strange hand of fellowship is stretched out toward us from the land of the vedas. it behooves us to inquire, first, into the pantheistic philosophy which underlies these sayings, and to ask for their meaning as applied in real life; and second, we shall need to know something of krishna, and whether he speaks as one having authority. it should be borne in mind that pantheism sacrifices nothing whatever by embracing all religions, since even false religions are a worship of vishnu in their way, while christianity by its very nature would sacrifice everything. according to pantheism all things that exist, and all events that transpire, are expressions of the divine will. the one only existent being embraces all causes and all effects, all truth and all falsehood. he is no more the source of good than of evil. "i am immortality," says krishna. "i am also death." man with all his thoughts and acts is but the shadow of god, and moves as he is moved upon. arjuna's divine counsellor says to him: "the soul, existing from eternity, devoid of qualities, imperishable, abiding in the body, yet supreme, acts not nor is by any act polluted. he who perceives that actions are performed by prakriti alone, and that the soul is not an actor, sees the truth aright." now, if this reasoning be correct, it is not we that sin; not we that worship; and in the last analysis all religions are alike; they are only the varied expressions of the thought of god. as he manifests his power in nature in a thousand forms, producing some objects that are beautiful to the eye and others that are repulsive, so in his spiritual manifestations he displays a like variety. the ignorance and degradation of fetichism are his, as well as the highest revelations of spiritual truth. a certain class of evolutionists tell us that god contrived the serpent's poison-fang and the mother's tender instinct with "the same creative indifference." and the broad pantheism which overrides the distinctions of eternal right and wrong, and divests god of all moral discriminations, puts vedantism and fetichism, christianity and witchcraft, upon the same basis. the bhagavad gita and the gospel both enjoin the brotherhood of men, but what are the meanings which they give to this term? what are their aims, respectively? one is endeavoring to enforce the rigid and insurmountable barriers of caste; the other commends a mission of love which shall regard neither jew nor greek, barbarian, scythian, bond nor free. it will become apparent, i think, that there may be parallels or similarities which relate to mere phrases while their meanings are wide apart. judging from mr. chatterji's own stand-point, his work has been well done. he has shown a careful study not only of his own literatures and philosophies, but also of the scriptures of the old and new testament--in this respect setting us an example worthy to be followed by christian scholars. such a man has in the outset an immense advantage over those who know nothing of the enemies' positions, but regard them only with disdain. before the high court of public opinion, as represented by our current literature, mere ex-parte assumption will go to the wall, even though it has the better cause, while adroit error, intelligently put and courteously commended, will win the day. this is a lesson which the christian church greatly needs to learn. mr. chatterji's work is the more formidable for its charming graces of style. he has that same facility and elegance in the use of the english language for which so many of his countrymen, sheshadri, bose, banergea, chunder sen, mozoomdar, and others have been distinguished. he is a model of courtesy, and he seems sincere. but turning from the translator to the book itself, we shall now inquire who was krishna, arjuna's friend, what was the origin of the "lord's lay," and what are its real merits as compared with the new testament? krishna and arjuna--like rama chandra--were real human heroes who distinguished themselves in the wars of the indo-aryans with rival tribes who contested the dominion of northern india. they did not live three thousand years before christ, as our translator declares, for they belonged to the soldier caste, and according to the consensus of oriental scholarship the system of caste did not exist till about the beginning of the brahmanic period--say eight hundred years before christ. krishna was born in the punjab, near merut, and it was near there that his chief exploits were performed. the legends represent him as a genial but a reckless forester, brave on the battle-field, but leading a life of low indulgence. the secret of his power lay in his sympathy. his worship, even as a heroic demi-god, brought a new and welcome element into hinduism as contrasted with the remorselessness of siva or the cold indifference of brahma. it was the dawn of a doctrine of faith, and in this character it was probably of later date than the rise of buddhism. indeed, the brahmans learned this lesson of the value of divine sympathy from the buddha. the supernatural element ascribed to krishna, as well as to rama, was a growth, and had its origin in the jealousy of the brahmans toward the warrior caste. his exaltation as the supreme was an after-thought of the inventive brahmans. as stated in a former lecture, these heroes had acquired great renown; and their exploits were the glory and delight of the dazzled populace. in raising them to the rank of deities, and as such appropriating them as kindred to the divine brahmans, the shrewd priesthood saved the prestige of their caste and aggrandized their system by a fully developed doctrine of incarnations. thus, by a growth of centuries, the krishna cult finally crowned the hindu system. the mahabharata, in which the bhagavad gita was incorporated by some author whose name is unknown, is an immense literary mosaic of two hundred and twenty thousand lines. it is heterogeneous, grotesque, inconsistent, and often contradictory--qualities which are scarcely considered blemishes in hindu literature. the bhagavad gita was incorporated as a part of this great epic probably as late as the second or third century of our era, and by that time krishna had come to be regarded as divine, though his full and extravagant deification as the "adorable one" probably did not appear till the author of "narada pancharata" of the eighth century had added whatever he thought the original author should have said five centuries before. as it now stands the poem very cleverly weaves into one fabric many lofty aphorisms borrowed from the upanishads and the later philosophic schools, upon the groundwork of a popular story of which arjuna is the hero. arjuna and his four brothers are about to engage in a great battle with their cousins for the possession of an hereditary throne. the divine krishna, once himself a hero, becomes arjuna's charioteer, that in that capacity he may act as his counsellor. as the battle array is formed, arjuna is seized with misgivings at the thought of slaughtering his kindred for the glory of a sceptre. "i cannot--will not fight," he says; "i seek not victory, i seek no kingdom; what shall we do with regal pomp and power? what with enjoyments, or with life itself, when we have slaughtered all our kindred here?" krishna then enters upon a long discourse upon the duties of caste and the indwelling of the infinite, showing that the soul, which is a part of deity, cannot be slain though the body may be hewn to pieces. "the wise," he says, "grieve not for the departed nor for those who yet survive. never was the time when i was not, nor thou, nor yonder chiefs, and never shall be the time when all of us shall not be. as the embodied soul in this corporeal frame moves swiftly on through boyhood, youth, and age, so will it pass through other forms hereafter; be not grieved thereat.... as men abandon old and threadbare clothes to put on others new, so casts the embodied soul its worn-out frame to enter other forms. no dart can pierce it; flame cannot consume it, water wet it not, nor scorching breezes dry it--indestructible, eternal, all-pervading, deathless."[77] it may seem absurd to western minds that a long discourse, which constitutes a volume of intricate pantheistic philosophy, should be given to a great commander just at the moment when he is planning his attack and is absorbed with the most momentous responsibilities; it seems to us strangely inconsistent also to expatiate elaborately upon the merits of the yoga philosophy, with its asceticism and its holy torpor, when the real aim is to arouse the soul to ardor for the hour of battle. but these infelicities are no obstacle to the hindu mind, and the consistency of the plot is entirely secondary to the doctrine of caste and of philosophy which the author makes krishna proclaim. gentle as many of its precepts are, the bhagavad gita, or the "lord's lay," is a battle-song uttered by the supreme being while the contending hosts awaited the signal for fratricidal carnage. the grotesqueness which characterizes all hindu literature is not wanting in this story of krishna and arjuna, as given in the great poem of which the bhagavad gita forms a part. the five sons of pandu are representatives of the principle of righteousness, while the hundred brothers of the rival branch are embodiments of evil. yet, when the victory had been gained and the sceptre was given to the sons of pandu, they despised it and courted death, though the "adorable one" had urged them on to strife. bishma, the leader of the hostile force, in a personal encounter with arjuna, had been filled so full of darts that he could neither stand nor lie down. every part of his body was bristling with arrows, and for fifty-eight days he lingered, leaning on their sharp points. meanwhile the eldest of the victors, finding his throne only a "delusion and a snare," and being filled with remorse, was urged by krishna to visit his unfortunate adversary and receive instruction and comfort. bishma, lying upon his bed of spikes, edified him with a series of long and tedious discourses on pantheistic philosophy, after which he asked the tender-hearted krishna for permission to depart. he is no longer the embodiment of evil: the cruel arrows with which the ideal of goodness had pierced him fall away, the top of his head opens, and his spirit soars to heaven shining like a meteor. how strange a reversal is here! how strange that he who had been the representative of all evil should have been transformed by his suffering, and should have been made to instruct and comfort the man of success. mr. chatterji falls into a fatal inconsistency when, in spite of his assumption that this poem is the very word of krishna spoken at a particular time, in a particular place, he informs us that "all indian authorities agree in pronouncing it to be the essence of all sacred writings. they call it an upanishad--a term applied to the wisdom, as distinguished from the ceremonial, part of the vedas, and to no book less sacred." more accurately he might have said that it is a compend of all hindu literatures, the traditional as well as the inspired, and with a much larger share of the former than of the latter. pantheism, which is its quintessence, did not exist in the early vedic times. krishna was not known as a god even in the period of the buddha.[78] and the epics, which are so largely drawn upon, are later still. and it is upon the basis of the epics, and the still later puranas, that the common people of india still worship him as the god of good-fellowship and of lust. the masses longed for a god of human sympathies, even though he were a bacchus. in the bhagavad gita as we now have it, with its many changes, krishna has become the supreme god, though according to lassen his actual worship as such was not rendered earlier than the sixth century; and professor banergea claims that it "was not at its zenith till the eighth century, and that it then borrowed much from christian, or at least hebrew, sources." webber and lorinser have maintained a similar view. krishna as the supreme and adorable one has never found favor except with the pantheists, and to this day the worship of the real krishna as a bacchus is the most popular of all hindu festivals, and naturally it is the most demoralizing. we are now prepared to assume that the pantheistic groundwork of the poem on the one hand, and its borrowed christian conceptions and christian nomenclature on the other, will explain its principal alleged parallels with the new testament. with his great familiarity with our bible, and his rare ability in adjusting shades of thought and expression, mr. chatterji has presented no less than two hundred and fourteen passages which he matches with texts from the bible. many of these are so adroitly worded that one not familiar with the peculiarities of hindu philosophy might be stumbled by the comparisons. mr. r.c. bose tells us that this poem has wrought much evil among the foreign population of india; and in this country there are thousands of even cultivated people with whom this new translation will have great influence. men with unsettled minds who have turned away with contempt from the crudities of spiritualism, who are disgusted with the rough assailments of ingersoll, and who find only homesickness and desolation on the bleak and wintry moor of agnostic science, may yet be attracted by a book which is so elevated and often sublime in its philosophy, and so chaste in its ethical precepts, and which, like christianity, has bridged the awful chasm between unapproachable deity and our human conditions and wants by giving to the world a god-man. if the original author and the various expositors of the bhagavad gita have not borrowed from the christian revelation, they have rendered an undesigned tribute to the great christian doctrine of a divine and human mediator: they have given striking evidence of a felt want in all humanity of a _god with men_. if it was a deeply conscious want of the human heart which led the heathen of distant india to grope their way from the cheerless service of remorseless deities to one who could be touched with a feeling of their infirmities, and could walk these earthly paths as a counsellor by their side, how striking is the analogy to essential christian truth! let us examine some of the alleged parallels. they may be divided into three classes: 1. those which are merely fanciful. nine-tenths of the whole number are of this class. they are such as would never occur to a hindu on hearing the gospel truth. only one who had examined the two records in the keen search for parallels, and whose wish had been the father of his thought, would have seen any resemblance. i shall not occupy much time with these. 2. those resemblances which are only accidental. it may be an accident of similar circumstances or similar causes; it may be a chance resemblance in the words employed, while there is no resemblance in the thoughts expressed. 3. those coincidences which spring from natural causes. for an example of these, the closing chapter of the apocalypse speaks of christ as "the alpha and the omega, the beginning and the end." it is a natural expression to indicate his supreme power and glory as creator and final judge of all things. in a similar manner krishna is made to say, "i am beginning, middle, end, eternal time, the birth and the death of all. i am the symbol a among the characters. i have created all things out of one portion of myself." there are two meanings in krishna's words. he is in all things pantheistically, and he is the first and best of all things. in the tenth chapter he names with great particularity sixty-six classes of things in which he is always the first: the first of elephants, horses, trees, kings, heroes, etc. "among letters i am the vowel a." "among seasons i am spring." "of the deceitful i am the dice." the late dr. mullens calls attention to the fact that the orphic hymns declare "zeus to be the first and zeus the last. zeus is the head and zeus the centre." in these three similar forms of description one common principle of supremacy rules. the difference is that in the christian revelation and in the orphic hymns there is dignity, while in krishna's discourse there is frivolous and vulgar particularity. let us notice a few examples of the alleged parallels more particularly. in chapter ix. krishna says: "whatever thou doest, whatever thou eatest, whatever thou offerest in sacrifice, etc., commit that to me." this is compared with 1 corinthians x. 31: "whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of god." also to colossians x. 17: "whatsoever ye do in word or deed, do all in the name of the lord jesus." even if there were no pantheistic differential at the foundation of these utterances, it would not be at all strange if exhortations to an all-embracing devotion should thus in each case be made to cover all the daily acts of life. but aside from this there is a wide difference in the fundamental ideas which these passages express. paul's thought is that of loving devotion to an infinite friend and saviour; it is such an offering of loyalty and love as one conscious being can make to another and a higher. but krishna identifies the giver with the receiver, and arjuna is taught to regard the gift itself as an act of god. the phrase "commit that to me" is equivalent to "ascribe that to me." in the context we read: "of those men, who thinking of me in identity (with themselves), worship me, for them always resting in me, i bear the burden of acquisition and preservation of possessions. even those the devotees of other gods, who worship in faith, they worship me in ignorance." in other words, the worshipper is to make no difference between himself and the infinite. he is to refer all his daily acts to the infinite as the real actor, his own personal ego being ignored. this is not paul's idea; it is the very reverse of it. it could give comfort only to the evil-doer who desired to shift his personal responsibility. let us consider another alleged resemblance. in the fifth chapter krishna declares that whoever knows him "attains rest." this is presented as a parallel to the words in christ's prayer: "this is life eternal that they might know thee the only true god, and jesus christ whom thou hast sent." in both passages the knowledge of god is made the chief blessing to be sought, but in the one case knowledge means only a recognition of the infinite ego as existing in one's personal ego: it is a mere acceptance of that philosophic theory of life. thus one of the upanishads declares that "whoever sees all things in god, and god in all things, sees the truth aright;" his philosophy is correct. on the other hand, what christ meant was not the recognition of a pantheistic theory, but a real heart-knowledge of the father's character, a loving experience of his divine mercy, his fatherly love, his ineffable glory. the one was cold philosophy, the other was experience, fellowship, gratitude, filial love. what pantheism taught was that god cannot be known practically--that he is without limitations or conditions that we can distinguish him from our finiteness only by divesting our conception of him of all that we are wont to predicate of ourselves. he is subject to no such limitations as good or evil. in chapter ix., krishna says: "as air existing in space goes everywhere and is unlimited, so are all things in me.... i am the vedic rite, i am the sacrifice, i am food, i am sacred formula, i am immortality, i am also death; also the latent cause and the manifest effect." to know the god of the bhagavad gita is to know that he cannot be known. "god is infinite in attributes," says mr. chatterji, "and yet devoid of attributes. this is the god whom the bhagavad gita proclaims." by a similar contradiction the more the devout worshipper knows of god the less he knows, because the process of knowledge is a process of "effacement;" the closer the gradual union becomes the fainter is the self-personality, till at length it fades away entirely, and is merged and lost as a drop in the illimitable sea. this is the so-called "rest" which krishna promises as the reward of knowing him. it is rest in the sense of extinction; it is death; while that which christ promises is eternal life with unending and rapturous activity, with ever-growing powers of fellowship and of love. take another alleged parallel. chapter vi. commends the man who has reached such a measure of indifference that "his heart is _even_ in regard to friends and to foes, to the righteous and to evil-doers;" and this is held up as a parallel to the sermon on the mount, which commends love to enemies that we may be children of the heavenly father who sendeth rain upon the just and upon the unjust. in the one case the apathy of the ascetic, the extinction of susceptibility, the ignoring of moral distinctions, the crippling and deadening of our noblest powers; in the other the use of these powers in all ways of beneficence toward those who injure us, even as god, though his heart is by no means "even" as between the righteous and the wicked, stills shows kindness to both. now, in view of the great plausibility of the parallels which are thus presented to the public--parallels whose subtle fallacy the mass of readers are almost sure to overlook--one can hardly exaggerate the importance of thoroughly sifting the philosophy that underlies them, and especially on the part of those who are, or are to become, the defenders of the truth.[79] but turning from particular parallels to a broader comparison, there is a general use of expressions in the new testament in regard to which every christian teacher should aim at clear views and careful discriminations; for example, when we are said to be "temples of the holy ghost," or when christ is said to be "formed in us the hope of glory," or it is "no longer we that live, but christ that liveth in us." it cannot be denied that defenders of the bhagavad gita, and of the whole indo-pantheistic philosophy, might make out a somewhat plausible case along these lines. i recall an instance in which an honored pastor had made such extravagant use of these new testament expressions that some of his co-presbyters raised the question of a trial for pantheism. but it is one thing to employ strong terms of devotional feeling, as is often done, especially in prayer, and quite another to frame theories and philosophies, and present them as accurate statements of truth. the new testament nowhere speaks of the indwelling spirit in such a sense as implies an obliteration or absorption of the conscious individual ego, while "effacement" instead of fellowship is a favorite expression in the bhagavad gita. paul in his most ecstatic language never gives any hint of extinction, but, on the contrary, he magnifies the conception of a separate, conscious, ever-growing personality, living and rejoicing in divine fellowship for evermore. in the new testament the expressions of our union with christ are often reversed: instead of speaking of christ as abiding in the hearts and lives of his people, they are sometimes said to abide in him, and that not in the sense of absorption. paul speaks of the "saints in christ," of his own "bonds in christ," of being "baptized in christ," of becoming "a new creature in christ," of true christians as being one body in christ, of their lives being "hid with christ in god." believers are spoken of as being "buried with christ," "dead with christ." every form of expression is used to represent fellowship, intimacy, spiritual union with him, but always in a rational and practical sense, and with full implication of our distinct and separate personality. the essential hope of the gospel is that those who believe in christ shall never die, that even their mortal bodies shall be raised in his image, and that they shall be like him and shall abide in his presence. on the other hand, "the essence of this pantheistic system," says mr. chatterji, "is the denial of real existence to the individual spirit, and the insistance upon its true identity with god" (chapter iv.). it only remains to be said that, whatever may be the similarities of expression between this bible of pantheism and that of christianity, however they may agree in the utterance of worthy ethical maxims, that which most broadly differentiates the christian faith from hindu philosophy is the salient presentation of great fundamental truths which are found in the word of god alone. 1. the doctrine that god in christ is "made sin" for the redemption of sinful man--that he is "the end of the law for righteousness" for them that believe; this is indeed divine help: this is salvation. divinity does not here become the mere charioteer of human effort, for the purpose of coaching it in the duties of caste and prompting it to fight out its destiny by its own valor. christ is our expiation, takes our place, for our sakes becomes poor that we through his poverty may become rich. what a boon to all fakirs and merit-makers of the world if they could feel that that law of righteousness which they are striving to work out by mortifications and self-tortures had been achieved for them by the son of god, and that salvation is a free gift! this is something that can be apprehended alike by the philosopher and by the unlettered masses of men. 2. another great truth found in our scriptures is that the pathway by which the human soul returns to god is not the way of knowledge in the sense of philosophy, but the way of intelligent confidence and loving trust. "with the heart man believeth unto righteousness, and with the mouth confession is made." man by wisdom has never known god. this has been the vain effort of hindu speculation for ages. the author of the nyaya philosophy assumed that all evil springs from misapprehension, and that the remedy is to be found in correct methods of investigation, guided by skilfully arranged syllogisms. this has been in all ages the chief characteristic of speculative hinduism. and the bhagavad gita furnishes one of its very best illustrations. of its eighteen chapters, fifteen are devoted to "eight knowledge." and by knowledge is meant abstract speculation. it is a reaching after oneness with the deity by introspection and metaphysical analysis. "even if thou wert the greatest evil-doer among all the unrighteous," says krishna, "thou shalt cross over all sins even by the ark of knowledge." "oh, arjuna, as blazing fire reduces fuel to ashes, so the fire of knowledge turns all action into ashes." but in the first place a knowledge of the infinite within us is unattainable, and in the second place it could not avail us even if attainable. it is not practical knowledge; it is not a belief unto righteousness. faith is not an act of the brain merely, but of the whole moral nature. the wisdom of self must be laid aside, self-righteousness cast into the dust, the pride and rebellion of the will surrendered, and the whole man become as a little child. this is the way of knowledge that can be made experimental; this is the knowledge that is unto eternal life. 3. another great differential of the new testament is found in its true doctrine of divine co-operation with the human will. our personality is not destroyed that the absolute may take its place, but the two act together. "for men of renunciation," says the bhagavad gita, "whose hearts are at rest from desire and anger, and knowing the only self, there is on both sides of death effacement (of the individual) in the supreme spirit." in such a person, therefore, even on this side of death, there is a cessation of the individual in the supreme. over against this the gospel presents the doctrine of co-operative grace, which instead of crippling our human energies arouses them to their highest and best exertion. "work out your own salvation with fear and trembling, for it is god that worketh in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure." the divine acts with and through the human, but does not destroy it. it imparts the greatest encouragement, the truest inspiration. 4. we notice but one more out of many points of contrast between the doctrines of the hindu and the christian bibles, viz., the difference between ascetic inaction and the life of christian activity as means of religious growth. i am aware that in the earlier chapters of the bhagavad gita, krishna urges arjuna to valiant activity on the battle-field, but that is for a special purpose, viz., the establishment of caste distinctions. it is wholly foreign to hindu philosophy; it is even contradictory. the author of the poem, who seems to be aware of the inconsistency of arousing arjuna to the mighty activities of the battle-field, and at the same time indoctrinating him in the spirit of a dead and nerveless asceticism, struggles hard with the awkward task of bridging the illogical chasm with three chapters of mystification. but we take the different chapters as they stand, and in their obvious meaning. "the man of meditation is superior to the man of action," says chapter i., 46, "therefore, arjuna, become a man of meditation." how the man of meditation is to proceed is told in chapter vi., 10-14. "let him who has attained to meditation always strive to reduce his heart to rest in the supreme, dwelling in a secret place alone, with body and mind under control, devoid of expectation as well as of acceptance. having placed in a clean spot one's seat, firm, not very high nor very low, formed of the skins of animals, placed upon cloth and cusa grass upon that, sitting on that seat, strive for meditation, for the purification of the heart, making the mind one-pointed, and reducing to rest the action of the thinking principle as well as that of the senses and organs. holding the body, neck, and head straight and unmoved, perfectly determined, and not working in any direction, but as if beholding the end of his own nose, with his heart in supreme peace, devoid of fear, with thought controlled and heart in me as the supreme goal, he remains." how different from all this is that prayer of christ, "i pray not that thou shouldst take them out of the world, but that thou shouldst keep them from the evil." or those various words spoken to his disciples: "let your light so shine before men that others seeing your good works shall glorify your father which is in heaven." "work while the day lasts, for the night cometh in which no man can work." who can imagine paul spending all those years of opportunity in sitting on a leopard skin, watching the end of his nose instead of turning the world upside down! in that true sense in which christ lived within him, he filled every avenue of his being with the aggressive spirit of god's own love for dying men. the same spirit which brought christ from heaven to earth sent paul out over the earth. he was not even content to work on old foundations, but regarding himself as under sentence of death he longed to make the most of his votive life, to bear the torch of the truth into all realms of darkness. he was none the less a philosopher because he preferred the simple logic of god's love, nor did he hesitate to confront the philosophy of athens or the threatenings of roman tyrants. he was ready for chains and imprisonment, for perils of tempests or shipwreck, or robbers, or infuriate mobs, or death itself. no hindu fakir was ever more conscious of the struggle with inward corruption than he, and at times he could cry out, "oh, wretched man that i am, who shall deliver me from the body of this death?" but he did not seek relief in idleness and inanity, but in what dr. chalmers called "the expulsive power of new affections," in new measures of christlike devotion to the cause of truth and humanity. in a word, christ and his kingdom displaced the power of evil. he could do all things through christ who strengthened him. nor was the peace which he felt and which he commended to others the peace of mere negative placidity and indifference. it was loving confidence and trust. "be careful for nothing"--we hear him saying to his friends at philippi--"be careful for nothing; but in all things by prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving, make known your requests unto god: and the peace of god, which passeth understanding, shall keep your minds and hearts through christ jesus." and yet to show how this consists with devout activity, he commends, in immediate connection with it, the cultivation of every active virtue known to men. thus, "_whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, if there be any virtue, if there be any praise, think on these things._" footnotes: [footnote 74: houghton, mifflin & co., 1889.] [footnote 75: the author seems to overlook the fact that the chief excellence of an evangel to lost men is that it appeals to the masses.] [footnote 76: address published in the _japan mail_, 1890.] [footnote 77: there is scarcely another passage in all hindu literature which is so full of half-truths as this, or which turns the sublime powers of the human soul to so unworthy a purpose.] [footnote 78: in an enumeration of hindu gods made in buddha's time krishna does not appear.] [footnote 79: never before has there been so much danger as now that the lines of truth will be washed out by the flood-tides of sentimental and semi christian substitutes and makeshifts. as with commodities, so with religion, dilution and adulteration are the order of the day and a little christianity is made to flavor a thousand shams.] lecture v. buddhism and christianity new interest has recently been awakened in old controversies concerning the relations of christianity and buddhism. the so-called theosophists and esoteric buddhists are reviving exploded arguments against christianity as means of supporting their crude theories. the charge of german sceptics, that christianity borrowed largely from buddhism, is made once more the special stock in trade of these new and fanatical organizations. to this end books, tracts, and leaflets are scattered broadcast, and especially in the united states and great britain. professor max müller says, in a recent article published in _longman's new review_: "who has not suffered lately from theosophy and esoteric buddhism? journals are full of it, novels overflow with it, and one is flooded with private and confidential letters to ask what it all really means. many people, no doubt, are much distressed in their minds when they are told that christianity is but a second edition of buddhism. 'is it really true?' they ask. 'why did you not tell us all this before? surely, you must have known it, and were only afraid to tell it.' then follow other questions: 'does buddhism really count more believers than any other religion?' 'is buddhism really older than christianity, and does it really contain many things which are found in the bible?'" and the learned professor proceeds to show that there is no evidence that christianity has borrowed from buddhism. in this country these same ideas are perhaps more widely circulated than in england. they are subsidizing the powerful agency of the secular press, particularly the sunday newspapers, and thousands of the people are confronting these puzzling questions. there is occasion, therefore, for a careful and candid review of buddhism by all leaders of thought and defenders of truth. in the brief time allotted me, i can only call attention to a few salient points of a general character. in the outset, a distinction should be drawn between buddhist history and buddhist legend, for just at this point the danger of misrepresentation lies. it is true that the buddha lived before the time of christ, and therefore anything of the nature of real biography must be of an earlier date than the teachings of jesus; but whether the _legends_ antedate his life and doctrines is quite another question. the buddhist apologists all assume that they do, and it is upon the legends that most of the alleged parallelisms in the two records are based. how, then, shall we draw the line between history and legend? the concensus of the best scholarship accepts those traditions in which the northern and southern buddhist records agree, which the council of patna, b.c. 242, adopted as canonical, and which are in themselves credible and consistent with the teachings of gautama himself. according to this standard of authority gautama was born about the sixth century b.c., as the son and heir of a rajah of the sakya tribe of aryans, living about eighty miles north by northwest of benares. his mother, the principal wife of kajah suddhodana, had lived many years without offspring, and she died not long after the birth of this her only son, siddartha. in his youth he was married and surrounded by all the allurements and pleasures of an oriental court. he, too, appears to have remained without an heir till he was twenty-nine years of age, when, upon the birth of a son, certain morbid tendencies came to a climax, and he left his palace secretly and sought true comfort in a life of asceticism. for six years he tried diligently the resources of hindu self-mortification, but becoming exhausted by his austerities, almost unto death, he abandoned that mode of life, having apparently become atheistic. he renounced the idea of merit-making as a means of spiritual attainment, and he was sorely tempted, no doubt, to return to his former life of ease. but he withstood the temptation and resolved to forego earthly pleasure, and teach mankind what he conceived to be the way of life, through self-control. he had tried pleasure; next he had tried extreme asceticism; he now struck out what he called "the middle path," as between self-indulgence on the one hand, and extreme bodily mortification as a thing of merit on the other. this middle ground still demanded abstinence as favorable to the highest mental and moral conditions, but it was not carried to such extremes as to weaken the body or the mind, or impair the fullest operation of every faculty.[80] there can be no doubt that gautama's relinquishment of hinduism marked a great and most trying crisis. it involved the loss of all confidence in him on the part of his disciples, for when he began again to take necessary food they all forsook him as a failure. it was while sitting under the shade of an indian fig-tree (boddhi-tree) that this struggle occurred and his victory was gained. there his future course was resolved upon; there was the real birth-place of buddhism as a system. he thenceforth began to preach the law, or what he regarded as the way of self-emancipation, and therefore the way of life. he first sought his five followers, who had abandoned him, and succeeded in winning them back. he gathered at length a company of about sixty disciples, whom he trained and sent forth as teachers of his new doctrines. yet, still influenced by the old hindu notions of the religious life, he formed his disciples into an order of mendicants, and in due time he established an order of nuns. it was when gautama rose up from his meditation and his high resolve under the bo-tree, that he began his career as "the enlightened." he was now a buddha, and claimed to have attained nirvana. all that has been written of his having left his palace with the purpose of becoming a saviour of mankind, is the sheer assumption of the later legends and their apologists. buddhism was an after-thought, only reached after six years of bootless asceticism. there is no evidence that when siddartha left his palace he had any thought of benefiting anybody but himself. he entered upon the life of the recluse with the same motives and aims that have influenced thousands of other monks and anchorets of all lands and ages--some of them princes like himself. nevertheless, for the noble decision which was finally reached we give him high credit. it seems to have been one of the noblest victories ever gained by man over lower impulses and desires. the passions of youth were not yet dead within him; worldly ambition may be supposed to have been still in force; but he chose the part of a missionary to his fellow-men, and there is no evidence that he ever swerved from his purpose. he had won a great victory over himself, and that fact constituted a secret of great power. gautama was about thirty-five years of age when he became a buddha, and for forty-five years after that he lived to preach his doctrines and to establish the monastic institution which has survived to our time. he died a natural death from indigestion at the age of eighty--greatly venerated by his disciples, and the centre of what had already become a wide-spread system in a large district of india. the legends of buddhism are a very different thing from the brief sketch which i have given, and which is based upon the earlier buddhist literature. these sprang up after gautama's death, and their growth extended through many centuries--many centuries even of the christian era. the legends divide the life of the buddha into three periods: 1. that of his pre-existent states. 2. that part of his life which extended from his birth to his enlightenment under the bo-tree. 3. the forty-five years of his buddhaship. the legends have no more difficulty in dealing with the particular experiences of the pre-existent states than in enriching and adorning the incidents of his earthly life; and both are doubtless about equally authentic. gautama discarded the idea of a divine revelation; he rejected the authority of the vedas totally. he denied that he was divine, but distinctly claimed to be a plain and earnest man. all that he knew, he had discovered by insight and self-conquest. to assume that he was pre-existently divine and omniscient subverts the whole theory of his so-called "discovery," and is at variance with the idea of a personal conquest. the chief emphasis and force of his teachings lay in the assumption that he did simply what other men might do; for his mission was that of a teacher and exempler merely. he was a saviour only in that he taught men how to save themselves. the pre-existent states are set forth in the "jatakas," or birth stories of ceylon, which represent him as having been born five hundred and thirty times after he became a bodisat (a predestined buddha). as a specimen of his varied experience while becoming fitted for buddaship, we read that he was born eighty-three times as an ascetic, fifty-eight as a monarch, forty-three as a deva, twenty-four as a brahman, eighteen as an ape; as a deer ten, an elephant six, a lion ten; at least once each as a thief, a gambler, a frog, a hare, a snipe. he was also embodied in a tree. but as a bodisat he could not be born in hell, nor as vermin, nor as a woman! says spence hardy, with a touch of irony: "he could descend no lower than a snipe." northern legends represent buddha as having "incarnated" for the purpose of bringing relief to a distressed world. he was miraculously conceived--his mother's side in the form of a white elephant. all nature manifested its joy on the occasion. the ocean bloomed with flowers; all beings from many worlds showed their wonder and sympathy. many miracles were wrought even during his childhood, and every part of his career was filled with marvels. at his temptation under the bo-tree, mara (satan) came to him mounted on an elephant sixteen miles high and surrounded by an encircling army of demons eleven miles deep.[81] finding him proof against his blandishments, he hurled mountains of rocks against him, and assailed him with fire and smoke and ashes and filth--all of which became as zephyrs on his cheek or as presents of fragrant flowers. last of all, he sent his three daughters to seduce him. their blandishments are set forth at great length in the "romantic legend." in the northern buddhist literature--embracing both the "romantic legend"[82] and the "lalita vistara"--many incidents of buddha's childhood are given which show a seeming coincidence with the life of christ. it is claimed that his birth was heralded by angelic hosts, that an aged sage received him into his arms and blessed him, that he was taken to the temple for consecration, that a jealous ruler sought to destroy him, that in his boyhood he astonished the doctors by his wisdom, that he was baptized, or at least took a bath, that he was tempted, transfigured, and finally received up into heaven. these will be noticed farther on; it is only necessary to say here that the legends giving these details are first at variance with the early canonical history, and second, that they are of such later dates as to place most of them probably within the christian era. _the four peculiar and characteristic doctrines of buddhism._ 1. its peculiar conception of the soul. 2. its doctrine of trishna and upadana. 3. its theory of kharma. 4. its doctrine of nirvana. 1. the skandas, five in number, constitute in their interaction what all others than buddhists regard as the soul. they consist of material properties; the senses; abstract ideas; tendencies or propensities; and the mental powers. the soul is the result of the combined action of these, as the flame of a candle proceeds from the combustion of its constituent elements. the flame is never the same for two consecutive moments. it seems to have a perpetuated identity, but that is only an illusion, and the same unreality pertains to the soul. it is only a succession of thoughts, emotions, and conscious experiences. we are not the same that we were an hour ago. in fact, there is no such thing as being--there is only a constant _becoming_. we are ever passing from one point to another throughout our life; and this is true of all beings and all things in the universe. how it is that the succession of experiences is treasured up in memory is not made clear. this is a most subtle doctrine, and it has many points of contact with various speculations of modern times. it has also a plausible side when viewed in the light of experience, but its gaps and inconsistencies are fatal, as must be seen when it is thoroughly examined. 2. the second of the cardinal doctrines is that of trishna. trishna is that inborn element of desire whose tendency is to lead men into evil. so far, it is a misfortune or a form of original sin. whatever it may have of the nature of guilt hangs upon the issues of a previous life. upadana is a further stage in the same development. it is trishna ripened into intense craving by our own choice and our own action. it then becomes uncontrollable and is clearly a matter of guilt. now, the momentum of this upadana is such that it cannot be arrested by death. like the demons of gadara it must again become incarnate, even though it should enter the body of a brute. and this transitional something, this restless moral or immoral force which must work out its natural results somehow and somewhere, and that in embodied form projects into future being a residuum which is known as kharma. 3. what, then, is kharma? literally it means "the doing." it is a man's record, involving the consequences and liabilities of his acts. it is a score which must be settled. a question naturally arises, how the record of a soul can survive when the soul itself has been "blown out." the illustration of the candle does not quite meet the case. if the flame were something which when blown out immediately seized upon some other substance in which the work of combustion proceeded, it would come nearer to a parallel. one candle may light another before itself is extinguished, but it does not do it by an inherent necessity. but this flame of the soul, this kharma, must enter some other body of god, or man, or beast. again, the question arises, how can responsibility be transferred from one to another? how can the heavy load of a man's sin be laid upon some new-born infant, while the departing sinner has himself no further concern in his evil kharma, but sinks into non-existence the moment his "conformations" are touched with dissolution? buddhism acknowledges a mystery here; no real explanation can be given, and none seems to have been attempted by buddhist writers. to be consistent, gautama, in denying the existence of god and of the soul as an entity, should have taught the materialistic doctrine of annihilation. this, however, he could not do in the face of that deep-rooted idea of transmigration which had taken entire possession of the hindu mind. gautama was compelled therefore to bridge a most illogical chasm as best he could. kharma without a soul to cling to is something in the air. it alights like some winged seed upon a new-born set of skandas with its luckless boon of ill desert, and it involves the fatal inconsistency of investing with permanent character that which is itself impermanent. but the question may be asked, "do we not admit a similar principle when we speak of a man's influence as something that survives him?" we answer, "no." influence is a simple radiation of impressions. a man may leave an influence which men are free to accept or not, but it is quite a different thing if he leaves upon a successor the moral liabilities of a bankrupt character. gautama's own kharma, for example, ceased to exist upon his entering nirvana; there was no re-birth; but his influence lives forever, and has extended to millions of his fellow-men. the injustice involved in the doctrine of kharma is startling. the new-born soul that inherits its unsettled score has no memory or consciousness that connects it with himself; it is not heredity; it is not his father's character that invests him. this kharma may have crossed the ocean from the death-bed of some unknown man of another race. the doctrine is the more astonishing when we consider that no supreme being is recognized as claiming this retribution. there is no god; it is a vague law of eternal justice, a law without a law-giver or a judge. there can therefore be no pardon, no commutation of sentence, no such thing as divine pity or help. the only way in which one can disentangle himself is by breaking forever the connection between spirit and matter which binds him with the shackles of conscious being. 4. nirvana. no doctrine of buddhism has been so much in dispute as this. it has been widely maintained that nirvana means extinction. but t.w. rhys davids and others have held that it is "the destruction of malice, passion, and delusion," and that it may be attained in this life. the definition is quoted from comparatively recent pali translations.[83] gautama, therefore, reached nirvana forty-five years before his death. it is claimed, however, that insomuch as it cuts off kharma, or re-birth, it involves entire extinction of being upon the dissolution of the body.[84] it is held by still others that nirvana is a return to the original and all-pervading boddhi-essence. this theory, which is really a concession to the brahmanical doctrine of absorption into the infinite brahma, has a wide following among the modern buddhists in china and japan. it is a form of buddhist pantheism. as to the teaching of gautama on this subject, professor max müller, while admitting that the meta-physicians who followed the great teacher plainly taught that the entire personal entity of an arhat (an enlightened one) would become extinct upon the death of the body, yet reasons, in his lecture on buddhistic nihilism, that the buddha himself could not have taught a doctrine so disheartening. at the same time he quotes the learned and judicial bishop bigandet as declaring, after years of study and observation in burmah, that such is the doctrine ascribed to the great teacher by his own disciples. gautama is quoted as closing one of his sermons in these words: "mendicants, that which binds the teacher to existence is cut off, but his body still remains. while his body still remains he shall be seen by gods and men, but after the termination of life, upon the dissolution of the body, neither gods nor men shall see him." t.w. rhys davids expresses the doctrine of nirvana tersely and correctly when he says: "utter death, with no new life to follow, is, then, a result of, but it is not, nirvana."[85] professor oldenberg suggests, with much plausibility, that the buddha was more reticent in regard to the doctrine of final extinction in the later periods of his life; that the depressing doctrine had been found a stumbling-block, and that he came to assume an agnostic position on the question. in his "buddha,"[86] professor oldenberg, partly in answer to the grounds taken by professor max müller in his lecture on buddhistic nihilism, has very fully discussed the question whether the ego survives in nirvana in any sense. he claims that certain new translations of pali texts have given important evidence on the subject, and he sums up with the apparent conclusion that the buddha, moved by the depressing influence which the grim doctrine of nirvana, in the sense of extinction, was producing upon his disciples, assumed a position of reticence as to whether the ego survives or not. the venerable malukya (see p. 275) is said to have plied the master with questions. "does the perfect buddha live on beyond death, or does he not? it pleases me not that all this should remain unanswered, and i do not think it right. may it please the master to answer me if he can. but when anyone does not understand a matter, then a straightforward man says, 'i do not know that.'" the buddha replies somewhat evasively that he has not undertaken to decide such questions, because they are not for spiritual edification. the question, what is nirvana? has been the object of more extensive discussion than its importance demands. practically, the millions of buddhists are not concerned with the question. they find no attraction in either view. they desire neither extinction nor unconscious absorption into the boddhi essence (or brahm). what they anticipate is an improved transmigration, a better birth. the more devout may indulge the hope that their next life will be spent in one of the buddhist heavens; others may aspire to be men of high position and influence. the real heaven to which the average buddhist looks forward is apt to be something very much after his own heart, or at least something indicated by the estimate which he himself places upon his own character and life. there may be many transmigrations awaiting him, but he is chiefly concerned for the next in order. the very last object to excite his interest is that far-off shadow called nirvana. in estimating the conflict of christianity with buddhism we must not take counsel merely of our own sense of the absurdity of gautama's teachings; we are to remember that in christian lands society is made up of all kinds of people; that outside of the christian church there are thousands, and even millions, who, with respect to faith, are in utter chaos and darkness. the church therefore cannot view this subject from its own stand-point merely. let us glance at certain features of buddhism which render it welcome to various classes of men who dwell among us in western lands. first of all, the system commends itself to many by its intense individualism. paul's figure of the various parts of the human frame as illustrating the body of christ, mutual in the interdependence of all its members, would be wholly out of place in buddhism. even the buddhist monks are so many units of introverted self-righteousness. and individualism differently applied is the characteristic of our age, and therefore a bond of sympathy is supplied. "every man for himself," appeals to modern society in many ways. again, gautama magnified the human intellect and the power of the human will. "o ananda," he said, "be lamps unto yourselves; depend upon no other." he claimed to have thought out, and thought through every problem of existence, to have penetrated every secret of human nature in the present, and in the life to come, and his example was commended to all, that they might follow in their measure. so also our transcendental philosophers have glorified the powers and possibilities of humanity, and have made genius superior to saintliness.[87] there are tens of thousands who in this respect believe in a religion of humanity, and who worship, if they worship at all, the goddess of reason. all such have a natural affinity for buddhism. another point in common between this system and the spirit of our age is its broad humanitarianism--beneficence to the lower grades of life. when love transcends the bounds of the human family it does not rise up toward god, it descends toward the lower orders of the animal world. "show pity toward everything that exists," is its motto, and the insect and the worm hold a larger relative place in the buddhist than in the christian view. the question "are ye not of more value than many sparrows?" might be doubtful in the buddhist estimate, for the teacher himself, in his pre-existent states, had often been incarnate in inferior creatures. it is by no means conceded that jesus, in asking his disciples this question, had less pity for the sparrows than the buddha, or that his beneficence was less thoughtful of the meanest thing that glides through the air or creeps upon the earth; but the spirit of christianity is more discriminating, and its love rises up to heaven, where, beginning with god, it descends through every grade of being. yet it is quite in accordance with the spirit and aim of thousands to magnify the charity that confines itself to bodily wants and distresses, to sneer at the relief which religion may bring to the far greater anguish of the spirit, and to look upon love and loyalty to god as superstition. is it any wonder that such persons have a warm side toward buddhism? again, this system has certain points in common with our modern evolution theories. it is unscientific enough certainly in its speculations, but it gets on without creatorship or divine superintendence, and believes in the inflexible reign of law, though without a law-giver. it assigns long ages to the process of creation, if we may call it creation, and in development through cycles it sees little necessity for the work of god. it can also join hands cordially with many social theories of the day. the pessimism of buddhists, ancient or modern, finds great sympathy in the crowded populations of the western as well as the eastern world. and, almost as a rule, esoteric buddhism, american buddhism, neo-buddhism, or whatever we may call it, is a cave of adullam to which all types of religious apostates and social malcontents resort. the thousands who have made shipwreck of faith, who have become soured at the unequal allotments of providence, who have learned to hate all who are above them and more prosperous than they, are just in the state of mind to take delight in buddha's sermon at kapilavastu, as rehearsed by sir edwin arnold. there all beings met--gods, devas, men, beasts of the field, and fowls of the air--to make common cause against the relentless fate that rules the world, and to bewail the sufferings and death which fill the great charnel-house of existence, while buddha voiced their common complaint and stood before them as the only pitying friend that the universe had found. it was the first great communist meeting of which we have any record.[88] the wronged and suffering universe was there, and all "took the promise of his piteous speech, so that their lives, prisoned in the shape of ape, tiger or deer, shagged bear, jackal or wolf, foul-feeding kite, pearled dove or peacock gemmed, squat toad or speckled serpent, lizard, bat, yea, or fish fanning the river waves, touched meekly at the skirts of brotherhood with man, who hath less innocence than these: and in mute gladness knew their bondage broke whilst buddha spoke these things before the king." there was no mention of sin, but only of universal misfortune! in contrast with the deep shadows of a brooding and all-embracing pessimism like this, we need only to hint at that glow of hope and joy with which the sun of righteousness has flooded the world, and the fatherly love and compassion with which the old testament and the new are replete, the divine plan of redemption, the psalms of praise and thanksgiving, the pity of christ's words and acts, and his invitations to the weary and heavy-laden. in one view it is strange that pessimism should have comfort in the fellowship of pessimism, but so it is; there is luxury even in the sympathy of hate, and so buddhist pessimism is a welcome guest among us, though our communistic querulousness is more bitter. once more, buddhist occultism has found congenial fellowship in american spiritualism. of late we hear less of spirit-rappings and far more of theosophy. but this is only the same crude system with other names, and rendered more respectable by the cast-off garments of old indian philosophy. there is a disposition in the more intellectual circles to assume a degree of disdain toward the crudeness of spiritualism and its vulgar familiarity with departed spirits, who must ever be disturbed by its beck and call; but it is confidently expected that the thousands, nay, as some say, millions, of american spiritualists will gladly welcome the name and the creed of buddha.[89] it will be idle therefore to assume that the old sleepy system of gautama has no chance in this wide-awake republic of the west.[90] i have already called attention to the special tactics of buddhists just now in claiming that christianity, having been of later origin, has borrowed its principal facts and its teachings. let us examine the charge. it is a real tribute to the character of christ that so many sects of false religionists have in all ages claimed him either as a follower or as an incarnation of their respective deities. others have acknowledged his teachings as belonging to their particular style and grade. the bitter and scathing calumny of celsus, in the first centuries of our era, did not prevent numerous attempts to prove the identity of christ's teachings with some of the most popular philosophies of the heathen world. porphyry claimed that many of christ's virtues were copied from pythagoras. with like concession mohammedanism included jesus as one of the six great prophets, and confessedly the only sinless one among them all. many a fanatic in the successive centuries has claimed to be a new incarnation of the son of god. hindus have named him as an incarnation of vishnu for the western, as was krishna for the eastern world. as was indicated in the opening of this lecture, the theosophists are making special claim to him,[91] and are reviving the threadbare theory that he was a follower of buddha. so strong an effort is made to prove that christianity has borrowed both its divine leader and its essential doctrines from india, that a moment's attention may well be given to the question here. one allegation is that the evangelists copied the buddhist history and legends in their account of christ's early life. another is that the leaders of the alexandrian church worked over the gospel story at a later day, having felt more fully the influence of india at that great commercial centre. the two theories are inconsistent with each other, and both are inconsistent with the assumption that christ himself was a buddhist, and taught the buddhist doctrines, since this supposition would have obviated the need of any manipulation or fraud at any point. in replying as briefly as possible i shall endeavor to cover both allegations. in strong contrast with these cheap assertions of alexandrian corruption and plagiarism is the frank admission of such keen critics as renan, weiss, volkmar, schenkel, and hitzig,[92] that the gospel record as we have it, was written during a generation in which some of the companions of jesus still lived. renan says of mark's gospel that "it is full of minute observations, coming doubtless from an eye-witness," and he asserts that matthew, mark, and luke were written "in substantially their present form by the men whose names they bear." these gospels were the work of men who knew jesus. matthew was one of the twelve; john in his epistle speaks of himself as an eye-witness. they were written in a historic age and were open to challenge. they were nowhere contradicted in contemporary history. they fit their environment. how is it with the authenticity of buddhist literature? oldenberg says, "for the _when_ of things men of india have never had a proper organ," and max müller declares to the same effect, that "the idea of a faithful, literal translation seems altogether foreign to oriental minds." he also informs us that there is not a single manuscript in india which is a thousand years old, and scarcely one that can claim five hundred years. for centuries after gautama's time nothing was written; all was transmitted by word of mouth. buddhists themselves say that the pali canonical texts were written about 88 b.c.[93] any fair comparison of the two histories should confine itself to the writings which are regarded as canonical respectively, and whose dates can be fixed. no more importance should be attached to the later buddhist legends than to the "apocryphal gospels," or to the absurd "christian legends" which appeared in the middle ages. the buddhist canon was adopted by the council of patna 242 b.c. the legends which are generally compared with the canonical story of christ are not included in that canon, or at most very few of them. they are drawn from certain poetical books written much later, and holding about the same relation to the buddhist canon that the "paradise lost" and "paradise regained" of milton bear to the scriptures of the old and new testaments. who would think of quoting "paradise lost" in any sober comparison of biblical truth with the teachings of other religions?[94] even the canonical literature, that which is supposed to contain the true history and teachings of buddha, is far from authoritative, owing to the acknowledged habit--acknowledged even by the author of the "dhammapada" of adding commentaries, notes, etc., to original teachings. not only was this common among buddhist writers, but even more surprising liberties were taken with the narrative. for example: the legend describing buddha's leave-taking of his harem is clearly borrowed from an earlier story of yasa, a wealthy young householder of benares, who, becoming disgusted with his harem, left his sleeping dancing girls and fled to the buddha for instruction. davids and oldenberg, in translating this legend from the "mahavagga," say in a note, "a well-known incident in the life of buddha has evidently been shaped after the model of this story;" and they declare that "_nowhere in the 'pali pitakas' is this scene of buddha's leave-taking mentioned_." as another evidence of the way in which fact and fiction have been mixed and manipulated for a purpose, one of the legends, which has often been presented as a parallel to the story of christ, represents the buddha as repelling the temptation of mara by quoting texts of "scripture," and the scripture referred to was the "dhammapada." but the "dhammapada" was compiled hundreds of years after buddha's death. besides, there were no "scriptures" of any kind in his day, for nothing was written till two or three centuries later; and worse still, buddha is made to quote his own subsequent teachings; for the "dhammapada" claims to consist of the sacred words of the "enlightened one." most of the legends of buddhism were wholly written after the beginning of the christian era, and it cannot be shown that any were written in their present form until two or three centuries of that era had elapsed. t.w. rhys davids says of the "lalita vistara" which contains a very large proportion of them, and one form of which is said to have been translated into chinese in the first century a.d., "that there is no real proof that it existed in its present form before the year 600 a.d." the "romantic legend" cannot be traced farther back than the third century a.d. oldenberg says: "no biography of buddha has come down to us from ancient times, from the age of the pali texts, and we can safely say that no such biography was in existence then." beal declares that the buddhist legend, as found in the various epics of nepaul, thibet, and china, "is not framed after _any_ indian model of any date, but is to be found worked out, so to speak, among northern peoples, who were ignorant of, or indifferent to, the pedantic stories of the brahmans. in the southern and primitive records the terms of the legend are wanting. _buddha is not born of a royal family; he is not tempted before his enlightenment; he works no miracles, and he is not a universal saviour._" the chances are decidedly that if any borrowing has been done it was on the side of buddhism. it has been asserted that thirty thousand buddhist monks from alexandria once visited ceylon on the occasion of a great festival. this is absurd on the face of it; but that a christian colony settled in malabar at a very early period is attested by the presence of thousands of their followers even to this day. in discussing the specific charge of copying buddhist legends in the gospel narratives, we are met at the threshold by insurmountable improbabilities. to some of these i ask a moment's attention. i shall not take the time to discuss in detail the alleged parallels which are paraded as proofs. to anyone who understands the spirit of judaism and its attitude toward heathenism of all kinds, it is simply inconceivable that the christian disciples, whose aim it was to propagate the faith of their master in a jewish community, should have borrowed old indian legends, which, by the terms of the supposition, must have been widely known as such. and buddhist apologists must admit that it is a little strange that the scribes and pharisees, who were intelligent, and as alert as they were bitter, should never have exposed this transparent plagiarism. the great concern of the apostles was to prove to jews and gentiles that jesus was the christ of old testament prophecy. the whole drift of their preaching and their epistles went to show that the gospel history rested squarely and uncompromisingly on a jewish basis. peter and john, stephen and paul, constantly "reasoned with the jews out of their own scriptures." how unspeakably absurd is the notion that they were trying to palm off on those keen pharisees a messiah who, though in the outset at nazareth he publicly traced his commission to old testament prophecy, was all the while copying an atheistic philosopher of india! it is equally inconceivable that the christian fathers should have copied buddhism. they resisted persian mysticism as the work of the devil, and it was in that mysticism, if anywhere, that buddhist influence existed in the levant. whoever has read tertullian's withering condemnation of marcion may judge how far the fathers of the church favored the heresies of the east. augustine had himself been a manichean mystic, and when after his conversion he became the great theologian of the church, he must have known whether the teachings of the buddha were being palmed off on the christian world. the great leaders of that age were men of thorough scholarship and of the deepest moral earnestness. many of them gave up their possessions and devoted their lives to the promotion of the truths which they professed. scores of them sealed their faith by martyr deaths. but even if we were to accept the flippant allegation that they were all impostors, yet we should be met by an equally insurmountable difficulty in the utter silence of the able and bitter assailants of christianity in the first two or three centuries. celsus prepared himself for his well-known attack on christianity with the utmost care, searching history, philosophy, and every known religion from which he could derive an argument against the christian faith. why did he not strike at the very root of the matter by exposing those stupid plagiarists who were attempting to play off upon the intelligence of the roman world a clumsy imitation of the far-famed buddha? it was the very kind of thing that the enemies of christianity wanted. why should the adroit porphyry attempt to work up a few mere scraps of resemblance from the life of pythagoras, when all he had to do was to lay his hand upon familiar legends which afforded an abundance of the very thing in demand? again, it is to be remembered that christianity has always been restrictive and opposed to admixtures with other systems. it repelled the neo-platonism of alexandria, and it fought for two or three centuries against gnosticism, manichæism, and similar heresies: and the assumption, in the face of all this, that the christian church went out of its way to copy indian buddhism, must be due either to gross ignorance or to reckless misrepresentation. on the other hand, it is in accordance with the very genius of buddhism to borrow. it has absorbed every indigenous superstition and entered into partnership with every local religious system, from the devil worship of burmah and ceylon to the taouism of china and the shinto of japan. in its long-continued contact with christianity it has changed from the original atheism of gautama to various forms of theism, and in some of its sects, at least, from a stanch insistance on self-help alone to an out-and-out doctrine of salvation by faith. this is true of the shin and yodo sects of japan. from recognizing no god at all at first, buddhism had, by the seventh century a.d., a veritable trinity, with attributes resembling those of the triune god of the christians, and by the tenth century it had five trinities with one supreme adi-buddha over them all. everyone may judge for himself whether these later interpolations of the system were borrowed from the new testament trinity, which had been proclaimed through all the east ten centuries before. buddhism is still absorbing foreign elements through the aid of its various apologists. sir edwin arnold has greatly added to the force of its legend by the christian phrases and christian conceptions which he has read into it. toward the close of the "light of asia" he also introduces into the buddha's sermon at kapilavastu the teachings of herbert spencer and others of our own time. but altogether the most stupendous improbability lies against the whole assumption that christ and his followers based their "essential doctrines" on the teachings of the buddha. the early buddhism was atheistic: this is the common verdict of davids, childers, sir monier williams, kellogg, and many others. the buddha declared that "without cause and unknown is the life of man in this world," and he recognized no higher being to whom he owed reverence. "the buddhist catechism," by subhadra, shows that modern buddhism has no recognition of god. it says (page 58): "buddhism teaches the reign of perfect goodness and wisdom _without a personal god_, continuance of individuality _without an immortal soul_, eternal happiness without a local heaven, the way of salvation without a vicarious saviour, redemption worked out by each one himself without any prayers, sacrifices, and penances, without the ministry of ordained priests, without the intercession of saints, _without divine mercy_." and then, by way of authentication, it adds: "these, and many others which have become the fundamental doctrines of the buddhist religion, were recognized by the buddha in the night of his enlightenment under the boddhi-tree." and yet we are told that this is the system which christ and his followers copied. compare this passage with the lord's prayer, or with the discourse upon the lilies, and its lesson of trust in god the father of all! i appeal not merely to christian men, but to _any_ man who has brains and common-sense, was there ever so preposterous an attempt to establish an identity of doctrines? but what is the evidence found in the legends themselves? several leading oriental scholars, and men not at all biased in favor of christianity, have carefully examined the subject, and have decided that there is no connection whatever. professor seydel, of leipsic, who has given the most scientific plea for the so-called coincidences, of which he claims there are fifty-one, has classified them as: 1, those which may have been merely accidental, having arisen from similar causes, and not necessarily implying any borrowing on either side; 2, those which seem to have been borrowed from the one narrative or the other; and 3, those which he thinks were clearly copied by the christian writers. in this last class he names but five out of fifty-one. kuenen, who has little bias in favor of christianity, and who has made a very thorough examination of seydel's parallels, has completely refuted these five.[95] and speaking of the whole question he says: "i think we may safely affirm that we must abstain from assigning to buddhism the smallest direct influence on the origin of christianity." he also says of similar theories of de bunsen: "a single instance is enough to teach us that inventive fancy plays the chief part in them."[96] rhys davids, whom subhadra's "buddhist catechism" approves as the chief exponent of buddhism, says on the same subject: "i can find no evidence of any actual or direct communication of these ideas common to buddhism and christianity from the east to the west." oldenberg denies their early date, and beal denies them an indian origin of any date. _contrasts between buddhism and christianity._ rhys davids has pointed out the fact that, while buddhism in some points is more nearly allied to christianity than any other system, yet in others it is the farthest possible from it in its spirit and its tendency. if we strike out those ethical principles which, to a large extent, are the common heritage of mankind, revealed in the understanding and the conscience, we shall find in what remains an almost total contrariety to the christian faith. to give a few examples only. 1. christ taught the existence and glory of god as supreme, the creator and father, the righteous judge. his supreme mission to reconcile all men to god was the key-note of all his ministry. by his teaching the hearts of men are lifted up above all earthly conceptions to the worship of infinite purity, and to the comforting assurance of more than a father's care and love. buddhism, on the contrary, knows nothing of god, offers no heavenly incentive, no divine help. leading scholars are agreed that, whatever it may be now, the original orthodox buddhism was essentially atheistic. it despised the idea of divine help, and taught men to rely upon themselves. while, therefore, buddhism never rose above the level of earthly resources, and contemplated only lower orders of being, christianity begins with god as supreme, to be worshipped and loved with all the heart, mind, and strength, while our neighbors are to be loved as ourselves. 2. christ represented himself as having pre-existed from the foundation of the world, as having been equal with god in the glory of heaven, all of which he resigned that he might enter upon the humiliation of our earthly state, and raise us up to eternal life. he distinctly claimed oneness and equality with the father. buddha claimed no such antecedent glory; he spoke of himself as a man merely; the whole aim of his teaching was to show in himself what every man might accomplish. later legends ascribe to him a sort of pre-existence, in which five hundred and thirty successive lives were passed, sometimes as a man, sometimes as a god, many times as an animal. but even these claims were not made by buddha himself--except so far as was implied by the common doctrine of transmigration. furthermore, in relation to the alleged pre-existences, according to strict buddhist doctrine it was not really he who had gone before, it was only a kharma or character that had exchanged hands many times before it could be taken up by the real and conscious buddha born upon the earth. still further, even after the beginning of his earthly life he lived for many years in what, according to his own teaching, was heinous sin, all of which is fatal to the theory of pre-existent holiness. 3. christ is a real saviour; his atonement claimed to be a complete ransom from the penalty of sin, and by his teaching and example, and by the power of the holy spirit, he overcomes the power of sin itself, transforming the soul into his own image. buddha, on the other hand, did not claim to achieve salvation for any except himself, though mr. arnold and others constantly use such terms as "help" and "salvation." nothing of the kind is claimed by the early buddhist doctrines; they plainly declare that purity and impurity belong to one's self, and that no one can purify another. 4. christ emphatically declared himself a helper, even in this life: "come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and i will give you rest." he promised also to send his spirit as a comforter, as a supporter of his disciples' faith, as a guide and teacher, at all times caring for their need; in whatever exigency his grace would be sufficient for them. on the contrary, buddha taught his followers that no power in heaven or earth could help them; the victory must be their own. "how can we hope to amend a life," says bishop carpenter, "which is radically bad, by the aid of a system which teaches that man's highest aim should be to escape from life? all that has been said against the ascetic and non-worldly attitude of christianity might be urged with additional force against buddhism. it is full of the strong, sweet, pathetic compassion which looks upon life with eyes full of tears, but only to turn them away from it again, as from an unsolved and insoluble riddle." and he substantiates his position by quoting réville and oldenberg. réville reaches this similar conclusion: "buddhism, born on the domain of polytheism, has fought against it, not by rising above nature in subordinating it to a single sovereign spirit, but by reproving nature in principle, and condemning life itself as an evil and a misfortune. buddhism does not measure itself against this or that abuse, does not further the development or reformation of society, either directly or indirectly, for the very simple reason that it turns away from the world on principle." oldenberg, one of the most thorough of pali scholars, says: "for the lower order of the people, for those born to toil in manual labor, hardened by the struggle for existence, the announcement of the connection of misery with all forms of existence was not made, nor was the dialectic of the law of the painful concatenation of causes and effects calculated to satisfy 'the poor in spirit.' 'to the wise belongeth this law,' it is said, 'not to the foolish.' very unlike the work of that man who 'suffered little children to come unto him, for of such is the kingdom of god.' for children, and those who are like children, the arms of buddha are not opened." 5. christ and his disciples set before men the highest motives of life. the great end of man was to love god supremely, and one's neighbor as himself. every true disciple was to consider himself an almoner and dispenser of the divine goodness to his race. it was this that inspired the sublime devotion of paul and of thousands since his time. it is the secret principle of all the noblest deeds of men. gautama had no such high and unselfish aim. he found no inspiring motive above the level of humanity. his system concentrates all thought and effort on one's own life--virtually on the attainment of utter indifference to all things else. the early zeal of gautama and his followers in preaching to their fellow-men was inconsistent with the plain doctrines taught at a later day. if in any case there were those who, like paul, burned with desire to save their fellow-men, all we can say is, they were better than their creed. such was the spirit of the gospel, rather than the idle and useless torpor of the buddhist order. "here, according to buddhists," says spence hardy, "is a mere code of proprieties, an occasional opiate, a plan for being free from discomfort, a system for personal profit." buddhism certainly taught the repression of human activity and influence. instead of saying, "let your light so shine before men that they, seeing your good works, may glorify your father who is in heaven," or "work while the day lasts," it said, "if thou keepest thyself silent as a broken gong, thou hast attained nirvana." "to wander about like the rhinoceros alone," was enjoined as the pathway of true wisdom. 6. christ taught that life, though attended with fearful alternatives, is a glorious birthright, with boundless possibilities and promise of good to ourselves and others. buddhism makes life an evil which it is the supreme end of man to conquer and cut off from the disaster of re-birth. christianity opens a path of usefulness, holiness, and happiness in this life, and a career of triumph and glory in the endless ages to come. both buddhism and hinduism are worse than other pessimistic systems in their fearful law of entailment through countless transmigrations, each of which must be a struggle. 7. christ, according to the new testament, "ever liveth to make intercession for us," and the holy spirit represents him constantly as an ever-living power in the world, to regenerate, save, and bless. but buddha is dead, and his very existence is a thing of the past. only traditions and the influence of his example can help men in the struggle of life. said buddha to his disciples: "as a flame blown by violence goes out and cannot be reckoned, even so a buddha delivered from name and body disappears and cannot be reckoned as existing." again, he said to his order, "mendicants, that which binds the teacher (himself) is cut off, but his body still remains. while this body shall remain he will be seen by gods and men, but after the termination of life, upon the dissolution of the body, neither gods nor men shall see him." 8. christ taught the sacredness of the human body. "know ye not that your body is the temple of the holy ghost which is in you?" said his great apostle. but buddhism says: "as men deposit filth upon a dungheap and depart regretting nothing, wanting nothing, so will i depart leaving this body filled with vile vapors." christ and his disciples taught the triumphant resurrection of the body in spiritual form and purity after his own image. the buddhist forsakes utterly and forever the deserted, cast-off mortality, while still he looks only for another habitation equally mortal and corruptible, and possibly that of a lower animal. thus, through all these lines of contrast, and many others that might be named, there appear light and life and blessedness on the one hand, and gloom and desolation on the other. the gloomy nature of buddhism is well expressed in hardy's "legends and theories of buddhism" as follows: "the system of buddhism is humiliating, cheerless, man-marring, soul-crushing. it tells me that i am not a reality, that i have no soul. it tells me that there is no unalloyed happiness, no plenitude of enjoyment, no perfect unbroken peace in the possession of any being whatever, from the highest to the lowest, in any world. it tells me that i may live myriads of millions of ages, and that not in any of those ages, nor in any portion of any age, can i be free from apprehension as to the future, until i attain to a state of unconsciousness; and that in order to arrive at this consummation i must turn away from all that is pleasant, or lovely, or instructive, or elevating, or sublime. it tells me by voices ever repeated, like the ceaseless sound of the sea-wave on the shore, that i shall be subject to sorrow, impermanence, and unreality so long as i exist, and yet that i cannot cease to exist, nor for countless ages to come, as i can only attain nirvana in the time of a supreme buddha. in my distress i ask for the sympathy of an all-wise and all-powerful friend. but i am mocked instead by the semblance of relief, and am told to look to buddha, who has ceased to exist; to the dharma that never was in existence, and to the sangha, the members of which are real existences, but like myself are partakers of sorrow and sin." how shall we measure the contrast between all this and the ecstacies of christian hope, which in various forms are expressed in the epistles of paul; the expected crown of righteousness, the eternal weight of glory; heirship with christ in an endless inheritance; the house not made with hands; the general assembly of the first born? even in the midst of earthly sorrows and persecutions he could say, "nay, in all things we are more than conquerors through him that loved us. for i am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of god which is in christ jesus, our lord." footnotes: [footnote 80: it is by no means certain that buddha's followers, in carrying out his system, have not lapsed into the old notions of merit-making asceticism to greater or less extent, and have become virtually very much like the torpid and useless fakirs of the old hinduism.] [footnote 81: the _jataka_ legends of ceylon, dating in their present form about 500 a.d., greatly enlarge the proportions of this northern legend, making the elephant over seven thousand miles high, and widening out the surrounding army to one hundred and sixty four miles.] [footnote 82: of the _romantic legend_ found in nepaul, beall's translation is probably the best.] [footnote 83: see appendix of _origin and growth of religion as illustrated in buddhism_.] [footnote 84: see _buddhism_, pp. 110-115.] [footnote 85: _buddhism_, p. 114.] [footnote 86: pp. 265-285.] [footnote 87: it is the boast of the author of _esoteric buddhism_, that strange mixture of western spiritualism with oriental mysticism, that his system despises the tame "goody, goody" spirit of christianity, and deals with the endless growth of mind.] [footnote 88: _light of asia_.] [footnote 89: mr. sinnett, in his _esoteric buddhism_, expressed the idea that it was high time that the crudities of spiritualism should be corrected by the more philosophic occultism of the east.] [footnote 90: the points of contact between buddhism and certain forms of western thought have been ably treated by professor s.h. kellogg, in the _light of asia and light of the world_.] [footnote 91: a recent tract has appeared, entitled _theosophy the religion of jesus_.] [footnote 92: cited by professor kellogg.] [footnote 93: professor t.w. rhys davids, in his introduction to _buddhism_, enumerates the following sources of knowledge concerning the early buddhism: 1. the _lalita vistara_, a sanscrit work of the northern buddhists "full of extravagant fictions" concerning the early portion of gautama's life. davids compares it to milton's _paradise regained_, as a source of history, and claims that although parts of it were translated into chinese in the first century of our era, there is no proof of its existence in its present form earlier than the sixth century a.d. 2. two thibetan versions, based chiefly on the _lalita vistara_. 3. the _romantic legend_, from the sanscrit of the northern buddhists, translated into chinese in the sixth century a.d.; english version by beal published in 1875. this also is an extravagant poem. this and the _lalita vistara_ embrace most of the alleged parallels to the life of christ. 4. the original pali text of the _commentary on the jatakas_, written in ceylon probably about the fifth century of our era. davids considers its account down to the time of gautama's return to kapilavastu, "the best authority we have." it contains word for word almost the whole of the life of gautama given by turnour, from a commentary on the _buddhavansa_, "which is the account of the buddhas contained in the second pitaka." 5. an account taken by spence hardy from cingalese books of a comparatively modern date. 6. an english translation by bigandet of a burmese account, which was itself a translation of unknown date made from a pali version. 7. an account of the death of gautama, given in pali and said to be the oldest of all the sources. it is full of wonders created by the fancy of the unknown author, but differs widely from the fancy sketches of the _lalita vistara_ of the north. 8. a translation by mr. alabaster of a siamese account. it does not claim to be exact.] [footnote 94: t.w. rhys davids illustrates the worthlessness of poetic narrations as grounds of argument by quoting from milton's _paradise regained_ this mere fancy sketch of the accompaniments of christ's temptation: "and either tropic now 'gan thunder and both ends of heaven; the clouds from many a horrid rift abortive poured fierce rain with lightning mixed, water with fire in ruin reconciled; nor slept the winds within their stony caves, but rush'd abroad from the four hinges of the world, and fell on the vex'd wilderness; whose tallest pines tho' rooted deep as high and sturdiest oaks, bowed their stiff necks, loaden with stormy blasts or torn up sheer. ill wast thou shrouded then, o patient son of god, yet stood'st alone unshaken! nor yet staid the terror there; infernal ghosts and hellish furies round environed thee; some howl'd, some yell'd, some shriek'd, some bent at thee their fiery darts, while thou sat'st unappall'd in calm and sinless peace." book iv.] [footnote 95: see _national religion and universal religion_, p. 362.] [footnote 96: _hibbert lectures_, 1882.] lecture vi. mohammedanism past and present it has been the fate of every great religious teacher to have his memory enveloped in a haze of posthumous myths. even the gospel history was embellished with marvellous apocryphal legends of the childhood of christ. buddhism very soon began to be overgrown with a truly indian luxuriance of fables, miracles, and pre-existent histories extending through five hundred past transmigrations. in like manner, the followers of mohammed traced the history of their prophet and of their sacred city back to the time of adam. and mohammedan legends were not a slow and natural growth, as in the case of most other faiths. there was a set purpose in producing them without much delay. the conquests of islam over the eastern empires had been very rapid. the success of mohammed's cause and creed had exceeded the expectations of his most sanguine followers. in the first half of the seventh century--nay, between the years 630 and 638 a.d.--jerusalem, damascus, and aleppo had fallen before the arms of omar and his lieutenant "khaled the invincible," and in 639 egypt was added to the realm of the khalifs. persia was conquered in a.d. 640. it seemed scarcely possible that achievements so brilliant could have been the work of a mere unlettered arab and his brave but unpretentious successors. the personnel of the prophet must be raised to an adequate proportion to such a history. special requisition was made therefore for incidents. the devout fancy of the faithful was taxed for the picturesque and marvellous; and the system which mohammed taught, and the very place in which he was born, must needs be raised to a supernatural dignity and importance. accordingly, the history of the prophet was traced back to the creation of the world, when god was said to have imparted to a certain small portion of earthy dust a mysterious spark of light. when adam was formed this particular luminous dust appeared in his forehead, and from him it passed in a direct line to abraham. from abraham it descended, not to isaac, but to ishmael; and this was the cause of sarah's jealousy and the secret of all abraham's domestic troubles. of course, this bright spark of heavenly effulgence reappearing on the brow of each lineal progenitor, was designed ultimately for mohammed, in whom it shone forth with tenfold brightness. there is real historic evidence of the fact that the vale of mecca had for a long time been regarded as sacred ground. it was a sort of forest or extensive grove, a place for holding treaties among the tribes, a common ground of truce and a refuge from the avenger. it was also a place for holding annual fairs, for public harangues, and the competitive recitation of ballads and other poems. but all this, however creditable to the culture of the arab tribes, was not sufficient for the purposes of islam. the kaaba, which had been a rude heathen temple, was raised to the dignity of a shrine of the true god, or rather it was restored, for it was said to have been built by adam after a divine pattern. the story was this: at the time of the fall, adam and eve had somehow become separated. adam had wandered away to ceylon, where a mountain peak still bears his name. but having been divinely summoned to mecca to erect this first of earthly temples, he unexpectedly found eve residing upon a hill near the city, and thenceforward the valley of mecca became their paradise regained. at the time of the deluge the kaaba was buried in mud, and for centuries afterward it was overgrown with trees. when hagar and her son ishmael were driven out from the household of abraham, they wandered by chance to this very spot, desolate and forsaken. while hagar was diligently searching for water, more anxious to save the life of her son than her own, ishmael, boy-like, sat poking the sand with his heel; when, behold, a spring of water bubbled up in his footprint. and this was none other than the sacred well zemzem, whose brackish waters are still eagerly sought by every moslem pilgrim. as ishmael grew to manhood and established his home in the sacred city, abraham was summoned to join him, that they together might rebuild the kaaba. but in the succeeding generations apostacy again brought ruin upon the place, although the heathen koreish still performed sacred rites there--especially that of sevenfold processions around the sacred stone. this blackened object, supposed to be an aërolite which fell ages ago, is still regarded as sacred, and the sevenfold circuits of mohammedan pilgrims take the place of the ancient heathen rites. laying aside these crude legends, and confining our attention to probable history, i can only hope, in the compass of a single lecture, to barely touch upon a series of prominent points without any very careful regard to logical order. this will perhaps insure the greatest clearness as well as the best economy of time. and first, we will glance at the personal history of mohammed--a history, it should be remembered, which was not committed to writing till two hundred years after the prophet's death, and which depends wholly on the enthusiastic traditions of his followers. born in the year 561 a.d., of a recently widowed mother, he appears to have been from the first a victim of epilepsy, or some kindred affection whose paroxysms had much to do with his subsequent experiences and his success. the various tribes of arabia were mostly given to a form of polytheistic idolatry in which, however, the conception of a monotheistic supremacy was still recognized. most scholars, including renan, insist on ascribing to the arabians, in common with all other shemitic races, a worship of one god as supreme, though the arabian allah, like the baal of canaan and phoenicia, was supposed to be attended by numerous inferior deities. though islam undoubtedly borrowed the staple of its truths from the old testament, yet there was a short confession strikingly resembling the modern creed of to-day, which had been upon the lips of many generations of arabians before mohammed's time. thus it ran: "i dedicate myself to thy service, o allah. thou hast no companion except the companion of whom thou art master and of whatever is his." a society known as the "hanifs" existed at the time of mohammed's early manhood, and we know not how long before, whose aim was to bring back their countrymen from the degrading worship and cruel practices of heathenism to the purity of monotheistic worship. the old faith had been reinforced in the minds of the more intelligent arabs by the truths learned from jewish exiles, who, as early as the babylonish captivity, had found refuge in arabia; and it is a striking fact that the four hanif leaders whom the young mohammed found on joining their society, were pleading for the restoration of the faith of abraham. all these leaders refused to follow his standard when he began to claim supremacy as a prophet; three of them were finally led to christianity, and the fourth died in a sort of quandary between the christian faith and islam. the first two, waraka and othman, were cousins of mohammed's wife, and the third, obadulla, was his own cousin. zaid, the last of the four, presents to us a very pathetic picture. he lived and died in perplexity. banished from mecca by those who feared his conscientious censorship, he lived by himself on a neighboring hillside, an earnest seeker after truth to the last; and he died with the prayer on his lips, "o god, if i knew what form of worship is most pleasing to thee, so would i serve thee, but i know it not." it is to the credit of mohammed that he cherished a profound respect for this man. "i will pray for him," he said; "in the resurrection he also will gather a church around him."[97] in spite of his maladies and the general delicacy of his nervous organization, mohammed evinced in early youth a degree of energy and intellectual capacity which augured well for his future success in some important sphere. fortune also favored him in many ways. his success as manager of the commercial caravans of a wealthy widow led to his acceptance as her husband. she was fourteen years his senior, but she seems to have entirely won his affections and to have proved indispensable, not only as a patroness, but as a wise and faithful counsellor. so long as she lived she was the good spirit who called forth his better nature, and kept him from those low impulses which subsequently wrought the ruin of his character, even in the midst of his successes. on the one hand, it is an argument in favor of the sincerity of mohammed's prophetic claims, that this good and true woman was the first to believe in him as a prophet of god; but, on the other hand, we must remember that she was a loving wife, and that that charity which thinketh no evil is sometimes utterly blind to evil when found in this tender relation. we have no reason to doubt that mohammed was a sincere "hanif." having means and leisure for study, and being of a bright and thoughtful mind, he doubtless entered with enthusiasm into the work of reforming the idolatrous customs of his countrymen. from this high standpoint, and free from superstitious fear of a heathen priesthood, he was prepared to estimate in their true enormity the degrading rites which he everywhere witnessed under the abused name of religion. that hatred of idolatry which became the main spring of his subsequent success, was thus nourished and strengthened as an honest and abiding sentiment. he was, moreover, of a contemplative--we may say, of a religious--turn of mind. his maladies gave him a tinge of melancholy, and, like the buddha, he showed a characteristic thoughtfulness bordering upon the morbid. becoming more and more a reformer, he followed the example of many other reformers by withdrawing at stated times to a place of solitude for meditation; at least such is the statement of his followers, though there are evidences that he took his family with him, and that he may have been seeking refuge from the heat. however this may have been, the place chosen was a neighboring cave, in whose cool shade he not only spent the heated hours of the day, but sometimes a succession of days and nights. perhaps the confinement increased the violence of his convulsions, and the vividness and power of the strange phantasmagorias which during his paroxysms passed through his mind. it was from one of these terrible attacks that his alleged call to the prophetic office was dated. the prevailing theories of his time ascribed all such experiences to the influence of supernatural spirits, either good or evil, and the sufferer was left to the alternative of assuming either that he had received messages from heaven, or that he had been a victim of the devil. after a night of greater suffering and more thrilling visions than he had ever experienced before, mohammed chose the more favorable interpretation, and announced to his sympathizing wife kadijah that he had received from gabriel a solemn call to become the prophet of god. there has been endless discussion as to how far he may have been self-deceived in making this claim, and how far he may have been guilty of conscious imposture. speculation is useless, since on the one hand we cannot judge a man of that age and that race by the rigid standards of our own times; and on the other, we are forbidden to form a too favorable judgment by the subsequent developments of mohammed's character and life, in regard to which no other interpretation than that of conscious fraud seems possible.[98] aside from the previous development and influence of a monotheistic reform, and the favoring circumstance of a fortunate marriage, he found his way prepared by the truths which had been made known in arabia by both jews and christians. the jews had fled to the arabian peninsula from the various conquerors who had laid waste jerusalem and overrun the territories of the ten tribes. at a later day, many christians had also found an asylum there from the persecutions of hostile bishops and emperors. sir william muir has shown how largely the teachings of the koran are grounded upon those of the old and new testaments.[99] all that is best in mohammedanism is clearly borrowed from judaism and christianity. mohammed was illiterate and never claimed originality. indeed, he plead his illiteracy as a proof of direct inspiration. a far better explanation would be found in the knowledge derived from inspired records, penned long before and under different names. the prophet was fortunate not only in the possession of truths thus indirectly received, but in the fact that both jews and christians had lapsed from a fair representation of the creeds which they professed. the jews in arabia had lost the true spirit of their sacred scriptures, and were following their own perverted traditions rather than the oracles of god. they had lost the vitality and power of the truths revealed to their fathers, and were destitute of moral earnestness and all spiritual life. on the other hand, the christian sects had fallen into low superstitions and virtual idolatry. the trinity, as they represented it, gave to mohammed the impression that the virgin mary, "mother of god," was one of the three persons of the trinity, and that the promise of the coming paraclete might very plausibly be appropriated by himself.[100] the prevailing worship of pictures, images, and relics appeared in his vision as truly idolatrous as the polytheism of the heathen koreish. it was clear to him that there was a call for some zealous iconoclast to rise up and deliver his country from idolatry. the whole situation seemed auspicious. arabia was ripe for a sweeping reformation. it appears strange to us, at this late day, that the churches of christendom, even down to the seventh century, should have failed to christianize arabia, though they had carried the gospel even to spain and to britain on the west, and to india and china on the east. if they had imagined that the deserts of the peninsula were not sufficiently important to demand attention, they certainly learned their mistake; for now the sad day of reckoning had come, when swarms of fanatics should issue from those deserts like locusts, and overrun their christian communities, humble their bishops, appropriate their sacred temples, and reduce their despairing people to the alternatives of apostacy, tribute, slavery, or the sword. it seems equally strange that the great empires which had carried their conquests so far on every hand had neglected to conquer arabia. it was, indeed, comparatively isolated; it certainly did not lie in the common paths of the conquerors; doubtless it appeared barren, and by no means a tempting prize; and withal it was a difficult field for a successful campaign. but from whatever reason, the tribes of arabia had never been conquered. various expeditions had won temporary successes, but the proud arab could boast that his country had never been brought into permanent subjection.[101] meanwhile the heredity of a thousand years had strengthened the valor of the arab warrior. he was accustomed to the saddle from his very infancy; he was almost a part of his horse. he was trained to the use of arms as a robber, when not engaged in tribal wars. his whole activity, his all-absorbing interest, was in hostile forays. he knew no fear; he had no scruples. he had been taught to feel that, as a son of ishmael every man's hand was turned against him, and of simple right his hand might be turned against every man. nor was this all. the surrounding nations, east and west, had long been accustomed to employ these sons of the desert as mercenary soldiers. they had all had a hand in training them for their terrible work, by imparting to them a knowledge of their respective countries, their resources, their modes of warfare, and their points of weakness. how many nations have thus paved the way to their own destruction by calling in allies, who finally became their masters![102] on mohammed's part, there is no evidence that at the outset he contemplated a military career. at first a reformer, then a prophet, he was driven to arms in self-defence against his persecutors, and he was fortunate in being able to profit by a certain jealousy which existed between the rival cities of mecca and medina. fleeing from mecca with only one follower, abu bekr, leaving the faithful ali to arrange his affairs while he and his companion were hidden in a cave, he found on reaching medina a more favorable reception. he soon gathered a following, which enabled him to gain a truce from the meccans for ten years; and when they on their part violated the truce, he was able to march upon their city with a force which defied all possible resistance, and he entered mecca in triumph. medina had been won partly by the supposed credentials of the prophet, but mainly by jealousy of the rival city. mecca yielded to a superior force of arms, but in the end became the honored capital and shrine of islam. from this time the career of mohammed was wholly changed. he was now an ambitious conqueror, and here as before, the question how far he may have sincerely interpreted his remarkable fortune as a call of god to subdue the idolatrous nations, must remain for the present unsettled. possibly further light may be thrown upon it as we proceed. let us consider some of the changes which appear in the development of this man's character. if we set out with that high ideal which would seem to be demanded as a characteristic of a great religious teacher, and certainly of one claiming to be a prophet of god, we ought to expect that his character would steadily improve in all purity, humanity, truthfulness, charity, and godlikeness. the test of character lies in its trend. if the founder of a religion has not grown nobler and better under the operation of his own system, that fact is the strongest possible condemnation of the system. a good man generally feels that he can afford to be magnanimous and pitiful in proportion to his victories and his success. but mohammed became relentless as his power increased. he had at first endeavored to win the arabian jews to his standard. he had adopted their prophets and much of the old testament teachings; he had insisted upon the virtual identity of the two religions. but having failed in his overtures, and meanwhile having gained superior power, he waged against them the most savage persecution. on one occasion he ordered the massacre of a surrendered garrison of six hundred jewish soldiers. at another time he put to the most inhuman torture a leader who had opposed his cause; in repeated instances he instigated the crime of assassination.[103] in early life he had been engaged in a peaceful caravan trade, and all his influence had been cast in favor of universal security as against the predatory habits of the heathen arabs; but on coming to power he himself resorted to robbery to enrich his exchequer. sales mentions twenty-seven of these predatory expeditions against caravans, in which mohammed was personally present.[104] the biographers of his early life represent him as a man of a natural kindness of disposition, and a sensitive temperament almost bordering on timidity. though not particularly genial, he was fond of children, and had at first, as his recorded utterances show, frequent impulses of pity and magnanimity. but he became hardened as success crowned his career. the temperateness which characterized his early pleadings and remonstrances with those who differed from him, gave place to bitter anathemas; and there was rooted in his personal character that relentless bigotry which has been the key-note of the most intolerant system known upon the earth. a still more marked change occurred in the increasing sensuality of mohammed. such lenient apologists as e. bosworth smith and canon taylor have applied their most skilful upholstery to the defects of his scandalous morals. mr. smith has even undertaken to palliate his appropriation of another man's wife, and the blasphemy of his pretended revelation in which he made god justify his passion.[105] these authors base their chief apologies upon comparisons between mohammed and the worse depravity of the heathen arabs, or they balance accounts with some of his acknowledged virtues. but the case baffles all such advocacy. the real question is, what was the _drift_ of the prophet's character? what was the influence of his professed principles on his own life? it cannot be denied that his moral trend was downward. if we credit the traditions of his own followers, he had lived a virtuous life as the husband of one wife,[106] and that for many years. but after the death of kadijah he entered upon a career of polygamy in violation of his own law. he had fixed the limit for all moslems at four lawful wives; and in spite of the arguments of r. bosworth smith, we must regard it as a most damning after-thought that made the first and only exception to accommodate his own weakness. by that act he placed himself beyond the help of all sophistry, and took his true place in the sober judgment of mankind. and by a law which is as unerring as the law of gravitation, he became more and more sensual as age advanced. at the time of his death he was the husband of eleven wives. we are not favored with a list of his concubines:[107] we only know that his system placed no limit upon the number.[108] now, if a prophet claiming direct inspiration could break his own inspired laws for his personal accommodation; if, when found guilty of adultery, he could compel his friend and follower to divorce his wife that he might take her; if upon each violation of purity and decency he did not shrink from the blasphemy of claiming a special revelation which made god the abettor of his vices, and even represented him as reproving and threatening his wives for their just complaints--if all this does not stamp a man as a reckless impostor, what further turpitude is required? at the same time it is evident that constant discrimination is demanded in judging of the character of mohammed. it is not necessary to assume that he was wholly depraved at first, or to deny that for a time he was the good husband that he is represented to have been, or that he was a sincere and enthusiastic reformer, or even that he may have interpreted some of his _early_ hallucinations as mysterious messages from heaven. at various times in his life he doubtless displayed noble sentiments and performed generous acts. but when we find him dictating divine communications with deliberate purpose for the most villainous objects, when we find the messages of gabriel timed and graded to suit the exigencies of his growing ambition, or the demands of his worst passions, we are forced to a preponderating condemnation. the mohammed of the later years is a remorseless tyrant when occasion requires, and at all times the slave of unbridled lust. refined and cultivated mohammedan ladies--i speak from testimony that is very direct--do not hesitate to condemn the degrading morals of their prophet, and to contrast him with the spotless purity of jesus; "but then," they add, "god used him for a great purpose, and gave him the most exalted honor among men." alas! it is the old argument so often employed in many lands. success, great intellect, grand achievements gild all moral deformity, and win the connivance of dazzled minds. in this case, however, it is not a hero or a statesman, but an alleged prophet of god, that is on trial. it is a question difficult to decide, how far mohammed made mohammedanism, and how far the system moulded him. the action of cause and effect was mutual, and under this interaction both the character and the system were slow growths. the koran was composed in detached fragments suited to different stages of development, different degrees and kinds of success, different demands of personal impulse or changes of conduct. the suras, without any claim to logical connection, were written down by an amanuensis on bits of parchment, or pieces of wood or leather, and even on the shoulder-bones of sheep. and they were each the expression of mohammed's particular mood at the time, and each entered in some degree into his character from that time forth. the man and the book grew together, the system, through all its history, fairly represents the example of the man and the teaching of the book. let us next consider the historic character and influence of the system of islam. in forming just conclusions as to the real influence of mohammedanism, a judicial fairness is necessary. in the first place, we must guard against the hasty and sweeping judgments which are too often indulged in by zealous christians; and on the other hand, we must certainly challenge the exaggerated statements of enthusiastic apologists. it is erroneous to assert that islam has never encouraged education, that it has invariably been adverse to all progress, that it knows nothing but the koran, or that omar, in ordering the destruction of the alexandrian library, is the only historical exponent of the system. such statements are full of partial truths, but they are also mingled with patent errors. the arab races in their original home were naturally inclined to the encouragement of letters, particularly of poetry, and mohammed himself, though he had never been taught even to read, much less to write, took special pains to encourage learning. "teach your children poetry," he said; "it opens the mind, lends grace to wisdom, and makes the heroic virtues hereditary."[109] according to sprenger, he gave liberty to every prisoner who taught twelve boys of mecca to write. the abbasside princes of a later day offered most generous prizes for superior excellence in poetry, and bagdad, damascus, alexandria, bassora, and samarcand were noted for their universities.[110] cordova and seville were able to lend their light to the infant university of oxford. the fine arts of sculpture and painting were condemned by the early caliphs, doubtless on account of the idolatrous tendencies which they were supposed to foster; but medicine, philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy were especially developed, and that at a time when the nations of europe were mostly in darkness.[111] yet it cannot be denied that on the whole the influence of islam has been hostile to learning and to civilization.[112] the world will never forget that by the burning of the great library of alexandria the rich legacy which the old world had bequeathed to the new was destroyed. by its occupation of egypt and constantinople, and thus cutting off the most important channels of communication, the mohammedan power became largely responsible for the long eclipse of europe during the middle ages. moreover, when zealous advocates of the system contrast the barbarism of richard coeur de lion with the culture and humanity of saladin, they seem to forget that the race of richard had but just emerged from the savagery of the northmen, while saladin and his race had not only inherited the high moral culture of judaism and christianity, but had virtually monopolized it. it was chiefly by the wars of the crusaders that western europe became acquainted with the civilization of the orient. instead of ignoring the advantages which the east had over the west at that period, it would be more just to inquire what comparative improvements of their respective opportunities have been made by western christianity and eastern mohammedanism since that time. it would be an interesting task, for example, to start with the period of saladin and coeur de lion, and impartially trace on the one hand the influence of christianity as it moulded the savage conquerors of the roman empire, and from such rude materials built up the great christian nations of the nineteenth century; and on the other hand, follow the banner of the crescent through all the lands where it has borne sway: persia, arabia, northern india, egypt, the barbary states, east africa, and the soudan, and then draw an unbiased conclusion as to which system, as a system, has done more to spread general enlightenment, foster the sentiments of kindness and philanthropy, promote human liberty, advance civilization, increase and elevate populations, promote the purity and happiness of the family and the home, and raise the standards of ethics and true religion among mankind.[113] one of the brilliant dynasties of mohammedan history was that of the moors of spain. we can never cease to admire their encouragement of arts and their beautiful architecture, but is it quite certain that all this was a direct fruit of islam? the suggestion that it may have been partly due to contact with the gothic elements which the moors vanquished, finds support in the fact that nothing of the kind appeared on the opposite coast of africa. and while the mohammedan empire in india has left the most exquisite architectural structures in the world, it is well known that they were the work of european architects. but in considering the influence which islam has exerted on the whole, lack of time compels me to limit our survey to africa, except as other lands may be referred to incidentally.[114] that the first african conquests, extending from egypt to morocco, were simple warlike invasions in which the sword was the only instrument of propagandism, no one will deny. but it is contended that in later centuries a great work has been accomplished in western soudan, and is still being accomplished, by missionary effort and the general advance of a wholesome civilization. any fair estimate of mohammedan influence must take account of the elements which it found in northern africa at the time of its conquests. the states which border on the mediterranean had once been powerful and comparatively enlightened. they had been populous and prosperous. the phoenician colony in carthage had grown to be no mean rival of rome's military power. egypt had been a great centre of learning, not only in the most ancient times, but especially after the building of alexandria. more western lands, like numidia and mauritania, had been peopled by noble races. after the introduction of christianity, alexandria became the bright focus into which the religions and philosophies of the world poured their concentrated light. some of the greatest of the christian fathers, like augustine, tertullian, and cyprian, were africans. the foundations of latin christianity were laid by these men. the bishopric of hippo was a model for all time in deep and intelligent devotion. the grace and strength, the sublime and all-conquering faith of monica, and others like her, furnished a pattern for all christian womanhood and motherhood. i do not forget that before the time of the mohammedan invasion the vandals had done their work of devastation, or that the african church had been woefully weakened and rent by wild heresies and schisms, or that the defection of the monophysite or coptic church of egypt was one of the influences which facilitated the mohammedan success. but making due allowance for all this, vandalism and schism could not have destroyed so soon the ancient civilization or sapped the strength of the north african races. the process which has permanently reduced so many once populous cities and villages to deserts, and left large portions of the barbary states with only the moldering ruins of their former greatness, has been a gradual one. for centuries after the arab conquest those states were virtually shut off from communication with europe, and for at least three centuries more, say from 1500 down to the generation which immediately preceded our own, they were known chiefly by the piracies which they carried on against the commerce of all maritime nations. even the government of the united states was compelled to pay a million of dollars for the ransom of captured american seamen, and it paid it not to private corsairs, but to the mohammedan governments by which those piracies were subsidized, as a means of supplying the public exchequer. these large amounts were recovered only when our navy, in co-operation with that of england, extirpated the riff piracies by bombarding the moslem ports. the vaunted civilizations of the north african states would have been supported by wholesale marauding to this day, had not their piratical fleets been thus summarily swept from the seas by other powers. if egypt has shown a higher degree of advancement it has been due to her peculiar geographical position, to the inexhaustible fertility of the delta, and, most of all, to the infusion of foreign life and energy into the management of her affairs. ambitious adventurers, like the albanian mehamet ali, have risen to power and have made egypt what she is, or rather what she was before the more recent intervention of the european powers. even canon taylor admits that for centuries it has been necessary to import more vigorous foreign blood for the administration of egyptian affairs.[115] it will be admitted that mohammedan conquests have been made in mediæval times, and down to our own age, in central africa, and that along the southern borders of sahara a cordon of more or less prosperous states has been established; also, that the civilization of those states contrasts favorably with the savagery of the cannibal tribes with which they have come in contact. probably the best--that is to say, the least objectionable--exemplifications of islam now to be found in the world are seen in some of the older states of western soudan. the mandingo of the central uplands furnished a better material than the "unspeakable turk," and it would not be quite fair to ascribe all his present virtues to the moslem rule. but _how_ have these conquests in central africa been made? the contention of the apologists for islam is that recently, at least, and probably more or less in the past, a quiet missionary work has greatly extended monotheism, temperance, education, and general comfort, and that it has done more than all other influences for the permanent extinction of the slave trade! dr. e.w. blyden, in answer to the charge that mohammedan arabs are now, and long have been, chiefly responsible for the horrors of that trade, and that even when americans bought slaves for their plantations, moslem raiders in the interior instigated the tribal quarrels which supplied the markets on the coast, contends that the moslem conquests do most effectually destroy the trade, since tribes which have become moslem can no longer be enslaved by moslems.[116] it is a curious argument, especially as it seems to ignore the fact that at the present time both the supply and the demand depend on mohammedan influence. as to the means by which the soudanese states are now extending their power we may content ourselves with a mere reference to the operations of the late "el mahdi" in the east and the notorious samadu in the west. their methods may be accepted as illustrations of a kind of tactics which have been employed for ages. the career of el mahdi is already well known. samadu was originally a prisoner, captured while yet a boy in one of the tribal wars near the headwaters of the niger. partly by intrigue and partly by the aid of his religious fanaticism he at length became sufficiently powerful to enslave his master. soon afterward he proclaimed his divine mission, and declared a _jehad_ or holy war against all infidels. thousands flocked to his banner, influenced largely by the hope of booty; and ere long, to quote the language of a lay correspondent of the london _standard_, written in sierra leone september 18, 1888, "he became the scourge of all the peaceable states on the right bank of the upper niger." since 1882 he has attempted to dispute the territorial claims of the french on the upper, and of the english on the lower niger, though without success. but he has seemed to avenge his disappointment the more terribly on the native tribes. the letter published in the _standard_ gives an account of an official commission sent by the governor of sierra leone to the headquarters of samadu in 1888, and in describing the track of this western mahdi in his approaches to the french territories it says: "the messengers report that every town and village through which they passed was in ruins, and that the road, from the borders of sulimania to herimakono, was lined with human skeletons, the remains of unfortunates who had been slain by samadu's fanatical soldiery, or had perished from starvation through the devastation of the surrounding country. some of these poor wretches, to judge from the horrible contortions of the skeletons, had been attacked by vultures and beasts of prey while yet alive, and when too near their lingering death to have sufficient strength to beat them off. around the ruined towns were hundreds of doubled-up skeletons, the remains of prisoners who, bound hand and foot, had been forced upon their knees, and their heads struck off. keba, the heroic bambara king, is still resisting bravely, but he has only one stronghold (siaso) left, and the end cannot now be far off." samadu's career in this direction having been arrested, he next turned his attention toward the tribes under english protection on the southeast, "where, unfortunately, there was no power to take up the cause of humanity and arrest his progress. before long he entirely overran and subjected kouranko, limbah, sulimania, kono, and kissi. the most horrible atrocities were committed; peaceable agriculturists were slaughted in thousands, and their women and children carried off into slavery. falaba, the celebrated capital of sulimania, and the great emporium for trade between sierra leone and the niger, was captured and destroyed; and all the inhabitants of that district, whom every traveller, from winwood reade down to dr. blyden, has mentioned with praise for their industry and docility, have been exterminated or carried off. sulimania, which was the garden of west africa, has now become a howling wilderness." and the writer adds: "the people of the states to the south of futa djallon are pagans, and samadu makes their religion a pretext for his outrages. he is desirous, he says, of converting them to the 'true faith,' and his modes of persuasion are murder and slavery. what could be more horrible than the story just brought down by the messengers who were with major festing? miles of road strewn with human bones; blackened ruins where were peaceful hamlets; desolation and emptiness where were smiling plantations. what has become of the tens of thousands of peaceful agriculturists, their wives and their innocent children? gone; converted, after samadu's manner, to the 'true faith.' and thus the conversion of west africa to islamism goes merrily on, while _dilettante_ scholars at home complacently discuss the question as to whether that faith or christianity is the more suitable for the negro; and the british people, dead to their generous instincts of old, make no demand that such deeds of cruelty and horror shall be arrested with a strong hand."[117] similar accounts of the african _propagandism_ of islam might be given in the very words of numerous travellers and explorers, but one or two witnesses only shall be summoned to speak of the mohammedan dominion and civilization in east africa. professor drummond, in giving his impressions of zanzibar, says: "oriental in its appearance, mohammedan in its religion, arabian in its morals, a cesspool of wickedness, it is a fit capital to the dark continent." and it is the great emporium--not an obscure settlement, but the consummate flower of east african civilization and boasting in the late sultan bargash, an unusually enlightened moslem ruler. of the interior and the ivory-slave trade pursued under the auspices of arab dominion the same author says: "arab encampments for carrying on a wholesale trade in this terrible commodity are now established all over the heart of africa. they are usually connected with wealthy arab traders at zanzibar and other places on the coast, and communication is kept up by caravans, which pass at long intervals from one to the other. being always large and well-supplied with the material of war, these caravans have at their mercy the feeble and divided native tribes through which they pass, and their trail across the continent is darkened with every aggravation of tyranny and crime. they come upon the scene suddenly; they stay only long enough to secure their end, and disappear only to return when a new crop has arisen which is worth the reaping. sometimes these arab traders will actually settle for a year or two in the heart of some quiet community in the remote interior. they pretend perfect friendship; they molest no one; they barter honestly. they plant the seeds of their favorite vegetables and fruits--the arab always carries seeds with him--as if they meant to stay forever. meantime they buy ivory, tusk after tusk, until great piles of it are buried beneath their huts, and all their barter goods are gone. then one day suddenly the inevitable quarrel is picked. and then follows a wholesale massacre. enough only are spared from the slaughter to carry the ivory to the coast; the grass huts of the village are set on fire; the arabs strike camp; and the slave march, worse than death, begins. the last act in the drama, the slave march, is the aspect of slavery which in the past has chiefly aroused the passions and the sympathy of the outside world, but the greater evil is the demoralization and disintegration of communities by which it is necessarily preceded. it is essential to the traffic that the region drained by the slaver should be kept in perpetual political ferment; that, in order to prevent combination, chief should be pitted against chief, and that the moment any tribe threatens to assume a dominating strength it should either be broken up by the instigation of rebellion among its dependencies or made a tool of at their expense. the inter-relation of tribes is so intricate that it is impossible to exaggerate the effect of disturbing the equilibrium at even a single centre. but, like a river, a slave caravan has to be fed by innumerable tributaries all along its course, at first in order to gather a sufficient volume of human bodies for the start, and afterward to replace the frightful loss by desertion, disablement, and death." next to livingstone, whose last pathetic appeal to the civilized world to "heal the open sore of africa" stands engraved in marble in westminster abbey, no better witness can be summoned in regard to the slave trade and the influence of islam generally in eastern and central africa than henry m. stanley. from the time when he encountered the mohammedan propagandists at the court of uganda he has seen how intimately and vitally the faith and the traffic are everywhere united. i give but a single passage from his "congo free state," page 144. "we discovered that this horde of banditti--for in reality and without disguise they were nothing else--was under the leadership of several chiefs, but principally under karema and kibunga. they had started sixteen months previously from wane-kirundu, about thirty miles below vinya njara. for eleven months the band had been raiding successfully between the congo and the lubiranzi, on the left bank. they had then undertaken to perform the same cruel work between the biyerré and wane-kirundu. on looking at my map i find that such a territory within the area described would cover superficially 16,200 square geographical miles on the left bank, and 10,500 miles on the right, all of which in statute mileage would be equal to 34,700 square miles, just 2,000 square miles greater than the island of ireland, inhabited by about 1,000,000 people. "the band when it set out from kirundu numbered 300 fighting men, armed with flint-locks, double-barrelled percussion guns, and a few breech-loaders; their followers, or domestic slaves and women, doubled this force.... within the enclosure was a series of low sheds extending many lines deep from the immediate edge of the clay bank inland, 100 yards; in length the camp was about 300 yards. at the landing-place below were 54 long canoes, varying in carrying capacity. each might convey from 10 to 100 people.... the first general impressions are that the camp is much too densely peopled for comfort. there are rows upon rows of dark nakedness, relieved here and there by the white dresses of the captors. there are lines or groups of naked forms--upright, standing, or moving about listlessly; naked bodies are stretched under the sheds in all positions; naked legs innumerable are seen in the perspective of prostrate sleepers; there are countless naked children--many mere infants--forms of boyhood and girlhood, and occasionally a drove of absolutely naked old women bending under a basket of fuel, or cassava tubers, or bananas, who are driven through the moving groups by two or three musketeers. on paying more attention to details, i observe that mostly all are fettered; youths with iron rings around their necks, through which a chain, like one of our boat anchor-chains, is rove, securing the captives by twenties. the children over ten are secured by these copper rings, each ringed leg brought together by the central ring." by a careful examination of statistics mr. stanley estimates that counting the men killed in the raids and those who perish on the march or are slain because supposed to be worthless, every 5,000 slaves actually sold cost over 30,000 lives. but there are arabs and arabs we are told. the slave-dealers of east africa and the barbarous chieftains who push their bloody conquests in western soudan are bad enough, it is admitted, but they are "exceptions." yet we insist that they illustrate the very spirit of mohammed himself, who authorized the taking of prisoners of war as slaves. their plea is that they save the souls of those they capture; many of these traders are mollahs--pharisees of the pharisees. canon taylor, dr. blyden, and others have given us glowing accounts of "arab missionaries going about without purse or scrip, and disseminating their religion by quietly teaching the koran;" but the venerable bishop crowther, who has spent his whole life in that part of africa where these conquests are supposed to be made, declares that the real vocation of the quiet apostles of the koran is that of fetish peddlers.[118] if it be objected that this is the biased testimony of a christian missionary, it may be backed by the explorer lander, who, in speaking of this same class of men, says: "these mollahs procure an easy subsistence by making fetishes or writing charms on bits of wood which are washed off carefully into a basin of water, and drank with avidity by the credulous multitude." and he adds: "those who profess the mohammedan faith among the negroes are as ignorant and superstitious as their idolatrous brethren; nor does it appear that their having adopted a new creed has either improved their manners or bettered their condition in life." dr. schweinfurth also describes the mohammedan missionaries whom he found at khartoum as "polluted with every abominable vice which the imagination of man can conceive of." in answer to various statements which had been published in regard to the rapid missionary progress made by mohammedans in west central africa, bishop crowther wrote a letter to the church missionary society at the beginning of 1888, giving the results of his own prolonged observation. he describes the methods used as: 1. war upon the heathen tribes. "if the chief of a heathen tribe accepts the koran his people are at once counted as converts and he is received into favor, and is thus prepared to become an instrument in conquering other tribes. but on the refusal to accept the koran war is declared, the destruction of their country is the consequence, and horrible bloodshed. the aged, male and female, are massacred, while the salable are led away as slaves. one half of the slaves are reserved by the chief, the other half is divided among the soldiers to encourage them to future raids." 2. another cause of large increase is polygamy. "for although but four lawful wives are allowed, there is unlimited license for concubinage." 3. the sale of charms is so conducted as to prove not only a means of profit but a shrewd propaganda. "when childless women are furnished with these, they are pledged, if successful, to dedicate their children to islam." and bishop crowther verifies the statement made by others in reference to east africa, that the priests "besides being charm-makers are traders both in general articles and more largely in slaves."[119] we have only time to consider one question more, viz., what is the character of islam as we find it to-day, and what are its prospects of development? it is a characteristic of our age that no religion stands wholly alone and uninfluenced by others. it is especially true that the systems of the east are all deeply affected by the higher ethics and purer religious conceptions borrowed from christianity. thus many mohammedans of our day, and especially those living in close contact with our christian civilization, are rising to higher conceptions of god and of religious truth than have been entertained by moslems hitherto. canon taylor, in a little volume entitled "leaves from an egyptian note-book," has drawn a picture of islam which omar and othman would hardly have recognized. in the first place it should be remembered that, as he confesses, his reputation as a defender of mohammed and his system had gone before him to cairo, and that he was understood to be a seeker after facts favorable to his known views. this opened the hearts of friendly pashas and served to bring out all the praises that they could bestow upon their own faith. it appears accordingly that he was assured by them that polygamy is widely discarded and condemned by prominent moslems in such cities as cairo and alexandria, that many leading men are highly intelligent and widely read, that they profess belief in most of the doctrines held by the christian church, that they receive the inspired testimony of the old and new testaments--except in so far as they have been corrupted by christian manipulation. this exception, however, includes all that is at variance with the koran. they advocate temperance and condemn the slave trade. they encourage the general promotion of education, and what seems to the credulous canon most remarkable of all is that they express deep regret that christians do not feel the same charity and fellowship toward moslems that they feel toward christians! now, making all due abatement for the _couleur de rose_ which these easy-going and politic pashas may have employed with their english champion, it is undoubtedly true that a class of mohammedans are found in the great cosmopolitan cities of the levant who have come to recognize the spirit of the age in which they live. many of them have been educated in europe; they speak several languages; they read the current literature; they are ashamed of the old fanatical mohammedanism. though they cherish a partisan interest in the recognized religion of their country, their faith is really eclectic; it comes not from old mecca, but is in part a product of the awakened thought of the nineteenth century. but canon taylor's great fallacy lies in trying to persuade himself and an intelligent christian public that this is islam. he wearies himself in his attempts to square the modern cairo with the old, and to trace the modern gentlemanly pasha, whose faith at least sits lightly upon his soul, as a legitimate descendant of the fanatical and licentious prophet of arabia. when he strives to convince the world that because these courteous pashas feel kindly enough toward the canon of york and others like him, therefore islam is and always has been a charitable and highly tolerant system, he simply stultifies the whole testimony of history. he tells us that his egyptian friends complain that "whereas they regard us as brother-believers and accept our scriptures, they are nevertheless denounced as infidels. and they ask why should an eternal coldness reign in our hearts." probably they are not acquainted with samadu of western soudan and his methods of propagandism. they have forgotten the career of el mahdi; they are not familiar with the terrible oppression of the jews in morocco--with which even that in russia cannot compare; they have not read the dark accounts of the extortion practised by the wahábees of arabia, even upon moslems of another sect on their pilgrimages to mecca,[120] nor do they seem to know that syrian converts from islam are now hiding in egypt from the bloodthirsty moslems of beyrut. finally, he forgets that the very "children are taught formulas of prayer in which they may compendiously curse jews and christians and all unbelievers."[121] a more plausible case is made out by canon taylor, dr. blyden, and others on the question of temperance. it is true that moslems, as a rule, are not hard drinkers. men and races of men have their besetting sins. drinking was not the special vice of the arabs. their country was too arid; but they had another vice of which mohammed was the chief exemplar. canon taylor is doubtless correct also in the statement that the english protectorate in egypt has greatly increased the degree of intemperance, and that in this respect the presence of european races generally has been a curse. certainly too much cannot be said in condemnation of the wholesale liquor trade carried on in africa by unscrupulous subjects of christian nations. but it should be remembered that the whiskey of cairo and of the west coast does not represent christianity any more than the greek assassin or the italian pickpocket in cairo represents islam. christian philanthropists in europe and america are seeking to suppress the evil. if christian missionaries in west africa were selling rum as moslem mollahs are buying and selling slaves in uganda, if the bible authorized the system as the koran encourages slavery and concubinage, as means of propagandism, a parallel might be presented; but the very reverse is true. as a rule nomadic races are not as greatly inclined to the use of ardent spirits as are the descendants of the ancient tribes of northern europe. the difference is due to climate, temperament, heredity, and the amount of supply. the koran discourages intemperance and so does the bible; both are disregarded when the means of gratification are abundant. the moguls of india were sots almost as a rule. wealthy persian moslems are the chief purchasers of the native wines. lander, schweinfurth, and even mungo parke all speak of communities in central africa as wholly given to intemperance.[122] egyptians even, according to canon taylor, find the abundant supplies afforded by europeans too tempting for the restraints of the koran. one of the most significant indications that the sober judgment of all enlightened men favors the immense superiority of the christian faith over all ethnic systems is the fact that even those zealous apologists who have most plausibly defended the non-christian religions have subsequently evinced some misgivings and have even become advocates of the superior light of christianity. sir edwin arnold, seeing how seriously some ill-grounded christian people had interpreted "the light of asia," has since made amends by writing "the light of the world." and e. bosworth smith, on reading the extravagant glorification given to islam by canon isaac taylor, whom he accuses of plagiarism and absurd exaggeration, has come to the stand as a witness against his extreme views. without acknowledging any important modification of his own former views he has greatly changed the place of emphasis. he has not only recorded his condemnation of canon taylor's extravagance but he has made a strong appeal for the transcendent superiority of the christian faith as that alone which must finally regenerate africa and the world. he has called public attention to the following pointed criticism of canon taylor's plea for islam, made by a gentleman long resident in algeria, and he has given it his own endorsement: "canon isaac taylor," says the writer, "has constructed at the expense of christianity a rose-colored picture of islam, by a process of comparison in which christianity is arraigned for failures in practice, of which christendom is deeply and penitently conscious, no account being taken of christian precept; while islam is judged by its better precepts only, no account being taken of the frightful shortcomings in mohammedan practice, even from the standard of the koran."[123] no indictment ever carried its proofs more conspicuously on its face than this. e. bosworth smith's subsequent tribute to the relative superiority of the christian faith was given in an address before the fellows of zion's college, february 21, 1888. i give his closing comparison entire; also his eloquent appeal for christian missions in africa. "the resemblances between the two creeds are indeed many and striking, as i have implied throughout; but, if i may, once more, quote a few words which i have used elsewhere in dealing with this question, the contrasts are even more striking than the resemblances. the religion of christ contains whole fields of morality and whole realms of thought which are all but outside the religion of mohammed. it opens humility, purity of heart, forgiveness of injuries, sacrifice of self, to man's moral nature; it gives scope for toleration, development, boundless progress to his mind; its motive power is stronger even as a friend is better than a king, and love higher than obedience. its realized ideals in the various paths of human greatness have been more commanding, more many-sided, more holy, as averroes is below newton, harun below alfred, and ali below st. paul. finally, the ideal life of all is far more elevating, far more majestic, far more inspiring, even as the life of the founder of mohammedanism is below the life of the founder of christianity. "if, then, we believe christianity to be truer and purer in itself than islam, and than any other religion, we must needs wish others to be partakers of it; and the effort to propagate it is thrice blessed--it blesses him that offers, no less than him who accepts it; nay, it often blesses him who accepts it not. the last words of a dying friend are apt to linger in the chambers of the heart till the heart itself has ceased to beat; and the last recorded words of the founder of christianity are not likely to pass from the memory of his church till that church has done its work. they are the marching orders of the christian army; the consolation for every past and present failure; the earnest and the warrant, in some shape or other, of ultimate success. the value of a christian mission is not, therefore, to be measured by the number of its converts. the presence in a heathen or a muslim district of a single man who, filled with the missionary spirit, exhibits in his preaching and, so far as may be, in his life, the self-denying and the christian virtues, who is charged with sympathy for those among whom his lot is cast, who is patient of disappointment and of failure, and of the sneers of the ignorant or the irreligious, and who works steadily on with a single eye to the glory of god and the good of his fellow-men, is, of itself, an influence for good, and a centre from which it radiates, wholly independent of the number of converts he is able to enlist. there is a vast number of such men engaged in mission work all over the world, and our best indian statesmen, some of whom, for obvious reasons, have been hostile to direct proselytizing efforts, are unanimous as to the quantity and quality of the services they render. "nothing, therefore, can be more shallow, or more disingenuous, or more misleading, than to attempt to disparage christian missions by pitting the bare number of converts whom they claim against the number of converts claimed by islam. the numbers are, of course, enormously in favor of islam. but does conversion mean the same, or anything like the same, thing in each? is it _in pari materia_, and if not, is the comparison worth the paper on which it is written? the submission to the rite of circumcision and the repetition of a confession of faith, however noble and however elevating in its ultimate effect, do not necessitate, they do not even necessarily tend toward what a christian means by a change of heart. it is the characteristic of mohammedanism to deal with batches and with masses. it is the characteristic of christianity to speak straight to the individual conscience. "the conversion of a whole pagan community to islam need not imply more effort, more sincerity, or more vital change, than the conversion of a single individual to christianity. the christianity accepted wholesale by clovis and his fierce warriors, in the flush of victory, on the field of battle, or by the russian peasants, when they were driven by the cossack whips into the dnieper, and baptized there by force--these are truer parallels to the tribal conversions to mohammedanism in africa at the present day. and, whatever may have been their beneficial effects in the march of the centuries, they are not the christianity of christ, nor are they the methods or the objects at which a christian missionary of the present day would dream of aiming. "a christian missionary could not thus bring over a pagan or a muslim tribe to christianity, even if he would; he ought not to try thus to bring them over, even if he could. 'missionary work,' as remarked by an able writer in the _spectator_ the other day, 'is sowing, not reaping, and the sowing of a plant which is slow to bear.' at times, the difficulties and discouragements may daunt the stoutest heart and the most living faith. but god is greater than our hearts and wider than our thoughts, and, if we are able to believe in him at all, we must also believe that the ultimate triumph of christianity--and by christianity i mean not the comparatively narrow creed of this or that particular church, but the divine spirit of its founder, that spirit which, exactly in proportion as they are true to their name, informs, and animates, and underlies, and overlies them all--is not problematical, but certain, and in his good time, across the lapse of ages, will prove to be, not local but universal, not partial but complete, not evanescent but eternal."[124] footnotes: [footnote 97: sprenger's _life of mohammed_, pp. 40, 41.] [footnote 98: it is a suspicious fact that the first chapter of the _koran_ begins with protestations that it is a true revelation, and with most terrible anathemas against all who doubt it. this seems significant, and contrasts strongly with the conscious truthfulness and simplicity of the gospel narrators.] [footnote 99: nor have later defenders of the system failed to derive alleged proofs of their system from biblical sources. mohammedan controversialists have urged some very specious and plausible arguments; for example, deut. xviii. 15-18, promises that the lord shall raise up unto israel a prophet from _among their brethren_. but israel had no brethren but the sons of ishmael. there was also promised a prophet like unto moses; but deut. xxxiv. declares that "_there arose no prophet in israel like unto moses_." when john the baptist was asked whether he were the christ, or elijah, or "_that prophet_," no other than mohammed could have been meant by "_that prophet_."] [footnote 100: rev. mr. bruce, missionary in persia, states that pictures of the father, the son, and mary are still seen in eastern churches.--_church missionary intelligencer_, january, 1882.] [footnote 101: sales, in his _preliminary discourse_, section 1st, enumerates the great nations which have vainly attempted the conquest of arabia, from the assyrians down to the romans, and he asserts that even the turks have held only a nominal sway.] [footnote 102: china owes her present dynasty to the fact that the hardy manchus were called in as mercenaries or as allies.] [footnote 103: dr. koelle: quoted in _church missionary intelligencer_.] [footnote 104: sales: _koran and preliminary discourse_, wherry's edition, p. 89. one of the chief religious duties under the _koran_ was the giving of alms (zakat), and under this euphonious name was included the tax by which mohammed maintained the force that enabled him to keep up his predatory raids on the caravans of his enemies.] [footnote 105: _mohammed and mohammedanism_, p. 123.] [footnote 106: dr. koelle gravely questions this.] [footnote 107: one of the most wicked and disastrous of all mohammed's laws was that which allowed the free practice of capturing women and girls in war, and retaining them as lawful chattels in the capacity of concubines. it has been in all ages a base stimulus to the raids of the slave-hunter. sir william muir has justly said, that so long as a free sanction to this great evil stands recorded on the pages of the _koran_, mohammedans will never of their own accord cease to prosecute the slave-trade.] [footnote 108: according to dr. koelle, the number of women and children who fell to the prophet's share of captives at the time of his great slaughter of the surrendered jewish soldiers, was two hundred.] [footnote 109: _mohammed, buddha, and christ_, p. 112.] [footnote 110: _mohammed, buddha, and christ_.] [footnote 111: ibid, p. 112.] [footnote 112: says sir william muir: "three radical evils flow from the faith, in all ages and in every country, and must continue to flow _so long as the koran is the standard of belief_. _first_, polygamy, divorce, and slavery are maintained and perpetuated, striking at the root of public morals, poisoning domestic life, and disorganizing society. _second_, freedom of thought and private judgment in religion is crushed and annihilated. the sword still is, and must remain, the inevitable penalty for the denial of islam. toleration is unknown. _third_, a barrier has been interposed against the reception of christianity. they labor under a miserable delusion who suppose that mohammedanism paves the way for a purer faith. no system could have been devised with more consummate skill for shutting out the nations over which it has sway from the light of truth. _idolatrous_ arabia (judging from the analogy of other nations) might have been aroused to spiritual life and to the adoption of the faith of jesus. _mohammedan_ arabia is to the human eye sealed against the benign influences of the gospel.... the sword of mohammed and the koran are the most stubborn enemies of civilization, liberty, and truth which the world has yet known."--_church missionary intelligencer_, november, 1885.] [footnote 113: osborne, in his _islam under the arabs_, and marcus dodds, in _mohammed, buddha, and christ_, have emphasized the fact that islam, however favorably it might compare with the arabian heathenism which it overthrew, was wholly out of place in forcing its semi-barbarous cultus upon civilizations which were far above it. it might be an advance upon the rudeness and cruelty of the koreish, but the misfortune was that it stamped its stereotyped and unchanging principles and customs upon nations which were in advance of it even then, and which, but for its deadening influence, might have made far greater progress in the centuries which followed. its bigoted founder gave the _koran_ as the sufficient guide for all time. it arrested the world's progress as far as its power extended. very different was the spirit of judaism. "it distinctly disclaimed both finality and completeness. every part of the mosaic religion had a forward look, and was designed to leave the mind in an attitude of expectation." mohammedanism, in claiming to be the one religion for all men and all time, is convicted of absurdity and imposture by its failures; by the retrograde which marks its whole history in western asia. as a universal religion it has been tried and found wanting.] [footnote 114: it has been claimed that the spread of mohammedanism in india is far more rapid than that of christianity. if this were true in point of fact, it would be significant; for india under british rule furnishes a fair field for such a contest. but it so happens that there, where islam holds no sword of conquest, and no arbitrary power to compel the faith of men, its growth is very slow, it only keeps pace with the general increase of the population. it cannot compare with the advancement of christianity. i subjoin an extract from sir w. hunter's paper in the _nineteenth century_ for july, 1888: "the official census, notwithstanding its obscurities of classification and the disturbing effects of the famine of 1877, attests the rapid increase of the christian population. so far as these disturbing influences allow of an inference for all british india, the normal rate of increase among the general population was about 8 per cent, from 1872 to 1881, while the actual rate of the christian population was over 30 per cent. but, taking the lieutenant-governorship of bengal as the greatest province outside the famine area of 1877, and for whose population, amounting to one-third of the whole of british india, really comparable statistics exist, the census results are clear. the general population increased in the nine years preceding 1881 at the rate of 10.89 per cent., the mohammedans at the rate of 10.96 per cent., the hindus at some undetermined rate below 13.64 per cent., christians of all races at the rate of 40.71 per cent., and the native christians at the rate of 64.07 per cent."] [footnote 115: _leaves from an egyptian note-book._] [footnote 116: _christianity, islam, and the negro race_, p. 241.] [footnote 117: for the full text of the letter to the _standard_, see _church missionary intelligencer_, december, 1888.] [footnote 118: _church missionary intelligencer_, 1887, p. 653.] [footnote 119: see _church missionary intelligencer_, april, 1888.] [footnote 120: over against canon taylor's glowing accounts of this broad and gentle charity we may place the testimony of palgrave in regard to the remorseless rapacity practised by the wahábees upon the shiyaées of persia while passing through their territory in their pilgrimages to a common shrine. he tells us that "forty gold tománs were fixed as the claim of the wahábee treasury on every persian pilgrim for his passage through r'ad, and forty more for a safe conduct through the rest of the empire--eighty in all.... "every local governor on the way would naturally enough take the hint, and strive not to let the 'enemies of god' (for this is the sole title given by wahábees to all except themselves) go by without spoiling them more or less.... "so that, all counted up, the legal and necessary dues levied on every persian shiyaée while traversing central arabia, and under wahábee guidance and protection, amounted, i found, to about one hundred and fifty gold tománs, equalling nearly sixty pounds sterling, english, no light expenditure for a persian, and no despicable gain to an arab."--palgrave's _central and eastern africa_, p. 161.] [footnote 121: dodds: _mohammed, buddha, and christ_, p. 118.] [footnote 122: _church missionary intelligencer_, november, 1887.] [footnote 123: _church missionary intelligencer_, february, 1888, p. 66.] [footnote 124: _church missionary intelligencer_, april, 1888.] lecture vii. the traces of a primitive monotheism there are two conflicting theories now in vogue in regard to the origin of religion. the first is that of christian theists as taught in the old and new testament scriptures, viz., that the human race in its first ancestry, and again in the few survivors of the deluge, possessed the knowledge of the true god. it is not necessary to suppose that they had a full and mature conception of him, or that that conception excluded the idea of other gods. no one would maintain that adam or noah comprehended the nature of the infinite as it has been revealed in the history of god's dealings with men in later times. but from their simple worship of one god their descendants came gradually to worship various visible objects with which they associated their blessings--the sun as the source of warmth and vitality, the rain as imparting a quickening power to the earth, the spirits of ancestors to whom they looked with a special awe, and finally a great variety of created things instead of the invisible creator. the other theory is that man, as we now behold him, has been developed from lower forms of animal life, rising first to the state of a mere human animal, but gradually acquiring intellect, conscience, and finally a soul;--that ethics and religion have been developed from instinct by social contact, especially by ties of family and the tribal relation; that altruism which began with the instinctive care of parents for their offspring, rose to the higher domain of religion and began to recognize the claims of deity; that god, if there be a god, never revealed himself to man by any preternatural means, but that great souls, like moses, isaiah, and plato, by their higher and clearer insight, have gained loftier views of deity than others, and as prophets and teachers have made known their inspirations to their fellow-men. gradually they have formed rituals and elaborated philosophies, adding such supernatural elements as the ignorant fancy of the masses was supposed to demand. according to this theory, religions, like everything else, have grown up from simple germs: and it is only in the later stages of his development that man can be said to be a religious being. while an animal merely, and for a time even after he had attained to a rude and savage manhood, a life of selfish passion and marauding was justifiable, since only thus could the survival of the fittest be secured and the advancement of the race attained.[125] it is fair to say that there are various shades of the theory here presented--some materialistic, some theistic, others having a qualified theism, and still others practically agnostic. some even who claim to be christians regard the various religions of men as so many stages in the divine education of the race--all being under the direct guidance of god, and all designed to lead ultimately to christianity which is the goal. that god has overruled all things, even the errors and wickedness of men, for some wise object will not be denied; that he has implanted in the human understanding many correct conceptions of ethical truth, so that noble principles are found in the teachings of all religious systems; that god is the author of all truth and all right impulses, even in heathen minds, is readily admitted. but that he has directly planned and chosen the non-christian religions on the principle that half-truths and perverted truths and the direct opposites of the truth, were best adapted to certain stages of development--in other words, that he has causatively led any nation into error and consequent destruction as a means of preparing for subsequent generations something higher and better, we cannot admit. the logic of such a conclusion would lead to a remorseless fatalism. everything would depend on the age and the environment in which one's lot were cast. we cannot believe that fetishism and idolatry have been god's kindergarten method of training the human race for the higher and more spiritual service of his kingdom. turning from the testimony of the scriptures on the one hand and the _à priori_ assumptions of evolution on the other, what is the witness of the actual history of religions? have they shown an upward or a downward development? do they appear to have risen from polytheism toward simpler and more spiritual forms, or have simple forms been ramified into polytheism?[126] if we shall be able to establish clear evidence that monotheistic or even henotheistic types of faith existed among all, or nearly all, the races at the dawn of history, a very important point will have been gained. the late dr. henry b. smith, after a careful perusal of ebrard's elaborate presentation of the religions of the ancient and the modern world, and his clear proofs that they had at first been invariably monotheistic and had gradually lapsed into ramified forms of polytheism, says in his review of ebrard's work: "we do not know where to find a more weighty reply to the assumptions and theories of those writers who persist in claiming, according to the approved hypothesis of a merely naturalistic evolution, that the primitive state of mankind was the lowest and most debased form of polytheistic idolatry, and that the higher religions have been developed out of these base rudiments. dr. ebrard shows conclusively that the facts all lead to another conclusion, that gross idolatry is a degeneration of mankind from antecedent and purer forms of religious worship.... he first treats of the civilized nations of antiquity, the aryan and indian religions, the vedas, the indra period of brahmanism and buddhism; then of the religion of the iranians, the avesta of the parsees; next of the greeks and romans, the egyptians, the canaanites, and the heathen semitic forms of worship, including the phoenicians, assyrians, and babylonians. his second division is devoted to the half-civilized and savage races in the north and west of europe, in asia and polynesia (tartars, mongols, malays, and cushites); then the races of america, including a minute examination of the relations of the different races here to the mongols, japanese, and old chinese immigrations."[127] ebrard himself, in summing up the results of these prolonged investigations, says: "we have nowhere been able to discover the least trace of any forward and upward movement from fetichism to polytheism, and from that again to a gradually advancing knowledge of the one god; but, on the contrary, we have found among all the peoples of the heathen world a most decided tendency to sink from an earlier and relatively purer knowledge of god toward something lower."[128] if these conclusions, reached by ebrard and endorsed by the scholarly dr. henry b. smith, are correct, they are of great importance; they bring to the stand the witness of the false religions themselves upon an issue in which historic testimony as distinguished from mere theories is in special demand in our time. of similar import are the well-considered words of professor naville, in the first of his lectures on modern atheism.[129] he says: "almost all pagans seem to have had a glimpse of the divine unity over the multiplicity of their idols, and of the rays of the divine holiness across the saturnalia of their olympi. it was a greek (cleanthus) who wrote these words: 'nothing is accomplished on the earth without thee, o god, save the deeds which the wicked perpetrate in their folly.' it was in a theatre at athens, that the chorus of a tragedy sang, more than two thousand years ago: 'may destiny aid me to preserve, unsullied, the purity of my words, and of all my actions, according to those sublime laws which, brought forth in the celestial heights, have the raven alone for their father, to which the race of mortals did not give birth and which oblivion shall never entomb. in them is a supreme god, and one who waxes not old.' it would be easy to multiply quotations of this order and to show, in the documents of grecian and roman civilization, numerous traces of the knowledge of the only and holy god." with much careful discrimination, dr. william a.p. martin, of the peking university, has said: "it is customary with a certain school to represent religion as altogether the fruit of an intellectual process. it had its birth, say they, in ignorance, is modified by every stage in the progress of knowledge, and expires when the light of philosophy reaches its noon-day. the fetish gives place to a personification of the powers of nature, and this poetic pantheon is, in time, superseded by the high idea of unity in nature expressed by monotheism. this theory has the merit of verisimilitude. it indicates what might be the process if man were left to make his own religion; but it has the misfortune to be at variance with facts. a wide survey of the history of civilized nations (and the history of others is beyond reach) shows that the actual process undergone by the human mind in its religious development is precisely opposite to that which this theory supposes; in a word, that man was not left to construct his own creed, but that his blundering logic has always been active in its attempts to corrupt and obscure a divine original. the connection subsisting between the religious systems of ancient and distant countries presents many a problem difficult of solution. indeed, their mythologies and religious rites are generally so distinct as to admit the hypothesis of an independent origin; but the simplicity of their earliest beliefs exhibits an unmistakable resemblance, suggestive of a common source. "china, india, egypt, and greece all agree in the monotheistic type of their early religion. the orphic hymns, long before the advent of the popular divinities, celebrated the pantheos, the universal god. the odes compiled by confucius testify to the early worship of shangte, the supreme euler. the vedas speak of 'one unknown true being, all-present, all-powerful; the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe.' and in egypt, as late as the time of plutarch, there were still vestiges of a monotheistic worship. 'the other egyptians,' he says, 'all made offerings at the tombs of the sacred beasts; but the inhabitants of the thebaïd stood alone in making no such offerings, not regarding as a god anything that can die, and acknowledging no god but one, whom they call kneph, who had no birth, and can have no death. abraham, in his wanderings, found the god of his fathers known and honored in salem, in gerar, and in memphis; while at a later day jethro, in midian, and balaam, in mesopotamia, were witnesses that the knowledge of jehovah was not yet extinct in those countries.'"[130] professor max müller speaks in a similar strain of the lapse of mankind from earlier and simpler types of faith to low and manifold superstitions: "whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginning," says the distinguished oxford professor, "we find it free from many of the blemishes that offend us in its later phases. the founders of the ancient religions of the world, as far as we can judge, were minds of a high stamp, full of noble aspirations, yearning for truth, devoted to the welfare of their neighbors, examples of purity and unselfishness. what they desired to found upon earth was but seldom realized, and their sayings, if preserved in their original form, offered often a strange contrast to the practice of those who profess to be their disciples. as soon as a religion is established, and more particularly when it has become the religion of a powerful state, the foreign and worldly elements encroach more and more on the original foundation, and human interests mar the simplicity and purity of the plan which the founder had conceived in his own heart and matured in his communings with his god."[131] but in pursuing our subject we should clearly determine the real question before us. how much may we expect to prove from the early history of the non-christian systems? not certainly that all nations once received a knowledge of the old testament revelation, as some have claimed, nor that all races possessed at the beginning of their several historic periods one and the same monotheistic faith. we cannot prove from non-scriptural sources that their varying monotheistic conceptions sprang from a common belief. we cannot prove either the supernatural revelation which professor max müller emphatically rejects, nor the identity of the well-nigh universal henotheisms which he professes to believe. we cannot prove that the worship of one god as supreme did not coexist with a sort of worship of inferior deities or ministering spirits. almost as a rule, the worship of ancestors, or spirits, or rulers, or the powers of nature, or even totems and fetishes has been rendered as subordinate to the worship of the one supreme deity who created and upholds all things. even the monotheism of judaism and of christianity has been attended with the belief in angels and the worship of intercessory saints, to say nothing of the many superstitions which prevail among the more ignorant classes. we shall only attempt to show that monotheism, in the sense of worshipping _one god as supreme_, is found in nearly all the early teachings of the world. that these crude faiths are one in the origin is only presumable, if we leave the testimony of the bible out of the account. when on a summer afternoon we see great shafts of light arising and spreading fan-shaped from behind a cloud which lies along the western horizon, we have a strong presumption that they all spring from one great luminary toward which they converge, although that luminary is hidden from our view. so tracing the convergence of heathen faiths with respect to one original monotheism, back to the point where the prehistoric obscurity begins, we may on the same principle say that all the evidence in the case, and it is not small, points toward a common origin for the early religious conceptions of mankind. professor robert flint, in his scholarly article on theism in "the britannica," seems to discard the idea that the first religion of mankind was monotheism; but a careful study of his position will show that he has in view those conceptions of monotheism which are common to us, or, as he expresses it, "monotheism in the ordinary or proper sense of the term," "monotheism properly so called," "monotheism which excludes polytheism," etc. moreover, he maintains that we cannot, from historical sources, learn what conceptions men first had of god. even when speaking of the old testament record, he says: "these chapters (of genesis), although they plainly teach monotheism and represent the god whose words and acts are recorded in the bible as no mere national god, but the only true god, they do not teach what is alone in the question--that there was a primitive monotheism, a monotheism revealed and known from the beginning. they give no warrant to the common assumption that god revealed monotheism to adam, noah, and others before the flood, and that the traces of monotheistic beliefs and tendencies in heathendom are derivable from the tradition of this primitive and antediluvian monotheism. the one true god is represented as making himself known by particular words and in particular ways to adam, but is nowhere said to have taught him that he only was god." it is plain that professor flint is here dealing with a conception of monotheism which is exclusive of all other gods. and his view is undoubtedly correct, so far as adam was concerned. there was no more need of teaching him that his god was the only god, than that eve was the only woman. with noah the case is not so plain. he doubtless worshipped god amid the surroundings of polytheistic heathenism. enoch probably had a similar environment, and there is no good reason for supposing that their monotheism may not have been as exclusive as that of abraham. but with respect to the gentile nations, the dim traces of this monism or henotheism which professor flint seems to accord to adam and to noah, is all that we are contending for, and all that is necessary to the argument of this lecture. we may even admit that heathen deities may sometimes have been called by different names while the one source of power was intended. different names seem to have been employed to represent different manifestations of the one god of the old testament according to his varied relations toward his people. there are those who deny this polyonomy, as max müller has called it, and who maintain that the names in the earliest veda represented distinct deities; but, by similar reasoning, professor tiele and others insist that three different hebrew gods, according to their respective names, were worshipped in successive periods of the jewish history. it seems quite possible, therefore, that a too restrictive definition of monotheism may prove too much, by opening the way for a claim that even the jewish and christian faith, with its old testament names of god, its angels, its theophanies, and its fully developed trinity, is not strictly monotheistic. for our present purpose, traces of the worship of one supreme god--call it monotheism or henotheism--is all that is required. with these limitations and qualifications in view, let us turn to the history of some of the leading non-christian faiths. looking first to india, we find in the 129th hymn of the rig veda, a passage which not only presents the conception of one only supreme and self-existing being, but at the same time bears significant resemblance to our own account of the creation from chaos. it reads thus: "in the beginning there was neither naught nor aught, then there was neither atmosphere nor sky above, there was neither death nor immortality, there was neither day nor night, nor light, nor darkness, only the existent one breathed calmly self-contained. naught else but he was there, naught else above, beyond. then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom; next all was water, chaos indiscrete, in which one lay void, shrouded in nothingness."[132] in the 121st hymn of the same veda occurs a passage which seems to resemble the opening of the gospel of st. john. it reads thus, as translated by sir monier williams: "him let us praise, the golden child that was in the beginning, who was born the lord, who made the earth and formed the sky." "the one born lord" reminds us of the new testament expression, "the only begotten son." both were "in the beginning;" both were the creators of the world. while there is much that is mysterious in these references, the idea of oneness and supremacy is too plain to be mistaken. professor max müller has well expressed this fact when he said: "there is a monotheism which precedes polytheism in the veda; and even in the invocation of their (inferior) gods, the remembrance of _a_ god, one and infinite, breaks through the mist of an idolatrous phraseology like the blue sky that is hidden by passing clouds."[133] these monotheistic conceptions appear to have been common to the aryans before their removal from their early home near the sources of the oxus, and we shall see further on that in one form or another they survived among all branches of the migrating race. the same distinguished scholar traces the early existence of monotheism in a series of brief and rapid references to nearly all the scattered aryans not only, but also to the turanians on the north and east, to the tungusic, mongolic, tartaric, and finnic tribes. "everywhere," he says, "we find a worship of nature, and the spirits of the departed, but behind it all there rises a belief in some higher power called by different names, who is maker and protector of the world, and who always resides in heaven."[134] he also speaks of an ancient african faith which, together with its worship of reptiles and of ancestors, showed a vague hope of a future life, "and a not altogether faded reminiscence of a supreme god," which certainly implies a previous knowledge.[135] the same prevalence of one supreme worship rising above all idolatry he traces among the various tribes of the pacific islands. his generalizations are only second to those of ebrard. although he rejects the theory of a supernatural revelation, yet stronger language could hardly be used than that which he employs in proof of a universal monotheistic faith.[136] "nowhere," he says, "do we find stronger arguments against idolatry, nowhere has the unity of god been upheld more strenuously against the errors of polytheism, than by some of the ancient sages of india. even in the oldest of the sacred books, the rig veda, composed three or four thousand years ago, where we find hymns addressed to the different deities of the sky, the air, the earth, the rivers, the protest of the human heart against many gods breaks forth from time to time with no uncertain sound." professor müller's whole position is pretty clearly stated in his first lecture on "the science of religion," in which he protests against the idea that god once gave to man "a _preternatural_ revelation" concerning himself; and yet he gives in this same lecture this striking testimony to the doctrine of an early and prevailing monotheistic faith: "is it not something worth knowing," he says, "worth knowing even to us after the lapse of four or five thousand years, that before the separation of the aryan race, before the existence of sanskrit, greek, or latin, before the gods of the veda had been worshipped, and before there was a sanctuary of zeus among the sacred oaks of dodona, one supreme deity had been found, had been named, had been invoked by the ancestors of our race, and had been invoked by a name which has never been excelled by any other name?" and again, on the same subject, he says: "if a critical examination of the ancient language of the jews leads to no worse results than those which have followed from a careful interpretation of the petrified language of ancient india and greece, we need not fear; we shall be gainers, not losers. like an old precious medal, the ancient religion, after the rust of ages has been removed, will come out in all its purity and brightness; and the image which it discloses will be the image of the father, the father of all the nations upon earth; and the superscription, when we can read it again, will be, not only in judea, but in the languages of all the races of the world, the word of god, revealed where alone it can be revealed--revealed in the heart of man."[137] the late professor banergea, of calcutta, in a publication entitled "the aryan witness," not only maintained the existence of monotheism in the early vedas, but with his rare knowledge of sanskrit and kindred tongues, he gathered from iranian as well as hindu sources many evidences of a monotheism common to all aryans. his conclusions derive special value from the fact that he was a high caste hindu, and was not only well versed in the sacred language, but was perfectly familiar with hindu traditions and modes of thought. he was as well qualified to judge of early hinduism as paul was of judaism, and for the same reason. and from his hindu standpoint, as a pharisee of the pharisees, though afterward a christian convert, he did not hesitate to declare his belief, not only that the early vedic faith was monotheistic, but that it contained traces of that true revelation, once made to men.[138] in the same line we find the testimony of the various types of revived aryanism of our own times. the brahmo somaj, the arya somaj, and other similar organizations, are not only all monotheistic, but they declare that monotheism was the religion of the early vedas. and many other hindu reforms, some of them going as far back as the twelfth century, have been so many returns to monotheism. a recent arya catechism published by ganeshi, asserts in its first article that there is one only god, omnipotent, infinite, and eternal. it proceeds to show that the vedas present but one, and that when hymns were addressed to agni, vayu, indra, etc., it was only a use of different names for one and the same being.[139] it represents god as having all the attributes of supreme deity. he created the world by his direct power and for the revelation of his glory to his creatures. man, according to the aryas, came not by evolution nor by any of the processes known to hindu philosophy, but by direct creation from existing atoms. in all this it is easy to see that much has been borrowed from the christian conception of god's character and attributes, but the value of this aryan testimony lies in the fact that it claims for the ancient vedas a clear and positive monotheism. if we consult the sacred books of china, we shall find there also many traces of an ancient faith which antedates both confucianism and taouism. the golden age of the past to which all chinese sages look with reverence, was the dynasty of yao and shun, which was eighteen centuries earlier than the period of confucius and laotze. the records of the shu-king which confucius compiled, and from which unfortunately his agnosticism excluded nearly all its original references to religion, nevertheless retain a full account of certain sacred rites performed by shun on his accession to the full imperial power. in those rites the worship of one god as supreme is distinctly set forth as a "customary service," thereby implying that it was already long established. separate mention is also made of offerings to inferior deities, as if these were honored at his own special instance. it is unquestionably true that in china, and indeed in all lands, there sprang up almost from the first a tendency to worship, or at least to fear, unseen spirits. this tendency has coexisted with all religions of the world--even with the old testament cult--even with christianity. to the excited imaginations of men, especially the ignorant classes, the world has always been a haunted world, and just in proportion as the light of true religion has become dim, countless hordes of ghosts and demons have appeared. when confucius arose this gross animism had almost monopolized the worship of his countrymen, and universal corruption bore sway. he was not an original thinker, but only a compiler of the ancient wisdom, and in his selections from the traditions of the ancients, he compiled those things only which served his great purpose of building up, from the relations of family and kindred, the complete pyramid of a well-ordered state in which the emperor should hold to his subjects the place of deity. if such honor to a mortal seemed extravagant, yet in his view a wise emperor was far worthier of reverence than the imaginary ghosts of the popular superstitions. yet, even confucius could not quite succeed in banishing the idea of divine help, nor could he destroy that higher and most venerable worship which has ever survived amid all the corruptions of polytheism. professor legge, of oxford, has claimed, from what he regards as valid linguistic proofs, that at a still earlier period than the dynasty of yao and shun there existed in china the worship of one god. he says: "five thousand years ago the chinese were monotheists--not henotheists, but monotheists"--though he adds that even then there was a constant struggle with nature-worship and divination.[140] the same high authority cites a remarkable prayer of an emperor of the ming dynasty (1538 a.d.) to show that in spite of the agnosticism and reticence of confucius, shangte has been worshipped in the centuries which have followed his time. the prayer is very significant as showing how the one supreme god stands related to the subordinate gods which polytheism has introduced. the emperor was about to decree a slight change in the name of shangte to be used in the imperial worship. he first addressed the spirits of the hills, the rivers, and the seas, asking them to intercede for him with shangte. "we will trouble you," said he, "on our behalf to exert your spiritual power and to display your vigorous efficacy, communicating our poor desires to shangte, and praying him graciously to grant us his acceptance and regard, and to be pleased with the title which we shall reverently present." but very different was the language used when he came to address shangte himself. "of old, in the beginning," he began,--"of old in the beginning, there was the great chaos without form, and dark. the five elements had not begun to revolve nor the sun and moon to shine. in the midst thereof there presented itself neither form nor sound. thou, o spiritual sovereign! earnest forth in thy presidency, and first didst divide the grosser parts from the purer. thou madest heaven: thou madest earth: thou madest man. all things got their being with their producing power. o te! when thou hadst opened the course for the inactive and active forces of matter to operate, thy making work went on. thou didst produce, o spirit! the sun and moon and five planets, and pure and beautiful was their light. the vault of heaven was spread out like a curtain, and the square earth supported all on it, and all creatures were happy. i, thy servant, presume reverently to thank thee." farther on he says: "all the numerous tribes of animated beings are indebted to thy favor for their being. men and creatures are emparadised in thy love. all living things are indebted to thy goodness. but who knows whence his blessings come to him? it is thou, o lord! who art the parent of all things."[141] surely this prayer humbly offered by a monarch would not be greatly out of place among the psalms of david. its description of the primeval chaos strikingly resembles that which i have quoted from the rig veda, and both resemble that of the mosaic record. if the language used does not present the clear conception of one god, the creator and the upholder of all things, and a supreme and personal sovereign over kings and even "gods," then language has no meaning. the monotheistic conception of the second petition is as distinct from the polytheism of the first, as any prayer to jehovah is from a roman catholic's prayer for the intercession of the saints; and there is no stronger argument in the one case against monotheism than in the other. dr. legge asserts that both in the shu-king and in the shiking, "te," or "shangte," appears as a personal being ruling in heaven and in earth, the author of man's moral nature, the governor among the nations, the rewarder of the good and the punisher of the evil.[142] there are proofs that confucius, though in his position with respect to god he fell short of the doctrine of the ancient sages, yet believed in the existence of shangte as a personal being. when in old age he had finished his writings, he laid them on an altar upon a certain hill-top, and kneeling before the altar he returned thanks that he had been spared to complete his work.[143] max müller says of him: "it is clear from many passages that with confucius, tien, or the spirit of heaven, was the supreme deity, and that he looked upon the other gods of the people--the spirits of the air, the mountains, and the rivers,[144] and the spirits of the departed, very much with the same feeling with which socrates regarded the mythological deities of greece."[145] but there remains to this day a remarkable evidence of the worship of the supreme god, shangte, as he was worshipped in the days of the emperor shun, 2356 b.c. it is found in the great temple of heaven at peking. dr. martin and professors legge and douglas all insist that the sacrifices there celebrated are relics of the ancient worship of a supreme god. china is full of the traces of polytheism; the land swarms with taouist deities of all names and functions, with confucian and ancestral tablets, and with buddhist temples and dagobas; but within the sacred enclosure of this temple no symbol of heathenism appears. of the august imperial service dr. martin thus eloquently speaks:[146] "within the gates of the southern division of the capital, and surrounded by a sacred grove so extensive that the silence of its deep shades is never broken by the noise of the busy world around it, stands the temple of heaven. it consists of a single tower, whose tiling of resplendent azure is intended to represent the form and color of the aerial vault. it contains no image; but on a marble altar a bullock is offered once a year as a burnt sacrifice, while the monarch of the empire prostrates himself in adoration of the spirit of the universe. this is the high place of chinese devotion, and the thoughtful visitor feels that he ought to tread its courts with unsandalled feet, for no vulgar idolatry has entered here. this mountain-top still stands above the waves of corruption, and on this solitary altar there still rests a faint ray of its primeval faith. the tablet which represents the invisible deity is inscribed with the name shangte, the supreme ruler, and as we contemplate the majesty of the empire before it, while the smoke ascends from his burning sacrifice, our thoughts are irresistably carried back to the time when the king of salem officiated as priest of the most high god. there is," he adds, "no need of extended argument to establish the fact that the early chinese were by no means destitute of the knowledge of the true god." dr. legge, the learned translator of the chinese classics, shares so fully the views here expressed, that he actually put his shoes from off his feet before ascending the great altar, feeling that amidst all the mists and darkness of the national superstition, a trace of the glory of the infinite jehovah still lingered there. and in many a discussion since he has firmly maintained that that is in a dim way an altar of the true and living god. laotze, like confucius, was agnostic; yet he could not wholly rid himself of the influence of the ancient faith. his conception of taou, or reason, was rationalistic, certainly, yet he invested it with all the attributes of personality, as the word "wisdom" is sometimes used in the old testament. he spoke of it as "the infinite supreme," "the first beginning," and "the great original." dr. medhurst has translated from the "taou teh king" this striking taouist prayer: "o thou perfectly honored one of heaven and earth, the rock, the origin of myriad energies, the great manager of boundless kalpas, do thou enlighten my spiritual conceptions. within and without the three worlds, the logos, or divine taou, is alone honorable, embodying in himself a golden light. may he overspread and illumine my person. he whom we cannot see with the eye, or hear with the ear, who embraces and includes heaven and earth, may he nourish and support the multitudes of living beings." if we turn to the religion of the iranian or persian branch of the aryan family, we find among them also the traces of a primitive monotheism; and that it was not borrowed from semitic sources, through the descendants of abraham or others, ebrard has shown clearly in the second volume of his "apologetics." max müller also maintains the identity of the iranian faith with that of the indo-aryans. the very first notices of the religion of the avesta represent it as monotheistic. ahura mazda, even when opposed by ahriman, is supreme, and in the oldest hymns or gathas of the yasna, ahriman does not appear; there are references to evil beings, but they have no formidable head; persian dualism, therefore, was of later growth. zoroaster, whom monier williams assigns to the close of the sixth century b.c.,[147] speaks of himself as a reformer sent to re-establish the pure worship of ahura, and haug considers the conception of ahura identical with that of jehovah. high on a rocky precipice at behistun, rawlinson has deciphered an inscription claiming to have been ordered by darius hystaspes, who lived 500 b.c., which is as clearly monotheistic as the song of moses. the vendidad, which rawlinson supposes to have been composed 800 years b.c., is full of references to minor gods, but ahura is always supreme. the modern parsees of bombay claim to be monotheistic, and declare that such has been the faith of their fathers from the beginning. a parsee catechism published in bombay twenty-five years ago reads thus: "we believe in only one god, and do not believe in any besides him.... he is the god who created the heavens, the earth, the angels, the stars, the sun, the moon, the fire, the water, ... and all things of the worlds; that god we believe in, him we invoke, him we adore." and lest this should be supposed to be a modern faith, the confession further declares that "this is the religion which the true prophet zurthust, or zoroaster, brought from god." the shintoists of japan, according to their sacred book, the "kojiki," believe in one self-existent and supreme god, from whom others emanated. from two of these, male and female, sprang the goddess of the sun, and from her the royal line of the mikados. there was no creation, but the two active emanations stirred up the eternally existing chaos, till from it came forth the teeming world of animal and vegetable life. it has often been asserted that tribes of men are found who have no conception of god. the author of "two years in the jungle" declares that the hill dyaks of borneo are without the slightest notion of a divine being. but a government officer, who for two years was the guest of rajah brooke, succeeded after long delay in gaining a key to the religion of these dyaks. he gives the name of one supreme being among subordinate gods, and describes minutely the forms of worship. professor max müller, while referring to this same often-repeated allegation as having been applied to the aborigines of australia, cites one of sir hercules robinson's reports on new south wales, which contains this description of the singular faith of one of the lowest of the interior tribes:[148] first a being is mentioned who is supreme and whose name signifies the "maker or cutter-out," and who is therefore worshipped as the great author of all things. but as this supreme god is supposed to be inscrutable and far removed, a second deity is named, who is the _revealer_ of the first and his mediator in all the affairs of men.[149] rev. a.c. good, now a missionary among the cannibal tribes of west africa, stated in the presbyterian general assembly at saratoga in may, 1890, that with all the fetishes and superstitions known among the tribes on the ogovie, if a man is asked who made him, he points to the sky and utters the name of an unknown being who created all things.[150] when tschoop, the stalwart mohican chief, came to the moravians to ask that a missionary might be sent to his people, he said: "do not send us a man to tell us that there is a god--we all know that; or that we are sinners--we all know that; but send one to tell us about salvation."[151] even buddhism has not remained true to the atheism of its founder. a thibetan lama said to abbé huc: "you must not confound religious truths with the superstitions of the vulgar. the tartars prostrate themselves before whatever they see, but there is one only sovereign of the universe, the creator of all things, alike without beginning and without end." but what is the testimony of the great dead religions of the past with respect to a primitive monotheism? it is admitted that the later developments of the old egyptian faith were polytheistic. but it has generally been conceded that as we approach the earliest notices of that faith, monotheistic features more and more prevail. this position is contested by miss amelia b. edwards and others, who lean toward the development theory. miss edwards declares that the earliest faith of egypt was mere totemism, while on the other hand ebrard, gathering up the results of the researches of lepsius, ebers, brugsch, and emanuel de rougé, deduces what seem to be clear evidences of an early egyptian monotheism. he quotes manetho, who declares that "for the first nine thousand years the god ptah ruled alone; there was no other." according to inscriptions quoted by de rougé, the egyptians in the primitive period worshipped "the one being who truly lives, who has made all things, and who alone has not been made." this one god was known in different parts of egypt under different names, which only in later times came to stand for distinct beings. a text which belongs to a period fifteen hundred years before moses says: "he has made all that is; thou alone art, the millions owe their being to thee; he is the lord of all that which is, and of that which is not." a papyrus now in paris, dating 2300 b.c., contains quotations from two much older records, one a writing of the time of king suffern, about 3500 b.c., which says: "the operation of god is a thing which cannot be understood." the other, from a writing of ptah hotep, about 3000 b.c., reads: "this is the command of the god of creation, the peaceable may come and issue orders.... the eating of bread is in conformity with the ordinance of god; can one forget that his blessing rests thereupon?... if thou art a prudent man teach thy son the love of god."[152] professor ernest naville, in speaking of this same subject in a course of popular lectures in geneva, said: "listen now to a voice which has come forth actually from the recesses of the sepulchre: it reaches us from ancient egypt. "in egypt, as you know, the degradation of the religious idea was in popular practice complete. but under the confused accents of superstition the science of our age is succeeding in catching from afar the vibrations of a sublime utterance. in the coffins of a large number of mummies have been discovered rolls of papyrus containing a sacred text which is called 'the book of the dead.' here is the translation of some fragments which appear to date from a very remote epoch. it is god who speaks thus: 'i am the most holy, the creator of all that replenishes the earth, and of the earth itself, the habitation of mortals. i am the prince of the infinite ages. i am the great and mighty god, the most high, shining in the midst of the careering stars and of the armies which praise me above thy head.... it is i who chastise the evil-doers and the persecutors of godly men. i discover and confound the liars. i am the all-seeing avenger, ... the guardian of my laws in the land of the righteous.' these words are found mingled in the text, from which i extract them, with allusions to inferior deities; and it must be acknowledged that the translation of the ancient documents of egypt is uncertain enough; still this uncertainty does not appear to extend to the general sense and bearing of the recent discoveries of our _savans_."[153] professor flint as against cudworth, ebrard, gladstone, and others, maintains that the egyptian religion at the very dawn of its history had "certain great gods," though he adds that "there were not so many as in later times." "ancestor worship, but not so developed as in later times, and animal worship, but very little of it compared with later times." on the other hand, as against professor tiele, miss amelia b. edwards, and others, he says: "for the opinion that its lower elements were older than the higher there is not a particle of properly historical evidence, not a trace in the inscriptions of mere propitiation of ancestors or of belief in the absolute divinity of kings or animals; on the contrary ancestors are always found propitiated through prayer to some of the great gods; kings worshipped as emanations and images of the sun god and the divine animals adored as divine symbols and incarnations." among the greeks there are few traces of monotheism, but we have reason for this in the fact that their earliest literature dates from so late a period. it began with homer not earlier than 600 b.c., and direct accounts of the religion of the greeks are not traced beyond 560 b.c. but welcker, whose examinations have been exhaustive, has, in the opinion of max müller, fairly established the primitive monotheism of the greeks. müller says: "when we ascend with him to the most distant heights of greek history the idea of god as the supreme being stands before us as a simple fact. next to this adoration of one god the father of men we find in greece a worship of nature. the powers of nature, originally worshipped as such, were afterward changed into a family of gods, of which zeus became the king and father. the third phase is what is generally called greek mythology; but it was preceded in time, or at least rendered possible in thought, by the two prior conceptions, a belief in a supreme god and a worship of the powers of nature.... the divine character of zeus, as distinguished from his mythological character, is most carefully brought out by welcker. he avails himself of all the discoveries of comparative philology in order to show more clearly how the same idea which found expression in the ancient religions of the brahmans, the sclavs, and the germans had been preserved under the same simple, clear, and sublime name by the original settlers of hellas."[154] the same high authority traces in his own linguistic studies the important fact that all branches of the aryan race preserve the same name for the supreme being, while they show great ramification and variation in the names of their subordinate gods. if, therefore, the indo-aryans give evidence of a monotheistic faith at the time of their dispersion, there is an _à priori_ presumption for the monotheism of the greeks. "herodotus," says professor rawlinson, "speaks of god as if he had never heard of polytheism." the testimony of the greek poets shows that beneath the prevailing polytheism there remained an underlying conception of monotheistic supremacy. professor rawlinson quotes from an orphic poem the words: "ares is war, peace soft aphrodite, wine that god has made is dionysius, themis is the right men render to each. apollo, too, and phoebus and æschlepius, who doth heal diseases, are the sun. all these are one." max müller traces to this same element of monotheism the real greatness and power of the hellenic race when he says: "what was it, then, that preserved in their hearts (the greeks), in spite even of the feuds of tribes and the jealousies of states, the deep feeling of that ideal unity which constitutes a people? it was their primitive religion; it was a dim recollection of the common allegiance they owed from time immemorial to the great father of gods and men; it was their belief in the old zeus of dodona in the pan-hellenic zeus."[155] "there is, in truth, but one," says sophocles, "one only god, who made both heaven and long-extended earth and bright-faced swell of seas and force of winds." xenophanes says: "'mongst gods and men there is one mightiest god not mortal or in form or thought. entire he sees and understands, and without labor governs all by mind." aratus, whom paul quotes,[156] says: "with zeus began we; let no mortal voice of men leave zeus unpraised. zeus fills the heavens, the streets, the marts. everywhere we live in zeus. zeus fills the sea, the shores, the harbors. _we are his offspring, too._" the reference made by paul evidently implies that this zeus was a dim conception of the one true god. that all branches of the semitic race were monotheistic we may call not only ebrard and müller, but renan, to witness. according to renan, evidences that the monotheism of the semitic races was of a very early origin, appears in the fact that all their names for deity--el, elohim, ilu, baal, bel, adonai, shaddai, and allah--denote one being and that supreme. these names have resisted all changes, and doubtless extend as far back as the semitic language or the semitic race. max müller, in speaking of the early faith of the arabs, says: "long before mohammed the primitive intuition of god made itself felt in arabia;" and he quotes this ancient arabian prayer: "i dedicate myself to thy service, o allah. thou hast no companion, except the companion of whom thou art master absolute, and of whatever is his." the book of job and the story of balaam indicate the prevalence of an early monotheism beyond the pale of the abrahamic church. in the records of the kings of assyria and babylonia there is a conspicuous polytheism, yet it is significant that each king worshipped _one god only_. and this fact suggests, as a wide generalization, that political and dynastic jealousies had their influence in multiplying the names and differentiating the attributes of ancient deities. this was notably the case in ancient egypt, where each invasion and each change of dynasty led to a new adjustment of the egyptian pantheon. rome had many gods, but jupiter was supreme. herodotus says of the scythians, that they had eight gods, but one was supreme, like zeus. the northmen, according to dr. dascent, had one supreme god known as the "all-fader." the druids, though worshipping various subordinate deities, believed in one who was supreme--the creator of all things and the soul of all things. though conceived of in a pantheistic sense, he was personal and exerted a moral control, as is shown by the famous triad: "fear god; be just to all men; die for your country." in the highest and purest period of the old mexican faith we read of the tezcucan monarch nezahualcoyotl, who said: "these idols of wood and stone can neither hear nor feel; much less could they make the heavens and the earth, and man who is the lord of it. these must be the work of the all-powerful unknown god, the creator of the universe, on whom alone i must rely for consolation and support."[157] the incas of peru also, though sun-worshippers, believed in a supreme creator who made the sun. the oldest of their temples was reared to the supreme god "virachoca." and one of the greatest incas has left his declared belief that "there must be above the sun a greater and more powerful ruler, at whose behest the sun pursues his daily and untiring round."[158] it has been assumed throughout this lecture, that instead of an advance in the religions of men, there has everywhere been decline. our proofs of this are not theoretic but historic. as an example, all writers are agreed, i believe, that during the historic period the religion of the egyptians steadily deteriorated until christianity and mohammedanism superseded it. in strong contrast with the lofty and ennobling prayer which we have quoted from an ancient egyptian record, is the degradation of the later worship. on a column at heliopolis, belonging to the fourth century before christ, is inscribed this petition: "o thou white cat, thy head is the head of the sun god, thy nose is the nose of thoth, of the exceeding great love of hemopolis." the whole prayer is on this low level. clement, of alexandria, after describing the great beauty of an egyptian temple, proceeds to say: "the innermost sanctuary is concealed by a curtain wrought in gold, which the priest draws aside, and there is seen a cat, or a crocodile, or a serpent, which wriggles on a purple cover."[159] that the religions of india have degenerated is equally clear. the fact that all the medieval and modern reforms look back for their ideals to the earlier and purer aryan faith, might of itself afford sufficient proof of this, but we have also abundant evidence which is direct. in the rig veda there is little polytheism, and no idolatry. there is no doctrine of caste, no base worship of siva with the foul enormities of saktism.[160] in the most ancient times there was no doctrine of transmigration, nor any notion that human life is an evil to be overcome by self-mortification. woman was comparatively free from the oppressions which she suffered in the later periods. infanticide had not then been sanctioned and enjoined by religious authority, and widow burning and the religious murders of the thugs were unknown. and yet so deeply were these evils rooted at the beginning of the british rule in india, that the joint influence of christian instruction and governmental authority for a whole century has not been sufficient to overcome them. buddhism in the first two or three centuries had much to commend it. king ashoka left monuments of practical beneficence and philanthropy which have survived to this day. but countless legends soon sprang up to mar the simplicity of gautama's ethics. corruptions crept in. compromises were made with popular superstitions and with hindu saktism.[161] the monastic orders sank into corruption, and by the ninth century of our era the system had been wholly swept from india. the buddhism of ceylon was planted first by the devout son and daughter of a king, and for a time was characterized by great purity and devotion. but now it exists only in name, and a prominent missionary of the country declared, in the london missionary conference of 1888, that nine-tenths of the cingalese were worshippers of serpents or of spirits.[162] the prevailing buddhism in thibet, from the eighth to the tenth century, was an admixture with saktism and superstition. where the system has survived in any good degree of strength, it has been due either to government support or to an alliance with other religions. the history of taouism has shown a still worse deterioration. laotze, though impracticable as a reformer, was a profound philosopher. his teachings set forth a lofty moral code. superstition he abominated. his ideas of deity were cold and rationalistic, but they were pure and lofty. but the modern taouism is a medley of wild and degrading superstitions. according to its theodicy all nature is haunted. the ignorant masses are enthralled by the fear of ghosts, and all progress is paralyzed by the nightmare of "fung shuay." had not taouism been balanced by the sturdy common-sense ethics of confucianism, the chinese might have become a race of savages.[163] the decline of mohammedanism from the sublime fanaticism of abu bekr and the intellectual aspirations of haroun al raschid, to the senseless imbecility of the modern turk, is too patent to need argument. the worm of destruction was left in the system by the vices of mohammed himself; and from the higher level of his early followers it has not only deteriorated, but it has dragged down everything else with it. it has destroyed the family, because it has degraded woman. it has separated her immeasurably from the status of dignity and honor which she enjoyed under the influence of the early christian church, and it has robbed her of even that freedom which was accorded to her by heathen rome. one need only look at northern africa, the land of cyprian and origen, of augustine and the saintly monica, to see what islam has done. and even the later centuries have brought no relief. prosperous lands have been rendered desolate and sterile, and all progress has been paralyzed. in the history of the greek religion it is granted that there were periods of advancement. the times of the fully developed apollo worship showed vast improvement over previous periods, but even professor tiele virtually admits that this was owing to the importation of foreign influences. it was not due to any natural process of evolution; and it was followed by hopeless corruption and decline. the last days of both greece and rome were degenerate and full of depression and despair. it is not contended that no revivals or reforms are possible in heathenism. there have been many of these, but with all allowance for spasmodic efforts, the general drift has been always downward.[164] there is a natural disposition among men to multiply objects of worship. herbert spencer's principle, that development proceeds from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, is certainly true of the religions of the world; but his other principle, that development proceeds from the incoherent to the coherent, does not apply. incoherency and moral chaos mark the trend of all man-made faiths. the universal tendency to deterioration is well summed up as follows by professor naville: "traces are found almost everywhere in the midst of idolatrous superstitions, of a religion comparatively pure and often stamped with a lofty morality. paganism is not a simple fact; it offers to view in the same bed two currents (like the arve and the arveiron)--the one pure, the other impure. what is the relation between these two currents? ... did humanity begin with a coarse fetishism, and thence rise by slow degrees to higher conceptions? do the traces of a comparatively pure monotheism first show themselves in the recent periods of idolatry? contemporary science inclines more and more to answer in the negative. it is in the most ancient historical ground that the laborious investigators of the past meet with the most elevated ideas of religion. cut to the ground a young and vigorous beech-tree, and come back a few years afterward. in place of the tree cut down you will find coppice-wood; the sap which nourished a single trunk has been divided among a multitude of shoots. this comparison expresses well enough the opinion which tends to prevail among our savants on the subject of the historical development of religions. the idea of one god is at the roots--it is primitive; polytheism is derivative."[165] we have thus far drawn our proofs of man's polytheistic tendencies from the history of the non-christian religions. in proof of the same general tendency we now turn to the history of the israelites, the chosen people of god. we may properly appeal to the bible as history, especially when showing idolatrous tendencies even under the full blaze of the truth. in spite of the supernatural revelation which they claimed to possess--notwithstanding all their instructions, warnings, promises, deliverances, divinely aided conquests--they relapsed into idolatry again and again. ere they had reached the land of promise they had begun to make images of the gods of egypt. they made constant compromises and alliances with the canaanites, and not even severe judgments could withhold them from this downward drift. their wisest king was demoralized by heathen marriages, and his successors openly patronized the heathen shrines. the abominations of baal worship and the nameless vices of sodom were practised under the very shadow of the temple.[166] judgments followed upon this miserable degeneracy. prophets were sent with repeated warnings, and many were slain for their faithful messages. tribe after tribe was borne into captivity, the temple was destroyed, and at last the nation was virtually broken up and scattered abroad. there was indeed a true development in the church of god from the abrahamic period to the apostolic day. there was a rising from a narrow national spirit to one which embraced the whole brotherhood of man, from type and prophecy to fulfilment, from the sins that were winked at, to a purer ethic and the perfect law of love; but these results came not by natural evolution--far enough from it. they were wrought out not by man, but we might almost say, in spite of man. divine interpositions were all that saved judaism from a total wreck, even as the national unity was destroyed. a new dispensation was introduced, a divine redeemer and an omnipotent spirit were the forces which saved the world from a second universal apostasy. we come nearer still to the church of god for proofs of man's inherent tendency to polytheism. even under the new dispensation we have seen the church sink into virtual idolatry. within six centuries from the time of christ and his apostles there had been a sad lapse into what seemed the worship of images, pictures, and relics, and a faith in holy places and the bones of saints. what mohammed saw, or thought he saw, was a christian idolatry scarcely better than that of the arabian koreish. and, as if by the judgment of god, the churches of the east were swept with a destruction like that which had been visited upon the ten tribes. in the christianity of to-day, viewed as a whole, how strong is the tendency to turn from the pure spiritual conception of god to some more objective trust--a saint, a relic, a ritual, an ordinance. in the old churches of the east or on the continent of europe, how much of virtual idolatry is there even now? it is only another form of the tendency in man to seek out many devices--to find visible objects of trust--to try new panaceas for the ailments of the soul--to multiply unto himself gods to help his weakness. this is just what has been done in all ages and among all races of the world. this explains polytheism. man's religious nature is a vine, and god is its only proper support. once fallen from that support, it creeps and grovels in all directions and over all false supports. we have not resorted to divine revelation for proofs except as history. but our conclusions drawn from heathen sources bring us directly, as one face answereth to another face in a glass, to the plain teachings of paul and other inspired writers, who tell us that the human race was once possessed of the knowledge of one supreme god, but that men apostatized from him, preferring to worship the creature rather than the creator. there are no traces of an upward evolution toward clearer knowledge and purer lives, except by the operation of outward causes, but there are many proofs that men's hearts have become darkened and their moral nature more and more depraved. in all lands there have been those who seemed to gain some glimpses of truth, and whose teachings were far above the average sentiment and character of their times, but they have either been discarded like socrates and the prophets of israel, or they have obtained a following only for a time and their precepts have fallen into neglect. it has been well said that no race of men live up to their religion, however imperfect it may be. they first disregard it, and then at length degrade it, to suit their apostate character. paul's estimate of heathen character was that of a man who, aside from his direct inspiration, spoke from a wide range of observation. he was a philosopher by education, and he lived in an age and amid national surroundings which afforded the broadest knowledge of men, of customs, of religious faiths, of institutions. trained as a jew, dealing constantly with the most enlightened heathen, persecuting the christians, and then espousing their cause, his preparation for a broad, calm, and unerring judgment of the character of the gentile nations was complete; and his one emphatic verdict was _apostasy_. footnotes: [footnote 125: fiske: _the destiny of man_, pp. 78-80.] [footnote 126: we do not care to enter the field of pre-historic speculation where the evolution of religion from totemism or fetishism claims to find its chief support. we are considering only the traditional development of the ancient faiths of man.] [footnote 127: _introduction to christian theology_, appendix, pp. 166, 167.] [footnote 128: ebrard's _apologetics_, vols. ii. and iii.] [footnote 129: _modern atheism_, p. 13.] [footnote 130: _the chinese_, pp. 163, 164.] [footnote 131: _chips from a german workshop_, vol. i., p. 23.] [footnote 132: professor banergea (see _indian antiquary_, february, 1875) thinks that this hindu account of creation shows traces of the common revelation made to mankind.] [footnote 133: _science of religion_, p. 99.] [footnote 134: _science of religion_, p. 88.] [footnote 135: "the ancient relics of african faith are rapidly disappearing at the approach of mohammedan and christian missionaries; but what has been preserved of it, chiefly through the exertions of learned missionaries, is full of interest to the student of religion, with its strange worship of snakes and ancestors, its vague hope of a future life, and its not altogether faded reminiscence of a supreme god, the father of the black as well as of the white man."--_science of religion_, p. 39.] [footnote 136: while he maintains that the idea of god must have preceded that of _gods_, as the plural always implies the singular, he yet claims very justly that the exclusive conception of monotheism as against polytheism could hardly have existed. men simply thought of god as god, as a child thinks of its father, and does not even raise the question of a second.--see _chips from a german workshop_, vol. i., p. 349.] [footnote 137: st. augustine, in quoting cyprian, shows that the fathers of the church looked upon plato as a monotheist. the passage is as follows: "for when he (cyprian) speaks of the magians, he says that the chief among them, hostanes, maintains that the true god is invisible, and that true angels sit at his throne; and that plato agrees with this and believes in one god, considering the others to be demons; and that hermes trismegistus also speaks of one god, and confesses that he is incomprehensible." angus., _de baptismo contra donat_., lib. vi., cap. xliv.] [footnote 138: _the aryan witness_, passim.] [footnote 139: aristotle said, "god, though he is one, has many names, because he is called according to the states into which he always enters anew."] [footnote 140: _the religions of china_, p. 16.] [footnote 141: _the religions of china_, p. 49.] [footnote 142: "in the year 1600 the emperor of china declared in an edict that the chinese should adore, not the material heavens, but the _master_ of heaven."--cardinal gibbons: _our christian heritage_.] [footnote 143: martin: _the chinese_, p. 106.] [footnote 144: it has been related by rev. hudson taylor that the fishermen of the fukien province, when a storm arises, pray to the goddess of the sea; but when that does not avail they throw all the idols aside and pray to the "great-grandfather in heaven." father is a great conception to the chinese mind. great-grandfather is higher still, and stands to them for the supreme.] [footnote 145: _science of religion_, p. 86.] [footnote 146: _the chinese_, p. 99.] [footnote 147: other writers contend that he was probably contemporaneous with abraham. still others think zoroaster a general name for great prophets. darmestetter inclines to this view.] [footnote 148: _chips from a german workshop._] [footnote 149: archbishop vaughn, of sydney, emphatically declares that the aborigines of australia believe in a supreme being.] [footnote 150: rev. mr. johnson, of lagos, has expressed a belief that the pagan tribes of west africa were monotheists before the incursion of the mohammedans. rev. alfred marling, of gaboon, bears the same testimony of the fans.] [footnote 151: rev. a.c. thompson, d.d. _the moravians_. one of the early converts from among the ojibwas, said to the missionary, rev. s.g. wright: "a great deal of your preaching i readily understand, especially what you say about our real characters. we indians all know that it is wrong to lie, to steal, to be dishonest, to slander, to be covetous, and we always know that the great spirit hates all these things. all this we knew before we ever saw the white man. i knew these things when i was a little boy. we did not, however, know the way of pardon for these sins. in our religion there is nothing said by the wise men about pardon. we knew nothing of the lord jesus christ as a saviour."] [footnote 152: professor tiele, of leyden, asserts that "it is altogether erroneous to regard the egyptian religion as the polytheistic degeneration of a prehistoric monotheism. it was polytheistic from the beginning." but on one of the oldest of egyptian monuments is found this hymn, which is quoted by cardinal gibbons in _our christian inheritance_: "hail to thee, say all creatures; ... the gods adore thy majesty, the spirits thou has made exalt thee, rejoicing before the feet of their begetter. they cry out welcome to thee, father of the fathers of all the gods, who raises the heavens, who fixes the earth; we worship thy spirit who alone hast made us, we whom thou hast made thank thee that thou hast given us birth, we give to thee praises for thy mercy toward us."] [footnote 153: _modern atheism_, p. 13.] [footnote 154: _chips from a german workshop_, vol. ii., pp. 146, 147.] [footnote 155: _science of religion_, lecture iii., p. 57.] [footnote 156: acts xvii. 28.] [footnote 157: prescott's _conquest of mexico_.] [footnote 158: réville in his _hibbert lectures_ on mexican and peruvian religions asserts that polytheism existed from the beginning, but our contention is that one god was supreme and created the sun.] [footnote 159: de pressensé: _the ancient world and christianity_.] [footnote 160: bournouf found the tantras so obscene that he refused to translate them.] [footnote 161: t. rhys davids: _buddhism_, p. 208.] [footnote 162: _report of missionary conference_, vol. i, p. 70.] [footnote 163: buddhism, in the _britannica_.] [footnote 164: rev. s.g. wright, long a missionary among the american indians, says: "during the forty-six years in which i have been laboring among the ojibway indians, i have been more and more impressed with the evidence, showing itself in their language, that at some former time they have been in possession of much higher ideas of god's attributes, and of what constitutes true happiness, immortality, and virtue, as well as of the nature of the devil and his influence in the world, than those which they now possess. the thing which early in our experience surprised us, and which has not ceased to impress us, is, that, with their present low conceptions of spiritual things, they could have chosen so lofty and spiritual a word for the deity. the only satisfactory explanation seems to be that, at an early period of their history, they had higher and more correct ideas concerning god than those which they now possess, and that these have become, as the geologists would say, _fossilized_ in their forms of speech, and so preserved."--_bibliotheca sacra_, october, 1889.] [footnote 165: _modern atheism_, p. 10.] [footnote 166: i. kings, xiv., and ii. kings, xxiii.] lecture viii. indirect tributes of heathen systems to the doctrines of the bible i am to speak of certain indirect tributes borne by the non-christian religions to the doctrines of christianity. one such tribute of great value we have already considered in the prevalence of early monotheism, so far corroborating the scriptural account of man's first estate, and affording many proofs which corroborate the scriptural doctrine of human apostasy. others of the same general bearing will now be considered. the history of man's origin, the strange traditions of his fall by transgression and his banishment from eden, of the conflict of good with evil represented by a serpent, of the deluge and the dispersion of the human race, have all been the subjects of ridicule by anti-christian writers:--though by turns they have recognized these same facts and have used them as proofs that christianity had borrowed them from old myths. the idea of sacrifice, or atonement, of divine incarnation, of a trinity, of mediation, of a salvation by faith instead of one's own merits, have been represented as unphilosophical, and therefore improbable in the nature of the case. it becomes an important question, therefore, whether other religions of mankind show similar traditions, however widely they have dwelt apart, and however diversified their languages, literatures, and institutions may have been in other respects. and it is also an important question, whether even under heathen systems, the consciousness of sin and the deepest moral yearnings of men have found expression along the very lines which are represented by the christian doctrines of grace. to these questions we now address ourselves. what are the lessons of the various ethnic traditions? and how are we to account for their striking similarities? the most obvious theory is, that a common origin must be assigned to them, that they are dim reminiscences of a real knowledge once clear and distinct. the fact that with their essential unity they differ from each other and differ from our scriptural record, seems to rather strengthen the theory that all--our own included--have been handed down from the pre-mosaic times--ours being divinely edited by an inspired and infallible author. their differences are such as might have been expected from separate transmissions, independently made. we have, first of all, the various traditions of the creation. in most heathen races there have appeared, in their later stages, grave and grotesque cosmogonies; and a too common impression is, that these represent the real teachings of their sacred books or their earliest traditions. but when one enters upon a careful study of the non-christian religions, and traces them back to their sources, he finds more rational accounts of the creation and the order of nature, and sees striking points of resemblance to the mosaic record. the story of genesis represents the "beginning" as formless, chaotic, and dark. the spirit of god moved upon the face of the waters. the heavens and the earth were separated. light appeared long before the sun and moon were visible, and the day and night were clearly defined. creation proceeded in a certain order from vegetable to animal life, and from lower animals to higher, and last of all man appeared. in heathen systems we find fragments of this traditional account, and, as a rule, they are more or less clear in proportion to their nearness to, or departure from, the great cradle of the human race.[167] thus professor rawlinson quotes from an assyrian account of the creation, as found upon the clay tablets discovered in the palace of assur-bani-pal, a description of formlessness, emptiness, and darkness on the deep--of a separation between the earth and sky--and of the light as preceding the appearance of the sun. that account also places the creation of animals before that of man, whom it represents as being formed of the dust of the earth, and as receiving a divine effluence from the creator.[168] according to an etruscan saga quoted by suidas, god created the world in six periods of 1,000 years each. in the first, the heavens and the earth; in the second, the firmament; in the third, the seas; in the fourth, the sun, moon, and stars; in the fifth, the beasts of the land, the air, and the sea; in the sixth, man. according to a passage in the persian avesta, the supreme ormazd created the visible world by his word in six periods or thousands of years: in the first, the heavens with the stars; in the second, the water and the clouds; in the third, the earth and the mountains; in the fourth, the trees and the plants; in the fifth, the beasts which sprang from the primeval beast; in the sixth, man.[169] as we get farther away from the supposed early home of the race, the traditions become more fragmentary and indistinct. the rig veda, mandala, x., 129, tells us that: "in the beginning there was neither naught nor aught; there was neither day nor night nor light nor darkness; only the existent one breathed calmly. next came darkness, gloom on gloom. next all was water--chaos indiscrete."[170] strikingly similar is the language quoted in a former lecture from the prayer of a chinese emperor of the ming dynasty. it runs thus: "of old, in the beginning, there was the great chaos without form and dark. the five elements had not begun to revolve, nor the sun and moon to shine. in the midst thereof there presented itself neither form nor sound. thou, o spiritual sovereign, didst divide the grosser parts from the purer. thou madest heaven: thou madest earth: thou madest man." there is a possibility that these conceptions may have come from christian sources instead of primitive chinese traditions, possibly from early nestorian missionaries, though this is scarcely probable, as chinese emperors have been slow to introduce foreign conceptions into their august temple service to shangte; its chief glory lies in its antiquity and its purely national character. buddhism had already been in china more than a thousand years, and these prayers are far enough from its teachings. may we not believe that the ideas here expressed had always existed in the minds of the more devout rulers of the empire? in similar language, the edda of the icelandic northmen describes the primeval chaos. thus: "'twas the morning of time when yet naught was, nor sand nor sea was there, nor cooling streams. earth was not formed nor heaven above. a yawning gap was there and grass nowhere." not unlike these conceptions of the "beginning" is that which morenhout found in a song of the tahitans, and which ran thus: "he was; toaroa was his name, he existed in space; no earth, no heaven, no men." m. goussin adds the further translation: "toaroa, the great orderer, is the origin of the earth: he has no father, no posterity."[171] the tradition of the odshis, a negro tribe on the african gold coast, represents the creation as having been completed in six days. god created first the woman; then the man; then the animals; then the trees and plants; and lastly the rocks. god created nothing on the seventh day. he only gave men his commandments. the reversal of the order here only confirms the supposition that it is an original tradition. we find everywhere on the western hemisphere, north and south, plain recognition of the creation of the world by one supreme god, though the order is not given. how shall we account for the similarities above indicated, except on the supposition of a common and a very ancient source? still more striking are the various traditions of the fall of man by sin. in the british museum there is a very old babylonian seal which bears the figures of a man and a woman stretching out their hands toward a fruit-tree, while behind the woman lurks a serpent. a fragment bearing an inscription represents a tree of life as guarded on all sides by a sword. another inscription describes a delectable region surrounded by four rivers. professors rawlinson and delitzsch both regard this as a reference to the garden of eden. "the hindu legends," says hardwick, "are agreed in representing man as one of the last products of creative wisdom, as the master-work of god; and also in extolling the first race of men as pure and upright, innocent and happy. the beings who were thus created by brahma are all said to have been endowed with righteousness and perfect faith; they abode wherever they pleased, unchecked by any impediment; their hearts were free from guile; they were pure, made free from toil by observance of sacred institutes. in their sanctified minds hari dwelt; and they were filled with perfect wisdom by which they contemplated the glory of vishnu. "the first men were, accordingly, the best. the krita age, the 'age of truth,' the reign of purity, in which mankind, as it came forth from the creator, was not divided into numerous conflicting orders, and in which the different faculties of man all worked harmoniously together, was a thought that lay too near the human heart to be uprooted by the ills and inequalities of actual life. in this the hindu sided altogether with the hebrew, and as flatly contradicted the unworthy speculations of the modern philosopher, who would fain persuade us that human beings have not issued from one single pair, and also, that the primitive type of men is scarcely separable from that of ordinary animals...."[172] spence hardy, in speaking on this subject, describes a buddhist legend of ceylon which represents the original inhabitants of the world as having been once spotlessly pure, and as dwelling in ethereal bodies which moved at will through space. they had no need of sun or moon. they lived in perfect happiness and peace till, at last, one of their number tasted of a strange substance which he found lying on the surface of the earth. he induced others to eat also, whereupon all knew good and evil, and their high estate was lost. they now had perpetual need of food, which only made them more gross and earthly. wickedness abounded, and they were in darkness. assembling together, they fashioned for themselves a sun, but after a few hours it fell below the horizon, and they were compelled to create a moon.[173] an old mongolian legend represents the first man as having transgressed by eating a pistache nut. as a punishment, he and all his posterity came under the power of sin and death, and were subjected to toil and suffering.[174] a tradition of the african odshis, already named, relates that formerly god was very near to men. but a woman, who had been pounding banana fruit in a mortar, inadvertently entering his presence with a pestle in her hands, aroused his anger, and he withdrew into the high heavens and listened to men no more. six rainless years brought famine and distress, whereupon they besought him to send one of his counsellors who should be their daysman, and should undertake their cause and care for them. god sent his chief minister, with a promise that he would give rain and sunshine, and he directed that his rainbow should appear in the sky.[175] the inhabitants of tahiti have a tradition of a fall which is very striking; and humboldt, after careful study, reached the conclusion that it had not been derived through any communication with christian lands, but was an old native legend. the karens of burmah had a story of an early temptation of their ancestors by an evil being and their consequent apostasy. many other races who have no definite tradition of this kind have still some vague notion of a golden age in the past. there has been everywhere a mournful and pathetic sense of something lost, of degeneracy from better days gone by, of divine displeasure and forfeited favor. the baffled gropings of all false religions seem to have been so many devices to regain some squandered heritage of the past. all this is strikingly true of china. still more clear and wellnigh universal are the traditions of a flood. the hindu brahmanas and the mahabharata of a later age present legends of a deluge which strikingly resemble the story of genesis. vishnu incarnate in a fish warned a great sage of a coming flood and directed him to build an ark. a ship was built and the sage with seven others entered. attached to the horn of the fish the ship was towed over the waters to a high mountain top.[176] the chinese also have a story of a flood, though it is not given in much detail. the iranian tradition is very fragmentary and seems to confound the survivor with the first man of the creation. yima, the noah of the story, was warned by the beginning of a great winter rain, by which the waters were raised 19,000 feet. yima was commanded to prepare a place of safety for a number of chosen men, birds, and beasts. it was to be three stories high, and to be furnished with a high door and window, but whether it was a ship or a refuge on the mountain top does not appear. the same tradition speaks of eden and of a serpent, but the account is suddenly cut short.[177] the greek traditions of a flood varied according to the different branches of the greek nation. the arcadians traced their origin to dardanus, who was preserved from the great flood in a skin-covered boat. the pelasgians held the tradition of deucalion and his wife, who were saved in a ship which was grounded on the summit of pindus. as the water receded they sent out a dove to search for land. the assyrian account, which was found a few years ago on a tablet in the palace of assur-bani-pal, claims to have been related as a matter of personal experience by sisit, the chaldean noah, who was commanded to construct a ship 600 cubits long, into which he should enter with his family and his goods. at the time appointed the earth became a waste. the very gods in heaven fled from the fury of the tempest and "huddled down in their refuge like affrighted dogs." the race of men was swept away. on the seventh day sisit opened a window and saw that the rain was stayed, but the water was covered with floating corpses; all men had become as clay. the ship rested on a mountain top, and sisit sent forth a dove, a swallow, and a raven. the dove and the swallow returned, but the raven was satisfied with the floating carcasses. sisit went forth and offered sacrifice, around which "the gods hovered like flies." professor rawlinson thinks that these accounts and those given in genesis were both derived from the earlier traditions, the assyrian version having been greatly corrupted. the chaldean tradition is slightly different. the noah of the chaldeans was commanded in a dream not only to build a ship, but to bury all important documents and so preserve the antediluvian history. as the flood subsided he, his family, and his pilot were transferred to heaven, but certain friends who were saved with them remained and peopled the earth. among the ancient peruvians we find a tradition of a great deluge which swept the earth. after it had passed, the aged man wiracotscha rose out of lake titicaca and his three sons issued from a cave and peopled the earth.[178] hugh miller and others have named many similar traditions. the fact that in nearly every case those who were rescued from the flood immediately offered piacular sacrifices suggests the recognition in all human history of still another fundamental doctrine of christianity, the universal sense of sin. this conviction was especially strong when the survivors of a divine judgment beheld the spectacle of a race swept away for their transgressions; but there are abundant traces of it in all ages of the world. the exceptions are found in those instances where false systems of philosophy have sophisticated the natural sense of guilt by destroying the consciousness of personality. all races of men have shown a feeling of moral delinquency and a corresponding fear. the late c. loring brace, in his work entitled "the unknown god," quotes some striking penitential psalms or prayers offered by the akkadians of northern assyria four thousand years ago. the deep-seated conviction of guilt which is indicated by the old religion of the egyptians is well set forth by dr. john wortabet, of beyrut, in a pamphlet entitled "the temples and tombs of thebes." he says: "the immortality of the soul, its rewards and punishments in the next world, and its final salvation and return into the essence of the divinity were among the most cherished articles of the egyptian creed. here (in the tombs), as on the papyri which contain the 'ritual of the dead,' are represented the passage of the soul through the nether world and its introduction into the judgment hall, where osiris, the god of benevolence, sits on a throne, and with the assistance of forty-two assessors proceeds to examine the deceased. his actions are weighed in a balance against truth in the presence of thoth, the ibis-headed god of wisdom, and if found wanting he is hounded out in the shape of an unclean animal by anubis, the jackal-headed god of the infernal regions. the soul then proceeds in a series of transmigrations into the bodies of animals and human beings and thus passes through a purgatorial process which entitles it to appear again before the judgment-seat of osiris. if found pure it is conveyed to aalu, the elysian fields, or the 'pools of peace.' after three thousand years of sowing and reaping by cool waters it returns to its old body (the preserved mummy), suffers another period of probation, and is ultimately absorbed into the godhead. one of the most impressive scenes in the whole series is that where the soul, in the form of a mummified body, stands before osiris and the forty-two judges to be examined on the forty-two commandments of the egyptian religion. bearing on its face the signs of solemnity and fear, and carrying in its hand a feather, the symbol of veracity, it says among other things: 'i have not blasphemed the gods, i have defrauded no man, i have not changed the measures of egypt, i have not prevaricated at the courts of justice, i have not lied, i have not stolen, i have not committed adultery, i have done no murder, i have not been idle, i have not been drunk, i have not been cruel, i have not famished my family, i have not been a hypocrite, i have not defiled my conscience for the sake of my superiors, i have not smitten privily, i have lived on truth, i have made it my delight to do what men command and the gods approve, i have given bread to the hungry and drink to the thirsty and clothes to the naked, my mouth and hands are pure.' now what strikes one with great force in this remarkable passage from the walls of the old sand-covered tombs is the wonderful scope and fulness with which the laws of right and wrong were stamped upon the egyptian conscience. there is here a recognition, not only of the great evils which man shall not commit, but also of many of those positive duties which his moral nature requires. it matters not that these words are wholly exculpatory; they nevertheless recognize sin." but perhaps no one has depicted man's sense of guilt and fear more eloquently than dean stanley when speaking of the egyptian sphinx. proceeding upon the theory that that time-worn and mysterious relic is a couchant lion whose projecting paws were long since buried in the desert sands, and following the tradition that an altar once stood before that mighty embodiment of power, he graphically pictures the transient generations of men, in all the sin and weakness of their frail humanity, coming up with their offerings and their prayers "between the paws of deity." it is a grim spectacle, but it emphasizes the sense of human guilt. only the revealed word of god affords a complete and satisfactory explanation of the remarkable fact that the human race universally stand self-convicted of sin. there is also a tribute to the truth of christianity in certain traces of a conception of divine sacrifice for sin found in some of the early religious faiths of men. all are familiar with the difference between the offerings of abel and those of cain--the former disclosing a faith in a higher expiation. in like manner there appear mysterious references to a divine and vicarious sacrifice in the early vedas of india. in the parusha sukta of the rig veda occurs this passage: "from him called parusha was born viraj, and from viraj was parusha produced, whom gods made their oblation. with parusha as a victim they performed a sacrifice." manu says that parusha, "the first man," was called brahma, and was produced by emanation from the "self-existent spirit." brahma thus emanating, was "the first male," or, as elsewhere called, "the born lord." by him the world was made. the idea is brought out still more strikingly in one of the brahmanas where the sacrifice is represented as voluntary and all availing. "surely," says sir monier williams, "in these mysterious allusions to the sacrifice of a representative man we may perceive traces of the original institution of sacrifice as a divinely appointed ordinance, typical of the one great offering of the son of god for the sins of the world." the late professor banergea, of calcutta, reaching the same conclusion, says: "it is not easy to account for the genesis of these ideas in the veda, of 'one born in the beginning lord of creatures,' offering himself a sacrifice for the benefit of deified mortals, except on the assumption that it is based upon the tradition of the 'lamb slain from the foundation of the world.'" no doubt modern scepticism might be slow to acknowledge any such inference as this; but as professor banergea was a high-caste hindu of great learning, and was well acquainted with the subtleties of hindu thought, his opinion should have great weight. and when we remember how easily scientific scepticism is satisfied with the faintest traces of whatever strengthens its theories--how thin are some of the generalizations of herbert spencer--how very slight and fanciful are the resemblances of words which philologists often accept as indisputable proofs--how far-fetched are the inferences sometimes drawn from the appearance of half-decayed fossils as proofs and even demonstrations of the law of evolution--we need not be over-modest in setting forth these traces of an original divine element in the institution of typical sacrifices among men. it is never safe to assume positively this or that meaning for a mysterious passage found in the sacred books of non-christian systems, but there are many things which seem at least to illustrate important precepts of the christian faith. thus the slain osiris of the egyptians was said to enter into the sufferings of mortals. "having suffered the great wound," so the record runs, "he was wounded in every other wound." and we read in "the book of the dead" that "when the lord of truth cleanses away defilement, evil is joined to the deity that the truth may expel the evil."[179] this seems to denote an idea of vicarious righteousness. the onondaga indians had a tradition that the celestial hiawatha descended from heaven and dwelt among their ancestors, and that upon the establishment of the league of the iroquois he was called by the great spirit to sanctify that league by self-sacrifice. as the indian council was about to open, hiawatha was bowed with intense suffering, which faintly reminds one of christ's agony in gethsemane. he foresaw that his innocent and only child would be taken from him. soon after a messenger from heaven smote her to the earth by his side. then, having drank this cup of sorrow, he entered the council and guided its deliberations with superhuman wisdom.[180] in citing this incident nothing more is intended than to call attention to some of the mysterious conceptions which seem to float dimly through the minds of the most savage races, and which show at the very least that the idea of vicarious sacrifice is not strange to mankind, but is often mysteriously connected with their greatest blessings. the legend of "prometheus bound," as we find it in the tragedies of æschylus, is so graphic in its picture of vicarious suffering for the good of men that infidel writers have charged the story of the cross with plagiarism, and have applied to prometheus some of the expressions used in the fifty-third chapter of the prophecy of isaiah. we are often told that there is injustice in the very idea of vicarious suffering, as involved in the christian doctrine of salvation, or that the best instincts of a reasonable humanity revolt against it. but such criticisms are sufficiently met by these analogies which we find among all nations. let me next call attention to some of the predicted deliverers for whom the nations have been looking. nothing found in the study of the religious history of mankind is more striking than the universality of a vague expectation of coming messiahs. according to the teachings of hinduism there have been nine incarnations of vishnu, of whom buddha was admitted to be one. but there is to be a tenth avatar who shall yet come at a time of great and universal wickedness, and shall establish a kingdom of righteousness on the earth. some years ago the rev. dr. john newton, of lahore, took advantage of this prediction and wrote a tract showing that the true deliverer and king of righteousness had already come in the person of jesus christ. so striking seemed the fulfilment viewed from the hindu standpoint, that some hundreds in the city of rampore were led to a faith in christ as an avatar of vishnu. a remarkable illustration of a felt want of something brighter and more hopeful is seen in the legends and predictions of the teutonic and norse religions. the faiths of all the teutonic races were of the sternest character, and it was such a cultus that made them the terror of europe. they worshipped their grim deities in the congenial darkness of deep forest shades. there was no joy, no sense of divine pity, no peace. they were conscious of deep and unutterable wants which were never met. they yearned for a golden age and the coming of a deliverer. baldr, one of the sons of woden, had passed away, but prophecy promised that he should return to deliver mankind from sorrow and from death. "when the twilight of the gods should have passed away, then amid prodigies and the crash and decay of a wicked world, in glory and joy he should return, and a glorious kingdom should be renewed." or, in the words of one of their own poets: "then unsown the swath shall flourish and back come baldr; with him hoder shall dwell in hropter's palace, shrines of gods the great and holy, there the just shall joy forever, and in pleasure pass the ages." the well-known prediction of the sibyl of cumæ bears testimony to the same expectation of mankind. the genuine sibylline oracles were in existence anterior to the birth of christ. virgil died forty years before that event, and the well-known eclogue _pollio_ is stated by him to be a transcript of the prophetic carmen of the sibyl of cumæ. but for the fact that it has a roman instead of a jewish coloring, it might almost seem messianic. the oracle speaks thus: "the last era, the subject of the sibyl song of cumæ, has now arrived; the great series of ages begins anew. the virgin returns--returns the reign of saturn. the progeny from heaven now descends. be thou propitious to the infant boy by whom first the iron age shall expire, and the golden age over the whole world shall commence. whilst thou, o pollio, art consul, this glory of our age shall be made manifest, and the celestial months begin their revolutions. under thy auspices whatever vestiges of our guilt remain, shall, by being atoned for, redeem the earth from fear forever. he shall partake of the life of the gods. he shall reign over a world in peace with his father's virtues. the earth, sweet boy, as her first-fruits, shall pour thee forth spontaneous flowers. the serpent shall die: the poisonous and deceptive tree shall die. all things, heavens and earth and the regions of the sea, rejoice at the advent of this age. the time is now at hand."[181] forty years later the christ appeared. whether virgil had been influenced by hebrew prophecy it is impossible to say. it may be that the so-called sibyl had caught something of the same hope which led the magi of the east to the cradle of the infant messiah, but in any case the eclogue voiced a vague expectation which prevailed throughout the roman empire. in modern as well as in ancient times nations and races have looked for deliverers or for some brighter hope. missionaries found the hawaiians dissatisfied and hopeless; their idols had been thrown away. the karens were waiting for the arrival of the messengers of the truth. the mexicans, at the time of the spanish conquest, were looking for a celestial benefactor. the very last instance of an anxious looking for a deliverer is that which quite recently has so sadly misled our sioux indians. mankind have longed not only for deliverers, but also for _mediators_. the central truth of the christian faith is its divine sympathy and help brought down into our human nature. in other words, mediation--god with man. the faith of the hindus, lacking this element, was cold and remorseless. siva, the god of destruction, and his hideous and blood-thirsty wives, had become chief objects of worship, only because destruction and death led to life again. but there was no divine help. the gods were plied with sharp bargains in sacrifice and merit; they were appeased; they were cajoled; but there was no love. but the time came when the felt want of men for something nearer and more sympathetic led to the doctrine of vishnu's incarnations: first grotesque deliverers in animal shapes, but at length the genial and sympathetic krishna. he was not the highest model of character, but he was human. he had associated with the rustics and frolicked around their camp-fires. he became arjuna's charioteer and rendered him counsel and help in that low disguise. he was a sharer of burdens--a counsellor and friend. and he became the most popular of all hindu deities. the important point in all this is that this old system, so self-sufficient and self-satisfied, should have groped its way toward a divine sympathizer in human form, a living and helpful god among men. hinduism had not been wanting in anthropomorphisms: it had imagined the presence of god in a thousand visible objects which rude men could appreciate. trees, apes, cattle, crocodiles, and serpents had been invested with an in-dwelling spirit, but it had found no mediator. men had been trying by all manner of devices to sublimate their souls, and climb godward by their own self-mortification; but they had realized no divine help. to meet this want they developed a veritable doctrine of faith. they had learned from buddhism the great influence and power of one who could instruct and counsel and encourage. some oriental scholars think that they had also learned many things from christian sources.[182] however that may be--from whatever source they had gained this suggestion--they found it to accord with the deepest wants of the human heart. and the splendid tribute which that peculiar development bears to the great fundamental principles of the christian faith, is all the more striking for the fact that it grew up in spite of the adamantine convervatism of a system, all of whose teachings had been in a precisely opposite direction. it was old hinduism coming out of its intrenchments to pay honor to the true way of eternal life. probably the doctrine first sprang from a felt want, but was subsequently reinforced by christian influences. the late professor banergea, in his "aryan witness," gives what must be regarded as at least a very plausible account of the last development of the so-called krishna cult, and of this doctrine of faith. he thinks that it borrowed very much from western monotheists. he quotes a passage from the narada pancharata, which represents a pious brahman of the eighth century a.d., as having been sent to the far northwest, where "white-faced monotheists" would teach him a pure faith in the supreme vishnu or krishna. he quotes also, from another and later authority, a dialogue in which this same brahman reproved vyasa for not having celebrated the praises of krishna as supreme. this professor banergea regarded as proof that previously to the eighth century krishna has been worshipped only as a demigod. but the whole drift of the old brahmanical doctrines had been toward sacrifice as a debt and credit system, and that plan had failed. it had impoverished the land and ruined the people, and had brought no spiritual comfort. men had found that they could not buy salvation. moreover, buddhism and other forms of rationalistic philosophy, after prolonged and thorough experiment, had also failed. the hindu race had found that as salvation could not be purchased with sacrifices, neither could it be reasoned out by philosophy, nor worked out by austerities. it must come from a divine helper. thus, when narada had wearied himself with austerities--so we read in the narada pancharata--he heard a voice from heaven saying: "if krishna is worshipped, what is the use of austerities? if krishna is _not_ worshipped, what is the use of austerities? if krishna is within and without, what is the use of austerities? if krishna is _not_ within and without, what is the use of austerities? stop, o brahman; why do you engage in austerities? go quickly and get matured faith in krishna, as described by the sect of vishnu who snaps the fetters of the world." "we are thus led," says professor banergea, "to the very genesis of the doctrine of faith in connection with hinduism. and it was admittedly not an excogitation of the brahmanical mind itself. narada had brought it from the land of 'the whites,' where he got an insight into vishnu as the saviour which was not attainable elsewhere." and he then persuaded the author of one of the puranas to recount the "lord's acts"--in other words, the history of krishna, with the enforcement of faith in his divinity: "change the name," says banergea, "and it is almost christian doctrine."[183] it is an interesting fact that buddhism, in its progress through the centuries, has also wrought out a doctrine of faith by a similar process. it began as a form of atheistic rationalism. its most salient feature was staunch and avowed independence of all help from gods or men. it emphasized in every way the self-sufficiency of one's own mind and will to work out emancipation. but when buddha died no enlightened counsellor was left, and another buddha could not be expected for four thousand years. the multitudes of his disciples felt that, theory or no theory, there was an awful void. the bald and bleak system could not stand on such a basis. the human heart cried out for some divine helper, some one to whom man could pray. fortunately there were supposed to be predestined buddhas.--"bodisats"--then living in some of the heavens, and as they were preparing themselves to become incarnate buddhas, they must already be interested in human affairs, and especially the maitreyeh, who would appear on earth next in order. so buddhism, in spite of its own most pronounced dogmas, began to pray to an unseen being, began to depend and trust, began to lay hold on divine sympathy, and look to heaven for help. by the seventh century of our era the northern buddhists, whether influenced in part by the contact of christianity, or not, had subsidized more than one of these coming buddhas. they had a complete trinity. one person of this trinity, the everywhere present avolokitesvara, became the chief object of worship, the divine helper on whom all dependence was placed. this mythical being was really the god of northern buddhism in the middle ages, and is the popular sympathizer of all mongolian races to the present day. in thibet he is supposed to be incarnate in the grand lama. in china he is incarnate in quanyen, the goddess of mercy. with sailors she is the goddess of the sea. in many temples she is invoked by the sick, the halt, the blind, the impoverished. her images are sometimes represented with a hundred arms to symbolize her omnipotence to save. beal says of this, as banergea says of the faith element of the krishna cult, that it is wholly alien to the religion whose name it bears: it is not buddhism. he thinks that it has been greatly affected by christian influences. another mythical being who is worshipped as god in china and japan, is amitabba, a dhyana or celestial buddha, who in long kalpas of time has acquired merit enough for the whole world. two of the twelve buddhist sects of japan have abandoned every principle taught by gautama, except his ethics, and have cast themselves upon the free grace of amitabba. they have exchanged the old atheism for theism. they have given up all dependence on merit-making and self-help; they now rely wholly on the infinite merit of another. their religious duties are performed out of gratitude for a free salvation wrought out for them, and no longer as the means of gaining heaven. they live by a faith which works by love. they expect at death an immediate transfer to a permanent heaven, instead of a series of transmigrations. their buddha is not dead, but he ever liveth to receive into his heavenly realm all who accept his grace, and to admit them to his divine fellowship forever. by a direct and complete imputation they are made sharers in his righteousness, and become joint heirs in his heavenly inheritance. whatever the genesis of these strange cults which now prevail as the chief religious beliefs among the mongolian races, they are marvellously significant. they have come almost to the very threshold of christianity. what they need is the true saviour and not a myth, a living faith and not an empty delusion. nevertheless, they prove that faith in a divine salvation is the only religion that can meet the wants of the human soul. there is something very encouraging in these approaches toward the great doctrines of salvation. i do not believe that these sects have come so near to the true messiah without the influence of the spirit of god, and without more or less light from christian sources. but partly they have been moved by those wants which hinduism and buddhism could not satisfy. the principle of their faith is worthy of recognition, and the missionary should say as paul said: "whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare i unto you." it is a very significant fact that most of the brahmo somajes of india have adopted jesus christ as the greatest of the world's prophets. chunder sen sometimes spoke of him as a devout christian would speak. the arya somaj would not own his name, but it has graced its hindu creed with many of his essential doctrines. quite recently a new organ of the brahmo somaj, published at hyderabad, has announced as its leading object, "to harmonize pure hinduism and pure christianity, with christ as the chief corner-stone." in the exact words of this paper, called _the harmony_, its aim is "to preach christ as the eternal son of god, as the logos in all prophets and saints before and after the incarnation, as the incarnate, perfect righteousness by whose obedience man is made righteous.... christ is the reconciliation of man with man, and of all men with god, the harmony of humanity with humanity, and of all humanity with divinity." this prospectus condemns the average christianity of foreigners in india--the over-reaching, "beef-eating, beer-drinking" anglo-saxon type, "which despises the hindu scriptures and yet belies its own;" but it exalts the spotless and exalted christ and builds all the hopes of humanity upon him. how will the mere philosopher explain this wonderful power of personality over men of all races, if it be not divine? but perhaps the most remarkable tribute to the transcendent character of christ is seen in the fact that _all_ sects of religionists, the most fanatical and irrational, seem to claim him as in some sense their own. mormonism, even when plunging into the lowest depths of degradation, has always claimed to rest on the redemption of jesus christ. mohammedanism--even the koran itself--has always acknowledged christ as the only sinless prophet. all the others, from adam to mohammed, stand convicted of heinous offences, and they will not reappear on earth; while he who knew no sin shall, according to mohammedan prophecy, yet come again to judge the earth. the worshippers of krishna, some of whom are found among us in this land, claim christ as one of the true avatars of vishnu, and heartily commend his character and his teachings. our western buddhists are just now emphasizing the idea that christ was the sacred buddha of palestine, that he studied and taught "the eight-fold path," became an arahat, and attained nirvana, and that the christian church has only misrepresented his transcendent wisdom and purity. the ablest tract on theosophy that i have yet seen is entitled "theosophy the religion of jesus." how marvellous is all this--that theosophists, aryas, brahmos, buddhists, moslems, though they hate christianity and fight it to the death--still bow before the mild sceptre of christ. as the central light of the diamond shines alike through every facet and angle, so his doctrine and character are claimed as the glory of every creed. many types of heathen faiths honor him, and many schools of philosophic scepticism. some of the noblest tributes to his unearthly purity have been given by men who rejected his divinity. in spite of itself the most earnest thought of many races, many systems, many creeds, has crystallized around him. history has made him its moral centre, the calendar of the nations begins with him, and the anniversary of his birth is the festival of the civilized world. the prediction that all nations should call him blessed is already fulfilled. footnotes: [footnote 167: it is worthy of note that both the pentateuch and most heathen traditions agree, as to the order or stages of creation, with the geological record of modern science.] [footnote 168: rawlinson: _ancient monarchies_.] [footnote 169: ebrard: _apologetics_, vol. ii.] [footnote 170: williams: _indian wisdom_, p. 22.] [footnote 171: de quatrefages: _the human species_, p. 490.] [footnote 172: _christ and other masters_, p. 281.] [footnote 173: _manual of buddhism_, p. 66.] [footnote 174: ebrard: _apologetics_, vol. ii.] [footnote 175: ibid.] [footnote 176: _indian wisdom_, pp. 32, 393.] [footnote 177: ebrard: _apologetics_, vol. ii.] [footnote 178: ebrard: _apologetics_, vol. iii.] [footnote 179: de pressensé: _the ancient world and christianity_, p. 87.] [footnote 180: schoolcraft: _notes on the iroquois_.] [footnote 181: quoted by morgan in _st. paul in britain_, p. 23.] [footnote 182: the full development of the doctrine was not reached till far on in the christian centuries. hardwick: _christ and other masters_, p. 204.] [footnote 183: _aryan witness_, closing chapter.] lecture ix. ethical tendencies of the eastern and the western philosophies it is not my purpose to discuss the comparative merits of philosophic systems, but only to consider some practical bearings of philosophy, ancient and modern, upon vital questions of morals and religion. there has been no lack of speculation in the world. for ages the most gifted minds have labored and struggled to solve the mysteries of the universe and of its author. but they have missed the all-important fact that with the heart, as well as with the intellect, men are to be learners of the highest wisdom, and that they are to listen to the voice of god not only in nature, but in the soul. so the old questions, still unsolved, are ever asked anew. the same wearying researches and the same confident assertions, to be replaced by others equally confident, are found both in the ancient and in the modern history of mankind. by wisdom the present generation has come no nearer to finding out god than men of the remotest times. the cheerless conclusion of agnosticism was reached in india twenty-four centuries ago, and confucius expressed it exactly when he said, with reference to the future, "we do not know life; how can we know death?" this same dubious negation probably has the largest following of all types of unbelief in our time. it is not atheism: that, to the great mass of men, is unthinkable; it is easier to assume simply that "we do not know." yet almost every form of agnosticism, ancient or modern, claims to possess a vast amount of very positive knowledge. speculative hypothesis never employed the language of dogmatic assurance so confidently as now. even theosophic occultism speaks of itself as "science." that which strikes one first of all in the history of philosophy is the similarity between ancient and modern speculations upon the great mysteries of the world. 1. notice with what accord various earlier and later theories dispense with real and personal creatorship in the origin of the universe. the atomic theory of creation is by no means a modern invention, and so far as evolution is connected with that hypothesis, evolution is very old. mr. herbert spencer states his theory thus: "first in the order of evolution is the formation of simple mechanical aggregates of atoms, e.g., molecules, spheres, systems; then the evolution of more complex aggregations or organisms: then the evolution of the highest product of organization, thought; and lastly, the evolution of the complex relations which exist between thinking organisms, or society with its regulative laws, both civil and moral." between these stages, he tells us, "there is no fixed line of demarcation.... the passage from one to the other is continuous, the transition from organization to thought being mediated by the nerve-system, in the molecular changes of which are to be found the mechanical correlates and equivalents of all conscious processes." it will be seen that this comprehensive statement is designed to cover, if not the creation, at least the creative processes of all things in the universe of matter and in the universe of thought. mr. spencer does not allude here to the question of a first cause back of the molecules and their movements, though he is generally understood to admit that such a cause may exist. he does not in express terms deny that at some stage in this development there may have been introduced a divine spark of immortal life direct from the creator's hand. he even maintains that "the conscious soul is not the product of a collocation of material particles, but is in the deepest sense a divine effluence."[184] yet he seems to get on without any very necessary reliance upon such an intervention, since the development from the atom to the civilized man is "a continuous process," and throughout the whole course from molecule to thought and moral and social law, "there are no lines of demarcation." he leaves it for the believer in theistic evolution to show when and where and how the divine effluence is introduced. similar to this was the theory which the hindu kanada propounded more than two thousand years ago. as translated and interpreted by colebrook, kanada taught that two earthly atoms concurring by an unseen and peculiar virtue called "adrishta," or by the will of god, or by time, or by competent cause, constitute a double atom of earth; and by concourse of three binary atoms a tertiary atom is produced, and by concourse of four triple atoms a quaternary, and so on.[185] thus the great earth is produced. the system of lucretius was much the same, though neither lucretius nor spencer has recognized any such force as adrishta.[186] what seems to distinguish mr. spencer's theory is the extension of this evolutionary process to mind and spirit in the development of thought and feeling. he does not say that mind resides in the molecules, but that their movements attend (if they do not originate and control) the operation of the mind. professor leconte seems to go farther when he says that "in animals brain-changes are in all cases the cause of psychical phenomena; in man alone, and only in his higher activities, psychic changes precede and determine brain changes."[187] we shall see farther on that mr. spencer, in his theory of intuition, admits this same principle by logical inference, and traces even man's highest faculties to brain or nerve changes in our ancestors. kanada also held that mind, instead of being a purely spiritual power, is atomic or molecular, and by logical deduction the mental activities must depend on the condition of the molecules. ram chandra bose, in expounding kanada's theory, says: "the general idea of mind is that _which is subordinate to substance_, being also found in intimate relations in an atom, and it is itself material." the early buddhist philosophers also taught that physical elements are among the five "skandas" which constitute the phenomenal soul. democritus and lucretius regarded the mind as atomic, and the primal "monad" of leibnitz was the living germ--smallest of things--which enters into all visible and invisible creations, and which is itself all-potential; it is a living microcosm; it is an immortal soul. these various theories are not parallels, but they have striking similarities. and i believe that professor tyndall, in his famous belfast address, virtually acknowledges lucretius as the father of the modern atomic theories. whether lucretius borrowed them from india, we shall not stop to inquire, but we may safely assert that modern philosophers, german, french or english, have borrowed them from one or both. it is not my purpose to discuss the truth or falsity of the atomic theory, or the relation of mind to the movements of molecules in the brain; i simply point out the fact that this is virtually an old hypothesis; and i leave each one to judge how great a degree of light it has shed upon the path of human life in the ages of the past, how far it availed to check the decline of greece and rome, and how much of real moral or intellectual force it has imparted to the hindu race. the credulous masses of men should not be left to suppose that these are new speculations, nor to imagine that that which has been so barren in the past can become a gospel of hope in the present and the future. the constant tendency with young students of philosophy, is to conclude that the hypotheses which they espouse with so much enthusiasm are new revelations in metaphysics and ethics as well as in physical science--compared with which the christian cultus of eighteen centuries is now effete and doomed. it is well, therefore, to know that so far from these speculations having risen upon the ruins of christianity, christianity rose upon the ruins of these speculations as, in modified forms, they had been profoundly elaborated in the philosophies of greece and rome. lucretius was born a century before the christian era, and democritus, whose disciple he became, lived earlier still. kanada, the atomist philosopher of india, lived three centuries before democritus. the early christian fathers were perfectly familiar with the theories of lucretius. we are indebted to jerome for many of the facts which we possess concerning him. nearly all the great leaders of the church, from origen to ambrose, had studied greek philosophy, some of them had been its devotees before their conversion to the christian faith. there is at least incidental evidence that the apostle paul was versed in the current philosophy as well as in the poetry of greece. these great men--great in natural powers and in philosophic training--had seen just what the speculations of democritus, lucretius, zeno, socrates, plato, and aristotle could do; they had indeed undermined the low superstitions of their time, but they had proved powerless to regenerate society, or even relieve the individual pessimism and despair of men like seneca, pliny, or marcus aurelius. lucretius, wholly or partially insane, died by his own hand. the light of philosophy left the roman empire, as uhlhorn and others have clearly shown, under the shadow of a general despair. and it was in the midst of that gloom that the light of christianity shone forth. augustine, who had fathomed various systems and believed in them, tells us that it was the philosophy which appeared in the writings and in the life of the apostle paul which finally wrought the great change in his career. plato had done much; paul and the cross of christ did infinitely more. the development of higher forms of life from lower by natural selection, as set forth by the late charles darwin, has been supposed to be an entirely new system. yet the chinese claim to have held a theory of development which represents the mountains as having once been covered by the sea. when the waters subsided small herbs sprang up, which in the course of ages developed into trees. worms and insects also appeared spontaneously, like lice upon a living body; and these after a long period became larger animals--beetles became tortoises; worms, serpents. the mantis was developed into an ape, and certain apes became at length hairless. one of these by accident struck fire with a flint. the cooking of food at length followed the use of fire, and the apes, by being better nourished, were finally changed into men. whether this theory is ancient or modern, it is eminently chinese, and it shows the natural tendency of men to ascribe the germs of life to spontaneous generation, because they fail to see the great first cause who produces them. the one thing which is noticeable in nearly all human systems of religion and philosophy, is that they have no clear and distinct idea of creatorship. they are systems of evolution; in one way or another they represent the world as having _grown_. generally they assume the eternity of matter, and often they are found to regard the present cosmos as only a certain stage in an endless circle of changes from life to death and from death to life. the world rebuilds itself from the wreck and débris of former worlds. it is quite consistent with many of these systems that there should be gods, but as a rule they recognize no god. while all races of men have shown traces of a belief in a supreme creator and ruler far above their inferior deities, yet their philosophers, if they had any, have sooner or later bowed him out. 2. most systems of philosophic speculation, ancient and modern, tend to weaken the sense of moral accountability. first, the atomic theory, which we have just considered, leads to this result by the molecular, and therefore purely physical, origin which it assigns to moral acts and conditions. we have already alluded to herbert spencer's theory of intuition. in the "data of ethics," page 123, he says: "i believe that the experiences of utility, organized and consolidated through all past generations of the human race, have been producing corresponding nervous modifications, which by continued transmission and accumulation _have become in us certain faculties of moral intuition_, certain emotions corresponding to right and wrong conduct which have no apparent basis in the individual experiences of utility." it appears from this statement that, so far as we are concerned, our moral intuitions are the results of "nervous modifications," if not in ourselves, at least in our ancestors, so that the controlling influence which rules, and which ought to rule, our conduct is a nervous, and therefore a physical, condition which we have inherited. it follows, therefore, that every man's conscience or inherited moral sense is bound by a necessity of his physical constitution. and if this be so, why is there not a wide door here opened for theories of moral insanity, which might come at length to cast their shield over all forms and grades of crime? it is easy to see that, whatever theory of creation may be admitted as to the origin of the human soul, this hypothesis rules out the idea of an original moral likeness of the human spirit to a supreme moral ruler of the universe, in whom righteousness dwells as an eternal principle; and it finds no higher source for what we call conscience than the accumulated experience of our ancestors. the materialistic view recently presented by dr. henry maudsley, in an article entitled, "the physical basis of mind"--an article which seems to follow mr. spencer very closely--would break down all moral responsibility. his theory that true character depends upon what he calls the reflex action of the nerve-cells; that acts of reason or conscience which have been put forth so many times that, in a sense, they perform themselves without any exercise of consciousness, are the best; that a man is an instinctive thief or liar, or a born poet, because the proper nervous structure has been fixed in his constitution by his ancestors; that any moral act, so long as it is conscious, is not ingrained in character, and the more conscious it is, the more dubious it is; and that "virtue itself is not safely lodged until it has become a habit"--in other words, till it has become an automatic and unconscious operation of the nerve-cells, such a doctrine, in its extreme logical results, destroys all voluntary and conscious loyalty to principle, and renders man a mere automatic machine. on the other hand mr. a.r. wallace, in combating the theory that the moral sense in man is based on the utility experienced by our ancestors, relates the following incident: "a number of prisoners taken during the santal insurrection were allowed to go free on parole, to work at a certain spot for wages. after some time cholera attacked them and they were obliged to leave, but everyone of them returned and gave up his earnings to the guard. two hundred savages with money in their girdles walked thirty miles back to prison rather than break their word. my own experience with savages has furnished me with similar, although less severely tested, instances; and we cannot avoid asking how it is that, in these few cases 'experience of utility' have left such an overpowering impression, while in others they have left none.... the intuitional theory which i am now advocating explains this by the supposition that there is a feeling--a sense of right and wrong--in our nature antecedent to, and independent of, experiences of utility."[188] 3. theories which confound the origin of man with that of brutes, whether in the old doctrine of transmigration or in at least some of the theories of evolution, involve a contradiction in man's ethical history. the confusion shown in the buddhist jatakas, wherein buddha, in the previous existences which prepared him for his great and holy mission, was sometimes a saint and sometimes a gambler and a thief, is scarcely greater, from an ethical point of view, than that which evolution encounters in bridging the chasm between brute instinct and the lofty ethics of the perfected man. the lower grades of animal life know no other law than the instinct which prompts them to devour the types which are lower still. this destruction of the weaker by the stronger pervades the whole brute creation; it is a life of violence throughout. on the other hand, all weaker creatures, exposed to such ravages, protect themselves universally by deception. the grouse shields her young from hawks or other carnivora by running in the opposite direction, with the assumed appearance of a broken wing. the flat fish, to escape its mortal enemies, lies upon the bottom of the stream, scarcely distinguishable in color or appearance from the sand which constitutes its bed. nature seems to aid and abet its falsehood by the very form which has been assigned to it. and so also the gift of transparency helps the chameleon in seeming to be a part of the green plant, or the brown bark, upon which it lies. and professor drummond, in his interesting account of his african travels, describes certain insects which render themselves indistinguishable either in color or in form from the branchings and exfoliation of certain grasses upon which they feed. deception therefore becomes a chief resource of the weak, while violence is that of the strong. and those which are in the middle of the scale practise both. there are still other animals which are invested with attributes of all that is meanest and most contemptible in character. the sly and insinuating snake gliding noiselessly toward the victim of its envenomed sting--the spider which spreads forth its beautiful and alluring net, sparkling with morning dew, while it lurks in a secret corner, ready to fall upon its luckless prey--the sneaking and repulsive hyena, too cowardly to attack the strong and vigorous, but waiting for the crippled, the helpless, the sick, and dying--if all these are in the school of preparation for that noble stage of manhood when truth and righteousness shall be its crown of glory, then, where is the turning-point? where do violence, meanness, and deception gradually beam forth into benevolence and truth? "the spider kills the fly. the wiser sphinx stings the poor spider in the centre nerve, which paralyzes only; lays her eggs, and buries with them with a loving care the spider, powerless but still alive, to warm them unto life, and afterward to serve as food among the little ones. this is the lesson nature has to teach, 'woe to the conquered, victory to the strong.' and so through all the ages, step by step, the stronger and the craftier replaced the weaker, and increased and multiplied. and in the end the outcome of the strife was man, who had dominion over all, and preyed on all things, and the stronger man trampled his weaker brother under foot." mr. john fiske maintains that mankind, during the previous bestial period, were compelled like all other animals to maraud and destroy, as a part of the plan of natural selection in securing the survival of the fittest; the victories of the strong over the weak were the steps and stages of the animal creation in its general advancement. and he further states that, even after man had entered upon the heritage of his manhood, it was still for a time the true end of his being to maraud as before and to despoil all men whose weakness placed them in his power. it was only thus that the steady improvement of the race could be secured; and in that view it was man's duty to consult the dictates of selfishness and cruelty rather than those of kindness. to use mr. fiske's own words, "if we could put a moral interpretation upon events which antedated morality as we understand it, we should say it was their duty to fight; and the reverence accorded to the chieftain who murdered most successfully in behalf of his clansmen was well deserved."[189] much to the same effect writes professor leconte. "in organic evolution the weak, the sick, the helpless, the unfit in anyway, perish, _and ought to perish_, because this is the most efficient way of strengthening the _blood or physical nature_ of the species, and thus of carrying forward evolution. in human evolution (which occurs at an advanced stage) the weak, the helpless, the sick, the old, the unfit in anyway, are sustained, _and ought to be sustained_, because sympathy, love, pity, strengthen the _spirit and moral nature_ of the race."[190] there is this difference, however, between this statement and that of mr. fiske, that it does not indicate at what point "human evolution" begins; it does not expressly declare that the subject of evolution, even after he has become a man, is still for a time in duty bound to fight in the interest of selfishness and natural selection. still he reverses the "ought" as he advances from organic to human evolution. according to both authors, when, in view of new environments and new social requirements, it became more advantageous to each individual man that he should cease to maraud, should learn to regard the rights of others, should respect the family relation, and subordinate his selfish interest to the general good; then altruism dawned upon the world, moral principle appeared, and the angel of benevolence and love became enshrined in the human breast. step by step this favored being, the ideal of natural selection in all her plans, advanced to a stage in which it became incumbent to even subordinate self to the good of others, not only to spare the weak but to tenderly care for them, and even to love those who have treated him with unkindness and abuse. while in the early stages the law of life and progress had been the sacrifice of others for selfish good; now the crowning glory consists in self-sacrifice for the good of all but self. the logical result of this reasoning cannot escape the notice of any who carefully consider it. if, for any reason, any community of human beings should decline in moral and intellectual character until they should finally reach the original state of savagery, it would again become their duty to lay aside all high ethical claims as no longer suited to their condition. the extraneous complications which had grown out of mere social order having passed away, rectitude also would pass away; benevolence, philanthropy, humanity, would be wholly out of place, and however lovely christian charity might appear from a sentimental point of view, it would be ill adapted to that condition of society. in such a state of things the strong and vigorous, if sacrificing themselves to the weak, would only perpetuate weakness, and it would be their duty rather to extirpate them, and by the survival only of the fittest to regain the higher civilization. i state the case in all its naked deformity, because it shows the confusion and darkness of a world in which god is not the moral centre. and here, as already stated, modern speculation joins hands with the old heathen systems. according to hindu as well as buddhist philosophy, this retrograde process might not only carry civilized man back to savagery, but might place him again in the category of brutes. if tendencies control all things and have no limit, why might they not remand the human being to lower and lower forms, until he should reach again the status of the mollusk? now, over against all the systems which make mind either a product or a phenomenon of matter, we have the scriptural doctrine that man was created in the image of god. this fact explains the differences which distinguish him from the beasts of the field; for even in his lowest estate he is amenable to the principle of right and wrong. paul taught, in the first chapter of his epistle to the romans, that when men descend to the grade of beasts--and he shows that they may descend even below the dignity of beasts--so far from becoming exempt from moral claims, they fall under increased condemnation. the old hindu systems taught that there can be no release from the consequences of evil acts. they traced them from one rebirth to another in kharma, as modern speculation traces them physically in heredity. the one saw no relief except in the changes of endless transmigrations, the other finds it only in the gradual readjustment of the nerve-cells. but we know by observation and experience that the spiritual power of the holy ghost can transform character at once. no fact in the history of christianity is more firmly or more widely established than this. the nerve-tissues to the contrary notwithstanding, the human soul may be born again. the persecuting saul may become at once a chief apostle. the blasphemer, the sot, the debauchee, the murderer, may be transformed to a meek and sincere christian. millions of the heathen, with thousands of years of savage and bestial heredity behind them, have become pure and loyal disciples of the spotless redeemer. the fierce heathen africaner, as well as the dissolute jerry mccauley, have illustrated this transforming power. professor huxley and others, in our time, are trying to elaborate some basis of ethics independently of religion. but, as a matter of fact, these very men are living on conventional moral promptings and restraints derived from the bible. the best basis of morals yet known is that of christianity, and it is from its high and ennobling cultus that even the enemies of the truth are deriving their highest inspiration. mr. goldwin smith, in an able article published in the _forum_ of april, 1891, on the question, "will morality survive faith?" shows at least that the best ethics which the world now has are the outcome of religious belief and of christian belief, and he leads the minds of his readers to gravely doubt whether a gospel of agnostic evolution could ever produce those forces of moral prompting and restraint which the centuries of christianity have developed. he does not hesitate to assert that those who hold and advocate the modern anti-theistic speculations are themselves living upon the influence of a christian cultus which has survived their faith. a true test of their principles could only be made when a generation should appear upon which no influence of christian parents still remained, and in a society in which christian sentiment no longer survived.[191] it may be said that the _truth_ must be received without regard to the results which may follow. this is admitted, but the same cannot be said of _theories_. if there is perfect harmony between all truths in the physical and the moral world, then all these should have their influence in reaching final conclusions. 4. the philosophies, ancient and modern, have agreed in lowering the common estimate of man as man; they have exerted an influence the opposite of that in which the new testament pleads for a common and an exalted brotherhood of the race. hinduism raised the brahman almost to the dignity of the gods, and debased the sudra to a grade but a little higher than the brute. buddha declared that his teachings were for the wise, and not for the simple. the philosophers of greece and rome, even the best of them, regarded the helot and the slave as of an inferior grade of beings--even though occasionally a slave by his superior force rose to a high degree. in like manner the whole tendency of modern evolution is to degrade the dignity and sacredness of humanity. it is searching for "missing links;" it measures the skulls of degraded races for proofs of its theories. it has travellers and adventurers on the lookout for tribes who have no conception of god, and no religious rites; it searches caves and dredges lakes for historical traces of man when he had but recently learned to "stand upright upon his hind legs." the lower the types that can be found, the more valuable are they for the purposes required. all this tends to the dishonoring of the inferior types of men. wherever christianity had changed the old estimates of the philosophers, and had led to the nobler sentiment that god had made of one blood all nations and races, and had stamped his own image on them all, and even redeemed them all by the sacrifice of his son, the speculations of sceptical biology have in a measure counteracted its benign influence. they have fostered the contempt of various classes for a dark skin or an inferior civilization. they indirectly encourage those who, with little merit of their own, speak contemptuously of the "buck indian," "the nigger," the "heathen chinee." they encourage the "hoodlum," and so far as they have any influence, give an implied sanction to much unrighteous legislation. even peschel, who will not be suspected of any bias toward christianity, has said on this subject: "this dark side of the life of uncivilized nations has induced barbarous and inhuman settlers in transoceanic regions to assume as their own a right to cultivate as their own the inheritance of the aborigines, and to extol the murder of races as a triumph of civilization. other writers, led away by darwinian dogmas, fancied that they had discovered populations which had, as it were, remained in a former animal condition for the instruction of our times." and he adds: "thus in the words of a 'history of creation,' in the taste now prevalent, 'in southern asia and the east of africa men live in hordes, mostly climbing trees and eating fruit, unacquainted with fire, and using no weapons but stones and clubs, after the manner of the higher apes.' it can be shown," he continues, "that these statements are derived from the writings of a learned scholar of bonn on the condition of savage nations, the facts of which are based either on the depositions of an african slave of the doko tribe, a dwarfish people in the south of shoa, or on the assertions of bengalese planters, or perhaps on the observations of a sporting adventurer, that a mother and daughter, and at another time a man and woman, were found in india in a semi-animal condition. on the other hand, not only have neither nations, nor even hordes, in an ape-like condition ever been encountered by any trustworthy traveller of modern times, but even those races which in the first superficial descriptions were ranked far below our grade of civilization have, on nearer acquaintance, been placed much nearer the civilized nations. no portion of the human race has yet been discovered which does not possess a more or less rich vocabulary, rules of language, artificially pointed weapons, and various implements, as well as the art of kindling fire.[192]" the assertion has been made again and again that races are found which are possessed of no knowledge or conception of deity, but this assumption has been thoroughly refuted by max müller and many others. there is a very general assumption abroad in the world that bigotry and even bias of judgment belong exclusively to the advocates of religious truth, and that the teachers of agnostic science are, in the nature of the case, impartial and therefore authoritative. but the generalizations which have been massed by non-christian anthropologists and sociologists are often gleaned and culled under the strongest subserviency to some favorite hypothesis, and that on the most superficial observation and from the most unreliable authorities. de quatrefages, an anthropologist of profound learning, and certainly with no predilections for christian theism, in speaking of the alleged evidences given by sir john lubbock and saint-hilaire to show that many races of men have been found destitute of any conception of deity, says: "when the writers against whom i am now arguing have to choose between two evidences, the one attesting, and the other denying, the existence of religious belief in a population, it is always the latter which they seem to think should be accepted. more often than not, they do not even mention the contrary evidences, however definite, however authentic they may be. now, it is evidently much _easier not to see_ than to _discover_ that which may be in so many ways rendered inappreciable to our eyes. when a traveller states that he has proved the existence of religious sentiments in a population which by others has been declared destitute of them, when he gives precise details upon such a delicate question, he has unquestionably at least probability in his favor. i see nothing to authorize this rejection of _positive evidence_ and unconditional acceptance of _negative evidence_. this, however, is too often the case. i might justify this imputation by taking one by one almost all the examples of so-called atheist populations pointed out by different authors."[193] de quatrefages then proceeds to show how, with respect to american tribes, robertson is quoted while d'orbigny is passed in silence, even though he has by the testimony of many authors disproved the statements of robertson; how baegert's negative and sweeping statements in regard to the california tribes are accepted, while the very specific testimony of de mofras in regard both to the fact and to the nature of their worship is rejected. in relation to the mincopies, mouat (negative) is adopted against symes and day. the hottentots are adjudged atheistic on the testimony of le vaillant, in spite of the united witness of kolben, saar, tachard, boeving, and campbell. the kaffirs are declared to be destitute of religion on the statements of burchel, while livingstone and cazalis have given clear accounts of the religion of the different kaffir tribes. in a similar manner professor flint, of edinburgh, arraigns sir john lubbock and certain other advocates of the atheistic theory concerning savage tribes, for the partiality of their selection of testimony and for the superficial evidence which they accept when favorable to their theories. after reviewing lubbock's wholesale quotations concerning the indian tribes of brazil, he says, "these are sir john lubbock's instances from south american tribes. but i find that they are all either erroneous or insufficiently established." and he gives many counter-proofs. "it will never do," he says, "to believe such sweeping statements--sweeping negatives--merely because they happen to be printed." farther on he adds: "but i think that he (lubbock) might have told us that humboldt, whose travels in south america were so extensive, whose explorations were so varied, scientific, and successful, and who certainly was uninfluenced by traditional theological beliefs, _found no tribes and peoples without a religion_; and that prince max von neuwied tells us that in all his many and wide wanderings in brazil he had found no tribes the members of which did not give manifest signs of religious feelings." in the appendix of the book from which these extracts are made, professor flint says: "no one, i think, who has not a theory to maintain can consider the circumstances in which most of the brazilian indian tribes are placed without coming to the conclusion that they must have sunk from a higher intellectual and religious level." i have dwelt at length upon these arraignments of the careless and biased utterances of supposed scientists, because it is so much the fashion of our times to support certain theories of anthropology by massing the supposed evidences of man's degradation found, even now, in the environments of savage life. many readers, apparently dazed by the vast accumulation of indiscriminate and heterogeneous statements which they have no time to examine, yield an easy and blind assent, based either on the supposed wisdom of the writer or upon the fact that so many others believe, and they imagine that no little courage is required on their part to risk the loss of intellectual caste. a vast amount of the thinking of our age, although it claims to be scientific, is really a matter of simple faith--faith in the opinions and dicta of distinguished leaders. and under such circumstances, is it not our privilege and our duty as christian men to at least challenge and cross-question those theories which depress and dishonor our common humanity before we yield them our assent? the majority of scientists now so confidently assume the certain derivation of man from lower orders of life, that, as max müller has expressed it, their intolerance greets "with a perfect howl of derision a man like virchow," who dares to declare that proof of man's derivation from animals is still wanting. nevertheless virchow, himself an evolutionist, maintains his ground, as the following passage quoted some months since from _the london tablet_ will show: "some sensation has been caused at the recent anthropological congress in vienna by the speech of the great berlin biologist, professor virchow. about a year ago virchow, on a similar occasion, made a severe attack on the darwinian position, and this year he is similarly outspoken. we make the following extracts from his long address to the congress: "'twenty years ago, when we met at innspruck, it was precisely the moment when the darwinian theory had made its first victorious mark throughout the world. my friend vogt at once rushed into the ranks of the champions of this doctrine. we have since sought in vain for the intermediate stages which were supposed to connect man with the apes; the proto-man, the pro-anthropos is not yet discovered. for anthropological science the pro-anthropos is not even a subject of discussion. the anthropologist may, perhaps, see him in a dream, but as soon as he awakes he cannot say that he has made any approach toward him. at that time in innspruck the prospect was, apparently, that the course of descent from ape to man would be reconstructed all at once, but now we cannot even prove the descent of the separate races from one another.[194] at this moment we are able to say that among the peoples of antiquity no single one was any nearer to the apes than we are. at this moment i can affirm that there is not upon earth any absolutely unknown race of men. the least known of all are the peoples of the central mountainous districts of the malay peninsula, but otherwise we know the people of terra del fuego quite as well as the eskimo, bashkirs, polynesians, and lapps. nay! we know more of many of these races than we do of certain european tribes. i need only mention the albanians. every living race is still human; no single one has yet been found that we can designate as simian or quasi-simian. even when in certain ones phenomena appear which are characteristic of the apes--e.g., the peculiar ape-like projections of the skull in certain races--still we cannot on that account alone say that these men are ape-like. as regards the lake dwellings, i have been able to submit to comparative examination nearly every single skull that has been found. the result has been that we have certainly met with opposite characteristics among various races; but of all these there is not one that lies outside of the boundaries of our present population. it can thus be positively demonstrated that in the course of five thousand years no change of type worthy of mention has taken place. if you ask me whether the first man were white or black, i can only say i don't know.' "professor virchow thus summed up the question as to what anthropological science during the last forty years has gained, and whether, as many contend, it has gone forward or backward. "'twenty years ago the leaders of our science asserted that they knew many things which, as a matter of fact, they did not know. nowadays we know what we know. i can only reckon up our account in so far as to say that we have made no debts; that is, we have made no loan from hypotheses; we are in no danger of seeing that which we know over-turned in the course of the next moment. we have levelled the ground so that the coming generation may make abundant use of the material at their disposition. as an attainable objective of the next twenty years, we must look to the anthropology of the european nationalities.'" 5. another demoralizing type of speculation which has exerted a wide influence in many ages and on many nations is pantheism. by abdicating the place and function of the conscious ego, by making all things mere specialized expressions of infinite deity, and yet failing to grasp any clear conception of what is meant by deity, men have gradually destroyed that sense of moral responsibility which the most savage show to have been a common heritage. it is not among the lowest and most simple races that missionaries find the greatest degree of obtuseness and insensibility with respect to sin; it is among populations like those of india, where the natural promptings of conscience have been sophisticated by philosophic theories. the old vedantism, by representing all things as mere phenomenal expressions of infinite brahm, tended necessarily to destroy all sense of personal responsibility. the abdication of the personal ego is an easy way of shifting the burden of guilt. the late naryan sheshadri declared that one thing which led him to renounce hinduism was the fact that, when he came to trace its underlying principles to their last logical result he saw no ground of moral responsibility left. it plunged him into an abyss of intellectual and moral darkness without chart or compass. it paralyzed conscience and moral sensibility. it is equally impossible to reason ourselves into any consciousness of merit or demerit, if we are moved only by some vague law of nature whose behest, as described by mr. buckle, we cannot resist, whose operations within us we cannot discern, and whose drift or tendency we cannot foresee. it makes little difference whether we build our faith upon the god of pantheism or upon the unknowable but impersonal force which is supposed to move the world, which operates in the same ways upon all grades of existence from the archangel to the mote in the sunbeam, which moves the molecules of the human brain only as it stirs the globules of sap in the tree or plant. it is difficult to see how, upon any such hypothesis, we are any more responsible for our volitions and affections than we are for our heart-beats or respirations. and yet we are conscious of responsibility in the one case and not in the other. consciousness comes in with tremendous force at just this point, all theories and speculations to the contrary notwithstanding. and we dare not disregard its testimony or its claims. we know that we are morally responsible. 6. many philosophic systems, ancient and modern, have tended to fill the world with gloomy pessimism. pessimism is very old and very widespread. schopenhauer acknowledges his indebtedness to gautama for much of the philosophy which is known by his name. in hinduism and buddhism, as well as in the teachings of the german pessimists, the natural complainings of the human heart are organized into philosophical systems. there is in all human nature quite enough of querulousness against the unequal allotments of providence, but all these systems inculcate and foster that discontent by the sanctions of philosophy. the whole assumption of "the light of asia" is that the power that upholds and governs the world is a hard master, from whose leash we should escape if we can by annihilating our powers and faculties, and abdicating our conscious being; that the world and the entire constitution of things are all wrong; that misery is everywhere in the ascendant, and that man and beast can only make common cause against the tyranny of a reckless fate, and cry out with common voice for some sympathizing benefactor who can pity and deliver. there is no hint that sin has wrought the evil. man is not so much a sinner as the victim of a hard lot; he is unfortunate, and it is the world that is wrong. therefore the true end of life is to get rid of the recurrence of life. in much of our modern agnosticism there is the same dark outlook, and agnosticism naturally joins hands with pessimism. dr. noah porter, in one of the series of "present-day tracts," has shown it to be a doctrine of despair. a well-known lecturer who has loudly declaimed against what he considers the remorseless character of the old testament, has acknowledged that it is not more cruel than nature; that in the actual world about us we find the same dark mystery, the weak perishing before the strong, the wicked prosperous, the just oppressed, and the innocent given as a prey to the guilty; and his conclusion is that deism is no more defensible than christianity. his pessimistic estimate of the actual world drives him to a disbelief in a personal god. we do not ignore the sad facts of life; even the christian is often saddened by the mysteries which he cannot explain. bishop j. boyd carpenter, in speaking of the sad and cheerless spirit of buddhism, has said: "there are moments in which we are all buddhists; when life has disappointed us, when weariness is upon us, when the keen anguish born of the sight of human suffering appals and benumbs us, when we are frozen to terror, and our manhood flies at the sight of the medusa-like head of the world's unappeased and unappeasable agony; then we too are torn by the paroxysm of anguish; we would flee to the nirvana of oblivion and unconsciousness, turning our back upon what we cannot alleviate, and longing to lay down the burden of life, and to escape from that which has become insupportable."[195] but these are only the dark and seemingly forsaken hours in which men sit in despair beneath the juniper-tree and imagine that all the world has gone wrong. the juniper-tree in christianity is the exception; the bo-tree of buddhism, with the same despondent estimate, is the rule. no divine message came to show the buddha a brighter side. and the agnostic stops his ears that no voice of cheer may be heard. the whole philosophy of buddhism and of modern agnosticism is pessimistic. the word and spirit of god do not deny the sad facts of human life in a world of sin, but they enable the christian to triumph over them, and even to rejoice in tribulation. 7. and this leads to one more common feature of all false systems, their fatalism. among the exaggerated claims which are made for heathen religions in our day, it is alleged that they rest upon a more humane philosophy than appears in the grim fatalism of our christian theology, especially that of the calvinistic type. without entering upon any defence of christian doctrines of one type or another, it would be easy to show that fatalism, complete and unmitigated, is at the foundation of all oriental religion and philosophy, all ancient or modern pantheism, and most of the various types of agnosticism. while this has been the point at which all infidel systems have assailed the christian faith, it has nevertheless been the goal which they have all reached by their own speculations. they have differed from christianity in that their predestinating, determining force, instead of being qualified by any play of free-will, or any feasible plan of ultimate and superabounding good, has been a real fatalism, changeless, hopeless, remorseless. that the distaff of the fates, and the ruthless sceptre of the erinnys, entered in full force into all the religions of the greeks and romans, scarcely needs to be affirmed. they controlled all human affairs, and even the gods were subject to them. the sagas of the northmen also were full of fatalism, and that principle still survives in the folk-lore and common superstitions of all scandinavian, teutonic, and celtic races. the fatalism of the hindus is plainly stated in the "code of manu," which declares that, "in order to distinguish actions, he (the creator) separated merit from demerit. to whatever course of action the lord appointed each kind of being, that alone it has spontaneously adopted in each succeeding creation. whatever he has assigned to each at the first creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness or ferocity, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clings to it."[196] the same doctrine is put in still more offensive form when it is declared that "manu (here used in the sense of creator) allotted to woman a love of her bed, of her seat, of ornament, also impure desires, wrath, dishonesty, and bad conduct."[197] there would be some relief from this horrible doctrine if in subsequent chapters of manu there were kindly tokens of grace, or sympathy for woman, or any light of hope here or hereafter; but the whole teaching and spirit of the "code" rests as an iron yoke upon womanhood, and it is largely a result of this high authority that the female sex has for ages been subjected to the most cruel tyranny and degradation. it might well be said that, in spite of the horrors of infanticide, the most merciful element of hinduism with respect to woman is the custom by which so large a proportion of female children have been destroyed at birth. the same fatalistic principles affect all ranks and conditions of hindu society. the poor sudra is not only low-born and degraded, but he is immovably fixed in his degradation. he is cut off from all hope or aspiration; he cannot rise from the thraldom of his fate. in the bhagavad gita, krishna declares to arjuna that it is "better to do the duty of one's caste though bad or ill performed, and fraught with evil, than undertake the business of another, however good it be." thus even the laws of right and wrong are subordinate to the fatality of caste, and all aspiration is paralyzed. on the other hand, it has been acknowledged repeatedly that the sternest type of puritan theology, as a moral and political force, is full of inspiration; it does not deaden the soul; it stimulates the action of free-will; its moral earnestness has been a great power in molding national destinies. mr. bancroft has not hesitated to declare that the great charters of human liberty are largely due to its strong conception of a divine and all-controlling purpose. even matthew arnold admitted that its stern "hebraic" culture, as he called it, had wrought some of the grandest achievements of history. but hindu fatalists, noble aryans as they were at first, have been conquered by every race of invaders that has chosen to assail them. and no better result could have been expected from a philosophy whose _summum bonum_ is the renunciation of life as not worth living, and the loss of all personality by absorption into the one supreme existence. buddhism does not present the same fatalistic theory of creation as brahminism, but it introduces even a more aggravated fatalism into human life. both alike load down the newly-born with burdens of guilt and consequent suffering transmitted from previous existences. but in the case of buddhism there is no identity between the sinner, who incurred the guilt, and the recipient of the evil kharma, which demands punishment. every man comes into the world entangled in the moral bankruptcy of some one who has gone before, he knows not who nor where. there is no consciousness of identity, no remembrance, no possible sense of guilt, or notion of responsibility. it is not the same soul that suffers, for in either case there is no soul; there is only a bundle of so-called skandhas--certain faculties of mind and body newly combined whose interaction produces thought and emotion. yet there is conscious suffering. scoffers have long pointed with indignation at the christian doctrine that a child inherits a moral bias from his parents, but nowadays evolutionists carry the law of heredity to an extreme which no hyper-calvinist ever thought of, and many cavillers at "original sin" have become eloquent in their praises of buddhism, which handicaps each child with the accumulated demerit of pre-existent beings with whom he had no connection whatever.[198] the christian doctrine imputes punishable guilt only so far as each one's free choice makes the sin his own: the dying infant who has no choice is saved by grace; but upon every buddhist, however short-lived, there rests an heir-loom of destiny which countless transmigrations cannot discharge. in mohammedanism the doctrine of fate--clear, express, and emphatic--is fully set forth. the koran resorts to no euphemism or circumlocution in declaring it. thus, in sura lxxiv. 3, 4, we read: "thus doth god cause to err whom he pleases, and directeth whom he pleases." again, sura xx. 4, says: "the fate of every man have we bound round his neck." as is well known, fatalism as a practical doctrine of life has passed into all mohammedan society. "kismet" (it is fated) is the exclamation of despair with which a moslem succumbs to adversity and often dies without an effort to recover. in times of pestilence missionaries in syria have sometimes found whole villages paralyzed with despair. yielding to the fatalism of their creed, the poor mountaineers have abandoned all means of cure and resigned themselves to their fate. the same fatal paralysis has affected all liberty of thought, all inventiveness and enterprise, all reform of evils, all higher aspiration of the oppressed people. with the lower forms of religious belief, fetishism, animism, serpent worship, demon worship, the case is still worse. the only deities that are practically recognized in these rude faiths are generally supposed to be malevolent beings, who have not only fixed an evil fate upon men, but whose active and continued function it is to torment them. though there is a lingering belief in a supreme being who created all things, yet he is far off and incomprehensible. he has left his creatures in the hands of inferior deities, at whose mercy they pass a miserable existence. looking at the dark facts of life and having no revelation of a merciful god they form their estimates of deity from their trials, hardships, fears, and they are filled with dread; all their religious rites have been devised for appeasing the powers that dominate and distress the world. and yet a pronounced agnostic has asked us to believe that even this wide-spread horror, this universal nightmare of heathen superstition, is more humane than the calvinistic creed. if we inquire into the tendency of all types of ancient or modern pantheism in this particular phase, we shall find them, without exception, fatalistic. they not merely make god the author of sin--they make him the sinner. our misdeeds are not our acts, but god's. thus the vaunted bhagavad gita, uniting the sankhyan and the vedanta philosophies, makes krishna say to arjuna: "all actions are incessantly performed by operation of the qualities of prakriti (the self-existing essence). deluded by the thought of individuality, the soul vainly believes itself to be the doer. the soul, existing from eternity, devoid of qualities, imperishable, abiding in the body, acts not, nor is by any act polluted. he who sees that actions are performed by prakriti alone, and that the soul is not an actor, perceives the truth."[199] such is hindu pantheism. yet this most inconsistent system charges man with guilt. it represents his inexorable fate as pursuing him through endless transmigrations, holding over him the lash of retribution, while it exacts the very last farthing. still, from first to last, it is not he that acts, but some fractional part of the one only existence which fills all space. the philosophy of spinoza was quite as fatalistic as the hindu vedanta. he taught, according to schwegler, that "the finite has no independent existence in itself: it exists because the unrestrained productive energy of the (infinite) substance spontaneously produced an infinite variety of particular forms. it has, however, no proper reality; it exists only in and through the substance. finite things are the most external, the last, the most subordinate forms of existence into which the universal life is specialized, and they manifest their finitude in that they are without resistance, subject to the infinite chain of causality which binds the world. the divine substance works freely according to the inner essence of its own nature; individuals, however, are not free, but are subject to the influence of those things with which they come into contact. it follows from these metaphysical grounds," schwegler continues, "that what is called free-will cannot be admitted. for, since man is only a mode, he, like any other mode, stands in an endless series of conditioning causes, and no free-will can, therefore, be predicated of him." further on he adds: "evil, or sin, is, therefore, only relative and not positive, for nothing happens against god's will. it is only a simple negation or deprivation, which only seems to be a reality in our representation."[200] the late samuel johnson, in his chapter on "the morality and piety of pantheism," undertakes to defend both the vedantic and the spinozan philosophy by pointing out a distinction between an "external compulsion and an inner force which merges us in the infinite. though both are equally efficient as to the result, and both are inconsistent with individual freedom, yet real fate is only that which is external.... while destiny or fate in the sense of absolute external compulsion would certainly be destructive, not only of moral responsibility but of personality itself, yet religion or science without fate is radically unsound." again he adds: "we cannot separate perfection and fate. deity whose sway is not destiny is not venerable, nor even reliable. it would be a purpose that did not round the universe, a love that could not preserve it. theism without fate is a kind of atheism, and a self-dominated atheism. but holding justice to be the true necessity or fate, is properly theism, though it refuses the name."[201] the reasoning here reminds one of the conclusions of a still more recent writer, who while condemning what he considers the fatalism of calvinistic theology, still asserts that its logic leaves no alternative but the denial of a personal god. and an early buddhist philosopher has left a fragment which gives the very same reason for agnosticism. thus he says: "if the world was made by god (isvara) there should be no such thing as sorrow or calamity, nor doing wrong, nor doing right; for all, both pure and impure, deeds must come from isvara.... if he makes without a purpose he is like a suckling child, or with a purpose, he is not complete. sorrow and joy spring up in all that lives; these, at least, are not alike the works of isvara, for if he causes love and joy he must himself have love and hate. but if he loves and hates, he is not rightly called self-existent. 'twere equal, then, the doing right or doing wrong. there should be no reward of works; the works themselves being his, then all things are the same to him, the maker." this was a buddhist's answer to the hindu pantheism, and there follows a reply also to the oriental dualism which attempted to solve the difficulty by assigning two great first causes, one good and the other evil. "nay," says this buddhist philosopher, "if you say there is another cause beside this isvara, then he is not the end or sum of all, and therefore all that lives may, after all, be uncreated, and so you see the thought of isvara is overthrown."[202] thus the same problems of existence have taxed human speculation in all lands and all ages. the same perplexities have arisen, and the same cavils and complaints. there is an important sense in which all forms of materialism are fatalistic in their relation to moral responsibility. james büchner assures us that "what is called man's soul or mind is now almost universally conceded as equivalent to a function of the substance of the brain." walter bagehot, like maudsley, suggests that the newly born child has his destiny inscribed on his nervous tissues.[203] mr. buckle assures us that certain underlying but indefinable laws of society, as indicated by statistics, control human action irrespective of choice or moral responsibility. even accidents, the averages of forgetfulness or neglect, are the subjects of computation. to support his position he cites the averages of suicides, or the number of letters deposited yearly in a given post-office, the superscription of which has been forgotten. thus, underlying all human activity there is an unknown force, a vague something--call it deity, or call it fate--which controls human affairs irresistibly. it would be amusing, if it were not sad, to see what devices and what names have been resorted to in order to get rid of a personal god. the hindu sankhyans ascribed all things to the "eternally existing essence." the greek atomists called it an "inconceivable necessity;" anaxagoras, "the world-forming intelligence;" hegel, "absolute idea;" spinoza, "absolute substance;" schopenhauer, "unconscious will." spencer finds only "the unknowable;" darwin's virtual creator is "natural selection;" matthew arnold recognize a "stream of tendency not our own which makes for righteousness." nothing can be more melancholy than this dreary waste of human speculation, this weary and bootless search after the secret of the universe. at the same time a deaf ear is turned to those voices of nature and revelation which speak of a benevolent creator. but the point to which i call particular attention in this connection is, that these vague terms, whatever else they may mean, imply in each case some law of necessity which moulds the world. they are only the names of the fates whom all philosophies have set over us. if we have been correct in tracing an element of fatalism through all the heathen faiths, and all ancient and modern philosophies, how is it that the whole army of unbelief concentrate their assailments against divine sovereignty in the word of god, and yet are ready to laud and approve these systems which exhibit the same things in greater degree and without mitigation? that which differentiates christianity is the fact that, while it does represent god as the originator and controller of all things, it yet respects the freedom of the human will, which mohammedanism does not, which hinduism does not, which ancient or modern buddhism does not, which materialism does not. not only the word of god but our own reason tells us that the creator of this world must have proceeded upon a definite and all-embracing plan; and yet at the same time, not only the word of god, but our own consciousness, tells us that we are free to act according to our own will. how these things are to be reconciled we know not, simply because we are finite and god is infinite. i once stood before the great snowy range of the himalayas, whose lofty peaks rose twenty-five thousand feet above the sea. none could see how those gigantic masses stood related to each other, simply because no mortal ever has explored, or ever can explore, their awful and unapproachable recesses. so with many great truths concerning the being, attributes, and works of god. one may say that god predetermined and then foresaw what he had ordained; another that he foresaw and then resolved to effect what he had foreseen. neither is correct, or at least neither can know that he is correct. god is not subject to our conditions of time and space. it is impossible that he, whose knowledge and will encompass all things, should be affected by our notions of order and sequence; there is with him no before and after. the whole universe, with all its farthest extended history, stood before him from all eternity as one conception and as one purpose; and the conception and the purpose were one. the too frequent mistake of human formulas is that they undertake to reason out infinite mysteries on our low anthropomorphic lines, one in one extreme and another in another. we cannot fit the ways of god to the measure of our logic or our metaphysics. what we have to do with many things is simply to believe and trust and wait.[204] on the other hand, there are many things of a practical nature which god has made very plain. he has brought them down to us. the whole scheme of grace is an adaptation of the mysteries of the godhead to our knowledge, faith, obedience, and love. and this leads directly to the chief differential which christianity presents in contrast with the fatalisms of false systems, viz., that while sin and death abound, as all must see, the gospel alone reveals a superabounding grace. it is enough for us that the whole scheme is one of redemption, that the lamb was slain from the foundation of the world--nay, that he made the world, and made it for an infinitely benevolent purpose. if dark mysteries appear in the word or in the world, we are to view them in the light of calvary, and wait till we can see as we are seen; for this world is christ's, and will surely subserve his ends, which are those of infinite compassion. our position, therefore, as before the abettors of heathen or agnostic philosophy, is impregnable: the fatalism is all theirs, the union of sovereign power with infinite love is ours. we have reason as well as they. we realize the facts and mysteries of life as fully as they, but are not embittered by them. we see nothing to be gained by putting out the light we have. we prefer faith to pessimism, incarnate love to the tyranny of "unconscious will." footnotes: [footnote 184: quoted in fiske's _destiny of man_, p. 117.] [footnote 185: see _indian wisdom_, p. 82.] [footnote 186: what kanada meant by adrishta was a sort of habit of matter derived from its past combinations in a previous cosmos, one or more. the rod which has been bent will bend again, and so matter which has once been combined will unite again.] [footnote 187: _evolution and its relation to religious thought_, p. 327.] [footnote 188: _on natural selection_, p. 353.] [footnote 189: _the destiny of man_, p. 80.] [footnote 190: _evolution and its relation to religious thought_, p. 88.] [footnote 191: some of goldwin smith's utterances are such as these: "if morality has been based on religion there must be reason to fear that the foundation being removed the superstructure will fall. that it has rested on religion so far as the great majority are concerned will hardly be doubted." ... "the presence of this theistic sanction has been especially apparent in all acts and lives of all heroic self-sacrifice and self-devotion." ... "all moral philosophers whose philosophy has been practically effective, from socrates down, have been religious. many have tried to find an independent basis but have not been successful--at least have not arrived at any agreement." ... "thucydides ascribed the fall of greece to the fall of religion. machiavelianism followed the fall of the catholic faith." ... "into the void left by religion came spiritual charlatanry and physical superstition, such as the arts of the hierophant of isis, the soothsayer, the astrologer--significant precursors of our modern mediums." ... "conscience as a mere evolution of tribal experience may have importance, but it can have no authority, and 'nature' is an unmeaning word without an author of nature--or rather it is a philosophic name for god." ... "evolution is not moral, nor can morality be educed from it. it proclaims as its law the survival of the fittest, and the only proof of fitness is survival." ... "we must remember that whatever may be our philosophic school we are still living under the influence of theism, and most of us under christianity. there is no saying how much of christianity still lingers in the theories of agnostics." ... "the generation after the next may perhaps see agnosticism, moral as well as religious, tried on a clear field." these utterances are weighty, though detached. we only raise a doubt whether "the generation after the next" will see agnosticism tried on a clear field. on the contrary, it will be surrounded as now, and more and more, by christian influences, and will still depend on those influences to save it from the sad results of its own teachings.] [footnote 192: _the races of man_, pp. 137, 138.] [footnote 193: _the human species_, p. 478.] [footnote 194: mr. john fiske declares that man is descended from the catarrhine apes.--_destiny of man_, p. 19. professor le conte maintains that no existing animal could ever be developed into man. he traces all existing species up from a common stock, of which man is the head. the common line of ancestors are all extinct.--_evolution in relation to religious thought_, p. 90.] [footnote 195: _the permanent elements in religion_, p. 154] [footnote 196: book ii., 13.] [footnote 197: book ix., 17.] [footnote 198: development by "heredity" and the buddhist doctrine of transmigration, though both fatalistic, reach that result in different ways; they are, in fact, contradictory. character, according to buddhism, is inherited not from parents: it follows the line of affinity.] [footnote 199: _indian wisdom_, p. 152.] [footnote 200: _history of philosophy_, pp. 220, 221.] [footnote 201: _oriental religions_--_india_. part ii., p. 44.] [footnote 202: beal, _buddhism in china_, p. 180.] [footnote 203: _physics and politics_.] [footnote 204: "probably no more significant change awaits the theology of the future than the recognition of this province of the unknown, and the cessation of controversy as to matters that come within it, and therefore admit of no dogmatic settlement."--tulloch's _religious thought in britain_, p. 24.] lecture x. the divine supremacy of the christian faith. we have in previous lectures instituted brief and partial comparisons between christianity and particular faiths of the east, but i now propose a general comparative survey. never before has the christian faith been so boldly challenged to show cause for its supreme and exclusive claims as in our time. the early christians encountered something of the same kind: it seemed very preposterous to the proud roman that an obscure sect, coming out of despised nazareth, should refuse to place a statue of its deified founder within the pantheon, in the goodly company of renowned gods from every part of the roman empire; but it did so refuse and gave its reasons, and it ultimately carried its point. it gained the pantheon and rome itself for christ alone. he was proclaimed as the one redeemer of the world, and this claim has been maintained from that day to this. "there can be no diversity," said his followers, "for there is no other name given under heaven among men whereby we must be saved. the very genius of christianity means supremacy and monopoly, for the reason that it is divine and god cannot be divided against himself." but in our time the whole world is brought very closely together. the religions of men, like their social customs and political institutions, are placed in contact and comparison. the enemies of the christian faith here, in western lands, naturally make the most of any possible alliances with other systems supposed to antagonize christianity; while a multitude of others, having no particular interest in any religion, and rather priding themselves upon a broad charity which is but a courteous name for indifference, are demanding with a superior air that fair play shall be shown to all religions alike. the church is therefore called upon to defend her unique position and the promulgation of her message to mankind. why does she refuse to admit the validity of other religions, and why send her missionaries over the earth to turn the non-christian races from those faiths which are their heritage by birth, and in which they honestly put their trust? why not respect everywhere that noblest of all man's instincts which prompts him to inquire after god, who hath made of one blood all nations that dwell upon the earth? if the old hindu pantheism of the bhagavad gita taught that the worshippers of other gods were only worshipping the one supreme vishnu unawares; if buddhism forbids its followers to assert that theirs is the only religion, or even that it is the best religion;[205] is it not time that christians should emulate this noble charity? this plausible plea is urged with such force and volume, it is so backed by the current literature and the secular newspaper press that it cannot be ignored. the time has come when the church must not only be able to give a reason for the faith she professes, but must assign reasons why her faith should supplant every other. i am aware that many are insisting that her true course is to be found in an intensive zeal in the promulgation of her own doctrines without regard to any other. "preach the gospel," it is said, "whether men will hear or whether they forbear." but it must be borne in mind that paul's more intelligent method was to strive as one who would win, and not as they who beat the air. the salvation army will reach a certain class with their mere unlettered zeal. the men who purposely read only one book, but read that on their knees, doubtless have an important work to do, but the church as a whole cannot go back to the time when devout zealots sneered at the idea of an educated ministry. the conflict of truth and error must be waged intelligently. there are sufficient reasons for claiming a divine supremacy for the gospel over all heathen faiths, and the sooner we thoroughly understand the difference, the more wisely and successfully shall we accomplish our work. wherein, then, consists the unique supremacy of the christian faith? 1. it alone offers a real salvation. we are not speaking of ethics, or conceptions of god, or methods of race culture, but of that one element which heals the wounds of acknowledged sin and reconciles men to god. and this is found in christianity alone. there is no divine help in any other. systems of speculation, theories of the universe, and of our relation to the infinite are found in all sacred books of the east. there are lofty ethical teachings gathered from the lips of many masters, and records of patient research, cheerful endurance of ascetic rigors, and the voluntary encounter of martyrs' deaths. and one cannot but be impressed by this spectacle of earnest struggles in men of every land and every age to find some way of peace. but in none of the ethnic religions has there been revealed a divine and heaven-wrought salvation. they have all begun and ended with human merit and human effort. broken cisterns have everywhere taken the place of the one fountain of eternal life. though all these systems recognize the sin and misery of the world, and carry their estimate of them to the length of downright pessimism, they have discovered no eye that could pity and no arm that could bring salvation. in the silence and gloom of the world's history only one voice has said, "lo, i come! in the volume of the book it is written of me." and although men have in all ages striven to rid themselves of sin by self-mortification, and even mutilation, yet the ever-recurring question, "who shall deliver me from the body of this death?" was never answered till paul answered it in his rapturous acknowledgment of victory through the righteousness of christ. mohammed never claimed to be a saviour or even an intercessor. he was the sword of god against idolators, and the ambassador of god to believers; but beyond the promise of a sensuous heaven, he offered no salvation. he had no remedy for sin--except that in his own case he claimed a special revelation of clemency and indulgence. many a wholesome truth derived from the old testament scriptures was promulgated to the faithful, but self-righteousness, and especially valor in mohammedan conquest, was offered as the key to paradise.[206] doubtless we should view the false systems with discrimination. like the sublime philosophy of plato, mohammedanism does teach an exalted idea of god, and there is, accordingly, a dignity and reverence in its forms of worship. i once witnessed a very imposing spectacle in the great mosque at delhi, on the moslem sabbath. several hundred indian mohammedans were repeating their prayers in concert. they were in their best attire, and fresh from their ablutions, and their concerted genuflections, the subdued murmur of their many voices, and the general solemnity of their demeanor, rendered the whole service most impressive. it contrasted strongly with the spectacle which i witnessed a little later in the temple of siva, in benares. the unspeakable worship of the linga, the scattering of rice and flowers and the pouring of libations before this symbol; the hanging of garlands on the horns of sacred bulls, and that by women; the rushing to and fro, tracking the filth of the sacred stables into the trodden ooze of rice and flowers which covered the temple pavements; the drawing and sipping of water from the adjacent cesspool, known as the sacred well; the shouting and striking of bells, and the general frenzy of the people--all this could be considered as nothing short of wild and depraved orgies. if we must choose, give us islam, whether in contrast with the siva worship of india or with the tyranny of the witch doctors of interior africa. yet, i repeat, islam has no salvation, no scheme of grace, no great physician. in visiting any mohammedan country one is impressed with this one defect, the want of a mediator. i once stood in the central hall of an imposing mansion in damascus, around the frieze of which were described, in arabic letters of gold, "the hundred names of allah." they were interpreted to me by a friend as setting forth the lofty attributes of god--for example, "the infinite," "the eternal," "the creator," "the all-seeing," "the merciful," "the just." no one could help being impressed by these inspiring names. they were the common heritage of judaism and christianity before islam adopted them, and they are well calculated to fill the soul with reverence and awe. but there is another class of names which were predicted by judaism and rejoiced in by christianity, but which islam rejects; for example, "messiah," "immanuel," or god with us, "the son of god," "the son of man," "the redeemer," "the elder brother." in a word, islam has nothing to fill the breach between a holy and just god and the conscience-smitten souls of men. these honored names of allah are as sublime as the snow-peaks of the himalayas and as inaccessible. how can we attain unto them? without a daysman how shall we bridge the abyss that lies between? even israel plead for moses to speak to them in place of the infinite, and they voiced a felt want of all human hearts. yet no religious system but christianity reveals a mediator. there is in other faiths no such conception as the fatherhood of god. though such names as dyauspater, zeuspiter or jupiter, and others bearing the import of father are sometimes found, yet they imply only a common source, as the sun is the source of life. they lack the elements of love and fostering care. there can be no real fatherhood and no spirit of adoption except through union with the son of god. the idea that re-birth and remission of sin may be followed by adoption and heirship, and joint heirship with the son of the infinite, belongs to the christian faith alone; and the hope and inspiration of such a heritage, seen in contrast with the endless and disheartening prospects of countless transmigrations, are beyond the power of language to describe. it was with infinite reason that paul was taught to regard his work among the gentiles as a rescue or a deliverance "from darkness unto light, and from the power of satan unto god," and it was a priceless boon which enabled him to offer at once the full remission of sins and a part in the glorious inheritance revealed through faith in christ. mere ethical knowledge cannot comfort the human soul. contrast the gloom of marcus aurelius with the joy of david in psalm cxix.; and seneca, also, with all his discernment, and his eloquent presentation of beautiful precepts, was one of the saddest, darkest characters of roman history. he was the man who schemed with catiline, and who at the same time that he wrote epigrams urged nero onward with flattery and encouragement to his most infamous vices and his boldest crimes. knowledge of ethical maxims and the power of expressing them, therefore, is one thing, religion is another. religion is a device, human or divine, for raising up men by a real or a supposed supernatural aid. it ought to reveal god as a helper and a saviour. it ought to be a provision of grace by which the just can yet be a justifier of them that are weak and wounded by sin. the ethical systems of the heathen world corroborate the scriptural diagnosis of man's character and condition, but they fail as prescriptions. so far as divine help and regenerative power are concerned, they leave the race helpless still. christianity is a system of faith in a moral as well as in an intellectual sense. it inculcates a spirit of loving, filial trust instead of a querulous self-righteousness which virtually chides the unknown ruler of the universe. according to "the light of asia" when the buddha preached at kapilavastu there were assembled men and devils, beasts and birds, all victims alike of the cruel fate that ruled the world. existence was an evil and only the buddha could be found to pity. but that pity offered no hope except in the destruction of hope, and the destruction of all desire, all aspiration, even all feeling; while christianity offers a hope which maketh not ashamed, even an immortal inheritance.[207] hinduism also, like islam and buddhism, lacks every element of divine salvation. it is wholly a thing of merit. the infinite brahm is said to be void of attributes of all kinds. no anthropomorphic conception can be predicated of him. the three gods of the trimurti are cold and distant--though for vishnu in his alleged incarnation of krishna, a sympathetic nature was claimed at a later day--borrowed, some say, from buddhism, or, according to others, from christianity. in the hindu saint all spiritual power in this life is the merit power of ascetic austerities, all hope for the future world lies in the cleansing efficacy of endless transmigrations of which the goal is absorption into deity. but the difficulty with both buddhism and hinduism is that transmigration cannot regenerate. it is only a vague postponement of the moral issues of the soul. there is recognized no future intervention that can effect a change in the downward drift, and why should a thousand existences prove better than one? according to a law of physics known as the persistence of force, a body once set in motion will never stop unless through the intervention of some other resisting force. and this is strikingly true of moral character and the well-known power and momentum of habit. who shall change the leopard's spots or deflect the fatal drift of a human soul? remorselessly these oriental systems exact from kharma the uttermost farthing. they emphasize the fact that according to the sowing shall be the reaping, and that in no part of the universe can ill desert escape its awards. even if change were possible, therefore, how shall the old score be settled? what help, what rescue can mere infinitude of time afford, though the transmigrations should number tens of thousands? there is no hint that any pitying eye of god or devil looks upon the struggle, or any arm is stretched forth to raise up the crippled and helpless soul. time is the only saviour--time so vast, so vague, so distant, that the mind cannot follows its cycles or trace the relations of cause and effect. in contrast with all this, christianity bids the hindu ascetic cease from his self-mortification and become himself a herald of glad tidings. it invites the hook-swinger to renounce his useless torture and accept the availing sacrifice of him who hung upon the cross. it relieves woman from the power of satan, as exercised in those cruel disabilities which false systems have imposed upon her, and assigns her a place of honor in the kingdom of god. the world has not done scoffing at the idea of a vicarious sacrifice for the sins of men, and yet it has advanced so far that its best thinkers, even without any religious bias, are agreed that the principle of self-sacrifice is the very highest element of character that man can aspire to. and this is tantamount to an acknowledgment that the great principle which the cross illustrates, and on which the salvation of the race is made to rest, is the crowning glory of all ethics and must be therefore the germinal principle of all true religion. christianity with its doctrine of voluntary divine sacrifice was no after-thought. paul speaks of it as "the mystery which hath been hid from ages and from generations but now is made manifest." it was the one great mystery which angels had desired to look into and for which the whole world had waited in travail and expectation. christ was "the lamb slain from the foundation of the world," and the entire world-history has proceeded under an economy of grace. and i repeat, its fundamental principle of sacrifice, exemplified as it has been through the christian centuries, has won the recognition even of those who were not themselves the followers of christ. "the history of self-sacrifice during the last eighteen hundred years," says lecky, "has been mainly the history of the action of christianity upon the world. ignorance and error have no doubt often directed the heroic spirit into wrong channels, and sometimes even made it a cause of great evil to mankind; but it is the moral type and beauty, the enlarged conception and persuasive power of the christian faith that have chiefly called it into being; and it is by their influence alone that it can be permanently maintained."[208] speaking of the same principle carlyle says: "it is only with renunciation that life, properly speaking, can be said to begin.... in a valiant suffering for others, not in a slothful making others suffer for us, did nobleness ever lie." and george sand in still stronger terms has said, "there is but one sole virtue in the world--the eternal sacrifice of self." while we ponder these testimonies coming from such witnesses we remember how the great apostle traces this wonder-working principle back to its divine source, and from that source down into all the commonest walks of life when he says, "let this mind be in you which was also in christ, who, being in the form of god, thought it not robbery to be equal with god; but made himself of no reputation, and took on him the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of men: and being found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross." or when he reminds the corinthians that, though christ was rich, yet for their sake he became poor, that they through his poverty might be rich. in all the oriental systems there is nothing like this, either as a divine source of all-availing help and rescue, or as a celestial spring of human action. it is through this communicable grace that christ becomes the way, the truth, the life. well might augustine say that while the philosophy of plato led him to lofty conceptions of god, it could not show him how to approach him or be reconciled unto him. "for it is one thing," he says, "from the mountain's shaggy top to see the land of peace and to find no way thither; and in vain to essay through ways impossible, opposed and beset by fugitives and deserters, under their captain the lion and the dragon; and another to keep on the way that leads thither guarded by the host of the heavenly general, where they spoil not that have deserted the heavenly army; for they avoid it as very torment. these things did wonderfully sink into my bowels when i read that _least of thy apostles_, and had meditated upon thy works and trembled exceedingly." while christianity is wholly unique in providing an objective salvation instead of attempting to work out perfection from "beggarly elements" within the soul itself, as all heathen systems do, and as all our modern schemes of mere ethical culture do, it at the same time implants in the heart the most fruitful germs of subjective spiritual life. its superior transformation of human character, as compared with all other cults, is not only a matter of doctrine but also a matter of history. it is acknowledged that christianity has wrought most powerfully of all faiths in taming savage races as well as individual men, in moulding higher civilizations and inspiring sentiments of humanity and brotherly love. "christ," says one of the bampton lecturers, "is the light that broods over all history.... all that there is upon earth of beauty, truth, and goodness, all that distinguishes the civilized man from the savage is this gift." and if it be asked how the leaven of christ's influence has pervaded all society, the answer is that the work is presided over by a divine and omnipotent spirit who represents christ, who carries out what he began, who by a direct and transforming power renews and enlightens and prompts the soul. christianity, then, is not a record, a history of what was said and done eighteen centuries ago: it is not a body of doctrines and precepts: it is the living power of god in the soul of man. the written word is the sword of this divine spirit. the renewed soul is begotten of the spirit and it is instinct with the indwelling of the spirit. no other system makes any claim to such an influence as that of the holy ghost. sacred books, written systems of law or ethics would all prove a dead letter--the bible itself, as well as the veda, would be a dead letter but for the co-operation of this divine spirit. sacred scriptures might be venerated, they would not be obeyed. the dead heart must be quickened and renewed and only christianity reveals the transforming power. _verily, verily, i say unto thee, except a man be born again he cannot see the kingdom of god._ instantaneous renewal of the character and the life is not even claimed by other faiths; there is in them nothing like the conversion of saul of tarsus, or that of thousands of others well known in the history of christian experience. there are no such changes in men who, from having led lives of profligacy and irreligion, have turned at once into paths of righteousness--have tamed their wild propensities and submitted themselves to the gentle law of love. but under christian influence we have seen africaner the savage transformed to a tractable, humane, and loving disciple. we have seen the wild and bloodthirsty koord subdued and made as a little child. we have seen the cannibal king thokambo, of fiji, turned from his cruelty to a simple, childlike faith, and made to prefer the good of his people to the glory of a powerless sceptre. whole races, like the northmen, have been tamed from savagery and made peaceable and earnest followers of christ. in our own time it has been said of a missionary in the south pacific islands, "that when he arrived on his field there were no christians, and when he closed his labors there were no heathen." the religion of gautama has won whole tribes of men, hinduism and mohammedanism are even now winning converts from fetish-worshipping races, but, so far as i know, none of these faiths have ever made converts except either by war or by the presentation of such motives as might appeal to the natural heart of man; there has been no spiritual transformation. if it be said that the buddhist nirvana and the hindu doctrine of final absorption cannot attract the natural heart, the ready answer is that nirvana and absorption are not the real inspiration of their respective systems. they are so far removed into the dim future as to exert no practical influence on the great mass of men. the future estate that is really expected and desired is a happy ideal transmigration, and perhaps many of them; and the chief felicity of the hindu is that no particular estate is prescribed. while the christian is promised a heaven to which the natural heart does not aspire, the hindu may imagine and prefigure his own heaven. his next life may be as carnal as the celestial hunting-ground of the indian or the promised paradise of the moslem. it may be only the air-castle of a day-dreamer. there is no moral transformation. there is no expulsive power of a new and higher aspiration. old things have not passed away; nothing has become new. but the grace of god in christ claims to work an entire change in the desires and aspirations of the heart by the power of the holy ghost. paul found the men of ephesus highly civilized in a sense, but "dead in trespasses and sins," "walking according to the course of this world, and having their conversation in the lusts of the flesh." but god by his spirit so "quickened" them that they were able to understand and appreciate one of the most spiritual of all his epistles. he addressed them as "new creatures," as god's "workmanship," "_created in christ jesus unto good works_." as has already been noticed, all theories of moral transformation found in heathen systems require time. the process is carried on by intensive and long-continued thought, or by gradual accumulations of merit. only the buddha was enlightened _per sallum_,[209] so to speak. and quite in accord with this view are those modern forms of materialism which maintain that mental and moral habits consist in gradual impressions made in the molecules of the nerve-tissues--that these impressions come at length to determine our acts without the necessity of either purpose or conscious recognition, and that only when right action becomes thus involuntary can character strictly be said to exist.[210] but such theories certainly do not harmonize with the known facts of christian conversion already alluded to. we do not refuse to recognize a certain degree of truth hidden in these speculations. we are aware that continued thought or emotion promotes a certain habit, and that in the christian life such habit becomes an element of strength. we also admit that high and pure thought and emotion stamp themselves at length upon our physical nature, and appear in the very expression of the countenance, but when we look for the transforming impulse that can begin and sustain such habitual exercises in spite of the natural sinfulness and corruption which all systems admit, we find it only in the christian doctrine of the new birth by the power of the holy ghost. on these two doctrines of a divine vicarious sacrifice and of the transforming power of a divine spirit we might rest our case. it should be sufficient to show, first, that christianity alone provides a divine salvation in which god is made sin for us; and second, that its power alone, though objective, works in us the only effectual subjective transformation by a direct influence from on high. but there are many other points of contrast in which the transcendent character of christianity appears. first, an important differential lies in the completeness of the divine personality of jesus. buddhism, confucianism, and mohammedanism, were strongly supported by the personality of their founders. we also cheerfully accord to such men as socrates and plato great personal influence. they have impressed themselves upon the millions of mankind more deeply than statesmen, or potentates, or conquerors; but not one of these presents to us a complete and rounded character, judged even from a human stand-point. mohammed utterly failed on the ethical side.[211] his life was so marred by coarse sensuality, weak effeminacy, heartless cruelty, unblushing hypocrisy, and heaven-defying blasphemy, that but for his stupendous achievements, and his sublime and persistent self-assertion, he would long since have been buried beneath the contempt of mankind.[212] confucius appears to have been above reproach in morals, and that amid universal profligacy; but he was cold in temperament, unsympathetic, and slavishly utilitarian in his teachings. his ethics lacked symmetry and just proportion. the five relations which constituted his ethico-political system were everything. they were made the basis of inexorable social customs which sacrificed some of the tenderest and noblest promptings of the human heart. confucius mourned the death of his mother, for filial respect was a part of his system, but for his dying wife there is no evidence of grief or regret, and when his son mourned the death of his wife the philosopher reproved him. in all things he reasoned upward toward the throne; his grand aim was to build up an ideal state. he therefore magnified reverence for parents and all ancestors even to the verge of idolatry, but he utterly failed in that symmetry in which paul makes the duties of parents and children mutual. under his system a father might exercise his caprice almost to the power of life or death, and a chinese mother-in-law is proverbially a tyrant. the beautiful sympathy of christ, shown in blessing little children and in drawing lessons from their simple trust, would have been utterly out of place in the great sage of china. confucius seems to have troubled himself but slightly, if at all, about the wants of the poor and the suffering; he taught no doctrine of self-sacrifice for the ignorant and the unworthy. his ideal of the "superior man" would have been tarnished by that contact with the lowly and degraded which was the glory of the christ. and when his cotemporary, laotze, taught the duty of doing good, even to enemies, he repudiated the principle as uncalled for in the relative duties which should govern mankind.[213] with respect to personality, probably a higher claim has been made for gautama than for either of the characters who have been named. sir edwin arnold, in his preface to the "light of asia," has assigned to him a virtual sinlessness, and such is doubtless the character which his followers would claim for him. but as a model for the great masses of men gautama was very far from perfection. he had little of the genial sunlight of humanity; in every fibre of his nature he was a recluse; his views of life were pessimistic; he had no glad tidings for the sorrowing; no encouragement for the weary and the heavy laden.[214] his agnosticism was ill adapted to the irrepressible wants of mankind, for they must place their trust in a higher power, real or imagined.[215] but while he cast a cloud over the being of god he drove his despairing countrymen to the worship of serpents and evil spirits. in ceylon, which is _par eminence_ an orthodox buddhist country, ninety per cent. of the population are said to be devil worshippers, and the devil jugglers are patronized even by the buddhist monks.[216] as the philosophy of gautama was above the comprehension of the common people, so his example was also above their reach. it utterly lacked the element of trust, and involved the very destruction of society. to "wander apart like a rhinoceros" and "be silent as a broken gong" might be practicable for a chosen few, if only self were to be considered, but silence and isolation are not worthy ideals in a world of mutual dependence and where all life's blessings are enhanced by the ministries of the strong to the necessities of the weak. infinitely higher was the example of him who said, "my father worketh hitherto, and i work;" and who accordingly exhorted his disciples to work while the day lasts. christ prayed not that they should be taken out of the world, but that they should be kept from the evil. again the buddha's life furnished but a poor example in the domestic duties. his abandonment of his wife and child cannot be justified upon any sound theory of life. whatever may be said of the merits of celibacy in those who are under no marriage vows, the abandonment of sacred relations once formed must be considered a crime against all society. as mohammed's example of impurity has cast a blight over all moslem lands, so gautama's withdrawal from his home has borne, and is still bearing, its evil fruit. in burmah it is common for a buddhist who desires a change of wives to abandon his family for the sacred life of a monastery, where, if he remains but a single month, he sunders the old relation and is at liberty to form a new one. good men are disgusted, but there is the example of "the blessed one!" it will be admitted that in comparison with hinduism the buddhist ethics advanced woman to a higher social condition, but when modern apologists compare gautama with christ there are many contrasts which cannot be disguised. in some respects socrates stands highest among great philosophers. mohammed's career cost him nothing but gained for him everything that man's earthly nature could desire. gautama made only a temporary sacrifice; he changed lower indulgences for honor and renown, and died at a ripe old age surrounded by loving friends. but socrates resolutely and calmly suffered martyrdom for his principles. the sublime dignity and self-control of his dying hours will never cease to win the admiration of mankind; yet socrates was by no means a complete character. he died unto himself merely. he left no gospel of peace to humanity. his influence, however pure, could not, and in fact did not, become a diffusive and transforming leaven, either in his own or in any subsequent generation. the late matthew arnold has said, "the radical difference between jesus and socrates is that such a conception as paul's (conception of faith) would, if applied to socrates, be out of place and ineffective. socrates inspired boundless friendship and esteem, but the inspiration of reason and conscience is the one inspiration which comes from him and which impels us to live righteously as he did. a penetrating enthusiasm of love, sympathy, pity, adoration, reinforcing the inspiration of reason and duty does not belong to socrates. with jesus it is different. on this point it is needless to argue: history has proved. in the midst of errors the most prosaic, the most immoral, the most unscriptural, concerning god, christ, and righteousness, the immense emotion of love and sympathy inspired by the person and character of jesus has had to work almost by itself alone for righteousness, but it has worked wonders."[217] this tribute to the completeness and power of christ's personality is calculated to remind one of a memorable chapter in the well-known work of the late dr. horace bushnell, entitled, "nature and the supernatural." with a wonderful power it portrays christ as rising above the plane of merely human characters--as belonging to no age or race or stage of civilization--as transcendent not in some of the virtues, but in them all--as never subject to prejudice, or the impulse of passion, never losing that perfect poise which it has been impossible for the greatest of men to achieve--as possessed of a mysterious magnetism which carried conviction to his hearers even when claiming to be one with the infinite--as inspiring thousands with a love which has led them to give their lives for his cause.[218] i have often thought that one of the most striking evidences of the divine reality of the christian faith is found in the reflection of christ's personality in the character and life of the apostle paul.[219] no one can doubt that paul was a real historic personage, that from having been a strict and influential jew he became a follower of jesus and gave himself to his service with a sublime devotion; that he sealed the sincerity of his belief by a life of marvellous self-denial. he had no motive for acting a false part at such cost; on the contrary, an unmistakable genuineness is stamped upon his whole career. how shall we explain that career? where else in the world's history have we seen a gifted and experienced man, full of strong and repellant prejudices, so stamped and penetrated by the personality of another? on what theory can we account for such a change in such a life, except that his own story of his conversion was strictly true, that he had felt in his inmost soul a power so overwhelming as to sweep away his prejudices, humble his pride, arm him against the derision of his former friends, and prepare him for inevitable persecution and for the martyr death of which he was forewarned? so vivid were his impressions of this divine personality that it seemed almost to absorb his own. christ, though he had ascended, was still with him as a living presence. all his inspiration, all his strength came from him. his plans and purposes centred in his divine master, and his only ambition was to be found well-pleasing in his sight. he saw all types and prophecies fulfilled in him as the son of god, the fulness of his glory, and the express image of his person. paul never indulged in any similes by which to express the glory of heaven; it was enough that we should be like christ and be with him where he is. the writings of all the apostles differ from the books of other religions in the fact that their doctrines, precepts, and exhortations are so centred in their divine teacher and saviour. buddha's disciples continued to quote their master, but buddha was dead. theoretically not even his immortal soul survived. he had declared that when his bodily life should cease there would be nothing left of which it could be said "i am." but to the vivid and realizing faith of christ's followers he is still their living head, their intercessor, their guide. his resurrection is the warrant of their future life. he has gone before and will come again to receive his own. christianity is christ: all believers are members of his mystic body: the church is his bride. he is the alpha and the omega of the world's history. in the contemplation of his personality as the chief among ten thousand his people are changed into his image as from glory to glory. the ground of salvation in christianity is not in a church, nor a body of doctrines, not even in the teachings of the master: it is in christ himself as a humiliated sacrifice and a triumphant saviour. second, the religion of the bible differs from every other in its completeness and scope--its adaptation to all the duties and experiences of life and to all races and all conditions of men. it alone is able to meet all the deep and manifold wants of mankind. hardwick has very aptly pointed out a contrast in this respect between the faith of abraham and that of the early indo-aryan chiefs as portrayed in the rig veda. the pressing wants of humanity necessitate a faith that is of the nature of a heartfelt trust. no other can be regarded as strictly religious. now abraham's faith was something more than a speculation or a creed. it was an all-embracing confidence in god. he had an abiding sense of his presence and he confided in him as his constant guide, defender, and friend. his family, his flocks, his relations to the hostile tribes who surrounded him, the promised possession of the land to which he journeyed--all these were matters which he left in the hands of an unseen but ever-faithful friend. his was a practical faith--a real and complete venture, and it involved gratitude and loyalty and love. abraham's childhood had been spent in the home of an idolatrous father; for shemite as well as aryan had departed from the worship of the true god. in chaldea, as in india, men had come to worship the sun and moon and the forces of nature. but while the hindu wandered ever farther away from jehovah, abraham restored the faith which his ancestors had lost. he had no recourse to indra or varuna, he sought no help from devas or departed spirits. he looked to god alone, for he had heard a voice saying, "i am the almighty god, walk before me and be thou perfect."[220] under the inspiration of such a summons abraham became "the father of the faithful." he was the representative and exemplar of real and practical faith, not only to the hebrew race but to all mankind. he staked his all upon a promise which he regarded as divine and therefore sure. he believed in the lord and he counted it to him for righteousness. he left home and country and ventured among hostile tribes in an assured confidence that he should gain a possession, though empty-handed, and a countless posterity, though yet childless, and that all this would be granted him not for his own glory, but that all nations might be blest in him. and this subordination of self and this uplifting of his soul to a sublime hope rendered him patient when fulfilment seemed postponed, and strong against temptation when spoils and emoluments were offered him; for in some sense, vague perhaps, he foresaw a messiah and a kingdom of righteousness, and he was girded with confidence to the last, though he died without the sight. we look in vain for anything to be compared with this in the vedic literature, still less in that of the period of brahmanical sacerdotalism, or in the still later speculations of the philosophic schools. real hinduism is wanting in the element of trust. its only faith is a belief, a theory, a speculation. it receives nothing and expects nothing as a free gift of god. sacrificial rites survived in the early vedic period, but they had lost all prophetic significance. they terminated in themselves and rested upon their own value. there was no remembered promise and no expectation of any specific fulfilment. the hindu gained simply what he bought with his merit or his offerings, and he had no greater sense of gratitude to deity than to the tradesman of whom he made a purchase in the bazaar. there are, indeed, traces in some of the earliest vedic hymns of a feeling of dependence upon superior powers, yet the brahmanical priesthood taught men that he who was rich enough to offer a sacrifice of a hundred horses might bankrupt heaven, and by his simple right of purchase even rob indra of his throne.[221] as stated in a previous lecture, so far was this system from "the faith which works by love" that even demons, by costly sacrifices might dispute the supremacy of the universe. there is an equally significant contrast between the legislation of moses and that of manu. the life and experience of the former are interwoven with his statutes. they are illustrated with references to actual events in the history of the people. the blessings, the trials, the punishments, the victories, the defeats of israel enter into the texture of the whole mosaic record: it is full of sympathetic feeling; it takes hold on the actual life of men and therefore is able to reform and elevate them. it brings not only moses, but jehovah himself into personal sympathy with the people. but manu presents statutes only. many of these are wholesome as laws, but they are destitute of tenderness or compassion. no indication is given of the author's own experience, and we are left in doubt whether there were not many authors to whom the general name of manu was applied. there is no inculcation of gratitude and love to god, or any hint of his love to men. no prayer, no song, no confession of dependence, no tribute of praise, no record of trembling, yet trustful, experience. it is all cold, lifeless precept and prohibition, with threats of punishment here and hereafter. religious exaction is most strict, but there are few religious privileges except for brahmans, and these they possess by divine birthright. no particular favor is asked from any being in heaven or on earth. with respect to this same element of personal trust, and real, heartfelt experience, contrast david also with any author whose name is given in hindu literature. he was full of humanity, large-hearted, loving, grateful, and though stained by sin, yet he was so penitent and humble and tender that he was said to be a man after god's own heart. he was a successful warrior and a great king, but he held all his honor and his power as a divine gift and for the divine glory. compare the 119th psalm with the upanishads, or with any of the six schools of philosophy. the one deals with moral precepts and spiritual aspirations, all the others with subtle theories of creation or problems of the universe. the one is the outflowing of joyous experience found in obedience to god's moral law, and only out of the heart could such a psalm have been written. the law of god had become not a barrier or a hamper, but a delight. evidently david had found a religion which filled every avenue and met every want of his whole being. again, only the religion of christ brings man into his proper relation of penitence and humility before god. it is necessary to the very conception of reconciliation to a higher and purer being that wrong-doing shall be confessed. all the leading faiths of the world have traditions of the fall of man from a higher and holier estate, and most of them--notably hinduism, buddhism, ancient druidism, and the druse religion of mount lebanon--declare that the fall was the result of pride and rebellion of spirit. and of necessity the wrong, if it cannot be undone, must at least be confessed. self-justification is perpetuation. the offender must lay aside his false estimate of self and admit the justice whose claims he has violated. even in the ordinary intercourse of men this principle is universally recognized. there can be no reconciliation without either actual reparation or at least a frank acknowledgment. governmental pardon always implies repentance and promised reform, and between individuals a due concession to violated principle is deemed the dictate of the truest honor. how can there be reconciliation to god, then, without repentance and humiliation? of what value can heathen asceticism and merit-making be while the heart is still barred and buttressed with self-righteousness? the longer a man approaches the holiness of deity with the offerings of his own self-consequence the greater does the enormity of his offence become and the wider the breach which he attempts to close. even if he could render a perfect obedience and service for the future, he could never overtake the old unsettled score. the prodigal cannot recover the squandered estate or wipe out the record of folly and sin, and if there be no resource of free remission on the one hand, and no deep and genuine repentance on the other, there can be no possible adjustment. the universal judgment and conscience of men so decide. philosophers may present this method and that of moral culture and assimilation to the character of the infinite, but practically all men will approve the philosophy taught in christ's touching parable of the prodigal son. the beauty, the force, the propriety of its principles strike the human understanding, whether of the sage or of the savage, like a flash of sunlight, and no human heart can fail to be touched by its lessons. yet where in all the wide waste of heathen faiths or philosophies is there anything which even remotely resembles the story of the prodigal? where is the system in which such an incident and such a lesson would not be wholly out of place? in that ancient book of the egyptian religion known as "the book of the dead," the souls of the departed when arraigned before the throne of osiris are represented as all joining in one refrain of self-exculpation, uttering such pleas as these: "i have not offended or caused others to offend." "i have not snared ducks illegally on the nile." "i have not used false weights or measures." "i have not defrauded my neighbor by unjustly opening the sluices upon my own land!" any sense of the inward character of sin or any conception of wrong attitudes of mind or heart toward god is utterly wanting. it is simply the plea of "not guilty," which even the most hardened culprit may make in court. in one of the vedic hymns to varuna there is something which looks like confession of sin, but it really ends in palliation. "it was not our doing, o varuna, it was necessity; an intoxicating draught, passion, dice, thoughtlessness. the old is there to mislead the young. even sleep brings unrighteousness." and the remission sought for is not one involving a change of character but only release from an external bond. "absolve us from the sins of our fathers and from those which we committed with our own bodies. release vasishtha, o king, like a thief who has feasted on stolen oxen. release him like a calf from the rope."[222] in the penitential psalms of the ancient akkadians, who inhabited northern assyria in the times of abraham, and who may have retained something of that true faith from which abraham's father had declined, we find a nearer approach to true penitence, but that also lacks the inner sense of sin and seeks merely an exemption from punishments. only in the old and new testaments is sin recognized as of the nature of personal guilt. accordingly, christianity alone recognizes the fact that right thoughts and motives and a worthy character are the gifts of god. cicero has truly remarked[223] that men justly thank god for external blessings, but never for virtue, or talent, or character. all that is regarded as their own. and such is the conceit of human self-righteousness in all man-made religions, whether hindu or greek, ancient or modern. philosophy is in its very nature haughty and aristocratic. even plato betrays this element. it is only the christian apostle that is heard to say, with heartfelt emotion, "by the grace of god i am what i am." the buddha declared that he recognized no being in any world to whom he owed any special reverence; and especially in his later years, when his disciples had come to look upon him as in a sense divine, he regarded himself as the highest of all intelligences on the earth or in the various heavens. such assumptions in both buddha and confucius will explain the fact that for ages both have been virtually worshipped. "at fifteen," said confucius, "i had my mind bent on learning. at thirty i stood firm. at forty i had no doubt. at fifty i knew the decrees of heaven. at sixty my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. at seventy i could follow what my heart desired without transgressing what was right."[224] yet neither of these great teachers claimed to be a divine saviour. they were simply exemplars; their self-righteousness was supposed to be attainable by all. i cannot do better in this connection than point out a striking contrast in the recorded experiences of two well-known historic characters. islam honors david, king of israel, and accords him a place among its accredited prophets. both david and mohammed were guilty of adultery under circumstances of peculiar aggravation. mohammed covered his offence by a blasphemous pretence of special revelations from god, justifying his crime and chiding him for such qualms of conscience as he had. david lay in dust and ashes while he bemoaned not only the consequences of his sin and the breach of justice toward his neighbor, but also the deep spiritual offence of his act. "against thee, and thee only, o god, have i sinned, and done this evil in thy sight." profoundest penitence on the one hand and heaven-daring blasphemy on the other, the bible and the koran being witnesses! another marked distinction is seen in the moral purity of the christian scriptures as contrasted with the so-called sacred books of all other religions. that which is simply human will naturally be expected to show the moral taint of lapsed humanity. the waters cannot rise higher than the fountain-head, nor can one gather figs from thistles. in our social intercourse with men we sooner or later find out their true moral level. and so in what is written, the exact grade of the author will surely appear. and it is by this very test that we can with tolerable accuracy distinguish the human from the divine in religious records. it is not difficult to determine what is from heaven and what is of the earth. no enlightened reader of greek mythology can proceed far without discovering that he is dealing with the prurient and often lascivious imaginings of semi-barbarous poets. he finds the poetry and the art of greece both reflecting the character of a passionate people, bred under a southern sun and in an extremely sensuous age. if he ventures into the lowest depths of the popular religious literature of greece or rome, or ancient egypt or phoenicia, he finds unspeakable vice enshrined among the mysteries of religion, and corruptions which an age of refinement refuses to translate or depict abound on every hand. or apply the same test to the literature of hinduism, even in its earliest and purest stages. the sacred vedas, which are supposed to have been breathed into the souls of ancient rishis by direct divine effluence, are tainted here and there by debasing human elements, and that not incidentally but as the very soul of the hindu system. for example, when the vedic hymns promise as future rewards the lowest sensual indulgences[225] none can doubt the earthly source of their inspiration. as for the upanishads, which are regarded as _sruti_ or inspired, professor max müller, in his introduction to the first volume of "the sacred books of the east," virtually admits the impropriety of translating them for english readers without expurgation. mr. ram chandra bose, of lucknow, declares himself unable, for the same reason, to give a full and unabridged account of the ancient hindu sacrifices.[226] the later literatures of the puranas and the tantras are lower still. anti-christian orientalists have so generally conveyed the popular impression that their culled and expurgated translations were fair representations of hindu literature that wilson finally felt called upon in the interest of truth and honesty to lift the veil from some of the later revelations of the puranas, and it is sufficient to say that the greek mythology is fairly outdone by the alleged and repeated escapades of the chief hindu deities. the traditions of all ancient religions found on either hemisphere, and the usages observed among savage tribes of to-day all conform to the same low moral gauge. all are as deplorably human as the degraded peoples who devised them. in mexico and peru, as well as in egypt and in babylonia, base human passion was mingled with the highest teachings of religion.[227] buddhism has generally been considered an exception to this general rule, and it will be confessed that its influence has been vastly higher than that of the old hinduism, or the religions of canaan, or greece, or rome, and immeasurably higher in morals than that of islam; yet even buddhism has been colored by its european advocates with far too roseate a hue. sir edwin arnold was not the first biographer of gautama to glorify incidentally the seductive influences of his indian harem, and to leave on too many minds the impression that, after all, the luxurious palace of sidartha was more attractive than the beggars' bowl of the enlightened "tathagata." the bishop of colombo, in an able article on buddhism, arraigns the apologetic translators of buddhistic literature for having given to the world an altogether erroneous impression of the moral purity of the sacred books of ceylon.[228] the vaunted claim that the early buddhist records, and especially the early rock inscriptions found in caves, are pure, whatever corruptions may have crept into more modern manuscripts, is well met by letters from a recent traveller, which speak of certain buddhist inscriptions so questionable in character that they cannot be translated or described.[229] it is scarcely necessary for me to speak of the base appeal to man's low passions found in the koran. it is only necessary to trace its unmistakable influence in the moral degeneracy of mohammedan populations in all lands and all ages--destroying the sacredness of the home, degrading woman, engendering unnatural vices, and poisoning all society from generation to generation. it is indeed a hard task for its apologists, by any kind of literary veneering to cover the moral deformity and the blasphemous wickedness which, side by side with acknowledged excellences, mar the pages of the koran. the soiled finger-marks of the sensual arab everywhere defile them. like the blood of banquo, they defy all ocean's waters to wash them out. it was easy enough for mohammed to copy many exalted truths from judaism and christianity, and no candid mind will deny that there are many noble precepts in the koran; but after all has been said, its ruling spirit is base. even its promised heaven is demoralizing. it is characteristically a human book, and very low in the ethical scale at that. let us now turn to the bible; let us remember that the old testament represents those early centuries when the people of israel were surrounded by the corruptions of baal worship, which transcended the grovelling wickedness of all other heathen systems, ancient or modern. let us bear in mind the kind of training which the nation had received amid the corruptions of egypt, all rendered more effective for evil by their degrading bondage; and with all these disadvantages in view, let us search everywhere, from genesis to malachi, and see if there be one prurient utterance, one sanction for, or even connivance at, impurity in all those records, written by men in different lands and ages, men representing all social grades, all vocations in life, and chosen from among all varieties of association. who will deny that these men appear to have been raised by some unaccountable power to a common level of moral purity which was above their age, their social standards, their natural impulses, or any of the highest human influences which could have been exerted upon them? they were often called to deal plainly with moral evils. they record instances of grievous dereliction, in some cases the writers were themselves the offenders. but there is always reproof. the story always has a salutary moral. sin is always shown to be a losing game, a sowing to the wind and a reaping of the whirlwind. it is either followed by severe judgments, or it is repented of with a contrition which bows even a great monarch in dust and ashes. the books of the new testament were also written in an age of great moral corruption. judaism was virtually dead; the current religion in the holy city was "a sad perversion of the truth." hypocrisy sat in high places when john baptist came with his protest and his rebukes. the herods, who held the sceptres of provincial authority, were either base time-servers, or worse, they were monsters of lust and depravity. in the far-off capitals of the dominant heathen races vice had attained its full fruitage and was already going to seed and consequent decay. athens, corinth, ephesus, and antioch were steeped in iniquity, while the emperors who wielded the sceptre of the roman empire were hastening the ruin of the existing civilization. it was in such an age and amid such surroundings that the gospels and the epistles came forth as the lotus springs, pure and radiant from the foul and fetid quagmire. what could have produced them? the widely accepted rule that religions are the products of their environments is surely at fault here. neither in the natural impulses of a dozen judean fishermen and peasants, nor in the bigoted breast of saul of tarsus, could these unique and sublime conceptions have found their genesis. they are manifestly divine. how exalted is the portraiture of the christ! what human skill could have depicted a character which no ideal of our best modern culture can equal? in all the new testament there are none but the highest and purest ethical teachings, and even the most poetical descriptions of heaven are free from any faintest tinge of human folly. the apocalypse is full of images which appeal to the senses, but there is nothing which does not minister to the most rigid purity; while the representations which paul makes of eternal felicity are strictly and conspicuously spiritual and elevating. everywhere, from matthew to revelations, it is the pure in heart who shall see god, and the inducement held out is to be pure because he is pure. and although the gift of eternal life is a free gift, yet it affords no excuse for laxity. the sixth chapter of the epistle to the romans is a remonstrance against all presumption in those that are "under grace." "reckon ye yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto god through our lord jesus christ. let not sin therefore rule in your mortal body that ye should obey it in the lusts thereof. neither yield ye your members as instruments of unrighteousness unto sin, but yield yourselves unto god as those that are alive from the dead."[230] the religion of the new testament is a spiritual religion, the resurrection body is a spiritual body; heaven is not an indian hunting-ground, nor a vikings valhalla of shield-clad warriors, nor a moslem harem. it is a spiritual abode, and its companionships are with god and the lamb, with the church of the first-born and of saints made perfect. now, all that we can say of these lofty and pure conceptions is that flesh and blood never revealed them. they are divine. they are out of the range of our native humanity; they are not the things that human nature desires, and it is only by the high culture of transforming grace that human aspirations are raised to their level. in conclusion, there are many points in which christianity asserts its unique supremacy over all other systems of which there is time but for the briefest mention. it presents to man the only cultus which can have universal adaptation. christ only, belongs to all ages and all races. buddha is but an asiatic, mohammed is an arab and belongs only to the east. the religion or philosophy of confucius has never found adaptation to any but mongolian races; his social and political pyramid would crumble in contact with republican institutions. on the other hand, the religion of christ is not only adapted to all races, but it aims at their union in one great brotherhood. again, christianity alone presents the true relation between divine help and human effort. it does not invest marred and crippled human nature with a false and impossible independence, neither does it crush it. whenever heathen systems have taught a salvation by faith they have lost sight of moral obligation. weitbrecht and others state this as a fact with the hindu doctrine of bakti (faith) adopted in the later centuries; de quatrefages asserts the same of the tahitans. but the faith of the new testament everywhere supposes a divine and effectual co-operation. "work out your own salvation with fear and trembling, for it is god that worketh in you to will and to do of his good pleasure." it bids men serve not as hirelings, but as sons and heirs; it stimulates hope without engendering pride; it administers discipline, but with a father's love; it teaches that trials are not judgments, but wholesome lessons. of all religions it alone inculcates a rational and consoling doctrine of providence. it declares that to the righteous death is not destruction, but a sleep in peace and hope. it bids the christian lay off his cares and worries--in all things making his requests known unto god with thanksgivings; and yet it enjoins him not to rest in sloth, but to aspire after all that is pure and true and honorable and lovely and of good report in human life and conduct. it saves him from sin not by the stifling and atrophy of any god-given power, but by the expulsive influence of new affections; it bids him be pure even as god is pure. there is in the brief epistle of paul to titus a passage which in a single sentence sets forth the way of salvation in its fulness. it traces redemption to the grace of god, and it makes it a free provision for all men; yet it insists upon carefulness and sobriety. salvation is shown to begin _now_ in the laying aside of all sin and the living of a godly life. meanwhile it cheers the soul with expectation that christ shall dwell with the redeemed in triumph, as he once came in humiliation, and it keeps ever in mind the great truth that his mission is not merely to secure for man future exemptions and possessions, but to build up character--character that shall continue to rise and expand forever. _for the grace of god that bringeth salvation hath appeared to all men, teaching us that, denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world; looking for that blessed hope, and the glorious appearing of the great god and our saviour jesus christ; who gave himself for us that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto himself a peculiar people zealous of good works._ footnotes: [footnote 205: _holy bible and sacred books of the east_, p. 12.] [footnote 206: mohammed was once asked whether he trusted in his own merit or in the mercy of god, and he answered, "the mercy of god." but the whole drift of his teaching belied this one pious utterance.] [footnote 207: of the terrible darkness and bewilderment into which benighted races are often found schoolcraft furnishes this graphic and painful picture in the condition of the iroquois: "their notions of a deity, founded apparently on some dreamy tradition of original truth, are so subtile and divisible, and establish so heterogeneous a connection between spirit and matter of all imaginable forms, that popular belief seems to have wholly confounded the possible with the impossible, the natural with the supernatural. action, so far as respects cause and effect, takes the widest and wildest range, through the agency of good or evil influences, which are put in motion alike for noble or ignoble ends--alike by men, beasts, devils, or gods. seeing something mysterious and wonderful, he believes all things mysterious and wonderful; and he is afloat without shore or compass, on the wildest sea of superstition and necromancy. he sees a god in every phenomenon, and fears a sorcerer in every enemy. life, under such a system of polytheism and wild belief, is a constant scene of fears and alarms. fear is the predominating passion, and he is ready, wherever he goes, to sacrifice at any altar, be the supposed deity ever so grotesque. he relates just what he believes, and unluckily he believes everything that can possibly be told. a beast, or a bird, or a man, or a god, or a devil, a stone, a serpent, or a wizard, a wind, or a sound, or a ray of light--these are so many causes of action, which the meanest and lowest of the series may put in motion, but which shall in his theology and philosophy vibrate along the mysterious chain through the uppermost, and life or death may at any moment be the reward or the penalty."--_notes on the iroquois_, p. 263.] [footnote 208: _history of rationalism_.] [footnote 209: and even the buddha had spent six years in self-mortification and in the diligent search for what he regarded as the true wisdom.] [footnote 210: henry maudsley, in _the arena_ of april, 1891.] [footnote 211: "barren mohammedanism has been in all the higher and more tender virtues, because its noble morality and its pure theism have been united with no living example."--lecky, _history of morals_, vol. ii., p. 10.] [footnote 212: the most intelligent mohammedans, as we have shown in a former lecture, admit the moral blemishes of his character as compared with the purity of jesus and only revere him as the instrument of a great divine purpose. his only element of greatness was success. even the koran convicts him of what the world must regard as heinous sin, and presents jesus as the only sinless prophet.] [footnote 213: douglass, _confucianism and taouism_.] [footnote 214: the apologists of buddhism have made much of the story of a distressed young mother who came to the "master" bearing in her arms the dead body of her first-born--hoping for some comfort or help. he bade her bring him some mustard seed found in a home where no child had died. after a wearisome but vain search he only reminded her of the universality of death. no hope of a future life and a glad recovery of the lost was given. as an illustration of buddhism the example is a good one.] [footnote 215: "men wanted a father in heaven, who should take account of their efforts and assure them a recompense. men wanted a future of righteousness, in which the earth should belong to the feeble and the poor; they wanted the assurance that human suffering is not all loss, but that beyond this sad horizon, dimmed by tears, are happy plains where sorrow shall one day find its consolation."--renan, _hibbert lectures_, p. 42.] [footnote 216: see report of missionary conference, london, 1888, vol. i., p. 70.] [footnote 217: _st. paul and protestantism_, p. 79, quoted by bishop carpenter.] [footnote 218: it is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the well-known tribute which napoleon, in his conversations with his friends on the island of st. helena, paid to the transcendent personality of christ. he drew a graphic contrast between the so-called glory which had been won by great conquerors like alexander, cæsar, and himself, and that mysterious and all-mastering power which in all lands and all ages continues to attach itself to the person, the name, the memory of christ, for whom, after eighteen centuries of time, millions of men would sacrifice their lives.] [footnote 219: augustine appears to have been greatly moved by the life as well as by the writings of paul. in an account given of his conversion to his friend romanianus, he says, "so then stumbling, hurrying, hesitating, i seized the apostle paul, 'for never,' said i, 'could they have wrought such things, or lived as it is plain they did live, if their writings and arguments were opposed to this so high a good.'"--_confessions_, bk. vii., xxi., note.] [footnote 220: genesis, xvii. 1.] [footnote 221: the doctrine of human merit-making was carried to such an extreme under the brahmanical system that the gods became afraid of its power. they sometimes found it necessary to send apsaras (nymphs), wives of genii, to tempt the most holy ascetics, lest their austerities and their merit should proceed too far.--_see article brahmanism, in the britannica._] [footnote 222: müller, _chips from a german workshop_, vol. i., p. 40.] [footnote 223: de nat. deorum, iii., 36.] [footnote 224: _chips from a german workshop_, p. 304.] [footnote 225: see murdock's _vedic religion_, p. 57.] [footnote 226: _hindu philosophy_.] [footnote 227: the most sacred of human victims offered by the aztecs were prepared by a month of unbridled lust. see prescott's _conquest_.] [footnote 228: _nineteenth century_, july, 1888.] [footnote 229: letters of rev. pentecost in _the christian at work_, 1891.] [footnote 230: the same principles are set forth with great emphasis in isaiah, chap. iii.] appendix books of reference the books relating directly or indirectly to the wide range of topics discussed in the following lectures are too numerous for citation here; but there are some which are so essential to a thorough knowledge of comparative religion and comparative philosophy, that a special acknowledgment is due. "the sacred books of the east" are indispensable to one who would catch the real spirit of the oriental religions. the translations from hindu, buddhist, mohammedan, confucian, and zoroastrian literatures, by max müller, rhys davids, oldenberg, fausbôll, palmer, darmesteter, mills, legge, buhler, west, beal, and other able scholars, are invaluable. the various other works of max müller, "the science of religion," "chips from a german workshop," "the origin and growth of religion," "physical religion," etc., fill an important place in all study of these subjects. "indian wisdom," by sir monier williams, is the most comprehensive, and in many ways the best, of all compends of hindu religion and philosophy. his abridged work, "hinduism," and the larger volume entitled "brahmanism and hinduism," are also valuable. r.c. bose has given to the public an able treatise entitled "hindu philosophy." other books on hinduism to which more or less reference is made, are: "the vedic religion," by mcdonald; "india and the indians," by duff; "the life and letters of colbrooke;" "the bhagavad gita," as translated by chatterji; "the vishnu puranas," by wilson; "the ramayana," by griffiths; "brahmoism," by bose; "the oriental christ," by mozoomdar; "christianity and hindu philosophy," by ballantyne. among the ablest books on buddhism are: "buddhism;" "the growth of religion as illustrated by buddhism," and the able article on the same subject in the "britannica"--all by rhys davids. "buddha: his life, character, and order," by professor oldenberg, is a scarcely less important contribution to buddhist literature. "the light of asia," by sir edwin arnold, has done more than any other work to interest western nations in the legends of gautama; perhaps no other oriental character has been more successfully popularized. of the many efforts to correct the misleading impressions given by this fanciful but really poetic story, "the light of asia and the light of the world," by dr. s.h. kellogg, is probably the ablest. dr. edkins, in "chinese buddhism," and professor beal, in "buddhism in china," have very successfully shown the characteristics of the chinese types of the system. spence hardy, in his "manual of buddhism," has rendered a similar service in relation to the buddhism of ceylon, while bigandet has set forth that of burmah, and alabaster that of siam. sir monier williams, in his more recent work, "buddhism," has done much to counteract the fashionable tendency of most orientalists to idealize the buddhist system. other works relating to buddhism are, "mohammed, buddha, and christ," by dodds; "buddhism (modern)," by subhadra; and "esoteric buddhism," by sinnett. maurice, bishop carpenter, brace, the bishop of colombo, martin, and many others have ably discussed the subject. of all works on mohammedanism, sale's translation of the koran, with a "preliminary discourse," is the most comprehensive and important. sprenger's "life of mohammed, from original sources," is perhaps next in rank. "islam and mahomet," by samuel johnson; "mohammed and mohammedanism," by e. bosworth smith; "christianity, islam, and the negro race," by e.w. blyden; and "leaves from an egyptian note-book," by canon isaac taylor, are among the principal apologies for islam. gibbon's fifth volume of the "decline and fall of the roman empire" has at least done ample justice to the glory of the mohammedan conquest. of those who have ably controverted the claims of islam, the late dr. pfander, of northern india, will perhaps hold the first rank. of the three moulvies who were selected to meet him in public discussion, two are said to have been converted to christianity by his arguments. the concessions of the koran to the truths of the old and new testaments have been ably pointed out by sir william muir in "the koran," and dr. e.m. wherry, in his "commentary," has established the striking fact, that of all the prophets named in the koran, including mohammed, jesus alone is represented as sinless. the modern apologists of mohammed and his system have been well answered by knox in current numbers of the _church missionary intelligencer_. other works upon the subject are "islam," by stobart; "islam as a missionary religion," by haines; "essays on eastern questions," by palgrave. sir william muir's "history of the caliphate" is an important and recent work. confucianism and taouism may be fairly understood, even by those who have not the time for a careful study of legge's translations of the chinese classics, by reference to the following works: "china and the chinese," by medhurst; "the religions of china," by legge; "the chinese," by martin; "confucianism and taouism," by douglass; "religion in china," by edkins. the late samuel johnson, in his "oriental religions," has devoted a large volume to the religions of china, principally to the ethics and political economy of the confucian system; and james freeman clark has given considerable attention to confucianism as one of "the ten great religions." zoroastrianism is ably treated by darmesteter in the introduction to his translation of the "zend avesta." instructive lectures on the religion and literature of persia may be found in the first volume of max müller's "chips from a german workshop;" also in "the religion of the iranians," found in ebrard's "apologetics," vol. ii. west's and darmesteter's translations of "pahlavi texts," in the "sacred books of the east," are also suggestive. in the following discussions, relating broadly to the ancient as well as the modern religions and philosophies of the world, and their contrasts to christian truth, reference is made directly or indirectly to the following works: "christ and other masters," by hardwick; "the ancient world and christianity," by edward de pressensé; "the religions of the world," by maurice; "the aryan witness," by banergea; "the unknown god," by brace; "the permanent elements in religion," by boyd carpenter; "oriental and linguistic studies," by a.d. whitney; "the doomed religions," by reid; "the idea of god," by fiske; "the destiny of man," by fiske; "the races of man," by peschel; "introduction to the philosophy of religion," by caird; "national religions and universal religions," by kuenen; "some elements of religion," by liddon; "outlines of the history of ancient religions," by tiele; "the philosophy of religion," by pfleiderer; "our christian heritage," by cardinal gibbons; "hulsean lectures, 1845-6," by trench; "hibbert lectures, 1880," by renan; "origins of english history," by elton; "st. paul in britain" (druidism), by morgan; "fossil men and their modern representatives," by dawson; "modern ideas of evolution," by dawson; "marcus aurelius," by renan; "epictetus," bonn's library; "confessions," by st. augustine; "history of the egyptian religion," by tiele; "lucretius," bonn's library; "lives of the fathers," by farrar; "the vikings of western christendom," by keary; "principles of sociology," by spencer; "the descent of man," by darwin; "evolution and its relation to christian thought," by le conte; "history of european morals," by lecky; "the kojiki" (sacred books of shinto), chamberlain's translation; "the witness of history to christ," by farrar; "anti-theistic theories," by flint; "the human species," by de quatrefages. 