TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
A superscript is denoted by ^x or ^{xx}, for example G^2 or 1^{st}.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
CONFIDENTIAL FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY NOT TO BE TAKEN INTO FRONT LINE TRENCHES USE OF MINES IN TRENCH WARFARE (From the French School of St. Cyr) TRANSLATED AND EDITED AT THE ARMY WAR COLLEGE JULY, 1917 [Illustration: (Seal of the 'UNITED STATES OF AMERICA WAR OFFICE')] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 WAR DEPARTMENT.
Document No.
635.
_Office of The Adjutant General._ WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, _July 23, 1917_.
The following notes on Use of Mines in Trench Warfare are published for the Information of all concerned.
[062.1, A. G.
O.]
BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR: TASKER H. BLISS, _Major General, Acting Chief of Staff_.
OFFICIAL: H. P. McCAIN, _The Adjutant General_.
WAR DEPARTMENT, THE ADJUTANT GENERAL'S OFFICE, _Washington, June 19, 1917_.
_To all officers of the Army_: You are advised that this and all subsequent documents of a similar character which may be furnished to you from this office are to be regarded as strictly confidential.
They are to be kept at all times in your personal possession, and are not to be copied, nor are any parts of their contents to be communicated either directly or indirectly to the press, nor to any person not in the military or naval service of the United States.
In Europe these documents are not to be carried into the front-line trenches, nor farther to the front than the usual post of the officers to whom issued.
Strict compliance with this injunction is enjoined upon every officer into whose hands any of these confidential documents may come.
BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR: H. P. McCAIN, _The Adjutant General_.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Use of mines 5 Specially menaced points 5 Surface observations 5 Indications revealing enemy galleries 6 Listening for underground noise 6 Position of listening posts 6 Hours and precautions 7 What is heard 7 Distance at which noise can be heard 7 Direction from which noise comes 8 Useful information on mines 8 Defensive systems 8 Interval between galleries 8 Start, depth, and progress of work 9 Barrage trench for miners 9 Camouflet 9 Offensive galleries 10 Superimposed galleries 10 Mine chamber 11 Launching an attack 11 Craters 11 Craters to be occupied 11 Craters that the enemy occupies 12 Craters not occupied 12 Diagrams 9, 10, 12, 13 USE OF MINES IN TRENCH WARFARE.
[From the French St. Cyr School.]
(Secret and Confidential.
For Official Use Only.
Not to be Taken into First-Line Trenches.)
USE OF MINES.
In sectors where the distance between the two lines is below 150 meters, mine warfare must be used.
When the trenches are farther apart, underground warfare is seldom employed.
In special cases, however, when there are strong ventilators and the line is stable enough to permit of it, advance may be made underground.
SPECIALLY MENACED POINTS.
The most vulnerable points evidently are the following: The outposts in advance of the line, machine-gun positions approximately located by the enemy, and the junction points of the communicating trenches with the first line.
SURFACE OBSERVATION.
Underground activity, either offensive or defensive, is first observed from those points in our lines nearest to it.
All enemy trenches facing a salient of our lines will be the object of particular attention and closest daily observation.
This observation of the first-line trenches should disclose the presence of enemy underground works and their approximate location.
One of the difficult questions in mining is the removal of the earth.
Expert miners sometimes remove the earth as far as 100 to 200 meters from the entrance to the gallery.
They throw it on old ruined shelters, in shell holes, on the reverse of the trenches.
But these precautions are not always rigidly observed.
When the noncommissioned officer is absent, or the enemy bombards a little strongly, some one in the working party not wanting to work overtime throws several clods of earth on the parapet.
INDICATIONS REVEALING THE ENEMY GALLERIES.
Freshly placed earth coming from underground is white and less dull in color than that of the parapets, which have been washed by the rain and blackened by explosives.
The difference in color for the first day or so is striking.
In chalk, large white spots are seen on the reverse of the German trench, daily growing larger.
Without doubt they are working near by, and should be watched.
A communication trench comes out at a salient, and runs back from 150 to 200 meters.
Patches of chalk, freshly moved and increasing daily, are observed.
These are indications of underground work starting from the salient.
Four or five meters of enemy trench without loopholes, but with loopholes close together to the left and right, may mark a gallery entrance.
A miner's working relief reaches the gallery, each man carrying a piece of the frame or a lining plank over his shoulder, the ends of which can be seen over the parapet or through the loopholes.
These are indications of a gallery position, especially if the men all move in the same direction and are lost to view at the same place.
From a raised point on the second or third line we see, with field glasses, an abnormal accumulation of sandbags in a well-known area.
These sacks may indicate an underground gallery.
Patrols sent out in front of the enemy trenches sometimes bring back valuable information.
They may hear the rumble of ventilators, the noise of a truck moving on the rails, men working near a gallery entrance, etc.
The enemy fire with heavy calibers on portions of the first line.
Often the same corner is bombarded.
This may indicate that the enemy artillery is seeking to facilitate the miner's work by overthrowing the entrances to troublesome galleries in the trench attacked.
_Listening for underground noise._--The observation of hostile trenches may give indications which will limit the zone necessary to be watched; but for accurate results we must listen for underground noises.
_Positions of listening posts._--The listening post is placed at the head of a gallery, in an angle of a gallery, in a deep dug-out, in a niche under the parapet, or on the bottom of the trench.
The points nearest to the enemy trench are selected for the listening posts.
Below the outposts there is always a niche, allowing a man to place his ear to the ground (hence the name listening posts).
_Hours and precautions._--The most favorable hours are morning about 4 or 5 o'clock, at 2 p. m., and at midnight.
All the occupants of that part of the trench must keep still, and all work in the trench and the mine must cease for a given time.
_What is heard._--The inexperienced ear hears too many things, and is easily mistaken in the noises heard.
A relief passing in the enemy trench or in his own trench at 40 meters sounds strangely like the noise of a pick.
A man hitting a ground sill or striking it with his heel gives the idea that work is being done.
The impact of bullets on the parapet at night, when a fusillade is uninterrupted, also gives the idea of underground work.
A man filing a fuse at the foot of his loophole suggests the presence of an enemy revolving borer.
A man who snores beside the gallery entrance imitates the noise of a ventilator and may be mistaken for it.
However, to even a partially trained ear the noise of the pickax is characteristic.
It is not a harsh sound, like that of a heel striking on chalk ground, nor is it like the shock of bullets piercing the parapet.
It is a low, rhythmic sound, with regular cadence.
In a gallery the miner works kneeling.
When he has struck five or six blows with the pickax, he takes a breath.
He repeats this process about 12 times.
He stops two or three minutes, and the second miner clears away the earth and fills the truck with sacks.
The first miner resumes his work.
It is easy to distinguish this regular cadence peculiar to the miner.
In an infantry company there are always several miners by occupation, or several men familiar with engineering.
These men are selected specially for the listening service.
They can give accurate information to the officers and noncommissioned officers of a sapper company.
It is also a good thing for a platoon commander to descend into a gallery and train his ear by exchanging pickax signals with the miner in the adjoining gallery.
_Distance at which noise can be heard._--The following indications help in determining the distance of underground work: Four men work in a gallery.
They start the work, then stop.
The ear is placed against the side of the wall, the other ear being covered by the hand.
If the work is heard under these conditions, it is at a distance of 25 to 30 meters.
If all noise is avoided, and the work is heard without placing the ear against the wall, the distance is 12 to 15 meters.
If there is talking or working going on, and still the underground work is heard in spite of it, the distance is 8 to 10 meters.
At six meters a man can hear all the sounds of the pickax, the chalk crumbling, the pieces rolling down on one another, the sliding and stacking of cases.
These noises sound as if they were immediately below.
At four meters a man can hear talking, the scraping of buttons against the wall, the miner turning around.
The humming of a ventilator can be heard at 40 meters without taking precautions to hear it.
An automatic borer can be heard all through the sector.
_Directions from which noise comes._--It is easier to determine the direction of noise than the distance.
There is always a chance of making observations in the galleries--one on the right, the other on the left of the noise.
The exact location of the enemy underground work can be determined by intersections.
The engineer companies have an apparatus for intensifying the sound (strong microphones).
They reinforce the sound when the apparatus is in the direction of the source of the sound.
Their greatest defect is that they magnify sound too much and too many things are heard.
Why hear for a distance of 100 meters when the enemy trench is only 40 meters away?
Everything is heard in a mine gallery.
It is difficult to distinguish among the many noises that of the enemy miner's pick.
The ear is amply sufficient.
The beginner has a tendency to exaggerate the proximity of sounds.
He thinks he is close to the enemy when he is still at a distance, and he takes steps to catch the enemy by exploding a camouflet, whose only effect is to retard his own work.
USEFUL INFORMATION ON MINES.
_Defensive system._--Two arrangements can be adopted: Fan-shaped arrangement (Fig.
A) or arrangement of independent parallel galleries (Fig.
B).
The second arrangement is preferable.
_Interval between galleries._--Arrangement 2 being adopted, calculate the interval between two neighboring galleries in such manner as to prevent the enemy working underground.
At the head of each gallery two elbows of 6 meters, with boring chambers, are made.
A 6-meter boring is made from each chamber.
At the bottom of the boring a camouflet is placed, effective for radius of 6 meters (not more heavily charged or the gallery will be demolished).
The camouflet of the neighboring gallery forms a tangent to the first.
The interval between the two galleries can not, therefore, be greater than 36 meters.
In practice we would take 30 meters.
_Start, depth, and progress of work._--Start from first line.
Start at 4 meters, with a slope of 20 per cent to 30 per cent down to a depth of 10 meters.
Then horizontal.
Length to gallery and return without ventilation can cover 30 meters.
[Illustration: Fig.
A.
Fig.
B.]
_Barrage trench for miners._--If the enemy passes in spite of everything, the explosion should at least have been foreseen.
The enemy's attack must be limited or stopped, and this is always possible after the explosion of the charge, which may explode well in advance of our lines and act only as a strong means of launching his attack.
The barrage trench is established at from 40 to 50 meters in rear of the salient T (Fig.
B).
In front of the parapet T, wire entanglement R, and two machine-gun positions M^1 and M^2 are placed.
When the enemy's explosion is near, only a few men are left to occupy the salient.
The German explosion does not bury anyone, and when the attack is launched it breaks down at the entanglement R. _Camouflet._--The sector commander is warned when the defense is about to explode a camouflet.
About 10 meters on each side of the gallery are evacuated as a precaution.
The only danger is in having several sandbags fall on the sides of the gallery entrance.
Warn the working party charged with the relief, in order that they may not block the passage of men in the first line.
Do not fire or make any changes in that part of the trench, in order that the enemy may not locate the position.
Do not fire rockets before a given time.
The camouflet sometimes shakes the ground and dust is visible.
Nine times out of ten the camouflet is used at night.
When the enemy explodes a camouflet, fire a quantity of rockets to locate the positions.
Fire grenades and throw bombs at the presumable position of the gallery.
Send several men in front of the parapet to listen to what is going on in the enemy trench.
_Offensive galleries._--These are intended to pass under the adversary's defenses.
Depth.--Start at first line when it is far enough away from the enemy.
Start at second line, or at special communication trench about 20 meters in the rear of the first line, when the enemy trench is too near.
(See preceding.)
A depth of 15 to 18 meters should be attained.
The work is done as in ordinary galleries.
[Illustration: Fig.
C.] _Superimposed galleries._--This procedure gives splendid results in deceiving the enemy, who thinks he is protecting himself.
The defensive gallery starts at the first line and the offensive gallery starts in rear of it.
Both galleries are on the same vertical plane, the second being more advanced in the direction of the enemy than the first.
An enemy listener easily confuses one with the other, and the offensive gallery passes under him.
(See Fig.
C.) Distances D and D^1 are the same.
The miner, M, confuses the two sounds, and the offensive gallery passes under him.
_Mine chambers._--They are of special interest to the Engineer Corps from a technical point of view.
The best hours for exploding them are 4 a. m. and 7 p. m. When an attack is launched at a great distance, or when there is to be no attack, the explosion is preceded by several minutes of noise in the trenches.
We commence firing and show several bayonets over the parapet.
The enemy believes an attack is coming, comes out of his shelter, and mans his trenches.
After the explosion we fire on the mine crater for four hours with artillery, grenades, and bombs.
This fire should cover all the area exploded by the mine chamber and should prevent any help to the wounded or buried.
_Launching an attack by means of mining._--The mine is an irresistible means of launching an attack.
In a mined sector the best troops completely lose their bearings for several seconds after an explosion.
These several seconds prevent the machine gun from firing, and the assailant gains a foothold in the first line and often in the second.
A mine attack should be prepared in the following manner: Several days beforehand the attacking troops are sent to the rest camp.
The plan of the jumping-off trenches, the trenches to be attacked, the ground trace of the crater, and the zone of the searchlights are drawn on the ground with chalk.
Each attacking fraction is placed in position, with the matériel to be carried.
Each fraction's line of advance is marked out in chalk, as well as the section of the enemy's trench to be occupied and the position of the barrage.
Every detail is studied thoroughly, and the exercise repeated a dozen times.
The attack is then carried out as planned.
_Craters._--The question of the occupation of craters must be decided by an authority higher than the platoon commander.
In certain cases it is well to occupy them; in others, inadvisable.
We will discuss only the practical work to be done in each case.
_Craters to be occupied._--Crown the rim on the enemy side with a continuous trench, joined to the lines by (at least) two communicating trenches.
Run out galleries in three directions, first for protection and later for use in the attack.
Construct bombproofs on the half cone on the enemy side.
A crater is a position advantageous for the construction of auxiliary defenses, for the removal of earth from the galleries, for massing troops for an attack, and for flanking the lines.
_Craters that the enemy occupies._--They should be hampered with bombs and grenades.
We should head off the enemy by means of two well-placed mine chambers, which are always possible to fire rapidly when the scheme of defense is by independent galleries.
_Craters not occupied._--It is well to see what goes on at the bottom.
An outpost of several men or a sentinel may be posted for this purpose in a communicating trench on the friendly rim.
Two communicating trenches may also be used to crown the friendly rim with a trench with slight counterslope.
The outposts place a dozen loopholes permitting fire on the bottom.
We may also fill up the bottom with chevaux de frise and other auxiliary obstacles that can be thrown in.
If the craters are in the way, we can always turn them by mining.
(See figures for different examples:) [Illustration: Fig.
I.
--Example of Mine Craters-1 Mine Crater to be occupied t First line trench E Crater B B^1 B^2 Communicating trench T Trench crowning rim on enemy side M M^1 Machine gun on flanks E E^1 E^2 New galleries R Wire entanglement] [Illustration: Fig.
II.
--Mine Crater occupied by the enemy-E Mine Crater T 1^{st} line trench G^1 Gallery destroyed by explosion G G^2 Intact galleries allowing explosions to be placed F F^2 Which fill up enemy crater] [Illustration: Fig.
III.
--Mine crater not to be occupied-t Jumping off trench T Trench crowning friendly rim 1 2 3 4 5 Loopholes overlooking the bottom and enemy rim M M^1 Flanking automatic rifle R Wire entanglement] [Illustration: Fig.
IV.
Mine Crater between two lines Aim:-Create an elevated earth position for placing machine guns or throwing bombs at M and M^1 which enfilade the portion t & t^1 of enemy trench.]
[Illustration: Fig.
V. Mine Crater for flanking purposes, see Fig.
I & III.
Fig.
VI.
Destroying a portion of enemy trench by means of two mine craters.
B B^1 Communicating German trenches cut off by explosion.
S S^1 Salient under which E.E are exploded.
All flanking machine guns between S & S^1 cut off by rims of craters.]
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 8: '(fig.
a)' replaced by '(Fig.
A)'.
Pg 8: '(fig.
b)' replaced by '(Fig.
B)'.
Pg 9: '(fig.
2)' replaced by '(Fig.
B)'.
Pg 9: 'positions M and' replaced by 'positions M^1 and'.
Pg 10: '(See figure.)'
replaced by '(See Fig.
C.)'.
Internet Archive (https://archive.org) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations.
See 44370-h.htm or 44370-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44370/44370-h/44370-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44370/44370-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive.
See https://archive.org/details/handywarguidefor00hang Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
HANDY WAR GUIDE FOR MY COMPANY Handy Company Commander's Guide Written at the front by CAPTAIN HANGUILLART of the French Army Translated and edited by Louis J.
A. Mercier, A.M. First Lieutenant, Harvard R. O. T. C. Interpreter with British Expeditionary Force on the French Front 1914-17.
"_DASH UNDER DISCIPLINE_" Copyright, 1918 by R. D. Cortina Company.
The Cortina Academy of Languages New York 1918 TABLE.
Preface 5 Part I. Trench Life and Trench Warfare Taking over the Trenches 11 Care and Improvement of the Trenches 14 The Watch from the Trenches 17 Patrolling 22 Interrogating Prisoners 25 Devices to draw the Enemy's Fire 28 An Attack, the Repulse 32 The Counter-Attack 34 Precautions against Enemy's Artillery 36 Use of Trench Artillery 37 Field Artillery Cooperation 39 Daily Schedule 41 Turning over the Trenches 43 Out of the Trenches 44 Topical Questions on Part I 46 Part II.
French Infantry Combat Principles.
Open Warfare 53 The Approach 55 Precautions against Silent Artillery 58 Crossing a Bombarded Zone 59 Use of Woods as Shelter 64 To Cross a Crest 65 The Fire Attack 69 Precautions against Cavalry 65 The Termination of the Approach 67 Use of Machine Guns 71 The Company Supports 72 The Companies in Support 73 The Charge and the Pursuit 73 Attack of a Wood 75 Attack of a Village 76 Attack of a Defile 77 Night Attacks 77 Defense of Woods 80 Defense of a Village 81 Defense of a Defile 82 Night Defense of a Position 83 The Counter Attack 83 Topical Questions on Part II 86 Appendix A Division Front in Trench Warfare.
The Trench System The Back Areas Printed in the United States of America by the International Press 150 Lafayette Street New York City PREFACE.
The first part of Captain Hanguillart's little book "_Petit Guide pratique de Guerre pour ma compagnie_" has been incorporated in the new manuals of instruction published for the young recruits of the French army by the official military publishing house "Librairie Militaire Berger-Levrault," the editors of the "Annuaire officiel de l'Armée.
"[A] Its special value comes from the fact that it was written at the front and is wholly based on the orders which Captain Hanguillart drew up for the instruction of his own company and tested repeatedly through actual experience.
Thus its very omissions are significant.
The text as it stands represents essentials.
Its every paragraph is a unit of tried advice.
=It embodies the practical data that has secured results.= =It sums up the cautions that have saved lives.= In the second part, Captain Hanguillart has merely reproduced the French Infantry Combat principles long published in the official manual for the instruction of platoon leaders.
In presenting this little work, no claim is made that it is adequate to the complete instruction of company commanders.
Its obvious supplements are such works as: Colonel Paul Azan--_The War of Position_.
_The Army War College_--Translation of the French Manual for Commanders of Infantry Platoons.
Cole and Schoonmaker--_Military Instructors Manual_.
Major J.
A. Moss--_Manual of Military Training_.
_U.
S. A. Infantry Drill Regulations._ Captain Hanguillart's book should be carefully compared with these.
But because of its peculiar origin it has for the officer a value not possessed by other books on this subject.
It gives what a company commander =actually found essential=.
Furthermore, it corresponds to the booklets published in France which are placed in the hands of every recruit.
Every officer should have full knowledge of his specialty, but =every private= should understand the essential concerns of his officers so as to appreciate orders the more readily.
The army of democracy should be an intelligent thinking army.
Such little books have helped to give the French poilu his famed self-reliance and resourcefulness.
It is the hope of the publishers that this translation may help to do the same for his American comrades.
The publishers also believe that the book offers just the information needed by civilians to follow intelligently reports of military operations and of life at the front.
The editor has felt it his duty in rearranging the loose notes of Captain Hanguillart to respect scrupulously the text, though, at times, the best way to do so was through a free translation.
The paragraphs have been numbered and questions and diagrams added to facilitate assimilation.
Cambridge, Mass.
L.J.A.M.
FOOTNOTE: [A] Cf Chapuis.
_Instruction théorique et générale du soldat pour la période de guerre._ 27e édition, January 1917.
Part I. Trench Life and Trench Warfare.
TRENCH LIFE AND TRENCH WARFARE.
TAKING OVER THE TRENCHES.
1.--Leaving Billets.
The battalions of a Brigade occupying a given sector of the front are billeted when out of the trenches, in the villages closest to their sector.
Cf.
appendix.
When their turn comes to relieve the battalions in the trenches, the officers in charge should have the following instructions carried out: 2.--On the day before the relief make sure: That the rifles, bayonets, etc., are in good condition.
That the ammunition and reserve rations are supplied.
That the equipment of every man is complete.
That all officers and N.C.O.
's watches are set to division time.
3.--On the day of the relief, one hour before departure: Have rifles stacked and equipment laid out outside the billets.
Make sure that nothing is left behind, that premises are cleaned, all rubbish burnt, and latrines filled.
Have rifles loaded and with the safety lock turned to the safe.
Assign an energetic N. C. O. to act as file closer of each platoon to prevent straggling.
Call the roll and have it duly forwarded to the company commander.
4.--On the way to the trenches: If under fire, have units march at proper intervals (Cf.
par.
117ff.)
Adopt marching order best suitable to avoid blocking the road.
At night do not allow smoking.
Exact silence when nearing the trenches.
Take special precaution at all times to maintain constant communication between units, especially at night and when crossing woods.
If enemy aeroplanes appear, stop and keep out of sight as much as possible.
(Cf.
par.
120.)
5.--On reaching the trenches: The relief should be completed in silence--without hurry.
Carefully ascertain the orders of the battalion relieved.
Check up and assign to each unit the supplies taken over.
Requisition at once additional supplies and ammunition wanted.
Each platoon should be assigned its special duties, the duty roster drawn up for all sentry and patrol duties, details, etc.
Have all the men locate the enemy trench as they come on duty and give them the range.
Inspect the dugouts and assign them.
Forbid all digging under the parapet.
Inspect the latrines.
Give strict order that small amount of dirt be thrown in after use and that lime be sprinkled in daily.
See that the men are provided with ammunition.
Communication should be insured between the various units to the right and left and with the rear.
CARE AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE TRENCHES.
6.--Improvements: Investigate the work under way for the improvement of defense and prepare plans for further work if necessary.
Obvious improvements are: making additional communication trenches, repairing or completing shelters, listening posts, mining tunnels, wire entanglements.
7.--Ammunition shelters: See that there are a sufficient number of shelters for rifle ammunition, grenades, rockets and other supplies.
8.--Loopholes and Parapet: Ascertain the conditions of all the loopholes and have them repaired if need be.
(They should cut the parapet diagonally and be concealed in every way possible with vegetation, branches, and the opening blocked when not in use.)
Have all damages to the parapet and to the ground underneath quickly attended to.
See that in each section there are small ladders to permit of easy access to the top of the parapet.
See that means are provided to fire above the parapet in case of an attack.
9.--Drainage: Attend carefully to the drainage.
Have the trench bottom kept convex with small gutters on either side running into pits lined with gabions.
If trench bottom is lined with board walks, keep it in repair.
Have water pits emptied if necessary.
10.--Sanitation: Have latrines kept in perfect sanitary order.
Have them filled up and others dug =if need be=.
Have all rubbish collected and carried out.
11.--Precautions against capture of fire-trench.
Prepare for the obstruction of the communicating trenches in case the enemy should capture the fire trench: Have piles of sand bags above the entrance of each trench ready to be dumped into it.
Have chevaux de frise lined up on one parapet of the trench and all held up in such a way by a single wire that when the wire is cut they will fall into the trench.
Mines can also be prepared to blow up the trench when invaded.
The communicating trench between the fire trench and the listening post should be covered with barbed wire screens or be tunnelled.
THE WATCH FROM THE TRENCHES.
12.--Trench Warfare an outpost duty.
Trench warfare, the inevitable form of modern warfare, is a continuous series of outpost duty.
Hence it is based wholly on eternal vigilance.
The patrols correspond to the scouts; the listening posts to the sentinels; the firing trench to the outguards; the cover trench to the supports.
The safety of the sector depends entirely on the vigilance of the advanced elements and the rapidity with which supports and the reserves can be summoned.
Watching is thus the fundamental duty in trench warfare.
The following points should be kept in mind: AT ALL TIMES 13.--Number of men in the fire trench.
There must be as many sentinels in each section as is necessary to cover completely the sector to be watched, no more, no less, each sentinel being given the exact limits (such as tree, copse, post, etc.)
at each end of the line he should watch.
14.--Fix bayonets.
The men on duty should have bayonets fixed as, in case of a possible surprise, they are needed for defense.
Otherwise too, fixing bayonets would be an indication to the enemy of an impending raid.
DURING THE DAY.
15.--Observation of open terrain.
When the terrain opposite is open country, the necessary observation may be done by the smallest possible number of men.
Fire only, if any of the enemy are sighted.
Then, have two rounds fired, then three.
But keep fire under strict control.
(If enemy continues to approach.
Cf.
par.
52 ff.)
16.--Observation of covered terrain.
When the terrain is covered (high brush wood, copses, trees, etc.)
a sharpshooter in each section should fire occasionally into the trees, etc., which may be observation or sharpshooters' posts but this should not be overdone.
AT NIGHT.
17.--Double sentinels.
Post double sentinels in each section, each man watching in turn, the other resting but within call.
18.--Silence.
They should refrain from making the least noise so as to hear and not be heard.
19.--No firing when fired upon.
There should be no firing when the enemy fires since when the enemy fires, he does not advance.
20.--Look and listen.
They should keep a sharp lookout but listen even more attentively.
21.--In the listening posts.
Sentinels in the listening posts should listen especially for the noise of crushed branches, stirring leaves, slight noise of arms or utensils.
If enemy is detected, these sentinels should hasten back to fire trench to give the alarm quietly so that the enemy may be surprised.
They should fire only if they are themselves caught unawares.
Listening posts should not be too numerous, about two per battalion.
If there are no listening posts, patrols should be sent out to favorable spots especially at sundown and before sunrise.
22.--Enemy sighted or heard, fire.
If the night is clear and the terrain is open, proceed as during the day: If the enemy is sighted or heard, fire in short volleys.
In case of doubt throw grenades with the first volley.
23.--Otherwise no firing.
Otherwise, absolute silence should be observed.
No firing whatever.
24.--Unless night is dark.
If the night is dark, to avoid surprise, keep up firing: One man per section should fire in turn, from time to time varying the direction.
25.--Digging by enemy.
If digging by the enemy is reported, cease firing.
Have it located, throw bombs followed by volleys.
Notify sappers for counter mining.
26.--Watch for light of enemy's fire.
If enemy fires, note where light appears.
27.--Posting of sharpshooters.
Locate sharpshooters in advantageous posts behind the trenches (trees, etc.).
Have them fire into the enemy's listening posts and into the enemy's trench, especially wherever light appears.
These posts should not be occupied during the day.
28.--Patrols.
Send out patrols, stationary or mobile.
PATROLLING.
29.--Functions of Patrols.
The aim: to supplement the work of the listening posts and of the sentinels through more forward observation.
To discover the movements and the operations of the enemy.
To locate his emplacements.
To keep in close touch with the enemy so as to take advantage of his possible weaknesses: lack of watchfulness, of ammunition, of sufficient troops.
To verify, repair and complete advance defences.
To get the exact range of enemy's positions.
To bring back prisoners.
30.--Time to patrol.
Patrols should be on duty through the night but be specially watchful before sunrise.
31.--Assignment of patrol duty.
N. C. O. and men should be assigned to patrol duty by roster or as volunteers.
In the former case, if there is reason to think that a patrol has not done its best to secure information, the same men should be sent out again.
32.--Sentinels should know about patrols.
Neighboring companies should be notified of the departure, route and probable time of return of patrols.
If several patrols are sent out at the same time they should know one another's itinerary.
33.--Dress and equipment of patrols.
The men (3 to 5 commanded by N. C.
O.)
should carry no impediments and their dress should not interfere with ease of movements: sweaters should be worn instead of overcoats.
The woolen cap or comforter should be worn as they cover most of the face.
Slits should be cut for the ears that hearing be not interfered with.
The helmet should always be worn over comforter.
Also dark gloves to hide the hands.
No equipment save the rifle, the bayonet fixed or carried in the hand, (no bayonet scabbard), a few hand grenades.
34.--Method of advance.
Patrols should crawl forward or advance by short dashes, silently, stop often and for long periods, listen intently.
35.--Under flare light.
If the enemy sends up lighting rockets (flares) or fires volleys, lie flat on the ground until he stops.
36.--Against an hostile patrol.
If a small hostile patrol approaches, do the same, throw a stone or two so as to turn its attention away and take advantage of this to surprise it.
If men of enemy's patrol give the alarm, kill them--lie flat on ground during enemy's volleys which will follow.
Then strip bodies of distinctive uniform badges, and search for papers, etc.
Otherwise bring men back as prisoners.
37.--Need of initiative.
Patrols should exercise initiative, take advantage of circumstances, in devising ways of bringing back the greatest possible amount of useful information.
INTERROGATING PRISONERS.
38.--Information from prisoners.
One of the chief aims of patrolling is to bring back prisoners from whom information may be gathered.
39.--Its use by General Staff.
The General Staff is interested to know the nationality, the division, the age, etc.
of prisoners captured in a given sector.
40.--Its use by company commander.
But these are of little value to the battalion or company commander.
Hence, when possible, they should ask the prisoners questions more pertinent to the organization of the enemy sector opposite: 41.--Questions to ask.
How strongly are your various lines held?
Where are the C. O.
Post and the officers' dugouts?
When and by what routes are the reliefs made, how often and on what days and at what time.
Ask the same questions for the fatigues.
At what time are rations brought or served?
What is the actual muster of the company?
How many regular army officers, how many reserve officers?
What do the men think of their officers?
How many advanced posts?
How many men in each, by day and by night?
Do they have grenades and how are they relieved?
How many men are sent out on patrol, how often, at what time, by what route coming and going?
How are they dressed and armed?
What are their instructions?
What does the enemy know about our own patrols?
Are snipers placed in trees during the day and at night?
If so, what trees are used.
What parts of our sectors can they see?
Are they planning any raids?
Do they anticipate raids by us?
What work are they carrying on during the day and at night?
Have they any idea of our own activities?
What is the nature and the location of their accessory defences?
What is the location of their machine guns, trench mortars?
Have they any asphyxiating gas or liquid fire apparatus?
Have they abundant supplies of hand grenades, etc., etc.
DEVICES TO DRAW THE ENEMY'S FIRE.
42.--To make enemy waste ammunition.
Any devices which lead the enemy to waste ammunition or to expose themselves is a clear gain.
Many may be readily devised and officers and men should be encouraged to do so.
The following have often proved successful: 43.--Pretend abandoning trench.
Remain absolutely quiescent during several days.
This may lead the enemy to send out patrols or raiding parties which may be the more surely destroyed.
They should be allowed to approach to the wire entanglements before a shot is fired.
44.--Pretend a raid.
On dark nights, have all firing stop.
Throw stones by hand or with slings, a dozen at a time toward the enemy's trench.
This will lead him to fire repeated volleys and waste ammunition in his fear of an attack, especially if the trenches are in wooded terrain and there are leaves on the ground.
Repeat several times during the night.
Patrols may also tie strings to the enemy's barb wire.
On dark nights pulling on the string may lead the enemy to fire.
45.--Use decoys.
Decoys may be arranged in trees or stuck up momentarily over the parapet.
They will draw the enemy's fire.
46.--Pretend a fire attack.
If the enemy's trenches are near enough for the sound to carry, whistles may be blown all along the line before a volley.
They may be blown again after the command to omit the volley.
The enemy may continue to fire indefinitely.
47.--Watch out for enemy's ruses.
Let the aim of all these devices be to make the enemy waste ammunition and to save your own.
On the other hand, the enemy is likely to attempt like ruses and many others which are not permissible such as the use of white flags or raising hands to indicate pretended surrender.
48.--His use of blank cartridges.
A legitimate ruse, of which the enemy is fond and which should be guarded against, consists in their firing blank cartridges to mask an advance of their men.
It is clear that men do not advance while bullets are fired from their own trenches.
Nor does one fire in retaliation until the enemy's fire ceases.
A little attention will be sufficient to spoil this plan as, when only blank cartridges are fired, no bullets will whiz by.
As long as the enemy fires blank cartridges, withhold your own fire, be on guard against the appearance of patrols and be ready to receive them when they draw near.
49.--His use of flares.
In case the enemy sends up flares, patrols should lie flat and motionless till after the volley which often follows.
The sentinels in the fire trench should note spot where flare was sent up and abstain from firing unless enemy is sighted out of his trenches.
50.--His machine guns.
If a machine gun opens fire from the trench opposite, try to locate it through the light and sound at night, through sound and actual sight during the day.
Fire a converging volley of two rounds in its direction, and repeat, but not over six rounds if unsuccessful.
At the same time let trench mortars fire bombs in the same direction.
51.--His field and trench artillery fire.
If enemy's artillery fires upon trenches (Cf.
par.
69 ff.)
AN ATTACK.
THE REPULSE.
52.--A threatened raid.
As has been stated (par.
15 and 22) in case enemy patrols approach, volleys of two, then of three rounds should be fired.
Keep cool.
Do not fire prematurely.
53.--Fire above parapet.
The firing should be done over the parapet and not through the loopholes.
54.--When alarm is given.
If the sentinels report that an attack is developing, every one on duty takes his post.
55.--Flares.
Flares are sent up from each section.
56.--Trench Mortars.
Trench mortars fire bombs with the first volley.
57.--How to repulse an attack.
If the attack materializes, repeat volleys and trench mortar discharge and open fire with the machine guns.
(On dark nights, in covered terrain, the machine guns should be fired with the first volley.)
58.--Use of hand grenades.
Hand grenades should be thrown as soon as the enemy is within 30 yards.
The grenadiers of the odd number squads should aim to throw their grenades upon the assailants while those of the even number squads should try to establish a barrage by throwing behind the assailants.
59.--Use of trench mortars.
The trench mortars are aimed at the enemy's trench.
60.--Use of the machine guns.
The machine guns fire directly at the assailants, with slight differences in height of aim, (knee high, waist high, etc.)
according to the directions previously given to each man.
61.--Fire Control.
Carefully keep fire rifle under control and avoid wasting ammunition.
Never fire without aiming.
If the ground ahead is flat, aim waist-high; if it slopes down, aim close to the soil; if it slopes up, aim at height of chest.
62.--Repulse with the bayonet.
If some of the enemy reach the trench, dispose of them with the bayonet.
63.--Save ammunition.
Cease firing and abstain from further firing as soon as the attack is repulsed.
THE COUNTER ATTACK.
64.--Immediate.
It should follow immediately upon the successful repulse of the attack.
65.--Counter attack formation.
It should be developed in the following formation: 1st.
Grenadiers armed only with a bayonet, a bowie knife, a revolver and a full stock of grenades.
With them a few men with pliers for wire cutting.
2nd.
Next a skirmish line of riflemen with a full supply of ammunition.
3rd.
Lastly, a line of men with entrenching tools.
[B] 66.--Method of advance.
Proceed by short leaps making use of available protection and crawl flat on the ground in approaching the enemy's trench.
67.--Capture of the enemy's fire trench.
After the defenders in the fire trench are killed, jump in, throw bombs into the dugouts, pursue the enemy into the support and communication trenches.
68.--Organize it against the enemy.
Let then the engineers block up to the right and left the captured trench and organize it rapidly against the enemy, making it face about (through changing the parados into a parapet).
The enemy is pursued as far as possible and kept away while fatigue parties from the rear bring up all necessary ammunition, sand bags, barbed wire, etc., carrying back all the captured enemy material.
Other fatigue parties start at once to connect the former fire trench with the captured trench by communication trenches.
FOOTNOTE: [B] Modifications of this formation have since been adopted.
Cf.
Works cited in preface.
CONCERNING ARTILLERY.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST ENEMY'S ARTILLERY.
69.--Artillery Bombardment.
Whether preliminary to, in connection with, or independent of an infantry attack, the enemy may make use of his artillery.
This bombardment may be directed against the fire trench or back of the fire-trench.
70.--Case I.--Bombardment of the Fire Trench.
71.--All in shelter except sentinels.
Leave in the fire trench the necessary sentinels.
Station all the other men in the shelters of the support trench, or along the communication trench, if there are no shelters, but fully equipped and ready to jump to their places in the fire trench as soon as the enemy's artillery fire will stop or lengthen to allow his infantry to advance.
72.--Fire to impede observation.
All through the bombardment, the sentinels should fire at all objects in the distance which may be used as observation posts.
The machine guns should cooperate with a slow sweeping fire.
73.--Case II.--Bombardment back of Fire Trench.
74.--Watch for infantry attack.
All should stand to in the fire trench watching for a possible infantry attack and for a possible shortening of the enemy's bombardment.
If it occurs, proceed as in Case I.
75.--Prevent observation.
Fire against possible observation posts as in Case I.
USE OF TRENCH ARTILLERY.
76.--Use with a purpose.
Whatever trench artillery appliances are provided, bomb-throwers, trench mortars, catapults, etc., they should never be used hap-hazard, but always with great deliberation and forethought.
Have a distinct end in view and watch for the best opportunity to attain it.
Such definite aims may be: to interfere with a relief, a fatigue, a trench construction or repair, to destroy accessory defences, etc.
77.--Keep it ready.
Let the mortars, etc., be kept loaded and trained on the target selected, ready to be fired instantly.
The crews should be near at hand and a sentinel posted to watch for a favorable opportunity.
78.--Save ammunition.
Until this opportunity occurs, do not fire.
79.--Have several emplacements.
Several emplacements should be provided so that mortars, etc., may be removed as soon as they have obtained desired results or been located by the enemy.
The trench mortar commander should make it his business to study carefully all possibilities for effective emplacements and should inspire his men to be alert and quick to improve opportunities.
80.--Use of machine guns.
The machine guns should likewise be handled as a mobile weapon and not be used merely from elaborate carefully concealed emplacements commanding otherwise uncovered ground or enfilading communication trenches, etc.
[C] 81.--Use of hand grenades.
Hand grenades may be listed as trench artillery.
The temptation is to use them too freely.
Like other ammunition they should never be wasted and always used with a definite aim.
FOOTNOTE: [C] Captain Hanguillart treats this important subject very summarily.
Cf.
Cole & Schoonmaker's Military Instructor's Manual p. 319.
He also barely mentions Gas attacks.
Cf.
very complete treatment in same work, p. 356 to 370.
FIELD ARTILLERY COOPERATION.
82.--Communications with the artillery.
Should be permanent so that it may cooperate whether to repulse an enemy's attack, to silence his artillery, to damage his defences or to prepare and protect an attack or a counter attack.
83.--Observations posts.
To avoid a waste of ammunition, and attain the desired result as well as to prevent the artillery fire from falling short upon one's own trenches, artillery observation posts should be provided in the fire trench or at one of the outposts.
84.--Artillery fire falling short.
In case artillery fire does fall short upon one's own trenches, communicate at once with artillery commander and proceed as when bombarded by enemy.
(Cf.
69 ff.)
85.--Artillery preparation of infantry attack.
Special caution should be exercised in the case of a raid against the enemy's trench.
Make sure that the artillery preparation has secured the desired result.
Synchronize carefully the infantry advance and the lengthening of the artillery fire.
DAILY SCHEDULE.
86.--Rosters and schedules.
Throughout the stay in the trenches, the various fatigues should be assigned by roster and carried out according to schedule.
The following schedule has been found practical: 7 A.M. (6 A.M. in summer).
87.--Cleaning of trenches.
Have trenches cleaned of all rubbish, latrines disinfected, drinking water supplied.
88.--Collecting of broken equipment.
All cartridge shells, broken tools, etc.
should be collected.
89.--Requisition Report.
A list of the supplies and ammunition needed should be drawn up.
90.--Report on night activities.
Full report should be brought to the company commander, covering the work of the patrols and of the fatigue parties, and giving full details of all that has happened during the night.
91.--Report on casualties.
Also the list of casualties in the last twelve hours with full names and nature of wound if possible.
92.--Disposal of property of dead and wounded.
The arms and complete equipment of the wounded should be sent out with them.
The arms and equipment of the killed should be sent to the battalion commander.
Their personal effects; money, papers, letters, etc., should be carefully collected, listed, and sent to the sergeant-major.
8 A.M.
93.--Sick Parade.
The men able to walk are taken to the doctor's dugout by an N.C.O.
4 P.M.
94.--Assignment of patrols.
Assign night patrols from roster.
Point out itinerary while light permits.
Have neighbouring sectors advised of same.
(8.
P.M.) 95.--Inspections.
Inspection of sentinels in fire trench.
Inspection of ammunition supplies.
TURNING OVER THE TRENCHES.
THE RELIEF.
96.--In the afternoon and in each section: Have all the tools and supplies collected and list drawn up ready to hand over to successor against receipt for same.
Inspect equipment of men that they may be taken out completely.
Check up exact itinerary of relief in and out.
97.--At the time of relief: Have rifles inspected and emptied.
Give strict orders for silence.
Follow same marching order as when coming in.
Have officer march in rear.
98.--On reaching billets.
Have the roll called and sent to the officer of the day.
Have rifles inspected.
THE DAY AFTER THE RELIEF.
99.--Replace equipment.
Have all arms cleaned and oiled.
Have broken arms turned in and others issued.
Inspect shoes, clothes, equipment, tools, and replace when needed.
Have special inspection of gas-masks and replace if needed.
100.--Sanitation.
Have underwear washed, and personal cleanliness attended to, baths, hair-cuts, etc.
Have premises kept clean and latrines disinfected daily.
OUT OF THE TRENCHES.
101.--Specialists' Instruction.
While in rest billets: Have all specialists' instruction continued: sharpshooters, bomb-throwers, signallers, etc.
102.--Bayonet exercises.
Should be given special attention.
103.--Close and extended order drill and marching give the men needed exercise.
104.--Relaxation.
should also be provided: in the form of games, contests, entertainments, etc.
They help to keep the men "fit."
105.--Efficiency.
The company commander should make it is his constant concern that his men be kept at the highest possible point of efficiency.
QUESTIONS.
The following questions are topical.
Supplements to the answers found in this book should be looked for in the larger works referred to in the preface.
Trench Life and Trench Warfare.
1.--What inspections should be made on the day before the relief?
2.--State orders to be issued one hour before departure.
3.--What may be the marching orders, on the way to the trenches?
4.--Describe precautions to be taken against enemy's fire, against aeroplanes.
5.--What other precautions should be taken?
6.--What should the company commander attend to on reaching the trenches?
7.--What possible improvements of trenches are obviously called for?
8.--What special attention should be given the parapet?
9.--Give rules for drainage and sanitation.
10.--What precautions may be taken against capture of fire-trench?
11.--What does trench warfare correspond to in open warfare?
12.--What does the safety of a sector depend on?
13.--What is the fundamental duty in trench warfare?
14.--What rule determines the number of men to be posted in the fire-trench?
15.--Sum up their orders about firing before open terrain, before covered terrain.
16.--What is meant by double sentinels?
17.--Why is listening attentively even more important than keeping a sharp look out?
18.--Why should the sentinels refrain from answering the enemy's fire?
19.--What is expected of the men in the listening posts?
20.--When should the sentinels fire on a clear night?
When, on a dark night?
21.--What should the sentinels do, if they hear the enemy's digging?
22.--When and where are sharpshooters posted and what is their duty?
23.--What information may patrols bring back?
24.--When should patrols be sent out and how should they be assigned?
25.--What should the sentinels along a sector know about the patrols, and the several possible patrols know about one another?
26.--Describe dress and equipment of men on patrols.
27.--Describe their method of advance.
28.--What should they do on encountering a hostile patrol?
29.--What should be the motto of men on patrol?
30.--What are some of the most useful informations about the enemy, you should try to obtain?
31.--What motto should you have about ammunition?
32.--Describe several ways of leading enemy to waste ammunition.
33.--What is the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate ruses?
34.--On what principle is the enemy's ruse of the use of blank cartridges based?
35.--How may this ruse be foiled?
36.--What should the sentinels, and what should the men on patrol do, when the enemy sends up flares?
37.--How should the enemy's machine gun fire be answered?
An Enemy's Attack.
38.--Describe procedure when enemy's patrols are sighted by sentinels and when an attack develops.
39.--When are the trench mortars and the machine guns fired?
40.--How are hand grenades thrown?
41.--Where should the rifle fire be aimed?
42.--When are bayonets used?
43.--Is it sufficient to repulse an attack?
44.--What formation should be adopted for the counter attack?
45.--How is the advance made and the counter attack carried out?
46.--Describe what is meant by organization of a newly conquered trench.
47.--What should be done, if the enemy bombards the fire-trench?
48.--What should the sentinels do?
49.--What should be done if the bombardment is back of the fire-trench?
50.--What general rule applies to the use of all trench artillery?
51.--What are its ordinary objectives?
52.--How are trench mortars handled?
53.--What is meant by calling trench-artillery mobile weapons?
54.--Give a general caution for the use of all ammunition.
55.--What is essential to secure effective artillery fire?
56.--What should be done if one's own artillery fire falls short upon one's own trenches?
57.--How is coordination between artillery and infantry secured in case of a raid?
58.--What are the principal items of the morning schedule, of the afternoon schedule?
59.--Describe the preparations for leaving the trenches.
60.--What orders are given at the time of relief?
61.--What is done before the men are dismissed to their billets?
62.--How should the days in rest billets be utilized?
63.--Describe a typical day in the trenches.
64.--Describe a typical day in rest billets.
65.--What should be the supreme aim alike of men and officers?
Part II.
French Infantry Combat Principles.
FRENCH INFANTRY COMBAT PRINCIPLES.
OPEN WARFARE.
106.--Is open warfare probable?
It is improbable that in this war trench warfare will definitely give place on all sectors of the front to open warfare.
But the tactics that have forced several retirements will force others.
If sufficient troops are available, tried and fit and resolute, with the necessary quantities of ammunition and improved artillery, we shall see German arrogance and brutality in victory become again cringing fear and demoralization in defeat; the experience of the Marne will be repeated and the invaders will be driven out of the territory they swarmed over through treacherous breaking of treaties.
107.--The need of training in Infantry Combat Principles.
That day the infantry will come again unto its own and its dash and resolution will insure victory.
To achieve it, it must be a well trained infantry, in the old sense of the word.
Officers, non-commissioned officers and men must have a thorough and practical knowledge of Infantry Combat Principles.
These should be practiced in the intervals of trench service when the battalion is in rest billets.
Their theory should be thoroughly mastered by all on whom may devolve responsibility.
108.--The two phases of the Combat.
We shall study here the two principal phases of the combat: the approach and the attack, from the point of view of the company commander.
109.--The Defense.
We shall also consider the Combat from the standpoint of the Defense.
THE APPROACH.
110.--All maneuvering at close range impossible.
In the attack, the infantry can proceed only straight ahead.
Under infantry fire all maneuvering is impossible.
Therefore by "approach" is meant all maneuvering preparatory to the attack: It brings the troops directly in front of and as near as possible to the objective.
PRELIMINARY DISPOSITIONS TO START THE APPROACH.
111.--The orders to attack.
The company commander will receive his orders from the battalion commander.
112.--Equipment and Liaison.
In the meanwhile let the lieutenants: a) make sure that the men are fully equipped and provided with full allotment of ammunition; b) appoint and parade connecting files (runners) to await orders.
113.--Distribution of Orders.
The company commander having received his orders from the battalion commander, will then call his subordinates and issue his own orders accordingly, including the formation to be adopted.
114.--Combat patrols.
He will make sure that there are combat patrols on the exposed flank or flanks and to the front and rear if need be.
It is well to have combat patrols detach automatically.
It may be understood, once for all, that, without further orders, the first squad will cover in front, the second to the right, the third to the left, the fourth to the rear, whenever needed.
Still, the officer in charge should make sure that this arrangement is carried out.
A combat patrol, if not a full advance guard, will thus always precede a unit and be the first to take contact with the enemy.
115.--Officers as guides.
The officers serve as guides to their units, until deployment, a mounted officer in liaison with the advance guard or advanced combat patrol checking up the itinerary.
116.--Keep Close Order as long as possible.
The advance of a company into an engagement is conducted in close order, preferably columns of squads, until possible observation by the enemy or encountering of hostile fire makes it advisable to deploy.
Deployment should not be premature and should always follow upon the conditions arising during the progress of the advance.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST HOSTILE ARTILLERY.
AGAINST SILENT ARTILLERY.
117.--Nearing artillery which may open fire.
About two or three miles from the positions liable to be occupied by the enemy's field artillery, precautions should be taken against the possibility of its opening fire.
118.--Deployment.
Deployments should be adopted best suited to escape observation: 119.--To escape direct observation: March in single or double file, the whole section[D] keeping closed up so as to diminish the number of files seen from the front.
120.--Under aeroplane observation: Avoid especially the center of roads as they show white, utilize on the contrary the spaces between cultivated fields of different colors, make use of all possible cover, trees, shrubs, ditches, embankments.
Always walk in the shade when possible.
If hostile aeroplanes are flying low, halt and lie down on left side, hiding face in elbow.
FOOTNOTE: [D] The French "section" comprises 54 men.
It is thus equivalent to 7 squads, and may be considered as 2 platoons.
CROSSING A BOMBARDED ZONE.
121.--Case I.
Artillery opening fire to register.
A registering fire is easily recognized as the German artillery registers either with a single percussion shell at a time, or with two time-shells at three seconds interval.
In the German field gun, the setting of the angle of sight[E] and of the elevation[F] involves two operations.
122.--Oblique to right then to left.
Therefore infantry under registering fire should oblique forward rapidly.
123.--Case II: Artillery opening fire for effect.
The zone has necessarily been previously registered.
Such a zone is easily recognized by the presence of shell holes.
124.--Avoid Zone if possible.
It should be avoided and the advance made on its outskirts.
125.--The five cases of fire for effect.
If this cannot be done and the fire for effect materializes five cases are to be distinguished as the shells may be: 1.
Shrapnel shells bursting at right height; 2.
Shrapnel shells bursting high; 3.
Time-Fuse high explosive shells bursting at right height; 4.
Time-Fuse high explosive shells bursting high; 5.
Percussion high explosive shells.
126.--Case 1.
Burst Area of Shrapnel shells bursting at right height.
The area of burst is about 250 to 300 yards in length and 30 yards in width, half the bullets falling on the first 50 yards of the beaten zone.
127.--Protective Formation against Shrapnel.
Advance in line of section, in single or double file keeping as closed up as possible with 30 yards intervals between sections.
The second line should be 250 to 300 yards behind the first.
128.--Case 2.
Shrapnel shells bursting high.
Much less dangerous than when bursting at right height as initial speed of bullets is spent.
Same formation as for Case 1.
129.--Case 3.
Burst area of Time-fuse high explosive shells bursting at right height.
The area of burst is opposite to that of shrapnel: short depth, large width, only 7 to 10 yards depths as opposed to 60 to 100 yards in width.
130.--Protective Formation against Time-fuse high explosives.
Advance in line of section, single or double file, keeping as closed up as possible with 60 to 100 yards intervals between sections.
The second line may be 15 yards behind the first.
131.--Case 4.
High explosive shells bursting high.
The depth of the area of burst is longer than when shells burst at the right height; therefore widen interval between the lines.
132.--Case 5.
Burst area of percussion high explosive shells.
The radius of the explosion is only about 25 yards but the local effect is intense and the displacement is effective in more than double the radius.
133.--Protective Formation against percussion high explosive shells.
Advance in line of section in double file, keeping as closed up as possible, with about 100 yards intervals between sections.
The second line may be about 50 yards behind the first.
FOOTNOTES: [E] Inclination of the line of sight to the horizontal.
[F] The vertical inclination of the gun.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS AGAINST ALL TYPES OF EFFECTIVE FIRE.
134.--Dangerous to stop, useless to run.
Do not stop in a zone under fire for effect as lying down only provides a larger target.
If absolutely obliged to stop, remain standing and packed together like sardines, maintaining above formations and intervals.
It is useless to run, but, as much as possible, advance steadily.
135.--Protective Formation against all types of shells.
As may appear from the study of the above the following formation and intervals will afford the best protection against all types and combinations of types of shells, as a shell will never affect more than one section.
Advance in lines of sections in double file, keeping as closed up as possible, with 85 to 110 yards intervals[G] between sections.
The second line should be 250 to 300 yards behind the first.
FOOTNOTE: [G] All through this chapter, maximum intervals are given.
They may have to be shortened to secure closer order at the expense of greater safety.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE APPROACH.
USE OF WOODS AS SHELTER ON THE ADVANCE.
136.--Avoid if small.
They should be used to advance or halt only if they are of considerable size.
Then, they hide movements and provide some shelter from fire.
On the contrary, when they are small, they are to be avoided as they draw artillery fire and do not offer sufficient protection.
137.--Liaison difficult.
When advancing in woods, special care should be taken to keep all fractions connected.
138.--Exit quickly at one time.
To exit from wood, take all necessary dispositions under cover so that, on the signal of the commander, all fractions may be ready to spring out together.
They should continue to advance forward, as rapidly as possible, to avoid the enemy's likely shelling of the outskirts.
138.--Otherwise exit in different places.
If the exit cannot be made by all fractions at one time, the elements of the second line should avoid coming out at the same point as those of the first line.
TO CROSS A CREST.
139.--Cross altogether and rapidly.
Let the line of sections assemble at top of crest, crouching carefully below the sky line.
Then, upon concerted signal, all should leap quickly across and down the descending slope, making as extended bounds as possible.
This makes crossing fairly safe as even the infantry will have to modify both its elevation and angle of sight for every new position of this quickly moving target.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CAVALRY.
140.--Cavalry Patrols.
During the whole "approach" watch should be kept for possible cavalry patrols.
The elements acting as advance guard and flank guards or as combat patrols have as part of their special mission to keep the cavalry away from the main body.
141.--Face and Fire.
To repulse cavalry, the infantry must be able to face quickly toward the charging horsemen and furnish a heavy fire.
142.--Protective formations.
If cavalry patrols are expected ahead, deployment as skirmishers will secure this, if on the flanks, deploy in columns of squads marching in double file.
A formation in echelon is effective at all times.
143.--Repulsing the charge.
If cavalry appears, stop, face the charge quickly, fix bayonets and fire at will, the section leaders controlling the fire.
144.--In case of surprise.
If surprised, deploy quickly and lie down.
THE ATTACK.
THE TERMINATION OF THE APPROACH.
145.--The Objective.
The standard objective of a battalion is a maximum front of 550 yards.
146.--Determination of the Objective.
On nearing the objective the battalion commander reconnoiters rapidly to determine the number of companies to put in the front line and the part of the objective to be assigned to each.
147.--Horses sent back.
Mounted officers now send back their horses to reserve battalion.
148.--Assignment of position to companies.
The battalion commander assigns to each company its part of the objective and the position from which it is to start the attack.
149.--Getting into position for the attack.
The orders are given verbally by the battalion commander to the captains and by the captains to the company usually through the platoon leaders as the company is not in close order.
150.--Deployment before infantry fire.
As soon as the zone swept by the infantry fire of the enemy is reached (about 1000 yards) deployment as skirmishers becomes imperative.
151.--Methods of advance.
Keep on advancing toward positions for the attack by fractions, varying method according to the terrain; short rushes, crawling, making use of all possible cover.
152.--Position of officers.
The battalion commander and the captains march with the supports, the battalion commander controlling the despatch of reinforcements.
As soon as the supports are all sent forward they march with the fraction nearest the enemy.
153.--Liaison.
A connecting file (runner) accompanies the battalion commander and each of the captains.
THE FIRE ATTACK.
154.--The time to fire.
It is determined by the casualties.
155.--The order to fire.
It is given by the captains; (only in case of extreme emergency by a subaltern.)
156.--Fire Control.
The section leaders, under the direction of the captain; control the fire: classes of firing, volley firing, firing at will; the target (the nearest hostile troops within the sector of the objective being the usual target); the range, the opening and cessation of fire in volley fire.
157.--Fire observation.
The section leaders are helped in their observation of the fire effect by observers standing besides them.
The fire is usually directed independently by section or half section.
158.--Verification of range.
In principle, the corporals do not take part in the fire but verify the range and direction of the fire of their respective squads.
ADVANCING THE FIRING LINE.
159.--Methods of advance.
To advance the firing line in attack, all means are good: by section, half-section, squad, the only condition being that it be by commanded fractions.
160.--Closing in to replace casualties.
As men fall, the rest close in toward the section leader, the sections rectifying intervals on the sections furthest advanced (the captain is with this section, all sections being now in line.)
161.--Closing in on the battalion front.
The several companies rectify intervals in the same way on the furthest advanced company (the battalion commander being with this company).
162.--Seize every opportunity to advance.
Every propitious occasion to advance should be seized at once by the various elements of the line: greater effectiveness of the neighboring section's fire, slackening fire of the enemy, effects of artillery, etc.
163.--Each fraction protects advance of neighbor.
The movement forward of each fraction of the line should be protected by the fire of the neighboring fraction.
164.--Keep fit to fire accurately.
The fraction leader, after each rush forward, should give time to the men to get back their breath so that they may fire with careful aim.
165.--Liaison with the Captain.
The captain should be kept informed by a conventional signal as to the need of ammunition, etc.
USE OF MACHINE GUNS IN THE ATTACK.
166.--During the Approach.
Use them judiciously but boldly.
They should advance as first units.
167.--During the fire attack.
Strive to keep abreast or ahead of the most advanced elements especially on the flanks.
168.--During the charge.
Try to have them reach the objective with the firing line and contribute to the pursuit.
THE COMPANY SUPPORTS.
169.--In liaison with the captain.
The sections kept in support are at the disposition of the captain.
170.--Method of advance.
Under the command of the section leader, they advance, in double file, at proper intervals or deployed, according to their proximity to the enemy and according to the terrain (covered or uncovered).
171.--Distance from the firing line.
They should be about 250 yards behind the firing line to whose movements they conform.
172.--Supplying the firing line.
The section leaders keep in sight of the captain and upon his signaled command advance into the firing line either to fill up a gap or to reinforce a section.
173.--When filling a gap.
They advance as far as possible ahead of the line.
174.--Reinforcing.
They come up with a rush and shout to rehearten the line.
THE COMPANIES IN SUPPORT.
175.--Position.
They are kept out of range of the enemy's fire upon the firing line but near enough to interfere as soon as called upon.
176.--Liaison with battalion commander.
The captains keep in touch with the battalion commander.
177.--Advance into action.
These companies advance into the fire zone with the necessary precautions, either by fractions or entire, taking advantage of favorable conditions: inefficiency of the enemy's fire, effectiveness of the firing line, etc.
THE CHARGE.
178.--The final aim.
The charge is the final aim of the whole attack.
Its success means the defeat of the enemy.
179.--Caution.
It should not be launched too soon.
180.--By whom ordered.
The order may come directly from the commander of the attacking line or be solicited by any of his subordinates.
181.--Method of advance.
Fix bayonets, advance, stop to fire, advance again, but always so as to arrive on the enemy's position without being out of breath.
THE PURSUIT.
182.--One essential rule.
It should be vigorously pressed.
183.--Organize new position.
In the meanwhile the conquered position should be organized.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE ATTACK.
ATTACK OF A WOOD.
184.--First objective.
In the attack of a wood, the first objective should be the outskirts.
Concentrate the first effort on the salients.
185.--Method of Advance.
As soon as the wood is penetrated, advance quickly forward, utilizing all roads, paths and trails.
The company advances by sections or half sections, in single or double file, preceded by strong patrols.
Every effort should be made to close in with the bayonet.
186.--Outflanking.
The companies or fractions on the flank strive to outflank the enemy so as to attack him on the flank or from behind.
187.--Frontal Attack.
The companies or fractions in the center try to get across the wood as quickly as possible, or, at least, to reach a clearing.
ATTACK OF A VILLAGE.
188.--First Objective.
In the attack of a village, the first objective should be the nearest outskirt.
189.--Organize.
Consolidate this first position as soon as conquered.
Signal to the artillery to lengthen the range.
190.--Frontal attack.
Then try to gain as rapidly as possible the opposite end.
191.--Outflanking.
The flanking units endeavor to encircle the objective.
192.--Against interior defense.
If the defense has been strongly organized inside the village, fight forward step by step.
Blow up the obstacles with explosives.
193.--Cooperation of Artillery.
Have artillery bring up a few guns within close range.
ATTACK OF A DEFILE.
194.--When defended in front.
If it is defended in front, try to advance rapidly by one or both flanks, small fractions only attacking on the valley bottom, while the greater part of the attacking force progresses on the heights on either side, the flanks striving to keep forward so as to reach the other end before the defenders and encircle them.
195.--When defended in rear.
If the defile is defended at the farther end, as in the case of a bridge, echelon units (properly covered) for heavy concentrated fire from the bank held and cross the bridge on the run and in small groups.
NIGHT ATTACKS.
196.--Of limited scope.
They must be confined to simple movements over easy ground.
197.--Orders to be given.
They must be carefully prepared secretly beforehand in every detail.
The orders must include detailed particulars on the role of each unit or fraction of units, precise data on the rallying points and on the signals to be used.
198.--Small units used.
For many reasons, chief among which is the difficulty of handling large units at night and maintaining contact, small units should be used.
199.--A battalion the maximum.
The fire of the adversary being negligible at night, there is seldom any advantage in putting more than a battalion in line against a given objective, the quality, discipline and cohesion of the troops making up for the number.
200.--Special precaution.
Before beginning the approach, carefully secure all arms and utensils so as to prevent noise.
Fix bayonets.
201.--Method of advance.
Walk in double files on sides of roads, never in the center.
Otherwise as long as practicable, in columns of squads.
202.--Liaison.
Commands are to be transmitted in a low voice by connecting files.
203.--To secure surprise.
Keep absolute silence.
Forbid all lights.
No smoking allowed.
204.--Reconnaissance.
The itinerary should be reconnoitered beforehand, if possible, and index stakes planted; otherwise an officer should precede with a luminous compass and men to plant the stakes.
205.--No fire before charge.
Do not answer the enemy's fire until the charge.
206.--Quickness essential.
Success depends above all on the rapidity and continuity of the advance.
Get there as quickly as possible.
THE DEFENSE.
DEFENSE OF POINTS d'APPUIS: WOODS, VILLAGES, DEFILES.
DEFENSE OF WOODS.
207.--Distribution of Troops.
The commander should distribute his command so as to provide a defense of the outskirts, an interior defense and reserves for a counter attack.
208.--The outskirt defense.
The outskirts defense troops should organize their positions and remain hidden near the combat emplacements until the attack is announced as impending by their sentinels.
209.--The interior defense.
The interior defense troops should organize their positions (abatis, barb-wire) on the edges of clearings and other open spaces so as to secure convergent fire.
210.--The Reserves.
The counter-attack reserves should be placed in the rear and on the outside of the flank best suited for launching a counter attack.
They should proceed to organize the ground so as to prevent the enemy from issuing from the wood, and should strive to keep on.
DEFENSE OF A VILLAGE.
211.--Distribution of Troops.
The same as for the defense of a wood.
212.--The exits.
The outskirts defense organization should include trenches and accessory defences before all the exits.
These should be strongly barricaded.
213.--Interior strong point.
The interior defense should be organized about the houses most strongly built and least visible to the enemy's artillery.
It should include hidden communications between these strong points, thus facilitating a prolonged defense.
214.--Special precautions.
The streets should be barricaded and loopholes provided in the walls of the houses.
Precautions should be taken against fire: pails of water, boxes of sand provided in the houses.
DEFENSE OF A DEFILE.
215.--To keep the exits open for an advance.
If the aim is to keep the exits open so as to permit the advance of troops, the defense should be organized at some distance in front of the defile: far enough to permit the unimpeded progress of the advance.
216.--To keep exits open for a retreat.
If the aim is to keep the exits open so as to cover the retreat of troops, the roads at the bottom of the defile should be left free and the defense troops so placed as to draw the enemy's fire on other points.
217.--To block the defile.
If the aim is to block the defile, the defense should be organized in the interior of the defile on both sides of the place of greatest width, so as to secure convergence of fire.
Echelon detachments all along the defile to act as a rear guard in case a retreat is necessary.
Keep the flanks well protected.
NIGHT DEFENSE OF A POSITION 218.--Precautions against attack.
Attack should be guarded against by accumulating obstacles and the defense further prepared by previous reconnoitering of the best ground for counter-attacks.
219.--Receive with violent fire and immediate counterattacks.
The enemy's charge should be met with a violent fire at the shortest possible range, followed immediately by counter-attacks with the bayonet, especially on the flanks.
THE COUNTER ATTACK.
220.--Confine to definite Objective.
Indicate the objective very definitely including the position to be reached but not gone beyond.
Its direction should not interfere with the fire of neighboring troops.
221.--Necessary Reconnaissance.
The Counter Attack should be prepared cautiously and the itinerary carefully, even if rapidly, reconnoitered.
(This may have been done as part of the preparation of the defense.
It should be done with special care if the counter-attack is to take place at night.)
222.--Watch for opportunity.
It may be decided upon independently of the incidents of the defense or to take advantage of the mistakes or weakness of the adversary.
223.--Counter from short distance.
The most favorable moment is when the enemy is within a short distance and its artillery consequently obliged to stop or to lengthen its fire.
224.--Sudden and intense fire.
It should be launched suddenly so as to surprise the enemy and pushed vigorously, the fire being increased to great intensity along the whole front.
225.--Rapid and continuous advance.
Rapidity and continuity of advance is essential.
226.--Bayonet charge.
Its culmination is the bayonet charge against the prescribed definite objective.
227.--Stop!
Hold this objective once conquered but do not go beyond.
228.--Dash under Discipline.
Let the motto be always, but here especially: "DASH UNDER DISCIPLINE."
QUESTIONS.
The following questions cover the principles of combat in open warfare.
These principles have been supplemented rather than changed in the light of experience since 1914.
In their original form, as given in this book, they still may be considered as fundamental.
Compare them carefully with the treatment of the same topics in the larger works recommended.
The questions are shaped to cover the topics supplemented.
1.--What is the difference between "trench warfare" and "open warfare"?
2.--What is meant by the "combat"?
3.--What are the two phases of the combat?
4.--What is the distinction between "the approach" and the "attack"?
5.--Why is maneuvering impossible under infantry fire?
6.--What is the purpose of the approach?
7.--How are orders issued?
8.--How is liaison secured?
9.--What were the original functions of combat patrols?
10.--When should close order be abandoned for deployment?
11.--At what distance from the enemy does deployment become imperative?
12.--What is the last formation to escape direct observation?
13.--What precautions may be taken against aeroplane observations?
14.--What is the difference between a registering fire and fire for effect?
15.--How may the German registering fire be recognized?
16.--What precaution may be taken against it and why is it effective?
17.--What preliminaries are necessary to open fire for effect?
18.--What is an easy way to recognize whether fire for effect may be expected?
19.--What five cases of fire may be distinguished?
20.--What is the burst area of a shrapnel shell?
21.--What is the safest protective formation against shrapnel?
22.--What is the difference between a shrapnel shell, a time-fuse high explosive shell and a percussion high explosive shell?
23.--What is the burst area of a time-fuse high explosive shell?
24.--What is the safest protective formation against it?
25.--What is the burst area of percussion high explosive shells, and what precautions can be taken against them?
26.--What is the safest protective formation against all types of shells?
27.--What objections may it be open to?
28.--What is the safest way and direction to go when under artillery fire?
29.--Why should small woods be avoided?
30.--In large woods, what precautions must be taken to secure a steady advance?
31.--How should the exit from a wood be made?
32.--Describe method of crossing a crest.
33.--What are good protective formations against cavalry and how is it repulsed?
34.--What elements have the mission to deal with cavalry patrols?
35.--What is meant by "the objective" in attack?
36.--What is the distinction between determining the objective and the position from which to start the attack?
37.--What is the distinction between "the approach" and getting into position for the attack?
38.--At what distance from the enemy does deployment as skirmishers become imperative?
39.--Describe method of advance toward positions for the attack.
40.--Where should the officers be during this advance?
41.--How is liaison (communication) secured between the various commands?
42.--What is meant by the fire attack?
44.--How is the time to fire determined?
45.--How are fire control and fire effect secured?
46.--How is the firing line advanced?
47.--How is it rectified?
48.--Why should care be taken not to have men out of breath?
49.--How should machine guns be made to contribute to the approach, the fire attack, the charge?
50.--How far should the company supports be from the firing line?
51.--Who commands them?
52.--How is the firing line reinforced?
53.--Describe the company supports going into the line to fill up a gap, to reinforce a section.
54.--Describe position and behavior of companies in support.
55.--What is the final stage of the whole attack?
56.--Who orders the charge and how is it made?
57.--What is the difference between the charge and the pursuit?
58.--What should be done with a newly conquered position?
59.--What is the first objective in attacking a wood?
60.--How does the aim of the troops on the wings differ from that of those in the center?
62.--Distinguish the different objectives in the attack of a village.
63.--Describe the attack to proceed through a defile in which the enemy is located.
64.--Describe the attack of a bridge.
65.--Why should night attacks be of limited scope?
66.--What special precautions should be taken?
67.--What is the largest unit advisable?
68.--How is surprise secured?
69.--Describe the methods of reconnaissance, advance and liaison for a night attack.
70.--Should the enemy's fire be answered in a night attack?
71.--What does the success of a night attack chiefly depend on?
72.--How should troops be distributed for the defense of woods and what is the function of each?
73.--Describe the distribution of troops for the defense of a village.
74.--How should the outskirts defense be organized?
75.--Describe the interior defense.
76.--How can a defile be kept open for an advance?
77.--How can a defile be safeguarded for a retreat?
78.--Give necessary orders for the blocking of a defile.
79.--Why should reconnoitering for counter attacks always be part of the organization for defense.
80.--Describe repulse of a night attack.
81.--Is an attack ever advisable without previous reconnaissance?
82.--Explain the importance of understanding the exact objective in a counterattack.
83.--What is the best time to launch a counter attack?
84.--What precautions must be taken to secure the success of a counter attack?
85.--What is a good motto under all conditions, but especially in the attack?
Appendix.
A Division Front in Trench Warfare.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
The following may be considered a standard scheme of distribution of troops, for trench warfare, in a fully developed trench system.
An infantry division is composed of two brigades, each brigade of two regiments, each regiment of three battalions.
Each brigade thus has six battalions, each battalion numbering 1026 officers and men, normally divided into four companies.
One battalion occupies about 1000 yards in ordinary trench warfare.
As reliefs must be frequent, three battalions of each brigade will be on duty, while the other three are in rest-billets, at least two miles back of the trenches.
Two of the battalions on duty occupy the trenches, the third is stationed about a mile back, in reserve.
A brigade can therefore hold about 2000 yards of trenches: two battalions in front line trenches, one battalion in reserve, and three battalions in rest billets.
Hence a division (two brigades) will hold a front of about 4000 yards.
Within each 1000 yards front, the distribution may be as follows: Three platoons of Companies A, B, and C occupy the dugouts of the cover trench and of the support trench and post sentinels by roster in the fire trench.
Platoon No.
4 of each company occupy the dugouts of the reserve trench, together with the entire Company D. Platoons and companies then relieve one another according to roster, a platoon of each company and an entire company, in turn, enjoying comparative rest in the reserve trench even during the stay of the battalion in the trenches.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.
The following is a description of the back areas of a divisional sector in which there has been no great changes since 1915.
There are still several hundred miles of such sectors.
The line at the top marks the beginning of the trench-system described in Plate I. being the entrance to the communication trenches.
Road a, b, with the river c, d, run at the bottom of a small valley surrounded by hills of about 80 ft. elevation.
A branch of the river runs from c. to e. and a railroad beside it, along road h, i, and crossing road j, k. A good size village is at D, a smaller one at C, hamlets at A and B.
The latter are about one mile back of the trenches, village C. about two miles and village D. between three and four.
Hamlets A and B have probably been heavily bombarded at the time line was established and have been evacuated by the civilians.
Village C. has received shells, but, if there has been no big attack in the sector, is in fair shape and some of the inhabitants remain.
Village D. may also have suffered from shells but probably most of the inhabitants remain.
Such villages may be clusters of farms or of cottages, depending upon the region.
If village is made up of cottages, farm houses will be found along the roads at frequent intervals.
The fields are likely to be under cultivation almost as far as road k, l. Villages A, B, C are used to billet the battalion in reserve of each brigade.
Village D. and the nearest villages further back are used as rest-billets by the battalions of the brigades who will relieve those in the trenches.
Near or in villages A, B and C or near hill E and G are located the transports of the infantry battalions in the trenches.
Supplies are sent daily to the trenches from this headquarters of the quartermaster and transport officer.
Somewhere along road k, l, or about hills E and G are hidden in gun pits the batteries of field artillery attached to the division.
The men live in dugouts alongside.
The camps for the horses, wagons and supply headquarters of these batteries are hidden in the woods or on the further slopes of hills E, F, G. In village D are very likely located the Brigades' headquarters and such services as the Field Ambulance and the Divisional Supply Departments.
The Y. M. C. A. recreation centers, divisional theatre, football fields, army canteens etc., are also located in village D or just back of it.
If the houses in the villages do not provide enough billets, huts and tents are erected.
Otherwise the officers are billeted in the houses of the inhabitants and the men in the barns.
The Divisional Headquarters, the Ammunition Column, the Artillery Brigade Headquarters, the Engineers, the Ammunition Dumps, etc., are strung out in the villages and along the roads just back of village D. The heavier artillery is also posted back of this line.
In sectors that have been the scenes of offensives the several elements remain in the same relation, but as the villages have been obliterated, shelters must be provided.
[The Editor.]
[Illustration: PLATE I--DIVISION FRONT--4000 yards (Trench System)] [Illustration: PLATE II--DIVISION FRONT (Back Areas)] * * * * * Transcriber's note: Varied hyphenation was retained, for example as fire trench and fire-trench, and counter attack, counterattack and counter-attack.
Obvious punctuation errors were corrected.
Page 3, Table of Contents, "74" changed to "73" to reflect the heading of "THE CHARGE."
Page 3, Table of Contents, "78" changed to "77" to reflect the heading of "NIGHT ATTACKS."
Page 3, Table of Contents, "74" changed to "83" to reflect the heading of "THE COUNTER ATTACK."
Page 7, "resourcefulnes" changed to "resourcefulness" (and resourcefulness) Page 12, final item under "3.--On the day of the relief" was formatted to match the rest of the items.
In the original it was typeset as a paragraph instead of as an item with a hanging indent.
Page 26, "offlcers" changed to "officers" (many reserve officers) Page 56, "preceed" changed to "precede" (always precede a unit) Page 63, a footnote marker was added to the text (110 yards intervals[G] between) Page 66, "controling" changed to "controlling" (the section leaders controlling) Page 68, "controling" changed to "controlling" (commander controlling the) Page 78, "or" changed to "of" (files on sides of) Page 87, "shapnel" changed to "shrapnel" (shrapnel shell, a time-fuse) Page 89, there is no question 43 on the list.
This was retained as printed.
book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)
_CONFIDENTIAL!_ _FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY_ SPECIMENS OF BRITISH TRENCH ORDERS ARMY WAR COLLEGE 1917 [Illustration] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 WAR DEPARTMENT, Document No.
590.
_Office of The Adjutant General._ WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, _May 15, 1917_.
The following specimens of British trench orders are published for the information of all concerned.
(2598135, A. G.
O.)
BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR: H. L. SCOTT, _Major General, Chief of Staff_.
OFFICIAL: H. P. McCAIN, _The Adjutant General_.
CANADIAN CORPS TRENCH ORDERS.
CONTENTS.
SUBJECT.
Paragraph.
Duties 1 Sentries 2 Rifles, equipment, and ammunition 3 "Stand to" 4 Bombs and grenades, care of 5 Machine guns 6 Firing at aeroplanes 7 Trench sides, undercutting of 8 Sanitation 9 Time-tables and organization of work 10 Log books and trench store books 11 Communications 12 Alertness 13 Rum 14 Arrangements in case of attack 15 Working parties on front trench 16 Working parties outside the front trench 17 Precaution when our mines are exploded 18 Ration parties when found from front trenches 19 Rations and cooking 20 Vermorel sprayers 21 Reliefs: General 22 Points to be noted by company commanders 23 Guides 24 Smoking and talking 25 Rate of march to trenches 26 Procedure on arrival in trenches 27 Engineers 28 Chilled feet and frostbite, prevention of 29 CANADIAN CORPS TRENCH ORDERS.
=1.
DUTIES.=--(_a_) One officer per company and one N. C. O. per platoon will always be on duty.
(_b_) By night the officer and N. C. O. on duty will frequently patrol the trench line to see that the sentries are alert and to inquire whether they have any information to report about the enemy.
[1] (_c_) The N. C. O. coming on duty will go round and post new sentries with the N. C. O. coming off duty.
(_d_) The length of each tour of duty will depend on the number of officers and N. C.
O.
's available in the company.
_Normally_ each tour should be, by night 2 hours, by day 4 hours, day commencing at morning "stand to," and by night commencing at evening "stand to."
In inclement weather it may be advisable to reduce the tour to 1 hour.
(_e_) N. C.
O.
's after posting sentries will report "All correct" or otherwise to the officer on duty.
(_f_) The officer on duty will be responsible for sending in the reports required by battalion headquarters, unless there is anything unusual to report, when this duty will be performed by the company commander.
(_g_) Men will be warned for duty by the platoon N. C. O. on duty.
This will be done at evening "stand to."
(_h_) On being detailed for duty a man will be informed at which hours he will come on duty.
(_i_) When possible to do so, notice boards will be placed in each section's trench, on which will be pinned daily all orders regarding working parties, and a list of the men in the section, giving the times at which they will come on sentry and other duty.
(_j_) Except under special circumstances, such, for instance, as a sentry being killed or wounded, no sentry will be relieved by another man unless the relief is properly carried out in the presence of a N. C. O.
=2.
SENTRIES=--=By night.=--(_a_) Sentries will be posted every 2 hours, except under bad weather conditions, when the length of the tour of sentry duty may be reduced.
(_b_) From evening "stand to" till morning "stand to" one sentry to every four men will be posted.
If wiring or digging parties are out in front, or listening posts are numerous, this number may be reduced.
(_c_) The next relief will remain within reach of the sentry.
(_d_) Every sentry is to be regularly posted by a N. C. O., who will explain to him his duties and the front to be watched, and ascertain that the sentry and his relief are aware of the position of the section and platoon commanders, the sentries on either side, and whether there are any patrols or working parties out in front.
Should there be salients in the line, the sentry will be carefully instructed, so as to avoid any possibility of him firing toward his own trenches.
(_e_) By night or in places which have the reputation of being dangerous, _i.e._, where enemy are suspected of mining, advanced posts, etc., no man should ever be posted alone.
There should either be a double sentry post or the next relief should rest within kicking distance of the sentry.
=By day.=--(_f_) The number of sentries required depends on the proximity of the enemy's trench line and whether a good view to the front can be obtained; normally one to every four days is sufficient.
(_g_) Every sentry will be provided with a periscope.
(_h_) Well-protected "look-out" posts for sentries will be built along the front trench line.
(_i_) _Sending out of patrols._--Patrols will never be sent out without definite orders as to what is required of them.
Patrols will go out via a listening post (if such exist).
All listening posts will be warned of the strength of the patrol and the approximate hour of departure and return.
Word will be passed _quietly_ along the line of sentries that a patrol is out in front.
(_j_) As little challenging as possible will be done by sentries, and then only in a low tone of voice.
=3.
RIFLES, EQUIPMENT, AND AMMUNITION.=--(_a_) _Carrying and wearing of._--Equipment will always be worn by men in front trenches.
(_b_) Ration and carrying parties, orderlies, etc., will wear bandoliers and carry rifles.
(_c_) Parties at work between the front-line and reserve trenches may be permitted to "pile" or "ground" arms.
Wiring and digging parties out in front of the fire trench will sling the rifle.
(_d_) _Loading of rifles._--Except when it is necessary to shoot, a round will _never_ be kept in the chamber.
Cut-offs will always be "in" and the safety catch "back."
(_e_) The magazine will be kept charged with five rounds.
(_f_) Bayonets will always be fixed in front-line trenches.
(_g_) _Care of rifles._--Rifles and ammunition will be inspected at morning and evening "stand to," and rapid loading will also be practiced.
(_h_) Covered rifle racks will be constructed in each bay where rifles will be kept.
Breech covers will be kept on the rifles.
(_i_) In very cold weather sentries will occasionally work the bolt of the rifle to prevent the striker becoming frozen.
For the same reason, in cold weather men will sleep with their rifles close to the body.
(_j_) All loading will be from pouch or bandolier; no ammunition must ever be placed on ground or parapet.
(_k_) _Disposal of rifles, equipment, and ammunition._--Wounded and men going sick will, if able to walk, wear their equipment and carry their rifles.
The rifles and equipment of men unable to carry them and also those of dead men will be sent back to the dressing station.
All other rifles, however badly damaged, and equipment damaged or not required will be sent back to the quartermaster.
Damaged cartridges and empty cases will be collected and returned to the quartermaster under company arrangements.
(_l_) _Ammunition._--Every man will have 170 rounds in his possession.
(_m_) Platoon commanders will report at evening "stand to" whether their ammunition is correct or otherwise.
=4.
"STAND TO.
"=--"Stand to" will take place 1 hour before daylight and 1 hour before dusk.
At this parade every available man will be present.
Rifles, ammunition, equipment, clothing, etc., will be inspected.
Rapid loading will be practiced.
The firing position of every man will be tested, to see whether he can hit the bottom edge of our wire.
Gas helmets and respirators will be inspected in accordance with the orders in force.
Orders will be issued and steps taken to see that the men understand them.
After "stand to" in the morning and before "stand to" in the evening rifles will be thoroughly cleaned and oiled.
=5.
CARE OF BOMBS AND GRENADES.=--(_a_) Only a small percentage of bombs will be kept in the front trenches.
These will be kept in a well-protected and dry bomb receptacle.
(_b_) Bomb stores will be built in the end of communication trenches in the support line.
(_c_) Detonators and fuzes, except in the front lines, will normally be kept in tins and not in the bomb.
(_d_) The battalion grenadier officer will make frequent inspection of all bombs and grenades.
(_e_) The alarm posts for grenadiers will be close to where the bomb stores are placed.
(_f_) No one, other than a grenadier, will interfere with the bombs and grenades.
(_g_) Ammunition boxes in the trenches will be examined frequently to see if the lids work easily.
=6.
MACHINE GUNS.=--(_a_) The concealment and protection of machine-gun emplacements is important--for this reason, except in case of emergency, machine guns will not be fired from their regular emplacements.
(_b_) Unless emplacements are well concealed, guns will not be mounted except between evening and morning "stand to."
(_c_) Two men per detachment will always be on duty with the gun.
(_d_) Before dusk, while there is still sufficient light, each gun will be laid on some particular spot either in or behind the enemy's front line.
(_e_) Range cards will be prepared and kept with each gun.
(_f_) _Machine guns in the front line should be reduced to a minimum sufficient to cover the front._ =7.
FIRING AT AEROPLANES.=--Firing at aeroplanes will not be permitted except by order of an officer.
=8.
UNDERCUTTING TRENCH SIDES.=--(_a_) The undercutting of trench sides to make shelters is forbidden.
(_b_) When shelters are made the required space from the ground level downward will be cut out and a roof supported on reliable posts will be made.
=9.
SANITATION.=--(_a_) The importance of strict attention to sanitation should be impressed on all ranks.
(_b_) Empty tins or other refuse will be collected in receptacles kept for the purpose in the trenches and buried in a refuse pit.
(_c_) Latrines will be constructed in trenches leading from communication trenches.
Where the bucket system is employed, chloride of lime or creosol will be freely used.
The soil will be removed at night and buried in a deep pit well away from the trenches; these pits will be filled in when nearly full and labeled.
(_d_) The commanding officer is responsible for sanitation in his unit and the medical officer will advise him in sanitary matters, making daily inspections of latrines, refuse pits, and water arrangements.
Under the medical officer latrines and refuse pits will be attended to by the regimental sanitary men and water duties by the R. A. M. C. details attached.
=10.
TIME-TABLES AND ORGANIZATION OF WORK.=--(_a_) A time-table will be drawn up by each company commander.
In this time-table he will allot hours of work, rest, and meals.
(_b_) Working parties will be properly organized.
Definite tasks will be allotted.
Each commander of a working party should know what work is expected from his party before the hour appointed to commence, so that no time is wasted in getting to work.
(_c_) Unless it can not be avoided, men should never be taken for sentry duty without having had a reasonable period of rest, and when this becomes necessary a report should be made to the C. O.
=11.
LOG BOOKS AND TRENCH STORE BOOKS.=--(_a_) Each company commander will keep a log book in which will be entered up daily the work done.
This log book will be handed over from one commander to another on relief.
(_b_) A trench store book will also be kept in which will be entered up all trench stores issued to the company.
On relief, the incoming company commander will give a receipt to the outgoing commander for all trench stores taken over.
(_c_) Commanding officers are personally responsible that no trench stores, bath mats, etc., are used as firewood.
=12.
COMMUNICATIONS.=--(_a_) Artillery lines will be laid on one side of a trench.
Infantry lines on the opposite side.
(_b_) The Infantry brigade signal officer will exercise general supervision over all lines in the brigade area, and will notify the orderly officer of the Artillery brigade when any Artillery lines require attention or relaying.
He will assist the Artillery whenever it may be possible to do so.
(_c_) Lines will be laid as low as possible, preferably not more than 9 inches from the bottom of the trench.
They will be picketed into grooves cut into the side of the trench, the pickets being securely driven in at every reentrant bend and at every 10 yards along the straight.
(_d_) Lines will be clearly labeled at every 100 yards and at every junction with another line.
(_e_) All lines will be carefully patrolled at least once daily.
(_f_) One telephonist will always be on duty.
(_g_) Telephone communication to battalion headquarters and the company on each flank will be frequently tested.
(_h_) All "dead" lines will be reeled up at once.
(_i_) Every man is to know the position of his platoon commander's shelter and the company headquarters.
(_j_) At least two men per section of the support and reserve companies must be able to act as guides to all the company headquarters of the battalion.
(_k_) All officers must know the shortest route from their own headquarters to those of the company on their flanks and to their own battalion headquarters.
(_l_) It is the duty of every officer or man to fasten any loose wire that he may see which has become temporarily detached.
=13.
ALERTNESS.=--Anything seen or heard in connection with the enemy, such as movements of individuals, transport wagons, troops, working parties, etc., is to be reported to the nearest officer.
=14.
RUM.=--(_a_) Rum will always be kept under the personal charge of the company commander.
(_b_) The best time for a rum issue is in the early morning.
(_c_) No issue of rum will be made except in the presence of an officer; any rum left over will be handed back to the charge of the company commander.
(_d_) Men undergoing punishment for drunkenness will receive no issue of rum for 14 days after the offense, unless it is necessary for medical reasons.
=15.
ARRANGEMENTS IN CASE OF ATTACK.=--(_a_) Company commanders will insure that all ranks know what to do in case of bombardment, gas, or attack by the enemy.
They will occasionally test their arrangements by practicing an alarm.
(_b_) All officers' servants, grenadiers, orderlies, etc., will have duties allotted to them in case of attack.
=16.
WORKING PARTIES.=--(_a_) All work on a fire trench will be carried out by the garrison of the trench, assisted, if necessary, by the garrison of the support and reserve trenches.
(_b_) All work in rear of fire trenches will be carried out by the garrison of the support and reserve trenches.
(_c_) If possible, working parties will consist of complete units, i.e., section, platoon, or company.
Each unit will be commanded by its own commander.
(_d_) Even when working under engineer supervision, Infantry officers in charge of working parties will be responsible that the work done satisfies tactical requirements.
=17.
WORKING PARTIES OUTSIDE THE FRONT TRENCH.=--(_a_) A covering party will always be provided for digging and wiring parties outside the front trenches.
=18.
PRECAUTION WHEN ONE OF OUR MINES IS EXPLODED.=--In the event of one of our own mines being exploded, a clear space of 5 yards will be kept on either side of the mouth of the mine shaft.
=19.
RATION PARTIES WHEN FOUND FROM FRONT TRENCHES.=--Usually, rations and stores will be carried up to the trenches by supports and reserves.
If this is not possible and it is necessary that men from the front trenches have to be employed, not more than 10 per cent of the men in the firing line are to be away from the trenches at the same time.
=20.
RATIONS AND COOKING.=--(_a_) Ration parties from the support and reserve trenches will be made up in complete units as in 16 (_c_).
(_b_) The company quartermaster sergeant will accompany the ration parties for his company and report his arrival to the company commanders.
(_c_) Great care is to be taken that ration and carrying parties make as little noise as possible.
(_d_) Cooking, if possible, will be done behind the front-line trenches and should be concentrated by sections or companies.
Steps must be taken to ensure that as little smoke as possible is made by the cooks' fires.
(_e_) Unused rations will be returned to the quartermaster.
(_f_) Waste in any form will be discouraged.
(_g_) Arrangements should be made to ensure that soup or some hot drink should be available for the men between midnight and 4 a. m. =21.
VERMOREL SPRAYERS.=--(_a_) Vermorel sprayers form part of trench stores.
They are provided for clearing gas out of trenches and shelters after an attack, and for respraying helmets if necessary during a prolonged gas attack.
(_b_) They will be distributed at easily accessible points in the trenches and protected from shell fire.
(_c_) They must be kept one-third full of water.
Six gallons of the following solution to be used in them must be kept in corked rum jars close to each sprayer.
It must not be kept in the sprayers owing to its corrosive nature: Water, 3 gallons (one large bucket).
Sodium thiosulphate (hypo), 6 lbs.
(two piled mess tins).
Sodium carbonate (washing soda), 2 lbs.
(one mess tin).
(_d_) Each company will have a squad of men in charge of an N. C. O. trained in the care and use of sprayers.
(_e_) On taking over trenches, the N. C. O. in charge of sprayers will take over from the outgoing N. C. O. and will see that each is in order and provided with solution.
(_f_) A man will be told off to each sprayer; he will be responsible for testing it every day, and in case of a gas attack he will stand by to use it when ordered.
RELIEFS.
=22.
GENERAL.=--(_a_) Prior to taking over a new line of trenches the commanding officer, adjutant, machine-gun officer, signaling officer, and company commanders will reconnoiter the trenches.
(_b_) Machine guns will not be relieved at the same time as the infantry.
=23.
POINTS TO BE NOTED BY COMPANY COMMANDERS.=--(_a_) Number of men holding line to be taken over and distribution.
(_b_) Shelter accommodation.
(_c_) Work being done and proposed.
To ensure a continuity of work an officer of the incoming battalion should go over line in daylight.
(_d_) Condition of the wire and defenses generally.
(_e_) Information as to the enemy, his habits, snipers, the work he is doing, &c. (_f_) Water supply.
(_g_) Artillery support.
(_h_) Communications.
(_i_) Dangerous points.
(_j_) Lines of advance to be used in a counter attack.
(_k_) Position of "shell trenches" or "feathers," or other cover from enemy artillery fire.
=24.
GUIDES.=--(_a_) Arrangements will be made between the C. O. of relieving and about to be relieved battalions as to places where guides will be provided by the latter to conduct the incoming troops to the trenches.
(_b_) One guide per platoon, one for each company headquarters, and one for battalion headquarters will be provided.
These guides must know the exact spot where they will meet the relieving troops and the best and safest way to the trenches.
=25.
SMOKING AND TALKING.=--After leaving the rendezvous there is to be no smoking or talking till arrival in the trenches.
=26.
RATE OF MARCH TO TRENCHES.=--The rate of marching to the trenches from billets will not exceed 2 miles an hour.
=27.
PROCEDURE ON ARRIVAL IN TRENCHES.=--(_a_) The troops being relieved will not leave the trenches until all trench stores have been handed over and receipts received, all the relieving troops are in position, and new sentries have been posted and orders to move have been received from the company commander.
(_b_) Platoon commanders will at once personally examine all firing positions and satisfy themselves that each man can fire on the foot of the nearest part of the wire entanglement.
(_c_) They will examine the ammunition and bomb magazines, vermorel and other sprayers, and antigas solution vessels.
(_d_) When the relief is completed O. C. companies will report to that effect to battalion headquarters.
(_e_) Men will not be dismissed till the O. C. company has received reports from all his platoon commanders that everything is in order.
=28.
ENGINEERS.=--(_a_) To insure continuity of work a few sappers should live permanently in the trenches.
(_b_) Daily requisitions for engineering material required will be forwarded by company commanders to battalion headquarters.
(_c_) The battalion commander will apply to the field company for the material required through the brigade headquarters and will arrange for carrying parties to take it in.
=29.
PREVENTION OF CHILLED FEET AND FROSTBITE.=--(_a_) Before marching to trenches, feet and legs will be washed and rubbed with antifrostbite grease or whale oil under platoon supervision.
Boots should be large enough for two pairs of socks, and puttees must be put on loosely.
(_b_) The march to the trenches will be in ankle boots, every man will carry two pairs of spare socks, spare grease, and towel.
(_c_) On arrival at the trenches, take off ankle boots and wet socks, dry and grease feet, put on dry socks, gum boots (trench stores) or paper stockings and ankle boots.
(_d_) During the tour in the trenches, circulation must be kept up by movement; the restriction of the circulation of the lower limbs is the principal cause of chilled feet.
(_e_) Boots and puttees will be removed at least once in every 24 hours, feet and legs will be dried, rubbed, and greased, and dry socks put on.
(_f_) Gum boots will be taken off before troops march out on relief and will be handed over as trench stores to the relieving unit.
(_g_) On arrival in billets, feet will be washed and rubbed; dry socks, hot drinks, and food will be provided under battalion arrangements.
(_h_) Warming braziers made from 3 and 5 gallon oil drums will be provided, and a daily allowance of 2 lbs.
coke and 1/2 lb.
charcoal per man in the trenches.
An extra pea-soup, tea, and sugar ration will also be issued.
(_i_) C.
O.
's are responsible that all trench pumps on charge are kept in good repair and made use of to the fullest extent.
The drier the trenches are the fewer will be the cases of chilled feet.
C. H. HARRINGTON, _B.
G. G. S., Canadian Corps_.
OCTOBER 21, 1915.
FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: The officer should remember that he is in the same position as is the officer on watch on board a ship.]
SPECIMEN OF BATTALION TRENCH STANDING ORDERS.
1.
Trenches are usually divided up into a certain number of bays; the number of men to defend these bays depends on the length of trench allotted to each company.
Each section is detailed to guard a certain number of bays.
2.
N. C. Os.
and men must always wear their equipment by day and night; a man found not complying with this order commits a "crime."
3.
Every company will stand to arms daily half an hour before dawn, and half an hour before dusk and will remain so till dismissed by O. C. company.
4.
The enemy's trenches are so close that it is very important for the men to have their rifle sights always at "normal," so that there will be no necessity to alter the sights in case of alarm.
5.
By night all bayonets are to be fixed, and 50 per cent of the men on duty in the trenches are to be sitting on the firing platform with their rifles by their sides.
6.
In case of an attack, especially at night, it should be impressed on the men that they should fire low; for one bullet that goes too low, at least 90 go too high.
A bullet that goes too high is wasted, whereas a bullet that goes too low is a ricochet and is often more dangerous than any other kind of bullet.
7.
Section commanders are responsible that the men under their command have sufficient standing room for the purpose of firing over the parapet.
It is very important to insure that the men have a clear field of fire, and are able not only to see the enemy's trenches but also the ground in the immediate vicinity of their own trench.
It is of the greatest importance to arrange that the men can fire comfortably from the parapet and that they can get the butt comfortably into the hollow of the shoulder when the rifle is resting on the parapet.
8.
When making new trenches it should be impressed on the men that the parapet must be at least 5 feet thick at the top in order to be bullet proof.
9.
If any part of the parapet requires repairing or altering, the matter should be reported at once by the section commander to his platoon sergeant, who will in turn report the matter to superior authority.
10.
The general work of repairing the trenches, fatigues, etc., will be carried out either by day or by night according to company arrangements.
Certain hours will be alloted for these tasks, and no man in the company is to be employed in any kind of work out of these hours, unless permission is obtained from O. C. company.
11.
No man should ever leave his post in the trenches either by day or by night, without the permission of the N. C. O. in charge of that post.
12.
As a general rule, by night there should be at least one sentry post to each ten yards of parapet.
13.
By night double sentries should always be posted, if possible, and no sentry should be kept on duty for a longer period than 1 hour at a time.
It should be so arranged that when one of the sentries is doing his last 1/2 hour on sentry, his comrade will be doing his first 1/2 on duty.
14.
Sentries by night should always have their rifles resting on the parapet ready to fire at moment's notice.
15.
As few sentries as possible should be posted by day, so as to give as much rest as possible to the remainder of the men.
16.
By day any existing loop holes may be used by a sentry for observation purposes, but this is strictly prohibited at night, =when the sentry must look over the parapet=.
17.
If a sentry is continually fired at, the section commander will take steps to post him in another position, but not far away from the original position.
18.
By night arrangements must be made in each platoon for a N. C.
O.
[2] to be continually on duty for the purpose of visiting the sentries, etc., etc.
He will report to his company officer at odd hours and to his platoon officer at even hours.
19.
Cases have occurred of men going to sleep on sentry duty.
This is the most serious crime a soldier can commit on active service.
The G. O. C. has clearly stated that in future, if any man has been convicted by court-martial for this offense and sentenced to be shot, he will confirm the sentence.
There is no excuse for a man going to sleep on sentry duty; if he is feeling too ill to perform this duty he should report the fact to the N. C. O. on duty of his platoon, who will in his turn report the matter to superior authority.
20.
If an armed party of the enemy approaches the trench under a flag of truce, they should be ordered to halt at a distance and lay down their arms, and the matter should be reported at once to the O. C. company.
If the party fails to halt when ordered to do so, or does not convey a flag of truce, they should immediately be fired upon.
An unarmed party should be halted the same way at a distance, and the matter be reported to the O. C. company.
21.
By night it is not necessary to challenge anyone in advance of the trenches, but fire should be opened at once.
If, however, the company is sending out listening, working, or covering parties, these orders should be modified, and special instructions issued to meet the case.
22.
Men will be specially picked from the company for listening patrols and as sharpshooters.
These men will be given special privileges and their work is such that they will be afforded greater opportunities of being mentioned in dispatches.
23.
It is the duty of officers and N. C. Os.
to check men talking loudly during the night, as this practice makes it impossible for the sentries to hear any movement in front of the trenches.
The Germans take advantage of this talking by the British soldier during the night to send listening patrols quite near to our trenches, and even build trenches on clear moonlight nights close to our lines without our knowledge.
24.
All working parties must wear their equipment and carry their rifles, but when actually working they can lay these on the ground close to them.
25.
All picks and shovels after use will be returned to the company store.
26.
Ration parties and parties carrying material for repairs, etc., need not wear their equipment or carry rifles, but should be accompanied by a fully armed N. C. O. as an escort.
27.
Not more than twenty men are to be away from the company at the same time.
1 N. C. O. and 4 men per platoon.
28.
Every soldier must remember it is of the utmost importance to keep his rifle clean and in working order whilst in the trenches.
His very life may depend upon this, as he is liable to be rushed at any moment, either by day or by night.
The dirty rifle means probably a jammed one after the first round.
29.
The first duty of a soldier, therefore, is to clean his rifle every morning as soon as there is sufficient light to enable him to do so; an hour will be appointed by O. C. company for this purpose.
The platoon sergeant will be responsible that section commanders superintend this work, and inspect the rifles of their section.
Any man who is found with a dirty rifle will be made a prisoner.
30.
All rifles by day to be in racks, except those used by the sentries, and arrangements should be made by section commanders to improvise racks if they are not provided.
31.
Great care is to be exercised to keep the trenches clean and in a sanitary condition.
Platoon commanders will be responsible for the latrines in their section of the trenches.
Any man fouling the trenches will be severely dealt with.
No water is to be taken for drinking or cooking purposes except from the water cart or tanks provided for this purpose.
Disregard of this regulation will probably cause an outbreak of typhoid or dysentery amongst the men of the company.
32.
Stretcher bearers will be stationed at a place appointed by the C. O.
If a man is wounded, information should be sent at once to these stretcher bearers, whose duty it is to carry wounded to the aid post or dressing station.
Men should not be taken from the firing line for this purpose.
33.
No soldier is to be buried nearer than 300 yards from the trenches.
34.
In each platoon a N. C. O. will be detailed for duty by day.
This N. C. O. will do no night duty, but will get a full night's rest.
His duties are to post the day sentries and to see that they are alert and carrying out their duties correctly.
He will be generally responsible for the cleanliness of his lines and will frequently visit the latrines.
It is part of his duties to see that any loose ammunition lying about is collected.
35.
The platoon sergeant will always send, if possible, a N. C.
O.
[2] to draw the rations, and this N. C. O. will be responsible for their safe delivery.
This especially applies to the issue of coke.
The C. S. M. will, prior to his day of relief from the trenches, always collect the articles of trench equipment supplied for his company and make out a list of the same.
These articles will be handed over to the company sergeant major of the relieving company.
36.
The system of passing down messages by word of mouth, man to man, must not be used.
If an officer or N. C. O. has anything important to report he should do so in writing.
If there is no time to do this, a special messenger should be intrusted with a verbal message which should afterwards be confirmed in writing.
37.
Special instructions have been issued as to precautions against gas.
These are to be strictly followed.
FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: An acting N. C. O. will not be employed on this duty.]
BRIGADE STANDING ORDERS FOR THE TRENCHES.
=1.
RELIEFS.=--(_a_) When a battalion is taking over a new line of trenches the company commanders will invariably visit the trenches on the day previous to that on which the relief takes place.
They will gain as much information as possible from the company commanders they are relieving.
(_b_) An officer of each company should proceed in advance to the trenches on the day of the relief to take over, during daylight, all trench stores, ammunition, etc.
Mutual receipts for these will be signed.
(_c_) Machine gunners, bombers, snipers, and signalers will not be relieved on the same day as companies.
They should proceed to the trenches 24 hours before their battalions, and take over their posts during daylight.
(_d_) The strictest march discipline will be maintained by all parties proceeding to or from the trenches.
An officer will march in rear of each company to ensure that it is properly closed up.
(_e_) Reliefs will be carried out as quietly as possible.
No smoking or lights will be allowed after reaching a point to be decided on by battalion commanders.
(_f_) Guides at the rate of one per platoon, machine gun, or bombing post will invariably be arranged for by brigade headquarters when battalions proceed to the trenches.
Likewise, when battalions are being relieved, a similar number of guides will be detailed by them to meet relieving units.
(_g_) On taking over a line of trenches a company commander will at once get in touch with the companies on his right and left; he will ascertain the position of the nearest supporting troops, of the reserve ammunition, of any machine guns or bombing posts, and of his battalion headquarters; he will ascertain the best and quickest means of obtaining artillery support, and he will have all wires, including the artillery wire, if there is one, tested.
When his platoons have taken over, and he is satisfied that all is correct, he will inform his commanding officer by telephone that the relief of his company is complete.
(_h_) The actual relief of trenches should be carried out in the following manner: The platoon being relieved gets on the firing step.
The relieving platoon files in behind and halts.
On the word "pass," which will be given quietly, being passed along, the relieved and relieving platoons will change places.
The company commander of the relieving company will then supervise the posting of sentries by his platoon commanders.
He will satisfy himself that each post is properly relieved and that the orders for the post are correctly handed over.
The greatest care and attention to detail are necessary in this.
The exact frontage for which each platoon commander is responsible will be clearly defined.
Before dismissing his company the company commander will ensure that each man has an alarm post from which he can use his rifle freely and fire at the bottom of our own wire entanglements.
Each man must also know the position of company headquarters, the reserve ammunition, and latrines.
Every company commander in the front line will have control of the grenadiers employed on his front.
(_i_) Within 24 hours of taking over a new line of trenches a company commander will forward a report on his trenches as follows: Garrison of trench.
Field of fire.
Distance from enemy's trench.
General condition of trench.
Whether every man has a post from which he can fire at the bottom of our own wire entanglements.
Number of efficient loopholes.
Whether the parapet is bullet proof throughout.
Whether sufficient traverses.
State of our wire.
State of enemy's wire.
Drainage.
Number of boxes of reserve ammunition.
Number of bombing posts and of bombs with each.
Number of rounds of VERY pistol ammunition.
Number of VERMOREL sprayers.
Number of gongs.
A rough sketch showing the position of bombers' posts, machine guns, grenade stores, and reserve ammunition should accompany the report.
(_j_) Before handing over trenches, officers commanding companies will draw up a statement containing all available information on the following points: Our own trenches and wire.
The enemy's trenches and wire.
Habits of the enemy.
Any part of trench which receives more than ordinary attention from the enemy's guns.
Number of bombing posts and bombs at each.
Number of machine guns on company's front.
Work in hand or contemplated.
What artillery covers the front, and how it is best and quickest obtained.
A list of trench stores, ammunition, etc., will also be drawn up ready for handing over.
All stores should be carefully stacked in a convenient place.
Ammunition, VERY lights, sandbags, etc., sufficient for at least 24 hours consumption, should invariably be handed over to the relieving unit.
(_k_) The following constitute trench stores and will be handed over on relief: S. A.
A. Shovels.
Picks.
Loophole plates.
Balers.
Fixed rifle batteries.
Sniperscope rifles.
Braziers.
Catapults.
Grenade throwers.
Rifle racks.
Rifle grenade firing stands.
Hand grenades.
Rifle grenades.
VERY pistol cartridges.
Gongs, bells, and alarms.
VERMOREL sprayers.
Pumps.
Reserve rations.
The following will not be handed over: VERY pistols.
Pistols, illuminating, 1-1/2 inch.
Telescopic rifles.
Periscopes.
Telephones.
Battalion entrenching tools will not be taken to the trenches.
Should the existing tools in the trenches be considered insufficient, application should be made to brigade headquarters for a further supply.
=2.
SENTRIES.=--As a general rule, the following numbers of sentries will be posted: _By day._--One sentry for every 3 bays, exclusive of bombers, snipers, and machine gunners.
_By night, in a fog or snowstorm._--One double sentry for each bay, exclusive of bombers and machine gunners.
Sentries will invariably be posted and relieved by a N. C. O. under the orders of the platoon commander.
It must be recognized that no fixed rules can be laid down as regards the number of sentries that are necessary and battalion commanders will use their discretion in the matter.
The number required will depend on the proximity of the enemy, the tactical situation, and, above all, on the state of our own wire entanglements.
=3.
OFFICER AND N. C. Os.
OF THE "WATCH.
"=--In every company in the firing line the company commander will arrange for his officers to take it in turns to be on "watch" throughout the twenty-four hours.
Likewise in each platoon the platoon commander will detail a N. C. O. of the watch.
The officer and N. C. Os.
of the watch will visit all sentries, bombing posts, and machine guns within the area of their command once every hour by day and by night.
At night the officer of the watch will carry a VERY pistol.
VERY lights should be used sparingly, as they are often difficult to obtain.
The time when lights are most required is when the Germans are not sending any up.
=4.
STANDING TO ARMS.=--Troops will always stand to arms one hour before daylight and one hour before dark.
They will remain under arms in the first instance until the enemy's lines are visible, and in the second instance until darkness comes on.
At these hours company commanders will arrange for the inspection of arms, ammunition, and equipment by platoon commanders.
The latter will satisfy themselves that each man is in possession of two smoke helmets; ammunition will be made up to 120 rounds per rifle when troops stand to arms.
Whenever men stand to arms company commanders will order the parapet to be manned to insure that every man has a post from which he can fire at the bottom of our own wire.
At the inspection of rifles at the hours of standing to arms platoon commanders will satisfy themselves that the bolt action is working freely.
A thorough inspection of arms will be held at midday, at which hour men will be washed and shaved.
=5.
GAS ATTACKS.=--(i) It is to be impressed on all ranks that the smoke helmet issued to them affords complete protection against all forms of gas used by the enemy.
(ii) All ranks will invariably carry on their persons smoke helmets.
Instruction is to be given in the method of adjusting smoke helmets rapidly, condemned helmets being used for this purpose.
(iii) Smoke helmets will be inspected at morning and evening "stand to."
(iv) The direction of the wind will be studied and special precautions taken when it favors a gas attack by the enemy.
(v) On the first sign of gas, whether it is detected by sight or smell, the sentries will sound the alarm gongs and bells which are hung up at intervals throughout the trenches.
On hearing this alarm every officer and man will at once adjust his smoke helmet and fall in on his alarm post.
Nobody will remain in dugouts.
To make certain of the warning reaching everybody the order "Put on smoke helmets" will be passed from man to man throughout the trenches held by the ---division.
(vi) The officers in command of the trenches opposite the section of the enemy's line from which the gas is proceeding will send the S. O. S. call to the artillery, and will order rapid fire to be opened on the enemy trenches.
Neighboring sectors of defense will be at once warned.
(vii) When the gas cloud is sufficiently thick to hide the enemy's front parapets, machine guns and rifles will open fire in short bursts on fixed lines covering the enemy's trenches, in order to inflict casualties, pierce gas tubes, and break up the density of the enemy's gas cloud.
(viii) Garrisons of trenches on the flanks of the front threatened will be prepared to open a flanking fire on the enemy should he attempt to advance from his front line.
(ix) As soon as the S. O. S. call has been sent to the artillery, messages will be sent to brigade H. Q. and the artillery "Gas trench(es)________________________________."
(x) Rifle bolts and machine-gun crank handles to be worked backwards and forwards while gas is about, to prevent the gas from impairing the action.
(xi) Vermorel sprayers to be used in trenches and dugouts in the affected area as soon as the gas has passed over, in order that gas helmets may be taken off.
(xii) Measures will be taken to prevent stragglers.
=6.
FIXING OF BAYONETS.=--Bayonets will always be fixed during the hours of darkness, during a snowstorm, or thick mist, or when the proximity of the enemy renders this course advisable.
=7.
COUNTER ATTACKS.=--As soon as possible after taking over a new line battalion commanders will draw up and submit to brigade headquarters their scheme for counter attacking the enemy should he gain possession of any part of their line.
In framing this scheme it must be borne in mind that in every line of trenches there are certain points which would be of value to the enemy if captured by him, whereas there are others which would be of little use to him.
Should the enemy attack and occupy any portion of our trenches he will be immediately counter attacked and driven out by the nearest body of troops.
All ranks must clearly understand that counter attacks made at once and without hesitation will usually be sucessful, even if made by small numbers, but that a counter attack, once the enemy has been given time to establish himself, is a very difficult and costly operation.
=8.
MINES.=--Should the enemy fire a mine in or near our trenches the crater thus formed will be immediately occupied by the nearest troops.
This order will be made known to all ranks.
=9.
FIRING BY DAY AND NIGHT.=--By day men will only fire when a target offers itself.
If the enemy is in the habit of showing himself at any particular point, the attention of the platoon commander should be drawn to it.
The latter will inform the battalion sniping officer, who will tell off a sniper's post to watch the spot.
By night all firing must be organized.
If the enemy is believed to be working on his trenches or wire, the company commander will give directions to his platoon commanders to fire five rounds rapid at certain stated times.
He will first ascertain that no patrols from neighboring companies will be out at these hours.
A certain number of fixed rifles will be placed in every trench and fired by the sentries.
These rifles will be laid on certain selected spots.
Indiscriminate firing by day or night is forbidden.
If the enemy attacks, rapid fire will be opened without waiting for orders.
=10.
COMPANY MEETINGS.=--Officers commanding companies will hold meetings of their platoon commanders and N. C. Os.
each evening in the trenches.
Only a few officers and N. C. Os.
should be present at each meeting.
At these meetings the following points should be discussed: Work required to place our trenches in a better state of defense and to improve the comfort of the men.
Work to be done during the next 24 hours.
It is essential that all work which has to be carried out at night is explained to all noncommissioned officers in daylight.
Any alterations noticed in the enemy's trenches or wire.
What steps can be taken to annoy and harass the enemy.
Action in case of attack.
=11.
WORK ON TRENCHES.=--Work on trenches should as far as possible be carried out during daylight.
=12.
GARRISONS OF TRENCHES.=--It is an invariable rule that during daylight the front-line trenches should be held as lightly as is compatible with safety.
At night the garrison must be strengthened.
The actual strength of garrisons will be governed by the tactical situation and by the number of support and communicating trenches at hand.
With proper support and communicating trenches only sentries and snipers should be in the front-line trenches during daylight.
To these will be added bombers if there are any old communicating trenches leading to the enemy's lines or if the proximity of the enemy demands their presence.
=13.
DISCIPLINE.=--(_a_) Sleeping in the front line trenches will not be allowed unless there is an absence of support trenches.
(_b_) No dugouts will be constructed without the permission of the battalion commander.
All dugouts must be made splinter proof.
Work on them will not be commenced until sufficient material is at hand.
If it can be avoided dugouts will not be constructed in the fire trenches.
(_c_) No man will leave the trenches without permission from an officer.
This order will be made known to all ranks.
(_d_) Cooking should not take place in the front-line trenches.
Whenever possible cooking will be done under company arrangements in order that the men may have their meals at regular hours.
Washing and shaving should be carried out in support trenches when possible.
(_e_) All parties moving within the trench area will be correctly marched by an officer or N. C. O.
(_f_) Orderly room should be held daily in the trenches unless circumstances render this impossible.
(_g_) Sentries are strictly forbidden to wear any covering over the ears.
(_h_) An officer will always be present when an issue of rum takes place.
(_i_) Equipment will never be taken off in the front-line trenches except in the case of working parties, when equipment may be removed by order of the company commanders.
In support trenches equipment may be removed at the discretion of battalion commanders.
(_j_) Sentries will remain standing at all times unless the height of the parapet renders this impossible.
(_k_) All parties, with the exception of stretcher bearers, moving in the trench area will wear their arms and equipment.
Orderlies may be excused wearing their equipment at the discretion of commanding officers.
(_l_) The wearing of cotton bandoliers by working parties and orderlies is forbidden, nor are these bandoliers to be hung up in the trenches.
(_m_) Ammunition must be kept in a thoroughly clean state.
If the ammunition is not clean jambs will occur.
Ammunition will be frequently inspected.
(_n_) The "undercutting" of trenches is strictly forbidden.
Drains will always be cut down the center of a trench and not at the sides.
(_o_) When mining is in progress in any of the trenches occupied by the brigade the sandbags filled with earth from the mine will on no account be used in the front trenches or other points which are visible to the enemy.
=14.
RECONNAISSANCE AND PATROLLING.=--The best security against attack is active patrolling and constant observation of the enemy's lines, so that he can not undertake any new work without steps being taken to prevent its continuance.
The enemy's wire will be constantly patrolled to insure that he has cut no gaps in it with a view to launching an attack.
Patrols will also frequently visit our wire to insure that it is efficient.
The front of our own fire parapet should be examined nightly.
=15.
INFORMATION.=--Every effort will be made by means of patrols, field glasses, etc., to ascertain information about the enemy, his trenches and wire.
Any alterations in the enemy's lines must be reported, and if any of the enemy are seen a report will be sent in stating what dress they were wearing.
The importance of forwarding all such information will be impressed on all ranks.
=16.
SNIPING.=--In every battalion a sniping section will be formed, consisting of 1 officer and 25 N. C.
O.
's and men.
The officer will carry out the duties of intelligence officer to his battalion.
He will render a daily report to his commanding officer containing the following information: Number of casualties known to have been inflicted on the enemy.
Number and location of snipers' posts.
Any alterations in the enemy's trenches or wire.
Number of telescope rifles in possession.
Number and location of fixed rifles and rifle batteries in action.
Any activity by the enemy.
Battalion sniping officers will get into close touch with artillery observing officers within their sectors, and will give every assistance to them.
=17.
ARTILLERY SUPPORT.=--As a general rule, a forward observing officer of an 18-pounder battery will be quartered at or near battalion H. Q.
Requests for retaliation should be made to this officer, and brigade H. Q. should be warned of the action taken.
Fire from howitzers and heavy batteries can, except in the case of the S. O. S. signal, only be obtained through brigade H. Q.
If retaliatory fire is required from howitzers, it must be stated on what point it is wished that the fire should be directed.
Any trench mortaring by the enemy should be immediately reported to the officer commanding our trench mortars.
=18.
"S. O. S." AND "TEST" SIGNALS.=--In the event of an infantry attack by the enemy, a mine being fired, or other emergency, the S. O. S. signal will be sent by the quickest route to the Field Artillery battery covering the trenches concerned.
_The signal will be followed by the number of the trench, e.g., "S. O. S.
B4.
"_ The signal will be repeated to battalion H. Q., who will transmit it to brigade H. Q.
On receipt of the S. O. S. signal all batteries covering the trenches concerned will open a concentrated fire on the enemy's front line.
When necessity for fire no longer exists, a message to this effect will be sent to the artillery and to brigade H. Q.
In order to test the efficient working of the artillery lines, "test" messages will frequently be sent from the trenches to the supporting battery.
The number of the trench will always be sent, e.g., "Test A 6."
The test will consist of one round of shrapnel fired on the "night line" of the battery.
No target will be given by the officer in the trenches.
The time taken from the handing in of the message until the shell bursts will be carefully noted and reported to battalion H. Q.
The O. C. battalion will enter the result of all tests in his daily report.
He will give the exact time at which the test was sent and will state whether it was a "direct" or an "indirect" test.
A "direct" test is from trench to battery.
An "indirect" test is from trench via battalion H. Q. to battery.
=19.
VERMOREL SPRAYERS.=--One man will be detailed to look after each sprayer.
A spare tin of solution will be kept with each sprayer.
Medical officers will periodically inspect both sprayers and solution.
=20.
HOSTILE ARTILLERY FIRE.=--In reporting activity by the enemy's artillery it is necessary to state: (i) The time at which shelling began and when it ceased.
(ii) Your own position.
(iii) Whether howitzer or gun.
(iv) Direction from which shells arrive.
Compass bearing should be given if possible.
(v) Whether shells burst in the air or on "graze."
In reporting results of our own fire, state: (i) Your own position.
(ii) Estimate distances short, over, right, or left, in yards.
Avoid vague statements.
(iii) Whether gun or howitzer.
(iv) Whether shrapnel or high explosive.
If shrapnel bursts in the air, judge whether range is correct by the splash of the bullets on the ground and not by the burst.
=21.
AIRCRAFT.=--On the approach of any of the enemy's aircraft three blasts will be blown on a whistle.
This will be the signal for all ranks to keep perfectly still.
One blast on a whistle will indicate that the aircraft has moved away.
All aircraft belonging to the enemy will be heavily fired on by machine guns and rifles as long as they are within range, but no firing will take place without the order of an officer, who will first satisfy himself that the aircraft is hostile.
Directions should be given to the men as to how many lengths in front of the aeroplane aim should be taken.
If a "Zeppelin" is sighted, a "priority" message will be sent to brigade H. Q. reporting the fact and stating approximately where the "Zeppelin" was seen and in what direction it was proceeding.
=22.
MAPS.=--Maps with our own trenches marked on them will not be taken into the front-line trenches.
=23.
TELEPHONE MESSAGES.=--No messages regarding the action of our own Artillery or other matters of an important nature will be sent by telephone to the fire trenches.
Such messages will be sent by orderly.
This is necessary because it has been found that the enemy has, at times, read our messages by induction.
=24.
SIGNALERS.=--The brigade signaling section is responsible for the maintenance of communication between brigade H. Q. and battalions.
Battalion signalers are responsible for communications within the battalion.
All wires must be pinned in to the sides of trenches.
Infantry wires on the S. and E. sides and Artillery wires on the N. and W. sides.
Pins for this purpose can be obtained from brigade headquarters.
All wires will be labeled with the name of the battalion at least every 50 yards.
Officers in charge of battalion signalers are responsible that all disused or unlabeled wires within their areas are reeled up.
All wires will be patroled at least once every 24 hours.
=25.
MEDICAL OFFICERS.=--Medical officers attached to battalions will, in addition to looking after the sick and wounded, be responsible for the sanitation of the trenches generally, paying particular attention to the water supply and latrines.
Battalion sanitary sections will work under the orders of the medical officer.
The medical officer will accompany the commanding officer periodically on his visits round the trenches.
Stretcher bearers are responsible that the rifles and equipment (including field glasses, wire cutters, etc.
), of all men who are wounded are taken with them to the dressing station.
The medical officer will instruct the N. C. O. i/c stretcher bearers to see that this order is carried out.
The arms and equipment of wounded men will be sent to the field ambulance with them, the ammunition having first been removed from pouches and magazines.
Field glasses, wire cutters, etc., will not be sent to the field ambulance but will be sent to battalion headquarters.
The arms and equipment of men who are killed will be collected at battalion headquarters and handed over to the quartermaster for return to the base.
=26.
RATION PARTIES.=--Parties to carry rations, water, and material to the companies in the front line will be detailed from the companies in reserve.
=27.
EMPTY CARTRIDGE CASES AND RUBBISH.=--At intervals throughout the trenches sandbags will be hung up as receptacles for empty cartridge cases and chargers.
Others will be hung up for the collection of rubbish.
Sandbags to be labeled accordingly.
All empty cases and chargers thus collected will be sent each evening to battalion H. Q. for transmission to the base.
=28.
DRESS, ETC.=--Men must be properly dressed at all times and as smart and clean as circumstances will allow.
All men must shave daily.
Discipline as regards saluting, standing to attention, etc., will receive as much attention in the trenches as in billets.
=29.
PRISONERS.=--Should any prisoners be captured they will be immediately searched, and all documents found on them will be forwarded to brigade H. Q. without delay.
Germans usually carry all documents in the skirt pockets of their tunics.
A telephone message will be dispatched to brigade H. Q. stating to what regiment the prisoners belong.
All ranks will be warned that should they find themselves in the hands of the enemy it is only necessary for them to give their number, name, and regiment.
No other information whatever will be given.
=30.
RETURNS.=--The following returns are due at brigade H. Q. daily when in the trenches:-At 5.15 a. m.--Situation and wind By telephone.
At 11.00 a. m.--Strength and casualty return " Daily report on typed form By orderly.
Artillery intelligence report " At 4.00 p. m.--Situation and wind By telephone.
At 5.30 p. m.--Intelligence report By orderly or telephone.
At 9.00 p. m.--Return of material required for trench construction to be sent up the following evening By telephone.
Activity by the enemy's aeroplanes will always be reported.
_______, _Brigade Major, ______ Brigade_.
55TH (WEST LANCASHIRE) DIVISION TRENCH ORDERS.
THIS BOOK IS NOT TO BE TAKEN BEYOND THE FRONT TRENCHES.
Every officer, and every noncommissioned officer in command of any body of troops, is to be in possession of this book and to be thoroughly conversant with its contents.
J. K. COCHRANE, _Lieut.
Colonel, General Staff_, _55th (West Lancashire) Division_.
JANUARY, 1917.
CONTENTS.
Section.
Duties 1 Sentries 2 Patrols 3 Alertness 4 Stand to 5 Arrangements in case of attack 6 Machine guns 7 Cooperation between artillery, etc 8 Method of dealing with crater formed by mine explosion 9 Reliefs-(_a_) Reconnaissance 10 (_b_) Points to be noted by company commander 10 (_c_) Guides 10 (_d_) Smoking and talking 10 (_e_) Rate of march to trenches 10 (_f_) Procedure on arrival in trenches 10 Wiring 11 Organization of work on defenses 12 Log books 13 Undercutting trench sides 14 Communications 15 Ration parties from front trenches 16 Firing at aeroplanes 17 Rifles, equipment, and ammunition 18 Precautions against gas attacks 19 Action during enemy gas attack 20 Action after enemy gas attack 21 Action during gas shell bombardment 22 Discipline with regard to carrying small box respirators 23 Vermorel sprayers 24 Sanitation 25 Rations and cooking 26 Care of grenades 27 Steel helmets 28 Issue of rum 29 Chilled feet and frost bite 30 55TH (WEST LANCASHIRE) DIVISION TRENCH ORDERS.
=1.
DUTIES.=--(_a_) One officer per company and one N. C. O. per platoon will always be on duty.
During their tour of duty they will not be in their dugouts.
They will frequently visit all trenches occupied by their units.
Every listening post will be visited, if possible, by an officer once during his tour of duty.
(_b_) The officer on duty will, when his tour of duty is finished, inform the officer relieving him and report to him the situation, work in progress, and any other information of use.
(_c_) By night the officer and N. C. O. on duty will frequently patrol the trench line, to see that the sentries are alert and to inquire whether they have any information about the enemy to report.
(_d_) The N. C. O. coming on duty will go around and post new sentries with the N. C. O. coming off duty.
(_e_) The length of each tour of duty will naturally depend on the number of officers and N. C.
O.
's available in the company.
Normally each tour should be, by night 2 hours, by day 4 hours, day commencing at morning "stand to" and night commencing at evening "stand to."
In inclement weather the tour of duty must be reduced.
(_f_) N. C.
O.
's after posting sentries will report "all correct" or otherwise to the officer on duty.
(_g_) Men will be warned for duty by the platoon sergeant on duty.
This will be done at evening "stand to."
(_h_) On being detailed for duty a man will be informed at which hours he will come on duty.
(_i_) Except under special circumstances, such, for instance, as a sentry being killed or wounded, no sentry will be relieved by another man unless the relief is properly carried out in the presence of a N. C. O.
(_j_) When possible to do so, notice boards will be placed in each sections' trench, on which will be pinned daily all orders regarding working parties and a list of the men in the section giving the times at which they will come on sentry and other duties.
(_k_) The company commander will be responsible for sending in the reports required by battalion H. Q.
=2.
SENTRIES.=--(_a_) The number of sentry posts required depends on the propinquity or otherwise of the enemy, the strength of obstacles, the ease with which sentry posts can be reinforced, and other local conditions.
There must be sentries enough to insure that the alarm is given promptly in case of attack, and that local resistance is sufficient until support can arrive.
Brigade commanders are responsible that these requirements are met.
(_b_) Sentries will be relieved every two hours, except under bad weather conditions, when the length of a tour of sentry duty will be reduced.
(_c_) The next relief will remain within arm's length of the sentry.
(_d_) Every sentry is to be regularly posted by a N. C. O., who will explain to him his duties and ascertain that the sentry and his relief are aware of the position of the section and platoon commanders, and of the sentries on either side, and whether there are any patrols or working parties out in front.
(_e_) In important places, i.e., where enemy are suspected of mining, advanced posts, etc., no man should be posted alone.
There should be a double sentry.
(_f_) No man who has been on work during the day will be placed on sentry till he has had at least 4 hours for rest, unless it is unavoidable.
(_g_) When the line is held by small posts at a considerable distance apart, a visiting patrol will also be maintained.
This patrol will be responsible for the passing of orders along the line of posts.
(_h_) All orders are to be passed along the line by one platoon N. C. O. on duty to the next N. C. O. on duty.
(_i_) Every sentry is to report when an officer passes his post "all correct" or otherwise.
(_j_) During daylight no more sentries should be posted than are actually necessary to insure that the whole front to be watched is kept under efficient observation.
(_k_) Every sentry by day will be provided with a periscope.
=3.
PATROLS.=--(_a_) It is the duty of troops holding the front line to establish a command of the ground in front of their parapet up to the enemy's wire.
This can only be done by active and constant patrolling by night and reconnaissance by day, so that the ground is thoroughly well known to as large a proportion as possible of officers and other ranks, and so that no enemy can move or remain in it by day or night without fear of death.
(_b_) Every patrol must have definite orders as to its mission; broadly speaking, patrols may be divided into two classes: (1) Reconnoitering patrols; (2) fighting patrols.
(_c_) The first duty of _reconnoitering patrols_ is to obtain the information for which they are sent out.
They fight only in self-defense, or if an especially favorable opportunity presents itself of inflicting loss on the enemy without prejudice to their mission.
They usually consist of from 2 to 6 men under an officer.
(_d_) Fighting patrols are sent out with the express purpose of causing loss or damage to the enemy by such means as engaging enemy patrols or working parties, or by raiding saps, listening posts, or trenches.
For identification purposes they should always endeavor to secure at least one prisoner.
Their strength depends on the nature of the resistance they are likely to meet with.
(_e_) Battalion commanders are responsible for the orders given to patrols, subject to any instructions which may be issued by higher authority.
They are also responsible that all troops whom it concerns are warned when and where patrols will be out, and of the point to which they will return.
(_f_) The information gained by patrols is of little value unless transmitted quickly to those whom it concerns.
Patrol reports will be made out by the commander of the patrol immediately on his return and dispatched at once by way of the battalion H. Q. to brigade H. Q., unless orders to the contrary have been given.
=4.
ALERTNESS.=--Anything seen or heard in connection with the enemy, such as movements of individuals, transport wagons, troops, working parties, etc., is to be reported to the nearest officer by anyone who observes it and at any time.
=5.
STAND TO.=--"Stand to" will take place one hour before sunrise and at sunset.
At this parade every available man will be present.
Rifles, ammunition, equipment, clothing, etc., will be inspected.
Firing steps will be tested as soon as it is dusk to see that each man can fire on the foot of the nearest part of the wire entanglements immediately to his front.
They are not to be tested at "stand to" in the morning.
Rifles, ammunition, and equipment will be inspected after "stand down" in the morning and at "stand to" at night.
Orders will be issued and steps taken to see that the men understand them.
Gas helmets and other protective appliances will be inspected in accordance with the orders in force.
The time for "stand to" will be fixed weekly by brigade headquarters.
=6.
ARRANGEMENTS IN CASE OF ATTACK.=--(_a_) The action to be taken in case of attack is laid down in defense schemes, divisional, brigade, and battalion, with reference to each form of attack which is considerable probable.
(_b_) In addition, minor defense schemes will be drawn up for each company front, based on battalion defense schemes, and platoon commanders also will keep up schemes based on that for the company and dealing specially with the action of their respective platoons.
(_c_) All the above schemes, divisional, brigade, battalion, company, and platoon, will be handed over at each relief to the relieving formation, unit, etc.
They will be made out in consultation by the formations, units, etc., habitually occupying the defenses with which they deal.
(_d_) The object of defense schemes is to insure that every officer, N. C. O., and man knows what to do in case of attack, and does it instinctively and promptly.
The minor schemes must therefore be detailed and exact, and each officer and man must have his duties thoroughly explained to him by his immediate superior.
All defense schemes will be rehearsed once in each relief.
(_e_) At each relief of a battalion, company, or platoon the commander of it will report to his immediate commander that he has taken over and understands the defense schemes for the position he is occupying.
(_f_) All officers' servants, bombers, orderlies, etc., will have duties allotted to them in case of attack.
=7.
MACHINE GUNS.=--(_a_) The concealment of machine-gun emplacements is important; consequently it is only in case of attack that machine guns will be fired from their defense emplacements.
(_b_) Unless emplacements are well concealed guns will not be mounted, except between evening and morning "stand to."
(_c_) The guns and their crews will be tactically under the orders of the battalion commander in whose subsector they are located, but no alteration will be made by him in their disposition or arcs of fire; he will, however, bring before his brigade commander any suggestion for improvement in the machine-gun dispositions for defense.
(_d_) Two men per gun will always be on duty with the gun.
(_e_) At dusk, but while there is still sufficient light, each gun will be laid on the center line of the zone alloted to it.
(_f_) Range cards will be prepared and kept with each gun.
(_g_) Officers will live in close proximity to their guns.
They will daily inspect their guns, emplacements, and ammunition.
They are responsible for the cleanliness and maintenance of the emplacements.
(_h_) The machine-gun company commander is responsible that his guns are always ready for action, that the emplacements are clear of all material except such as is required for the service of the gun, that embrasures or loopholes are kept clear of all obstructions which may interfere with fire or view, and that the ammunition is in good condition.
=8.
COOPERATION BETWEEN ARTILLERY, INFANTRY, MACHINE-GUN COMPANIES, AND TRENCH MORTAR BATTERIES.=--The defense of any line depends largely on the cordial cooperation of all officers responsible for the different means of defense.
Every opportunity is to be taken by officers of artillery, infantry, machine-gun companies, and trench mortar batteries of becoming personally acquainted with each other and gaining a knowledge of each other's methods.
The Artillery liaison officer with a battalion is to be looked on as temporarily a member of battalion H. Q.
=9.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN ONE OF OUR MINES IS EXPLODED.=--(_a_) In the event of one of our own mines being exploded, a clear space of 5 yards will be kept on either side of the mouth of the mine shaft.
(_b_) On any front where enemy mining exists, or is suspected, detailed schemes of action will be prepared, under the direction of the brigade commander, to deal with any case of a mine being blown within or without our trench line; and specially organized parties will be kept in immediate readiness for prompt occupation of the crater, where this is advisable (as in the case of a crater within or near our trench line), or for dealing with enemy action.
All stores required for consolidation will be kept handy at a special dump in instant readiness and made up into man loads.
The orders for action, down to the minutest detail, will be incorporated in the defense scheme and made known to every individual who may have to carry them out.
=10.
RELIEFS.=--(_a_) =Reconnaissance.=--Prior to taking over a new line of trenches, the commanding officer, adjutant, and company commanders of battalions, and the commanders of M. G. Coys.
and trench mortar batteries, will reconnoiter the trenches.
(_b_) =Points to be noted by company commanders.=--_The following, among others, are points to be specially noted by company commanders before taking over trenches_: (i) Number of men holding line to be taken over and distribution.
(ii) Shelter accommodation.
(iii) Work being done and proposed.
(iv) Condition of the wire and defenses generally.
(v) Information as to the enemy, his habits, snipers, the work he is doing, etc.
(vi) Water supply.
(vii) Artillery support.
(viii) Communications.
(_c_) =Guides.=--(i) Arrangements will be made between the C.
O.
's of incoming and outgoing battalions as to the rendezvous where guides will be provided by the latter to conduct the incoming troops to the trenches.
(ii) One guide per platoon, one for each company H. Q., and one for battalion H. Q. will be provided.
These guides must know the exact spot where they will meet the relieving troops and the best and safest way to the trenches.
(_d_) =Smoking and talking.=--After leaving the rendezvous there is to be no smoking or talking till arrival in the trenches.
(_e_) =Rate of march to trenches.=--The rate of marching to the trenches from billets will not exceed 2 miles an hour.
Strictest march discipline is to be enforced on the way to and from the trenches.
(_f_) =Procedure on arrival in trenches.=--(i) The troops being relieved will not leave the trenches until the relieving troops are in position and new sentries have been posted, all trench stores have been handed over and receipts received, and orders to move have been received from the company commander.
(ii) Platoon commanders will at once personally examine all firing positions and satisfy themselves that each man can fire on the foot of the nearest part of the wire entanglement.
(iii) They will examine the ammunition and grenade stores, vermorel sprayers, and antigas solution.
(iv) Battalion H. Q. will report to brigade H. Q. as soon as relief is completed.
When the relief is completed company commanders will report to that effect to battalion H. Q.
When shelters are some way behind the fire trench they should not be used during the first night of relief.
(v) Men will not be dismissed until the company commander has received reports from all his platoon commanders that everything is in order.
On taking over trenches the garrison will "Stand to" at alarm posts before being dismissed.
_The following are some of the many questions a platoon commander should ask himself on taking over a trench and at frequent intervals afterwards_: 1.
I am here for two purposes: To hold this line under all circumstances and to do as much damage as possible to the enemy.
Am I doing all I can to make this line as strong as possible?
Am I as _offensive_ as I might be with organized snipers, sniperscopes, rifle grenades, etc., and patrols?
2.
Do I connect up all right with the platoons on my right and left?
Do I know the position of my nearest support?
3.
Does every man know his firing position, and can he fire from it, over the parapet, at the foot of the wire?
4.
Where are my S. A.
A. and bomb stores?
Are they under cover from the weather?
5.
Do all my men know their duties in case of attack--bombers especially?
6.
Are all my rifles and ammunition clean and in good order?
Have all the men got rifle covers?
Are the magazines kept charged?
7.
Is my wire strong enough?
8.
Are my parapets and traverses bullet proof everywhere?
9.
Where are my sally ports and gaps in my wire?
10.
Where are my listening posts?
Are my listening patrols properly detailed?
11.
What points in front particularly require patrolling at night?
12.
Are my sentries in their right places?
Are they properly posted by N. C.
O.'s?
Have they received proper instructions?
13.
Have I got the S. O. S. message in my pocket, and do I know the orders regarding its use?
14.
Are the trenches as clean and as sanitary as they might be?
Are live rounds and cases properly collected?
Are my bags for refuse and empties in position?
15.
Are my trenches as dry as I might make them?
16.
Am I doing all I can to prevent my men getting "trench feet"?
17.
How can I prevent my parapets and dugouts from falling in?
18.
Have I carefully studied the ground in front and noted all places where Germans expose themselves or are likely to do so?
Have I taken advantage of suitable spots in the ground in front of my parapet or behind my trenches to make "snipers'" lairs, besides making loopholes in the parapet?
19.
Have my men always got their box respirators on them, and are they in good order?
20.
Are the arrangements, in case of gas attack complete and known to all ranks?
21.
Are the orders as to wearing equipment carried out?
22.
Are my men using wood from the defenses as firewood?
23.
Are my men drinking water from any but authorized sources?
Are the arrangements for cooking and the care of rations as clean and sanitary as they can be made?
Are dugouts and shelters kept clean and tidy?
24.
I am here for two purposes: To hold this line under all circumstances, and to do as much damage as possible to the enemy.
Am I doing all I can to make this line as strong as possible?
Am I as _offensive_ as I might be with organized snipers, sniperscopes, rifle grenades, etc., and patrols?
=11.
WIRING.=--(_a_) Each company will have a party of 1 N. C. O. and 6 men who will be specially trained in wiring.
They will go out nightly and repair and improve the wire along the company front.
The definite duty allotted to trained wirers will not preclude the use of other men to increase the amount of wire along the front.
(_b_) The wire defenses of the front must be such as to preclude the enemy from throwing bombs into our trench from the outer edge of our wire.
The nearest wire to our parapet should be 30 yards from it, and should be 20 yards at least in depth.
=12.
ORGANIZATION OF WORK ON DEFENSES.=--(_a_) The Infantry brigade commander is responsible for the maintenance of the front line system of trenches, under direction of the division and with the advice and assistance of the field company commander.
(_b_) One field company will usually be allotted to each brigade area for work under the C. R. E. (_c_) The O. C. field company will act as technical adviser to the Infantry brigadiers, and with his officers will visit frequently the front line trenches and other trenches in the area, and be responsible for the technical quality of the work done in them; if necessary he will supply R. E. personnel for supervision, but this will be done sparingly, for the Infantry should be trained to do all ordinary maintenance and repair work, such as repairing wire, rebuilding of parapets, fixing U frames and revetment hurdles, construction of ordinary dugouts, keeping trenches drained, etc., without R. E. assistance or supervision, leaving the R. E. free for work requiring technical skill, such as-New works.
Concrete dugouts and machine-gun emplacements.
Main drainage, etc.
(_d_) The pioneers will be employed under the C. R. E. on special jobs under their own officers, such as-Construction of new trenches.
Repair of communication trenches.
Preparation of camps, etc.
(_e_) The battalion commander is responsible for all work done in his subsector, and is, under the brigade commander, responsible for drawing up a time-table allotting hours for work, rest, and meals.
Time-tables will be submitted in the first instance to brigade H. Q. for approval, and will then remain in force till altered, any alteration being submitted in the same way as the original.
The following table is an example: _Instructions for working party._ [To be used by all officers requiring or detailing a working party.]
Working party from___________________________________________________ Officers__________________________ O. R.______________________________ Rendezvous________________________ Time______________________________ Guide will be furnished by___________________________________________ Tools_____________________________ _____________________________ To be drawn from__________________ _____________________________ Stores____________________________ ____________________________ To be drawn from__________________ ____________________________ Instructions on the work from________________________________________ Time party will stop work____________________________________________ Whether haversack rations are to be brought__________________________ (_f_) All work on the fire trench should be carried out by the garrison of the trench, assisted, if necessary, by the garrison of the support and the reserve trenches.
(_g_) All work in rear of the fire trenches will be carried out by the garrison of the support and reserve trenches.
(_h_) Efficiency of work depends, firstly, on _organization_, and, secondly, on _supervision_.
Without these, effort is wasted and work is unsatisfactory.
(_i_) _Organization_ demands forethought.
Every officer charged with the execution of any work must-(i) Think out beforehand exactly how it is to be performed, and how many men are necessary to carry it out, including any carrying parties that may be wanted.
(ii) Appoint a place and time (if this is not already fixed by routine) for the assembly of the party.
(iii) Ensure that the necessary tools are forthcoming, and that they are either brought by the party to the place of assembly, or are available for them there.
(iv) Ensure that the necessary materials are at hand or arrange for their conveyance to the place of work by the working party or by a separate carrying party before the working party arrives there.
(v) Parade the working party at the place of assembly, and tell each individual off to his task, or, in the case of larger parties, tell off their respective tasks, and appoint a N. C. O. or soldier in each squad to be responsible for the work.
(_j_) _Supervision_ demands energy and watchfulness.
The officer charged with the execution of the work will always personally supervise it.
Working parties will, as far as possible, be detailed by companies, platoons, or sections, and will be accompanied by all officers and N. C.
O.
's belonging to them, who will remain with the party and be responsible for the continuance and direction of the work of their own men during its execution.
(_k_) Unless work has to be performed with equipment on, jackets should be taken off (except in inclement weather) while men are actually working and put on at once when they stop.
(_l_) The best work is obtained from men when they are given certain definite tasks, proportionate to the time they are to work, and allowed to fall out when the task is finished.
If this can not be done, a fair task must be exacted and men who idle given extra tasks after the rest are dismissed.
(_m_) A working party which is too big for the task in hand is worse than one which is too small, since one man who has no job generally makes several others idle.
(_n_) All officers and other ranks must be made to understand that working is as useful and important as fighting; that good work deserves as much credit as good fighting, and that bad work brings discredit on himself and his battalion.
(_o_) A covering party will be provided for digging and wiring parties outside the front trenches.
When such parties are being employed an adequate garrison will be left in the front trench.
(_p_) The word "fatigue" will never be employed in connection with work in the trenches or other defences.
=13.
LOG BOOKS.=--Each company commander in front line or support trenches will keep a log book (Army Book 136) in which will be entered-(i) Work done; (ii) Number of men working; (iii) Hours worked; (iv) Information obtained from patrols, sentries, or other sources, as to the enemy, his habits, and his trenches.
_The above will be entered daily._ (v) Work projected or ordered, in order of importance; (vi) A list of trench stores.
The log book will be inspected daily by the battalion commander and frequently by the brigade staff.
=14.
UNDERCUTTING TRENCH SIDES.=--(_a_) The undercutting of trench sides to make shelters is forbidden.
(_b_) When shelters are made the required space from the ground level downwards will be cut out, and a roof, supported on reliable posts, will be made.
=15.
COMMUNICATIONS.=--(_a_) Artillery lines will be laid on the north and west sides of trenches.
Infantry lines on south and east.
(_b_) The Infantry brigade signal officer will exercise general supervision over all lines in the brigade area, and will notify Artillery brigades when any Artillery lines require attention or relaying.
He will assist the Artillery whenever it may be possible to do so.
(_c_) All essential lines should be buried to a depth of at least 6 feet.
Lines in the communication trenches should be reduced to a minimum.
(_d_) Lines will be clearly labeled at every hundred yards and at every junction with another line.
(_e_) All lines will be carefully patrolled at least once daily.
(_f_) One telephonist will always be on duty.
(_g_) Telephone communication to battalion headquarters and the company on each flank will be frequently tested.
(_h_) All "dead" lines will be reeled up at once.
(_i_) Every man is to know the position of his platoon commander's shelter and of the company headquarters.
(_j_) At least two men per section of the support and reserve companies must be able to act as guides to all the company headquarters of the battalion.
(_k_) All officers must know the shortest route from their own headquarters to those of the company on their flanks and to their own battalion headquarters.
(_l_) It is most important to maintain always visual signaling communications from the front line as far back as brigade headquarters.
Brigade signal officers will be responsible to brigades that this is done.
One message by day and one by night will be sent daily over each visual signaling route.
These will be checked by the brigade staff at least once a week to insure that they are transmitted promptly and accurately.
(_m_) Pigeons when relieved by fresh ones will be flown back, each with a test message to brigade headquarters.
Times taken from battalion headquarters to brigade headquarters will be checked in each case by the brigade signal officer, and once a week at least by the brigade staff.
(_n_) The brigade signal section while with the brigade forms an integral part of brigade headquarters.
The brigade commander is responsible to higher authority for the communications within his brigade sector and must have full knowledge of them.
He exercises control over his signals through the brigade signal officer.
It is the duty of the brigade signal officer to bring to the notice of the brigade commander, as well as of the officer commanding divisional signal company, any defects which exist or any improvements which can be made.
=16.
RATION PARTIES FOUND FROM FRONT TRENCHES.=--Usually rations and stores will be carried up to the trenches by supports and reserves.
If this is not possible, and it is necessary that men from the front trenches have to be employed, not more than 10 per cent of the men in the firing line are to be away from the trenches at the same time.
=17.
FIRING AT AEROPLANES.=--Will not be permitted except by order of an officer.
=18.
RIFLES, EQUIPMENT, AND AMMUNITION (Carrying and wearing of).=--(_a_) Equipment will always be worn in the front trenches.
Haversacks, water bottles, packs, and entrenching tools need not be worn.
In the support and reserve trenches equipment will be worn at the discretion of the brigade commander.
(_b_) Ration and carrying parties, orderlies, etc., will wear equipment and carry rifles unless otherwise ordered in special cases by an officer.
Permission to discard equipment, and particularly to discard arms, should be sparingly given.
(_c_) _Loading of rifles._--Except when it is necessary to shoot, a round will _never_ be kept in the chamber.
Cut-offs will always be "in" and the safety catch "back."
(_d_) The magazine will be kept charged with five rounds.
(_e_) In the fire trenches, bayonets will be fixed at night.
(_f_) _Care of rifles._--All rifles and ammunition will be inspected by an officer at least twice a day, viz, at morning and evening "Stand to."
They must be kept scrupulously clean at _all_ times, and any mud or grit removed _at once_ without waiting for the next inspection.
Breech covers will always be kept on rifles, and so fixed that they can be immediately cast loose.
Each platoon will have its full complement of "breech clearers" in charge of men fully instructed in their use.
(_g_) Noncommissioned officers and men in firing line and support will at all times be in possession of their rifles and bayonets.
The rifles of men in support reserve trenches or dugouts may be placed in protected racks, so that they can be seized quickly.
Not more than six will be in one rack.
(_h_) In very cold weather sentries will occasionally work the bolt of the rifle to prevent the striker becoming frozen.
(_i_) On no account is the rifle to be used for the purpose of carrying camp kettles and other loads.
(_j_) Ammunition boxes in the trenches will be examined frequently to see if the lids work easily.
They will not be needlessly broken into.
Each box will be placed on its side in a recess, protected from the weather, with the lid facing outwards, and with the broader end of the wooden lid uppermost.
(_k_) Every man will have 120 rounds in his possession.
(_l_) Platoon commanders will report at "Stand to" whether their ammunition is correct or otherwise.
(_m_) Except in cases of emergency no bandoliers will be issued to men in the trenches.
(_n_) _Disposal of rifles, equipment, and ammunition._--Men wounded and going sick will, if able to walk, wear their equipment and carry their rifles.
The rifles and equipment of men unable to carry them, and also those of dead men, will be sent back to the dressing station.
All rifles, however, badly damaged, and equipment damaged or not required, will be sent back to the quartermaster.
Damaged cartridges and empty cases will be collected in sacks hung up in the trenches for the purpose and returned to the quartermaster.
=19.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST GAS ATTACK.=--When "_Wind dangerous_" is ordered, the following arrangements will be carried out: (i) All small box respirators and P. H. helmets will be carefully inspected; such inspections will be carried out daily during the "_Wind dangerous_" period.
(ii) Within a mile of the front line the small box respirator will be worn in the "_Alert_" position on the chest with flap unbuttoned, but protecting the respirator from the wet.
(_a_) The small box respirator will be worn in the "_Alert_" position outside all clothing.
(_b_) Nothing will be carried slung across the body in such a way as to interfere with the adjustment of the box respirator.
(iii) Where for any reason a man is not in possession of a small box respirator, he will wear his P. H. helmet pinned to the shirt in the "_Alert_" position.
(iv) The chin strap of the steel helmet will on no account be worn under the chin to impede the adjustment of the mask.
(v) Detached parties of men moving within a mile of the front line will strictly observe the precautions laid down in (ii), (iii), and (iv).
Commanding officers will be held responsible that this is done.
(vi) The duties of sentries are: (_a_) To give warning; (_b_) To adjust immediately the curtains of gas-proof dugouts.
(vii) All working parties east of the line POPERINGHE--BAILLEUL--ESTAIRES will have a sentry posted to give instant warning of a gas attack.
(viii) A sentry will be posted at each Strombos horn or similar alarm and instructed in its use.
(ix) A sentry will be posted at every tunnel dugout or other dugout holding more than 10 men.
(x) A sentry will be posted to each group of two or three small dugouts.
(xi) A sentry will be posted on each headquarters, signal office, and independent body of men east of the line POPERINGHE--BAILLEUL--ESTAIRES.
(xii) Men sleeping in rearward lines, works, or rest billets where they are allowed to take off their equipment will sleep with their small box respirators round their necks, and must know exactly where their P. H. helmet is to be found.
(xiii) Company gas N. C.
O.
's will report to company headquarters in readiness to assist the company commander should a gas attack occur.
(xiv) Medical officers will be responsible that a proper proportion of the ammonia capsules issued to them are with stretcher bearers in the front line in readiness for their immediate use after a gas attack.
(xv) Company gas N. C.
O.
's will inspect daily all antigas apparatus--Strombos horns, flapper fans, vacuum bulbs, and stores of combustibles for clearing dugouts.
They will see that gas-proof dugouts are kept in good order and the curtains sprayed.
(xvi) An officer on duty will be detailed from each company in reserve, except resting battalions.
(xvii) Commanders of units in billets east of the line POPERINGHE--BAILLEUL--ESTAIRES will organize a system of giving the alarm and rousing the men in cellars or houses.
=20.
ACTION DURING ENEMY GAS ATTACK.=--In the event of an enemy gas attack the following action will be taken: (i) The alarm will at once be given by all means available; by telephone, gongs, Strombos horns, and, if necessary, by orderly, and in accordance with paras.
(iv) and (v).
(ii) THERE SHOULD BE AS LITTLE MOVEMENT AND TALKING AS POSSIBLE.
All ranks will at once adjust their small box respirators.
In front lines, and wherever the tactical situation demands, they will stand to arms.
In rear lines, where there are large gas-proof dugouts, there is no objection, provided the tactical situation allows it, to men, with the exception of sentries and officers and N. C.
O.
's on duty, remaining in the gas-proof dugouts.
In any case small box respirators will be adjusted immediately the alarm is given and before the men leave the dugout.
(iii) On the alarm being given, all bodies of troops or transport on the move will halt, and all working parties cease work until the gas cloud has passed.
(iv) Should the gas cloud be unaccompanied by an infantry attack, the message "Gas attack, trench ________________," but not the S. O. S. signal, will be sent.
(v) Should an infantry attack develop, the normal procedure of S. O. S. will be carried out.
(vi) Troops in the front line not affected by gas must be warned to be prepared to bring a cross fire to bear on the enemy when he attempts to advance against a gassed portion of the trench.
(vii) If a relief is in progress, units should stand steady as far as possible until the gas cloud has passed.
(viii) Supports, and parties bringing up ammunition and grenades, will only be moved up if the tactical situation demands.
(ix) The blanket doorways of protected dugouts will be properly adjusted.
(x) Men in charge of combustibles and fans will prepare to use them as soon as the gas cloud has passed, so as to admit of helmets being removed.
(xi) Helmets will not be removed after a gas attack until permission has been given by the company commander, who will ascertain from officers and N. C.
O.
's trained at the divisional gas school that it is safe to do so.
Trenches will be fanned clear of gas with fans and sandbags.
(xii) In order to guard against the danger of a subsequent gas cloud, all ranks, as soon as the gas is clear and permission has been received to remove their masks, will replace them in the "_alert_" position.
A SHARP LOOKOUT WILL BE MAINTAINED AS LONG AS THE WIND CONTINUES IN A DANGEROUS QUARTER, AND MEN WILL SLEEP ON THE FIRE STEP, WITHIN REACH OF A SENTRY.
A SUBSEQUENT GAS CLOUD IS ALWAYS LIKELY.
(xiii) Dugouts will not be entered for at least four hours after a gas attack, and should be ventilated freely.
Ventilation (natural or by means of fires and antigas fans) is the only sure method of clearing a dugout.
If dugouts have to be entered owing to heavy shelling, this should be done with the utmost caution, and gas helmets put on at the slightest trace of gas.
The clearing of dugouts should not be carried out by men who have been even slightly affected by gas.
Dugouts can be efficiently ventilated by means of a small fire burning in the center of a dugout or cellar for 20 minutes.
This method has been proved by experiments to be effective, but should be employed with due regard to the danger of smoke being visible to the enemy.
Dry wood or other combustibles will be kept in readiness for the purpose.
(xiv) Special arrangements will be made by corps for warning the civil authorities who are responsible for the protection and warning of all civilians within the corps area.
=21.
ACTION AFTER ENEMY GAS ATTACK.=--(i) Smoking will be prohibited for a period of three hours after the gas has ceased.
(ii) After a gas attack troops in the front trenches will be relieved of all fatigue and carrying work for 24 hours by sending up working parties from companies in rear.
Horses should not be worked for a similar period if it can be avoided.
(iii) No man suffering from effects of gas will be permitted to walk to the dressing station.
(iv) Rifles and machine guns should be cleaned immediately after a gas attack; oil cleaning will prevent corrosion for 12 hours, but the first available opportunity should be taken to clean all parts in boiling water containing a little soda.
=22.
ACTION DURING GAS SHELL BOMBARDMENT.=--(i) Small box respirators will be put on in the shelled area.
(ii) In the event of a sudden and intense bombardment with gas shell a local alarm will be given in the front-line system of trenches by orderlies; in reserve trenches and battery positions this local alarm may be given by French shunters' horns.
In order to avoid false alarms of a gas attack the French shunters' horns should not be used in Infantry front-line trenches.
(iii) All dugouts in the vicinity will be visited and any sleeping men aroused.
=23.
DISCIPLINE WITH REGARD TO CARRYING SMALL BOX RESPIRATORS.=--Small box respirators will always be carried within 2 miles of the front line (_i.e._, in advance of the line ELVERDINGHE--VLAMERTINGHE--DICKEBUSH--KEMMEL HILL--NEUVE EGLISE--NIEPPE--LAVENTIE) whatever the direction of the wind is.
P. H. helmets will always be carried in corps areas whatever the direction of the wind is.
="WIND-DANGEROUS" period.=--Orders as to the position in which the above are worn in "_wind-dangerous_" period are contained in section 19.
="WIND-SAFE" period.=--When the wind is safe working parties during work and at the discretion of the officer in command may take off their box respirators, provided the latter are placed conveniently at hand for use in case of a sudden gas-shell attack or change of the wind.
The P. H. helmet will always be carried.
=24.
VERMOREL SPRAYERS.=--(_a_) Vermorel sprayers form part of trench stores.
They are provided for spraying the blankets of gas-proof dugouts and shelters.
(_b_) They will be stored in the gas-proof dugout or in a protected position close at hand.
(_c_) They must be kept one-third full of water.
Six gallons of the solution given below to be used in them must be kept in corked jars or petrol tins close to each sprayer.
It must not be kept in the sprayer owing to its corrosive nature, and after solution has been used the sprayer must be washed out with water: Water.--3 gallons (one large bucket); Sodium thiosulphate (hypo).--1-1/2 lbs.
(3/4 mess tin); Sodium carbonate (washing soda).--3 lbs.
(one piled mess tin).
(_d_) Vermorel sprayers will be in charge of company gas N. C.
O.
's, who will detail and train men in their care and use and superintend all spraying.
The blankets on all gas-protected dugouts will be inspected and sprayed at the commencement of a wind-dangerous period and as often as is necessary to keep them in a moist condition during it.
(_e_) Company gas N. C.
O.
's will take over Vermorel sprayers from outgoing N. C.
O.'s.
(_f_) Vermorel sprayers in the line will on no account be used for clearing gas from trenches or dugouts after an attack.
Against the present gas used by the enemy these chemicals have no effect, and Ayrton fans and fires are the means to be used.
The sprayers at medical aid posts are provided with a chemical solution which will clear any gas that may have entered their protected posts.
=25.
SANITATION.=--(_a_) The importance of strict attention to sanitation will be impressed on all ranks.
(_b_) The commanding officer is responsible for sanitation in his unit, and the medical officer will advise him in sanitary matters, making frequent inspection of cook houses, latrines, refuse pits, and water arrangements.
Under the medical officer latrines and refuse pits will be attended to by the regimental sanitary men and water duties by the R. A. M. C. details attached.
(_c_) Latrines will be constructed in trenches leading from communication trenches.
Where the bucket system is employed, chloride of lime or creosol will be freely used.
The soil will be removed at night and buried in a deep pit at least 100 yards from the trenches; these pits will be filled in when nearly full and labeled.
(_d_) Empty tins and other refuse will be collected in receptacles kept for the purpose in the trenches, and returning carrying parties will be used to carry these back to the incinerators in rear.
=26.
RATIONS AND COOKING.=--(_a_) Ration parties from the support and reserve trenches will be made up in complete units.
(_b_) The company quartermaster sergeant will accompany the ration parties for his company and report his arrival to the company commander.
(_c_) Great care is to be taken that ration and carrying parties make as little noise as possible.
(_d_) Where cooking is done individually, definite times should be allocated for the purpose.
(_e_) Unused rations will be returned to the quartermaster.
(_f_) Waste in any form will be discouraged.
(_g_) Arrangements should be made to insure that soup or some hot drink is available for the men between midnight and 4 a. m. (_h_) All cooking places and appliances will be kept scrupulously clean and inspected daily by an officer.
=27.
CARE OF GRENADES.=--(_a_) Grenades in the trenches will be kept in waterproof boxes placed in recesses in the parapet.
(_b_) The brigade bombing officer will frequently inspect all grenades and posts, and will see that the proper number of grenades is kept up in each post and store; that they are protected from weather; that a sufficient number of bombers are present and understand their duties; that the grenades are in good condition; and that waistcoats or carriers are available.
=28.
STEEL HELMETS.=--Steel helmets will be worn at all times in the trenches (including all communicating trenches).
In addition, they will be worn elsewhere than in the trenches as may be ordered from time to time by divisional or brigade headquarters.
=29.
RUM.=--(_a_) Rum will be issued by an officer, who will see that each individual drinks it in his presence.
(_b_) It is not to be issued in the trenches after "Stand down" in the evening or before "Stand down" in the morning, except with the special permission of the battalion commander.
(_c_) Men undergoing punishment for drunkenness will receive no issue of rum for fourteen days after the offense unless it is necessary for medical reasons.
=30.
CHILLED FEET AND FROSTBITE.=--1.
These conditions are caused by-(_a_) Prolonged standing in cold water and mud; (_b_) The continued wearing of wet socks, boots, and puttees; (_c_) Constriction of the lower limbs.
2.
They can be prevented or diminished by-(_a_) The wearing of long gum boots; (_b_) Improvements to trenches and provision of dry standings, and warmth; (_c_) Reduction of time spent in the trenches as far as the military situation permits; (_d_) Good battalion arrangements to insure that men enter the trenches warmly clad with dry boots, socks, and trousers, and with the skin well rubbed with whale oil or antifrostbite grease; (_e_) Taking to the trenches a pair of ankle boots, in addition to the long gum boots, and changing from one into the other when possible, at the same time putting on a pair of dry socks.
N.
B.--The effect from being wet through from perspiration is just as bad as that from water.
Therefore, change your socks.
(_f_) Taking exercise.
Work is the best specific against trench feet.
Men who are kept moving are kept warm, with their blood circulating properly, and do not get trench feet.
(_g_) Providing warm food at least once a day in the trenches and shelter.
=3.
Commanding officers will be held personally responsible that the following instructions are implicitly carried out under the strictest supervision by officers=: (_a_) Previous to a tour of trench duty, men's feet will be well rubbed with oil or grease and dry socks put on.
It is not sufficient to apply the oil or grease, it must be _thoroughly rubbed in until the skin is dry_.
(_b_) In addition to those worn, another pair of socks will be carried by each man and used as directed in section 30, paragraph 2 (_e_).
(_c_) Battalion arrangements will be made for the reissue of one dry pair of socks to each man daily in the trenches.
(_d_) Puttees are never to be worn with long gum boots.
Socks can be prevented from creeping down under the sole of the foot by fastening them to the trousers by means of safety pins.
On no account will anything in the form of a garter be worn, as it impedes circulation of the blood.
(_e_) Hot food will be provided at least once a day for men in trenches.
Hot boxes will be available for carrying this.
(_f_) When the feet are affected on no account is hot water to be used, nor are they to be put near a fire.
(_g_) Regimental rest posts are to be instituted in close proximity to the trenches, where attention can properly be given to men who show signs of exposure.
(_h_) On return from the trenches the long gum boots are to be dried inside.
=4.
Divisional or brigade arrangements for=: (_a_) Provision of the necessary accommodation for the washing and drying of socks in large numbers, and their supply, to battalions in the front line, in exchange for wet ones.
(_b_) Drying and brushing of clothes.
5.
Long gum boots are issued solely for the use of men in the trenches, either in the forward or backward lines.
They are not to be issued to or used by men under any other conditions.
Trancribers note: The following printers errors have been corrected, otherwise spelling is as in the original.
sperior/superior certatin/certain sumbitted/submitted Words, letters surrounded by equal signs were bold in the original.
TRAINING FOR THE TRENCHES LESLIE VICKERS [Illustration: BRITISH "TANK" IN ACTION] TRAINING FOR THE TRENCHES A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK BASED UPON PERSONAL EXPERIENCE DURING THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR IN FRANCE BY CAPTAIN LESLIE VICKERS LATE LIEUT.
SEAFORTH HIGHLANDERS LECTURER IN TRENCH WARFARE, DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY SERVICE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY [Illustration] NEW YORK GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TO LIEUT.
GORDON ALFORD OF THE "ANZACS," A VERY GALLANT SOLDIER, A BOYHOOD FRIEND, WHO MADE THE GREAT SACRIFICE ON THE SOMME, AUGUST, NINETEEN-SIXTEEN INTRODUCTION Since the Great European War broke out, printing presses have been busy producing text books, handbooks and guides for soldiers.
Military authorities and civilians alike have come to realise that this war has changed many of our old conceptions of strategy and that it has introduced conditions that are entirely unprecedented.
New methods have had to be devised--sometimes on the field itself in the midst of the greatest difficulties--for meeting new and novel methods of warfare.
Every deadly engine of destruction has called forth some new invention to cope with it.
Soldiers have had to live and fight under conditions that to the lay mind, or to the mind of the military men of a few years ago, would seem to be impossible.
It is reasonable to assume that the inventive genius of the world will be turned more and more in the direction of the problem of how to construct still more terrible machines of destruction.
The next war, if there be one, is not likely to be any less fearful than the present, so that the soldier who is called upon to engage in it will require to know the lessons that have been learned in this war.
The author hopes that from a fairly long training in England in preparation for work in France, and from some months in the trenches on the Western British front, he may be able to offer suggestions that will be of value to men who are training themselves with a view to becoming efficient soldiers.
He sends this little book forth, not as a treatise on war, nor yet as a scientific handbook.
He merely desires it to serve to bring home lessons that are sometimes too dearly bought.
"Experientia docet" is the proverb that we used to write in our copy books, and he will feel that he is repaid if, from his experience, others are enabled to learn.
While he trusts that there will be many veteran soldiers and instructors who will be glad to have this information in convenient form, he intends this little book primarily for the use of those who are civilians in the process of becoming soldiers.
L. V. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I.
THE CIVILIAN AND THE SOLDIER 15 II.
HEALTH 21 III.
DISEASE 33 IV.
VERMIN 46 V. HEALTH AND OFFICERS 50 VI.
COVER AND TRENCHES 62 VII.
PROTECTION OF TRENCHES 80 VIII.
ARTILLERY FIRE 90 IX.
GAS AND LIQUID FIRE 97 X.
THE ATTACK--DEFENCE 101 XI.
THE ATTACK--OFFENCE 104 XII.
EQUIPMENT FOR THE FIELD 116 XIII.
TRICKS FOR THE TRENCHES 124 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE BRITISH "TANK" IN ACTION _Frontispiece_ FIGURE 1.
SHOWING USE OF NATURAL COVER BY SOLDIER LYING DOWN 22 2.
SHOWING USE OF SANDBAG AND EARTH FOR PROTECTION 22 3.
SHOWING POSITION OF BODY BEHIND EARTH, AND DIRECTION OF FIRE ROUND RIGHT SIDE OF COVER 26 4.
TRENCH SYSTEM SHOWING FIRE, SUPPORT AND RESERVE TRENCHES; REDOUBTS; COMMUNICATING TRENCHES; SAPS; LISTENING POSTS, ETC.
28 5.
SHOWING METHOD OF CUTTING TRENCH; PARAPET AND PARADOS; DRAINAGE 28 6.
SHOWING REVETTING; FLOORING MADE OF BOARDS AND CHICKEN WIRE; DRAINAGE 30 7.
TRENCH WITH SIMPLE DUGOUT UNDER PARAPET 32 8.
FINISHED DUGOUT, 6'X4'X4' WITH DEEP ENTRANCE AND SHRAPNEL-PROOFING 32 9.
FINISHED TRENCH SHOWING PARAPET AND PARADOS; FIRING STEP OF EARTH; FLOORING; AND SHELTER DUGOUT UNDER PARADOS 34 10.
MACHINE GUN POSITION WITH HEAVY OVERHEAD COVER 36 11.
SIMPLE ENTANGLEMENTS MADE OF BARBED WIRE AND ROUGH POSTS 42 12.
TRENCH PERISCOPES 46 13.
SIMPLE LOOPHOLE MADE OF STEEL PLATE LET INTO PARAPET 52 14.
ORDINARY HAND BOMB WITH FUSE LIGHTED AUTOMATICALLY AS LEVER IS RELEASED 52 15.
TRENCH BOMB GUN FIRING BOMB WITH STEM; AND TRENCH MORTAR FIRING LARGE BOMB 54 16.
SIMPLE GAS MASK WITH FLUTTER VALVE OR CHECK VALVE.
AMBULANCE DOGS AND HORSES IN THE GAS ZONE WERE EQUIPPED AS SHOWN 56 17.
BRITISH SOLDIER FULLY EQUIPPED WITH PACK, ENTRENCHING TOOL, SANDBAGS AND STEEL HELMET 78 TRAINING FOR THE TRENCHES TRAINING FOR THE TRENCHES CHAPTER I THE CIVILIAN AND THE SOLDIER The change from civilian to soldier is one that is not easily accomplished.
We soon find that there are many new conditions to be faced, many new and uncongenial tasks to be undertaken, and all sorts of strange and novel regulations to which we must render the strictest obedience.
In civilian life we become thoroughly independent.
We come and go more or less as we please.
We do not usually ask the permission of any one if we wish to depart a little from our customary habits.
Not since we left school have we answered to roll-calls to any considerable extent, and only in the summertime, "for the fun of it," have we done our own housekeeping and submitted to domestic duties.
In civilian life we have been allowed to work out our own salvation, and if we have been part of a machine at all it has been a huge social machine in which we did not figure as a cog but rather as an attachment.
In military life things are all changed.
We become at once cogs in the great machine.
We have a definite work to perform.
The smooth running of the plant depends on _us_.
We lose much of our independence.
We realise that other cogs depend on us, and, further, that there are many bigger cogs who drive us and whose bigness and authority we must thoroughly appreciate and recognise.
In my own experience, after some years of being my own master to the degree that only the professional man understands, I found it much to my dislike to be obliged to get permission before I could leave the camp grounds for half an hour.
A sentry with a fixed bayonet helped me a little in the appreciation of my new circumstances, and when in a few days' time I was the sentry myself, it did me the world of good and took the edge off my displeasure.
Again it is not to the liking of the ordinary man to be told that he must rise at a certain hour, and much less is it to his liking to be told that he must be in bed at a certain hour after which talking is considered a misdemeanour and is punishable.
_But_ a few weeks of enforced early rising makes one give thanks for the pure fresh air of the small hours of the day; and a few days of hard physical exertion in the process of training makes a man glad to conform to the rule of early to bed, and gives him reason to class as a nuisance the man who talks after "Lights Out" and thus prevents him from sleeping.
In civilian life, too, a man usually chooses with scrupulous care his roommate or mates.
In the army one may be placed in a tent or a billet with men who are by no means congenial, unless he is lucky enough to have been able to join a group of companions who form a unit.
But even the experience of having uncongenial companions is not altogether without its compensations; for every civilian finds that he has need of rearranging his estimates of men when he enters the army.
The sooner our own corners are rubbed off the better, and many of them are inevitably rubbed off when we are ten or thirteen in a tent!
The quality that is the salvation of the volunteer is his keenness.
We volunteer _because_ we are keen and we would be ashamed to be otherwise.
The rules and regulations of army life are liable to try our tempers and our patience.
There may come times when we question very seriously the wisdom of having "joined up."
There may be occasions when we thoroughly despise our seniors and conclude that everything military was arranged for our oppression.
Bit by bit we shall lose the conviction that we "know it all" already, and as knowledge increases within us, we shall appreciate more and more the knowledge and experience of those placed over us.
Regulations and even red tape will be seen to have a wise purpose, though, to the end of our days, we may long for some official scissors to cut it.
The change from civilian to soldier is produced in one way only--THE LEARNING OF OBEDIENCE.
This is the first and last lesson.
The civilian is only obedient in certain ways and to a limited extent.
The soldier is obedient in every way and to any extent, even to death.
It would be wrong of me to indicate that "the habit of implicit obedience" comes easily to the average man.
It is difficult to acquire.
But it is the "sine qua non" of a good soldier and _must_ be acquired.
It is the heart of the system.
Obedience is given to some one by every rank in the army, from the highest general to the humblest private.
When we have learned obedience we need to learn discipline--for the two words do not mean exactly the same thing.
Discipline may be of two kinds.
First of all there is SELF-DISCIPLINE.
This includes the restraint of selfishness; the cultivation of the spirit of comradeship, generosity and thoughtfulness; the cultivation of habits of moderation in smoking, drinking, etc.
; and the elimination of those vices that tend to rob us of our strength or impair the clearness of our thinking.
Then there is, secondly, ARMY DISCIPLINE, which includes obedience, thoroughness, common sense and resourcefulness.
This question is dealt with at length in military handbooks and needs few words from me.
The point to remember is that training for modern war is a serious business, not to be entered upon lightly, nor regarded as a "cinch."
A man must first of all be fit in body to be able to withstand the many physical hardships that he will be sure to encounter.
Then he must be fit in mind to provide him with the imagination and the resourcefulness that he will certainly be called on to show.
His heart must be strong not only in the opinion of the surgeon but in the opinion of those who judge his "all-round manhood."
He must be trained in such a way that he will be able to stand not only the physical but the nervous strain as well.
A visit to the hospitals in England and France will provide the spectacle of row after row of beds containing men who have never been wounded but whose nerves have gone to pieces in the strain of modern warfare.
Remember to take your training seriously--it pays.
CHAPTER II HEALTH Benjamin Franklin once said, "Be sober and temperate and you will be healthy."
This is in the main true and is excellent advice for the soldier.
But there are ills that are liable to affect the fighting man in spite of his temperance and sobriety and of these we must speak.
The health of men in the army is, on the average, much better than that of individuals outside of it.
This is due to many causes chief of which is the fact that only healthy men are admitted to the army.
Then the out-of-door life, regular and wholesome food, sufficient exercise and "early to bed and early to rise" tend to keep him well.
If he enters the army fit, he must make it his business to remain fit and it will be well to remember that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure."
To preserve good health is his DUTY for only thus can he become an efficient soldier.
If the bodily resistance is weakened, man becomes prey to the millions of germs that are to be found in the air and even within his own system.
When he is healthy the body is able to keep them in subjection, but once let him permit his system to run down and these armies of microbes will attack him with all their forces.
Now let us begin first of all with BODILY CLEANLINESS.
No soldier can come on parade unless his face and hands be clean.
Shaving, though sometimes a bore, is an excellent method of keeping the face clean and fresh.
It tends to smarten a man, and officers are not slow to pick out the careful from the slovenly soldier.
We used to reserve the unpleasant tasks of the camp--latrine duties amongst others--for men who would not keep their hands and faces clean.
But there are other parts of the body to which it is just as necessary to apply cleansing methods regularly even though no military punishment follows the violation of the rule.
First of these that I would mention is the TEETH.
Soldiers, I find, are very careless in this matter till the first thing you know is that someone is absent from parade because of the toothache.
On one occasion in the trenches, when we were very short handed, an officer had to leave us for a week to go to the hospital with a badly abscessed tooth due entirely to neglect.
Cleaning the teeth night and morning freshens the mouth and makes food taste better.
An excellent custom is to rinse the mouth after every meal, and while this may often be inconvenient it can be done if a soldier remembers to wash his mouth out with the first sip of water every time he takes a drink.
If the teeth are allowed to get very bad a man's digestion suffers and he falls ill.
This robs the army of part of its fighting strength, a result which every soldier has an interest in avoiding.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1: Showing use of natural cover by soldier lying down.]
[Illustration: FIGURE 2: Showing use of sandbag and earth for protection.]
HAIR.
No better advice can be given to the soldier on this subject than "cut it short."
The shorter the better, for when it is short it is easy to keep clean both from body dirt and vermin.
In this war soldiers have almost invariably had the clippers run completely over their heads.
Soap and water are as good for the head as for any other part of the body.
TRUNK.
It is not always possible for soldiers to get a shower or plunge every day, but a small sponge carried as part of the equipment will help a good deal.
In France, where the water was scarce, we had to make it go a long way.
When the enemy permitted, I used to get my regular morning bath with the aid of the sponge and about a saucerful of water.
I felt like a canary during the process and wanted to chirp and flap my wings.
Soldiers should be encouraged to go in swimming whenever circumstances permit.
To go in swimming was not a military order in my regiment, but we used to take the men to the sea and then ask who wanted to go in.
About eighty per cent of the men would volunteer.
Then we would tell off the remaining twenty per cent for vigorous physical exercises and after ten minutes give them the choice of continuing or taking a plunge in the sea.
They all went in!
Men's objections to water usually come from habit and they soon learn to appreciate its refreshing power.
FEET.
"An army marches on its stomach"--metaphorically, but it marches on its feet, literally, as every poor infantryman knows.
And it has to do a good deal of marching in war and in preparation for war.
"Route Marches" and "Hikes" are very popular with the training staff as the soldier will find, and they are usually planned by the men who ride horses!
So important did we consider the care of the feet that we used to have "TOE PARADES" twice a week with the Doctor in attendance.
Men with neglected feet were considered as candidates for cookhouse garbage duty, and were promptly assigned to this task.
In the first place feet must be comparatively clean--soap and water recommended!
Then they should be free from corns.
This is not so easy to accomplish.
Paring with a knife helps, but if they get too bad the doctor or the chiropodist should be consulted.
Another frequent source of trouble is neglected toe nails.
The best way is to cut them straight across, not too far down, but so as to keep them from tearing the sock or cramping the foot in the boot.
Blisters sometimes arise on the feet.
They should be treated at once, mainly by removing the cause--which may be in the boot itself or the sock--and then by bathing them in a solution of boric acid.
If the socks are kept oiled, or even if small pieces of soap are put into the boots, this condition will, in large measure, be avoided.
I have seen many a pitiful case of men trailing along the road well in rear of their company, limping and hobbling as best they could, all due to the fact that they had not paid the attention to their feet that they must if the feet are to do the work for which the army calls.
A few minutes attention per day given to these points will, I am confident, help to procure and maintain health for the soldier.
But all his care will be wasted unless that which he takes _inside_ his body is wholesome--food and drink.
In camps the soldier usually has all his food cooked for him, and it is the duty of his officers to see that it is good in quality, sufficient in quantity, and reasonably well cooked.
As the soldier does the serving himself, that is entirely his own lookout.
In the trenches it is not possible to have things arranged as one has in camp.
The regimental cookers were usually stationed about three miles from the firing line--for their safety--and all the food was cooked there and sent up to the lines in boxes or sandbags, and apportioned to the various platoons according to the number of men on the strength.
Three times a week the cooks were given fresh meat to prepare for us--when the Government says it is fresh it is fresh even in Summer time and when the flies have been busy--and for the other days we subsisted on canned meats or "bully beef" as it was called.
The meat was either baked or boiled, though sometimes we got a stew--in camp we got too many stews!
Potatoes were boiled, usually in their jackets.
This food we could heat in the trenches in our individual cooking apparatus, which also served to cook our ration of bacon for breakfast, while in the upper part of the tin we made tea.
Of course in the trenches we had to eat whatever we could get, but our lot was relieved considerably by the arrival of delicacies from England by the parcel post.
This sometimes subjected us to the temptation that we were under while in training, and that was to eat pastry and suchlike food, which, while very appetising, is not to be recommended as a diet for the soldier.
[Illustration: FIGURE 3: Showing position of body behind earth, and direction of fire round right side of cover.]
On the question of DRINK my views have become very pronounced since my experience with the army.
Undoubtedly the best universal drink for the soldier is tea--preferably weak.
I should say water were it always possible to get water that is pure.
But during a campaign pure water is a luxury.
By making the water into tea you make sure that it gets boiled, and by the addition of tea you get a beverage that has not the insipid sickly flavour of boiled or sterilised water.
Coffee is preferred by Americans, I know, but there are dangers to be recognised especially by those whose hearts are inclined to be weak.
With regard to alcohol I would most heartily recommend total abstinence.
I need scarcely remind American readers that there is not a single front rank baseball manager that allows his men to indulge in alcohol.
From my own experience I could tell of many men who were permanently rendered unfit as soldiers through foolish indulgence.
Of the men who were brought before the Colonel for more or less serious crimes, 90 per cent of them owed their humiliation directly to alcohol, and 5 per cent of them to alcohol indirectly.
I know that it is possible for some men to take alcohol in moderation.
Not many continue to do so, and sooner or later there is almost certain to be an overindulgence.
In the British army men were sentenced to the extreme penalty--death--for being intoxicated while on active service in France.
I say without hesitation that the best men I had were the abstainers and the worst men I had were the drinkers.
Alcohol weakens the tissues of the body, it lowers its vitality and makes it an easy victim to disease, and worse still, it rapidly obscures the mind.
For a war of the kind that is being waged in Europe a man needs to have his head very clear, and this he cannot do if he is the victim of the alcohol habit.
Many total abstainers from alcohol are tempted to take "gassy" drinks, fizzes and so forth.
These tend to shorten the wind and should therefore be avoided.
If plain water has to be drunk, care should be taken to see that it is reasonably pure, and all vessels such as water bottles should be thoroughly rinsed each time before using.
[Illustration: FIGURE 4: Trench system showing fire, support and reserve trenches; redoubts; communicating trenches; saps; listening posts, etc.]
When these simple rules of eating and drinking are followed many of the dangers incidental to army life will be avoided, and physical fitness established.
A kindred subject is that of SMOKING.
This habit has become so universal in the British army that it is almost true to say that every one smokes.
From my own experience I have seen very few ill effects from it except in cases of obvious overindulgence.
But undoubtedly it is easy to overdo the cigarette business, and on this point I would utter a word of warning.
Pipes are to be preferred, though I admit it is difficult to get men to smoke anything else than cigarettes in the trenches.
In the monotony and strain of trench life, and from the need to do something to keep the stench of decaying bodies from the nostrils, men do smoke to excess.
There is some excuse there, but during training at home every man must endeavour to be reasonable in his indulgence.
CLOTHING.
I have found that men are very apt to load themselves up with all sorts of useless items of apparel.
In their endeavour to keep warm they have often badly overdone it with the result that they have found themselves perspiring and exhausted in the midst of an important piece of physical labour.
Of course the soldier will need to see to it that his underclothes are sufficiently warm to keep out the extreme cold, but it is better to _add_ something to the clothing from time to time--such as a Cardigan waistcoat--than to be equipped permanently with the heaviest kind of underclothes.
Above all, avoid those garments that are being offered extensively to unsuspecting men, and which, while they will undoubtedly keep you warm, will also prevent the proper perspiration of the body.
The body _must_ be allowed to perspire and the air must be allowed to carry off the perspiration.
Woollens are the best for this purpose, and though the initial cost of them is rather great, they are worth it in the long run.
BOOTS.
In the paragraph on feet I couldn't help mentioning the matter of boots, but it is so important that, at the risk of too great repetition, I want to mention it again.
You must have boots that are right, otherwise you will soon be lamed and thus be out of action.
And every man out of action "counts two on a division."
We found it advisable in France to get boots that were large enough to accommodate the feet and _two_ pairs of socks--one thin and one thick pair.
Into the boots we poured a small quantity of oil, or between the socks we put small pieces of soap to keep the feet in good condition.
You will find that the feet must be oiled if they are to stand the work of a campaign.
[Illustration: FIGURE 5: Showing method of cutting trench; parapet and parados; drainage.]
[Illustration: FIGURE 6: Showing riveting; flooring made of boards and chicken wire; drainage.]
But sometimes injuries are caused to the feet by other parts of the clothing of a soldier.
Men frequently laced their puttees or leggins too tight and found that they suffered pains in the feet--the circulation was being stopped.
This rendered them very liable to frostbite, than which there is nothing more painful.
If there are signs of freezing, remove the boots as soon as possible and restore the circulation.
But if the feet are actually frozen the soldier is in for a long and tedious illness, and will be lucky if he does not need to have his feet amputated.
I am told that, during the first campaign in the Carpathians, the Central Powers lost 25,000 men per day with frozen feet.
Before leaving this subject to deal with diseases and their avoidance, I would like to say a word or two on the congenial subject of REST.
A soldier should get as much of it as he can, consistent, of course, with doing his duty.
Never stand when you could as well be lying down.
Throw yourself on the ground whenever you can, to rest, and let the whole body relax.
When you are given a rest on the roadside, stretch out on your back and breathe as deeply as you can.
Give your mind and body alike a vacation and you will feel the benefit of it at the end of the day.
Don't spend your hours of beauty sleep in talking--get that done during the day.
Your body will call for rest after the tiring duties of the day and you should give it all the rest you can.
[Illustration: FIGURE 7: Trench with simple dugout under parapet.]
[Illustration: FIGURE 8: Finished dugout, 6' � 4' � 4' with deep entrance and shrapnel-proofing.]
CHAPTER III DISEASE If the rules of health set forth in the foregoing chapter are carefully observed, the soldier will be doing the best he can to keep his body fit.
He will be building up a reserve of strength that will stand him in good stead should the germs of disease find entrance into his body.
But there are times when, in spite of all our precautions, these little microbes get the upper hand, and a long struggle against them begins.
The disease that has been responsible for the death of armies of soldiers is ENTERIC or TYPHOID fever.
During the campaign in South Africa the British lost more men through the ravages of this disease than through bullets and shells.
But during the present war there have been comparatively few cases of enteric, and the number that have proved fatal is very small.
For this result we have to thank the medical profession that has given so much study and care to the perfection of a method of combating this disease.
The secret has been found to lie in the inoculation of the soldier with small doses of the disease itself till he becomes comparatively immune to it.
Inoculation was not made compulsory in the first armies that were raised in England after war broke out, but it was made compulsory for men who desired to become members of the British Expeditionary Force in France.
Most men gladly accepted this medical boon and subjected themselves to this simple and painless operation.
But there were others who objected, sometimes through fear of the pain, and sometimes through what they termed "conscientious objections."
Anti-Inoculation Societies got busy and spread their wretched literature throughout the camps and made men thoroughly afraid, both of the operation and of its results.
To meet this the War Office issued through the papers and by pamphlets, information from the medical authorities as to the wonderful results that had already been achieved.
They were able to prove beyond all dispute, that of the men who caught the infection in France, practically all of those who had been inoculated recovered--their cases being light--while those who had not been inoculated became easy victims to the disease.
As the war has progressed these figures have been amplified till now there can be no question that the use of "Inoculation" has made this dread disease a thing to be feared less than the measles.
[Illustration: FIGURE 9: Finished trench showing parapet and parados; firing step of earth; flooring; and shelter dugout under parados.]
Officers adopted different methods in counteracting the teaching of those who tried to keep the soldiers from submitting.
Some of them argued with the men and told them of the wonderful results that had been achieved.
Others warned their men that they would be left behind when the battalion went to France.
For my own part I adopted the method of sending for the medical men whose business it was to administer the "dose."
When they were all prepared I marched in my men from some light fatigue work in which they had been engaged, told them to take off their coats and roll up their sleeves, and three at a time they appeared before the waiting surgeons.
The business was over in no time.
I marched them off to a place where I could talk to them and then acquainted them with the advantages of inoculation.
The announcement of forty-eight hours' freedom from drill for the whole company to let their arms limber up put the few that were disgruntled into good spirits again, and I was able to report to the O. C. that 100 per cent of my men were willing to be inoculated--and had been inoculated!
So little did any of them suffer from its effects that they readily lined up in ten days time when they were to receive the second dose.
At intervals of two or three months in France the operation was repeated and I never had a single man on the sick list from enteric!
Now, while inoculation is excellent and should be insisted on in all armies, both for the sake of the individual soldier and of those who associate with him, every possible precaution should be taken by the soldier even after this has been done.
All water for drinking should be looked upon with suspicion.
Never take any chances for the sake of getting a hasty drink.
Many communities have water supplies that are admirable and when military operations are carried on there, the difficulties disappear.
On the other hand many places have the most abominable water supply systems.
Where we were in France, the country was very flat, and consequently the drainage poor.
The buildings that housed the human beings and the cattle and pigs on the farms were as a rule all built around a "midden" into which flowed all the refuse.
In many cases the family water supply, a well, was dug within three feet of this cesspool, so that the drainage from the latter was almost sure to reach the former.
This is "asking for" enteric, and some men fell victims to it before they could be made to realise the danger.
The best rule to follow, as we all soon learned, was to get our drinking water exclusively from the army water wagons, for there the water had been treated and the danger lessened.
At times we could not get to the water carts and a certain degree of risk had to be run.
[Illustration: FIGURE 10: Machine gun position with heavy overhead cover.]
Not only with water has the greatest care to be taken, but also with food.
Flies are notorious carriers of disease, and consequently soldiers must see to it that no food is left uncovered.
Nor should food ever be placed near latrines or any place where there is decaying matter.
With universal inoculation, and with a careful following of these simple rules laid down, the ancient scourge of the army loses much of its terror.
The task of combating it lies mainly with the medical and sanitary staff, though the common soldier must also play his part of carefulness.
Some men carried small sterilisers with them.
This practice is not to be recommended for it is very difficult to keep these little utensils clean, and then they themselves become harmful.
Tabloid sterilisers I have found to be effective in an emergency.
Those who have followed the history of the war will remember how the Serbian Army was threatened with extinction through the deadly disease called TYPHUS.
There is no doubt that the army and most of the civil population would have been wiped out had it not been for the timely assistance that that brave little nation received from medical men and women throughout the world, notably America.
Many of these brave souls made the final great sacrifice in their endeavour to stamp out this disease.
Then again its horrors have been more recently brought to our notice through the revelations of the conditions at Wittenberg Camp in Germany.
The story that Captain Vidal and Major Priestly, Officers of the Royal Army Medical Corps, had to tell of their living death in that awful internment camp, brought home to the British people and then to the world, the frightfulness of that disease, as well as the inhumanity of certain German medical officials.
Fortunately, typhus has been little known in Western Europe, and it is possible that soldiers in this country will never know its ravages.
But all the same it is as well to be prepared for it, and to know the methods of preventing its outbreak.
It is a disease that is carried by flees and lice and consequently the most that can be said in a work of this kind is to recommend the greatest pains in the removal of these creatures from the body should they ever take up their residence there.
I refer the reader to the chapter on "Vermin" for methods of combating "Lice."
DYSENTERY, ENTERITIS, and COLITIS.
These names are applied to various kinds and grades of stomach troubles, between which it is difficult for the common soldier to differentiate, and which show themselves with most distressing effects.
They come, usually, from drinking bad water or eating bad food.
Even with the greatest care that the Commissariat could take, there were occasions when food unfit for human consumption was served to the troops.
In the trenches it was not to be wondered at that we were stricken with these diseases, for the flies that infested the trenches and lived on the dead bodies there, favoured us with many visits at food time and poisoned the latter for us.
There is no way that I know of to prevent it, and the sufferer will be well advised to report to the medical officer for skilled treatment.
Cases of dysentery were not very frequent in France, but they were in Gallipoli where the food supply left much to be desired.
TETANUS is a disease that is brought about by infection which enters the system through a wound.
In the early part of the war it occurred only too frequently till, in this case also, the skill of the medical profession provided us with a serum to combat it.
The universal practice now is to inoculate with anti-tetanic serum just as soon as possible after a wound has been received.
By this means tetanus, like enteric, is rapidly ceasing to be regarded as a menace.
I have no intention of exhausting the whole category of diseases to which man--and therefore the soldier--is heir, but simply to touch upon those that are most likely to occur in a campaign.
The foregoing list includes, I believe, all the most likely, but to them I should like to add these two--SMALLPOX and CHOLERA.
To deal first with smallpox, we can say, fortunately, that it is rare.
This is due in large part to the almost universal provision of vaccination, which should be insisted upon in an army.
Cholera is of rare occurrence, and nothing can be done to ward it off except to follow carefully the ordinary rules of health and sanitation.
Should it, unfortunately, break out, the army must place itself unreservedly in the hands of medical authorities who are especially qualified to deal with it.
There is one other disease that has made its effects felt on almost every army, and which it has been found impossible to thoroughly eliminate.
The hands of those who would lessen its influence are to a great extent tied, because in the past, the only method that has been permissible to eliminate venereal disease has been what I shall call "the Moral method"--the appeal to morality and the intelligence of the individual soldier.
We have used this excellent and praiseworthy method for generations, but it has never been found capable of eradicating the evil.
Some other means, from an army point of view, has obviously to be resorted to.
But even to discuss the matter, one runs the risk of being ruled out of court by those who will admit none but the aforementioned "moral argument."
When the first Expeditionary Force went to France, the late Lord Kitchener, then Secretary of State for War, issued an appeal to the men, in which he besought them to be on their guard against two of the evils that lessen the efficiency of soldiers--wine and women.
The men who fell victims to wine or whiskey or other forms of alcoholic intemperance, were punished, first of all with imprisonment, and then, when it was seen that this penalty did not meet the case, the death penalty was imposed for such as became intoxicated when at their post of duty.
Obviously the army cannot afford to have as its guardians men who cannot keep sober.
Those who fell victims to loose women and contracted venereal diseases--and it is beyond a doubt that most of the women who follow an army are diseased--had to be withdrawn from their positions and sent back to the bases to hospitals.
Every man, therefore, who violated Lord Kitchener's advice, was playing into the hands of the enemy to this extent that he was taking the risk of contracting a disease which would rob the army of his services.
My own Colonel used not to mince words on this subject but used to say that such men might just as well go over to the enemy at once.
But with every kind of pleading and threat on the part of officers, it was found that there were men who disregarded their advice.
A soldier's pay automatically stops under these circumstances, and at first it was the custom to acquaint his family with the fact that he had been sent to such and such a hospital, and the people of England soon got to know the purpose of these hospitals, and many a home suffered shame from the indiscretions of the men who represented them in France.
When the Australian troops were quartered near Cairo--than which there are few more immoral cities in the world--venereal cases were frequent, in spite of the admonitions of the combatant officers and of the medical staff.
What was to be done?
Every effort was made to restrain the men and keep them out of the notorious red light district, but case after case of the disease turned up.
Eventually some of the medical men hit upon the scheme of establishing at the entrance to the various camps, tents to which men could go on their return from the city.
In those tents there was a representative of the Army Medical Corps equipped with all the latest appliances in the form of prophylactics, and these were administered without charge and without question, even as to name, to all who sought this method of protecting themselves after acts of indiscretion.
The result was very gratifying from the medical standpoint, for the number of those who contracted the disease rapidly declined and the efficiency of the army was maintained at a correspondingly high standard.
Of course a protest was immediately entered by those who were particularly interested in the morals of the men, and the charge was made that it was putting a premium on immorality.
For my own part, interested in both of these matters, I have come to the conclusion that the old methods have failed, and that I would rather have an army immoral and well than an army immoral and diseased.
As human nature is constituted at present I can see no alternative, though I believe it to be our bounden duty to continue to urge the need of self-restraint.
I do not fear that these words will be taken to cast a slur upon any army, for those of us who are not blind are perfectly aware that the same kind of immorality exists among civilian populations as in armies.
For those men who shall read these words of mine I would with all the force at my command urge the close following of the precepts of Lord Kitchener.
[Illustration: FIGURE 11: Simple entanglements made of barbed wire and rough posts.]
A kindred problem with which the authorities sometimes have to deal is that of "unnatural men."
Records of the German Army before the war contained many examples of this most revolting form of perversion.
In the British Armies that were raised at the outbreak of the war, several cases occurred, the offenders being punished with terms of imprisonment varying from seven to fifteen years with hard labour--much too lenient.
The whole problem is most difficult to deal with, and any one who attempts to deal with it risks public censure.
Yet the problem must be faced, nevertheless, and the sooner we apply sane methods to its solution, the better.
Of course views will differ as to what constitutes sane methods, but I am convinced from my own experience with soldiers that the method outlined above is a good one.
We must not, however, fail to emphasise the dangers that men run.
They must be taught the folly of it.
We must make it plain to them that it is not worth the candle to run the risk of contracting the most horrible diseases that even our advanced medical science can never cure with certainty, for the sake of a brief gratification.
A man's whole life may be ruined; his innocent children afflicted with a loathsome disease; his wife made to endure years of physical and mental torment as the price of that foolish act.
Were this book a moral treatise I should spend time in driving this point home with more force.
But as the object I desire to achieve is to show men how they can become soldiers and remain fit, it must suffice to say again that the surest way to lay up misery for yourself, to render yourself unfit to remain at your soldier tasks and thus increase the odds of the enemy against your side is to run the risk of venereal disease through contact with women.
CHAPTER IV VERMIN I feel that no hints on health would be complete without some brief reference to the "terrors of the trenches"--LICE.
A learned Professor of one of the Universities of England published a little book whose exact title I have forgotten but which was something like this--"Flees, Lice and Bugs, or, the Little Brothers of the Prussian."
That is pretty hard on the enemy--or the lice--but it serves to emphasise one important point and that is, that the ravages of these vermin is so great that they can well be said to be fighting the same cause as the enemy.
In spite of all a soldier can do, lice are sure, sooner or later, to overtake him.
They make their nests in the straw upon which he throws himself when fatigued, or in the walls of houses, or on other human beings, and contact is almost sure to bring them.
They are most interesting little pets whose sole interest in life seems to be to lay eggs and thus make sure that their race shall be perpetuated.
The female louse takes up her abode upon the soldier's body and immediately sets herself to an egg laying competition.
If she gets five minutes start of her victim she lays up for him weeks of trouble, and the only thing to do is to go after her and her eggs as soon as her presence is made known.
I discovered my first louse while I was at luncheon in the trenches.
I seized the spot on my arm where I believed her to be, and calling to my orderly hurried off to the fields some distance behind the lines.
There we began the hunt which ended, I am happy to be able to say, in her decease.
But the eggs had been laid and not for weeks did I succeed in ridding myself of these unwelcome boarders.
I was, much against my will, used as a perambulating incubator, and only the greatest vigilance served to rid me of the pests.
[Illustration: FIGURE 12: Trench periscopes.]
It was our custom, as soon as we were relieved from the trenches for a spell of a few days, to turn all the men out into a field and bid them "Hunt!"
I used then to walk around amongst the men and enquire of them what luck they had had.
"Two," "Seven," "Nineteen," etc., were the frequent replies.
One of the saddest men I have ever seen replied "None, Sir."
His unhappiness was due to the fact that he was perfectly well aware that there were some there to be caught, but that he had not yet had the luck to get them.
As to means of combating them, the best is constant vigilance.
Make sure that not only the live lice are killed but that the eggs as well are destroyed, say with the ash of a lighted cigarette.
The next thing to remember is that body lice are opposed to cleanliness, and that the oftener you can wash yourself, the more you inconvenience them.
Gasoline squirted over the body and the clothes also serves to discourage them.
Some thin cotton shirts covered with a solution of carbolic, had a good effect, and at the least they served as another barrier to the little rascals before they could reach the body.
Since I returned to this country, a manufacturer of vermin killers told me that the following method will be found effective: Take a goose quill and seal up one end.
Put in half an inch of mercury, and then seal the other end making a little phial of about an inch and a half in length.
Sew this to the clothes under each armpit and round the belt line.
As to whether this will work I do not know, for I am glad to be able to say that I have not needed to test the theory since I returned to America.
FLEAS are not so common, but when they occur, they must be hunted with the same vigilance as lice, and the same methods apply to their extermination.
As carriers of typhus, they are particularly to be dreaded.
CHAPTER V HEALTH AND OFFICERS So far I have been dealing with disease from the point of view of the individual and I have said nothing of the duties of officers towards their men in this respect.
A word on the subject may not be out of place.
When the new armies were formed in England at the outbreak of war it was summer time and the new troops were placed in tents in open fields.
The lessons of camp life were difficult for many of these men to learn, and some of the experience that was obtained was bought dearly.
It will occur to every soldier that the greatest care must be paid to the cleanliness of the lines.
Men are often too lazy to carry their scraps to the proper garbage pails, and carelessly throw them around in the neighbourhood of the tents.
In fine weather they can be easily seen and the culprits, when discovered, can be made to clean up all the lines.
When the culprits cannot be discovered, whole companies have to be put to this fatigue work.
In wet weather it is worse, for the particles of meat and bread get trodden into the ground and before long there arises a stench from them.
Sometimes, too, rats and mice are encouraged by this careless method.
We used to find that certain men who had an inherent objection to fresh air, would eat all their meals within the tents.
This practice must be stopped at all costs.
Bring the men into the open and let them stay there and they will be all the better for it.
It is excusable for them to remain in the tents during rain but at no other time.
The inspecting officer would frequently find pieces of bacon and butter and cheese trodden into the ground on which the men had to sleep.
The lines _must_ be kept clean.
Officers will be well advised to assign liberal fatigue work to the men who are guilty of messing up the lines, and littering them with particles of food, papers, cigarette and cigar ends, etc.
The regular sanitary squad cannot be expected to do its work unless the soldiers themselves are made to co-operate.
It is a good thing to encourage the spirit of rivalry between units, and men can often be jollied on into keeping their lines neat and tidy by pointing out to them lines that are better kept--and sometimes praising them when their lines are up to the required standard.
We found that a good many of the men had quite an artistic instinct, and would use up the old bottles and stones from around the camp to execute the most beautiful designs representing the battalion colours or the flags of the allied nations.
We also met with considerable difficulty in getting men to thoroughly air the tents.
The flaps of round tents should be rolled up just as early as is possible each morning.
A good plan is to "strike" individual rows of tents occasionally and give the ground a thorough airing and disinfecting.
We followed this plan with tents which contained notoriously lazy men who would not rise at the proper time and developed the habit of leaving the flaps of the tents down.
They were awakened by the Orderly Corporal in the usual course of events and given ten minutes in which to appear outside their tents.
Promptly at the expiration of this time a squad arrived on the scene and, undoing all their guy ropes, let the tents down very suddenly on their heads.
It is very provoking to have a mass of canvas come about your ears in this way, and the slackers soon learned the only way to avoid it.
[Illustration: FIGURE 13: Simple loophole made of steel plate and let into parapet.]
[Illustration: FIGURE 14: Ordinary hand bomb with fuse lighted automatically as lever is released.]
When an army has to live in tents, a certain amount of dampness is almost certainly inevitable.
But if proper drains are dug around them, and every advantage taken of the sunlight, much can be done to avoid what frequently ends in rheumatism or pneumonia.
It pays to construct good cinder roads in all the camp lines and to see to it that the approaches to the individual tents are prepared in the same way.
When we were first dumped down in a field of clay in the Midlands of England and told to prepare it for the horse lines to accommodate the sixteen hundred horses that were due in a few days, we were faced with a colossal task.
We were all turned into navvies, and long before we even had shelter for the horses they had arrived.
It was a most tedious business to construct lines for them in December in England, and we had to cart many hundreds of tons of cinders and rock to make the place possible.
For weeks we worked at it, and there were complaints from the men that they had not joined the army to be navvies.
They had joined it to fight, so they said.
But when the stables were finished and they could approach the lines over nice smooth dry roads they realised that their labour had not been in vain.
There is usually a fitting return in health from all the labour invested in the preparation of a good camp.
Another place in which officers and non-commissioned officers must be on the alert for filth, is the cook house.
This is true in winter as well as in summer time.
It has been my experience that the laziest and dirtiest men volunteer for the task of cook.
The reason is that they are able to get the choicest portions for themselves, be free from the bore of attending drills and parades, and get a little higher pay, besides what they can get from the soldiers on the side for little favours.
In an army such as was formed in England at the beginning of the war it was impossible to get enough trained cooks for the work, and all sorts of men were run in for the job.
Many of them were thoroughly lazy and incompetent.
There was, of course, a rooted objection to calling in the aid of women--though few of us ever think of employing men to do our cooking in private life--and when we suggested it for the purpose of improving the grade of our food in the Officers' Mess, we were met with the reply that it had never been done.
That was the reason for keeping out a good many reforms in Dear Old England.
But by strategy on our part, and by the eventual demands of the stomachs concerned that some change be made, we were able to introduce a woman manager for the mess kitchen.
She reformed everything, including the costs of the food.
Our mess bills were considerably reduced, the food was better cooked, and we got a variety that had never seemed to occur to the late robbers that we had employed.
When England began to feel the want of fighting men, it entered the brains of some of the Brass Hat officials that this was a sphere in which the women could well supplant the men--and woman came into her own again, at least in part.
That was a job that women _could_ do well, but it was a long time before we would agree to let them.
[Illustration: FIGURE 15: Above is trench bomb gun firing bomb with stem; below is trench mortar firing large bomb.]
But whether men or women are in charge of this important department of an army, the duty will still devolve upon the officers to see that the cookhouses are kept clean and that the food is up to the proper standard.
One case occurred in a camp near London where they were following the principle of allowing outside caterers to supply the food, in which the Orderly Officer of the day just managed to stop in time, the service to the men of meat that was diseased.
The desire to make a little additional profit had blinded these unpatriotic people to the welfare of the troops, and they were punished with a fine and with the loss of their catering contract.
That is mild punishment.
Grafters of every kind, from those who put bad powder into shells or bad leather into boots, to those who risk an outbreak of sickness through supplying improper food, should all be treated the same way that certain other enemies of their country are treated--a Court-martial and a firing party.
No condemnation is too severe for them.
Officers will not always find it an easy task to detect these thieves, but they must be very much on their job for this purpose.
Then again good food sometimes is allowed to become bad food through the careless handling by the cooks and their assistants.
Covers are left off dishes that contain meat, butter, cheese, etc., and they are ruined by dust or flies.
Contaminated food is allowed to remain in close proximity to the food that is to be offered to the troops; cooks either use unclean utensils themselves or allow the orderlies from the various units to return dirty utensils to them; or they handle the refuse and then the food without ever a thought to washing their hands.
One very knowing old rascal of a cook we had used to have his place in excellent condition at eleven in the morning when the Orderly Officer used to make his rounds, and one day when I came upon him suddenly it was to find that he was using one of the bread bags as a receptacle for his change of clothes--a filthy collection of shirts, socks, etc.
He was fired, and cursed me for many a day as he carried his great weight of avoirdupois round the training field with a rifle over his shoulder like any other infantryman.
[Illustration: FIGURE 16: Simple gas mask with flutter valve or check valve.
Ambulance dogs and horses in the gas zone were equipped as shown.]
With regard to water, while the regular line officers must also keep an eye to its general purity, it is generally left to the care of the medical staff to test it from time to time to make certain of its fitness for human use.
We experienced a good deal of trouble in making the men keep their wash lines clean and in making them refrain from throwing soapy, greasy water on the ground.
It is the easiest method--for them--but the costliest in the long run, and they must be made to throw it into the proper drains.
Then, too, no camp will be complete without a thorough system of garbage disposal.
The refuse should be collected into tins that can be closed to keep away the rats, etc., and then taken at certain specified times to the incinerator.
The latter can easily be built under any circumstances and there can be no reason for a camp not being well supplied in this matter.
Latrines, also, must be thoroughly inspected by the officers of every unit.
They should be established at some distance from the tent lines, and as far removed as possible from the kitchen.
Sand and lime should be liberally supplied.
The tasks of attending the latrines will normally fall to the sanitary squad who can be assisted by those who are convicted of the crime of failing to keep their lines clean.
It is wonderful what a wholesome effect on a lazy man has the imposition of three days latrine duty!
In the trenches this was one of the few punishments at our disposal for the slackers, for they welcomed any punishment that would send them away out of the firing line.
The same principles that have been laid down for tent life will apply more or less to life in billets.
When the winter came all the troops in England and Scotland were moved into billets in towns where they could be accommodated.
These were usually manufacturing towns that had numerous small homes that could each accommodate a soldier or two.
From the point of view of training this is a system far from satisfactory for the men so easily get out of control.
But it is the best system that we had at the time.
Later on, extensive villages of huts were constructed, and the training proceeded normally.
Sometimes groups of men were assembled in large vacant houses.
There was no furniture in them and the troops had to sleep on the floor.
Cooking facilities were inadequate, but worst of all were the toilet facilities.
These houses had been constructed to serve as the homes for average families of five to ten, and when fifty or sixty men were turned into them the result is imaginable.
The same problems will probably be presented if ever American soldiers are housed in this way, and those who happen to be officers will have to exercise the greatest vigilance.
Then again we found that there are some men who have no idea of the risk they run in leaving food lying about a house or hidden away.
After a certain group had moved away from Bedford, England, it was my business to go round the houses they had occupied to see if they were fit for occupation by the incoming troops.
I found to my horror in one of the houses that some of the men, instead of taking surplus meat out to the garbage cans, had put it under a board in the floor!
It had been there a few days when I found it, and examination of the other rooms disclosed the fact that all sorts of things from meat and bread and tins to old clothes had been hidden in similar places by these lazy fellows.
My reader will soon realise that the officer of to-day has to keep his eyes constantly open to preserve the best conditions for the training of his men.
And while I am on this point I would just add this word.
Not only must the officers see to it that the food and water are good and the camp kept clean, but he must also have the men's health constantly in mind when he is planning their schedule of training.
Moderation is the word.
It is possible to be too enthusiastic and do the men more harm than good with hasty training.
Exercises should be graduated.
It must be remembered that many of the men who will constitute civilian armies are not used to out-of-door life and their training must be gentle.
It is not fair for an officer to expect his men to be able to march twelve or twenty miles on a hike while he rides comfortably with them on a horse!
It is a good thing for him to share the fatigue of his men that he may be the better able to direct their training.
I have found that a good many of these hikes were planned by the higher officers who never walked and never understood when men began to fall out from fatigue.
Rests during marching should be fairly frequent and the men should be taught the advantages to be gained by loosening their packs and throwing themselves down flat on the ground to relax all their muscles.
Singing and whistling should be encouraged on the march, for there is nothing like it to make a long road seem short, but smoking should be reserved for the rest periods.
The principle of "plenty of rests" should also be followed during physical exercises and a man should never be asked to hold his arm long in any uncomfortable position.
A thoughtful officer is soon rewarded by the increased efficiency of his men.
"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"--will bring big returns in the army.
CHAPTER VI COVER AND TRENCHES This war is being fought out, not in great open battles, but in successive conflicts from the security of trenches in what "Papa Joffre" has called the "nibbling process."
It is not simple work but such as calls for healthy bodies, trained minds, and steady nerves.
Quick action is often necessary.
Independence of thought, ingenuity and personal courage, combined with implicit obedience, make up the ideal soldier.
The training through which a civilian must go, then, will be such as to develop these qualities.
Every syllabus of training must be drawn up with this in view, and all the time the attention of the officers must be kept on the fact that the training must be such as to make soldiers who will be efficient in the kind of war that is being waged.
Much that has been written in the text books for armies has had to be discarded as out of date.
It is no exaggeration to say that the British knew very little about modern warfare when we went to France, in spite of the fact that we had, during this century, waged a war in South Africa, not to mention the numerous border engagements in India.
We did not know the tremendously important part that artillery was to play; we knew practically nothing of the use of bombs; we had never made gas and did not know its constitution; and in the work of trench construction we were in the kindergarten class.
Our enemy taught us many of these things and we learned them slowly.
Now we have reached his standard and gone past him as the Tanks testify.
But in pure frightfulness we can never compete with him and never intend to.
Eight hours a day of hard but varied training was our rule with frequent evening lectures.
Conditions were arranged as much like those on active service as possible, even to the use of "live" bombs.
Men are very reluctant at first to handle these explosive little instruments of war, and they must be given confidence in themselves long before they reach the firing line.
There they are used as freely as a mechanic uses a machine.
It is said that one general who was training his men in the Midlands of England had a difficulty in getting them to keep their heads down.
They could not see the necessity for it and always wanted to see all that was going on.
Now in actual warfare the individual soldier is able to see very little of what is transpiring round about him, and he has to be content to come through with a whole head.
Accordingly the General served out to a few trustworthy men a number of live, ball cartridges.
During the manoeuvres the men who would put their heads up heard some of these missiles singing round their ears, and soon learned that it was unwise to be too curious.
I am not sure that I would recommend this method--for were an accident to happen it would bring disgrace and dismissal to the officer who had employed it--but it is certainly an effective means.
One of the first things to be insisted upon in training a man is that he learn the use of COVER.
He must learn not only that cover is necessary, but also what constitutes effective cover of various materials.
The most common form of cover is that afforded by piled up earth.
A rifle bullet fired at short range will pierce about forty inches of earth so that nothing less than thirty-six inches can be considered as giving protection from ordinary bullets.
Where sand can be obtained ten inches less will suffice.
Ordinary turf is not nearly so good and nothing less than five feet in thickness is sufficient.
Bricks are effective.
If they are placed end on giving a thickness of nine inches this will be found sufficient so that a man can feel fairly secure from rifle bullets standing behind an ordinary brick wall.
Where wood is used much depends on its degree of hardness; thirty inches for hardwood and forty-five for softwood can be taken as affording complete protection.
Any of the harder substances such as iron and steel, etc., are preferable, but they can seldom be obtained.
Of ordinary iron plate three-fourths inch is necessary and less for the different varieties of steel.
Usually several of these media must be used.
Boards can be arranged with stones and sand or litter, etc., between them.
The point to be remembered is that the required thickness must be obtained, not at the base of the cover but at the top, to support which a much larger base will usually be required.
When a man has learnt what thickness of materials he needs to have to protect his life, it will be a good thing to take him out and let him see how far bullets are able to pierce these media by actually firing at them from point blank range.
That will give him a respect for bullets and impress the lesson on him.
But he must also be told that cover that protects is only half what is required.
It must be such as to allow him to become offensive while giving him defence.
The problem is a simple one in actual trenches, where he has no alternative but to build them continuously and then fire over the top or through loopholes of steel.
But when more open fighting develops he must learn that his business is not only to get reasonable protection for his own body but to be able to bring his rifle to bear on the enemy.
This necessitates a certain amount of exposure.
Certain devices have been developed during this war to allow a man to fire his rifle from beneath the parapet of the trench by means of specially adapted periscopes.
These are of great use for snipers but cannot be used by all the men.
In open fighting men often make the mistake of seeking cover in what is obviously the most protected place from rifle bullets, but equally obvious to those of experience as the most likely place for the enemy to choose as marks for his artillery.
Orchards, woods, houses, etc., come within this category, and it is only experience that will teach a man what places to choose and what places to avoid.
Wherever the enemy can view the approaches to these shelters, either by direct vision from their positions or by means of aeroplanes or observation balloons, they become dangerous as cover.
Modern trenches are intended to give cover from fire and from view.
They are seldom roofed over, so that, as a matter of fact, they can be seen from the air, but it is not by any means an easy task either for an aeroplane to drop bombs there (a ditch three feet wide) nor yet for the artillery to hit them.
But we seldom are able to inherit trenches--they usually have to be dug under cover of darkness while the enemy is sniping.
For this purpose each man in the British army carries a small entrenching tool on his back, as well as two sandbags.
Every man is trained in the use of this valuable little tool, and soon learns never to be without it.
When, during an advance, he needs to provide cover for himself, he throws himself down on the ground placing his rifle at his left side, and begins to dig away the earth at his right side, throwing the loose earth up in front of him.
Just as soon as he can he takes the sandbags from his back and fills them, placing them in front of him.
Under this imperfect cover he proceeds to deepen the hole till he can roll his body into it.
This miniature trench should be two feet wide and three feet long.
Then if time permits he should add small comforts such as a recess for his feet, drainage for water, etc.
He will find that he needs to dig down to about two feet, all the time throwing the earth out in front and occasionally pushing it out a little so as to make it of sufficient width, for, of course, he will be seeking to get a parapet of about a yard in thickness at the top.
If he has an opportunity of firing he should do so, not over the top of his cover but round the right side of it.
To fire over it is to ask for trouble.
The body and legs should be placed in such a position that they are covered as much as possible by the earth thrown up in front.
If an advance has to be made from this position, the small trench will have served its purpose in giving temporary shelter.
But there are times when troops have to consolidate positions won in this way, and on the site of these primitive trenches, more elaborate ones have to be made.
At the battle of Neuve Chapelle the troops took up a certain line, dug themselves in in a rough way, and then during the night they set to work to construct the very trenches that still shelter them to this day.
But it was due to the entrenching tools and the few sand bags that they were able to hold the line during the hours of daylight, and when the next morning dawned they had a fairly adequate protection.
While the question of cover is very important, I do not wish to convey the impression that men should have this subject always in their minds.
To use a rock or a tree or a mound of earth as a temporary shelter is one thing; but to continue to hide behind it at the time an advance is needed, is another.
The man who hesitates to go forward when he has recovered his wind, but who takes care of his precious skin by remaining under cover, is worse than useless.
The object of all troops must be to get into touch with the enemy and drive him out with the bayonet.
Cover will help to keep a man alive for a little while to be able to do that work.
When through adverse circumstances--usually the presence of the enemy in superior force--an army has to go to ground, it sets to work in dead earnest to build its trenches.
We have learned that the best fortifications that can be got are those that are constructed in the earth.
The guns of Verdun have practically never been in operation--indeed at the present time there are no guns in the old forts--and the reason for this is that earth works of such strength were thrown up at a distance from the forts that the Germans were never able to get their heavy guns to bear on them.
The forts of Liége, and Namur, and Antwerp all fell before the great howitzers, but the earth works of Verdun were too much for them.
It is doubtful if large forts will ever again be used in inland places, for the earthworks have proved their great superiority.
Trenches are laid out and dug as shown in the accompanying diagram [Figure 4].
They do not consist of one long straight line, but what may be described as a succession of little rooms, about twenty feet long, seven feet deep and three feet broad.
They are seldom roofed over.
Each little room is connected to the ones on either side by a trench that runs behind the four-feet-square traverse that is of solid earth and which serves the purpose of localising the effect of shells, bombs, etc.
If the trenches were in one straight line, a shell that fell there would be liable to injure a great many men; whereas under the present system the traverse acts as a buffer and limits the radius of its explosive force.
The trench itself is dug about three feet deep, care being taken to lift off the top layer of grass and keep it aside to place over the front of the earth on completion of the trenches, to render them less visible.
As the earth is lifted out it is thrown to the front and rear, and some of it put into sandbags which are then laid like stones as shown.
The front part of the trench is then called the parapet and the rear part the parados.
Both must be made strong, the parapet for reasons already given, and the parados in order to protect the men from the force of shells that fall just behind the trenches.
About a foot from the ground there is placed a board that is called the "firing step," on which the men stand when they are about to fire.
I have said that there is seldom any roof over the trenches.
It is difficult to cover in the trenches because of the limited supply of materials.
Then again it is questionable if roofing pays; for, admitting that they may be able to keep out small bombs and rifle bullets, they can never hope to be able to keep out shells.
The Germans used to roof in a great deal--but then they were there to wage a defensive war and did not propose to move for a good while.
In some ground the earth will "hold itself up" at the sides of the trenches, in other ground it will have to be revetted.
This is done with chicken wire, or with willows or old staves where they can be had.
It is important to have the sides firm, or else in wet weather especially, they will prove a nuisance to the occupants of the trenches.
Some kind of floor should be provided for the trenches.
The simplest and best are made in the following way: Take two seven-inch boards about ten feet in length, nail them together to make a fourteen-inch plank, and then cover the whole with fairly fine chicken wire.
Place these boards on the ground with the side on which the wires are joined downwards.
They keep the feet from slipping, are easily cleaned by being upended when they are dry, and allow the space under them to be reached easily to pick up scraps of food, etc.
There is nothing more heart breaking than having to pursue your weary course for miles, sometimes, up trenches with slippery sides and sloping, wet, treacherous bottoms.
In each trench there must be dugouts for the men to sleep in.
The first ones that are made will be very primitive, and will be very much like a fireplace in a room--simply excavations in the back wall of the trench almost on a level with the bottom of it.
At first they used to be dug in the front of the trench, but this practice was discontinued as it was found to weaken the power of resistance of the very important parapet.
In the course of time more labour can be expended upon the dugouts, and it will be found advisable to construct them of uniform size, six feet long by four feet wide by four feet high.
By having them uniform we give the engineers a chance to make frames that can be used to support the roof and the sides and bring them well from the rear to construct the dugouts.
These dimensions do not make a very commodious home for four men, but never more than three of a section (of four) are off duty at the same time, and besides there is considerable danger in having large dugouts, as they present a correspondingly larger target for the guns.
A direct hit on a large dugout will often bring the whole thing crashing about the ears of the inhabitants.
My own adjutant and one of my brother officers were killed by falling beams in large dugouts.
The entrance to the dugouts must be kept as small as possible so as to protect the occupants from shells that fall just outside.
The Germans used to follow the custom of digging many of their "funk holes," as they were called, many feet underground.
Sometimes they went down twenty and even thirty feet.
The idea of this was that they could retreat into these secure places during a bombardment and then emerge with their machine guns as soon as the attacking infantry had started to approach over "No Man's Land."
We never followed that custom, for while it will work at times, yet the attacking infantry may be upon you before you are aware of it and have you at their mercy with bayonets and bombs from the parapet.
This the Germans have learnt to their cost many times on the Somme.
Many efforts have been made to construct dugouts, reasonably near the surface, that would be shell proof.
This is a most difficult matter.
It is easy enough to make them shrapnel-proof.
A layer of galvanised iron on the roof covered with a foot of loose earth will accomplish this for the velocity of shrapnel is not great.
But with high explosive shells it is different.
It was seen at Liége and Namur what terrific effects high explosive shells fired from howitzers could have even on re-enforced concrete.
I am told that at Port Arthur, a Russian General was killed in a shelter that was covered with over twelve feet of concrete.
The closest we can approach to a shell-proof dugout on the field is as follows: Dig an approach trench about ten feet deep, leading into a hole of this depth, by any dimensions you may choose--say six feet square.
Put in supports for the roof that shall be four feet from the floor.
Roof in with steel rails, such as are used on railroads, then cover them with two or three layers of bricks that have been broken into small pieces.
Leave a five-foot air space and then place an exactly similar roof above and cover the whole with earth.
Small shells will be stopped at the first set of rails, while large ones may possibly pierce them.
But the effect of the explosion will mostly be taken up in the airchamber and the dugout itself protected.
The reader will readily perceive the difficulty of constructing such dugout on the field and they can certainly not be provided for the accommodation of the common soldier however precious his life may be.
As the days go by, every effort must be made to improve the trenches.
This can be done in many ways, some of which will be obvious.
The front line is, of course, the most important one, and the greatest amount of work has to be done there.
But support and reserve lines as well must be constructed and many communicating trenches.
Support lines were usually dug at a distance of thirty to eighty yards from the firing line.
In them we kept a few men to be used in case of emergency.
This line was an exact duplicate of the front line and was intended to be used in case we were pushed back.
The reserve line was about five to eight hundred yards back from the front line and was not brought to any very great degree of completion.
Interspersed between these three lines were many redoubts, or especially strong points containing machine guns, etc., whose defenders were expected to hold on to the very last and take advantage of their more secure position to make the attacker pay dearly for his advance.
All these lines had to be linked up by communicating trenches, which started about a mile in the rear of the front line and went up in zigzag lines to the latter position, crossing the other trenches on their way.
These communicating trenches are used for the purpose of bringing up troops and supplies, etc., and for taking to the rear the men that have been wounded.
It is usually arranged to have some of these trenches "Up" and some of them "Down" roads.
Each line of trenches (except of course the "communicating") contain dugouts for the use of the troops that hold them.
The distance between the communicating trenches varies from twenty-five yards to three or four hundred according to the state of perfection of the trench system.
For special weapons such as machine guns and bomb guns, special shelters have to be made.
Extra strong parapets are provided as well as head cover of railroad ties, and every effort is made to keep the exact position of the machine guns secret from the enemy.
We soon learnt that he was very anxious to find our machine guns and would shell us liberally in the hope of being able to locate them.
Care must be given to the question of drainage.
Small ditches should be dug at intervals of a few yards to lead the water to pits in the rear.
In Flanders, where we were very near river level, we installed hand and power pumps to keep the water from taking possession of the trenches.
Even then, on rainy days we sometimes were in water up to our waists.
Great care must also be taken in the construction of latrines.
The method that was followed was to dig a short "blind alley" trench at right angles to one of the communicating trenches, and at a distance of twelve or fifteen yards from the front line.
Starting from the end of this blind alley, the trench was gradually filled in with earth as it was used.
In other cases biscuit tins were used as receptacles and the ordinary sanitary squads emptied them at specified times into a fairly deep pit.
These latrines should be well protected with sandbags to keep the enemy from finding them and training a machine gun on them, in the knowledge that they were very likely to get some of the men who used them during the day.
This, I believe, gives the principal points in the construction of the trenches.
Men should be taught to dig them in broad daylight at first and then when they have learnt the knack, they should be set to dig them at night.
From time to time during their training they should be made to return--preferably to the same sections of the trenches--to improve them and maintain them.
An excellent scheme is to arrange competitions among the men to spur them on to invent ingenious devices for protecting themselves and their fellows during their occupation of them.
At certain times they should also be made to spend a night and then several nights there, going through the regular routine of sentry duty, stand to arms, etc., just as they will have to do in real warfare.
Another scheme is to choose opposing sides with trenches within easy reach, say, twenty-five yards apart.
Arrange a three-day tour of the trenches, and let each side attempt to surprise the other.
Umpires can be stationed in No Man's Land to decide as to the relative merits of the two sides.
At certain times, additional interest can be given to the conflict by some harmless missiles such as sand bags (without the sand!)
rolled up and made into a ball the size of a base ball with string.
These will also give excellent practice in bomb throwing.
[Illustration: FIGURE 17: British soldier fully equipped with pack, entrenching tool, sandbags and steel helmet.]
The rules of the trenches can be summed up in a few words: "Keep your spirits up and your head down."
CHAPTER VII PROTECTION OF TRENCHES There are two things to be done after the trenches have been dug--one is to keep them in order, and the other is to provide outside protection for them.
The elements themselves are enough to play havoc with the sand bags and the walls of trenches, but if you add to this the fact that they will immediately become the marks for the enemy gunners you will see that the cost of upkeep is liable to be high.
During the first year of the war the Germans were supplied with an amount of shells that enabled them to do what they pleased with our trenches without our being able to reply.
Indeed, for many months, as is now well known, we were on an allowance of six shells per battery per day, or about one shell per gun per day!
Gunners will readily appreciate the uselessness of a stock of this kind.
The result of this discrepancy in the number of shells was that the enemy could shell us with impunity.
He used to set to work to break down our parapets early in the morning, and then, knowing that we should have to repair them during the night, would train machine guns on the breeches that had been made.
It is a very disheartening business to have the parapets that you have laboured so hard to construct, knocked down in a few minutes.
There would be some consolation in being able to serve him the same way, but that was denied us at that time.
Indeed, one of the best ways to preserve your trenches is to let him know by experience that every time he breaks them down, you will do the same thing to him.
Every night there will be something to do in this connection.
No effort must be spared to get the trenches into first-class condition and keep them thus.
It is very annoying to relieve a battalion that has lain down on their job during their tour of duty in the line, and to find that you have a great deal of work to do--work that could have been avoided if they had taken reasonable care of the work that had already been accomplished when they took over the trenches.
As to the outside protection for the trenches, that consists for the most part of barbed wire.
Sir Ian Hamilton, in his report on the Dardanelles Expedition, paid a tribute to the effectiveness of the Turkish barbed wire.
It was the means of stopping a British advance more than once on the Peninsula, just as it was in France.
At the battle of Aubers Ridge, fought on May 9, 1915, we suffered most heavily from the fact that the wires had not been cut, and therefore we were unable to make progress.
We had to retreat, leaving a number of our dead and wounded before the enemy lines.
It would be difficult to exaggerate the part that barbed wires have played in this war.
Wherever they are set up it means that a thorough bombardment must be made before an advance can be risked.
The erection of these entanglements is really the work of Engineers, but so extensive is the task that infantrymen have to be called in to do the pick and shovel work while the engineers do the directing.
Stakes are driven deep into the ground, and round them the wire is twisted as it is taken from stake to stake.
Some wires are laid on a level with the ground, some a few inches above it, then all the way up to ten or fifteen feet into the air, making a regular network.
We tried to have our wires extending over a width of ground of at least twenty feet.
But not only are barbed wires used, but also electrically charged wires in some cases, though between the lines they will seldom be of much use for a single shell may short circuit the system and it be rendered harmless.
An effective method was that of placing trip wires near the ground, and then a little beyond them bayonets with the sharp points uppermost, or pointed sticks, so that when the man tripped over the wire he would fall and impale himself on the spikes.
Sometimes bombs were attached to the wires in places where it was thought likely that the enemy would attempt to cut them or come through them.
As these entanglements have to be erected during the night and under the fire of the enemy it will be seen that it becomes exceedingly dangerous work.
But it has to be done, and the risk must be taken for the sake of the additional security it will give to the trenches.
It has been suggested that this is work to which the conscientious objectors in England--the Pacifists here--might be put.
It is necessary work for the preservation of life, and is not specifically military.
It is labourer's work.
There is no chance of fighting out there nor of taking human life.
Then it offers an excellent opportunity of winning the martyr's crown because some one is sure to turn a machine gun on you if you remain out there long enough.
All of these points should appeal to Pacifists.
But the greatest reason from our point of view is that it would save the lives of valuable men!
The men in the trenches are further protected by men whose business it is to go out into No Man's Land and remain there hours at a time, lying in some kind of hole, and listening to be able to detect the presence of the enemy.
Should the enemy make his appearance in small parties, these listening posts can usually take care of them, but when they are in large parties, the listening post men return to the trenches and give warning.
The best nerves are needed by the men who go out into the open to do this work, and sooner or later every one has to take a turn at it.
These listening posts are sometimes entirely disconnected from the trenches, and out beyond their own barbed wire, through which the men have to make a passage for the time being, and of course keep it secret.
But sometimes they are connected with the fire trench by a shallow trench or sap which is dug out into the neutral territory whenever circumstances are favourable.
When the troops landed at Suvla Bay, on the Peninsula, they found several excellent water holes that were most inviting to parched and thirsty men.
A rush was made for them, when suddenly a terrific explosion was heard, and dozens of men fell flat on the ground, some dead, some wounded.
The Turks had taken the precaution to place land mines round these wells, and as soon as they were stepped upon, the mines went off.
This is a genuine ruse of war and was used also between the lines.
The Turks never resorted to the treachery that General Botha had to overcome in German East Africa where he found the wells, not mined, but poisoned.
A recent report from France tells us that in the present retreat the Germans are employing the same dastardly tactics.
It is one thing to protect your trenches or your line of retreat; it is quite another to take the lives of men in this barbarous way.
Trenches dug in the foregoing manner and protected by barbed wire will give the infantryman a chance to live.
But he will increase or decrease the probability of coming out alive according as he is careful or careless during the time he is there.
Nothing, of course, can save the men if the enemy is determined to thoroughly shell the line, and the orders are to hold it.
The sanest thing when a bombardment begins is to withdraw to the next safe line.
But the enemy will sometimes be content to allow men to remain in their trenches for a while without shelling them provided they do not wilfully provoke him.
A column of smoke arising from the trenches where the men were cooking was usually considered by the enemy as provocation, and over the shells would come.
This brings us to the point that I wish to make regarding fires.
The men must eat during their tour of duty, and they must have hot food, consequently fires of some kind are needed.
But they should be made of very small pieces of wood cut up with a pocket knife so small that they will not give off any smoke.
By following this method a safe and very hot fire can be made.
At times we were supplied with small quantities of charcoal which was very acceptable.
As a matter of fact, more liberties in this connection can usually be taken in the firing trench than in the support or reserve trenches.
The enemy knows perfectly well men are in the firing trench.
He sees from the rifle fire that that is manned, but it is a good thing to keep him guessing about the other trenches.
For the same reason there should never be any unnecessary noise in the trenches.
It provokes the enemy to throw bombs and other unwelcome missiles.
I have indicated that the present form of trenches, being in a continuous line, makes it necessary either to construct loopholes or to look over the top of the parapet in order to fire.
I have indicated too that there are several forms of rifles that can be fired through periscopes, but these must as yet be considered special and are not for the ordinary man to use.
No doubt such a rifle will be invented and generally used in the future.
But in this war we soon learned that it was "unhealthy" to put our heads above the parapet any more frequently than we had to.
Therefore, in order to see what the enemy was about, and to wait for sniping opportunities we used periscopes.
Some of those that were brought to France were huge cumbersome boxes that made a fine mark for the enemy's sharpshooters.
But the kind that was most generally used after the first six months of the war was that which consisted of a stick with two slanting grooves in it, one near each end, into which grooves small mirrors could be fitted.
We found them quite effective, and should an accident happen and a mirror be broken they were easily replaced from the store we carried with us for that purpose.
Not having a box of any kind they were very difficult to see from the enemy lines.
Certain gunners who used to come to the trenches as Forward Observing Officers were equipped with a splendid periscope that had beautiful lenses in it.
But it was very costly and could not easily be repaired if once damaged.
To make the image in the periscope clearer, binoculars can be applied to the lower glass at the proper angle, and almost as clear a view obtained as by looking over the parapet.
One disadvantage of the periscope is that it makes the distance seem greater than it really is, and many a man receives a shock when he places his head above the parapet after looking through a periscope for a while, to see how close the enemy trenches are.
Trenches are exposed to attack not only from the surface but also from the air and from beneath the surface of the ground.
Aeroplanes come over and drop steel darts or bombs, and only very strong head cover can give protection against them.
But it is very hard to hit a trench from the air with a missile of this kind, and the danger to the men in the trenches is not very great.
By far the greater danger comes from mining.
Men must be on the watch all the time to detect these operations of the enemy and to forestall them where possible.
Special instruments like giant stethoscopes have been invented and men are told off to hold them to the ground to detect the sounds of digging.
But, while these instruments are of use, the best means is a well trained ear.
If the enemy is discovered mining towards your position, the only thing to do is to countermine him and try and blow him up before he is ready to touch off the fuse that is intended for your destruction.
It is not an easy matter to decide just where the countermine should be sunk or how far to go.
Many combats have been fought with pick and shovel in the bowels of the earth in cases where one side or the other has broken through the gallery.
But any risk must be taken rather than let the enemy enjoy uninterrupted his work of mining you.
CHAPTER VIII ARTILLERY FIRE It may be desirable to indicate the various kinds of shell fire to which trench men are exposed.
(I pass over rifle fire which is harmless so long as men keep their heads down and avoid corners from which they can be enfiladed.)
No amount of caution will save a man from shells if they happen to be falling in his neighbourhood.
The most frequent visitor of the shell variety is of course the shell from the field gun.
The British use an 18-pounder, the French a 75 millimetre, and the Germans a 77 millimetre--all shells of about the same calibre (3 inches).
Of these the best gun is undoubtedly the French, which is a perfectly marvellous piece of mechanism.
But all of them are deadly in their effects.
They may fire either shrapnel or high explosive--always spoken of in the army as H. E. In the former case, the shell that is fired contains a nose that comes off at the time for which it is set, and liberates hundreds of small round leaden bullets.
These go out in cone shape and spray the ground round about.
Shrapnel is very effective against men in the open but of little use when they are entrenched, for very few of the bullets from any shell will enter the ditch itself.
When the British army first took the field they had very little H. E. Shrapnel had been used successfully in South Africa, and it was thought it would do in France.
The proportions used were 96 per cent shrapnel to 4 per cent H. E. We learnt our lessons dearly--as we usually do--and in time we came to realise that for breaking down parapets shrapnel was absolutely useless.
The proportion that is now used is about 90 per cent H. E. to 10 per cent of shrapnel.
The soldiers used to call the 77 mill.
shells of the Germans "Pip-squeaks."
They used to give a "pip" and then a "squeak."
If you heard the first and did not hear the second you were dead, while, if you heard them both you could consider yourself still alive.
Another familiar name for them was that of "Cheeky Charlies," from the fact that they had the habit of coming in without being announced.
In addition to the field guns there are the "Mediums" or guns of about 5 inches calibre.
The familiar name for the German shell fired from them was "the Crump"--by reason of the fact that they sat down alongside you with a terrific "Crump" as their greeting.
As in the former case, those who could report having heard the "Crump" were still alive.
Then there are various long range guns between five and nine inches in calibre.
But long range guns do not play the part that high-angle or Howitzer guns do.
The Germans wasted a good many shells in firing at targets even as far away as twenty-three miles, but nowadays shells are usually kept for targets that there is a fair chance of hitting and not for blind firing.
The Howitzer that has come to play a very large part in the operations of the British is the gun that is familiarly called "Mother"--a gun of 9.2 inches calibre and which projects a very weighty shell.
The Germans have a corresponding gun of a little larger bore.
Last of all there come the great guns of 15 and 16 inch calibre.
These guns need concrete foundations and cannot be set up in a hurry.
Fortunately--for them--the Germans had a number of these foundations already prepared in unsuspecting France and Belgium long before the war.
Our own gun of this size we call "Grandmother."
The shells that fall from the German guns of the largest size we call by various names--either "Bertha Krupps" from the name of the proprietress of the great gun works at Essen; or "Fat Berthas" for the same reason; or "Jack Johnsons" from their hard-hitting capacity; or "coal boxes," "black marias," etc., etc.
The effect of these shells was terrific, as may be imagined, but there were many occasions when they pierced so deep into the soft ground that a good deal of the force of their explosion was lost.
Of course for work against forts there is nothing like them.
They opened the eyes of the world from their terrible destructive force shown at Liége and Namur.
Akin to shells in their effects are the now familiar bombs.
These are of all varieties and sizes.
They range from the small hand grenade that is about the size of an ordinary lemon and is simply heaved into the opposing trench by the soldiers, to the immense bombs weighing two hundred and fifty pounds that are thrown from trench mortars, or guns of short barrel and very wide mouths.
It was a long time before the British army appreciated the value of bombs and we could not get a supply of them.
The "Tommies" set to work to manufacture them in the trenches and a good many lives were lost there through premature explosions.
Practice is absolutely necessary before a man is fit to be allowed to handle a live bomb.
He should be trained first of all to throw a tin filled with stones, and learn the trick of letting it go at the correct moment.
The first time a man throws a bomb he is simply anxious to get rid of it without any regard for the time the fuse has been burning.
Most fuses now are five seconds and that time must be calculated to a nicety to get the best results.
If a bomb is thrown too soon, the enemy may pick it up and throw it back--this has happened many hundreds of times.
It should be retained in the hand during the first and second seconds at least and then thrown so as to explode OVER the enemy trench on the fifth second.
Our men were taught to get out of the way of bombs coming into the trenches if they could--there is no use staying to be blown up under ordinary trench conditions--but if they were under such circumstances that they could not get out of the way they were supposed to catch them and throw them away, or throw them back as hastily as possible.
Men become experts in this just as they do in catching base balls.
Where a bomb could not be picked up and endangered the lives of men in the trench who could not get away from it, men have often thrown their bodies upon it, and thus, in a most gallant and self-sacrificing way, given their lives for their comrades.
Of course catching them is out of the question when it comes to the large bombs.
Absence of body then is better than all the presence of mind.
When they actually hit the trench--which is a very difficult thing to do--they do frightful damage.
But when they miss their mark they usually open up a lot of earth either before or behind the trench, and perhaps lay out a man or two with concussion.
Of the same variety are aerial torpedoes which are simply bombs with flanges on their tails to give them direction.
Sometimes the bombs that were sent over were not H. E. in the sense that they exploded a steel shell that sent its various pieces large and small hurtling through the air, but were simply large oil drums with a quantity of H. E. in them.
Men were killed right and left, not from being hit with anything, but merely from having been in the neighbourhood when they exploded.
Rifle grenades are a form of bomb on the end of a stick that fits into the muzzle of the rifle and is then discharged by means of a blank cartridge.
They are effective only at short distances.
Indeed, even with trench mortars, the projectiles can seldom be hurled more than four hundred yards, so that they are almost always used on the fire trenches and are never directed to trenches farther back.
CHAPTER IX GAS AND LIQUID FIRE A new and deadly form of warfare is the use of GAS.
Until April, 1915, we knew nothing about it and then we had to face it to our great cost.
We had no masks and no apparatus of any kind to help us combat it.
Having been taken by surprise in an engagement that almost cost us Calais, we set to work to devise means to counteract it.
The method adopted is the helmet, made of cloth, and very much like a fireman's smoke helmet.
It has large goggles similar to the ones that motorists wear.
The cloth is kept saturated with a solution of ammonia which acts as a neutraliser of the chlorine gas.
A tube passes through the cloth into the mouth, and through this tube the air from the lungs is breathed out.
It is, of course, fatal to inhale air through it, and all the air that is breathed in has to be inhaled through the cloth of the helmet.
The importance of training the soldier to be able to meet gas cannot be overemphasised.
He should be drilled frequently with the helmet on to accustom him to the feeling of it, and alarms should be sounded from time to time to teach him to don the helmet as rapidly as possible.
In some of the military schools in France the men were actually taken without helmets into chambers where there was just enough gas to make them realise it was there, and were then sent into other chambers with a "deadly" mixture of gas with their helmets on.
This training makes them realise the importance of helmets.
Many forms of helmets have been used from time to time, and in this matter as in many others we have learnt from our enemies.
For the most recent British mask contains the "nosebox" or "beak" which conforms to the German model.
As in most other things, simplicity is to be desired where it can be combined with effectiveness, and it is the simplicity of the cloth helmet with the tube that even to-day commends it to many critics above the "box" forms--those that require an independent supply of oxygen.
Where men such as gunners are liable to be exposed to fumes for some considerable length of time, either from cylinder gas or from shells or even from tear shells, or must continue at their posts at any costs, an independent fresh air supply is necessary.
Detailed instruction also should be given as to what men are to do during and after the gas attacks; for there are some forms of gas that do not appear to affect the individual at all, and then all of a sudden, when he begins to use his limbs, he drops dead from heart failure.
Instruction on this subject must come from the medical and chemical experts who have made a close study of the effects of gas.
Allied to gas is LIQUID FIRE.
This fire is projected in long streams from the nozzles of pipes that come from a high pressure cylinder, sometimes placed in the bottom of the trench, and sometimes carried on the backs of special men.
These globules of burning oil that are sent forth reach a distance of thirty or forty feet from the nozzle of the pipe.
The effect of liquid fire is more terrible than words can tell, and it requires great bravery on the part of troops to have them advance in the face of these streams.
Clouds of SMOKE as well as gas are used.
One of the ruses that was adopted at the battle of Loos was to project smoke forward for a few minutes until the enemy should become quite used to it, and then send out streams and waves of gas to take him unawares.
These are frightful methods of warfare which the Allies have had to turn to in order not to allow the enemy, from his violation of his pledged word, and contrary to the rules of warfare, to gain an unfair advantage.
But there are many of us who believe that no other enemy than the Germans would have descended to these depths of infamy.
CHAPTER X THE ATTACK--DEFENCE Sooner or later in the course of his trench experience the soldier will be subjected to an infantry attack.
Artillery shelling, aeroplane attacks, mining, etc., are part of everyday's programme, but infantry attacks come only now and then.
They _may_ come at any time and the enemy is not in the habit of announcing them beforehand.
It is not likely that they will occur in broad daylight without any warning.
If they are to be made then, they will be preceded always by a concentrated artillery preparation.
Night is the danger time.
There are two periods of special danger--one, the hour before sunrise, and the other the hour after sunset.
At these times there is sufficient light for men to be able to see their way to advance over almost any ground, and not sufficient light for the defending force to be able to take careful sight with their rifles and machine guns, etc.
Consequently these hours are the most favourable for making an attack, and every one must be on the alert to ward them off.
These times are called "Stand tos" or properly "Stand to arms."
While they last, every officer and every man of the front and support line is on duty.
Rifles are cleaned, inspected and loaded, bombs, gas-masks, revolvers, bayonets, etc., are got ready, and every one remains at his post of duty.
In the blackness of night and in the broad light of day the danger is much less and consequently some of the force can be relieved for other tasks, during the night, or for rest during the day.
Should an attack be made, it becomes the business of the men in the trench to hold the enemy off just as long as they can, at whatever cost to themselves, while some one telegraphs back for the supports and reserves, and possibly for the assistance of the artillery.
Trenches must never be surrendered without giving these fresh men a chance to regain the advantage, and should the trench be lost, a counter attack must be immediately arranged before the enemy has had time to reverse the trenches and connect them up by saps and communicating trenches with his own system.
No time must be lost, for the longer the delay, the greater the difficulty of making the counter attack successful.
As to the methods of holding the trench against an infantry attack, it will be evident that the men must take up their position on the firing step and fire as rapidly and as steadily as they can.
Bombs should be kept and thrown only when the enemy has got well within range for them.
Machine guns can do effective work of course and the artillery should be communicated with and they will open fire with shrapnel.
Where ammunition permits, a barrage or curtain of fire should then be established behind the enemy's front line to prevent him bringing up reserves to take the place of those that have fallen, and also to weaken him for the time when a counter attack on him has to be made.
Star shells, that illuminate the ground, will of course have been fired to give the machine gunners and the rifle marksmen a better chance to find their targets.
Obedience, steadiness and tenacity are required of the men, and only training and experience will develop these excellent soldierly qualities.
The poor type of soldier will either forget to use his weapon altogether or else fire wildly and uselessly.
An infantry attack is not a pleasant experience, but soldiers must be taught to expect it, and that it will probably give them the opportunity of using the final and greatest weapon of the infantryman--the bayonet.
CHAPTER XI THE ATTACK--OFFENCE Trenches can only be considered as devices for affording temporary protection during the time that preparations are being made for delivering an attack.
No one wants to remain in trenches for ever.
At the best it is a miserable kind of life, and from a military point of view, it gets nowhere.
Nor is it capable of being maintained without great loss in men.
So costly did it become to us, and so great was the monotony and the feeling of helplessness, that we welcomed the word when it came to us to deliver an attack.
At least that would bring us action, and give a variety to life.
During the first year of the war, attacks had almost always to be made without sufficient artillery preparation.
Even at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, where we assembled over 480 guns on a little more than a mile of front--a greater collection than had ever been got together in history--we had not sufficient artillery preparation for the attack that was to be made.
There were enough guns but not enough shells to fire from them.
The result was that much of the enemy's wire was still intact when the infantry rushed over, and the advance was held up in certain important points where we could be enfiladed.
We have learnt that the only method of delivering an infantry attack against prepared positions is to give them a thorough hammering with shells.
Every particle of wire should be destroyed, so as to eliminate the risk of men being shot down as they attempt to pass through it.
At the Battle of Loos our guns bombarded their lines from Monday morning to Saturday morning, and kept hammering at them so as not to give them a chance to repair either their wire or their parapets.
An effective curtain of fire was established at the same time to render it impossible for them to bring food and supplies up to the line that we were about to attack.
For the last ten minutes before the men actually went over the parapet, there was a perfect tornado of shells falling upon and behind their lines.
Any one who remained at his post alive during the previous days would find it almost impossible to continue there during this deluge.
If the artillery preparation is adequate, the battle is half over.
General Haig's successes on the Somme, and the consequent German retreat on a large scale, have been due, in the first place to the excellent work of the gunners.
Of course the gunners themselves have been dependent on many other branches of the service pre-eminent among which is the aeroplane corps.
Targets are seldom seen by the gunners who have to depend for their information on the men who can fly ahead and come back with actual photographs of the positions to be bombarded.
Too great emphasis cannot be placed upon the work of these gallant flying men.
During the battles of the Somme, they have not only been doing this reconnaissance work for the gunners, but they have been flying very low after they reached the enemy territory and using their machine guns on the advancing or retreating infantry.
So low did they fly, indeed, that the enemy did not risk firing upon them with their guns for fear of hitting their own men.
They were fairly safe as far as the opposing infantry was concerned for the man in the machine is well protected from below and at the sides from rifle bullets.
While the artillery is active, the junior artillery, the bomb gunners must also get to work to throw over as much H. E. as possible to break down the resistance of the enemy.
Then again there is the gas, which has now come to be used as a definite part of an offensive.
Gas is conveyed to the trenches in large drums, under pressure, and at the proper moment is liberated in waves against the enemy.
It should be in the hands of trained men who can be trusted not to liberate it a moment before the time comes.
While gas has proved very effective under certain circumstances--and almost decided the fate of Calais early in 1915--yet it is obviously dependent upon the weather and especially the wind.
Even if the direction of the wind is correct for the use of gas, the kind of wind may not be suitable at the moment.
The wind must not be high nor squally, but needs to be low and gentle, just sufficient to carry the gas across to the opposing trenches without dissipating it on the journey.
Then again it must be remembered that it can seldom reach the gunners who may open up intensive fire on the trenches from which it is being liberated, burst the drums and make the place untenable.
Of course all the men who are employed in liberating gas should be warned to have their helmets in position to guard against these emergencies, and also against leaks in the drums.
Gas masks must be tested daily to see that they do not admit any of this deadly poison.
In addition to these preparations, a good many reconnaissance parties must be sent night after night out into No Man's Land to map it thoroughly, place directing boards there, dig small saps to facilitate an advance, and learn the condition of what remains of the enemy wire.
This work is difficult and dangerous, and must be given to trustworthy, brave, resourceful men.
For it must be remembered that the enemy will probably come out into this neutral territory at night to try and learn the plans of the opposing side, just as they are trying to learn his plans.
Many bloody conflicts have taken place out there under cover of darkness when the patrol from one side has entered into conflict with the patrol from the other.
Those in charge of the attack will arrange that at a specified time the bombardment will cease, and the men leap over the parapets.
This time is usually arranged for, say, one minute after six, or thirteen minutes after eight--some time which the enemy cannot guess accurately.
During the final awful ten minutes, the finishing touches are given to rifles and bombs and revolvers.
Then exactly at the appointed time the electric buzzers in the trenches sound the signal to advance.
The first man over the parapet is always an officer.
Unlike the Germans, we do not drive our men but expect them to follow us, and this accounts in part for the very severe casualties that have been suffered by British officers.
Where the distance between trenches is short, say, a couple of hundred yards, it is covered as fast as men can run.
It is a veritable race with death; for the enemy must not be allowed to recover from the bombardment in time to get his machine guns up into position again before the infantry arrives before his trenches.
The attacking infantry must throw themselves down into the trenches and begin work at once with bomb and bayonet.
Since the enemy has adopted the plan of having his dugouts deep down in the earth, it is a little easier to reach him before he is able to emerge.
In this work bombs are most effective.
All of the enemy communicating trenches must be effectively barricaded or protected by bombers and riflemen to keep him from bringing up any reserves and thus taking the attacking force from a flank.
In an attack of this kind the ground cannot be covered too rapidly, and no thought must be given to cover.
But when attacks have to be made over long distances, the plan is either to dig out saps that will reach to within a reasonable charging distance of the enemy, or else have the infantry proceed at a moderate and steady pace, so as not to arrive at their objective winded and useless for bayonet work.
The principle of having sectional rushes while neighbouring sections open rapid fire will be found useful.
The German method of advance is characterised by the close order formation, the British by the open order formation.
The German training is such that he cannot act independently to any very great degree, but needs to feel the support of another strong arm near him, if possible touching him.
They attack in waves of men packed so closely together that it is impossible to miss them if you get a shot at them at all, and of course they are ideal marks for machine guns.
But in the British and French armies men are trained to be self-reliant and to advance even when they seem to be alone.
An interval of three paces is usually maintained between individuals, and that renders them less of a target for marksmen.
They are also trained to take command of other men should their officers or non-commissioned officers be put out of action.
Should any of the enemy wires be still intact, they must be cut by the first comers so as not to hold up the main attack.
This is done by ordinary wire cutters--which every man is supposed to carry as part of his equipment--or else by a new device that is attached to certain rifles.
By means of this a number of the wires are caught together and then when the rifle is fired the bullet cuts them and a passage through is made.
If the trench should be successfully taken and all the enemy disposed of, the first work to be done is to "reverse" it, and connect it up by communicating trenches with the old position.
For this work engineers are sent immediately behind the infantry, and they carry with them quantities of sand bags and shovels and picks and wire, etc., with which to complete this task.
Of course the infantry must also help, and for this purpose it will be as well for each man to take with him a few sandbags on his back--not enough to encumber him, but sufficient to be of service in putting up hasty defences.
The test of the success of the action will come as soon as the enemy is able to organise a counter-attack.
He will know the range of the trench to a nicety and will not be slow to hurl the weight of his shells against it.
Then, too, he will try to bring up reserves, who with bayonet and bomb will attack their old position.
For many weary hours the infantry may be busy on this task of repelling counter attacks, and consolidating their new position.
So many details have to be cared for in an attack that it is well to rehearse it thoroughly beforehand and to see that every individual knows just exactly where he is supposed to be and what he is to do.
Only in that way will confusion be avoided.
It will be necessary also for the attackers to wear distinguishing marks in the form of a white band on the arm or a white piece of cloth on the back if the attack is to be made in the darkness or with poor light.
The question of prisoners inevitably comes up.
What is to be done with them?
How are they to be taken care of?
It will be seen that this is a big problem in an attack where men cannot be disengaged from their tasks of taking trenches without greatly weakening the operation.
To tell off men to look after prisoners when every man is needed to break down the resistance that is still being offered by others of the enemy, is a procedure obviously surrounded with dangers.
And yet, in the interests of humanity it has to be done, for the only other alternative is to take no prisoners.
At the battle of Loos many of the German prisoners that we took came to us in embarrassing mobs.
They were weak and hungry and required little persuasion to lay down their arms.
Under these conditions we could manage a great many prisoners with a few armed men.
Where they surrendered in ones and twos we found there was a disposition on the part of some of our troops to disengage themselves from the battle to lead them back.
A man is naturally proud of the fact that he has taken a prisoner and wants to deliver him himself.
But we insisted that they be turned over at the earliest opportunity to others who were in charge of small numbers of prisoners, and that as soon as possible they be given into the charge of men who were slightly wounded, but who could still be relied on to give a good account of themselves if trouble arose.
It is also a good thing to have a quantity of loose telephone wire about--as almost always happens in a battle--and wind this round the prisoners, making sure that they keep their hands in the air.
Even barbed wire will do, though it is not so comfortable for the prisoners concerned, and it may be necessary to relax the rule about keeping both hands up!
Raids are attacks on a small scale, and on a definite portion of the enemy's line.
They are usually carried out by parties varying in number from twenty to a hundred commanded by one or more officers.
Almost the same preparation as for an attack is necessary in most cases to break down the barbed wire before the lines.
But in some cases they are carried out as surprises and then other means must be relied on to overcome the difficulties of the barbed wire.
As in the case of attacks, rehearsals must precede the operation itself so that every man will know exactly what he is supposed to do and where he is supposed to be.
In a recent raid during the time that the snow was on the ground, the Canadians secured a number of women's nightgowns and put them on over their uniforms.
In this remarkable garb they proceeded over No Man's Land to visit the German lines.
If artillery preparation has been given, that must be depended on to have broken the wires and the thing to be done then is to reach the enemy parapets before they have time to recover and bring the machine guns into action.
But by far the greater number of raids come as surprises to the enemy.
They do not hear the men beyond their parapets lying on their stomachs and busily cutting the wires with their snips.
The first they know of it is when a bomb lands in the trench or else the body of one of the attacking infantrymen, as he enters their stronghold to begin his work of destruction.
In raiding parties, more than at any other time it is well to remember the adage that "silence is golden," and that the best results can only be obtained if every man is determined to follow his instructions to the very letter.
If the party is cut off by superior forces it must make up its mind as to what it is going to do, though most men, I am sure, will prefer to fight to the death rather than surrender.
CHAPTER XII EQUIPMENT FOR THE FIELD The question is often asked by prospective soldiers as to what is the irreducible minimum that a man should take to war, in the way of equipment.
I say irreducible, for it is to the interest of the infantryman who has to carry practically all his belongings on his back, to reduce his load as much as possible consistent with efficiency and comfort.
The tailors in London who undertook the tasks of equipping young officers for the trenches, having more interest in making sales than anything else, did their best to persuade their victims that the omission of one of dozens of things they proposed would expose them to very grave risks.
No one could possibly have carried all the equipment they suggested and no Army Service Corps would ever have been able to handle it as baggage.
Some of the men who fell victims to these outfitters went to France looking more like "Xmas trees" than anything else, for it was only when there was no more room on their bodies to hang anything that these excellent gentlemen were satisfied, and let them depart.
In this list that I am now giving, I propose to deal with the equipment of the soldier first and then add to it the items that seem to me to be essential for the Officer.
First of all there is the rifle, the soldier's best friend.
It should be cherished and cared for as though his life depended on it--as it frequently may.
We used to inspect the rifles of the men at least twice a day in the trenches, and any sign of neglect was at once dealt with.
It must be kept free from all rust and dirt, well oiled and polished, and with every part of the mechanism in first class working condition.
Any text book on musketry will give the information necessary for the effective care of the rifle.
We found that the breech of the rifle was often in danger of becoming fouled through mud or sand.
Accordingly we advised the men to keep that part covered whenever the rifle was not in action.
Small khaki cloths with snap buttons were made, but where these were not obtainable, the leg of a sock served quite as well.
But it must be easily removable.
Rifles are sometimes fouled through putting into them cartridges that are rusty or muddy.
All cartridges should be cleaned before being inserted.
Now it is obvious that time cannot be taken for this task during an engagement, and so it must be done before the rifle is to be used.
As the cartridges come from the factory they are perfectly clean; but if they are carried about for days and weeks in the carriers on the equipment they get very dirty.
Officers must inspect them from time to time and see that damaged ones are sent away and not allowed to be fired through the rifles.
No care can be too great.
It is a pitiful sight to see a man in action with a rifle that has become clogged through carelessness.
It is a good thing to give rewards for those who consistently present clean rifles for inspection, and to punish those who do not.
When a man realises how much he is dependent on his rifle he will be certain to take care of it.
The next thing is the bayonet.
I have said that all infantry work leads up to the use of the bayonet, and so, if a man is to be ready for this final test, his bayonet must be in good shape.
Of course there is not much to get out of order, but there are a few movable parts that must be kept oiled, and the blade itself which must be kept clean.
It is a slight courtesy that you can pay your enemy, that you give him clean, instead of rusty, steel.
Another weapon that has proved itself indispensable in this war is the entrenching tool.
It is a small instrument with a detachable handle, and the head itself has a shovel at one end and a pick at the other.
It is a wonderful little tool for hasty entrenching and no attack should be made without it.
It has been the means of saving many, many lives in this war.
Unfortunately, the perfidy of the enemy has made necessary another addition to the equipment of every soldier, and that is the gas mask.
The best kind consists of heavy khaki cloth, kept wet with a solution to counteract and neutralise the chlorine in the gas, and equipped with goggles very much like what motorists wear, and a tube that enters the mouth.
The air to be breathed is drawn in through the cloth itself, and the air that has been used is driven out through the tube.
It is not a comfortable process but it is considerably better than imbibing deadly gas.
Of course a water bottle must be carried and must always be kept clean.
On every possible occasion the soldier should wash it out with hot water and some form of disinfectant.
Men should be discouraged from rushing to their water bottles for drinks at all times, especially when they are on the march.
Thirst is a thing that we can easily control if we will.
We learnt that it was an excellent practice to have strapped about the equipment in a place where they could easily be got at, two sandbags.
They are not heavy or bulky to carry, and if hasty cover is needed they will be found invaluable.
Lists of the clothes necessary are given in every military manual, and it will be well to follow the one for the special army to which you belong.
Besides, the clothing necessary will vary according to the climate in which the troops have to serve.
Quite obviously the equipment for the Philippines will be different from the equipment for France.
But we found that it was a good plan to have warm underclothes for the winter, not the heaviest variety, but reasonably heavy.
It is better and more convenient to add to the clothing should occasion warrant it rather than carry heavy underclothes all the time.
In summer the underclothing should be light.
But whatever the season, a change should be carried in the pack on the back.
In the case of socks two or three emergency pairs should be in the pack.
These socks should be made of wool, preferably undyed, and should be thick and heavy for all times.
I am aware that it is much nicer to have thin silk socks for the summer time, but they are not intended for marching in nor yet for use with heavy military boots.
Two pairs of boots should be taken, one pair on the feet and one pair in the pack.
Tennis shoes should also be carried to put on at times to rest the feet.
I need scarcely indicate what toilet articles are needed, for they are the same on service as would be taken for a week-end at the seaside.
But I would add that it is a good thing to include a cake of strong carbolic soap to discourage the lice.
Emergency bandages, sewn into the tunic, may be the means of saving your life.
Some means must be adopted for protecting the ears from the noises of the rifles and bombs and shells.
Cotton wool will serve, but a much better device is on the market, called "Ear Defenders."
They are small vulcanite cylinders that are inserted into the ears.
Near the end of the cylinder there is a diaphragm of fine gauze which is pushed up against the wall by the sound waves created by great noises (thus protecting the drum of the ear) while they do not respond at all to the waves from small sounds.
Consequently it is quite possible to hear the words of a person speaking, and not be affected by the noise of the guns.
I have used them myself and can vouch for their efficacy, though it does take a little time to become used to them.
Then again nearly every soldier will need a wrist watch.
These should be luminous, for there is much waste of time involved in striking a match or going to a lamp to see the time.
It pays to buy a good watch, and by all means get a removable cover for the glass face, for glasses easily break, and it is difficult to get them repaired on service.
I do not intend this list to be exhaustive, but to contain the most important things that a soldier will need to include in this equipment.
Officers are allowed more baggage, and will need more, but the mistake must not be made of overloading or taking unnecessary things.
They will need a canvas valise and a sleeping bag to go with it, and, if possible, a very light mattress, weighing not more than a few pounds.
A canvas water bucket and a wash basin, and a change of uniform are very necessary.
As to weapons, I found that the Colt automatic was very serviceable.
Swords are of course not carried in France.
They are a nuisance for most purposes, though they do make excellent toasting forks.
In action we led our men, equipped only with revolver and cane.
In raids and trench work a handy instrument is the trench dagger--a knife of about nine inches long, ending in a handle that has openings for the four fingers to go through, thus serving as a "knuckle duster."
Field glasses are essential and indeed they should be supplied to some of the non-commissioned officers as well.
Nothing under four nor over eight diameters should be chosen.
Below that figure they do not magnify enough, and above that figure they magnify too much.
Six or seven is ideal for the infantryman.
Some form of collapsible periscope may be carried, but most of us discarded the ones we had bought in England in favour of the simple ones that I have described in another place.
I would utter again the warning against loading up with too many things.
Get few things but get good ones and keep them good is the best advice that I can give.
CHAPTER XIII TRICKS FOR THE TRENCHES A closing word should be said on the subject of trench ruses.
As in every other form of warfare, deception must be practised on the enemy.
He must be made to believe you are doing things that you are not doing and that you propose doing things that are not in your plans at all.
Any number of these ruses will occur to the minds of my readers, and I want to mention a few of them that we actually tried.
One of the best ruses is to let the enemy get hold of fake orders.
These can be placed on bodies immediately after an action and there will be a good chance of the enemy accepting them as genuine.
We have reason to believe that some of the prisoners that we took came over for the purpose of letting false orders fall into our hands.
It is pretty hard on the individual to make him the goat in this way and I do not recommend it.
Making elaborate preparations for an attack in one spot, and then actually attacking from another point when his reserves have been drawn to the first point, also used to work well.
It is well to learn the calls and signals of the enemy for use during an attack, and thus to throw his men into disorder.
There have been Germans in this war who carried out the daring ruse of appearing in our lines in the uniforms of staff officers and giving orders to our men.
They were brave individuals and scarcely seem to merit the swift punishment that came to them on detection.
In the trenches it was sometimes necessary to move about the few men that we had and to keep them firing first in one place and then in another to convey the impression that we were in considerable force.
Ruses had to be adopted to discover snipers.
On one occasion I needed to find a sniper who had just killed three of my men, and was such an excellent shot that he broke my periscope.
For this purpose I made a dummy man out of sand bags and had a soldier put him cautiously above the parapet (head only) while I observed from a neighbouring bay.
I detected him from the dust that his bullet raised from his parapet, and a few well aimed artillery shots put him and his loop hole out of business.
My poor dummy was badly wounded in the process.
The Turks in Gallipoli used to paint some of their snipers a green colour and send them out between the lines among the small bushes.
A pretended retreat will sometimes lure the enemy from his trenches to destruction.
Sending out patrols in one section to draw fire while careful reconnaissance work is being done at another spot will sometimes find him off his guard.
Dummy guns, of course, have played a large part, and have been responsible for the waste of a great deal of ammunition.
They are placed where they can be observed by the aeroplanes, who promptly report their presence.
It is said that at the Dardanelles the forts once opened fire on the battleship _Queen Elizabeth_.
After a while they sank her--and her guns floated off!
It is telling no secret now to say that many of the units in the British navy had duplicates constructed out of old vessels.
Their business was to draw fire to themselves while other craft did the work.
Hence the wooden guns.
They served another purpose as well, for it was very difficult for spies to inform Germany where the real fighting ships were at any time.
In short, the whole business is to "get the enemy's goat."
Keep him guessing.
Wear him down with worrying.
Break his nerve and spoil his sleep, that his physical resistance may be weakened.
On the other hand, learn to estimate the intention on the enemy.
Do not underrate him.
In all cases and under all circumstances follow out the excellent motto of the Boy Scouts-BE PREPARED.
Transcriber's Notes Hyphen removed: "dugout" (p. xii, Figures 7-9), "loopholes" (p. 66).
p. 105: "and" changed to "an" (the only method of delivering an infantry attack).
p. 120: duplicate "to" removed (excellent practice to have strapped).