a new pocket mouse (genus perognathus) from kansas by e. lendell cockrum university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 5, no. 11, pp. 203-206 december 15, 1951 university of kansas lawrence 1951 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, a. byron leonard, edward h. taylor, robert w. wilson volume 5, no. 11, pp. 203-206 december 15, 1951 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by ferd voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1951 23-8186 a new pocket mouse (genus perognathus) from kansas by e. lendell cockrum in studying the kinds of mammals known from kansas, i had occasion to examine a series of _perognathus flavus_ from the western part of the state. comparisons of these specimens with topotypes of named subspecies revealed that the specimens from kansas belong to a heretofore undescribed subspecies which ranges through western nebraska, eastern colorado, western kansas, and western oklahoma. this subspecies is named and described as follows. =perognathus flavus bunkeri=, new subspecies _type._--female, adult, skin and skull; no. 11716, univ. kansas mus. nat. hist.; conard farm, 1 mi. e coolidge, hamilton county, kansas; 1 july 1936; obtained by f. parks and c. w. hibbard, original no. 894 of hibbard. _diagnosis._--size large (see measurements). color light, upper parts between pinkish buff and cinnamon-buff (capitalized color terms after ridgway, color standards and color nomenclature, washington, d. c., 1912), sparsely mixed with black hairs; the effect at a distance of eight feet, is between clay color and tawny-olive; lateral line between pinkish buff and cinnamon-buff; postauricular spots near pinkish buff; small subauricular spots white; underparts white. skull of medium size (see measurements); frontonasal and mastoidal regions much enlarged; interparietal transversely narrow. _comparisons._--from topotypes of _p. f. flavus_ from el paso, el paso county, texas, _p. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: averaging larger in all cranial measurements taken except in occipitonasal length, which is approximately the same, and in interparietal width, which is less; color more buffy, with fewer black hairs dorsally. from topotypes of _p. f. piperi_ from 23 miles southwest of newcastle, weston county, wyoming, _p. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: smaller in frontonasal length, mastoidal breadth, and length of auditory bulla; color more buffy, with fewer black hairs dorsally. from topotypes of _p. f. sanluisi_ from nine miles east of center, alamosa county, colorado, _p. f. bunkeri_ differs as follows: averaging larger in all cranial measurements taken except interparietal width, which is smaller; color lighter and more buffy. _remarks._--this is a brightly colored subspecies of _perognathus flavus_, with less black dorsally than any adjacent one. the lateral line is well marked. three young adult specimens taken from wakeeney, trego county, kansas, are much brighter than other specimens from kansas. the five specimens from greeley, weld county, colorado, are much darker dorsally, like _p. f. piperi_, but are referable to _p. f. bunkeri_ on the basis of cranial characters. the name _p. f. bunkeri_ is proposed in recognization of the continued attention which the late charles dean bunker, curator of birds and mammals of the university of kansas museum of natural history, gave to building up the collection of mammals from kansas. acknowledgment is made of the assistance afforded me by a research assistantship with the kansas biological survey. _measurements._--measurements of holotype and average of four adults (two males and two females) from the type locality are as follows: total length, 104, 105.2; length of tail, 44, 47.5; length of hind foot, 16, 16.7; length of ear, 7, 7.2; occipitonasal length, 20.6, 20.9; frontonasal length, 14.0, 13.9; mastoidal breadth, 12.1, 12.0; length of bulla, 8.0, 7.8; interorbital breadth, 4.5, 4.6; alveolar length of upper molariform tooth-row, 3.3, 3.1; interparietal width, 3.2, 3.2. all of the measurements listed above are available for each of the five specimens except that the occipitonasal length and frontonasal length are not available for the two males. _specimens examined._--total, 54, distributed by localities of capture as shown below. those from nebraska and colorado are in the us nat'l mus., biol. surv. coll., and those from kansas are in the univ. kansas mus. nat. hist. nebraska:--_box butte co._: alliance, 1. colorado:--_weld co._: greeley, 5. _kit carson co._: burlington, 1. _fremont co._: canon city, 1. kansas:--_cheyenne county_: 23 mi. [by road] nw st. francis, 1. _rawlins county_: 12 mi. ne mcdonald, 1; 2 mi. ne ludell, 1. _decatur county_: 2 mi. s, 6 mi. w oberlin, 1. _logan county_: vincent ranch, n. fork smoky r., [= 4 mi. w and 8 mi. n mcallaster], 2; unspecified, 1. _gove county_: castle rock, 1. _trego county_: wakeeney, 3. _hamilton county_: 1 mi. e coolidge, 8. _stanton county_: 6 mi. w, 1-1/2 mi. s manter, 1; 8-1/2 mi. w, 2-1/2 mi. s manter, 1. _kiowa county_: rezeau ranch, 5 mi. n belvidere, 1. _morton county_: 9 mi. n, 3 mi. e elkhart, 18. _meade county_: 9 mi. sw meade, 1; 17 mi. sw meade, 2. _clark county_: stephenson ranch, 7 mi. s kingsdown, 1. oklahoma:--_texas county_: 2 mi. e eva, 1. _university of kansas, museum of natural history, lawrence, kansas._ _transmitted may 14, 1951._ 23-8186 * * * * * transcriber's notes page 205: changed underscribed to undescribed (belong to a heretofore underscribed subspecies). bold text is shown within =equal signs=. italic text is shown within _underscores_. images provided by the library of congress, manuscript division [tr: ***] = transcriber note slave narratives a folk history of slavery in the united states from interviews with former slaves typewritten records prepared by the federal writers' project, 1936-1938 assembled by the library of congress project work projects administration for the district of columbia sponsored by the library of congress washington 1941 volume vi kansas narratives prepared by the federal writers' project of the works progress administration for the state of kansas informants holbert, clayton simms, bill williams, belle the american guide topeka, kansas ex slave story ottawa, kansas by: leta gray (interviewer) "my name is clayton holbert, and i am an ex slave. i am eighty-six years old. i was born and raised in linn county, tennessee. my master's name was pleasant "ples" holbert. my master had a fairly large plantation; he had, i imagine, around one hundred slaves." "i was working the fields during the wind-up of the civil war. they always had a man in the field to teach the small boys to work, and i was one of the boys. i was learning to plant corn, etc. my father, brother and uncle went to war on the union side." "we raised corn, barley, and cotton, and produced all of our living on the plantation. there was no such thing as going to town to buy things. all of our clothing was homespun, our socks were knitted, and everything. we had our looms, and made our own suits, we also had reels, and we carved, spun, and knitted. we always wore yarn socks for winter, which we made. it didn't get cold, in the winter in tennessee, just a little frost was all. we fixed all of our cotton and wool ourselves." "for our meat we used to kill fifteen, twenty, or fifty, and sometimes a hundred hogs. we usually had hickory. it was considered the best for smoking meat, when we butchered. our meat we had then was the finest possible. it had a lot more flavor than that which you get now. if a person ran out of meat, he would go over to his neighbor's house, and borrow or buy meat, we didn't think about going to town. when we wanted fresh meat we or some of the neighbors would kill a hog or sheep, and would divide this, and then when we butchered we would give them part of ours. people were more friendly then then they are now. they have almost lost respect for each other. now if you would give your neighbor something they would never think of paying it back. you could also borrow wheat or whatever you wanted, and you could pay it back whenever you thrashed." "we also made our own sorghum, dried our own fruits. we usually dried all of our things as we never heard of such a thing as canning." "we always had brandy, wine, and cider on hand, and nothing was thought of it. we used to give it to the children even. when we had corn husks, log rolling, etc., we would invite all of the neighbors over, and then we would serve refreshments of wine, brandy or cider." "we made our own maple syrup from the maple sugar trees. this is a lot better than the refined sugar people have nowdays, and is good for you too. you can't get this now though, except sometimes and it is awfully high priced. on the plantations the slaves usually had a house of their own for their families. they usually built their houses in a circle, so you didn't have to go out doors hardly to go to the house next to you. if you wanted your house away from the rest of the houses, they could build you a house away from the others and separate." i was never sold, i always had just my one master. when slave owners died, if they had no near relatives to inherit their property, they would 'will' the slaves their freedom, instead of giving them to someone else. my grandmother, and my mother were both freed like this, but what they called 'nigger traders' captured them, and two or three others, and they took them just like they would animals, and sold them, that was how 'ples' holbert got my mother. my grandmother was sent to texas. my mother said she wrote and had one letter from my grandmother after that, but she never saw her again." "my mother used to be a cook, and when she was busy cooking, my mistress would nurse both me and her baby, who was four weeks older than me. if it happened the other way around, my mother would nurse both of us. they didn't think anything about it. when the old people died, and they left small orphan children, the slaves would raise the children. my young master was raised like this, he has written to me several times, since i have been out here in kansas, but the last time i wrote, i have had no reply, so i suppose he was dead." "when anyone died, they used to bury the body at least six feet under the ground. there wasn't such a thing as a cemetery then, they were just buried right on the plantation, usually close to the house. they would put the body in a wagon, and walk to where to bury the person, and they would sing all of the way." "the slaves used to dance or go to the prayer meeting to pass their time. there were also festivals we went to, during the christmas vacation. there was always a big celebration on christmas. we worked until christmas eve and from that time until new year's we had a vacation. we had no such thing as thanksgiving, we had never heard of such a thing." "in august when it was the hottest we always had a vacation after our crops were all laid by. that was the time when we usually had several picnics, barbecues or anything we wanted to do to pass our time away." "after the war was over, and my father, brother and uncle had gone to war, it left my mother alone practically. my mother had always been a cook, and that was all she knew, and after the war she got her freedom, she and me, i was seven or eight years old, and my brother was fourteen, and my sister was about sixteen. my mother didn't know what to do, and i guess we looked kind of pitiful, finally my master said that we could stay and work for him a year, people worked by the year then. we stayed there that year, and then we also stayed there the following year, and he paid us the second year. after that we went to another place, roof macaroy, and then my sister got married while we were there, and then she moved on her husband's master's place, and then we went too. after that i moved on another part and farmed for two or three years, and then we moved to another part of the plantation and lived there three or four years. that was almost the center of things, and we held church there. all of the colored people would gather there. the colored people who had been in the north were better educated than the people in the south. they would come down to the south and help the rest of us. the white people would also try to promote religion among the colored people. our church was a big log cabin. we lived in it, but we moved from one of the large rooms into a small one, so we could have church. i remember one time after we had been down on the creek bank fishing, that was what we always did on sunday, because we didn't know any better, my master called us boys and told us we should go to sunday school instead of going fishing. i remember that to this day, and i have only been fishing one or two times since. then i didn't know what he was talking about, but two or three years later i learned what sunday school was, and i started to go." "i went to a subscription school. we would all pay a man to come to teach us. i used to work for my room and board on saturday's, and go to school five days a week. that would have been all right, if i had kept it up, but i didn't for very long, i learned to read and write pretty good though. there were no government school then that were free." "we didn't have a name. the slaves were always known by the master's last name, and after we were freed we just took the last name of our masters and used it. after we had got our freedom papers, they had our ages and all on them, they were lost so we guess at our ages." "most of the slave owners were good to their slaves although some of them were brutish of course." "in 1877 a lot of people began coming out here to kansas, and in 1878 there were several, but in 1879 there were an awful lot of colored people immigrating. we came in 1877 to kansas city, october 1. we landed about midnight. we came by train. then there was nothing but little huts in the bottoms. the santa fe depot didn't amount to anything. the armours' packing house was even smaller than that. there was a swinging bridge over the river. the kaw valley was considered good-for-nothing, but to raise hemp. there was an awful lot of it grown there though, and there were also beavers in the kaw river, and they used to cut down trees to build their dams. i worked several years and in 1880 i came to franklin county." "we raised a lot of corn, and castor beans. that was the money crop. corn at that time wasn't hard to raise. people never plowed their corn more than three times, and they got from forty to fifty bushels per acre. there were no weeds and it was virgin soil. one year i got seventy-two bushel of corn per acre, and i just plowed it once. that may sound 'fishy' but it is true." "there used to be a castor bean mill here, and i have seen the wagons of castor beans lined from logan street to first street, waiting to unload. they had to number the wagons to avoid trouble and they made them keep their places. there also used to be a water mill here, but it burned." "there were lots of indians here in the chippewas. they were harmless though. they were great to come in town, and shoot for pennies. they were good shots, and it kept you going to keep them supplied with pennies, for them to shoot with their bows and arrows, as they almost always hit them. they were always dressed in their red blankets." "i have never used ones for work. they were used quite a bit, although i have never used them. they were considered to be good after they were broken." "i was about twenty-two years old when i married, and i have raised six children. they live over by appanoose. i ruined my health hauling wood. i was always a big fellow, i used to weigh over two hundred eighty-five pounds, but i worked too hard, working both summer and winter." "my father's mother lived 'till she was around ninety or a hundred years old. she got so bent at the last she was practically bent double. she lived about two years after she was set free." "i used to live up around appanoose, but i came to franklin county and i have stayed here ever since." the american guide topeka, kansas ex slave story ottawa, kansas interviewer: leta gray told by bill simms, ex slave, age 97 years, ottawa, kansas. [tr: information moved from bottom of last page.] "my name is bill simms." "i was born in osceola, missouri, march 16, 1839." "i lived on the farm with my mother, and my master, whose name was simms. i had an older sister, about two years older than i was. my master needed some money so he sold her, and i have never seen her since except just a time or two." "on the plantation we raised cows, sheep, cotton, tobacco, corn, which were our principal crops. there was plenty of wild hogs, turkey, ant deer and other game. the deer used to come up and feed with the cattle in the feed yards, and we could get all the wild hogs we wanted by simply shooting them in the timber." "a man who owned ten slaves was considered wealthy, and if he got hard up for money, he would advertise and sell some slaves, like my oldest sister was sold on the block with her children. she sold for eleven hundred dollars, a baby in her arms sold for three hundred dollars. another sold for six hundred dollars and the other for a little less than that. my master was offered fifteen hundred dollars for me several times, but he refused to sell me, because i was considered a good husky, slave. my family is all dead, and i am the only one living. "the slaves usually lived in a two-room house made of native lumber. the houses were all small. a four or five room house was considered a mansion. we made our own clothes, had spinning wheels and raised and combed our own cotton, clipped the wool from our sheep's backs, combed and spun it into cotton and wool clothes. we never knew what boughten clothes were. i learned to make shoes when i was just a boy and i made the shoes for the whole family. i used to chop wood and make rails and do all kinds of farm work." "i had a good master, most of the masters were good to their slaves. when a slave got too old to work they would give him a small cabin on the plantation and have the other slaves to wait on him. they would furnish him with victuals, and clothes until he died." "slaves were never allowed to talk to white people other than their masters or someone their master knew, as they were afraid the white man might have the slave run away. the masters aimed to keep their slaves in ignorance and the ignorant slaves were all in favor of the rebel army, only the more intelligent were in favor of the union army." "when the war started, my master sent me to work for the confederate army. i worked most of the time for three years off and on, hauling canons, driving mules, hauling ammunition, and provisions. the union army pressed in on us and the rebel army moved back. i was sent home. when the union army came close enough i ran away from home and joined the union army. there i drove six-mule team and worked at wagon work, driving ammunition and all kinds of provisions until the war ended. then i returned home to my old master, who had stayed there with my mother. my master owned about four hundred acres of good land, and had had ten slaves. most of the slaves stayed at home. my master hired me to work for him. he gave my mother forty acres of land with a cabin on it and sold me a forty acres, for twenty dollars, when i could pay him. this was timbered land and had lots of good trees for lumber, especially walnut. one tree on this ground was worth one hundred dollars, if i could only get it cut and marketed, i could pay for my land. my master's wife had been dead for several years and they had no children. the nearest relative being a nephew. they wanted my master's land and was afraid he would give it all away to us slaves, so they killed him, and would have killed us if we had stayed at home. i took my mother and ran into the adjoining, claire county. we settled there and stayed for sometime, but i wanted to see kansas, the state i had heard so much about." "i couldn't get nobody to go with me, so i started out afoot across the prairies for kansas. after i got some distance from home it was all prairie. i had to walk all day long following buffalo trail. at night i would go off a little ways from the trail and lay down and sleep. in the morning i'd wake up and could see nothing but the sun and prairie. not a house, not a tree, no living thing, not even could i hear a bird. i had little to eat, i had a little bread in my pocket. i didn't even have a pocket knife, no weapon of any kind. i was not afraid, but i wouldn't start out that way again. the only shade i could find in the daytime was the rosin weed on the prairie. i would lay down so it would throw the shade in my face and rest, then get up and go again. it was in the spring of the year in june. i came to lawrence, kansas, where i stayed two years working on the farm. in 1874 i went to work for a man by the month at $35 a month and i made more money than the owner did, because the grasshoppers ate up the crops. i was hired to cut up the corn for him, but the grasshoppers ate it up first. he could not pay me for sometime. grasshoppers were so thick you couldn't step on the ground without stepping on about a dozen at each step. i got my money and came to ottawa in december 1874, about christmas time." "my master's name was simms and i was known as simms bill, just like horses. when i came out here i just changed my name from simms bill, to bill simms." "ottawa was very small at the time i came here, and there were several indians close by that used to come to town. the indians held their war dance on what is now the courthouse grounds. i planted the trees that are now standing on the courthouse grounds. i still planted trees until three or four years ago. there were few farms fenced and what were, were on the streams. the prairie land was all open. this is what north ottawa was, nothing but prairie north of logan street, and a few houses between logan street and the river. ottawa didn't have many business houses. there was also an oil mill where they bought castor beans, and made castor oil on the north side of the marais des cygnes river one block west of main street. there was one hotel, which was called leafton house and it stood on what is now the southwest corner of main and second streets." "i knew peter kaiser, when i came here, and a.p. elder was just a boy then." "the people lived pretty primitive. we didn't have kerosene. our only lights were tallow candles, mostly grease lamps, they were just a pan with grease in it, and one end of the rag dragging out over the side which we would light. there were no sewers at that time." "i had no chance to go to school when a boy, but after i came to kansas i was too old to go to school, and i had to work, but i attended night school, and learned to read and write and figure." "the farm land was nearly all broke up by ox teams, using about six oxen on a plow. in missouri we lived near the santa fe trail, and the settlers traveling on the trail used oxen, and some of them used cows. the cows seem to stand the road better than the oxen and also gave some milk. the travelers usually aimed to reach the prairie states in the spring, so they could have grass for their oxen and horses during the summer." "i have lived here ever since i came here. i was married when i was about thirty years old. i married a slave girl from georgia. back in missouri, if a slave wanted to marry a woman on another plantation he had to ask the master, and if both masters agreed they were married. the man stayed at his owners, and the wife at her owners. he could go to see her on saturday night and sunday. sometimes only every two weeks. if a man was a big strong man, neighboring plantation owners would ask him to come over and see his gals, hoping that he might want to marry one of them, but if a negro was a small man he was not cared for as a husband, as they valued their slaves as only for what they could do, just like they would horses. when they were married and if they had children they belonged to the man who owned the woman. osceola is where the saying originated, 'i'm from missouri, show me.' after the war the smart guys came through and talked the people into voting bonds, but there was no railroad built and most counties paid their bonds, but the county in which osceola stands refused to pay for their bonds because there was no railroad built, and they told the collectors to 'show me the railroad and we will pay,' and that is where 'show me' originated." "my wife died when we had three children. she had had to work hard all her life and she said she didn't want her children to have to work as hard as she had, and i promised her on her death bed, that i would educate our girls. so i worked and sent the girls to school. my two girls both graduated from ottawa university, the oldest one being the first colored girl to ever graduate from that school. after graduation she went to teach school in oklahoma, but only got twenty-five dollars a month, and i had to work and send her money to pay her expenses. the younger girl also graduated and went to teach school, but she did not teach school long, until she married a well-to-do farmer in oklahoma. the older girl got her wages raised until she got one hundred and twenty-five dollars per month. i have worked at farm work and tree husbandry all my life. my oldest daughter bought me my first suit of clothes i ever had." "i have been living alone about twenty-five years. i don't know hew old i was, but my oldest daughter had written my mother before she died, and got our family record, which my mother kept in her old bible. each year she writes me and tells me on my birthday how old i am." the american guide topeka, kansas ex slave story hutchinson, kansas interviewer: e. jean foote belle williams was born in slavery about the year 1850 or 1851. her mother's name was elizabeth hulsie, being the slave of sid hulsie, her last name being the name of her master. the hulsie plantation was located in carroll county, arkansas. belle williams, better known as "auntie belle" is most interesting. she lives in her own little home in the one hundred block on harvey street, hutchinson, kansas. she is too old and crippled to do hard work, so spends most of her time smoking her pipe and rocking in her old armchair on the little porch of her home. she is jolly, and most interesting. "yes, i was a slave," she said. "i was born a slave on a plantation in carroll county, arkansas and lived there 'till after the war. law sakes, honey, i can see them 'feds' yet, just as plain as if it was yesterday. we had a long lane--you know what a lane is--well, here they come! i run for mah mammy, and i'll never forget how she grabbed me and let out a yell, "it's them feds, them blue coats." "you see my massa was a good massa. he didn't believe in whipping niggers and he didn't believe in selling niggers, and so my mammy and me, we didn't want to leave our mistress and massa. we called them 'mother hulsie' and 'massa sid.' one officer told my mammy that she could take along with her, anything out of the cabin that she wanted. mammy looked around and said, "i don't want to take nothin' but my chillun," so we all told mother hulsie 'goodbye,' and when my mammy told her goodbye, why mother hulsie cried and cried, and said, 'i just can't let you go, elizabeth, but go on peacefully, and maybe some day you can come back and see me.'" as the story came word after word, big tears dropped on the thin black hands, and she reached for her tobacco can and pipe. the can was missing, so i offered to get it for her, for i was anxious for one peep into "auntie's" little house, but i couldn't find the can, so after moans and sighs, she got to her feet and found her favorite granger twist. after settling; again in her chair, and when her pipe was at its best, "auntie" continued, "oh, honey, it was awful! you see i never been nowhere and i was scairt so i hung onto my mammy. the soldiers took us to camp that night, and after staying there several days, we went on to springfield, missouri, and it was right at fifty-two years ago that i came here. i was married to fuller, my first husband and had seven chilluns. he helped me raise them that lived and, after he died, i married williams and had two chilluns, but he didn't help me raise my chilluns. why, honey, i raised my chilluns and my chilluns' chilluns, and even one great-grandchild now. why, i always been a slave. i worked for all the early white families in this here town that needed help." i asked "auntie" if she were ever sold on the block, and she answered, "law sakes, honey, i must tell you. no, i never was sold, but nuthin' but the dear blessed lawd saved me. you see massa sid had gone away for a few days, and his boys was takin' care of things, when some nigger traders came and wanted to buy some niggers, and they picked on my grandmammy and me. how old was i? well, i reckon i was about fourteen. you see, honey, i never could read or write, but i can count, and i can remember--lawdy! how i can remember. well, there i was on the block, just scairt and shivering--i was just cold all over--and them there nigger traders was jest a talkin', when down that long lane came massa sid, and i'm tellin' you, it was the dear lawd that sent him. he was a ridin' on his hoss, and he stopped right in front of me, standing there on the block. he looked at his boys, then he turned to them nigger traders and yelled out, "what you all doin' here?" the boys told him there was just so many niggers on the place, and they wanted some money and when the nigger traders come along they thought they would sell a few niggers. honey, i'm tellin' you, massa sid turned to them nigger traders and said, "you nigger traders get out of here. these are my niggers and i don't sell niggers. i can feed them all, i don't want any help." he grabbed me right off of the block and put me on the hoss in front of him and set me down in front of my cabin. sceered, oh lawdy i was sceered! no, suh, massa sid never sold no niggers." "i must tell you about what happened one night while we were all there in the camp. one of the massa's boys that loved my uncle, came crawling on all fours, just like a pig, into camp. he passed the pickets, and when he found my uncle he laid there on the ground in my uncle's arms and cried like a baby. my uncle was old but he cried too and after a while he told the boy that he must go back--he was 'fraid that the pickets would see him and he would be shot, so he went with him, crawling on all fours just like a pig, till he got him past the pickets, and our young master never saw my uncle any more. oh, honey, them was heart-breakin' times. the first night we was in camp, my mammy got to thinking about mother hulsie and how she was left all alone with all the work, and not a soul to help her. the blue coats had gone through the house and upset everything, so in the morning she asked the captain if she could ask just one thing of him, and that was that she and my uncle go back to mother hulsie just for the day, and help put everything away and do the washing. the captain said they could go, but they must be back by five o'clock, and not one nigger child could go along, so they went back for the day and mammy did all the washing, every rag that she could find, and my uncle chopped and stacked outside the house, all the wood that he could chop that day, and then they came back to camp. my mammy said she'd never forget mother hulsie wringing her hands and crying, 'oh lawd, what will i do?' as they went down the land." selected records of reptiles and amphibians from kansas by john breukelman and hobart m. smith university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 1, no. 5, pp. 101-112 august 15, 1946 university of kansas lawrence 1946 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, donald s. farner, donald f. hoffmeister volume 1, no. 5, pp. 101-112 published august 15, 1946 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by ferd voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1946 21-2762 selected records of reptiles and amphibians from kansas by john breukelman and hobart m. smith preparation of a handbook of reptiles and amphibians by the junior author has led to a survey of the collections of these animals at kansas state teachers college in emporia. numerous locality records of interest and importance have been accumulated there through the efforts of the senior author and a number of his students, particularly mr. allen downs. the more important records, including the first record for kansas of _rana sylvatica_, are reported here. we have not mentioned specimens that are from counties from which the university of kansas museum of natural history already has specimens. specimens examined by smith are indicated by an asterisk *; those identified by the late dr. f. n. blanchard are indicated by an encircled period ¤ (none of these specimens are now available). all other specimens here recorded have been examined either by the senior author or by mr. allen downs, or by both. specimen numbers, unless otherwise indicated, are those of the kansas state teachers college collection. #triturus viridescens louisianensis# (wolterstorff), newt.--_cherokee co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of crestline (no. 164).* this is a terrestrial adult, and provides the second known locality for the species in the state. #ambystoma texanum# (matthes), narrow-mouthed salamander.--_lyon co._: emporia. #ambystoma tigrinum mavortium# (baird), tiger salamander.--_lyon co._: (no. 292); 2 miles east of americus. _ness co._: ness city (no. 591). #scaphiopus bombifrons# cope, plains spadefoot.--_ness co._: 4 miles west, 1.5 miles north of ness city (no. 592). #bufo americanus americanus# (holbrook), american toad.--_chase co._: 10 miles southwest of saffordville. _cherokee co._: 4 miles southeast of columbus. _lyon co._: 6 miles south of plymouth (no. 290)*; emporia (nos. 442, 443).* the records from chase and lyon counties represent the westernmost localities for the species in kansas. #bufo cognatus# say, great plains toad.--_ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (no. 594). #bufo woodhousii woodhousii# (girard), rocky mountain toad.--_clark co._: 11 miles south of bucklin (no. 401).* _decatur co._: sappa creek near oberlin (2 spec.).* _ford. co._: 5 miles southwest of dodge city (1 spec.).* _lyon co._: emporia (no. 352).* _ness co._: ness city (nos. 502-504, 595, 596)*; 4 miles west, 1.5 miles north of ness city (no. 593).* _sheridan co._: sheridan county state park (nos. 565-568). #acris crepitans# baird, northern cricket frog.--_ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (nos. 506, 507, 597-606).* #pseudacris nigrita triseriata# (wied), striped chorus frog.--_lyon co._: 10 miles south of plymouth; 3 miles north of emporia (no. 300); 7 miles west of olpe; 2 miles northeast of emporia (nos. 434-441).* _neosho co._: 3 miles west of erie. #hyla versicolor versicolor# (le conte), common tree toad.--_chautauqua co._: elk city (no. 621). #rana catesbeiana# shaw, bullfrog.--_ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (no. 607).* _wallace co._: 3 miles east of sharon springs (1 spec.).* #rana pipiens brachycephala# cope, leopard frog.--_clark co._: 11 miles south of bucklin (nos. 398-400).* _ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (nos. 505, 508, 509, 608).* #rana sylvatica cantabrigensis# baird, wood frog.--_lyon co._: extreme southwestern corner, 3 miles east of chase county line, between the verdigris river and the corner of the county (1 specimen, now mus. nat. hist., univ. kans., no. 23149).* this specimen provides for the first time a basis for inclusion of the species in the fauna of kansas. it measures 50 mm. snout to vent; hind leg from vent 80 mm.; tibia 23 mm. the ratio of hind leg to snout-vent measurement is 0.625, and that of the tibia to snout-vent measurement is 2.17. both figures are too high for _rana s. sylvatica_, in which the former ratio varies between 0.53 and 0.62, the latter ratio between 1.6 and 1.88. the ratios agree well with those of _r. s. cantabrigensis_, in which the former ratio varies from 0.62 to 0.75, the latter from 1.93 to 2.3. direct comparison of the specimen with typical examples of both subspecies substantiates its allocation to _r. s. cantabrigensis_. in the vicinity of kansas, specimens of this species are known from missouri (st. louis and stone counties only) and northwestern arkansas (washington county: winslow and prairie grove, mus. nat. hist., univ. kans., nos. 16526, 18820, 18823). reëxamination of these specimens confirms their identity as _rana sylvatica sylvatica_ to which the missouri specimens from stone county undoubtedly also belong. accordingly this race is still to be anticipated in extreme southeastern kansas. reference of the specimen from lyon county to _rana s. cantabrigensis_ presents a problem in distribution, for the race is not known from nearer kansas than north dakota, minnesota, wisconsin and southern illinois, except for a record given by cope (bull. u. s. nat. mus., no. 34:437, 1889) from "western missouri." hurter (trans. st. louis acad. sci., 20:123, 1911) restricts this record to cooper county, and presumably verifies cope's identification. hurter, too, recognized the other form, _r. sylvatica_, in missouri (marble cave, stone county). cope distinguished between the two races (as they are now recognized) and recorded typical _r. sylvatica_ from st. louis. accordingly the specimen from cooper county may be considered properly identified racially. it apparently is from the locality nearest to kansas at which the race has been taken. it seems highly probable that the kansas occurrence, and possibly those in arkansas and missouri also, is a relict one. it is highly improbable that the species has a continuous distribution in either state. a wider or more southern distribution in the past seems evident. the group to which it belongs certainly has had a more southern range, as indicated by taylor's discovery in meade county, kansas (univ. kans. sci. bull., 28:217, 1942), of a fossil species of _rana_ (_parvissima_), from the upper pliocene, presumably related to _sylvatica_. it may or may not have been a direct ancestor of the living species. #microhyla olivacea# (hallowell), northern narrow-mouthed toad.--_lyon co._: 6 miles southwest of emporia. _wilson co._: 7 miles northeast of fall river. #crotaphytus collaris collaris# (say), collared lizard.--_geary co._: 4 miles south of fort riley. _wabaunsee co._: 2 miles northeast of alma. #holbrookia maculata maculata# (girard), earless lizard.--_chase co._: 7 miles south of saffordville (no. 350)*; 6 miles southwest of saffordville; 1 mile south of saffordville (no. 338)*; 10 miles southwest of olpe. _hodgeman co._: jetmore. _lyon co._: 5 miles south of plymouth; 6 miles southeast of emporia; 9 miles southwest of emporia. _ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (nos. 480, 481, 484-497, 609-611)*, 6 miles west and 0.5 miles south of ness city (nos. 482, 483, 498).* #sceloporus undulatus garmani# boulenger, northern plains lizard.--_ellsworth co._: carneiro; 10 miles south of ellsworth. _mcpherson co._: 4 miles west of roxbury (no. 133). _ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (no. 479, 612).* #phrynosoma cornutum# (harlan), texas horned lizard.--_ellsworth co._: 10 miles south of ellsworth. _lyon co._: 1 mile south of emporia; 8 miles southwest of emporia. _saline co._: coronado heights; 3 miles northwest of lindsborg. #ophisaurus ventralis# (linnaeus), glass-snake lizard.--_lyon co._: emporia; 1 mile southwest of emporia (no. 288).* _rooks co._: 5 miles southwest of stockton (no. 407).* #cnemidophorus sexlineatus# (linnaeus), six-lined racerunner.--_ellsworth co._: carneiro. _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading. _shawnee co._: 5 miles east of topeka (no. 14).* #leiolopisma laterale# (say), brown skink.--_labette co._: 7 miles northwest of mound valley (no. 301).* _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading. _wilson co._: 4 miles southwest of coyville (no. 281).* #eumeces fasciatus# (linnaeus), common five-lined skink.--_bourbon co._: 1 mile north of fulton. _chase co._: 7 miles southwest of saffordville; 6 miles south of clements; 2 miles south of saffordville. _franklin co._: 8 miles east of ottawa; 2 miles south of ottawa; 2 miles southwest of lane; 4 miles east of ottawa; 5 miles southwest of ottawa. _labette co._: 2 miles southwest of dennis; 7 miles northwest of mound valley. _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading. _miami co._: 2.5 miles south of fontana. _montgomery co._: 5 miles west of independence. _neosho co._: 4 miles northwest of erie (no. 318).* #eumeces obsoletus# (baird and girard), sonoran skink.--_coffey co._: 4 miles south of gridley (no. 467).* _ellsworth co._: 10 miles south of ellsworth. _franklin co._: 2 miles south of lane. _linn co._: 0.5 miles north of trading post. _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading; 10 miles south of plymouth; 2.5 miles northeast of dunlap; 4 miles southwest of bushong; emporia (no. 433)*; dunlap (no. 444).* _mcpherson co._: 4 miles west of lindsborg. _morris co._: 5 miles east of skiddy; 1 mile east of skiddy. _neosho co._: 15 miles north of parsons. _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo. #eumeces septentrionalis septentrionalis# (baird), northern prairie skink.--_chase co._: 6 miles south of clements; 1 mile south of saffordville; 11 miles southwest of olpe (no. 348). #diadophis punctatus arnyi# (kennicott), prairie ring-necked snake.--_bourbon co._: 1 mile north of fulton. _chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville (no. 334)*; elmdale (no. 146)*; 3 miles west of bazaar. _franklin co._: 2.5 miles southeast of peoria; 2 miles south of lane. _linn co._: 0.5 miles north of trading post. _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading (nos. 6, 372)*; emporia. _morris co._: 5 miles south of council grove (nos. 469-472). _neosho co._: 4 miles northwest of erie (no. 316).* _osage co._: 8 miles southwest of auburn. _shawnee co._: 5 miles east of topeka. _wabaunsee co._: 2 miles northeast of alma. _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo. #carphophis amoena vermis# (kennicott), western worm snake.--_bourbon co._: 6 miles northwest of fort scott. _chase co._: 6 miles southwest of cottonwood falls (no. 365).* _geary co._: 5 miles southwest of wreford. _greenwood co._: 4 miles northwest of lamont (nos. 516, 517).* _johnson co._: 3 miles east of de soto. _labette co._: 9 miles northeast of parsons (no. 313).* _linn co._: 3.5 miles south of pleasanton. _lyon co._: 2 miles northeast of reading; 5 miles northwest of emporia. _neosho co._: 4 miles northwest of erie (no. 314).* _shawnee co._: wakarusa. _wilson co._: 2 miles northwest of neodesha (no. 322).* #heterodon contortrix contortrix# (linnaeus), common hog-nosed snake.--_saline co._: coronado heights; 3 miles northwest of lindsborg. #heterodon nasicus nasicus# baird and girard, western hog-nosed snake.--_chautauqua co._: peru. _ness co._: 6 miles west and 0.25 miles south of ness city (no. 501)*; 5 miles northwest of ness city (nos. 619, 620).* _rooks co._: stockton (no. 418). _scott co._: near scott city (nos. 511-513, 515).* #coluber constrictor flaviventris# (say), blue racer.--_butler co._: 3 miles south of el dorado. _chase co._: 5 miles south of saffordville (nos. 4, 110, 122-129, 656, 657).* _chautauqua co._: 1 mile south of chautauqua (no. 375).* _geary co._: 5 miles southwest of wreford. _labette co._: 7 miles northwest of mound valley (no. 356).* _lyon co._: 5 miles northwest of reading (no. 226)*; 2 miles west of olpe (no. 341)*; 5 miles northwest of emporia (no. 397)*; 17 miles southwest of emporia (no. 655).* _mcpherson co._: 4 miles west of roxbury. _morris co._: 4 miles west of delavan. _neosho co._: 4 miles northwest of erie; 8 miles southeast of chanute. _ness co._: 5 miles northwest of ness city (no. 617).* _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo; 2 miles northwest of neodesha; 7 miles northeast of fall river. #masticophis flagellum flagellum# (shaw), eastern coachwhip.--_wilson co._: 2 miles northwest of neodesha (no. 302).* _elk co._: 5 miles west of grenola (no. 3).* #masticophis flagellum testaceous# (say), western coachwhip.--_ness co._: 5 miles northwest of ness city (no. 616).* _rooks co._: stockton (nos. 411, 412).* #elaphe laeta laeta# (baird and girard), emory rat snake.--_chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville (nos. 117-120, 130, 326, 354)*; wolf creek; 2 miles northeast of strong city (no. 366).* _coffey co._: 7 miles east of lebo. _mcpherson co._: lindsborg. _morris co._: 10 miles south of council grove (no. 230).* _saline co._: salemsborg. _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo (no. 161).* #elaphe obsoleta obsoleta# (say), pilot black snake.--_atchison co._: atchison (no. 15).* _labette co._: 4 miles north of oswego (no. 320).* _lyon co._: emporia (nos. 12, 374, 514)*; 5 miles northwest of emporia (no. 337); 1.5 miles northwest of reading (no. 634).* _morris co._: 0.5 miles north of wilsey. _neosho co._: 4 miles northwest of erie (nos. 321, 359).* _wabaunsee co._: 4 miles southwest of alma. _wilson co._: 7 miles northeast of fall river. #pituophis catenifer sayi# (schlegel), common bull snake.--_atchison co._: atchison. _chase co._: 4 miles east of elmdale; toledo; 13 miles west of emporia; saffordville (no. 212).* _cherokee co._: 4 miles southeast of columbus. _coffey co._: 6 miles west of waverly. _ford co._: bucklin (no. 405).* _franklin co._: 2 miles southwest of lane. _hodgeman co._: jetmore. _jefferson co._: 3 miles south of nortonville. _mcpherson co._: lindsborg. _morris co._: 3 miles southeast of diamond springs; 6 miles west of council grove; 4 miles west of dwight; 3 miles north of burdick; 3 miles east of delavan. _ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (nos. 499, 500, 615).* _rooks co._: 5 miles southwest of stockton (nos. 409, 410).* #lampropeltis calligaster calligaster# (harlan), yellow-bellied king snake.--_butler co._: u. s. highway 54 near greenwood county line. _coffey co._: 13 miles east of emporia. _franklin co._: 5 miles southwest of ottawa (no. 207).* _lyon co._: 8 miles east of emporia (no. 2)*; 3 miles east of emporia; 3 miles southeast of olpe; southwest of emporia (no. 216); 6 miles south of plymouth (no. 22)*; 1.5 miles northwest of reading (no. 633).* _mcpherson co._: western edge of lindsborg. _osage co._: 4 miles northeast of overbrook. #lampropeltis getulus holbrooki# (stejneger), speckled king snake.--_chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville (no. 109); 2 miles southwest of elmdale (no. 363).* _hodgeman co._: jetmore. _lyon co._: 5 miles east of emporia; 4 miles southwest of bushong (no. 200).* _marion co._: 4 miles east of antelope (no. 10).* _morris co._: 1 mile east of skiddy. _woodson co._: lake fegan (no. 626).* _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo (no. 162).* #lampropeltis triangulum gentilis# (baird and girard), western milk snake.--_chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville (nos. 121, 131, 406).¤ _gove co._: fair grounds (no. 18). _greenwood co._: 4 miles southwest of lamont (no. 376)¤; 6 miles south of wilbur. _scott co._: near scott city (no. 510).* #lampropeltis triangulum syspila# (cope), red milk snake.--_cherokee co._: 3 miles east of crestline (no. 559). _franklin co._: 2 miles southwest of lane (no. 174).¤ #sonora episcopa# (kennicott), great plains ground snake.--_wilson co._: 2 miles northwest of neodesha (nos. 303-305, 323-325).* #natrix erythrogaster transversa# (hallowell), yellow-bellied water snake.--_chase co._: 6 miles south of clements; 6 miles southwest of saffordville; 3 miles east of cottonwood falls; 10 miles east of matfield green; 7 miles south of plymouth (no. 287); elmdale hill, 0.5 miles east of elmdale (no. 291)*; 10 miles southwest of olpe (no. 343).* _lyon co._: 9 miles south of plymouth (no. 25); emporia (no. 30)*; 5 miles northwest of emporia (no. 67); 1 mile north of hartford (no. 108)*; 7 miles southeast of saffordville (no. 283). #natrix grahami# (baird and girard), graham water snake.--_lyon co._: admire; 5 miles south of plymouth (no. 19)*; 6 miles east of emporia (no. 40)*; 0.5 miles north of hartford (no. 85)*; 2 miles east of emporia (no. 208)*; emporia (no. 588).* #natrix rhombifera# (hallowell), diamond-backed water snake.--_lyon co._: 1 mile south of emporia (nos. 218-225)*; 8 miles northwest of emporia (nos. 28, 29, 240, 261)*; 2 miles southeast of emporia (nos. 32-35)*; 5 miles northwest of reading. #natrix sipedon sipedon# (linnaeus), common water snake.--_barber co._: 8 miles west of medicine lodge. _bourbon co._: 1 mile north of fulton (no. 184).* _lyon co._: 5 miles northeast of emporia (no. 5)*; 9 miles south of plymouth (no. 23)*; 1 mile west of neosho rapids; 2 miles southeast of emporia (no. 142, 211)*; 9 miles northeast of emporia (no. 41); 3 miles northwest of emporia (no. 66); 8 miles northwest of emporia (nos. 75, 78, 241, 254, 272)*; 5 miles south of hartford (no. 86); 1 mile north of hartford (nos. 91, 100); 7 miles southwest of emporia (no. 116); emporia (no. 239). _morris co._: 3 miles southwest of council grove. _shawnee co._: 4 miles east of topeka (no. 31).* #haldea striatula# (linnaeus), southern ground snake.--_cherokee co._: 3 miles east of crestline (no. 317)*; 2 miles north of baxter springs; 1 mile north and 4 miles east of crestline. #thamnophis radix radix# (baird and girard), plains garter snake.--_chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville. _lyon co._: emporia (nos. 209, 210)*; 1.5 miles northwest of reading. _ness co._: 5 miles northwest of ness city (no. 618).* #thamnophis sauritus proximus# (say), western ribbon snake.--_chase co._: 1 mile south of saffordville (no. 340).* _lyon co._: 2 miles southeast of emporia (no. 38)*; 5 miles northwest of emporia (nos. 68-70)*; 12 miles southeast of emporia (no. 215)*; 5 miles northwest of reading (no. 229).* _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo. #thamnophis sirtalis parietalis# (say), red-sided garter snake.--_barber co._: 8 miles north of medicine lodge. _dickinson co._: 1.5 miles northwest of herington. _lyon co._: 2.5 miles southeast of emporia (no. 39)*; 1 mile northeast of emporia (nos. 43-48)*; 5 miles northwest of emporia (no. 71)*; 8 miles northwest of emporia (no. 84).* _wabaunsee co._: 2 miles northeast of alma. #tropidoclonion lineatum# (hallowell), lined snake.--_chase co._: saffordville; 3 miles northeast of bazaar. _labette co._: 1 mile north of montana (no. 362).* _lyon co._: emporia; 9 miles south and 5 miles west of emporia. _marion co._: 4 miles east of antelope (no. 11).* _morris co._: 3 miles east of woodbine (nos. 518-520).* _rooks co._: 5 miles northwest of stockton (nos. 414, 415).* #tantilla gracilis# baird and girard, slender tantilla.--_cherokee co._: 3 miles east of crestline (nos. 540-544). _geary co._: 4 miles south of fort riley. _wilson co._: 3 miles east of buffalo; 7 miles northeast of fall river; 2 miles northwest of neodesha. #tantilla nigriceps nigriceps# kennicott, great plains black-headed snake.--_rooks co._: 5 miles northwest of stockton (no. 416); stockton (no. 417). this is the northernmost known record for the species. #agkistrodon mokeson mokeson# (daudin), southern copperhead.--_atchison co._: atchison (nos. 201, 202, 573, 578)*; 5 miles north of atchison (no. 653).* _bourbon co._: 6 miles northwest of fort scott (no. 294).* _cherokee co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of crestline (nos. 165-170)*; 2 miles east of riverton (no. 293).* _coffey co._: 4 miles northeast of burlington. _franklin co._: 2 miles southwest of lane (nos. 187-192, 194).* _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading (no. 7).* _wabaunsee co._: 2 miles northeast of alma (no. 195).* _woodson co._: lake fegan (nos. 627, 628, 630-632, 649).* #sistrurus catenatus tergeminus# (say), western massasauga.--_chase co._: 5 miles southwest of saffordville (nos. 8, 26, 112, 113, 295)*; 3 miles southwest of elko (no. 145)*; 11 miles northeast of matfield green (no. 231)*; 8 miles south of clements; 2 miles southwest of elmdale (no. 333); 10 miles southwest of olpe (no. 344).* _lyon co._: 10 miles south of plymouth (nos. 20, 121)*; 8 miles southwest of emporia (no. 114)*; 5 miles northwest of bushong (no. 353)*; 11 miles northeast of emporia (no. 474). _wabaunsee co._: kansas state highway 99 just north of lyon county (no. 641).* #crotalus horridus horridus# (linnaeus), timber rattlesnake.--_atchison co._: atchison (nos. 204-206)*; 5 miles north of atchison (nos. 642-652).* #crotalus viridis viridis# (rafinesque), prairie rattlesnake.--_hodgeman co._: jetmore. #sternotherus odoratus# (latreille), common musk turtle.--_cherokee co._: 1 mile north and 4 miles east of crestline (no. 171). #kinosternon flavescens flavescens# (agassiz), yellow mud turtle.--_ford co._: rattlesnake creek 2 miles south of bucklin (1 spec.).* _pratt co._: 5 miles southeast of pratt. _sheridan co._: sheridan county state park (no. 569). #chelydra serpentina serpentina# (linnaeus), common snapping turtle.--_chase co._: 10 miles southwest of olpe (no. 345); 3 miles east of cottonwood falls; 5 miles northeast of strong city. _greenwood co._: (1 spec.).* _lyon co._: 1.5 miles northwest of reading (no. 336); 5 miles south of plymouth; 10 miles north of emporia; admire; 4 miles northwest of olpe; emporia. _sheridan co._: state lake; 7 miles northeast of quinter. #terrapene ornata# (agassiz), ornate box turtle.--_chase co._: 14 miles southwest of olpe; 6 miles south of clements; 5 miles southwest of saffordville. _coffey co._: 4 miles south of gridley (no. 468)*; 1 mile west of agricola (no. 638).* _ellsworth co._: 10 miles south of ellsworth. _greenwood co._: (1 spec.).* _hodgeman co._: jetmore. _lyon co._: 6 miles south of plymouth; 8 miles southwest of emporia; 7 miles west of olpe. _morris co._: 5 miles northwest of council grove; 1 mile east of skiddy; 5 miles south of council grove. _rice co._: sterling. _rooks co._: solomon river near stockton (no. 408).* #terrapene triunguis# (agassiz), carolina box turtle.--_coffey co._: 1 mile west of agricola (no. 637).* #chrysemys picta bellii# (gray), painted turtle.--_chase co._: kahola creek, near morris county line. _dickinson co._: 1.5 miles north of herington. _ford co._: rattlesnake creek; 2 miles south of bucklin (1 spec.).* _lyon co._: 3 miles north of emporia; 6 miles south of plymouth. _ness co._: 4 miles west and 1.5 miles north of ness city (nos. 613, 614).* _sheridan co._: sheridan county state park (no. 570). _wilson co._: 4 miles southeast of buffalo. _woodson co._: owl creek north of yates center (1 spec.).* #pseudemys floridana hoyi# (agassiz), toothed turtle.--_greenwood co._: holmer creek south of hamilton on kansas state highway 99 (mus. nat. hist., univ. kans., no. 23148).* this is the second published locality for the species in kansas; it has previously been reported from a locality 5.5 miles northeast of coyville, woodson county (burt and hoyle, trans. kans. acad. sci., 37:198, 1934). #pseudemys scripta elegans# (wied), scribe turtle.--_chase co._: 7 miles southwest of saffordville. _lyon co._: 10 miles northwest of emporia; 7 miles south of plymouth. #amyda mutica# (le sueur), spineless soft-shelled turtle.--_mcpherson co._: lindsborg. #amyda spinifera spinifera# (le sueur), spiny soft-shelled turtle.--_chase co._: 10 miles southwest of olpe; 7 miles southwest of saffordville (no. 351).* _lyon co._: 5 miles east of emporia. _ness co._: 5.5 miles northwest of ness. _sheridan co._: state lake; 7 miles northeast of quinter. 21-2762 university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 13, no. 6, pp. 309-322, 1 fig. february 10, 1961 fishes of the wakarusa river in kansas by james e. deacon and artie l. metcalf (contribution from the state biological survey, and from the department of zoology of the university of kansas) university of kansas lawrence 1961 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, henry s. fitch, robert w. wilson vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 309-322, 1 fig. published february 10, 1961 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed in the state printing plant topeka, kansas 1961 28-5872 fishes of the wakarusa river in kansas by james e. deacon and artie l. metcalf (contribution from the state biological survey, and the department of zoology of the university of kansas) _introduction_ the wakarusa river rises in the eastern edge of the flint hills and flows approximately 50 miles in an easterly direction and empties into the kansas river near eudora; with its tributaries, the wakarusa drains 458 square miles in parts of wabaunsee, shawnee, osage, and douglas counties of northeastern kansas (fig. 1). the average gradient is 6.3 feet per mile. turbidity is consistently more than 100 ppm in the lower portions of the mainstream and major tributaries, but is usually lower in the upper portions of tributaries. the channel of the mainstream is intrenched in its own alluvium (dufford, 1958:36) and has high, muddy banks and mudor sand-bottom; the upper parts of tributaries have lower banks and bottoms of gravel, rubble, or bedrock, although a few (such as cole creek) have areas of sandy bottom. a fringe forest of deciduous trees occurs along most streams. the topography and geology of the area have been discussed by todd (1911), franzen and leonard (1943), and dufford (1958). the five-year period prior to 1957 was the driest in the 70-year history of weather-records in kansas (metzler _et al._, 1958). streams throughout the wakarusa basin suffered intermittency and, according to mr. melvon h. wertzberger, the local work unit conservationist with the soil conservation service, many of them dried completely or contained only a few widely-scattered, stagnant pools. the effect of the drought on stream-flow at the mainstream gaging station 2.1 miles south of lawrence is presented in table 1. according to the division of sanitation, kansas state board of health, no untreated domestic sewage or industrial waste is discharged into the wakarusa river system at this time. the wakarusa watershed association is in the preliminary stages of establishing a watershed control project in the basin. objectives of the project are the improvement of land-use practices and the construction of several headwater retention structures. such a program should have a long-range effect on the physical and biological characteristics of the streams of the basin. with this in mind we think it important to document the nature of the present fish-fauna and to attempt a historical résumé of the fauna, based on collections made in the past sixty years. [illustration: fig. 1. map of the wakarusa river and its principal tributaries.] _methods_ sodium cyanide, a 110-volt (600-watt) a.c. electric shocker, and seines (6, 12, and 25 feet long, 4 to 8 feet deep having 1/4-in. mesh) were used to collect fish in 1959. all fishes were preserved and examined in the laboratory with the exception of large, common species that were identified in the field and returned to the stream. table 1. record of stream-flow, wakarusa river 2.1 mi. s lawrence, kansas. ============+=========+===========+=========+====== water year | days | days with | maximum | mean (oct. 1 | with no | flow less | for | for to oct. 1) | flow | than 5cfs | year | year ------------+---------+-----------+---------+----- 1951 | 0 | 0 | 22,600 | 596.0 1952 | 0 | 85 | 5,000 | 179.0 1953 | 83 | 191 | 685 | 10.2 1954 | 194 | 123 | 2,010 | 17.2 1955 | 116 | 174 | 2,630 | 22.3 1956 | 122 | 183 | 2,550 | 20.7 1957 | 141 | 84 | 11,700 | 137.0 1958 | 0 | 9 | 6,370 | 213.0 1959 | 0 | 46 | 8,000 | 184.0 ------------+---------+-----------+---------+-----_collection sites_ the following collections were made by personnel of the state biological survey of kansas in the 1890's, from 1910 to 1912, and from 1942 to 1953. these collections, all from douglas county, are deposited in the museum of natural history, the university of kansas. in the annotated list they are designated "ku": 1. rock creek, 1898. 2. washington creek, 1898. 3. "2-1/2 miles east of twin mounds," rock creek, sec. 1, t. 14 s, r. 17 e, 1899. 4. rock creek, 1911. 5. rock creek, 1912. 6. washington creek, 2-3/4 mi. w and 1 mi. s lawrence, 1946. 7. tributary of yankee tank creek, secs. 4 and 9, t. 13 s, r. 19 e, july 24, 1951. 8. rock creek, sec. 19, t. 13 s, r. 19 e, aug. 11, 1951. 9. drainage ditch, tributary to wakarusa river, sec. 18, t. 13 s, r. 20 e, aug. 24, 1951. 10. wakarusa river, sec. 20, t. 13 s, r. 20 e, aug. 24, 1951. 11. rock creek, sec. 27, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, sept. 28, 1951. 12. wakarusa river, secs. 16 and 17, t. 13 s, r. 20 e, june 21, 1952. 13. little wakarusa river, sec. 18, t. 13 s, r. 21 e, june 21, 1952. 14. rock creek, sec. 33, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, oct. 2, 1952. 15. wakarusa river, sec. 14, t. 13 s, r. 20 e, march 28, 1953. several collections made between 1912 and 1948 are deposited in the university of michigan museum of zoology. in the annotated list these collections, all from douglas county, are designated "ummz": 1. rock creek, june 9, 1912. 2. oxbow lake, 6 mi. e lawrence, 1924 (several dates). 3. wakarusa river, 7 mi. se lawrence, april 9, 1924. 4. rock creek, 9 mi. sw lawrence, april 14, 1924. 5. rock creek, 12-1/2 mi. s and 8-1/2 mi. e topeka, july 4, 1948. our collections, all of which were made in 1959, are identified by the letters dm followed by a station-number. stations are numbered consecutively beginning at the mouth of the wakarusa river and proceeding up each tributary as it is encountered. _description of stations_ 1. wakarusa river, sec. 4, t. 13 s, r. 21 e, march 14 and oct. 18. mouth of wakarusa to one-half mile upstream; width _ca._ 25 feet; depth to 4 feet; bottom mud; banks mud, 10 feet high; current slight; water turbid. 2. wakarusa river, sec. 7, t. 13 s, r. 21 e, march 21. width _ca._ 25 feet; bottom mud; banks mud, 10-20 feet high. 3. little wakarusa creek, sec. 19, t. 13 s, r. 21 e, may 2. long sandy riffles, 6-10 inches deep; pools to 3 feet deep; bottom sand and mud; water slightly turbid. 4. little wakarusa creek, secs. 29 and 32, t. 13 s, r. 21 e, may 2. riffles 8-10 inches deep having rubble bottom; pools to 4 feet deep having mud bottom; width 15-30 feet. 5. little wakarusa creek, sec. 7, t. 14 s, r. 21 e, may 2. riffles 6-8 inches deep having gravel bottom; pools to 3 feet deep; bottom gravel and mud; width 8 to 15 feet; water slightly turbid. 6. cole creek, sec. 21, t. 13 s, r. 20 e, may 2. riffles 8-12 feet wide, 6 inches deep, bottom of flat, fragmented shale; pools having shale and mud bottom; water slightly turbid. 7. cole creek, sec. 10, t. 14 s, r. 20 e, may 2. small, shallow creek having sand bottom; water slightly turbid. 8. cole creek, sec. 23, t. 14 s, r. 10 e, may 2. banks steep, 20 feet high; bottom sand and hard clay; water clear. 9. tributary to yankee tank creek, sec. 10, t. 13 s, r. 19 e, may 14. width 2-10 feet; bottom mud; water turbid. 10. washington creek, sec. 6, t. 14 s, r. 19 e, feb. 26. width _ca._ 25 feet; bottom rubble and gravel; water clear. 11. washington creek, sec. 11, t. 14 s, r. 18 e, feb. 26, march 28, march 30, and oct. 18. one-half mile below dam at lone star lake; width 10-15 feet; bottom gravel; water clear. 12. tributary of east arm of lone star lake, sec. 13, t. 14 s, r. 18 e, march 31. width 5-7 feet; bottom limestone rubble; water clear. 13. tributary of southeast arm of lone star lake, sec. 24, t. 14 s, r. 18 e, march 30. 14. tributary of southwest arm of lone star lake, sec. 22, t. 14 s, r. 18 e, march 30. 15. tributary to rock creek, sec. 34, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, feb. 26. width 10 feet; water clear. 16. rock creek, sec. 7, t. 14 s, r. 18 e, july 25 and oct. 18. bottom gravel and mud; water clear. 17. rock creek, sec. 23, t. 14 s, r. 17 e, july 25. rubble riffles; pools having mud and sand bottom; water clear. 18. wakarusa river, sec. 14, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, july 23. rubble riffles; pools having sand and mud bottom; water turbid. 19. coon creek, sec. 27, t. 12 s, r. 18 e, march 21. bottom rubble and mud; water clear. 20. dry creek, sec. 8, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, may 16. bottom rubble; water clear. 21. deer creek, sec. 4, t. 13 s, r. 18 e, july. pools having mud bottom; rubble riffles; water turbid. 22. deer creek, sec. 31, t. 12 s, r. 18 e, march 21. bottom mud and shale; water clear. 23. elk creek, sec. 2, t. 14 s, r. 17 e, july 25. stream intermittent; bottom rubble; water turbid. 24. wakarusa river, 1/4 mi. ne mouth of elk creek, sec. 26, t. 14 s, r. 17 e, oct. 17. bottom mud and rubble; water turbid. 25. camp creek, sec. 12, t. 14 s, r. 16 e, oct. 17. upland creek having clear, flowing water; rubble riffles alternating with shallow pools. 26. strowbridge creek, sec. 11, t. 14 s, r. 16 e, july 25. pools having bottom of mud and detritus, emitting malodorous gases; rubble riffles; water turbid. 27. tributary of strowbridge creek, sec. 29, t. 14 s, r. 16 e, july 30. bottom rubble and mud; water clear, almost intermittent. 28. lynn creek, sec. 24, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, april 4. bottom rubble, mud and gravel; depth more than 6 feet; water turbid. 29. lynn creek, sec. 14, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, may 27. bottom mud and rubble; water turbid. 30. lynn creek, secs. 14 and 15, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, july 28. pools having sand bottom; rubble riffles; water clear. 31. lynn creek, sec. 10, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, july 28. bottom sand, rubble and mud; water clear. 32. tributary to lynn creek, secs. 11 and 12, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, may 16. bottom rubble; water clear. 33. burys creek, sec. 8, t. 14 s, r. 16 e, july 25. bottom mud, rubble and detritus; rubble riffles; water turbid. 34. wakarusa river, sec. 28, t. 13 s, r. 16 e, july 28. bottom mud and rubble; rubble riffles; water turbid. 35. unnamed tributary of wakarusa river, sec. 24, t. 13 s, r. 15 e, april 4. bottom mud; water turbid. 36. six mile creek, sec. 17, t. 13 s, r. 15 e, may 16. bottom gravel and rubble; rubble riffles; water clear. 37. wakarusa river, sec. 25, t. 13 s, r. 14 e, may 16. bottom mud and coarse sand; water turbid. 38. south branch of wakarusa river, sec. 8, t. 14 s, r. 14 e, july 30. bottom rubble and gravel; water clear. 39. south branch of wakarusa river, sec. 5, t. 14 s, r. 13 e, july 30. bottom bedrock; flow slight; rubble riffles; water turbid. 40. south branch of wakarusa river, sec. 36, t. 13 s, r. 12 e, july 30. bottom mud; rubble riffles; water turbid. 41. middle branch of wakarusa river, sec. 21, t. 13 s, r. 14 e, april 4. bottom mud; gravel riffles; water turbid. 42. tributary of middle branch of wakarusa river, sec. 29, t. 13 s, r. 14 e, april 4. bottom mud and bedrock; rubble riffles; water turbid. _annotated list of species_ _lepisosteus osseus oxyurus_ rafinesque. dm 2. the longnose gar is abundant in most large rivers of kansas. the scarcity in the wakarusa is probably attributable to the small size of the stream. _lepisosteus platostomus_ rafinesque. ummz 2. the shortnose gar is common in the kansas river but seems less inclined than the longnose gar to ascend small streams. _dorosoma cepedianum_ (lesueur). ummz 2; dm 1. gizzard shad. _carpiodes velifer_ (rafinesque). ummz 2. this record for the highfin carpsucker is based on a single specimen (ummz 63182). it was re-examined by bernard nelson who stated (personal communication) "the dorsal fin is broken and the 'pea-lip' smashed. a trace of the 'pea' is still discernible. the body is deeply compressed and other measurements agree with [those of] _c. velifer_. it was identified as _c. cyprinus_ at first, but later changed by hubbs." _c. velifer_ probably was more abundant in kansas during and before the early 1900's than at present. several early records of the species are available, but the only specimen obtained in kansas in recent years was captured in the neosho river by deacon in 1958. moore (1957:80) states that _c. velifer_ occurs in the clearer rivers and lakes of the mississippi valley, westward to nebraska and oklahoma. the almost complete disappearance of this species from kansas probably resulted from an increase in turbidity, of the rivers, accompanying settlement and cultivation of the land. _carpiodes carpio carpio_ (rafinesque). ku 5, 12, 15; dm 1, 16, 21, 37. the river carpsucker occurred at stations scattered throughout the drainage, except in the smallest creeks. the largest numbers were found in the lower mainstream. _ictiobus cyprinella_ (valenciennes). ku 10; ummz 2; dm 1. the big-mouth buffalo was taken only near the mouth of the river; black buffalo, _ictiobus niger_ (rafinesque) and smallmouth buffalo, _ictiobus bubalus_ (rafinesque), possibly also occur there but were not taken in our survey. _catostomus commersonnii commersonnii_ (lacépède). ku 4, 8, 14; ummz 1, 5; dm 10, 11, 15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 34, 42. the white sucker occurs primarily in upstream-habitats in the wakarusa basin. _moxostoma aureolum_ (lesueur). ku 15; dm 1. the northern redhorse was taken only in downstream portions of the basin. minckley and cross (1960) regard specimens from the wakarusa river as intergrades between _m. a. aureolum_ and _m. a. pisolabrum_. _cyprinus carpio_ linnaeus. ku 9, 12, 15; dm 1, 2. the carp, though most abundant in downstream situations, probably occurs throughout the drainage and is a potential pest in all impoundments likely to be constructed in the basin. _notemigonus crysoleucas_ (mitchill). ku 9; dm 9, 27, 33, 41. the golden shiner was found only in tributaries. _semotilus atromaculatus_ (mitchill). ku 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14; ummz 4, 5; dm 3, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33. the creek chub was usually abundant in small upland tributaries. _hybopsis biguttata_ (kirtland). ku 1, 3; ummz 4. the hornyhead chub seemingly was common in early collections but has not been found since 1924. the fish characteristically inhabits clear streams having gravel-bottom. disappearance of the species from the wakarusa may have resulted from increased siltation and intermittency of flow. _hybopsis storeriana_ (kirtland). ku 10; ummz 3. _hybopsis aestivalis_ (girard). ku 10; ummz 3; dm 1. this species and the preceding one are common in the kansas river but do not ascend far up the wakarusa. _hybopsis gelida_ (girard) and _hybopsis gracilis_ (richardson) occur in the kansas river and may be expected in the lowermost portion of the mainstream of the wakarusa. _notropis percobromus_ (cope). ku 12; dm 1, 2. the plains shiner shows little tendency to move far upstream from the kansas river, where it is abundant. _notropis umbratilis_ (girard). ku 5, 11, 14; ummz 1, 4, 5; dm 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41. in our survey the redfin shiner was the most abundant species at several stations, especially at those in the lower and middle portions of tributaries to the mainstream. _notropis cornutus frontalis_ (agassiz). ku 1, 2, 3, 8, 11, 14; dm 16. judging from the numbers preserved in early collections, the common shiner was more abundant and widespread in the 1890's than in 1959. a watershed improvement program effecting more stable flow and decreased turbidity might benefit this shiner. _notropis lutrensis_ (baird and girard). ku 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15; ummz 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; dm all stations _except_ 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 35. the red shiner was ubiquitous, and was the dominant species at a majority of stations. _notropis stramineus_ (cope). ku 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15; dm 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 31, 37. the sand shiner was most common in two environments: (1) near the mouth of the wakarusa where abundance of the species may be attributed to the close proximity of a large population of _n. stramineus_ in the kansas river, and (2) in upland tributaries that drain areas in which sand is found (especially in cole creek). _notropis topeka_ (gilbert). ku 1, 14; ummz 1, 4, 5; dm 22, 25, 27, 33. minckley and cross (1959) describe the habitat of the topeka shiner as pools of clear upland tributaries with slight flow. we found the topeka shiner in such habitat in deer creek, strowbridge creek and burys creek. the largest population occurred in a tributary of strowbridge creek. this stream probably was intermittent in 1958, and deer and burys creeks may have been intermittent at some time in 1957-1959. although minckley and cross (1959:215) have stated that rock creek is "unsuitable for this species," we suspect that rock creek served as a refugium for _n. topeka_ in time of drought. it was found there (ku 14) in 1952, and again (dm 16) on april 8, 1960. _notropis buchanani_ meek. ummz 3. inclusion of the ghost shiner is based on two specimens (ummz 63107) collected by c. w. creaser in 1924. _phenacobius mirabilis_ (girard). ku 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15; ummz 4; dm 3, 6, 16, 18, 21, 22, 34. the suckermouth minnow occurred in several collections but was nowhere dominant. the largest populations were at dm 3, 6, and 22. _hybognathus nuchalis_ agassiz. ku 8, 15; ummz 3; dm 1, 6. the silvery minnow was taken only in the downstream portion of the wakarusa and its lower tributaries. _pimephales promelas_ rafinesque. ku 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15; ummz 1, 4, 5; dm all stations _except_ 1, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 30. the fathead minnow was ubiquitous, and was dominant at several stations on the smallest creeks. _pimephales notatus_ (rafinesque). ku 1, 6, 11, 12, 14, 15; ummz 1, 4, 5; dm 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18, 24, 25, 26, 37, 41. the bluntnose minnow occurred at several stations on tributaries but was not common. _campostoma anomalum_ (rafinesque). ku 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; ummz 4, 5; dm 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 30, 32, 33, 34. the stoneroller was usually abundant at upstream stations and was found in the mainstream of the wakarusa river. _ictalurus punctatus_ (rafinesque). ku 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15; dm 1, 2, 18, 24. channel catfish were taken by us only in the mainstream; anglers sometimes catch channel catfish in several of the tributaries. _ictalurus melas_ (rafinesque). black bullhead. ku 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 14; ummz 2, 5; dm 5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 21, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40. _ictalurus natalis_ (lesueur). yellow bullhead. ku 9, 14. _pylodictis olivaris_ (rafinesque). ku 8, 10; dm 18. the flathead catfish comprises a small but consistent part of the sport fishery of the wakarusa, especially in the mainstream. _noturus flavus_ rafinesque. stonecat. ku 10, 11, 12. _noturus exilis_ (nelson). dm 11. the slender madtom is recorded only from riffles in washington creek below lone star lake. these riffles, because of the influence of the reservoir, are probably the most permanent in the drainage at present. the slender madtom may become more widespread if other reservoirs are built that stabilize stream flow in the basin. _perca flavescens_ (mitchill). the yellow perch is present in lone star lake, and probably will become established in future reservoirs that are constructed. _percina caprodes_ (rafinesque). log perch. ku 11, 14, 15; dm 11, 12, 16, 37, 41. _etheostoma nigrum_ rafinesque. ku 8, 14; ummz 1, 3, 4, 5; dm 16, 17. the johnny darter, like the common shiner, has been taken recently only in rock creek, where darters flourish. often, ten to fifteen johnny darters were taken with one sweep of a 6or 12-foot seine in shallow pools having mud bottoms. watershed improvement may benefit this species. _etheostoma spectabile pulchellum_ (girard). ku 7, 10, 12, 14; ummz 4, 5; dm 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26. the orangethroat darter was most abundant in deer creek, rock creek and washington creek. _micropterus salmoides salmoides_ (lacépède). dm 16, 17, 21, 30, 32, 34, 37. the largemouth bass occurs throughout the drainage at present, and should become established without supplemental stocking in future reservoirs. the absence of this species in early collections suggests that widespread stocking of bass in various impoundments in the area in recent years has increased populations in the streams. an anomalous individual, lacking a right pelvic fin, was found in lone star lake. _chaenobryttus gulosus_ (cuvier). the warmouth is present in lone star lake. this species typically inhabits lakes and probably will establish itself in other reservoirs. _lepomis cyanellus_ rafinesque. green sunfish. ku 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15; ummz 2, 4, 5; dm all stations _except_ 11, 12, 13, 14, 27, 30, 31, 39, 40. _lepomis macrochirus_ rafinesque. ku 6; dm 10, 16, 17, 24, 31, 33, 37, 41, 42. both bluegill and green sunfish are common throughout the drainage and will contribute to the sport fishery of any reservoir constructed. the absence of the bluegill in early collections suggests that its population has increased recently owing to introductions in many impoundments. _lepomis humilis_ (girard). orangespotted sunfish. ku 6, 9, 11, 14, 15; ummz 1, 2, 4, 5; dm 4, 6, 16, 17, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42. _lepomis megalotis breviceps_ (rafinesque). longear sunfish. ku 8 (one individual taken in rock creek, 1951). _pomoxis annularis_ (rafinesque). ku 9, 15; ummz 2. white crappie occur in lone star lake and in farm ponds in the basin. _pomoxis nigromaculatus_ (lesueur). specimens of black crappie were obtained from lone star lake and in farm ponds in the basin. _aplodinotus grunniens_ rafinesque. drum. ku 12. _discussion_ our data show that the present fish-fauna of the wakarusa river has three major components: (1) a group of species that are mainly restricted to the lower mainstream; all of them are common in the kansas river (_lepisosteus osseus_, _carpiodes carpio carpio_, _ictiobus cyprinella_, _moxostoma aureolum_, _cyprinus carpio_, _hybopsis storeriana_, _hybopsis aestivalis_, _notropis percobromus_, _hybognathus nuchalis_ and _pylodictis olivaris)_. (2) a group of species that are ubiquitous; they comprised the entire fauna in some tributaries, despite the existence of habitats that seemed suitable for other species (_notropis lutrensis_, _pimephales promelas_, _ictalurus melas_, and _lepomis cyanellus_). (3) a group of species having distributions centered in rock creek, washington creek, deer creek, and some nearby tributaries (_catostomus commersonnii_, _semotilus atromaculatus_, _hybopsis biguttata_, _notropis cornutus_, _notropis topeka_, _notropis umbratilis_, _phenacobius mirabilis_, _pimephales notatus_, _campostoma anomalum_, _noturus exilis_, _percina caprodes_, _etheostoma nigrum_ and _etheostoma spectabile_). the distributions of groups (2) and (3) provide clues to the effect of drought on the fish-population, and on the relative ability of various species to repopulate areas where they have been extirpated. larimore _et al._ (1959) studied the re-establishment of stream-fish following drought in smiths branch, a small warmwater stream in illinois. they found that 21 of the 29 species regularly occurring there reinvaded most of the stream-course within two weeks after the resumption of normal flow, and that all but three species were present by the end of the first summer. our study indicates a much slower rate of dispersal by many of the same species. this is presumably attributable to the ecological barrier presented by the wakarusa mainstream. during the drought (1952-1956) the mainstream with its turbid water and mud bottom could hardly have served as a refugium for species requiring the clear water and gravel bottom of upland tributaries. probably the main refugia for these species [group (3)] were in the upper portions of rock creek, washington creek and possibly deer creek. while collecting we observed that these creeks had larger proportions of gravel-rubble bottom, clearer water, deeper pools, and appeared to be more stable than other creeks in the drainage. in washington creek, lone star lake enhanced stability of flow. at the end of the drought, fishes in group (3) probably were extirpated or decimated in other tributaries of the wakarusa. after normal flow recommenced in 1956, fishes re-entered the previously uninhabitable streams or stream-segments. the rate of redispersal by various species probably depended upon their innate mobility, and upon their tolerance of the muddy mainstream of the wakarusa. our observations suggest that certain species in group (3) dispersed rapidly from refugia in rock creek, washington creek, and possibly deer creek. these species may, of course, have survived in a few remaining pools in tributaries throughout the basin, thereby necessitating only minor redispersal within these tributaries following drought. species of group (3) that were most tolerant of drought or that dispersed most rapidly are _catostomus commersonnii_, _notropis umbratilis_, _pimephales notatus_, and _percina caprodes_; these were present in the uppermost portions of the basin in 1959. fishes having lesser capacity for survival or dispersal are _semotilus atromaculatus_, _notropis topeka_, _phenacobius mirabilis_ and _campostoma anomalum_; in 1959, they were not found farther upstream than burys creek. _etheostoma spectabile_, the orangethroat darter, was taken in rock creek, washington creek, deer creek, strowbridge creek, elk creek, and at station 24 on the wakarusa. this is a riffle-dwelling, comparatively sedentary fish, not a strong swimmer. these traits, coupled with the long, muddy pools and infrequent riffles of the wakarusa mainstream, provide a reasonable explanation of the comparatively slow rate of dispersal by the orangethroat darter. several species showed no tendency for redispersal following drought, in that they were confined to washington creek or rock creek in 1959. _noturus exilis_ was taken only in washington creek immediately below lone star lake. rock creek is the last stream in the wakarusa basin in which _notropis cornutus_, _hybopsis biguttata_ and _etheostoma nigrum_ have survived. these species require comparatively permanent streams having pool-and-riffle habitats and gravelly bottoms for spawning. _hybopsis biguttata_ has been recorded only from rock creek, where it was last taken in 1924. it is interesting to note that this species had not reinvaded smiths branch, in illinois, three years after the resumption of stream-flow (larimore _et al._, 1959). _notropis cornutus_ and _etheostoma nigrum_, although formerly more widespread in the wakarusa basin, have been taken recently only in rock creek. faunal changes that have occurred in the basin in the past 60 years indicate a decrease in extent of clear, continuously flowing stream-habitat. _comparisons with faunas of nearby streams_ minckley (1959) reported 13 species from the big blue river basin that were not taken in our survey of the wakarusa. most of the 13 are fishes that probably occur throughout the lower mainstream of the kansas river and might enter the lower wakarusa occasionally. _chrosomus erythrogaster_ and _notropis rubellus_ were reported by minckley but have not been found in the kansas river basin east of the flint hills, either in recent or in early collections. on the other hand, five species have been reported from the wakarusa but not from the big blue river. two of these, _notemigonus crysoleucas_ and _chaenobryttus gulosus_, may have been introduced by man. the remaining three, _hybopsis biguttata_, _noturus exilis_ and _percina caprodes_, have not been taken farther west than mill creek, wabaunsee county. in general the faunas of the two systems are similar; forty species are common to both. comparison of the faunal list reported from the cottonwood river drainage (arkansas river system) by cross (1954) with that here reported reveals 26 species in common, 19 found only in the wakarusa and 15 species found only in the cottonwood. _acknowledgments_ we thank dr. frank cross, mr. bernard nelson and mr. wendell minckley for their suggestions and data, and mrs. james e. deacon for assistance in preparation of the manuscript. we are grateful also to landowners in the wakarusa basin for permitting us to collect on their properties, to mr. melvon h. wertzberger for varied assistance, and to the kansas forestry, fish and game commission for financial assistance to one of us. the kansas state board of health and the water resources board supplied pertinent information. _literature cited_ cross, f. b. 1954. fishes of cedar creek and the south fork of the cottonwood river, chase county, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci. 57:303-314. dufford, a. e. 1958. quaternary geology and ground water resources of kansas river valley between bonner springs and lawrence, kansas. kansas geol. surv. bull. 130, part 1, pp. 1-96. franzen, d. s., and leonard, a. b. 1943. the mollusca of the wakarusa river valley. univ. kansas sci. bull. 29(9):363-439. lartmore, r. w., childers, w. f., and heckrotte, c. 1959. destruction and re-establishment of stream fish and invertebrates affected by drought. trans. amer. fish. soc, 88(4):261-285. metzler, d. f., culp, r. l., stoltenberg, h. a., woodward, r. l., walton, g., chang, s. l., clarke, n. a., palmer, c. m., and middleton, f. m. 1958. emergency use of reclaimed water for potable supply at chanute, kansas. jour. amer. water works assoc. 50(8):1021-1060. minckley, w. l. 1959. fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas. univ. kansas mus. nat. hist, publ. 11(7):401-442. minckley, w. l., and cross, f. b. 1959. distribution, habitat, and abundance of the topeka shiner, _notropis topeka_ (gilbert) in kansas. amer. midi. nat. 6(1):210-217. 1960. taxonomic status of the shorthead redhorse, _moxostoma aureolum_ (lesueur) from the kansas river basin, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci. 63(1):35-39. moore, g. a. 1957. fishes. _transmitted november 8, 1960._ vertebrates of the united states, by blair, w. f., blair, a. p., brodkorb, p., cagle, f. r., and moore, g. a. mcgraw-hill book co., new york, new york, pp. 31-210. todd, j. e. 1911. history of wakarusa creek. trans. kansas acad. sci. 24:211-218. _transmitted november 8, 1960._ 28-5872 ====================================================================== university of kansas publications museum of natural history ---------- volume 12, no. 11, pp. 503-519 ------------------------ october 25, 1963 ------------------------ observations on the mississippi kite in southwestern kansas by henry s. fitch university of kansas lawrence 1963 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, henry s. fitch, theodore h. eaton, jr. volume 12, no. 11, pp. 503-519 published october 25, 1963 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by jean m. neibarger, state printer topeka. kansas 1963 [union logo] 29-7863 observations on the mississippi kite in southwestern kansas by henry s. fitch the mississippi kite (_ictinia mississippiensis_) is one of the common raptors of kansas, occurring regularly and abundantly in summer in that part of the state south of the arkansas river. in 1961, in an attempt to find out more about the ecology of the species in kansas, i made several trips to parts of the state where kites could be found in numbers, notably to meade county state park in the southwestern part of the state, 7½ miles south and five miles west of meade. little has been written regarding the species in this extreme northwestern part of its breeding range, where it thrives under ecological conditions much different from those that prevail elsewhere in its range. also, the social behavior and food habits have been given relatively little attention. in my field study i was helped by my son, john h. fitch, who climbed to many kite nests and spent many hours observing in the field. my daughter, alice v. fitch, likewise aided me by keeping nests under surveillance. dr. claude w. hibbard of the university of michigan and mr. harry smith, superintendent of meade state park, also kindly provided much useful information concerning the history of the colony of mississippi kites at the park. mr. william n. berg analyzed pellets, and dr. george w. byers kindly checked many of the identifications, and provided generic and specific determinations for some of the insects. in general, the range, habits and ecology of the mississippi kite are already well known through the publications of audubon (1840), chapman (1891), bendire (1892), ganier (1902), wayne (1910), nice (1931), bent (1936), sutton (1939) and eisenmann (1963). the breeding range is the southeastern united states, chiefly within the austroriparian life-zone, but extending northwest through much of oklahoma and into southern kansas. the species is highly migratory. wintering mississippi kites are known from argentina and paraguay (eisenmann, _op. cit._:74), and most of the population probably winters in southern south america, but records outside the breeding range are few. the mississippi kite is perhaps one of the most social raptors. it is highly gregarious, not only in its migrations but in breeding colonies. all breeding pairs seen were closely associated with other individuals, with no territorial hostility; signs of intraspecific intolerance are rare, even where the kites are abundant. in the nesting season many of both sexes perch together in the same tree, and groups tend to keep together as they forage. secondary sexual differences are slight. seven males in the university of kansas museum of natural history collection average 351 (342 to 360) millimeters in length, and six females average 361 (348 to 370) millimeters. sutton (_op. cit._:44) collected 16 breeding kites near arnett, oklahoma in 1936 and 1937 and recorded that eleven males averaged 245 (216 to 269) grams and five females averaged 311 (278 to 339) grams. as indicated by sutton, the head is paler in the adult male than in the female, and at close range this difference will serve for identification of the sexes. the difference in size is scarcely noticeable in the field. habitat in kansas this kite seems to prefer open and even barren terrain, in contrast with its habitat in forests of the southeastern states. typical habitat of kansas is that of the high plains, dominated by a short-grass climax of blue grama (_bouteloua gracilis_) and buffalo grass (_buchloë dactyloides_), with sagebrush (_artemisia_ sp.), prickly pear (_opuntia_ sp.) and other somewhat xerophytic vegetation. in the gypsum hills of south-central kansas near the oklahoma border, the mississippi kite finds habitat conditions exceptionally favorable. this is an area of broken topography, dissected by small steep-sided ravines, often with brush and scrubby trees on the slopes. at meade county state park groves of cottonwoods (_populus deltoides_) provided abundant places for perching and nesting. at this locality an artesian well provided an abundant year round water supply, which was impounded into an artificial lake half a mile long and a little less than a quarter mile wide. water was also impounded in a series of small ponds maintained for the benefit of fish and waterfowl. along with other improvements extensive plantings of cottonwoods and other trees were made with relief labor in the nineteen thirties. trees were scarce on the area originally, but by 1961 there were almost continuous groves in an area nearly two miles long and three quarters of a mile wide encompassing the lake and ponds and adjacent areas. in conversation at the park in august 1961, dr. c. w. hibbard told me of his observations on the colony of kites since 1936 when his paleontological field work in that area was begun. he indicated an area of less than two acres west of the artesian well to which the colony had been limited in its nesting in 1936, because at that time few trees were available as nest sites. in subsequent years, as the trees in the artificially established groves increased in size and height, and other trees became established naturally where the impoundments had created favorably moist conditions, the nesting colony expanded in all directions, and the number of kites increased tremendously. when my observations were made in 1961, the nesting area was co-extensive with the cottonwood groves, and there were literally thousands of trees within the area that provided adequate sites for nests. numbers the maximum number of kites seen flying at one time at the park was 44, on august 22, 1961. probably almost all there were adults, because fledglings, even though able to fly strongly by this date, were still spending most of their time perched. the colony of kites was usually scattered over at least two square miles, and at most times some were perched, others were flying low and solitarily, hence it is improbable that the total population or a high percentage of it could be seen together at any one time or place. more than 40 nests were located in 1961, and probably at least as many more were overlooked. there must have been a breeding population of at least 100 kites, and probably as many as 150 in the park in 1961. h. b. tordoff recorded on the label of k. u. mus. nat. hist. no. 30514, taken on september 1, 1951, in barber county, kansas, that it was one of at least 200 at a communal roost. feeding the park and its vicinity stood out as a veritable oasis in an almost treeless region of open rolling topography, with a short-grass type of vegetation dominating. the kites displayed versatility in their choice of places to forage. often they soared over the cottonwood groves, the lake, or the ponds, but at other times they flew far out over the plains, and seemed to prefer such open situations. a small herd of buffalo was maintained at the park, and their closely grazed pastures of several hundred acres were favorite foraging grounds for the kites. often the kites and buffalo were seen in close association, and at times the kites must have benefited from the movements of the buffalo, serving to flush certain insects such as grasshoppers. the latter were probably the chief food source of the kites in the heavily grazed pastures. bent (1936:67) stated: "a flock of from 3 to 20 will sail about a person, a horseman or a team, traveling through grassy flats or bushy places, and seize the cicadas as they are scared up." dr. hibbard told me that on one occasion when he had caught a number of cicadas, he fed them to a pair of kites by tossing them into the air one by one, and each was seized by a kite which was flying nearby waiting expectantly. mississippi kites are noted for their buoyant and seemingly almost effortless flight, and their prey is caught while they are on the wing. in extended flights the kites soar, drift and circle with frequent easy flapping, at variable heights. sometimes they are several hundred feet above the ground. doubtless the height is influenced by the types of insects that are flying, and where they can be found most readily. even at close range the catching of prey by a kite is likely to be overlooked by an observer. after being snatched from the air, the prey is usually eaten while the kite is still in flight, and the movements of the head in pecking at the objects held in the talons are much more noticeable than the slight veering from the course of flight that signals the actual capture. kites were often watched while they were hunting in the open areas around the park. on june 1, 1961, my son and i observed 16 perched together in a small tree. from time to time each kite would leave the tree in a short flight low over the surface of a nearby pool, where it would snatch up prey, probably a dragonfly in many instances, and would return to a perch to feed. most of the time one or several kites were in flight while the majority were perched. similar observations were made on smaller groups perched on fence posts along the edges of large pastures. gregarious tendencies were evident from the fact that two or more of the kites perched fairly near together on separate but sometimes adjacent fence posts. each kite in turn would glide from its post, skim low over the ground surface for a few seconds, seize its prey with a sudden slight swerving, and return to the fence (usually to a different post from the one it had left) to feed upon the insect captured. grasshoppers of many species were abundant in the area. it seemed that grasshoppers were flushed from the ground by the bird flying near them and were picked off before they were well underway. in any case the prey was taken from the air rather than from the ground in all observed instances. ganier (1902:86) mentioned seeing one of these kites alight on the ground in a cotton field, where it stayed for more than a minute, but perching on the ground is unusual. most often kites that were catching their prey by skimming close to the ground did not return to a perch but ate while they were flying. associations of groups on posts at edges of fields, in trees or in flight were ephemeral as each bird seemed driven by a restless urge to be in motion. the kites generally gave the impression of catching their prey effortlessly and casually in the course of their flights. however, on july 20, 1961, one flying over a pond was seen to swoop three times in rapid succession at a dragonfly without catching it. the kite then flew higher, circled, and swooped three times more at the dragonfly, catching it on the last attempt. most of the insects preyed upon are slower and less elusive than dragonflies, which are largely immune to the attacks of flying predators because of their great prowess in flight. only on rare occasions could the kind of prey captured be observed in the field. food habits were studied by collecting pellets of the kites at the park, and analyzing them. the pellets were usually disgorged early in the morning while the kites were still on their night roosts in large cottonwoods. often several kites roosted in the same tree. the pellets were of characteristic appearance, elliptical, approximately 15 millimeters in diameter, 30 millimeters long, pinkish or purplish, composed of insects' exoskeletons compacted, and comminuted to about the consistency they would have after passing through a meat grinder. a total of 205 pellets was collected--37 on august 20, 1960; 56 on july 18, 1961; 60 on august 4 and 5, 1961, and 52 on august 21 to 23, 1961. a total of 453 separate items was tentatively identified. obviously the material was far from ideal for the identification of prey, which had to be reconstructed from minute fragments. the kites are dainty feeders and discard the larger and less digestible parts such as wings, legs, and heads. often it was uncertain how many individuals or how many kinds of insects were represented in a pellet. probably most pellets contained many individuals of the same species, but these were not separable. hence, only 2.2 items per pellet were found, whereas sutton found an average of 22.2 items in each of the 16 stomachs that he examined. best information concerning kinds of prey utilized was obtained soon after the fledglings had left the nest; on various occasions these still clumsy young dropped nearly intact insects that were delivered to them by the adults. these insects, recovered from beneath the perches, were the basis for all specific and generic determinations; other material was determinable only to order or to family. one of the most significant outcomes of the examination of pellets was the finding that vertebrates were scarcely, if at all, represented in the food. three pellets contained shreds that seemed to be mammal hairs, but in the absence of other remains, the diagnosis is somewhat doubtful. many species of small mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians were common in the park or its vicinity, but insects made up nearly all the recorded prey. audubon (1840:73) mentioned lizards and small snakes in the food and gave a dramatic but perhaps imaginative account of a kite swooping and snatching a lizard (anole) from the topmost branch of a tree. goss (1891:251) stated: "i have seen them swoop down, and, with their claws, snatch lizards from the ground, rocks and old logs, sometimes stopping to eat them, but, as a rule, feeding on the wing." bendire (1892:179) stated that the food was mostly insects "probably varied with a diet of small rodents, lizards and snakes." wayne (1910:71) stated that the food consisted almost entirely of insects and lizards. bent (1936:67-68), after stating that small snakes, lizards and frogs were sometimes taken, cited a statement in the notes of g. w. stevens that the latter had found the remains of toads, mice and young rabbits in nests with young. however, sutton (_op. cit._:51) in a detailed analysis of the stomach contents of 16 kites in oklahoma, found only insects and remains of one small fish among a total of 358 prey items. predation on vertebrates must be rare, and perhaps requires further verification in view of the rather vague character of the records so far published. the following list includes both the prey found beneath perches of fledglings and that identified from pellets, the latter mostly from adult kites. coleopteran unspecified 187 carabid 39 cicindelid unspecified 18 _cicindela_ sp. 2 hydrophilid unspecified 18 _hydrous_ sp. 1 scarabaeid unspecified 1 _canthon_ sp. 3 silphid _necrophorus_ sp. 1 orthopteran unspecified 120 locustid unspecified 34 _arphia crassa_ 1 _melanoplus_ cf. _differentialis_, 2 _schistocerca_ cf. _lineata_ 1 _xanthippus corallipes_ 2 tettigoniid unspecified 3 _daihinia_ sp. 1 homopteran cicadid unspecified 15 _tibicen_ cf. _pruinosa_ 1 lepidopteran (unspecified moth), 3 at meade state park i gained the impression that much of the foraging is carried on near the nest. the short time lapse between successive feedings was one indication, and from time to time while keeping nests under observation, i saw kites that were individually recognizable as the owners coursing back and forth in the vicinity. however, only a few individuals were recognizable. for several minutes before and after delivering food, such an adult was often seen soaring within 200 to 300 yards of the nest, or sometimes much closer. a somewhat different impression was received on august 23, 1961, at natural bridge, south of sun city, barber county, kansas, where i observed two pairs of kites feeding fledglings. one fledgling was seen to be fed ten times in a 1½ hour period. the transfer of food from the adult usually required less than a minute. then the adult would leave the tree, in a ravine, and drift away. circling and soaring, it seemed to be wandering aimlessly, but within two or three minutes it was usually out of sight over the horizon. in what appeared to be slow, lazy, flight it usually drifted off to the west, to more upland areas of short grass and sage brush. once, watching from a high knoll i succeeded in keeping it in view for almost five minutes, and during most of this time it appeared to be between one and two miles away, but it finally moved off even farther. dr. hibbard mentioned seeing kites in the vicinity of the jinglebob ranch eight to ten miles from the park, and he believed that these individuals had come from the park since there was no suitable habitat in the intervening areas. actually, the distance could have been covered in a few minutes' flying time, but it is unlikely that these individuals were feeding young at the park, else they would not have wandered so far. on several occasions groups of from three to 20 individuals were seen in open terrain as much as four or five miles from the park. breeding cycle probably kites arriving from their northward migration are already paired. in those observed at the park in the first week of june, there was no indication of courtship, or of sexual rivalry. on june 1, 1961, incubation had begun. the birds had arrived some three weeks earlier, according to smith. although arriving from the south long after most raptors have begun their nesting, the kites are not further delayed by establishment of territories and choosing of mates, and nesting is underway soon after their arrival. according to sutton (1939:45) the nest-building is an exceedingly leisurely process. in the first two weeks after their arrival he observed that the kites only occasionally bring a twig to the nest, usually repairing last year's structure rather than starting a new one. sutton recorded egg-laying on may 17 and 18 and hatching on june 18 in northwestern oklahoma, and the timing of these events must be similar in meade county, kansas. shortly before sunset on june 1 a pair was observed at close range from a parked automobile as the kites perched on roadside fence posts about 50 feet apart at the park boundary. at this time the birds lacked their usual restlessness and were perching quietly, neither preening nor attempting to find prey. with no preliminaries the male flew to the female and lit on her back to copulate. the female was receptive but did not crouch in a horizontal position. the mounting lasted for approximately a minute. during the first 30 seconds the male was fully occupied with balancing and positioning himself, and copulation occurred only during the latter half of the mounting. during this interval cloacal contact was effected three times, but was only momentary each time. the birds were silent. after the male left, the female continued to perch until flushed by my movements. judging from the nests that were examined, the kites of the meade park area are well synchronized in their nesting, as all arrive at approximately the same time. bent (1936:66) stated that if a kite's nest is robbed, the birds will lay a second set, either in the old nest or a new one, about two weeks later. all young seen at meade state park seemed to represent an age range of considerably less than two weeks, and, presumably, no renestings were involved. nests were variable in size. some were remarkably small in relation to size of the kites, and would scarcely have been credited to this species, had not the kites been seen sitting on them. nests were from 10 to 18 (average 14) inches long and from 10 to 14 (average 11.7) inches wide, in forks or crotches of branches. the branches supporting the nests were from 1½ to 10 inches in diameter. the nests were constructed of twigs of approximately pencil size. of 37 nests at the park, 29 were in cottonwoods, six were in willows, and two were in elms. the figures probably reflect the relative numbers of each of these species of tree rather than any clear-cut preference of the kites. by the time nesting has begun the trees have leafed out, and the nests are well concealed. at the time of my visit to the park, july 18 to 22, nestlings were well grown, and were beginning to feather out. on august 4 and 5 the young were well feathered, but flight feathers were not fully grown and the young remained in the nest or perched on nearby branches. on august 21 to 24 the young were fully fledged, and were able to fly strongly but they still spent most of their time perching and those of a brood tended to stay near together, usually in the nest tree. in a total of 26½ hours of observation, 148 feedings were observed--on the average one per 10.7 minutes. the interval changed from an average of 12.8 minutes for 62 feedings on july 19 to 21, to 8.5 minutes for 59 feedings on august 4, and to 10.8 minutes for 27 feedings on august 21. the longer interval on july 19 to 21 may have resulted from the greater furtiveness of the adult kites at this stage in their nesting cycle. nests usually were watched through field glasses at distances of 50 to 100 feet. ordinarily kites are not disturbed by the presence of a person at these distances, but when delivering food to the nest they seemed somewhat distracted and sometimes stopped only momentarily then left, still carrying the food. usually they swooped at the observer when leaving; rarely they swooped at him as they approached the nest. all observations were between 10 a.m. and 5 p.m., and there was no obvious trend according to time. earlier and later in the day the rate of delivery is probably less. the kites are notably late risers, and their activity increases gradually after sunrise; in late afternoon activity tapers off again. in 89 feedings, the average visit to the nest lasted 51 seconds but this average included a few relatively long stops, up to four minutes in length, and 60 per cent of the visits were for intervals of 30 seconds or less. insects often protruded from the bills of the adult kites delivering food, but most of the food was carried in the throat. sometimes the gorge was much distended, although nothing protruded from the mouth. the adult upon alighting sometimes would pass food to the nestling, and sometimes would disgorge a mass of food in the nest in front of the nestling. when the young were small, the adult after having disgorged a food mass, remained to pick up the food, bit by bit, and place it in the mouth of the nestling. however, after the young were partly feathered out the adult merely left the food for them. the nestling sometimes would peck at the disgorged material for several minutes after the adult left before all of the food was eaten. the small nestlings are generally silent, but when handled or otherwise disturbed, they give soft lisping peeps. by early august, when the young have ventured from the nest bowl to nearby branches, they become vocal and their calls can be heard more often than those of the adults. the call of the adult has been well rendered by sutton (1939:43) with the syllables "phee phew"--a whistle in which the first syllable is short (lasting only about one-fourth of a second) with a rising inflection, clipped off short, while the second syllable has a downward inflection, and is drawn out to two or three times the length of the first syllable. the call of the fledgling is soft, with a lisping quality; that of the adult is much like it but is sharper and more piercing. fledglings call frequently while waiting to be fed, but as an adult approaches with food, the calls are given in rapid succession and slurred to a high thin squablike squeaking or squealing. when fledglings are able to fly and have left the nest, the adults generally pass food to them directly, rather than dropping the regurgitated mass, which might fall to the ground and be lost. on august 22 a fledgling was seen following an adult in flight, and was also seen to eat while it was flying. at this stage, when an adult fed one young of a brood, the other would sometimes fly to the spot in an attempt to share the meal. however, the transfer of food was usually rapid and the adult would leave within a few seconds. young often were seen to fly out from the nest tree and maneuver in the vicinity, flying in a roughly circular course perhaps 100 feet in diameter and then returning to the nest tree, thereby familiarizing themselves with their surroundings. according to the consensus of published accounts, there are usually two eggs per clutch, occasionally one or three. however, ganier (1902:89), who studied the species in mississippi, wrote: "of all the nests i have examined [number unspecified] only one was found to contain more than a single egg." nice (1931:69) recorded 19 sets of two each and seven of one each in oklahoma. in the course of my observations, 12 clutches of two were recorded. a group of four fledglings were observed concentrating their activities at a nest more than 200 feet from any other known nests; possibly all belonged to the same brood, but this was not definitely determined. many of the nests that were in use in 1961 appeared to be relics from earlier years, as the material was darkened and disintegrating, but probably a new layer of sticks had been added on the top. bent (_op. cit._:65) mentioned this kite's habit of frequently using the same nest in successive years. on one occasion as i drove over a little-used road in the park and passed a cottonwood grove where kites were nesting, one of the birds swooped down and struck the top of the automobile. in a subsequent conversation, harry smith asked me if this had happened, and said that this particular kite had struck his truck frequently when he drove past its nest. this had occurred at the same place in three successive years, and smith was convinced that the same kite had used the nest each year, although the bird was not recognizable except by its unusually aggressive behavior. on dozens of occasions in the course of my observations kites swooped at me when i was near their nests, but, except for this one individual, they always veered away at a distance of several feet or several yards. at the time of my visit to the park in early june, kites were relatively silent and secretive in their behavior. approximately half of those that were incubating flushed when a person walked near the tree, but others continued to sit on their eggs until a person had climbed to within a few feet of the nest. upon being flushed, such a kite, in 50 per cent of observed instances, swooped at least once at the intruder, but some of the kites would soar overhead, watching without making any active defense. at the time of my next visit, july 18 to 21, when the kites were feeding well grown nestlings, behavior at the nest was much different. as soon as a nest was located the parents began scolding and swooping. at the first nest observed, a group of eight kites had congregated within two minutes to scold and harass the intruders. even kites whose nests were kept under observation frequently, never became fully reconciled to the intrusion but there was much difference between individuals in this respect. some were reluctant to deliver food and, having secured prey, would fly about in the vicinity without coming to the nest. mortality factors and defense joint defense against a common enemy was noted on july 21, 1961, when 21 kites were seen swooping at a swainson's hawk perched near the top of a large cottonwood, where it was partly protected by foliage and branches. when i flushed the hawk, it was pursued and harassed by the kites, some of which followed it for nearly a quarter mile although there were no nests of the kites nearby. on august 4 a group of six kites was seen heckling a fledgling swainson's hawk, which crouched among thick foliage in the top of a tall cottonwood, as the kites swooped at it, sometimes brushing it with their wings when they swept past. dr. hibbard mentioned an instance in which a horned owl was flushed, and was chased and heckled by a red-tailed hawk and by a group of kites. the latter seemed to regard the owl as the greater enemy, but ordinarily any large raptor arouses their hostility. because of their exceptionally swift and skillful flight, the adult kites have few natural enemies, but the eggs or nestlings are vulnerable to such enemies as crows, jays, the larger hawks and owls, and to certain mammalian predators, notably raccoons. also, many nests probably are destroyed by the sudden and violent summer storms that are characteristic of the high plains. bendire (1892:178) cited observations by goss that in a hailstorm in barber county, kansas, eggs were destroyed in many kites' nests and some of the nests were almost completely demolished. several nests found by me to have incubating eggs in the first week of june were abandoned or had disappeared completely by july 18, but the cause was not evident. one nest that was under observation on july 22 had nestlings approximately two-thirds grown on that date, but on august 4 only a few sticks remained, and the carcass of a fledgling dangled from a limb ten feet below the nest. even at the park where firearms are prohibited, kites are sometimes shot by ignorant or malicious persons. in general, kansas ranchers recognize the harmless and beneficial habits of kites, appreciate their esthetic appeal and protect them, but many persons use them as convenient targets, with utter disregard for the federal laws protecting them. because of the strong popular prejudice against raptorial birds in general, laws protecting them are usually not enforced. law enforcement officers do not take action even when clear-cut violations come to their attention. arrest and prosecution for the killing of any kind of raptor is almost out of the question in kansas. ratio of immatures to adults in the juvenal plumage flight feathers of the kites are brown, barred with white, much different in appearance from the dark, slaty plumage of adults. bent (_op. cit._:67) stated that these barred flight feathers are retained through the second summer, and he quoted mr. g. w. stevens as having found kites breeding in this immature plumage. on june 2, 1961, i attempted to determine the ratio of these yearling kites to others in the population at the park. most of the kites seen were in flight too far away to discern definitely whether or not they were juveniles, and records were limited to those seen at relatively close range. in a total of 108 records only 11 pertained to these yearlings and the remaining 97 were identified as of adults. beyond doubt in the course of my counts some individuals were recorded repeatedly, therefore the counts are not entirely acceptable. however, on each occasion that kites were seen in numbers in early summer, the adults greatly outnumbered the juveniles. the approximate nine to one ratio of adults to yearlings seems much too high. even if the difference is much less than indicated, the high ratio of adults to yearlings would seem to imply that the adults have a long life expectancy. a rather improbable alternative is that some of the yearlings remain in winter quarters or wander elsewhere rather than accompanying the adults on the return migration to their breeding grounds. still another alternative is that the breeding season of 1960 was relatively unsuccessful, but this idea is negated by my own observations at the park in late 1960, as recently fledged young were numerous then. at the time of my visit to the park august 21 to 24, 1961, all young had recently left the nests and were able to fly. however, their behavior was so much different from that of the adults that a reliable ratio could not be obtained. the fledglings tended to remain in the nest tree, or to make relatively short flights near it, while the adults occupied with catching of prey for themselves and their young, spent much of their time aloft. the adults were hence far more conspicuous than the fledglings. however, it is my impression that the fledglings were from one-third to one-fourth as numerous as the adults. if this ratio is correct, and if all adults had bred, from two-thirds to three-fourths of the eggs and/or nestlings must have been destroyed. this rate of loss seems reasonable in view of the known histories of nests observed in june and again in july, and of the fates of birds' nests in general. summary mississippi kites were studied in southwestern kansas in the summer of 1961, at various localities, especially at meade state park. at this locality, near the northwestern limit of the breeding range, the kite thrives in typical high plains habitat dominated by a short-grass type of vegetation, but availability of trees suitable for nests is a limiting factor. since maturing of extensive groves of cottonwoods and other trees planted at meade state park, the colony of kites has increased tremendously and the breeding population probably exceeded 100 in 1961. the kites are social in all their activities and do not maintain territories. the sexes differ little in appearance, but males are slightly smaller than females and have paler heads. food consists almost entirely of flying insects, and these are usually eaten while the kite is in flight. kites that are feeding nestlings may travel up to two miles from the nest or perhaps considerably farther in the course of their foraging. for 148 feedings of nestlings the observed intervals averaged 10.7 minutes. most published references to the food habits mention predation on small vertebrates, especially lizards, but including also snakes, toads, rodents, and even rabbits. in my study a total of 205 pellets were collected and 453 insects were tentatively identified but the total number of insects in the pellets was much larger. no vertebrates were identified from this sample and among 358 prey items identified from kite stomachs collected in oklahoma, by sutton, vertebrae of a small fish were the only vertebrate remains. further verification of predation on mammals, reptiles and amphibians by this species is needed. of the insects distinguished in pellets, beetles including carabids, cicindelids, hydrophilids, scarabaeids, and silphids were most numerous (270) and grasshoppers (164) were second; also there were 16 cicadas and three moths. kites arrive in kansas about the second week in may. often old nests are repaired and used over again. hatching is about mid-june. normally there are two eggs per clutch. by mid-august the fledglings are learning to fly. by the latter part of august they are learning to capture their insect prey, and in early september southward movement of the entire population begins. eggs and/or young in many nests are destroyed by hail or high wind in the sudden violent storms that are characteristic of the high plains. mississippi kites are often shot by misguided persons, and benefit little from the protection supposedly provided by federal law. however, the adults probably have few natural enemies. the high ratio of older adults to yearlings indicates that the life expectancy is long. through their second summer the kites retain their barred immature plumage, and can be readily distinguished from adults. only ten per cent of the kites recorded in 108 june sight records at the park were in juvenile plumage. literature cited audubon, j. j. 1840. the birds of america. philadelphia, pp. xv + 246. bendire, c. e. 1892. life histories of north american birds. u. s. national mus. spec. bull. 1, viii + 446 pp. bent, a. c. 1937. life histories of north american birds of prey. bull. u. s. nat. mus., 167, x + 409 pp. 102 pls. chapman, f. m. 1891. on the birds observed near corpus christi, texas, during parts of march and april, 1891. bull. amer. mus. nat. hist., 3:315-328. eisenmann, e. 1963. mississippi kite in argentina, with comments on migration and plumage in the genus _ictinia_. auk, 80:74-77. ganier, a. f. 1902. the mississippi kite (_ictinia mississippiensis_). the osprey, vol. 1 (new series), no. 6:85-90. goss, n. s. 1891. history of the birds of kansas. geo. w. crane and co., topeka, 692 pp. nice, m. m. 1931. the birds of oklahoma (rev.). publ. univ. oklahoma, vol. 3, biol. surv. no. 1, 261 pp. sutton, g. m. 1939. the mississippi kite in spring. condor, 41(2):41-52. wayne, a. t. 1910. birds of south carolina. contr. charleston mus., no. 1, viii + 254 pp. the daggett printing co., charleston, s. c. _transmitted june 3, 1963._ 29-7863 * * * * * transcriber's notes emphasis notation: _text_ : represents italics typographical corrections with the exception of the five typographical corrections listed below, the text of this file is that which is contained in the original printed volume: page 505: misspelling misisippiensis => mississippiensis page 505: missing period op cit. => op. cit. page 510: missing period op cit. => op. cit. page 514: misspelling sqeaking => squeaking page 515: misspelling harrassed => harassed subspeciation in pocket gophers of kansas by bernardo villa-r. and e. raymond hall university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 1, no. 11, pp. 217-236 november 29, 1947 university of kansas lawrence 1947 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, h. h. lane, and edward h. taylor volume 1, no. 11, pp. 217-236 published november 29, 1947 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by fred voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1947 21-8188 subspeciation in pocket gophers of kansas by bernardo villa-r. and e. raymond hall several full species of the genus _geomys_ have been recorded from kansas. the purpose of the study now reported upon was to determine the present taxonomic status of these animals and the distribution of each within the boundaries of kansas. no pocket gopher of any kind has been reported from the southeastern part of the state; in all other parts _geomys_ is locally common. history the first published reference that we have found to pocket gophers of kansas is prof. spencer f. baird's (1857:377, 380) mention of two specimens from fort riley. one he identified as _geomys bursarius_ (p. 377) and the other (p. 380) he doubtfully referred to _geomys breviceps_. both specimens were obtained by dr. w. a. hammond. j. a. allen (1874:49) reported pocket gophers from kansas under the generic name "geomys?". professor m. v. b. knox (1875:21) published a list of kansas mammals in which he used the names _geomys bursarius_ shaw and _geomys breviceps_ baird, the last one for the specimen taken by dr. hammond, at fort riley. baker (1889:57) employed the name _geomys bursarius_ rich. for the gopher "found along the hundredth meridian, between n latitude 38° 30' and 39° 30'." he reported this animal as common in western kansas. merriam (1895:129) recorded _g. bursarius_ and _g. lutescens_ from kansas. allen (1895:265) recorded five specimens of _geomys lutescens_ collected between september 16 and october 13 at long island, phillips county, kansas, by w. w. granger. since that time several papers, some of them dealing mostly with habits of pocket gophers, have been published in which reference is made to _geomys_ in kansas. hibbard (1933:240) recognized three species: _g. bursarius_, _g. lutescens_, and _g. breviceps llanensis_. in 1944 (74-75) he recorded _cratogeomys_ from meade county, on the basis of two skulls dug out of the ground, and he recognized the same three full species of the genus _geomys_ that he did in 1933, along with two additional subspecies. specimens to the total number of 335 from kansas have been available for the present study of the five subspecies recognized. the reason for arranging all of the named kinds as subspecies of a single species is that intergradation has been found to occur between every pair of kinds having contiguous geographic ranges. the characters previously thought by some writers constantly to differentiate, say, _geomys lutescens_ of western kansas from _geomys bursarius_ of eastern kansas, prove not to do so; instead, in areas geographically intermediate between the geographic ranges of the two kinds, the pocket gophers are intermediate in morphological characters and therefore are regarded as intergrades. intergradation of this kind here is accepted as the criterion of subspecies, and lack of such intergradation as the criterion of species. search for structural characters, distinctive of the different kinds, additional to those characters noted by other writers, has resulted in the finding of a few such characters but they too are subject to intergradation. therefore the several kinds are arranged as subspecies of a single species which takes the name _geomys bursarius_ because it is the oldest available name. detailed comment on specimens showing intergradation are to be found in the accounts of _g. b. bursarius_ and _g. b. major_. methods and acknowledgements the series with the largest number of individuals from one restricted locality was selected for initial study. these individuals were segregated by sex, and specimens of each sex were arranged from oldest to youngest. each series was divided into age-groups, and within a given age-group of one sex from one locality of what was considered as one species, estimation was made of the amount of individual variation. thus, it was possible when comparing different kinds of pocket gophers to use only one age class of one season of one sex. age was estimated to some extent by size of animal and nature of its pelage. the immature pelage is grayer and the hair is more crinkled than in adults. a more certain guide to age, however, is furnished by the skull. with increasing age some sutures disappear, the rostrum increases in length and the ridges marking the limits of the temporal muscles come to fuse and eventually, in males, form a high sagittal crest. cranial measurements were taken as follows: basilar length.--from the anteriormost inferior border of the foramen magnum to a line connecting the posteriormost margins of the alveoli of the first upper incisors. length of the nasals.--the greatest length of the nasals. zygomatic breadth.--the greatest distance across the zygomatic arches. mastoid breadth.--the greatest distance across the mastoids. breadth of rostrum.--width, perpendicular to long axis of the skull. interorbital constriction.--the least distance between the orbits. maxillary tooth row.--the greatest length of the upper molariform tooth row at the alveolar border. extension of premaxillae posterior to nasals.--from the posteriormost border of the nasals to the posterior end of the extension of a premaxilla. depth of skull.--from the median suture of the frontals, on the dorsal surface of the skull to the median suture of the palatines at the level of the first molar (not premolar). length of rostrum.--from the anterior border of the nasal to the maxilla at the lateral end of the hamulus of the lacrimal. in the list of specimens examined, localities are arranged by counties from west to east, beginning at the northwestern corner of the state; specimens in each county are arranged from north to south. if several localities are in the same latitude, the westernmost is listed first. capitalized color terms are after ridgway, color standards and color nomenclature, washington, d. c., 1912. [illustration: fig. 1. map showing the geographic distribution of the five subspecies of the mississippi valley pocket gopher, _geomys bursarius_, in kansas, with insert showing range of the species.] in connection with this study each of the authors acknowledges assistance from the john simon guggenheim memorial foundation and one of us (villa) is grateful for assistance also to drs. isaac ochoterena and roberto llamas of the biological institute of mexico. for the loan of specimens we are grateful to dr. william b. davis, of the agricultural and mechanical college of texas; dr. g. c. rinker, of hamilton, kansas; and mr. a. j. kirn, of somerset, texas. unless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the university of kansas museum of natural history. accounts of subspecies =geomys bursarius lutescens=, merriam _geomys bursarius lutescens_ merriam, north amer. fauna, 4:51, october 8, 1890; scheffer, technical bull., u. s. dept. agric., 224:6, january, 1931. _geomys lutescens_ merriam, north amer. fauna, 8:127-29, january 31, 1895; lantz, trans. kansas acad. sci., 19:175, 1905; lantz, kansas state agric. college bull., 129:335, april, 1905; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 36:240, 1933; black, 30th bienn. rept. kansas state board agric., 35:182, 1937; swenk, missouri valley fauna, 2:1, february 1, 1940; allen, kansas state teachers college, emporia, bull. inf. in educ., 20 (no. 5):15, may, 1940; hooper, occas. papers mus. zoöl., univ. michigan, 420:3, june 28, 1940. _geomys lutescens lutescens_, hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 47:74, 1944. _type locality._--sandhills on birdwood creek, lincoln county, western nebraska. _distribution in kansas._--northwestern kansas, eastward certainly to ellis county, southward certainly to scott county. _description._--animals with total length averaging no more than 272 mm.; length of vertebrae of tail averaging no more than 92; hind foot averaging no more than 35. color: in autumn pelage, upper parts light ochraceous-buff becoming buckthorn brown in middorsal region and there forming a faint longitudinal band; sides pale yellow orange. in summer, buckthorn brown on upper parts with a dorsal band, especially distinct on specimens from ellis and trego counties; specimens from farther west lack the distinct dorsal band. underparts gray drab and sometimes whitish, usually whitish in young specimens; basal color of pelage deep neutral gray; fore and hind feet whitish. skull: zygomatic arch broadly and squarely spreading anteriorly; temporal impressions uniting to form a low sagittal crest in adult males, but in adult females and in young males the impressions usually remain apart; shape of interparietal varying from subquadrate in young specimens to subtriangular or triangular in adults; in some young specimens the interparietal is reduced to a minute, ovoid bone. _comparisons._--see comparisons in the accounts of other subspecies occurring in kansas. _remarks._--in his monographic revision of the pocket gophers, merriam (1895:129) recorded 3 "typical or nearly typical" specimens from trego county, and 18 "non typical" specimens as follows: garden plain, sedgwick county, 4; belle plain, sumner county, 5; cairo, pratt county, 6; kiowa, barber county, 2; and ellis, ellis county, 1. a detailed discussion of merriam's account of the distribution of _geomys lutescens_ in kansas is given by swenk (1940:11-12). judging by specimens in the university of kansas museum of natural history, _g. bursarius lutescens_ in kansas is restricted to the northwestern part of the state, reaching southward certainly to scott county and eastward certainly to ellis county; precise limits of distribution of this subspecies are unknown. additional collecting is necessary to determine where the range of _lutescens_ meets the ranges of the other subspecies. the specimens studied are remarkably uniform. one specimen obtained in october, in trego county, is slightly lighter colored than any other from kansas. in other characteristics it agrees with specimens from northwestern kansas and from the type locality. _specimens examined._--total number 32, as follows: _cheyenne county_: 23 mi. (by road) nw st. francis, 3. _rawlins county_: 2 mi. ne ludell, 10. _logan county_: 5 mi. w elkader, 3; no locality more precise than county, 1. _trego county_: wakeeney, 4; 12 mi. s collyer, perrington ranch, 3; no locality more precise than county, 5. _scott county_: 4 mi. s scott city, 2. _ellis county_: hays state college campus, hays, 1. =geomys bursarius majusculus= swenk _geomys bursarius majusculus_ swenk, missouri valley fauna, 1:6, december 5, 1939; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 47:74, 1944. _geomys bursarius_, baird, expls. and surveys for a railroad route from the mississippi river to the pacific ocean, pt. 1, mammals, 377, 1857; merriam, north amer. fauna, 8:120, january, 1895; lantz, trans. kansas acad. sci., 19:175, 1905; lantz, kansas state agric. college bull., 129:335, april, 1905; scheffer, kansas state agric. college ento. and zoöl. dept. bull., 172:199, september, 1910; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 36:240, 1933; allen, kansas state teachers college emporia bull. inf. stud. in educ., 20 (no. 5):15, may, 1940. _geomys bursarius bursarius_, black, 30th bienn. rept. kansas state board agric., 35:181, 1937. _geomys breviceps_, baird, expls. and surveys for a railroad route from the mississippi river to the pacific ocean, pt. 1, mammals, 380, 1857. _type locality._--lincoln, lancaster county, nebraska. _distribution in kansas._--northeastern kansas, westward certainly to clay and marion counties and southward certainly to greenwood county. _description._--color: upper parts mummy brown in fresh appearing pelage of february but in more worn pelage of march more reddish being near (16') prout's brown; top of head and sometimes back darker than rest of upper parts; underparts usually with some whitish anteriorly; fore and hind feet and approximately distal half of tail white. size: large, total length averaging more than 280 mm. in males and 257 in females; hind foot averaging 35 mm. or more in males. skull: large; rostrum averaging more than twice as long as wide; sagittal crest high in males and barely present in females; occiput vertical when skull is laid top down; least width of braincase less than distance from alveolus of upper incisor to middle of lateral border of p^4 at alveolar border. _comparisons._--from _geomys bursarius lutescens_, _majusculus_ differs as follows: color darker, mummy brown to prout's brown instead of buckthorn brown. in both sexes: head and body a fifth to a sixth longer; hind foot 5 to 6 per cent longer; skull averaging larger in all parts measured except that premaxillae (in each subspecies) extend equally far posteriorly to nasals; diastema longer in relation to basilar length; rostrum longer relative to its width; sagittal crest higher; rostrum often more depressed distally; angle of suture between maxilla and jugal more obtuse. from _g. b. bursarius_, according to swenk (1939:6), _majusculus_ differs in larger size. from _g. b. illinoensis_, _majusculus_, according to komarek and spencer (1931:405), differs in brownish instead of slate-gray coloration and in two cranial characters as follows: nasals straight-sided instead of shaped like an hour-glass, and superficial canals on palatine extending anteriorly beyond first molar, and from there anteriorly more or less separated. the first of these characters does not always hold; occasional individuals of _majusculus_, for example some from douglas county, have the nasals shaped like an hour-glass. from _g. breviceps dutcheri_, _majusculus_ differs in larger size (hind foot more than 33 mm. in males, and 29 in females; basilar length more than 42 mm. in males and 36 in females); dorsal exposure of jugal longer than width of rostrum measured between ventral margins of infraorbital foramina. from _g. bursarius major_ of southcentral kansas (for example harvey county), _majusculus_ differs in slightly darker color, being mummy brown instead of prout's brown; size larger (in males total length more than 284 mm., hind foot 35 or more, basilar length of skull more than 42, and in females total length 265 or more, hind foot averaging 33 or more, and basilar length 40 or more). skull: averaging larger in all parts measured, except that premaxillae do not extend so far posteriorly to nasals in either males or females; interorbital constriction slightly narrower in adult females; temporal ridges forming a more prominent sagittal crest in adult males (sagittal crest barely present in some adult males of _major_ from harper county). _remarks._--in employing the subspecific name _majusculus_ we are following swenk (1939:6) who on the basis of larger size differentiated the animals from southeastern south dakota, the eastern parts of nebraska and kansas, and the western and southern parts of iowa, from _g. bursarius bursarius_ to which he assigned a more northern geographic range. in the absence of comparative materials of the northern subspecies we cannot make an independent decision on the validity of _majusculus_ and recognize that if it is inseparable from _g. b. bursarius_ the latter name will apply to specimens from northeastern kansas. we are the more uncertain about applying the name _majusculus_ to specimens from eastern kansas because they average smaller than topotypes. only at the northeasternmost locality in kansas (3 mi. n cummings, atchison county) do specimens average as large as topotypes of _majusculus_. farther southward they become progressively smaller in eastern kansas, and we interpret this as intergradation with the still smaller subspecies _major_, to the southwest. the average external measurements of two adult males from atchison county are: 321-99-35. thirty-six miles farther south, in douglas county, 16 adult males average 289-80-36. from hamilton, greenwood county, 80 miles farther southwest, nine adult males average 284-83-35. the maximum total length recorded at these three localities is: atchison county, 342 (1 of 2 specimens), douglas county, 308 (1 of 16 specimens), greenwood county, 357 (in coll. of dr. glenn c. rinker and 1 of 15 males of all ages involved). it will be seen, therefore, that although there is a trend to smaller average size toward the southward, the maximum of 357 millimeters total length at hamilton exceeds the maximum of 352 millimeters recorded by swenk (1939:3) among 86 males at lincoln where the recorded average is largest. four specimens from salina (debold farm) are intermediate structurally, as they are also geographically, between _g. b. majusculus_ on the one hand and _geomys bursarius lutescens_ and _geomys bursarius major_ on the other hand. in color they agree with _majusculus_, as they do also in width of nasals posteriorly, in more obtuse angle of the rostrum and maxillary arm of the zygomatic arch. they agree with _g. b. lutescens_ in having the occiput inclined anterodorsally, and are intermediate between _majusculus_ and _lutescens_, but nearer the latter in size of skull and in length of the rostrum relative to its width. _specimens examined._--total number, 148, as follows: _clay county_: 6 mi. sw clay center, 3. _jackson county_: 10-1/2 mi. wsw holton, 1; no locality more precise than county, 1. _atchison county_: 3 mi. n cummings, 2. _jefferson county_: oskaloosa, 1. _leavenworth county_: fort leavenworth (government hill, 2; engineer hill, 1), 6; no locality more precise than county, 19. _saline county_: salina, debold farm, 4 (coll. of a. j. kirn). _morris county_: 1-1/2 mi. n council grove, 3. _douglas county_: 1 mi. nw midland, 2; 1 mi. n lawrence, 1; 2-1/2 mi. w lawrence, 2; 1 mi. w k. u. campus, 2; 1 mi. w lawrence, 2; 1/2 mi. w lawrence, 2; "w k. u. campus," 2; k. u. campus, 4; lawrence, 23; south lawrence, 1; 1/2 mi. sw k. u. campus, 2; southwest k. u. campus, 1; haskell institute, 1; 4-1/2 mi. s lawrence, 1; 7 mi. sw lawrence, 6; 7-1/2 mi. sw lawrence, 1; 8 mi. sw lawrence, 1; 10 mi. s lawrence, 1; 11 mi. sw lawrence, 3; no locality more precise than county, 15. _marion county_: 1-1/2 mi. ne lincolnville, 6; 4 mi. se lincolnville, 1; 6 mi. s lincolnville, 1. _greenwood county_: hamilton, 1; 1/2 mi. s hamilton, 4; 1 mi. s hamilton, 4; 4 mi. s and 14 mi. w hamilton, 6; 8 mi. sw toronto, 1; 8-1/2 mi. sw toronto, 5; no locality more precise than county, 6. =geomys bursarius jugossicularis= hooper _geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ hooper, occas. papers mus. zoöl., univ. michigan, no. 420: 1, june 28, 1940; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., vol. 47, p. 75, 1944. _type locality._--lamar, prowers county, colorado. _distribution in kansas._--extreme southwestern part of state, northward certainly to hamilton county and south certainly to morton and seward counties. _description._--a yellowish-cinnamon colored animal, with body of medium size, zygomatic plate of maxilla deep and mastoid process small. _comparisons._--differs from _geomys bursarius industrius_ in slightly lighter color; occiput not strongly inclined anterodorsally. from _g. b. lutescens_, _jugossicularis_ differs in less buffy coloration and deeper zygomatic plate of maxilla. _remarks._--_g. bursarius jugossicularis_ and _g. bursarius industrius_ intergrade in the southern part of meade county. some specimens from this area show a coloration resembling that of _g. b. jugossicularis_; nevertheless, one specimen from morton county has the occiput anterodorsally inclined as in _g. b. industrius_. specimens examined from hamilton county correspond closely to _g. b. jugossicularis_; they agree with it both in color and in cranial characters. _specimens examined._--total number, 20, distributed as follows: _hamilton county_: 1 mi. e coolidge, conard farm, 4. _morton county_: 12 mi. ne elkhart, 2; cimarron river, 12 mi. n elkhart, 4; no locality more precise than county, 6. _seward county_: 1 mi. e arkalon, 4. =geomys bursarius industrius=, new subspecies _geomys lutescens_ merriam, north amer. fauna, 8:127, january 31, 1895. _geomys breviceps llanensis_, hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 36:240, 1933; black, 30th bienn. rept. kansas state board agric., 35:181. 1937. _geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ hooper, occas. papers mus. zoöl., univ. michigan, 420:1, june 28, 1940. _type._--male, adult, skin and skull, no. 14083 museum of natural history, university of kansas; from 1-1/2 miles north of fowler, meade county, kansas; obtained december 30, 1941, by h. h. hildebrand, original number 16. _distribution in kansas._--southwestern kansas from meade county eastward certainly to pratt and clark counties; from pawnee county southward probably to the oklahoma boundary. _diagnosis._--size of body medium; color of upper parts cinnamon brown; skull with occiput strongly inclined anterodorsally in males. [illustration: fig. 2. three views of the skull of the type specimen of _geomys bursarius industrius_. a. lateral view; b. dorsal view; c. ventral view. all natural size.] _description._--color: upper parts cinnamon brown, slightly reddish, but in some specimens collected in september, in pawnee county, near (15´ _i_) ochraceous-tawny; underparts usually wood brown, somewhat whitish anteriorly; forefeet white; hind feet and approximately distal half of tail whitish. size: medium (see measurements), total length averaging not more than 271 mm. in males and 254 in females; hind foot averaging not more than 35 mm. in males and less than 32 in females. skull: in males, least width of braincase equal to distance from alveolus of incisor to anterior border of alveolus of first upper molar, occiput strongly inclined anterodorsally, temporal impressions usually united in a low sagittal crest, zygomatic arch heavy and curved at level of jugal bone. in adult females least width of braincase approximately equal to distance from alveolus of incisor to anterior border of alveolus of first upper molar (not premolar); occiput less inclined anterodorsally than in males; temporal ridges not forming a sagittal crest. in young females the width of the braincase is more than the distance between the alveoli of the incisor and first molar. _comparisons._--_g. lutescens industrius_ differs from _g. lutescens lutescens_ in: color darker; least width of braincase not equal to (usually more than) the distance from the alveolus of incisor to the anterior border of the alveolus of the first upper molar. _g. lutescens industrius_ differs from _g. lutescens jugossicularis_ in: color slightly darker, the former being cinnamon brown instead of vinaceous cinnamon, with hairs basally deep neutral gray in upper parts and underparts. skull: jugular part of zygomatic arch more curved (convex dorsally) and occiput far more inclined anterodorsally; lower part of mastoidal ridge more prominent. for comparison with _g. l. major_, see account of that subspecies. _remarks._--judging from the known specimens of this subspecies, it has the smallest geographic range of any of the subspecies in kansas, but additional collecting in hodgeman county and counties to the north and west of it may extend the known range in those directions; collecting in comanche county and in adjoining parts of oklahoma may extend the known range to the southward. the anterodorsal inclination of the occiput in males is the one cranial character in which _industrius_ differs from all of the subspecies with adjoining geographic ranges. the existence of this unique (among adjoining subspecies) cranial character is the principal reason for according subspecific status to this animal. although it has other characters which are fairly uniform over a considerable geographic area, these other characters, namely, cinnamon brown color of the upper parts and medium size of the body, after all, are conditions intermediate between those in _jugossicularis_ to the west and those in the darker and larger animals assigned to _major_ to the eastward. considering the intermediate geographic position of _industrius_, the color and size are approximately what a person would predict by study of only the animals to the west and those to the east. therefore, the color and size probably are indicative of intergradation between _jugossicularis_ and _major_. still, there is the anterodorsally inclined occiput in males--a character of a unique sort--and this influences us to give subspecific status to this animal with full recognition of the fact that it is a "weak" subspecies as compared with any one of the adjoining subspecies. hooper (1940:2) in naming as new _geomys lutescens jugossicularis_ referred to his new subspecies a skin-only from meade county state park. our more abundant material from there shows the cranial conformation to be that of _industrius_ to which we accordingly assign the specimens. however, with only a skin available, we, too, would have used the name _jugossicularis_ because the color is paler than in other specimens of _industrius_ and this paleness indicates intergradation between the two named subspecies. specimens from pratt county are slightly darker than _industrius_ thereby indicating intergradation between _industrius_ and _major_. _specimens examined._--total number, 58, distributed as follows: _pawnee county_: jct. pawnee and arkansas rivers, larned, 6; 1 mi. s and 1 mi. e larned, 7. _edwards county_: 1 mi. w and 3-1/2 mi. s kinsley, 1. _kiowa county_: rezeau ranch, 5 mi. n belvidere, 2. _pratt county_: pratt, 14; no locality more precise than county, 1. _meade county_: 3-1/2 mi. ne fowler, 2; 2 mi. n fowler, 2; 1-1/2 mi. n fowler, 2; 1-1/4 mi. n and 3/4 mi. e fowler, 2; 7 mi. n meade, cudahy ash pit, 2; 13 mi. sw meade, 9; state lake, 2; state park, 4. _clark county_: 7 mi. sw kingsdown, e. a. stephenson ranch, 1; 6 mi. s kingsdown, 1. =geomys bursarius major= davis _geomys lutescens major_ davis, texas agric. exp. st., bull. no. 590:32, august, 1940; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 47:75, 1944. _geomys lutescens_ merriam, n. amer. fauna, 8:129, january 31, 1895. _geomys breviceps llanensis_, lantz, trans. kansas acad. sci., 20 (pt. 2): 215, 1907; hibbard, trans. kansas acad. sci., 36:240, 1933; black, 30th bienn. rept. kansas state board agric., 35:182, 1937; swenk, missouri valley fauna, 2:12, february 1, 1940. _type locality._--eight miles west of clarendon, donley county, texas. _distribution in kansas._--southcentral kansas, northward certainly to ellsworth county, westward certainly to stafford and barber counties and eastward to cowley county. _description._--color: upper parts varying from brussels brown in some specimens to nearly prout's brown, especially in specimens from central part of state. top of head, and sometimes back, darker than rest of upper parts, but no well defined black stripe; underparts varying from whitish to nearly buffy brown; fore and hind feet and approximately distal half of tail white. size: large (see measurements). skull: sagittal crest absent in females and barely present in males; least width of braincase more than distance from alveolus of incisor to middle of lateral border of p^4 at alveolar border. length of auditory bulla (from anteroventral edge of paroccipital process of exoccipital to hamulus of peterygoid), in each sex, more than 8 mm.; occiput usually vertical when skull is laid top down; zygomatic arch broadly and squarely spreading, divergent anteriorly; rostrum averaging less than twice as long as wide. _comparisons._--from _g. bursarius lutescens_, _major_ differs in color darker, premaxillae extending slightly farther posteriorly; temporal impressions usually forming a more well-marked sagittal crest in males; ventral side of zygomatic arch, at level of jugal bone, more curved. from _g. bursarius majusculus_, _major_ differs in slightly lighter color, smaller size of body; in males, total length less than 284 mm.; hind foot 34 or less; basilar length of skull less than 42; in females total length less than 264, hind foot no more than 33, and basilar length less than 39. from _g. bursarius industrius_, _major_ differs in color, being prout's brown, instead of cinnamon brown (less fuscous); body averaging 10 per cent longer; total length in males from 9 to 9.7 per cent longer, hind foot 9.7 per cent longer on the average; skull averaging larger in all parts measured. occiput less inclined anterodorsally; top nearly flat, less arched than that of _g. b. industrius_; auditory bulla averaging slightly larger and less inflated. _remarks._--specimens of this subspecies from norman, cleveland county, oklahoma, and canton, dewey county, oklahoma, and most of those from kansas, are more fuscous than topotypes and tend toward _g. bursarius majusculus_. specimens from mcpherson county have a darker dorsal stripe resembling that of _g. bursarius majusculus_. one adult from little salt marsh, stafford county, is pale, closely resembling topotypes. most of the cranial characters, nevertheless, are constant in all available specimens, except that in specimens of each sex from the type locality the basilar length averages 4 to 5 per cent shorter. in the constancy of size of the relatively large auditory bullae and in the nearly flat dorsal profile of the cranial part of the skull, the specimens from kansas agree with the specimens from the type locality. specimens from harper county have the occiput slightly inclined anterodorsally and thus are reminiscent of _industrius_ which has an even greater inclination of the occiput. probably the appearance in dilute fashion of this character in harper county is properly to be interpreted as intergradation with _industrius_. if so, the actual intergradation may be to the northwest _via_ pratt county since specimens from barber county, immediately west of harper and lying between harper county and the range of _industrius_, do not have the occiput so inclined. of a pair of adults from eight miles west of rosalia, butler county, the female is indistinguishable in color from adults of _g. b. industrius_ from northern meade county and from two specimens from eleven miles west of clarendon, donley county, texas, near the type locality of _g. b. major_. the male from eight miles west of rosalia is darker as compared either with _g. b. industrius_ or _g. b. major_ and the coloration of the upper parts resembles those in _g. b._ _majusculus_; the underparts are only slightly paler than the upper parts as in _majusculus_. measurements of the skulls are intermediate between the averages for _g. b. majusculus_ and those for _g. b. major_. these specimens from eight miles west of rosalia are intermediate structurally, and since they are intermediate geographically between _g. b. majusculus_ and _g. b. major_, they suggest intergradation of the two subspecies. the specimens in question are referred to _major_ because the size is nearer that of _major_. it is mainly the intermediate nature of these two specimens from butler county, and the intermediate nature of the specimens from mcpherson county, kansas, that have caused us to treat _g. b. majusculus_ as only subspecifically distinct from the more western subspecies, _major_. _specimens examined._--total number, 77, as follows: _ellsworth county_: 2 mi. s ellsworth, 1. _mcpherson county_: smoky hill river, 1 mi. s and 1/2 mi. w lindsborg, 5; 1/2 mi. e mcpherson, 1. _stafford county_: little salt marsh, 12; no locality more precise than county, 3. _reno county_: 8 mi. n and 1 mi. e haven, 2. _harvey county_: 1 mi. e and 1/2 mi. n halstead, 1; halstead, 3. _butler county_: 8 mi. w rosalia, 2. _barber county_: near south bridge, sun city, 1; 2 mi. s sun city, 1; wells ranch, aetna, 5; "1 mi. w aetna," 3; near south bridge, aetna, 1; near bridge, 1 mi. s aetna, 2. _harper county_: 4-1/2 mi. ne danville, 8; 1 mi. n harper, 11; 3 mi. s harper, 1. _cowley county_: 3 mi. sw arkansas city, 4; 3 mi. se arkansas city, 9; 3 mi. s arkansas city, 1. measurements of adult males of geomys (in millimeters) key for table headings in table on this page. n: number of individuals averaged or catalogue number l: total length t: length of tail h: length of hind foot b: basilar length na: length of nasals z: zygomatic breadth m: mastoid breadth rb: breadth of rostrum i: interorbital constriction a: alveolar length of maxillary tooth row e: extension of premaxilla posterior to nasals s: depth of skull rl: length of rostrum ======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+===+===+===+====+===== n |l | t | h | b | na | z | m | rb | i | a | e | s | rl ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+---- _g. b. lutescens_; topotypes 5 ave.|266|82.0|34.2|40.0|17.7|30.5|26.8|11.5|6.7|8.6|3.9|17.1|20.8 min.|257|76.0|33.0|38.3|16.0|29.1|26.1|11.2|6.3|8.1|3.5|16.2|19.1 max.|276|91.0|36.0|42.4|20.3|31.7|27.5|11.9|6.9|9.2|4.2|17.7|23.6 2 mi. ne ludell, rawlins co., kansas 12088|272|92.0|35.0|43.2|19.1|32.3|27.7|11.3|6.6|8.4|2.8|18.0|22.1 _g. b. majusculus_; douglas co., kansas | | | | | |[a] | | | | | | | 16 ave. |289|79.8|36.3|47.1|21.0|34.1|30.4|12.1|6.8|9.3|3.7|18.5|24.9 min. |273|70.0|32.0|44.7|18.9|30.5|27.5|11.1|6.5|8.2|2.9|17.3|22.9 max. |308|95.0|55.0|49.9|23.2|38.0|34.5|13.5|7.6|10.3|5.7|20.0|28.1 _g. b. jugossicularis_; morton co., kansas 4 ave.|265|82.0|34.2|40.7|16.9|30.0|27.9|10.7|6.0|8.6|5.2|17.3|21.2 min.|250|68.0|30.0|38.5|16.1|29.0|27.5|10.5|5.5|8.2|4.7|16.4|20.2 max.|285|92.0|37.0|42.4|17.4|31.1|28.4|11.0|6.2|9.2|5.5|17.9|22.0 _g. b. industrius_; meade co., kansas 8 ave.|265|82.0|35.0|40.9|18.1|30.0|28.0|11.0|6.2|8.8|4.3|17.7|21.8 min.|247|70.0|33.0|37.9|15.5|28.2|26.5| 9.9|5.7|8.0|2.9|16.8|19.5 max.|280|90.0|36.0|43.4|21.0|32.4|29.5|11.6|7.0|9.1|5.2|19.1|24.2 _g. b. major_; wells ranch, aetna, barber co., kansas 11724|256|66.0|34.0|41.0|18.3|31.6|28.2|10.6|6.1|9.0|4.0|17.0|21.3 1 mi. w aetna, barber co., kansas 11153|240|75.0|32.0|36.7|15.7|26.9|24.6| 9.9|5.9|8.8|4.0|15.0|19.5 11152|240|65.0|32.0|36.0|14.2|26.1|25.4|10.9|5.6|8.5|5.0|15.5|18.5 3 mi. se arkansas city, cowley co., kansas | | | | |[e] | | | | | | | | 12870|246|76.0|32.0|42.1|16.0|33.7|29.7|11.5|6.3|9.4|4.5|17.6|21.3 3 mi. sw arkansas city, cowley co., kansas 12892|282|84.0|33.0|41.7|17.3|....|27.7|10.8|6.4|8.9|4.2|17.2|21.5 ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+---- measurements of adult females of geomys (in millimeters) key for table headings in table on this page. n: number of individuals averaged or catalogue number l: total length t: length of tail h: length of hind foot b: basilar length na: length of nasals z: zygomatic breadth m: mastoid breadth rb: breadth of rostrum i: interorbital constriction a: alveolar length of maxillary tooth row e: extension of premaxilla posterior to nasals s: depth of skull rl: length of rostrum ======+===+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+===+===+===+====+===== n | l | t | h | b | na | z | m | rb | i | a | e | s | rl ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+---- _g. b. lutescens_; topotypes 6 ave.|233|72.3|31.1|35.3|15.0|25.9|23.7|10.4|6.1|8.3|3.7|15.4|18.4 min.|215|63.0|30.0|33.5|13.9|24.6|21.8|10.1|5.6|8.1|2.9|14.8|17.3 max.|254|76.0|32.0|37.0|16.8|26.7|24.8|10.7|6.6|8.5|4.5|16.2|19.8 2 mi. ne ludell, rawlins co., kansas 11733|230|63.0|31.0|35.3|15.1|26.5|24.1| 9.3|6.1|7.5|2.4|15.0|18.2 12155|245|70.0|30.0|35.6|14.6|25.2|24.1|10.6|6.4|7.5|3.1|14.9|18.2 _g. b. majusculus_; douglas co., kansas | | | |[b] |[b] |[a] | | | | | | | 17 ave. |265|78.6|32.8|40.6|17.2|28.6|26.4|10.9|6.5|9.1|3.6|16.6|21.0 min. |222|59.0|30.0|37.1|15.9|26.7|24.9|10.0|5.9|8.5|2.0|15.2|18.8 max. |304|92.0|35.0|47.0|20.1|33.4|29.1|12.3|7.3|10.0|5.9|19.1|24.1 _g. b. jugossicularis_; morton co., kansas 5012|244|72.0|30.0|36.2|16.4|25.4|25.0|10.0|5.9|8.0|4.2|16.0|19.3 5395|230|72.0|30.0|34.6|13.9|24.7|24.8| 9.8|5.8|8.0|4.5|15.2|17.5 _g. b. industrius_; meade co., kansas | |[c] | |[d] | | |[d] | 7 ave. |238|73.0|31.3|36.4|14.9|26.3|24.8|10.0|6.0|8.4|4.1|16.2|18.6 min. |231|65.0|30.0|35.4|14.0|25.8|24.5| 9.5|5.6|8.1|3.6|15.5|17.5 max. |256|75.0|32.0|37.8|16.1|27.8|25.9|10.3|6.5|8.7|4.7|17.6|19.9 _g. b. major_; 1 mi. s aetna, barber co., kansas 10069|257|95.0|32.0|37.0|16.4|26.4|25.5|10.8|6.2|9.0|3.4|16.4|19.4 aetna, barber co., kansas 10070|242|83.0|30.0|36.8|15.7|26.2|25.0|10.1|6.5|9.1|3.3|15.8|19.1 wells ranch, aetna, barber co., kansas 12238|239|65.0|31.0|34.2|14.5|24.6|23.7| 9.6|6.0|8.0|3.6|15.2|17.7 1 mi. s.sun city, barber co., kansas 11075|232|66.0|28.0|34.2|14.4|25.0|23.6| 9.9|5.9|8.0|3.4|15.0|17.0 3 mi. sw arkansas city, cowley co., kansas 12872|242|66.0|30.0|38.1|15.0|28.0|26.2|10.3|6.3|7.8|4.5|16.1|19.1 3 mi. se arkansas city, cowley co., kansas 12894|230|82.0|30.0|38.5|15.5|28.0|25.6|10.0|6.7|8.7|4.0|16.6|19.5 12893|246|83.0|32.0|36.5|14.2|25.6|24.8| 9.6|6.6|8.7|4.6|15.4|18.1 ------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+----+----[a] 15 averaged. [b] 16 averaged. [c] 6 averaged. [d] 5 averaged. [e] approximate. subspecies of the species geomys bursarius if _geomys lutescens major_ davis is correctly judged to intergrade with _geomys bursarius majusculus_ swenk, the name for the full species will be _geomys bursarius_ because _bursarius_ is the oldest name among those available. some new combinations of names are required. according to our present understanding, the eleven kinds of pocket gophers named below are properly to be arranged as subspecies of the species _geomys bursarius_: _geomys bursarius bursarius_ (shaw). type from unknown locality in upper mississippi valley. _geomys bursarius majusculus_ swenk. type from lincoln, lancaster county, nebraska. _geomys bursarius hylaeus_ blossom. type from 10 mi. s chadron, dawes county, nebraska. _geomys bursarius levisagittalis_ swenk. type from spencer, boyd county, nebraska. _geomys bursarius vinaceus_ swenk. type from scottsbluff, scotts bluff county, nebraska. _geomys bursarius lutescens_ merriam. type from sandhills on birdwood creek, lincoln county, nebraska. _geomys bursarius illinoensis_ komarek and spencer. type from 1 mi. s momence, kankakee county, illinois. _geomys bursarius jugossicularis_ hooper. type from lamar, prowers county, colorado. _geomys bursarius industrius_ new subspecies. type from 1-1/2 mi. n fowler, meade county, kansas. _geomys bursarius major_ davis. type from 8 mi. w clarendon, donley county, texas. _geomys bursarius llanensis_ bailey. type from llano, llano county, texas. literature cited allen, j. a. 1874. notes on the mammals of portions of kansas, colorado, wyoming and utah. part i. on the mammals of middle and western kansas. bull. essex inst., 6 (no. 2):43-52. february, 1874. 1895. list of mammals collected in the black hills region of south dakota and in western kansas by mr. walter w. granger with field notes by the collector. bull. amer. mus. nat. hist., 7:259-274. august 21, 1895. allen, p. 1940. kansas mammals. kansas state teachers college, emporia, bull. inf. stud. in educ., number 20 (no. 5):l-62. may, 1940. baker, a. b. 1889. mammals of western kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 11:56-58 (for 1887-88). baird, s. f. 1857. explorations and surveys for a railroad route from the mississippi river to the pacific ocean. war department. mammals, part i, xxxii + 757, pls. 17-60, 35 figs. in text, 1857. black, j. d. 1937. mammals of kansas. thirtieth bienn. rept. kansas state board of agric., 35:116-217. davis, w. b. 1940. distribution and variation of pocket gophers (genus geomys) in the southwestern united states. texas agric. exp. station, bull., 590:1-38, 6 figs. in text. october 23, 1940. hibbard, c. w. 1933. a revised check list of kansas mammals. trans. kansas acad. sci., 36:230-249. 1944. a checklist of kansas mammals, 1943. trans. kansas acad. sci., 47:61-88. hooper, e. t. 1940. a new race of pocket gopher of the species geomys lutescens from colorado. occas. papers, mus. zoöl., univ. michigan, 420:1-3. june 28, 1940. knox, m. v. b. 1875. kansas mammalia. trans. kansas acad. sci., 4:18-22. komarek, e. v. , and spencer, d. a. 1931. a new pocket gopher from illinois and indiana. journ. mamm., 12:404-408, 1 pl., 1 fig. in text. november 11, 1931. lantz, d. e. 1905. kansas mammals in their relations to agriculture. kansas state agric. college bull., 129:331-404. april, 1905. 1905. a list of kansas mammals. trans. kansas acad. sci., 19:171-178. 1907. additions and corrections to the list of kansas mammals. trans. kansas acad. sci., 20 (pt. 2):214-217. merriam, c. h. 1890. descriptions of twenty-six new species of north american mammals. n. amer. fauna, 4: v + 60, 3 pls., 3 figs. in text. october 8, 1890. 1895. monographic revision of the pocket gopher family geomyidae.... n. amer. fauna, 8:1-258, 19 pls. and frontispiece, 71 figs. in text, 4 maps. january 31, 1895. scheffer, t. h. 1910. the pocket gopher. kansas state agric. coll. ent. and zoöl. dept., bull., 172:197-233, illustrated. september, 1910. 1931. habits and economic status of the pocket gophers. u. s. dept. agric., tech. bull., 224:1-27, 8 pls., 2 figs. in text. january, 1931. swenk, m. h. 1939. a study of local size variations in the prairie pocket gopher (geomys bursarius), with description of a new subspecies from nebraska. missouri valley fauna, 1:1-8. december 5, 1939. 1940. a study of subspecific variation in the yellow pocket gopher (geomys lutescens) in nebraska, and the geographical and ecological distribution of the variants. missouri valley fauna, 2:1-12. february 1, 1940. _transmitted may 30, 1947._ printed by fred voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1947 21-8188 transcriber notes: minor typographical errors were corrected without notice. italic words and phrases are marked _like this_. bold words and phrases are marked =like this=. small caps are converted to all upper case, like this. superscripts in text are indicated by use of the caret, like this ^4. kansas women in literature by nettie garmer barker to my nearest and dearest- my silent partners- my husband and my mother. kansas women in literature. "we are proud of kansas, the beautiful queen, and proud are we of her fields of corn; but a nobler pride than these i ween, is our pride in her children, kansas born!" --ellen p. allerton- --or adopted. in this galaxy of bright women, the state has a noble pride for every name, be its owner kansas born or adopted, is a mightier force for good than its "walls of corn." effie graham. the last place one would expect to find romance is in arithmetic and yet--miss effie graham, the head of the department of mathematics in the topeka high school, has found it there and better still, in her lecture "living arithmetic" she has shown others the way to find it there. miss graham is one of the most talented women of the state. ex-gov. hoch has called her "one of the most gifted women in the state noted for its brilliant women. her heart and life are as pure as her mind is bright." she was born and reared in ohio, the daughter of a family of ohio pioneers, a descendant of a revolutionary soldier and also, of a warrior of 1812. as a student of the ohio northern university and later as a post-graduate worker at the university of california, chicago university, and harvard summer school, she has as she says, "graduated sometimes and has a degree but never 'finished' her education." desiring to get the school out into the world as well as the world back to the school, she has spoken and written on "moving into the king row," "other peoples' children," "spirit of the younger generation," "vine versus oak," and "the larger service." "pictures eight hundred children selected," "speaking of automobiles," "the unusual thing," "the high cost of learning," and "wanted--a funeral of algebraic phraseology;" also, some verse, "the twentieth regiment knight" and "back to god's country" are magazine work that never came back. school science & mathematics, a magazine to which she contributes and of which she is an associate editor, gives hers as the only woman's name on its staff of fifty editors. her book, "the passin' on party," raises the author to the rank of a classic. to quote a critic: it is "a little like 'mrs. wiggs of the cabbage patch,' a little like 'uncle tom's cabin,' but not just like either of them. she reaches right down into human breasts and grips the heart strings." it is the busy people who find time to do things and the mother-heart of miss graham finds expression in her household in west lawn, a suburb of topeka. among the members of her family are a niece and nephew whose high school and college education she directs. esther m. clark. every kansan, homesick in a foreign land, knows the call of kansas and every kansan book lover knows esther clark's "call of kansas." "sweeter to me than the salt sea spray, the fragrance of summer rains: nearer my heart than these mighty hills are the wind-swept kansas plains: dearer the sight of a shy, wild rose by the roadside's dusty way than all the splendor of poppy-fields ablaze in the sun of may. gay as the bold poinsetta is, and the burden of pepper trees, the sunflower, tawny and gold and brown, is richer, to me, than these. and rising ever above the song of the hoarse, insistent sea, the voice of the prairie, calling, calling me. miss clark was born in neosho co., kansas, about twelve miles southeast of chanute, on a farm. at seven years of age, the family moved to chanute and her school days were spent at the old pioneer building, where her mother went to school before her. in 1894, she graduated here, later entering the university of kansas for work in english. in 1906, "verses by a commonplace person" was published. "the call of kansas and other verse" came out in 1909. this volume contained "my dear" and "good night" which were set to music, and "rose o' my heart." "rose o' my heart, to-day i send a rose or two, you love roses, rose o' my heart, i love you. rose o' my heart, a rose is sweet and fresh as dew. some have thorns, but, rose o' my heart, none have you. rose o' my heart, this day wear my roses, do! for next to my heart, rose o' my heart, i wear you." "my dear" was written for her baby brother, during an absence from home, and is miss clark's favorite. she is in the office of the extension department at the university of kansas, and has exclusive charge of club programs and does some work in package libraries. just now she is contributing prose to some of the newspapers and doing some splendid feature work. mary vance humphrey. mary vance humphrey of junction city, kansas, has written a series of short stories on the property rights of women in kansas, a subject that was and is, still, of vital importance to the women of the state. "the legal status of mrs. o'rourke" and "king lear in kansas" are two of the series. when young in heart and experience, mrs. humphrey wrote a number of poems. her work in later years has been only prose. her novel, "the squatter sovereign" is an historical romance of pioneer days, the settlement of kansas in the fifties. mrs. humphrey is one of the founders of the kansas state social science club and the woman's kansas day club and the founder of the reading club of junction city. she has served as president of the state federation and as director of the general federation of women's clubs and president of the woman's kansas day club. her work as member of the board of education has done much for junction city and her interest in libraries has done equally as much for the state of kansas. of her record as an official, margaret hill mccarter has written: "her whole soul is in her work. she is the genuine metal, shirking nothing, cheapening nothing, and withal happy in the enjoyment of her obligation. she stands for patriotism, progress and peace. something of the message of the shepherds heard out beyond bethlehem that christmas morning long ago sounds in the chords she strikes." as the wife of the late judge james humphrey, she proved herself the able companion of such a worthy man. kate a. aplington. the kansas state traveling art gallery owes its birth and much of its success to kate a. aplington, the author of that typical western story, "pilgrims of the plains." since feb., 1907, the art gallery has been a recognized state institution, and as its vice-president and superintendent and as the writer of the art lectures that accompany the work, mrs. aplington's broad-minded, artistic temperament and student's persistency have made the gallery truly a work of art. at present, the aplingtons are living at miami, florida, but for a quarter of a century, council grove, the most famous spot on the santa fe trail, was their home. special investigations and researches on the subject of the old santa fe trail days and lecturers on educational and literary topics resulted from years spent in that historic place. "pilgrims of the plains," which came out in feb., 1913, is worthy of a place in the front rank of western stories. in july of this year, grossett and dunlap will bring it out in their "popular edition" of novels. mrs. aplington is now working on a book on "art-museums of america" and judging from the comments of prominent museum directors, this will be as great a success as her novel. "florida of the reclamation," a character story with scenes laid in and around miami, florida, is also in preparation. emma upton vaughn. the author of that versatile little book of short stories, "the lower bureau drawer" is emma upton vaughn, a kansas city, kansas teacher. these heart stories, showing keen insight of human nature--especially woman nature--deal with every day life, each one a fascinating revelation, of character and soul. mrs. vaughn was born in kalamazoo, michigan. her early life was spent in kansas. she is a graduate of the kansas university, and has taught in the public schools of the state. she wrote the "bible and the flag in the public schools" and has contributed both prose and verse to the leading magazines and newspapers. feature articles and many good essays appear over her signature. her "passing from under the partial eclipse" did much to give kansas city, kansas her recognized place commercially on the map. a novel, "the cresap pension," exposing a great pension fraud, is ready for the press. jessie wright whitecomb. jessie wright whitcomb, a topeka writer of juvenile books is a lawyer in active practice with her husband, judge george h. whitcomb and a mother of a remarkable family of five boys and one girl. the oldest son gained his a. b. in 1910 at the age of eighteen; in 1911 was appointed rhodes scholar for kansas; and is now a student at oxford. his father and mother are in england at present visiting him. mrs. whitcomb is a contributor to the magazines and in addition, has written "odd little lass," "freshman and senior," "majorbanks," "his best friend," "pen's venture," "queer as she could be," and "curly head." she is a graduate of the university of vermont and the boston university law school and was the first woman to lecture before a man's law school. myra williams jarrell. myra williams jarrell, the daughter of the late archie l. williams, for thirty years, the attorney for the union pacific railway in kansas, and the grand-daughter of judge archibald williams, the first united states circuit judge of kansas, appointed by lincoln, comes of a literary family. all of the men and some of the women on the father's side of the family and also, on the mother's to a great extent, had literary talent. as a child, she cherished an ambition to write and when occasionally one of her letters to st. nicholas saw publication, she felt she had crossed the alps of her desire. her first real story, however, was written as she rocked the cradle of her first born. the day, when she first saw her "stuff" in print, stands out in her memory second only to the hallowed days of her personal history, her wedding day and the days upon which her children were born. since then, mrs. jarrell has contributed to almost all the high class magazines and has furnished special feature articles to newspapers. some years ago, a small book, "meg, of valencia," was written and now, a novel, "the hand of the potter" is ready for publication. in 1894, myra williams and j. f. jarrell were married. this union was blest with four children, three sons and one daughter. mr. jarrell is publicity agent of the santa fe. a number of years ago, he bought the holton signal and in trying to help her husband put some individuality into the paper, mrs. jarrell began a department headed "ramblings." later this was syndicated and finally issued in book form. last winter, a play, "the plain clothes man," was produced by the north brothers stock co., at the majestic theatre, topeka. this well written play, with its novel and original characterization and its effective comedy lines, is now in the hands of two new york play brokers. before many months, mrs. jarrell will be enjoying a royalty. in preparation, are two plays, as yet nameless; also, a play in collaboration with mr. north of the north stock co. with her brother, burus l. williams, of kansas city, mo., mrs. jarrell has written an opera, "the mix up in the kingdom of something-like," which awaits only the lyrics mr. williams is writing and the music. an opera, "the kingdom of never come true," also, in collaboration with mr. williams, is being set to music by arthur pryor, the bandmaster. a serial story, "john bishop, farmer," a collaboration with albert t. reed, the artist, is to be published soon in the kansas farmer. later, this will appear in book form. a novel, which mrs. jarrell believes will be her best work, is in construction and is clamoring to be written. ellen palmer allerton. ellen palmer allerton, the sweet and gentle poetess, beloved of kansas, lived at padonia, in brown county, when she wrote her famous poem, "wall of corn." she was past her prime when she came to kansas from the wisconsin home, the subject of many of her noble gems. as she grew older, she grew stronger in poetic strength. three volumes of poems have been published, "walls of corn and other poems," "annabel and other poems," and "poems of the prairie." her "walls of corn," written in 1884, famous from the first, as used as railroad immigration advertising, was translated in several languages and distributed all over europe. this and her "trail of forty-nine" are her best, although the classic beauty of "beautiful things" is unsurpassed by any other american writer. "beautiful twilight, at set of sun, beautiful goal, with race well run, beautiful rest, with work well done." is a fitting close to the beautiful, useful life of the author. mrs. allerton was born in centerville. new york, in 1835 and began writing verse at the age of seventeen. much as she has written, yet writing was only a pastime. she never let it interfere with her housework. thoroughly practical, she did all her own work, just because she loved to do it. her flowers of which she had many, in doors and out, resulted in many noble, inspiring lines. in 1862, she was married to a. b. allerton of wisconsin, coming to kansas in 1865. she was best appreciated for her social qualities and her interest in charity--that broader charity that praises the beauty and ignores the blemishes. her last poem, "when days grow dark" is a beautiful pen picture of her sweetness and resignation in her growing blindness and her love and trust in him who had been her companion down the years. "you take the book and pour into my ear in accent sweet, the words i cannot see; i listen charmed, forget my haunting fear, and think with you as with your eyes i see. in the world's thought, so your dear voice be left, i still have part, i am not all bereft. and if this darkness deepens, when for me the new moon bends no more her silver rim, when stars go out, and over land and sea black midnight falls, where now is twilight dim, o, then may i be patient, sweet and mild, while your hands lead me like a little child!" she died in 1893, at padonia, and was buried in a bed of her favorite white flowers, donated by loving friends. in the little graveyard at hamlin, one reads "beautiful things" on a modest stone at the head of her little bed. emma tanner wood. mrs. emma tanner wood (caroline cunningham), a topeka woman, began newspaper work in 1872. the result of those early years' work was "spring showers," a volume of prose. after thirty years of study and experience among the defectives, she wrote "too fit for the unfit," advocating surgery for the feeble-minded. the story of mrs. benton, one of the characters, led mrs. wood to introduce a law preventing children being sent to the poor house. this was the first law purely in the interest of children ever passed in kansas. later, a law preventing traveling hypnotists from using school children as subjects in public exhibitions was drawn up by mrs. wood and passed. several years ago, a book on hypnotism, far in advance of the public thought, was written and is to be published this year. mrs. wood is seventy years young and as she says: "finds age the very sweetest part of life. it is no small satisfaction to laugh at the follies of others and know that you are past committing them. it is equally delightful to be responsible only to one's self and order one's life as one chooses. every day is a holy day to me now and the sweetness of common things, grass, flowers, neighborly love, grand-children, and home comforts fill me with satisfaction. to think kindly of all things under the sun (but sin); to speak kindly to all; to do little kindly acts is a greater good to the world at large than we think while we are in the heat of battle." cornelia m. stockton. a cheerful little room in the east wing of st. margaret's hospital, kansas city, kansas; an invalid chair wheeled up to a window over looking the street; and the eager, expectant face and the warm hand clasp of the occupant, mrs. cornelia m. stockton, assures the visitor of a hearty welcome. greatly enfeebled by long illness and with impaired sight, this bright, little woman's keen interest in current events and the latest "best seller" puts to shame the half-hearted zeal of the average woman. for four years, mrs. stockton has lived at st. margaret's, depending upon the visits of friends and the memory of an eventful life to pass the days. prominence in club work in her earlier years has brought reward. the history club of kansas city, kansas, of which she was once a member, each week sends a member to read to her and these are red letter days to this brave, patient, little woman. mrs. stockton began writing very young. when a little girl, back in the village of walden, new york, she stole up to the pulpit of the church and wrote in her pastor's bible: "i have not seen the minister's eyes, and cannot describe his glance divine, for when he prays he shuts them up and when he preaches he shuts mine." she was born in 1833 in shawangunk, new york, and came to kansas city in 1859, living in missouri some years but most of the time in kansas city, kansas. in 1892, she published a limited edition of poems, "the shanar dancing girl and other poems." dedicated to mrs. bertha m. honore palmer, her ideal of the perfect type of gracious and lovely womanhood. "the shanar dancing girl" was first written for the friends in council, a literary club of kansas city, mo. it has received the encomiums of thomas bailey aldrich, john j. ingalls and others for its beauty of expression and dramatic qualities. "invocation," an april idyl; "the sea-shell;" and "mountain born" sing of the love of nature. "in the conservatory;" "my summer heart;" and "tired of the storm" hint of sorrow and unrest and longing. then in 1886, "compensation" was written. "irma's love for the king" is a favorite; also, "'sold'--a picture," written for her daughter, "yes, but she never came. "the sorrowful stone" mrs. stockton considers her best. "the story without a suspicion of rhyme, and dim with the mists of the morning of time, is told of a goddess, who, wandering alone, did go and sit down on the sorrowful stone. we find our gethsemane somewhere, though late; the angel of shadows throws open the gate. we creep with our burden of pain, to atone, for all of life's ills, to the sorrowful stone. above is the vault of the pitiless stars; the trees stretch their arms all blackened with scars; the gales of lost paradise are faintly blown to where we sit down on the sorrowful stone." "from a poem 'vagaries'" warns of * * * --the product of the age and clime, we do too much! grow old before our time, yet--would we stray to morning hills again? unlearn sad prophecies, and dream as then! ah, no! with sense of peace the shadows creep, there droppeth on tired eyes the spell of sleep- we left the dawn long leagues behind, and stand, waiting and wistful in the evening land! the patient nurse of destiny, at best, leads us like children to the needed rest! a ghostly wind puts out our little light, and we have bid the busy world "good night!" mrs. stockton was married twice. her first husband was the father of her two sons, one of whom, dr. henry m. downs, in his practice, came often to st. margaret's. the second marriage, as the wife of the late judge john s. stockton, was a very happy one. last year, a brother the only surviving member of her family, died, leaving mrs. stockton the last of a family of five children. the two sons have also passed into the great beyond. in her younger days, she contributed many poems and some prose to newspapers and magazines over the name of cora m. downs. ex-gov. st. john appointed her one of the regents of the university of kansas. her beautiful poem: "in memoriam" to sarah walter chandler coates was her last. "'we seem like children,' she was wont to say, 'talking of what we cannot understand,' and in the dark or daylight, all the way, holding so trustfully a father's hand. and this was her religion, not to dwell on tenets, creeds, or doctrines, but to live on a pure faith, and striving to do well the simple duties that each hour should give." margaret hill mccarter. the most successful kansas woman writer financially and the most prolific is margaret hill mccarter of topeka. from the advent of her little book in 1901, "a bunch of things, tied up with strings" to the hearty reception of her latest novel every step of the way spells success. margaret hill was born in indiana and came to kansas in 1888 to teach english in the topeka high school. two years later, she became the wife of dr. william mccarter. of this union there are two daughters, students at baker university and the topeka high school and a young son, his mother's literary critic. a wife and a mother first, a kansas woman second, and an author third is the way mrs. mccarter rates herself. she is capable of and does do all her housework. her love for literature she owes to her mother, who believed in higher education and taught margaret to prize the few books that came her way. after leaving the school room, the teacher instinct still strong within her, she argued if she could teach out of books written by others, why not out of books of her own? then followed poems, short stories, biography, textbooks, the editing of crane classics, "one hundred kansas women" and miscellanies. in 1902, "cuddy and other folks" was written and in 1903, "the cottonwood's story." this same year, "the overflowing waters," the story of the 1903 flood, and one of her best bits of heart writing paid for the school books of almost a thousand unfortunate children. "cuddy's baby" appeared in 1908, followed the next year with "in old quivera," a thread of coronado history. "the price of the prairies," three weeks after publication in the fall of 1910, became kansas' best seller. "the peace of the solomon valley" came out in 1911 and proved a popular gift book. "the wall of men," mrs. mccarter's 1912 offering should be one of the required books in kansas schools. it is authentic history and the close of the story leaves every kansan with a greater respect and love for the state and the heroic pioneers who stood as a living wall between kansas and the slave question. 1913 gave us the "master's degree," considered by many her best work. this year we have "winning the wilderness." mrs. mccarter founded the club member and organized the sorosis, serving as president seven years and two terms as president of the topeka federation of women's clubs. baker university, at baldwin, kansas, gave her an honorary master's degree in 1909, its semi-centennial anniversary. bessie may bellman. and june bellman henthorne. bessie may bellman and june bellman henthorne, her daughter, hail from winfield. they write both prose and verse and mrs. henthorne was a reporter for years. mrs. bellman, when a girl, lived five years on a cattle ranch and to those five lonely years she credits her habit of introspection, meditation and writing. much of her poetry and short stories are used in platform work. red leaves. red leaves- aflame in the air, aflame in the trees. blue streams, smoky hills- gold, gold the sunlight spills- red leaves! dead leaves- a swirl in the air-asleep 'neath the trees. gone every lark and swallow- haunting echoes bid me follow- dead leaves! bessie may bellman-mrs. henthorne's "if" is published in a new york reader. "if, in a bird-heart, beating 'neath the gray there chants a song, no matter what the day. if, in a bird-heart happy sunbeams shine, why not in mine? if, in a flower-face, beat down by rain, the hope of clear skies be in spite of pain- if, in a flower-face a great hope shine, why not in mine?" amanda t. jones. one of the few kansas women to have a place in "who's who" was the late amanda t. jones of junction city. she was one of the most prolific poets of kansas. her "atlantic" is a story of the rebellion; "utah and other poems;" "a prairie idyl;" "flowers and a weed;" and "rubaiyat of solomon valley" are volumes of verse. her prose: "children's stories," "fairy arrows" and "the white blackbird;" "a psychic autobiography," published in 1908; "man and priest," a story of psychic detection; "mother of pioneers," and a novel ready for publication, "a daughter of wall st." miss jones originated a working women's home and patented many inventions, mostly household necessities. * * * * * charlotte f. wilder. charlotte frances wilder, manhattan, has been writing half a century and it has won for her a place in bibliotheque nationale, paris, "entitled to go down to posterity, her lifework preserved as information for future generations." she has written "land of the rising sun," "sister ridenour's sacrifice," "christmas cheer in all lands," "easter gladness," "mission ships," "the child's own book" and "the wonderful story of jesus." her essays, alone, would make a volume, original and interesting. she has written for the press since sixteen years of age and has been a bible teacher forty years. anna l. january. osawatomie claims anna l. january, the author of "historic souvenir of osawatomie, kansas," "john brown battle grounds," "calvin monument," and "lookout and park;" also, numerous poems. mrs. january is a native of wilmington, ohio, coming to kansas in 1898. she taught school three years and in 1901 married d. a. january of osawatomie. they have one child, a son of four years. an active worker in the congress of mothers and interested in temperance and suffrage work, mrs. january still finds time to write many short poems. hattie horner louthan. hattie horner louthan, a former white water, kansas girl, is the author of five books and many contributions to newspapers and first class magazines. after graduation at the normal school, emporia, in 1883, miss horner engaged in teaching and literary work. ten years later, she became the wife of overton earl louthan, who died in 1906. she is editor of the great southwest and a member of the staff of the denver republican. her first volume of poems came out in 1885; the next year, "some reasons for our choice." "not at home," a book of travels, was published in 1889; "collection of kansas poetry," in 1891; and "thoughts adrift," in 1902. her work is versatile; the rhyme easy flowing and strong. georgiana freeman mccoy. and mary freeman startzman. georgiana freeman mccoy, wichita, has taught music in kansas longer than any other teacher in the state and incidentally writes verse. she remodeled elizabeth browning's "a drama of exile" and wrote the musical setting for simon buchhalter, the viennese pianist and composer. a sister, mary freeman startzman, while living in fort scott, wrote a volume of poems, "wild flowers." eva morley murphy. eva morley murphy of goodland, recent candidate for congress, is author of two books: "the miracle on the smoky and other stories," and "lois morton's investment." she is a descendant of nathaniel perry of revolutionary fame, and of rodger williams; an active temperance worker; and one of the women who made equal suffrage possible in kansas. sallie f. toler. mrs. sallie f. toler, wichita, has written on every subject from pigs and pole cats to patriotism. she is the author of several plays and three vaudeville sketches. a comedy, a racing romance, "handicapped;" "thekla," a play in three acts; "on bird's island," a four-act play; and "waking him up," a farce, are played in stock now. mrs. toler contributes to many papers and lectures on "the short story" and "the modern drama." margaret perkins. as a 1914 christmas offering, margaret perkins, a hutchinson high school teacher, gave us her volume of beautiful poems. "the love letters of a norman princess" is the love story, in verse, of hersilie, a ward and relative of william, the conqueror, and eric, a kinsman of the unfortunate king harold. "i thought once, in a dream, that love came near with silken flutter of empurpled wings that wafted faint, strange fragrance from the things abloom where age and season never sear. the joy of mating birds was in my ear, and flamed my path with dancing daffodils whose splendor melted into greening hills upseeking, like my spirit, to revere." "before you came, this heart of mine a fairy garden seemed with lavender and eglantine; and lovely lilies gleamed above the purple-pansy sod where ruthless passion never trod." "if heaven had been pleased to let you be a keeper of the sheep, a peasant me, within a shepherd's cottage thatched with vine now might we know the bliss of days divine." --"we are part of heaven's scheme, you and i: child of sunshine and the dew i was earthly--born as you. "yet my little hour i go, troubled maid, even where the storm blasts blow, unafraid; confident that from the sod all things upward wend to god." "dear heart, the homing hour is here, the task is done. toilers, and they who course the deer turn, one by one, at day's demise, where dwells a deathless glow in loving eyes. i hear them hearthward go to castle, or to cottage on the lea; but him i love comes never home to me." the peaks that rift the saffron sheen of sunset skies in purple loveliness, when seen by nearer eyes, are bleakly bare. to brave those boulders gray no climbers dare. o, in some future may this mountain mass of unfulfilled desires be unto me as yonder haloed spires!" miss perkins is the compiler of "echoes of pawnee rock," and writes short stories and poems for the magazines. some of her verse is published in woolard's "father." anna e. arnold. anna e. arnold, cottonwood falls, superintendent of chase county schools, is a thorough kansan, and a farm product. she was born at whiting, jackson county, but when a very small child, her parents moved to chase and all her life since has been spent in that county. until the last few years, she lived on a farm. she is a graduate of the state university and has taught in the grade and high schools. in 1905, she became a candidate for superintendent of schools of chase county. her success and her unusual ability as a teacher were rewarded by a two to one majority on a close county ticket. at the second term, she had no opposition and out of 1214 votes cast, she received all but 29. the present year, after four elections, is her seventh continuous year as superintendent of chase county. in addition to her official duties, miss arnold has written two text-books. her "civics and citizenship" in 1912 was adopted as the state text-book on civil government for use in the public schools of kansas. it is being used by a large number of womens' clubs. many outlines for club work on civic subjects have come from miss arnold's pen. her second textbook, "a history of kansas," the first book printed under the new state publication law, has also been adopted by the text-book commission. miss arnold is considered one of the foremost educational leaders of the state. topeka gives us anna deming gray, a writer of negro dialect stories, stories for children, and some verse. elizabeth barr arthur, has written a number of books, histories of several kansas counties and some volumes of poems, "washburn ballads." mrs. sarah e. roby is a writer of both prose and verse. a granddaughter, marjory roby, has written a number of stories and plays. eva bland black contributes poems and song lyrics to the magazines. she served her apprenticeship as reporter and city editor of the journal and evening news of garnett and as associate editor of the concordia "magnet." mrs. isabel mcarthur is a natural poet and song writer. she has published one volume of verse, "every body loves a lover." her last song, "when the bloom is on the cherry at sardou" is widely sung. edna e. haywood is author of "fifty common birds around the capital." mrs. mary a. cornelius, while a resident of topeka, wrote four books, "little wolf," "uncle nathan's farm," "the white flame," and "why? a kansas girl's query." another book is ready for publication. mrs. mary worrall hudson, wife of the late general j. k. hudson, former editor of the topeka capital, is author of "two little maids and their friends," "esther, the gentile," and many short stories and poems. her classic prose-poem: "in the missouri woods" is considered her masterpiece. mrs. sara josephine albright, formerly of topeka, now of leavenworth, is a sweet singer of childlife. her volume of verse, "with the children" is lullabies and mother-love poems. a book of stories for children will soon be ready for publication. jessie lewellyn call, deceased, the clever and beautiful daughter of the first populist governor of kansas, was a well-known essayist and short story writer. for many years she was one of the editors of the chicago inter-ocean. lawrence claims dorothy canfield fisher, a writer of both fiction and text-books and many short stories. she is the author of "corneille and racine in england," "english rhetoric and composition," "what shall we do now," "gunhild," "the squirrel cage" and "the montessori mother." louise c. don carlos has written "a battle in the smoke," one of the best kansas works on fiction. she did special work on the nashville tennessee banner and writes a great deal of magazine verse. mrs. anna w. arnett, a lawrence teacher, writes verse and songs. in addition, she has issued a primer, the kansas text-book and a primary reading chart for which she has a united states patent. margaret lynn, one of the faculty of kansas university, is a writer of short stories and "a step-daughter of the prairies." mrs. a. b. butler of manhattan wrote "the trial and condemnation of jesus christ from a lawyer's point of view;" a novel, "ad astra per aspera;" and much newspaper work. mrs. elizabeth champney, a former teacher in the kansas state agricultural college, is the author of more than twenty books and many short stories. "three vassar girls abroad," "witch winnie series," "dames and daughters of colonial days," "romance of french abbeys," "romance of italian villas," and "romance of imperial rome" are her most popular works. sadie e. lewis, hutchinson, is the author of "hard times in kansas" and other verse. her daughter, ida margaret glazier, is a poet and song writer. mrs alice mcallily wrote "terra-cotta" and many other books. lillian w. hale, kansas city, is author of verse, short stories, and a novel. another novel will be ready for publication this autumn. lois oldham henrici, a one-time sabetha and parsons woman, is the author of "representative women" and many good short stories. laura d. congdon, a newton pioneer, is a verse and short story writer. mary h. finn, sedgwick, writes beautiful verse and much prose. jennie c. graves, pittsburg, writes poetry and moving picture plays. mrs. johannas bennett, another pittsburg woman, has written an historical novel, "la belle san antone." florence l. snow, neosho falls, is an artistic and finished writer of verse and prose. she is the author of "the lamp of gold." sharlot m. hall, lincoln, writes prose and verse. a volume of poems, "cactus and pine," "history of arizona," "a woman of the frontier," "the price of the star" and short stories are her important works. mrs. a. s. mcmillan, lyons, a poetess, song writer and licensed preacher, writes clever verse, much of which has been set to music. "land where dreams come true" is her best known poem. kittie skidmore cowen, a former columbus woman, is author of "an unconditional surrender," a civil war story. "the message of hagar," a study of the mormon question will be in the press soon. miss mary e. upshaw, mcpherson, wrote verse at the age of seven and published her first story at fifteen. she has a book in preparation which she expects to publish at an early date. jeanette scott benton, formerly of fort scott, writes short stories novelettes, and stories for children. may belleville brown of salina, has a very clever pen, as has, also mrs. lulu r. fuhr of meade, the author of "tenderfoot tales." mrs. e. m. adams, mound city, writes exquisite verse and in the past, had many short stories to her credit. mrs. c. w. smith, stockton, writes both prose and verse. cara a. thomas hoover, formerly of halstead, harvey county, now living in rialto, california, writes prose and beautiful verse. rose hartwick thorpe, the author of "curfew shall not ring to-night," was a kansan in the early sixties. she lived at wilmington. miss margaret stevenson, olathe, is a writer of books for the blind. she has some short stories, nature and text-books published. lelia hardin bugg, wichita, has written "the prodigal daughter," "the people of our parish," and "orchids." edna thacher russ, also of wichita, writes short stories and educational articles. mrs. e. hamilton myers, englewood, is a dramatic writer and a poet of rare talents. being a musician, much of her verse is used for songs. mrs. myers contributes to the english papers. her first story was published by a magazine which had accepted writings of her mother's. other than literature proper, we have mrs. lillian m. mitchner, of topeka, a scientific writer; mrs. lumina c. r. smythe, a writer of verse, also of topeka, who is co-author with her late husband in the revised "flora and check list of kansas." among the clever newspaper women of the state are margie webb tennal, sabetha; maud c. thompson, howard; frances garside, formerly of atchison, now with the new york journal; mrs. e. e. kelley, toronto; anna carlson, lindsborg; mrs. mary riley, kansas city; and isabel worrel ball, a larned woman, who bears the distinction of being the only woman given a seat in the congressional press gallery. grace d. brewer, girard, has been a newspaper woman and magazine short story writer for ten years. among the early kansas writers are clarinda howard nichols, mrs. a. b. bartlett, lucy b. armstrong, sarah richart, mrs. porter sherman, and mary tenny gray, all of wyandotte and mrs. c. h. cushing of leavenworth. sara t. d. robinson, the wife of the first governor of kansas, was one of the very first women writers of the state. her "kansas, interior and exterior" was published in 1856 and went through ten editions up to 1889. index. adams, mrs. e. m. albright, sara josephine allerton, ellen palmer aplington, kate a. armstrong, lucy b. arnett, anna w. arnold, anna e. arthur, elizabeth barr ball, isabel warrel bartlett, mrs. a. b. bellman, bessie may bennett, mrs. johannas benton, jeanette scott black, eva bland brewer, grace d. brown, may bellville bugg, leila hardin butler, mrs. a. b. call, jessie lewellyn carlson, anna champney, elizabeth clark, esther m. congdon, laura d. cornelius, mary a. cowen, kittie skidmore cushing, mrs. c. h. don carlos, louise c. finn, mary h. fisher, dorothy canfield fuhr, lulu r. garside, frances glazier, ida margaret graham, effie graves, jennie c. gray, anna deming gray, mary tenny hale, lillian w. hall, sharlot m. haywood, edna e. henrici, lois oldham henthorne, june bellman hoover, cara a. thomas hudson, mary worrell humphrey, mary vance january, anna l. jarrell, myra williams jones, amanda t. kelley, mrs. e. e. lewis, sadie e. louthan hattie horner lynn, margaret mcallily, alice mcarthur, isabel mccarter, margaret hill mccoy, georgiana freeman mcmillan, mrs. a. s. mitchner, lillian w. murphy, eva morley myers, mrs. e. hamilton nichols, clarinda howard perkins, margaret richart, sarah riley, mary robinson, sara t. d. roby, marjory roby, sara e. russ, edna thatcher sherman, mrs. porter smith, mrs. c. w. smythe, lumina c. r. snow, florence l. startzman, mary freeman stevenson, margaret stockton, cornelia m. tennal, margie webb thompson, maude c. thorpe, rose hartwick toler, sallie f. upshaw, mary e. vaughn, emma upton whitcomb, jessie wright wilder, charlotte f. wood, emma tanner address to the people of the united states, together with the proceedings and resolutions of the pro-slavery convention of missouri, held at lexington, july, 1855. st. louis, mo. printed at the republican office. 1855. address. to the people of the united states. we have been appointed by a convention of citizens of missouri, mainly representing that portion of the state lying contiguous to the territory of kansas, to lay before you some suggestions, upon a topic which vitally concerns our state, and which, it is believed, may to a serious extent affect the general welfare of our country. we propose to discharge this duty by a concise and candid exposition of facts, touching our condition, and its bearing upon kansas, accompanied with such reflections as the facts naturally suggest. that portion of missouri which borders on kansas contains, as nearly as can now be ascertained, a population of fifty thousand slaves, and their estimated value, at the prices prevailing here, is about twenty-five millions of dollars. as the whole state contains but about one hundred thousand slaves, it will be seen that one-half of the entire slave population of missouri is located in the eighteen counties bordering on kansas, the greater portion of which is separated from that territory by no natural boundary, and is within a day's ride of the line. this part of our state is distinguished by an uniform fertility of soil, a temperate and healthful climate, and a population progressing rapidly in all the elements that constitute a prosperous community. agriculture is in a most flourishing condition, and the towns and villages which have sprung up, indicate a steady progress towards wealth, refinement and commercial importance. nor have the higher interests of education, religion and science, been neglected; but common schools, and respectable institutions of a higher grade, and churches of every christian denomination, are found in every county. the great staple of this district is hemp, although tobacco, and corn, and wheat are also largely produced. the culture of hemp has been found profitable,--more so than cotton in the south; and this fact, with the additional ones, that almost every foot of land within the counties alluded to, is wonderfully adapted by nature to its production, in greater quantities, and finer qualities, and at smaller cost, than in any other state in the union, and that the climate is such as to permit the growers of this article to reside on their estates, will readily explain and account for the unexampled growth of the country. already it constitutes the most densely populated portion of our state, and its remarkable fertility of soil, and general salubrity of climate, with the facilities for outlet furnished by a noble river, running through its midst, and two great railroads, destined soon to traverse its upper and lower border, will render it at no distant period, if left undisturbed, as desirable and flourishing a district as can be found in the mississippi valley. an idea has to some extent prevailed abroad, that missouri contained but a very small slave population, and that the permanence of this institution here was threatened by the existence of at least a respectable minority of her citizens, ready and anxious to abolish it, and that only a slight external pressure was necessary to accomplish this purpose. we regret that this opinion has to some extent received countenance from the publication and patronage of journals in our commercial metropolis, evidently aiming at such a result. without, however, going into any explanation of political parties here, which would be entirely foreign to our purpose, we think it proper to state, that the idea above alluded to is unfounded; and that no respectable party can be found in this state, outside of st. louis, prepared to embark in any such schemes. in that city, constituting the great outlet of our commerce, as well as that of several other states and territories, it will not seem surprising that its heterogeneous population should furnish a foothold for the wildest and most visionary projects. st. louis was, however, represented in our convention, and it is not thought unwarrantable to assume that the resolutions adopted by this body have received the cordial approbation of a large and influential portion of her citizens. other counties, besides st. louis, outside of the district to which our observations have been principally directed, were also represented by delegates; and had not the season of the year, the short notice of its intended session, and the locality where the convention was held--remote from the centre of the state--prevented, we doubt not that delegates from every county in the state would have been in attendance. indeed, a portion of the upper mississippi and lower mississippi counties are as deeply, though less directly interested in this question, as any part of this state; and their citizens are known to accord most heartily in the sentiments and actions of western missouri. even in the south-west part of our state, from the osage to the borders of arkansas, where there are but few slaves, the proceedings of public meetings indicate the entire and active sympathy of their people. from the general tone of the public press throughout the state, a similar inference is deducible, and, we feel warranted in asserting, a very general, if not unanimous concurrence in the principles adopted by the lexington convention. those principles are embodied in a series of resolutions appended to this address, and which, we are happy to say, were adopted with entire unanimity, by a body representing every shade of political opinion to be found in the interior of our state. these facts are conclusive of the condition of public sentiment in missouri. the probabilities of changes here in reference to the question of slavery, are not essentially different from what they are in tennessee, or virginia, or kentucky. in relation to numbers, a reference to the census shows that missouri contains double the number of arkansas, nearly double the number of texas, and about an equal number with maryland. these facts are stated with a view to a proper understanding of our position in reference to the settlement of kansas, and the legitimate and necessary interest felt in the progress and character of that settlement. previous to the repeal of the congressional restriction of 1820, by which missouri was thrown into an isolated position in reference to the question of slavery, and made a solitary exception to a general rule, her condition in regard to the territory west of her border, and yet north of the geographical line which congress had fixed as the terminus of southern institutions, was truly unenviable. with two states on her northern and eastern border, in many portions of which the constitution of the united states, and the fugitive slave law, passed in pursuance thereof, were known to be as inefficacious for the protection of our rights as they would have been in london or canada, it was left to the will of congress, by enforcing the restriction of 1820, to cut missouri off almost entirely from all territorial connexion with states having institutions congenial to her own, and with populations ready and willing to protect and defend them. no alternative was left to that body but to repeal the restriction, and thus leave to the constitution and the laws of nature, the settlement of our territories, or, by retaining the restriction, indirectly to abolish slavery in missouri. if the latter alternative had to be selected, it would have been an act of charity and mercy to the slaveholders of missouri, to warn them in time of the necessity of abandoning their homes, or manumitting or selling their slaves--to give them ample time to determine between the sacrifice of fifty millions of slave property, or seventy millions of landed estate. direct legislation would have been preferable to indirect legislation, leading to the same result, and the enforcement of the restriction in the settlement of kansas was virtually the abolition of slavery in missouri. but congress acted more wisely, as we think, and with greater fidelity to the constitution and the union. the history of the kansas-nebraska bill is known to the country. it abolished the geographical line of 36 deg. 30 min., by which the limits of slavery were restricted, and substituted a constitutional and just principle, which left to the settlers of the territories to adopt such domestic institutions as suited themselves. if ever there was a principle calculated to commend itself to all reasonable men, and reconcile all conflicting interests, this would seem to have been the one. it was the principle of popular sovereignty--the basis upon which our independence had been achieved--and it was therefore supposed to be justly dear to all americans, of every latitude and every creed. but fanaticism was not satisfied. the abolitionists and their allies moved heaven and earth to accomplish its defeat, and although unsuccessful, they did not therefore despair. out-voted in congress, receiving no countenance from the executive, they retired to another theatre of action, and, strange to say, they prostituted an ancient and respectable commonwealth--one of the old thirteen--to commence, in her sovereign capacity as a state, with the means and imposing attitude incident to such a position, a crusade against slavery, novel in its character, more alarming in its features, and likely to be more fatal in its consequences, than all the fanatical movements hitherto attempted, since the appearance of abolitionism as a political party in 1835. they originated and matured a scheme, never before heard of or thought of in this country, the object and effect of which was to evade the principle of the kansas-nebraska bill, and in lieu of _non-intervention by congress_, to substitute _active intervention by the states_. an act of incorporation was passed; a company with a capital of five millions was chartered; and this company was authorized to enlist an army of mercenary fanatics, and transport them to kansas. recruiting officers were stationed in places most likely to furnish the proper material; premiums were offered for recruits; the public mind was stimulated by glowing and false descriptions of the country proposed to be occupied, and a _hessian_ band of mercenaries was thus prepared and forwarded, to commence and carry on a war of extermination against slavery. to call these people _emigrants_, is a sheer perversion of language. they are not sent to cultivate the soil, to better their social condition, to add to their individual comforts, or the aggregate wealth of the nation. they do not move from choice or taste, or from any motive affecting, or supposed to affect, themselves or their families. they have none of the marks of the old pioneers, who cut down the forests of kentucky, ohio and indiana, or levelled the cane brakes of tennessee and mississippi, or broke up the plains of illinois and missouri. they are mostly ignorant of agriculture; picked up in cities or villages, they of course have no experience as farmers, and if left to their unaided resources--if not clothed and fed by the same power which has effected their transportation--they would starve or freeze. they are _hirelings_--an army of hirelings--recruited and shipped indirectly by a sovereign state of this union, to make war upon an institution _now_ existing in the territory to which they are transplanted, and thence to inflict a fatal blow upon the resources, the prosperity and the peace of a neighboring state. they are _military_ colonies, planted by a state government, to subdue a territory opened to settlement by congress, and take exclusive possession thereof. in addition to that _esprit du corps_, which of necessity pervades such an organization, they have in common a reckless and desperate fanaticism, which teaches them that slavery is a sin, and that they are doing god's service in hastening its destruction. they have been picked and culled from the ignorant masses, which old england and new england negro philanthropy has stirred up and aroused to madness on this topic, and have been selected with reference to their views on this topic alone. they are men with a single idea; and to carry out this, they have been instructed and taught to disregard the laws of god and man; to consider bloodshed and arson, insurrection, destruction of property, or servile war, as the merest trifles, compared with the glory and honor of seducing a single slave from his master, or harboring and protecting the thief who has carried him off! that such a population would be fatal to the peace and security of the neighboring state of missouri, and immediate destruction of such owners of slaves as had already moved to the territory of kansas, is too clear to admit of argument. a horde of our western savages, with avowed purposes of destruction to the white race, would be less formidable neighbors. the colonization of kansas with a population of this character was a circumstance which aroused attention, and excited alarm among our citizens here, and those who had already emigrated to kansas. could any other result have been expected? did sensible men at the north--did the abolitionists themselves, expect any other? missouri contained, as we have seen, one hundred thousand slaves, and their value amounted to fifty millions of dollars. had these fanatics who pronounced slavery an individual sin, and a national curse, ever yet pointed out any decently plausible scheme by which it could be removed? the entire revenue of our state, for ordinary fiscal purposes, scarcely reaches five hundred thousand dollars, and the abolition of slavery here would involve the destruction of productive capital estimated at fifty millions of dollars, or a taxation upon the people of five millions of dollars annually, which is the legalized interest upon this amount of capital, besides the additional tax which would be necessary to raise a sinking fund to pay off the debt created. the constitution of missouri prohibits the legislature from passing laws emancipating slaves, without a full compensation to their owners; and it is therefore apparent, that ten-fold the entire revenue of the state would be barely sufficient to pay the interest upon a sum equivalent to the actual moneyed value of the slaves, without providing any means to extinguish the principal which such a debt would create. we omit altogether, in this calculation, the impracticability and impolicy and cruelty to both races, of liberating the slaves here, with no provision for their removal, and the additional debt which such removal would create, equal, in all probability, to that occasioned by their mere emancipation. it would seem then, that the merest glance at the statistical tables of our state, showing its population and revenue, must have satisfied the most sanguine abolitionist of the futility of his schemes. if the investigation was pursued further, and our estimate was made to embrace the three millions and a half of slaves now in the southern and south-western states, and the billions to which our computation must ascend in order to ascertain their value in money, this anti-slavery crusade, which presents itself in a form of open aggression against the white race, without the semblance or pretext of good to that race for which the abolitionist professes so much regard, and which stands so much higher in his affections than his own, is seen to be one of mere folly and wickedness, or, what is perhaps worse, a selfish and sectional struggle for political power. it is a singular fact, and one worthy of notice in this connexion, that in the history of african slavery up to this time, no government has ever yet been known to abolish it, which fairly represented the interests and opinions of the governed. great britain, it is true, abolished slavery in jamaica, but the planters of jamaica had no potential voice in the british parliament. the abolition of slavery in new england, and in the middle states, can hardly be cited as an exception, since that abrogation was not so much the result of positive legislation, as it was of natural causes--the unfitness of climate and productions to slave labor. it is well known to those familiar with the jurisprudence of this country, and of england, that slavery has been in no instance created by positive statutory enactment, nor has it been thus abolished in any country, when the popular will was paramount in legislative action. its existence and non-existence appears to depend entirely upon causes beyond the reach of governmental action, and this fact should teach some dependence upon the will of an overruling providence, which works out its ends in a mode, and at a time, not always apparent to finite mortals. the history of some of our slaveholding states, in relation to efforts of this character, it would seem, ought to be conclusive, at least, against those who have no actual interests involved, and whom a proper sense of self-respect, if not of constitutional obligation, should restrain from impertinent interference. virginia in 1831, and kentucky more recently, were agitated from centre to circumference by a bold and unrestricted discussion of the subject of emancipation. upon the hustings and in legislative assemblies, the subject was thoroughly examined, and every project which genius or philanthropy could suggest, was investigated. brought forward in the old dominion, under the sanction of names venerated and respected throughout the limits of the commonwealth--well known to have been a cherished project of her most distinguished statesmen--favored by the happening of a then recent servile disturbance, and patronized by some of the most patriotic and enlightened citizens, the scheme nevertheless failed, without a show of strength or a step in advance towards the object contemplated. the magnitude of the difficulties to be overcome was so great, and so obvious, as to strike alike the emancipationists and their adversaries. the result has been, both in virginia and kentucky, that slavery, to use the language of one of kentucky's eloquent and distinguished sons, and one, too, of the foremost in the work of emancipation, "has been accepted as a permanent part of their social system." can it be that there is a destitution of honesty--of intelligence--of patriotism and piety in slaveholding states, and that these qualities are alone to be found in great britain and the northern free states? if not, the conclusion must be, that the difficulties in the way of such an enterprise exceed all the calculations of statesmanship and philosophy; and their removal must await the will of that being, whose prerogative it is to make crooked paths straight, and justify the ways of god to man. we have no thought of discussing the subject of slavery. viewed in its social, moral or economical aspects, it is regarded, as the resolutions of the convention declare, as solely and exclusively a matter of state jurisdiction, and therefore, one which does not concern the federal government, or the states where it does not exist. we have merely adverted to the fact, in connexion with the recent abolition movements upon kansas, that amidst all their fierce denunciations of slavery for twenty years past, these fanatics have never yet been able to suggest a plan for its removal, consistent with the safety of the white race--saying nothing of constitutional guarantees, federal and state. the colonization scheme of massachusetts, as we have said, excited alarm in missouri. its obvious design was to operate further than the mere prevention of the natural expansion of slavery. it was intended to narrow its existing limits,--to destroy all equilibrium of power between the north and the south, and leave the slaveholder at the will of a majority, ready to disregard constitutional obligations, and carry out to their bitter end the mandates of ignorance, prejudice and bigotry. its success manifestly involved a radical change in our federal government, or its total overthrow. if kansas could be thus abolitionized, every additional part of the present public domain hereafter opened to settlement, and every future accession of territory, would be the subject of similar experiments, and an exploded wilmot proviso thus virtually enforced throughout an extended domain still claimed as _national_, and still bearing on its military ensigns the stars and stripes of the union. if the plan was constitutional and legal, it must be conceded that it was skillfully contrived, and admirably adapted to its ends. it was also eminently practicable, if no resistance was encountered, since the states adopting it contained a surplus population which could be bought up and shipped, whilst the south, which had an interest in resisting, had no such people among her white population. the kansas-nebraska law, too, which was so extremely hateful to the fanatics, and has constituted the principal theme of their recent denunciations, would be a dead letter, both as it regarded the two territories for which it was particularly framed, and as a precedent to congress for the opening of other districts to settlement. the old missouri restriction could have done no more, and the whole purpose of the anti-slavery agitators, both in and out of congress, was quietly accomplished. but the scheme failed--as it deserved to fail; and as the peace, prosperity, and union of our country required it should fail. it was a scheme totally at variance with the genius of our government, both state and federal, and with the social institutions which these governments were designed to protect, and its success would have been as fatal to those who contrived it, as it could have been to those intended to be its victims. the circumstance of novelty is entitled to its weight in politics as well as law. the abolition irruption upon kansas is without precedent in our history. seventy-nine years of our national life have rolled by; territory after territory has been annexed, or settled, and added to the galaxy of states, until from thirteen we have increased to thirty-two; yet it never before entered into the head of any statesman, north or south, to devise a plan of acquiring exclusive occupation of a territory by state colonization. to massachusetts belongs the honor of its invention, and we trust she will survive its defeat. but, she is not the massachusetts, we must do justice to her past history to say, that she was in the times of her adams', her hancocks, and her warrens; nor yet is she where she stood in more recent times, when her websters, and choates, and winthrops, led the van of her statesmen. her legislative halls are filled with ruthless fanatics, dead to the past and reckless to the future; her statute books are polluted with enactments purporting to annul the laws of congress, passed in pursuance, and by reason of the special requirements of the constitution; and her senatorial chairs at washington are filled by a rhetorician and a bigot, one of whom studies to disguise in the drapery of a classic elocution, the most hideous and treasonable forms of fanaticism; whilst his colleague is pleased to harangue a city rabble with open and unadulterated disunionism, associated with the oracles of abolitionism and infidelity--a melancholy spectacle to the descendants of the compatriots of benjamin franklin! no southern or slaveholding state has ever attempted to colonize a territory. our public lands have been left to the occupancy of such settlers as soil and climate invited. the south has sent no armies to force slave labor upon those who preferred free labor. kentucky sprung from virginia, as did tennessee from north carolina, and kansas will from missouri--from contiguity of territory, and similarity of climate. emigration has followed the parallels of latitude and will continue to do so, unless diverted by such organizations as emigrant aid societies and kansas leagues. it has been said that the citizens of massachusetts have an undoubted right to emigrate to kansas; that this right may be exercised individually, or in families, or in larger private associations; and that associated enterprise, under the sanction of legislative enactments, is but another and equally justifiable form of emigration. political actions, like those of individuals, must be judged by their motives and effects. unquestionably, emigration, both individual and collective, from the free states to the south, and, _vice versa_, from the slave states to the north, has been progressing from the foundation of our government to the present day, without comment and without objection. it is not pretended that such emigration, even if fostered by state patronage, would be illegal, or in any respect objectionable. the wide expanse of the fertile west, and the deserted wastes of the sunny south, invite occupation; and no man, from the southern extremity of florida to the northern boundary of missouri, has ever objected to an emigrant simply because he was from the north, and preferred free labor to that of slaves. upon this subject he is allowed to consult his own taste, convenience, and conscience; and it is expected that he will permit his neighbors to exercise the same privilege. but, no one can fail to distinguish between an honest, _bona fide_ emigration, prompted by choice or necessity, and an organized colonization with offensive purposes upon the institutions of the country proposed to be settled. nor can there be any doubt in which class to place the movements of massachusetts emigrant aid societies and kansas leagues. their motives have been candidly avowed, and their objects boldly proclaimed throughout the length and breadth of the land. were this not the case, it would still be impossible to mistake them. why, we might well enquire, if simple emigration was in view, are these extraordinary efforts confined to the territory of kansas? is nebraska, which was opened to settlement by the same law, less desirable, less inviting to northern adventurers, than kansas? are iowa, and washington, and oregon, and minnesota, and illinois and michigan, filled up with population--their lands all occupied, and furnishing no room for massachusetts emigrants? is massachusetts herself overrun with population--obliged to rid herself of paupers whom she cannot feed at home? or, is kansas, as eastern orators have insinuated, a newly discovered paradise--a modern el dorado, where gold and precious stones can be gathered at pleasure; or an arcadia, where nature is so bountiful as not to need the aid of man, and fruits and vegetables of every desirable description spontaneously spring up? there can be but one answer to these questions, and that answer shows conclusively the spirit and intent of this miscalled and pretended emigration. _it is an anti-slavery movement._ as such it was organized and put in motion by an anti-slavery legislature; as such, the organized army was equipped in massachusetts, and transported to kansas; and, as such, it was met there and defeated. if further illustration was needed of the illegality of these movements upon kansas, we might extend our observations to the probable reception of similar movements upon a state. if the massachusetts legislature, or that of any other state, have the right to send an army of abolitionists into kansas, they have the same right to transport them to missouri. we are not apprised of any provisions in the constitutions or laws of the states, which in this respect distinguishes their condition from that of a territory. we have no laws, and we presume no slaveholding state has, which forbids the emigration of non-slaveholders. such laws, if passed, would clearly conflict with the federal constitution. the southern and south-western slaveholding states are as open to emigration from non-slaveholding states as kansas. they differ only in the price of land and the density of population. let us suppose, then, that massachusetts should turn her attention to texas, and should ascertain that the population of that state was nearly divided between those who favored and those who opposed slavery, and that one thousand votes would turn the scale in favor of emancipation, and, acting in accordance with her world-wide philanthropy, she should resolve to transport the thousand voters necessary to abolish slavery in texas, how would such a movement be received there? or, to reverse the proposition, let it be supposed that south carolina, with her large slaveholding population, should undertake to transport a thousand slaveholders to delaware, with a view to turn the scale in that state, now understood to be rapidly passing over to the list of free states, would the gallant sons of that ancient state, small as she is territorially, submit to such interference? now, the institutions of kansas are as much fixed and as solemnly guaranteed by statute, as those of delaware or texas. the laws of kansas territory may be abrogated by succeeding legislatures; but, so also may the laws, and even the constitutions, of texas and delaware. kansas only differs from their condition in her limited resources, her small population, and her large amount of marketable lands. there is no difference in principle between the cases supposed; if justifiable and legal in the one, it is equally so in the other. they differ only in point of practicability and expediency; the one would be an outrage, easily perceived, promptly met, and speedily repelled; the other is disguised under the forms of emigration, and meets with no populous and organized community to resent it. we are apprised that it is said, that the kansas legislature was elected by fraud, and constitute no fair representation of the opinions of the people of the territory. this is evidently the excuse of the losing party, to stimulate renewed efforts among their friends at home; but even this is refuted by the record. the territorial governor of kansas, a gentleman not suspected of, or charged with partiality to slavery or to its advocates, has solemnly certified under his official seal, that the statement is false; that a large majority of the legislature were duly and legally elected. even in the districts where governor reeder set aside the elections for illegality, the subsequent returns of the special elections ordered by him, produced the same result, except in a single district. there is, then, no pretext left, and it is apparent, that to send an army of abolitionists to kansas to destroy slavery existing there, and recognized by her laws, is no more to be justified on the part of the massachusetts legislature, than it would be to send a like force to missouri, with the like purposes. the object might be more easily and safely accomplished in the one case than in the other, but in both cases it is equally repugnant to every principle of international comity, and likely to prove equally fatal to the harmony and peace of the union. we conclude, then, that this irruption upon kansas by emigrant aid societies and kansas leagues, under the patronage of the massachusetts legislature, is to be regarded in no other light than a new phase of abolitionism, more practical in its aims, and therefore more dangerous than any form it has yet assumed. we have shown it to be at variance with the true intent of the act of congress, by which the territory was opened to settlement; at variance with the spirit of the constitution of the united states, and with the institutions of the territory, already recognized by law; totally destructive of that fellowship and good feeling which should exist among citizens of confederated states; ruinous to the security, peace and prosperity of a neighboring state; unprecedented in our political annals up to this date, and pregnant with the most disastrous consequences to the harmony and stability of the union. thus far its purposes have been defeated; but renewed efforts are threatened. political conventions at the north and north-west have declared for the repeal of the kansas-nebraska law, and, anticipating a failure in this direction, are stimulating the anti-slavery sentiment to fresh exertions, for abolitionizing kansas after the massachusetts fashion. we have discharged our duty in declaring the light in which such demonstrations are viewed here, and our firm belief of the spirit by which they will be met. if civil war and ultimate disunion are desired, a renewal of these efforts will be admirably adapted to such purposes. missouri has taken her position in the resolutions adopted by the lexington convention, and from that position she will not be likely to recede. it is based upon the constitution--upon justice, and equality of rights among the states. what she has done, and what she is still prepared to do, is in self-defence and for self-preservation; and from these duties she will hardly be expected to shrink. with her, everything is at stake; the security of a large slave property, the prosperity of her citizens, and their exemption from perpetual agitation and border feuds; whilst the emissaries of abolition are pursuing a phantom--an abstraction, which, if realized, could add nothing to their possessions or happiness, and would be productive of decided injury to the race for whose benefit they profess to labor. if slavery is an evil, and it is conceded that congress cannot interfere with it in the states, it is most manifest that its diffusion through a new territory, where land is valueless and labor productive, tends greatly to ameliorate the condition of the slaves. opposition to the extension of slavery is not, then, founded upon any philanthropic views, or upon any love for the slave. it is a mere grasp for political power, beyond what the constitution of the united states concedes; and it is so understood by the leaders of the movement. and this additional power is not desired for constitutional purposes--for the advancement of the general welfare, or the national reputation. for such purposes the majority in the north is already sufficient, and no future events are likely to diminish it. the slaveholding states are in a minority, but so far, a minority which has commanded respect in the national councils. it has answered, and we hope will continue to subserve the purposes of self-protection. conservative men from other quarters have come up to the rescue, when the rights of the south have been seriously threatened. but it is essential to the purposes of self-preservation, that this minority should not be materially weakened; it is essential to the preservation of our present form of government, that the slave states should retain sufficient power to make effectual resistance against outward aggression upon an institution peculiar to them alone. parchment guarantees, as all history shows, avail nothing against an overwhelming public clamor. the fate of the fugitive slave law affords an instructive warning on the subject, and shows that the most solemn constitutional obligations will be evaded or scorned, where popular prejudice resists their execution. the south must rely on herself for protection, and to this end her strength in the federal government cannot be safely diminished. if indeed it be true, as public men at the north have declared, and political assemblages have endorsed, that a determination has been reached in that quarter to refuse admission to any more slave states, there is an end to all argument on the subject. to reject kansas, or any other territory from the union, simply and solely because slavery is recognized within her limits, would be regarded here, and, we presume, throughout the south and south-west, as an open repudiation of the constitution--a distinct and unequivocal step towards a dissolution of the union. we presume it would be so regarded everywhere, north and south. taken in connexion with the abrogation of that provision of the constitution which enforces the rights of the owners of slaves in all the states of the union, into which they might escape, which has been effected _practically_ throughout nearly all the free states, and more formally by solemn legislative enactments in a portion of them, the rejection of kansas on account of slavery would be disunion in a form of grossest insult to the sixteen slave states now comprehended in the nation. it would be a declaration that slavery was incompatible with republican government, in the face of at least _two formal recognitions_ of its legality, _in terms_, by the federal constitution. we trust that such counsels have not the remotest prospect of prevailing in our national legislature, and will not dwell upon the consequence of their adoption. we prefer to anticipate a returning fidelity to national obligations--a faithful adherance to the constitutional guarantees, and the consequent prospect--cheering to the patriot of this and other lands--of a continued and _perpetual_ union. wm. b. napton, _chairman_. sterling price, m. oliver, s. h. woodson. proceedings of the pro-slavery convention, held at lexington, mo. the convention was called to order by judge thompson, of clay county, and on his motion samuel h. woodson, esq., of jackson county, was called to the chair; and on motion of e. c. mccarty, esq., col. sam. a. lowe, of pettis county, was appointed secretary. on motion of col. young, of boone county, resolved, that a committee of one delegate from each county represented in the convention be raised, to select and report permanent officers for the convention, and to select a committee who shall prepare resolutions and other business for the action of the convention. in accordance with the above resolution, the following gentlemen were appointed said committee: j. w. torbert, of cooper county, major morin, of platte " w. m. jackson, of howard " s. barker, of carroll " a. g. davis, of caldwell " j. s. williams, of linn " e. c. mccarty, of jackson " austin a. king, of ray " edwin toole, of andrew " d. h. chism, of morgan " a. m. forbes, of pettis " a. g. blakey, of benton " thomas e. birch, of clinton " g. h. c. melody, of boone " sam. l. sawyer, of lafayette " c. f. jackson, of saline " wm. hudgins, of livingston " c. f. chamblin, of johnson " w. h. russell, of cass " john dougherty, of clay " joseph davis, of henry " capt. head, of randolph " john a. leppard, of daviess " wm. h. buffington, of cole " on motion of mr. russell, of cass county, resolved, that the delegations from the different counties furnish the secretary of this convention with a list of delegates from their counties. on further motion of mr. russell, of cass county, permission was given to the committee on resolutions, &c., to retire and draft resolutions, to report as soon as practicable. on motion of mr. field, of lafayette, a committee, consisting of messrs. field, of lafayette, bayless, of platte, and boyce, of ray, was appointed to wait upon messrs. d. r. atchison and a. w. doniphan, and invite them to address the convention. mr. moss, of clay, offered the following resolution: resolved, that all persons who are present from the different counties, although not appointed as delegates by their several counties, be considered as delegates to this convention. mr. peabody, of boone county, moved to amend so as to read, that all persons from the different counties of the state, friendly to the object of this convention, be considered as delegates. pending which question, on leave granted, mr. field, of lafayette county, from the committee appointed to wait on messrs. d. r. atchison and a. w. doniphan, made their report, stating that those gentlemen declined addressing the convention at the present time. on motion of mr. bryant, of saline, the convention adjourned. to meet at 2 o'clock, p. m. evening session. the convention was called to order by the president, when, on motion of mr. slack, of livingston, the resolution offered by mr. moss, of clay, together with the amendment offered by mr. peabody, which was pending when the convention adjourned, was laid on the table. on motion of mr. field, of lafayette, major m. oliver was requested to address the convention, and to give his views on the different subjects now agitating this country, and which would be brought before this convention; which he was proceeding to do, when the committee on resolutions, &c., asked leave to make their report, which was granted. the committee then, through their chairman, hon. a. a. king, submitted the following report: the committee to whom was assigned the duty of designating permanent officers for this convention, beg leave to report the following: for president, hon. w. g. wood, of lafayette county. for vice presidents, hon. j. t. v. thompson, of clay co. hon. john j. lowry, of howard " secretaries, hon. samuel a. lowe, of pettis county, l. a. wisely, of platte " for committee on resolutions, major bradley, of cooper county, dr. bayless, of platte " b. f. willis, of clinton " s. a. young, of boone " wade m. jackson, of howard " martin slaughter, of lafayette " stephen stafford, of carroll " w. b. napton, of saline " w. s. pollard, of caldwell " w. y. slack, of livingston " j. s. williams, of linn " g. d. hansbrough, of cass " sam. h. woodson, of jackson " james h. moss, of clay " m. oliver, of ray " d. c. stone, of henry " robert wilson, of andrew " b. w. grover, of johnson " john s. jones, of pettis " john a. leppard, of daviess " a. g. blakey, of benton " john head, of randolph " w. h. buffington, of cole " the committee also offered the following resolution, which was adopted by the convention: resolved, that to ascertain the sense of this convention on all propositions submitted for its action, each county represented shall be permitted to cast the same number of votes that it is entitled to cast in the lower house of the general assembly of this state. on motion of col. young, of boone, a committee, consisting of messrs. young, of boone, napton, of saline, and russell, of cass, was appointed to wait on the president, hon. w. t. wood, and escort him to the chair. on motion of dr. mccabe, of cooper, the convention took a recess for one hour. the convention was again called to order by the president, hon. w. t. wood, when the following gentlemen appeared as delegates, and took their seats: _andrew co._--robert wilson and edwin toole. _benton co._--a. g. blakey. _boone co._--saml. a. young, dr. peabody, dr. thomas, col. g. h. c. melody, sterling price, jr., and james shannon. _caldwell co._--w. s. pollard, david thomson, wm. griffey, albert g. davis. _carroll co._--s. barker, s. stafford, w. j. poindexter, r. h. courts, c. haskins, h. wilcoxen, judge thomas, hyram willson. _cass co._--wm. palmer, j. f. callaway, f. r. martin, j. g. martin, t. railey, j. t. thornton, c. t. worley, w. h. russell, s. r. crockett, t. f. freeman, c. vanhoy, g. d. hansbrough, s. g. allen, h. d. russell, j. t. martin. _clay co._--j. t. v. thompson, john dougherty, a. w. doniphan, j. g. price, d. j. adkins, w. e. price, w. mcnealy, j. h. moss, j. h. adams, g. w. withers, t. mccarty, e. p. moore, j. m. jones, l. a. talbott, r. j. lamb, j. lincoln, w. d. hubble, t. m. dawson, h. l. rout, r. h. miller, j. a. poague, l. w. burris, s. r. shrader, g. elgin, h. corwine. _cooper co._--j. w. torbert, j. k. ragland, wm. bradly, h. e. moore, geo. s. cockrell, thomas s. cockrell, horace w. ferguson, r. ellis, j. k. mccabe, jacob alstadt, h. tracy. _clinton co._--john reed, b. f. williss, c. c. birch, m. summers, t. e. birch, j. t. hughes. _cole co._--w. h. buffington, r. r. jefferson, j. c. rogers, c. eckler. _chariton co._--w. s. hyde, s. j. cortes, l. salisbury. _daviess co._--b. weldon, j. a. leppard. _howard co._--j. j. lowry, s. graves, w. payne, r. basket, m. taylor, b. w. lewis, h. cooper, j. b. clark, r. patterson. _henry co._--d. a. gillespie, jo. davis, d. c. stone, r. t. lindsay, h. lewis. _jackson co._--s. h. woodson, w. m. f. magraw, w. f. robinson, w. easley, e. c. mccarty, n. r. mcmurry, j. a. winn, t. m. adams, n. m. miller, w. ellis, e. mcclanahan, john mccarty, j. m. ridge, j. r. henry, col. j. m. cogswell, jno. hambright. _johnson co._--hy. ousley, s. craig, n. w. perry, w. marr, w. l. wood, w. l. barksdale, c. f. chamblin, j. m. fulkerson, reuben fulkerson, w. p. tucker, p. manion, w. kirkpatrick, b. w. grover. _lafayette co._--f. c. sharp, w. k. trigg, o. anderson, s. l. sawyer, a. jones, r. n. smith, w. t. field, w. m. smallwood, dr. g. a. rucker, (a committee to cast the vote.) _livingston co._--a. t. kirtly, a. craig, w. hudgins, w. y. slack, w. f. miller, w. o. jennings, j. d. hoy. _linn co._--j. s. williams. _morgan co._--d. h. chism. _pettis co._--j. s. jones, saml. a. lowe, a. m. forbes, g. w. rothwell, geo. anderson, t. e. staples. _platte co._--d. r. atchison, jo. walker, g. w. bayless, t. beaumont, d. p. wallingford, hy. coleman, e. p. duncan, jesse morin, p. ellington, sr., jesse summers, a. b. stoddard, thomas h. starnes, j. c. hughes, jno. h. dorriss, f. p. davidson, l. a. wisely, h. b. ladd. _randolph co._--judge head. _ray co._----a. a. king, b. j. brown, col. bohannan, m. oliver, major boyce, judge branstetter, dr. chew, w. warriner, d. p. whitmer, dr. woodward, s. a. richardson, major shaw, dr. garner, a. oliphant, t. a. h. smith, g. j. wasson, judge carter, j. e. couch, g. l. benton, j. p. quisenberry, s. j. brown, j. s. shoop, j. s. hughes, d. d. bullock, dr. stone, judge price, w. hughes, c. t. brown, o. taylor, m. c. nuckolls, j. h. taylor, r. winsett, j. p. taylor, d. harbison, dr. buchanan, w. m. jacobs, wm. murry, col. smith. _saline co._--w. b. sappington, c. f. jackson, o. b. pearson, t. r. e. harvey, j. h. irvine, l. b. harwood, v. marmaduke, m. marmaduke, j. h. grove, robert grove, a. m. davison, w. b. napton, j. w. bryant, t. w. b. crews, f. a. combs, m. w. o'banon, jas. coombs, h. c. simmons. mr. withers, of clay, offered a series of resolutions, which he asked might be read and acted on by the convention. mr. jackson, of saline, objected to the reading and moved their reference to the committee on resolutions. previous to the vote on said motion, mr. withers withdrew the resolutions, and then, by leave of the convention, the resolutions were handed over to the committee. the president being notified of the presence of gov. sterling price, in the house, on motion of dr. lowry, of howard, appointed messrs. lowry, of howard, and shewalter, of lafayette, a committee to wait upon him and invite him to a seat within the bar. mr. c. t. worley offered the following resolutions: resolved, that it is the sense of this convention, that no valuable purpose whatever will be subserved by debate, but on the other hand, will most certainly lead to heated and unprofitable excitement; therefore, resolved, that from henceforward, we will proceed on all propositions submitted to a direct vote. mr. jackson, of saline, moved to lay the resolutions on the table, which motion was carried. on motion of mr. king, of ray, the convention adjourned till to-morrow morning at eight o'clock. second day. friday morning, 8 o'clock. the convention met, and was called to order by the president. owing to the absence of mr. lowe, one of the secretaries, on motion of col. s. a. young, of boone, l. j. sharp, of lafayette, was appointed to act in his place. on motion of j. w. bryant, of saline, the proceedings of yesterday were ordered to be read. it being announced that other delegates had arrived from different counties, the following named gentlemen appeared and took their seats in convention: f. walker, of howard, dr. e. c. moss, of pettis, p. t. able, esq. of platte, and george t. wood, of henry. messrs. j. loughborough and george f. hill also appeared and took their seats as delegates from st. louis county. dr. lowry, of howard, moved that the president appoint a committee to wait on president shannon, of boone, and invite him to address the convention on the subject of slavery. a motion was then made to lay dr. lowry's motion on the table, which, being voted upon by counties, resulted as follows: yeas--cass, daviess, henry, johnson, ray, cole, clay. noes--andrew, boone, caldwell, carroll, cooper, jackson, lafayette, livingston, linn, morgan, pettis, platte, randolph, chariton, st. louis, saline. dr. lowry's motion was then put to the convention, and on motion of c. f. jackson, of saline, the rule to vote by counties was suspended. dr. lowry's motion was then adopted by the convention: whereupon the president appointed dr. lowry, of howard, and major morin, of platte, said committee. s. l. sawyer, of lafayette, announced that the committee on resolutions was ready to report. the report being called for, the committee proceeded to report, through their chairman, judge napton, of saline, the following preamble and resolutions: whereas, this convention have observed a deliberate and apparently systematic effort, on the part of several states of this union, to wage a war of extermination upon the institution of slavery as it exists under the constitution of the united states, and of the several states, by legislative enactments annulling acts of congress passed in pursuance of the constitution, and incorporating large moneyed associations to abolitionize kansas, and through kansas to operate upon the contiguous states of missouri, arkansas and texas; this convention, representing that portion of missouri more immediately affected by these movements, deem it proper to make known their opinions and purposes, and what they believe to be the opinions and purposes of the whole state, and to this end have agreed to the following resolutions: 1. that we regard the institution of african slavery, whether relating to its social, moral, political or economical aspect, solely and exclusively a question of state jurisdiction, and any agitation of this question in the congress of the united states, or in states where it has no existence, with a view to affect its condition, or bring about its destruction, is a direct and dangerous attack upon the reserved rights of the several slaveholding states, and is an impertinent interference in matters nowise concerning the agitators, and, if persisted in, must sooner or later destroy all harmony and good feeling between the states and the citizens thereof, and will finally result in a dissolution of the union. 2. that the resolution on the part of several of the northern and western non-slaveholding states, never to admit another slaveholding state into this union, is substantially a declaration of hostility to our federal constitution, and avows a purpose to disregard its compromises; and implies a threat of continued aggression upon, and ultimate destruction of slavery, under whatever sanctions it may exist. 3. that the diffusion of slavery over a wider surface tends greatly to ameliorate the condition of the slave, whilst it advances the prosperity of his owner; and the admission of new slaveholding states into the union, by maintaining to some extent an equilibrium between the conflicting influences which now control the federal government, is the only reliable guarantee which the slaveholding minority have for the protection of their property against unconstitutional and oppressive legislation by the non-slaveholding majority, now and hereafter destined to be in the ascendancy. 4. that we cordially approve the recent act of congress, for the settlement of kansas and nebraska, and the act of 1850, popularly known as the fugitive slave law. 5. that the incorporation of moneyed associations, under the patronage of sovereign states of this union, for the avowed purpose of recruiting and colonizing large armies of abolitionists upon the territory of kansas, and for the avowed purpose of destroying the value and existence of slave property now in that territory, in despite of the wishes of the bona fide independent settlers thereof, and for the purpose, equally plain and obvious whether avowed or not, of ultimately abolishing slavery in missouri, is a species of legislation and a mode of emigration unprecedented in our history, and is an attempt, by state legislation, indirectly to thwart the purposes of a constitutional and equitable enactment of congress, by which the domestic institutions of the territories were designed to be left to the exclusive management and control of the bona fide settlers thereof. 6. that these organized bands of colonists, shipped from massachusetts and other quarters under state patronage, and resembling in their essential features the military colonies planted by the roman emperors upon their conquered provinces, rather than the pioneers who have hitherto levelled the forests and broke up the plains of the west, authorize apprehension of an intent of _exclusive_ occupancy, and will necessarily lead to organized resistance on the part of those who, under the constitution and laws of the united states, have equal rights to possession; and whilst we earnestly deprecate such results, we are justified in advance in placing their entire responsibility upon those who have commenced the system, and are the aggressors. 7. that we disclaim all right and any intent to interfere with the bona fide independent settlers in the territory of kansas, from whatever quarter they may come, or whatever opinions they may entertain; but we maintain the right to protect ourselves and our property against all unjust and unconstitutional aggression, present or prospective, immediate or threatened; and we do not hold it necessary or expedient to wait until the torch is applied to our dwellings, or the knife to our throats, before we take measures for our security and the security of our firesides. 8. that the eighteen counties of missouri, lying on or near the border of kansas, with only an imaginary boundary intervening, contain a population of about fifty thousand slaves, worth, at present prices, twenty-five millions of dollars; and this large amount of property, one half of the entire slave property of the state, is not merely unsafe, but valueless, if kansas is made the abode of an army of hired fanatics, recruited, transported, armed and paid for the special and sole purpose of abolitionizing kansas and missouri. 9. that this convention and the people they represent, and the state government of missouri, and the entire people thereof, should take such measures as to them appear suitable and just and constitutional, to prevent such disastrous consequences to their security and prosperity and peace; and confidently relying upon the sympathy and support of the entire south and south-west, whose ultimate fate must inevitably be the same with theirs, and confidently relying also upon the conservative portion of the north, they respectfully appeal to the good sense and patriotism of the entire north, to put down such fanatical aggressions as have hitherto characterized the movements of emigrant aid societies, and leave the settlement of kansas and the regulation of its domestic institutions to be controlled as the settlement and institutions of our other territories have been, by those impulses of self-interest and congeniality of feeling on the part of settlers, which, by the natural laws of climate and soil, will, if undisturbed, invariably determine the ultimate condition of the territory. 10. that a committee of five be appointed to draw up and publish an address to the people of the united states, setting forth the history of this kansas excitement, with the views and action of our people thereon, in conformity with the principles and positions of the foregoing resolutions; and that printed copies of the same, with a copy of these resolutions appended, be forwarded by the secretary of this convention to the executive of each state in the union. after the reading of which, judge napton proceeded to address the convention in support of the resolutions. judge napton then read the following resolution, as recommended by the committee, to the convention: resolved, that in view of the acts of the legislature of the state of massachusetts, and other northern and western states, practically nullifying the constitution of the united states, and the laws of congress relating to the rendition of fugitive slaves, and in vindication of the constitution, and for the purpose of preserving the integrity of the american union, we recommend to the general assembly of missouri to pass such retaliatory measures, discriminating against the sale of the productions or manufactures, or material of commerce, whether of importation by them or of the production of said states, within this state, as they may deem proper for that purpose, and that such measures shall be made operative as long as the offensive legislation above referred to continues on the statute books of those states. mr. withers, of clay, moved the adoption of the resolutions as reported by the committee, and the vote being taken by counties, resulted in their unanimous adoption. on motion of c. f. jackson, of saline, the vote upon said resolutions was then taken by the house, standing, which resulted in their unanimous adoption. a motion was then made to adopt the resolution recommended by the committee to the convention. mr. torbert, of cooper, offered the following amendment: "insert after the word 'manufactures,' the words, or materials of commerce, whether of importation by them or of their production;" pending which the convention adjourned till 2 o'clock, p. m. evening session. the convention met and was called to order by the president. major morin, of platte, from the committee appointed to wait on president shannon, reported that president shannon would address the convention at any time, at the pleasure of the convention. mr. torbert, of cooper, withdrew the amendment offered by him this morning to the resolution recommended by the committee, and offered the following substitute: resolved, that in view of the acts of the state of massachusetts, and other northern and north-western states, practically nullifying the constitution of the united states, and the laws of congress relating to the rendition of fugitive slaves, and in vindication of the constitution, and for the purpose of preserving the integrity of the american union, we recommend to the general assembly of the state of missouri to pass such retaliatory measures as may not be inconsistent with the constitution of the united states, or the state of missouri, discriminating against the sale of the productions, manufactures, or goods and merchandise of any description whatever, of said states, within this state, as may be deemed proper for that purpose, and that such retaliatory measures shall be made operative as long as the offensive legislation above referred to continues on the statute books of those states. col. j. b. brown, of ray, moved to recommit the original resolution, together with the substitute, to the committee on resolutions. the previous question was called for and sustained by the convention. on this, the president decided, the effect was to require a direct vote on the adoption of the substitute as offered by mr. torbert. from this decision an appeal was taken by gov. king, of ray, and the decision of the chair was sustained by the vote of the convention. the vote then being taken on the substitute, it was adopted. mr. withers, of clay, offered a set of resolutions to the convention for adoption; whereupon a discussion arose, pending which mr. withers withdrew his resolutions. col. t. m. ewing, of lafayette, presented to the convention a letter from gov. metcalf, of kentucky, which being read, on motion of j. b. clark, of howard, was entered upon the record, and made a part of the proceedings of this convention. forest retreat, ky., july, 1855. _gentlemen of the committee_: allow me to acknowledge the receipt of your kind favor of the 21st ult., inviting me to meet in convention at lexington, mo., on the 12th inst. your letter having been addressed to me at carlisle, instead of forest retreat, kentucky, delayed its reception a few days, in consequence of which this reply may not reach you in due time for your meeting. it would indeed afford me great pleasure to meet you on that patriotic occasion. but, the delicacy of my health at present, although it has not cut off all hope of ultimate recovery, is such as to forbid me from attempting the journey to lexington. if i am not ungraciously and unfairly treated by my friends of the louisville journal, a _second_ letter of mine must by this time be published in that paper, intended as a reply to their editorial commentary upon the _first_--the one referred to in your postscript. my first letter that appeared in the journal, had been elicited by one previously received from a friend in that place, whose pleasure it was to hand it over for publication, to the editor of that paper; and it was published accordingly, with a long editorial commentary, in which, although kind and even generous enough in a _personal_ point of view, they did not fail, _politically_, to give _old stonehammer_ a right severe pelting with their ingenious and hard-twisted sophisms, intended to cast _great blame and all sorts of dishonor_ upon the southern section, for having supported the nebraska bill, &c. believing myself, that the north had redeemed itself from the disgrace--the dishonor of having disregarded its constitutional obligations in refusing to admit missouri as a state, except upon the condition of _restriction_, _north of_ 36â° 30', and not then, except by a few votes from that section--the most of whom were condemned and prostrated by their constituents respectively, who at that time denied that the few truant votes of the north constituted a bargain on their part, or placed that section under any legal or moral obligation to abide by it, i was induced in my feeble way to vindicate the voters, north and south, who supported the nebraska bill. it is true, that in 1820 the southern section yielded to the glaring imposition of restriction, rather than keep missouri any longer out of her constitutional right of admission, that being the only alternative presented by the north for the time being. but, did not all the parties know full well that no power was lodged in that congress to repeal, alter or modify any one of the constitutional rights of succeeding generations? was it not well understood by all, that the federal convention alone had the right to fix upon the line of 36â° 30', or upon any other line? and just as well known that the union would never have been formed if such an alternative had been presented to our illustrious forefathers of that convention? if in 1820 congress had the power to legislate upon the subject at all, by what means has the same body been deprived of the right of legislation upon the same subject in 1855? to put any other construction than this upon the intention or designs of the congress of 1820, would, to my mind, amount to an imputation of great arrogance on the part of that body, in the assumption of power not conferred upon it. admit the right of a subsequent congress to alter or obliterate the line of 36â° 30', and let this latter _compromise_ be sustained, together with the fugitive slave law, and all will be well for the future. repeal these acts, and we shall soon hear of retaliation in other forms than described by mr. calhoun, which god forbid. but, pardon my brevity, and allow me to refer you to my forthcoming letter, expected in the louisville journal, for my further views touching this question. with many sincere thanks for your kind invitation, allow me respectfully to subscribe myself your honored and ob't servant, thos. metcalf. messrs. t. m. ewing, wm. shields, wm. t. wood, f. a. kownslar. p. s.--it is my intention to visit missouri, if i can once more recover my health so as to justify the undertaking; and in that event will certainly call on my lexington friends of the committee. t. m. mr. f. a. kownslar, of lafayette, offered the following resolution, which was adopted: resolved, that the peace, quiet, and welfare of this and every other slaveholding state, as also a regard for the integrity of the union, require the passage, by the respective state legislatures, of effective laws, suppressing within said states the circulation of abolition or freesoil publications, and the promulgation of freesoil or abolition opinions. mr. graves, of howard, moved that the convention take a recess of fifteen minutes, and then re-assemble to hear the address of president shannon. motion sustained, and convention took a recess. the convention re-assembled. president shannon came forward and delivered his address, after which col. anderson, of lafayette, moved that the president appoint a committee to wait on president shannon, and request a copy of his address for publication. col. s. a. young moved to amend said motion by the following: that a committee be appointed to wait on president shannon, and request a copy of his address for publication, and that the speech be published in connexion with, and as a part of the proceedings of this convention. pending which motion, the convention adjourned till 8 o'clock, to-night. night session. the convention met, and was called to order by the president. col. anderson explained his motion made previous to adjournment, and col. young withdrew his amendment; whereupon a discussion followed, when f. c. sharp, esq., of lafayette, offered the following resolutions: 1st. resolved, that the thanks of this convention are hereby tendered to president shannon, for his able and patriotic address delivered before us. 2d. that president shannon is hereby requested to furnish a copy of his address to this convention for publication; and the convention hereby expresses the desire that he will deliver his address in as many counties in this state, as his duties will allow. pending the discussion of these resolutions, mr. sharp withdrew his resolutions and offered the following: resolved, that the thanks of this convention are hereby tendered to president shannon, for his address delivered before us, and he is hereby requested to furnish a copy of the same for publication. and the vote being taken by counties, the resolution was adopted by the following vote: yeas--boone, carroll, cooper, howard, jackson, johnson, lafayette, livingston, pettis, platte, st. louis, ray. noes--cass, clay, clinton, daviess, saline. two other counties voting in the negative. (the minutes of the clerk upon taking this vote being imperfect, the vote by counties cannot be given with certainty.) mr. cook appeared as a delegate from st. louis, and took his seat in the convention. on motion, the convention adjourned till 8 o'clock, to-morrow morning. third day. saturday morning, 8 o'clock. the convention met, and was called to order by the president. the president announced the following named gentlemen, to compose the committee to draw up and publish an address, as required by the tenth resolution: hon. w. b. napton, of saline county, (chairman;) hon. m. oliver, of ray county; gov. sterling price, col. sam. h. woodson, of jackson county, and hon. a. a. king, of ray county. the president also announced the following committee, to procure and superintend the printing, under the action of this convention, as required by the resolution of mr. peabody: wm. shields, edward winsor, and charles patterson. it is also made the duty of said last mentioned committee, to call on president shannon, and obtain a copy of his speech for publication. col. s. a. young rose and informed the convention, that he had information that a letter had been received by a member of this convention, mr. field, from a distinguished politician, advising and urging him, that unless certain resolutions were adopted by this convention, to secede from the convention and break it up in a row; and he wished this matter investigated, and the facts properly brought out. mr. field required of col. young to give the name of the distinguished politician who had written the letter, and whether he referred to him. objection was made to the convention hearing anything further of the matter complained of by col. young. the president decided that col. young was out of order, there being no proposition before the convention. mr. moss, of clay, moved that the convention proceed to inquire into, and investigate the matters charged by col. young. gen. clark moved to lay the motion of mr. moss on the table. mr. field desired to make an explanation. he had called for the name of the author of the letter; did not get it; could not get him to say he was the member of the convention alluded to, as having received the letter, but, from rumor, supposed he was the field alluded to, and maj. j. s. rollins the alleged author of the supposed letter. he had a private letter from maj. rollins, which, amongst other things, spoke of this convention and its objects, but in terms of approval--giving his opinions and views in strict accordance with the platform of, and principles adopted by, this convention, and denied that there was one word of truth in the charge that maj. rollins advised a secession from the convention, or to break it up in a row in any contingency. he said the letter of maj. rollins was at his office, and, although a private letter, any gentleman who desired could see it; that he had intended, if the investigation proceeded, to show it in convention, and appealed to a number of members of the convention who had seen the letter, to say whether he had not given a true statement as to its contents. col. doniphan, mr. sawyer, mr. grover, and mr. moss, who had seen the letter, confirmed the statement of mr. field, as to the contents of the letter. col. young acknowledged himself satisfied, and expressed his gratification that the rumors on the street to maj. rollins' prejudice were so fully proven to be false and groundless, and said his object in bringing this matter up was to do but an act of justice to his friend and neighbor, maj. rollins. the motions to lay on the table and for investigation were withdrawn. on motion, the thanks of the convention were tendered to the president and other officers of the convention, for the faithful manner in which they had discharged their duties. on motion of maj. morin, of platte, a vote of thanks was tendered to the citizens of lafayette, for their kind hospitality. on motion, it was resolved, that the proceedings of this convention, together with the address to be prepared by the committee appointed for that purpose, be published in pamphlet form; that a committee of three be appointed by the chair, to superintend their publication, and that a contribution be made by the delegates to this convention and others present, to defray the expenses of said publication. resolved, that ten thousand copies of said proceedings and address be published, and that they be distributed to every part of the state, by the publishing committee, in such manner as may be practicable and advisable. on motion of mr. staples, of pettis, the convention adjourned _sine die_. wm. t. wood, _president_. l. a. wisely, } _secretaries_. l. j. sharp, } transcriber notes: passages in italics were indicated by _underscores_. small caps were replaced with all caps. on page 5, "manumiting" was replaced with "manumitting". on page 9, "statesmanshp" was replaced with "statesmanship". on page 9, "he ways" was replaced with "the ways". on page 16, "resolved, that" was replaced with "resolved, that". on page 17, "johnson county" was replaced with two quotation marks. on page 17, "davis" was replaced with "daviess". on page 17, "cass county" was replaced with "cass county". on page 18, "w y. slack" was replaced with "w. y. slack". on page 19, "h. d. russell" was replaced with "h. d. russell". on page 19, "clinton co" was replaced with "clinton co.". on page 19, "jackson, co." was replaced with "jackson co.". on page 19, "j. m," was replaced with "j. m.". on page 19, "manion." was replaced with "manion,". on page 20, "ray co" was replaced with "ray co.". on page 20, the comma was removed after "mr. c. t. worley". on page 27, "upon t" was replaced with "upon it". note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see 13560-h.htm or 13560-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/3/5/6/13560/13560-h/13560-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/3/5/6/13560/13560-h.zip) nancy macintyre a tale of the prairies by lester shepard parker 1910 [illustration: "i was takin' leave of nancy, standin' out there in the night."] _to my wee daughter rachel ellen parker this little story is affectionately inscribed_ contents billy's revery the quarrel the disappointment the decision the search the return nancy's story list of illustrations "i was takin' leave of nancy standin out there in the night" (frontispiece) "then i dragged him on the prairie through a turk's head cactus bed" "i am standing by her dug-out, open stands the sagging door" "bringing back a hat of water, through the dim light and the rain" "loaded up their prairie schooner, and vamoosed the ranch, 'fore light" "he was startled by a stranger's sudden presence and 'hello!'" "faithful simon, weak and starving, groaned and fell beneath his pack" "resting calm in fancied safety sat the elder macintyre" "once again the twisted branches of the lone and friendly tree" "fiercer with each flying moment drove the scorching blasts of death" "standing there, a pictured goddess sketched against a lowering storm" "but, instead, i shot, to scare him, all the buttons off his coat" billy's revery 1 no use talking, it's perplexing, everything don't look the same; never had these curious feelin's till those macintyres came. quit my plowing long 'fore dinner, didn't hitch my team again; spent the day with these new neighbors, getting 'quainted with the men. talk about the prairie roses! purtiest flow'rs in all the world, but they look like weeds for beauty when i think of that new girl. strange, she seems so kind of friendly when i'm awkward, every way, and my tongue gets hitched and hobbled, everything i try to say! 2 there's one person, that jim johnson, that there man i can't abide; he's been milling around near nancy,- durn his dirty, yaller hide! never really liked that johnson; now, each time i hear his name, feel this state's too thickly settled,- that is, since that new girl came. if this making love to women went like breaking in a horse, i might stand some show of winning, 'cause i've learned that game, of course; but this moonshine folks call 'courting,' i ain't never played that part; i can't keep from talking foolish when i'm thinking with my heart. 3 now, those women that you read of in these story picture books, they can't ride in roping distance of that girl in style and looks. they have waists more like an insect, corset shaped and double cinched; feet just right to make a watch charm, small, of course, because they're pinched. this here nancy's like god made her,- she don't wear no saddle girth, but she's supple as a willow, and the purtiest thing on earth. i'm in earnest; let me ask you- 'cause i want to reason fair-what durn business has that rope-necked johnson sneaking over there? 4 hands so soft and strong and tender, when i shook a "how de do," they was loaded sure with something seemed to thrill me through and through; hair as black as fire-burnt prairie; eyes that dance and flash and flirt; every time she smiled she showed you teeth as white's my sunday shirt. baked us biscuits light as cotton; i can't eat mine any more,-i must get some better breeches,- kind o' 'shamed of those i wore; but i'm goin' there to-morrow, like enough i'll stay all day, seems to me too dry for plowing- durn that johnson, anyway! 5 i ain't much on deep-down thinkin', reasoning out the way things go, so i s'pose i'll keep on foolin' till in time i get to know. i've had chills and fever 'n' ague; suffered till their course was run. maybe love just keeps on runnin', till a man has lost--or won. one thing certain: i have got it; seems to struck in good and hard. makes me sometimes soft and tender; next thing i would fight my pard. appetite is surely failing, sometimes i don't eat a bite; dream of nancy all the daytime, that durn johnson, half the night. 6 i've just got to get to plowin', break a fire-guard 'round my shack, plant my sod corn, fix my garden; everything is goin' to rack. i can't work the way i used to; got to quittin' early now, since a little thing that happened, i can't just remember how. i was takin' leave of nancy, standin' out there in the night, and i put my arms around her- heart stopped beatin', just from fright. can't express the kind of feelin',- words wa'n't never made for this,-as i drew her face up closer, and i stole my first sweet kiss. the quarrel 1 things have moved along some smoother since a week ago to-night, seems my blood turned all to p'ison- me and johnson had a fight. caught him twice up there to nancy's; told him plain to stay away; but he didn't seem to notice anything i had to say. caught him settin' there and talkin' 'bout the things that he had done-durndest liar on the prairie- laughing like he thought 'twas fun, settin' there beside o' nancy- settin' down is all he does, good for nothin', bug-eyed, loafin', wrinkled, yaller, meddlin' cuss! 2 i just let him keep on settin' all the whole long evenin' through; when he started off i follered, told him what i meant to do. "why," says he, "now, don't git foolish; i ain't skeered o' your light breeze; i'll go thar and set by nancy, spite o' you, when i blame please." well, i don't just clear remember all the doin's that took place, but you'll know the story better if you'll look at johnson's face. as we rode we clinched and wrestled, then we tumbled to the ground, tore the bunch grass up, and cactus, for a hundred yards around. 3 got him down, and in the scrimmage felt my lasso on the ground, tied his legs and bent him over, bound him like he's sittin' down; hustled quick to mount my pony, threw the loose end round the horn, thought i'd learn that mr. johnson he'd missed out in bein' born. then i dragged him on the prairie, through a turk's head cactus bed, prickly pears and shoestring bushes,- 'twasn't decent what he said. he's so dev'lish fond of settin', thought i'd fix his settin' end so's he'd be more kinder careful settin' by that girl again. [illustration: "then i dragged him on the prairie through a turk's head cactus bed."] the disappointment 1 there's a feeling in my bosom, like a hound that's lost the game, after chasing over bunch grass till his feet are sore and lame. i am standing by her dug-out, open stands the sagging door; every grassblade speaks of nancy, but she's gone, to come no more. for her father and her mother, and her brothers, late last night, loaded up their prairie schooner, and vamoosed the ranch, 'fore light. 'taint no use to stand here cussin', but my heart slumps down like lead when i think of losing nancy and to know my dreams are dead. 2 it was here i held you, nancy, when i showed you all my heart; when i told you i would always be your friend and take your part. oh, i thought that in life's lottery i had drawn the biggest prize, when i kissed you there that evening and looked down into your eyes; for i never had such feelin's fill my hide clean through and through such a hungry, starving longing, to be always close to you. but you've gone with all your family, and i'm left to mourn my loss, while the posse hunts your daddie, 'cause he stole bill kelly's hoss. 3 now, i don't know where you're roaming, and i don't know where'll you'll land; but i wish you knew my feelin's, and 'twas clear just how i stand: how the good lord, high in heaven, put a throbbing heart in here, but it starts to pumping backwards when it feels that you don't keer. i'm a roving old jay-hawker, never caught like this before, but i'd give my last possession for a glimpse of you once more. if we lose your old fool father folks 'round here can stand the loss, he was raised in old missoura, or he'd never stole that hoss. [illustration: "i am standing by her dug-out, open stands the sagging door."] 4 when my mind gets to recalling all the happy times we had, good red liquor and tobacco gets to tasting kind o' bad. you remember on your birthday how i drove 'round kind o' late, and we went to donkey collins' to a dance, to celebrate? when you got up in my wagon, bless my heart, you sure was sweet! you was bound that you'd go barefoot, 'cause your new shoes hurt your feet. well, i tell you, pretty nancy, every minute of that ride seemed like floating through the heavens, 'cause you set there by my side. 5 when we pulled up at old collins', quite a bunch was there before, you could hear the fiddler calling, and the scraping on the floor. through the dingy sodhouse window gleamed a sickly yellow light, where i helped you from the wagon, holding you so loving tight. then they called out, "choose your pardners, numbers five, six, seven, and eight," and we hustled up to join in, for we knew that we were late. after starting up the music something happened--you know what-all because i loved you, nancy, and their manners made me hot. 6 i just glanced around the circle, when we came to "balance, all;" to that mess of cowhide-covered feet that stomped at every call. sure enough, the thing i looked for come to pass when aleck rose tried to _dos-a-dos_ by you, dear, and, instead, waltzed on your toes. recollect? i stopped the fiddler, and i stopped that stomping crowd, using language that was decent, but was mighty clear and loud: "now, you fellers from the sand hills, fight me, or if you refuse you don't dance with me and nancy while a one of you wears shoes!" 7 yes, they took them off, miss nancy, in respect for you and me, putting all on equal footing, just the way it ought to be. and we went through all the figures that we knew in that quadrille, but it didn't seem like dancin', steppin' round so awful still. fiddler, even, did his calling in a sort of quiet hush-"swing your pardners," "back to places," "sounds to me like paddlin' mush." "man in center," "circle round him," "all join hands," and "'way you go," "wait fur betsy, she's in trouble, with a splinter in her toe." 8 when i took you home, towards morning, such a night i never saw. how the kansas wind was blowing! swift and keen and kind o' raw. blew more furious every minute, blew a hole clear through the skies; blew so loud, like demons hissing, that the moon was 'fraid to rise. got so fierce it blew the stars out, saw them flicker, then go dead, while the blackness, mad and murky, rolled in thunder overhead. goin' with it, durn my whiskers! hind wheels riz plumb off the ground; goin' 'gainst it, you and me, dear, had to push the hosses down. 9 now and then a raindrop whistled like a bullet past my head; and i hollered out to you, dear, "scrooch down in the wagon bed." then they come as big as hen eggs; struck the hosses stinging raps, till the frightened, tremblin' critters leaped beneath the angry slaps. lord a'mighty, how they scampered! while i gripped the lines in tight, as the wagon box sailed upward like a mighty wind-borne kite. down below us ran the hosses, while we floated through the air, but through all that roaring shakeup, you, dear, never turned a hair. 10 when the lightning flashed around us, rabbits stopped to let us by,-looked as if they said by halting, "we can't race with things that fly!" coyotes sneaked off in the slough grass, prairie dogs stayed in their holes; we was lubricated blazes,- couldn't stop to save our souls. up the hills we flew like swallows, down the slopes, a hurricane, bumped and jumped the humps and hollows, dragged the ground and riz again. and i prayed, "dear lord, save nancy, for a desperate lover's sake!" you was hangin' to my gallus, and i felt it strain and break. 11 felt you holdin' to my boot-leg, slattin' in the roarin' gale, so, to save you, i worked for'ard, got the nigh hoss by the tail. miles on miles we tore on blindly, had to let the critters roam, till, at last, they turned their noses to the north, and towards their home. we went charging down a valley, stopped in something soft and deep; wagon box and you and me, dear, landed in a mixed-up heap. both the hosses' legs was buried and i knew that that was proof we had 'lighted on the top of old jim davis's dug-out roof. 12 now, old jim was sleeping soundly close beside his faithful wife; peace had smoothed his savage wrinkles, all his dreams were free from strife. he was safe from ragin' cyclones, wolves could never force his door, all the ills of life had vanished, on his mountain torrent snore. so when our descent awoke him sitting bolt upright in bed, with the flying hoofs above him, kicking hair off of his head, he aroused his sleeping helpmeet; loud his curses and abuse, "mary, hike your lazy carcass, hell has turned the devil loose." [illustration: "bringing back a hat of water, through the dim light and the rain."] 13 while ole jim was shooting at us- couldn't make him understand; kept his blamed old gun a-going till he got me through the hand-not a whimper did you utter, but you grabbed the hosses' heads, coaxed and helped them in their trouble, while they strove like thoroughbreds, lunging, plunging, you stayed with them till they both were clear and free. riding one, you lashed them forward, circled round and picked up me, helped me mount, while jim was loading; then we struck off through the night, right across the storm-swept prairie, till the east was streaked with light. 14 i was faint and sick and dizzy, from my shattered, bleeding hand, and it seemed as if the jolting gave me more than i could stand. once i reeled, and would have fallen, if you hadn't held me there; put your dear arm tight around me, whispered, "billy, don't you care." then you headed straight for water, threw the lines, dismounted first, smoothed the grass down for my pillow, while the hosses quenched their thirst. then you bathed my throbbing forehead,- love and healing in the touch,-sayin', "billy, pardner, listen: that there shootin' wasn't much!" 15 from your skirt you tore a piece out, dressed my wounds so neat and quick, that i felt the lord had sent you just to soothe and heal the sick. bringing back a hat of water, through the dim light and the rain, thought i saw your face turn paler, like you felt a twinge o' pain; but as you knelt down beside me i could hear you humming low some mysterious song, stopped short by, "billy, man, we sure must go!" and the sun turned loose his glory, through the tempest-riven sky, till it touched us like a blessing from the father there on high. 16 i am standing by her dug-out; open swings the sagging door, every grassblade speaks of nancy; but she's gone, to come no more, for her father and her mother, and her brothers, late last night, loaded up their prairie schooner, and vamoosed the ranch, 'fore light. there's the bed poles and the stove hole; not a thing is left for me, as a keepsake of my nancy, anywhere that i can see. what! a paper, pinned up yonder, kind o' folded like a note! it has writin', sure as blazes! it is somethin' nancy wrote. 17 "my dere billy, you will wunder why i ever rote you this; i am sorry i am leevin daddie needs me in his biz. i don't reely like this quiet kind of sober farmer life; i like something allus doin, but for this, i'd be your wife. i got two of old jim's bullets, didn't like to let you know, cause the one that you was luggin' seemed to fret and hurt you so. daddie cut them out that evenin; i don't mind a little such, but, dere billy, don't you worry, old jim's shootin wasn't much." the decision 1 since that girl went off and left me, i can't plan just what to do. saw tom frothingham this mornin', he says johnson's gone off, too. my old mother used to tell me, when i lagged at any task, "keep on working, do no shirking, you will bring the thing to pass." that advice has been my motto: everything that i've begun, i've stayed with it, sick or weary, till the job was squarely done. but this case is kind o' different; though i ain't the kind that grieves, how you goin' to work that motto when the job gets up and leaves? 2 s'pose, in thinkin' and decidin', i refuse to do my part;-just sit down and let my mem'ry finish breaking up my heart-s'pose i give up like a coward, let the world say i ain't game, 'cause by leavin' i should forfeit my poor eighty-acre claim. i ain't 'fraid to do my duty if i'm clear what it's about, but this scrape is so peculiar that my mind's smoked up with doubt. i believe that nancy loves me, and it may be she'll stay true; but i wonder why the blazes that durn johnson's gone off too. 3 blamed if i don't get my hosses, saddle zeb and lead old si, and we'll search the wind-swept prairie till we find that girl, or die! who'd a thought a man's whole future could get twisted up like this? all his plans burn up like tinder in the fire of one sweet kiss! "zeb, come here, and good old simon- listen while i talk to you; put your noses on my shoulder while i tell you what we'll do. your fool master's deep in trouble, can't explain to you just how, but until we find my nancy, you shall never pull a plow." the search 1 in the west, where twilight glories paint with blood each sky-line cloud, while the virgin rolling prairie slowly dons her evening shroud; while the killdeer plover settles from its quick and noisy flight; while the prairie cock is blowing warning of the coming night-there against the fiery background where the day and night have met, move three disappearing figures, outlined sharp in silhouette. zeb and si and bill, the lover, chafing under each delay, pass below the red horizon, toward the river trail away. 2 far across the upland prairie to the valley-land below, where the tall and tangled joint-grass makes the horses pant and blow, there the silent solomon river reaching westward to its source, with its fringe of sombre timber guides the lover on his course. all the night he keeps his saddle, urging zeb and simon on, till the trail clears up before him in the gray of early dawn. where it turns in towards the river, arched above with vine-growth rank, he, dismounting, ties the horses near the steep and treacherous bank. 3 more than light and shade and landscape meet the plainsman's searching look, for the paths that lie before him are the pages of his book. stooping down and reading slowly, noting every trace around, of the travel gone before him, every mark upon the ground, down the winding, deep-cut roadway furrowed out by grinding tire, where the ruts lead to the water, in the half-dried plastic mire, he beholds the telltale marking of an odd-shaped band of steel, welded to secure the fellies of old macintyre's wheel. 4 high above the wind is moaning in a lonely, fretful mood, through the lofty spreading branches of the elm and cottonwood. where the willows hide the fordway with their fringe of lighter green, is the dam, decayed and broken, where the beavers once have been. on the sycamore bent o'er it, with its gleaming trunk of white, sits the barred owl, idly blinking at the early morning's light, while, within its spacious hollow, where the rotting heart had clung till removed by age and fire, sleeps the wild cat with her young. 5 plunging through the sluggish water, scarcely halting for a drink, toiling through the sticky quagmire, they attain the farther brink. here the trail leads to the westward,- once the redman's wild domain; now the shallow rutted highway of the settler's wagon train. here and there along the edges, paths work through the waving grass, where at night from bluff to river, sneaking coyotes find a pass. here the meadow lark sings gaily as she leaves her hidden nest, while the sun of early morning double-tints her orange breast. 6 up this broad and fertile valley, tracing all its winding ways, plodding on with dogged patience through a score of weary days, camping in the lonely timber, sleeping on the scorching plain, bearing heat and thirst and hunger, sore fatigue and wind and rain-halting only when the telltale mark was missing in the track; only when he called a greeting, as he passed some settler's shack; till the valley and its timber vanished, where the rolling sward of the westward-sweeping prairie marks the trail 'cross mingo's ford. 7 here for hours he searched the crossing and the wheel-ruts leading on to the north, a full day's journey, but the guiding mark was gone. not a vestige here remaining of the sign that could be told, for old mac had traveled swiftly and the trail was mixed and old. two whole days bill searched and waited, hoping for some other clew, weighing questions of direction, undecided what to do. till, one night, while cooking supper by the camp-fire's genial glow, he was startled by a stranger's sudden presence and "hello!" 8 tall of stature, dark of visage, by the wind well dried and tanned, clad in "shaps" and spurs that jingled, with a bull whip in his hand. close behind him in the shadows, eyes aglow with red and green, stood a blazed-face texas pony, ewe-necked, cat-hammed, wild, and mean. "hello, stranger! glad to see you, got my cattle fixed for night; just got through, and riding round 'em, 'cross the bluff, i saw your light. no, thanks, pardner, had my supper; seems your fire is short o' wood; i just thought i'd see who's camped here- gee! that bacon does smell good!" 9 when the frugal meal was over, when the pipes were filled and lit, and the cowboy ceased his stories weak in moral, rank in wit, billy plied him long with questions, wording each with thought and care, lest his zeal for information should reveal his mission there. "tell me who you've seen go by here, just within the last few days; what they had for teams and outfits; how the country round here lays. have you seen a prairie schooner- old style freighter--pass this way? both wheel hosses white-nosed sorrels, lead team of a dun and gray?" [illustration: "loaded up their prairie schooner, and vamoosed the ranch 'fore light."] [illustration: "he was startled by a stranger's sudden presence and 'hello!'"] 10 "i remember some such outfit, if i've got your idee right. think they camped a mile below here week ago last thursday night. pulled in sometime 'long 'bout sundown, turned their stock in yonder draw, but an oldish sort of fellow was the only one i saw; rode a speckled chestnut pony with a white star in his face; asked some questions 'bout the country, 'bout the proper crossing-place. pulled out sometime long 'fore daylight. didn't see them when they passed, but from all the indications they was trav'ling pretty fast. 11 "crossed right here where we are settin', saw their trail that very day; struck plumb north, and by my reck'nin' towards the north they'll likely stay. north of here, by my experience, he'll find grass that's mighty fine. chances are that he'll keep goin' till he strikes nebraska's line. it was just the next day after that my cattle scattered so; some strayed off 'way south to jimson's, one bunch in the bend below. that's the day i met that feller (eyes so black he couldn't see) who kept pumpin' me with questions like you've just been askin' me. 12 "asked about that prairie schooner, said that they was friends of hisn, like to wore me plumb to frazzles with his everlasting quiz'n. rode a piebald, knock-kneed broncho; coat was battered, ripped, and torn; he was yaller, long, and g'anted like a steer with holler horn. an' you oughter seen his breeches! he must sure be shy on sense; why, they looked like he'd been riding on a bucking barb wire fence. you won't meet him, 'cause i saw him coming back across this way, going eastward where he come from; took the back trail yesterday. 13 "said he'd found the old man's outfit moving westward on north fork. can't remember all he told me, for he runs a heap to talk. said he'd found out what he wanted; said he 'had a plan or two, and the folks that knowed jim johnson, knowed that he would put 'em through.' then there's others took the west trail; they got that way huntin' range-funny how folks when they come here get to itchin' for a change! i've been stayin' too confinin'; never left this herd but once. i'm the oldest puncher round here,- been here over fourteen months." 14 long before the sun had risen, while the night mist's ghostly veil hid from view the sloughs and hollows, billy took the northern trail. through the sunflowers in the low land, plodding over sandstone knolls, winding through the level stretches dotted thick with treacherous holes where the prairie dogs sat chattering, bolt upright upon their mounds, while the ground owls sought their burrows, startled by the warning sounds; stumbling into buffalo wallows, dug out in an earlier day by the halting herds that rested, rolled and bellowed in their play. 15 now and then the sheltered hillside waved its varicolored flowers as a greeting to the trav'ler, solace to the toilsome hours. old jack rabbit hopped before him, then sat up, to watch him pass, dusky horned-toads scurried nimbly through the withered buffalo grass. here and there the buzzing rattler whirred a warning, head alert, then retreated from the snapping, stinging strokes of billy's quirt. day by day the wild breeze flying, with'ring in its scorching heat, hummed a tune to labored beating of the plodding horses' feet. 16 day by day this panorama passing slowly, dully by, with the sun's brass disc high gleaming from a white and cloudless sky, sometimes drew fantastic pictures. many a strange and gruesome sign-phantom trees and fairy castles- blurred the far horizon line. then they'd vanish like the fancies of a fever-smitten brain, and returning, changed in outline, elsewhere on the mighty plain would allure the eyesore trav'ler till the very sky above seemed to mock with vague mirages every surety of love. 17 when each weary day was over, halting near some watering-place, bill unpacked his meager outfit, turned the horses loose to graze, baked his varicolored dough-bread, on a fire of cattle chips; coffee made of green-scummed water, nectar to his thirsty lips. on the ground he spread his blanket and reclining there alone, heard the swiftly sweeping breezes sing in dreary monotone strange wild anthems, weird and lonesome, like lost spirits floating by, while afar in broken measure swelled the coyotes' yelping cry. 18 all the varied information gathered from the few he passed-some from herders, some from stragglers gave the missing clew at last as to where old mac was heading; for that telltale band of steel stamped along the endless roadway printed by the turning wheel, pressed its image on the memory of the settlers coming back, who, when questioned by the searcher, told him that the telltale track had begun to veer to westward after crossing by the way leading up the north platte river, where the sand wastes stretch away. 19 as he crossed this barren prairie's sweeping waste of poverty, billy paused beside the cripple of a wind-torn twisted tree, standing there, marooned forever, where its hapless seed had blown, miles on miles from forest neighbor, struggling out its life alone. here he stopped, with head uncovered, conscious of a strange appeal, yielding to the voiceless longing human hearts are bound to feel when their lot is isolation, and a field of sterile soil dwarfs and twists the struggling spirit as the body bends with toil. 20 here, that subtle, silent craving, which with life will never end, of the lonesome and the needy for the comfort of a friend, drew the trav'ler to this tree waif, and he spread his outfit near, and they held that sacred converse which the soul alone can hear. while the horses browsed the sage brush, and the sun withdrew his light, and the moon in mournful splendor ushered in the lonely night, he lay down beneath the branches, wrapped in musings strange and deep-thoughts that bore him off in silence o'er the placid sea of sleep. 21 in his dreams he saw a monarch decked in sumptuous array, seated on a throne of glory bearing royal title, day. then some mighty power transcendent, thrust him from his gorgeous throne, turning all the realm to darkness, and the world was left alone. as the shades of gloom were spreading, by strange flashing threads of light he beheld in dim-drawn outline, on the background of the night, phantom horse and girlish rider, speeding on in reckless race, till she turned directly toward him and he saw her fearless face! [illustration: "faithful simon, weak and starving, groaned and fell beneath his pack...."] 22 with the journey's slow progression slipped away the summer days, merging with the sleepy beauty of the lazy autumn haze; and the frosts and drought combining waged relentless battle there, withering up the scanty ranges, leaving all the country bare. when he entered colorado, following still the barren plain where for months the mocking heavens never spared a drop of rain, faithful simon, weak and starving, following feebly in the track pulled upon his straining halter, groaned and fell beneath his pack. 23 vain were all the kind entreaties, vain the simple nursing done to relieve his palsied weakness- poor old simon's course was run. billy spent the night beside him, but with next day's early dawn, with the east's first flush of scarlet, simon's faithful soul passed on. then, with hands outstretched before him, half remembering what was said when a child he saw the sexton sprinkle earth upon the dead-"dust to dust, and then to ashes- i forget the other part-i can't say the words i want to, i can't think--all's in my heart. 24 "over twenty years, old pardner, we have been companions true; you have always kept your end up in the hardships we've gone through. if we'd stayed, and i had never seen her face or touched her hand, we should still have been contented, on our little piece of land. this strange spell won't let me falter, though the chasing never ends; seems that nothing ever'll stop it, sickness, death, or loss of friends. where this love will drive a fellow, i ain't wise enough to tell; sometimes think it leads to heaven by a trail that runs through hell." 25 weeks thereafter, plodding northward crossing over lodge pole creek, threading colorado's stretches- sandy deserts wild and bleak-where the sun wars on the living, struggling 'neath his blinding light, then resigns his work of ravage to the chilling frosts of night; where the bleaching bones of horses here and there bestrew the plains, telling many a ghastly story of misguided settlers' trains-where the early frontier ranger marked the first trail to cheyenne, billy, following its wand'rings, found the missing mark again. 26 then the labored pace grew faster as he passed each camping place, marking well the lessening distance in the long-contested race. riding through wyoming's foothills, with their rugged summit lines stretched across the clear horizon, fringed with pointed spruce and pines, he beheld, one early morning, rising slowly to the sky, smoke--the thin and gauzy column of a camp fire built close by; and, on looking down the valley with exultant, ringing cheer, he beheld the prairie schooner and the macintyres near. 27 on an open spot of grass land gilded by the rising sun, sloping sharply to the crevice where the mountain waters run, ike, reclining, watched the horses, now increased to quite a band, while above him, in the timber, brother bill, with gun in hand, held it poised in sudden wonder, half in attitude to shoot, as he saw the coming rider, heard his loudly yelled salute. near an old abandoned cabin, huddled by the breakfast fire, resting calm in fancied safety sat the elder macintyre. [illustration: "resting calm in fancied safety sat the elder macintyre."] 28 "you! why, billy, where d'you come from? what new game you playing now? if you're out on posse business by the gods, jest start your row! what you saying? you are friendly? wal, i'm glad to hear it's so; and i s'pose you made the journey way out here to let me know! oh! you're talking 'bout our nancy! now i just begin to see. set down, billy; you are askin' something that sure puzzles me. nancy ain't like other women- what i say may hit you queer, but it's jest as well to tell you-that there girl--she isn't here. 29 "don't stampede your words, now, billy. slow 'em down and let 'em walk. lord a'mighty, man! keep quiet! never heard such crazy talk! where's the girl? wal, let me tell you- t'aint no use to take on so-where is nancy? p'r'aps in heaven; i can't tell yer,--i don't know. when we left last spring from kansas, travelin' mostly in the night, we was chased up by a posse; fourth day out we had a fight. we had jest unhitched the hosses, making camp at old man's creek-gimme some o' that tobacker, i've been out for more'n a week. 30 "we had jest unhitched the hosses, nance was riding kelly's mare, when we heard them all a-comin'- they had seen us pull in there. nancy said,' i'll hold 'em, daddie, get the outfit over here, and i'll trail you in the mornin'; i will see they don't get near.' it was in that heavy timber- growing dark and spittin' rain-where the creek runs to the eastward, makes that loop, and back again. we was in a reg'lar pocket; creek banks made a kind of bluff all around us, so it looked like we was trapped there, sure enough. 31 "wal, we had a time in movin'; things got mixed up in the rush; lead team broke a piece of harness pulling through the underbrush. then the wagon turned clean over, but we drug her plumb across, hitched with ropes and other fixin's, usin' every extra hoss. wal, you never heard such shootin', bullets whizzin' everywhere; pumped 'em on us till it sounded like they had an army there. nancy stayed and cracked it to 'em, kind o' circlin' round and round; i could tell the two six-shooters she was usin', by the sound. 32 "you can bet we did some trav'lin' all that night and all next day; i could still a-hear the shootin' after we was miles away. i supposed we'd see the girl come ridin' up to us 'fore long, that is--i was jest a-thinkin'- if there wasn't somethin' wrong. but, in spite of all our lookin', sometimes slackin' up our gait, always thinkin' we should see her every time we'd stop and wait. we have never seen her, billy, and i own i'm balked a bit, fur i know that she's a critter made of nothin' else but grit. 33 "i wish i could go and find her, but 'twould be too hot for me; long before i got back that fur i'd be strung up to a tree. so i've been a kind o' thinkin', since i see what's both'rin' you, 'bout a thing--i hate to ask it- that i'd like for you to do. i don't think that girl has ever- it sure hurts me, what i say-but i'm sure that in the scrimmage nancy never got away. billy, you go back and find her; you are all i've got to send, you can sort o' fix things decent, where she is--in old man's bend." the return 1 every life is but a journey- trav'ling on from place to place-starting from the point god gave us with an ever-varying pace. outward, onward, spurred by motives in our wand'rings here and there, sometimes led by hope alluring, sometimes halted by despair; but the life that travels farthest on that deeper strength depends, for with love, there is no turning; when love dies the journey ends. 2 back across the broken foothills, with a courage none can feel till the burning pangs of sorrow turn the heart-strings into steel; back across the winter's playground, tracing out the paths he trod, with each muttered execration ending in a prayer to god. blasts that howled with fiendish laughter, by their loud derisive cry seemed to mock his labored progress as they passed him swiftly by; icy, blizzard-driven snowflakes into ghost-like fancies whirled, painting on the barren canvas, gaunt death battling for the world. 3 back across the snow-strewn desert, fighting famine face to face, trusting to his horse to take him to each former camping place. once zeb stopped beside a snowdrift with a loud and startling neigh; tried to tell his half-dazed master where his mate, old simon, lay. pressing on, he reached the border of nebraska's whitened plain, where his mind in maudlin fancies yielded to the bitter strain, as he saw far in the distance, like a battered mast at sea, once again the twisted branches of the lone and friendly tree. [illustration: "once again the twisted branches of the lone and friendly tree."] 4 "git up, zeb. come, see! she's waving! waving there for you and me. see her there, so white and pretty, standing by our friend, the tree! quit that stumbling! now then, streak it! hit the gait you used to do when we hired out for the round up and you beat the first one through. there she is! there's where i saw her when we stayed there all that night; though 'twas dark, i saw her riding, by those flashing threads of light; she's been waiting! oh, i left her in this awful lonely place! god forgive me! nancy! hear me! oh, that face--that poor white face!" 5 one cold morning, old zach baxter, riding o'er this snowbound sea saw a famished pony standing near a queer and lonely tree. from his frost-encrusted nostrils came a plaintive whinny, low, as the man rode up beside him struggling through the drifted snow. when the old man tried to lead him, he refused to turn away; but he pawed the drift beneath him, where his stricken master lay. and below the cold, white cover, in a deathlike stupor deep, old zach found a sorry stranger shrouded for his last long sleep. 6 tearing at the ragged bundle lodged between the horse's feet, clutching at the frozen blanket, brushing back the crusted sleet, faithful in his rude endeavors, rousing by his loud commands, roughly shaking, turning, rubbing, zach breathed on his face and hands; till the stiffened limbs responded and the closed eyes opened wide, dazed and puzzled at the stranger working fiercely at his side. billy felt the strong arms raise him, felt the frost king's stinging breath as he struggled, half unconscious, in the wav'ring fight with death. 7 in the east, the sun dogs glistened like tall shafts of marble, bright, o'er the whitened grave of nature,- ghostly spires of frozen light, flying frost flakes snapping, sparkling, dancing in a wild display, turned into a mist of diamonds as they mocked the newborn day. 8 old zach's pony bearing double, reeking steam from every pore, reached at last the covered pathway leading to the dug-out door. with his arms clasped tight round billy, zach half dragged his helpless load through the lowly, mud-walled entrance of his rudely built abode. there, upon the narrow bunk bed spread with nondescript attire, zach enfolded him in wrappings while he started up a fire; and no nurse, however skillful, whatsoever her degree, ever gave more loyal service to a patient, than did he. 9 poor and meager were the comforts of zach's cave-like prairie home, permeated with the odor of the fresh-dug virgin loam. pungent wreaths of smoke, slow drifting, floated lazily above, to the dried grass of the ceiling from the cracked and rusty stove. willow poles athwart for rafters sagged beneath the dirt roof's strain, and a piece of grease-smeared paper formed the only window-pane. in the center, on the dirt floor stood a table-like affair fashioned from a wagon end-gate, where zach spread his scanty fare. 10 there for weeks lay billy, helpless, racked with mad'ning fever pains, as the burning sun of summer scorches sere the desert plains. then he lay with cold, white features and the feeble, scarce drawn breath, as the silent winter prairie lies beneath its shroud of death. ofttimes when the raging sickness sent the hot blood to his brain, he would point with frantic gesture to the dingy window pane, calling in excited mutterings, eyes transfixed in frenzied fright-"there she is! now, can't you see her? see her face there in the light!" 11 then old zach would try to soothe him in his simple-hearted way; "she won't hurt you," he would tell him, "i'll go drive her clear away. i've seen things--now listen, pardner- those things happened once to me once down there in old dodge city, winding up a three weeks' spree. what you see is jest a 'lusion, 'cause you're crazy in your head; when your thinker's runnin' proper you'll find 'she' is gone or dead. there, now, pardner, see what this is! ain't it purty? your tin cup; found a little pinch o' coffee. that's the boy, now, drink it up!" 12 when the breeze of spring in whispers stirred the withered bunch-grass plume, humming hymns of resurrection over nature's silent tomb, and the fleeing clouds of heaven, bending low at god's command, spilled their tribute from the ocean on the long-forsaken land, and the sun, with mellow kindness spread abroad his softened rays, calling bud and blade and blossom from their sleep of many days, billy heard, at last, the music of the glad earth's jubilee, felt a new strength stir within him, and a longing to be free. 13 one day, o'er the hill's low summit, whence the prairie dipped away, there appeared a moving wagon with its canvas patched and gray, like a vessel on the ocean under taut and close-reefed sail, rising slowly on the billows heaped up by the driving gale. veering towards the little dug-out, making for a friendly shore, heaving to, the schooner anchored close beside the open door. loud and hearty were the greetings, for the driver of the team was tom frothingham, a neighbor, who had lived near billy's claim. 14 bit by bit he told the story- how he'd wandered all around since he left his kansas homestead and the folks near north pole mound; how he'd traveled all through texas with the roving fever on, camping oft in strange new places, where no other soul had gone. so the news, now half forgotten in his absence from the place, came in broken recollections- careful efforts to retrace all the incidents of interest to the sick one listening there, who, with pale and careworn features, heard the story with despair. 15 "three weeks after you left kansas i hitched up and came away. still, i reckoned you intended to improve your claim and stay; for your eighty was a picture- running spring and good clear land-everything a body needed for a starter, right at hand. well, some others left 'fore i did- you remember mac, of course, how he got the moving notion when bill kelly missed his horse? chased him clear to old man's crossing, so i heard the posse say; thought they had him fairly cornered, but, by jings! he got away. 16 "there are stranger things than fiction; what is natural may seem queer, so i s'pose we needn't wonder at the things we see out here. one thing happened since you left there that i call a burning shame-did you know that rope-necked johnson jumped your eighty-acre claim? last i saw him, he was plowing, and he laughed and tried to joke: said 'twas kind of you to leave him all the ground that you had broke; said your house was so untidy he was sleeping out of doors, till he got a girl to help him wash the pans and scrub the floors. 17 "lots of people coming in there from most every foreign land-massachusetts and missouri- made a mess i couldn't stand. every man that's made of manhood wants to live where he is free, so i'm bound to keep on moving when they get to crowding me. then another thing that happened: puzzled every one around when they heard one morning early, that bill kelly's horse was found. aleck rose told me about it after i had packed and gone; said the mare strayed in the dooryard with mac's steel-horn saddle on." 18 as each day in steady conquest charged the ranks of fleeing night, winning back the stolen hours with their golden spears of light; as the living in all nature felt that mighty spirit's sway, so the sick man caught the power and his illness wore away. one clear morning, as aurora silver-tinted all the plain, in his weatherbeaten saddle billy took the trail again. "good by, boy," old zach repeated, "i'm most sure you'll never see any more o' them 'ere 'lusions, anyway, what you called 'she.'" 19 day by day the low horizon spread its narrow circle round, as if fate had drawn a barrier, and forbade advance beyond. though the journey dragged on slowly, night time brought its sure reward, for the added miles behind him stretched at length to mingo's ford, where the breeze bore from the upland broken fragments of the song of the cowboy with his cattle, as he drove the strays along; where the voice of flowing water and the treble of the birds, swelled the hallowed evening anthem to the bass of lowing herds. 20 then the trail along the solomon where the timber, making friends with the ever-widening valley, filled the rounded river bends; then the rankling recollection, as he passed some well-known place where before, with hope and vigor, he had sped in fruitless chase. then the lonely camp at nightfall, where the wind in monotone thrummed the harp strings of the grass stems, breathing low its song, "alone!" where the stars, fixed in the heavens, to his upturned face would say, with their heartless glint of distance, "she thou seek'st is far away." 21 then the long, far-reaching bottoms rank with withered blue-joint grass, with its broken stems entangled in a matted jungle mass; then across the higher prairie, searching out a shorter way, to the creek that joined the river where mac crossed and got away; then the twinge of bitter sorrow as he neared his journey's end, and beheld the fringe of timber on the banks of old man's bend, where no living sign or token broke the gloom that brooded there, save a solitary buzzard floating idly in the air. 22 from these high and broken hilltops he could trace the river's flow, and the creek's untamed meandering, with its looplike bend below, seeming in the light of evening like a giant serpent there, which had coiled about its victim, and lay resting in its lair. breaking through the tangled brushwood as the night was coming on, creeping down the steep embankment where the muddy waters run, billy crossed within the timber where the shroud of deeper gloom, and its chilling breath of darkness marked the hidden prairie tomb. 23 as the soul in deep communion, seeks some isolated bower where the body's sordid cravings yield beneath the spirit's power, so the searcher, bowed in reverence, left untouched his evening fare as he listened to the voices of the shadows gathering there. here no lighted torch or camp fire with its weak and fitful ray, could illume the mystic journey of prayer's consecrated way. here the silence brought its message of forebodings, vague and deep, in its visions to the dreamer, through the mystery of sleep. 24 in his dreams he saw a monarch decked in sumptuous array, seated on a throne of glory, bearing royal title, day. then some mighty power transcendent, thrust him from his gorgeous throne, turning all the realm to darkness, and the world was left alone. as the shades of gloom were spreading, by strange flashing threads of light he beheld in dim-drawn outline, on the background of the night, phantom horse and girlish rider, speeding on in reckless race, till she turned directly toward him and he saw her fearless face. 25 then, behold! the king returning with a pageantry so bright, that the shadow-clad usurpers fled in ignominious fright. as he saw the hosts approaching through a cloud of battle smoke, charging wildly down upon him, he, in sudden fear, awoke. as he looked, the blackened heavens splashed with demon-tinted blood from the hue of burning prairie throbbed above the fiery flood. leaping o'er the rounded bluff-tops, down the valley's long incline, he could see the lurid column spread its blazing battle line. 26 like a troop of charging horsemen sweeping on with maddened roar, mowing down the grass battalions, crackling flames swept all before. then the driftwood's rifted breastwork, left there by the waters high, flashed up in a hissing furnace, as the red-armed fiends leaped by. clinging to the swaying saddle and the plunging horse's mane, billy dashed through falling embers to the level, open plain. on the right and left, the head fires rushing on at furious pace, stretched beside the horse and rider in the life-and-death-fought race. 27 here the gale with venomed fury met in vortex from afar, raising high the flaming pennons of the fiery fiends of war. flashing by, the blazing grass stems sped like arrows through the air, falling on the distant prairie, kindling fresh fires everywhere. pressing through the low-flung smoke clouds- stifling fumes of hades' breath-fiercer with each flying moment drove those scorching blasts of death. thrice his horse, 'neath quirt and rowel bravely struggling, almost fell, as he fled in desperation o'er the trail that led through hell. 28 one poor singed and panting coyote through the perils of the ride hemmed in by the flames pursuing ran close by the horse's side. scarce a meager pace behind them, pressing hard the coyote's rear, raced a frantic old jack rabbit, ears laid low in speed and fear. reaching now a stretch of upland, here the coyote changed his course, breaking through the narrow side-fire, followed fast by hare and horse; and, upon the smoking prairie over which the fire had passed, steaming horse and stricken rider found a breathing space at last. [illustration: "fiercer with each flying moment drove those scorching blasts of death."] 29 when the morning sun in splendor rose upon the blackened plain, his red beams revealed the lover back at old man's bend again. waist deep in its soothing waters bathing blistered brow and hands; while near by, in pain a-tremble, faithful zeb impatient stands. through the bend he searched and wandered, but except the furrowed bark, of a gnarled and aged elm tree which revealed one bullet-mark, naught was left save blackened embers; and the words he "knew in part"-"dust to dust and then to ashes"- told the story of his heart. 30 back along the solomon river, trailing towards the humble claim he had lost when love and duty fired his soul to "being game"; back, across the beaver fordway, where love first had found the track, now returning with the rankling sting of hate to bring him back-hate, that hunger made more bitter when his last jerked beef was gone; climbing trees to cut off branches for his horse to browse upon; back, where once the flower-decked prairie, spread its bloom of hope and bliss, now a blackened field of mourning, from the fire of one sweet kiss. 31 till one day, he saw beyond him, in the distance, purple crowned, that old monarch of the prairie, guard of ages, north pole mound. then the field where zeb and simon pulled the old sod-breaking plow stretching like a narrow ribbon on the land that lay below. now the horse's steps grew lighter as he passed each well-known sign of the old familiar landscape, and they crossed the eighty's line, where the spring of running waters gave envenomed purpose birth, as he drank its bubbling offering from the pulsing heart of earth. 32 then, ascending from the hollow, full before his eyes appeared home--his home--the low-walled sodhouse which his toiling hands had reared. near the straw shed stood the wagon he had brought from wichita, and beneath the grass-fringed gable hung his trusty crosscut saw. in the dooryard, near the window, lay the broken homemade chair, where, at evening, love-born fancies revelled, as he rested there; love, whose scattered seed had fallen on a mystic field of fate, where the tangled vine extending bore the bitter fruit of hate. 33 hurrying nearer, he dismounted, trembling with the rage he felt, as he cast aside the bridle and drew taut his cartridge belt. throwing down his torn sombrero, there, before the tight-closed door, on the cowardly usurper loud and bitter vengeance swore. "come, you dirty, green-scummed scoundrel, with your sneaking 'plan or two'! just come out, you rope-necked buzzard! see how far you'll put them through. you can keep the eighty acres, hell will write your pedigree, but i'll rub your crooked nose-piece in the dirt you stole from me. 34 "come outside, you sneaking coyote! if you've got a drop of man in your greasy, thieving carcass, finish up what you began." fiercer grew his coarse invective, louder yet his taunting calls, when no answer to his challenge came from out the low sod walls. uncontrolled, his furious anger spoke in quick and murderous roar as he pumped his old six-shooter through the barred and bolted door. when he paused the rude door opened, and before its splintered place stood the vision of the shadows, and he saw her fearless face. 35 as the artist in his painting plans the background to enhance all the beauty of his subject both in pose and countenance, so the poor and dark interior lent its gloom to magnify all the power and witching beauty of her face and lustrous eye. standing there, a pictured goddess sketched against a lowering storm, bearing on her pallid features that supernal gift of calm. 36 "nancy! woman! god in heaven, speak, girl! can this thing be true? are you here with that--that scoundrel, after all that i've gone through? do you stand there, fiend or human, after lending him your hand, first to break an honest spirit, then to steal away my land? must a man who loves a woman like a devil's imp be driven through the tortures of damnation for a single glimpse of heaven? tell me where the cur is hiding- i've no wish to hurt his bride, but i'll braid a twelve-foot bull whip from his dirty, yaller hide! 37 "speak to me and tell me, woman, how the god in heaven above starts the fires of hell a-burning from a spark of human love; why he ever made a woman who could play a fickle part; why he ever made a fellow with his soul tied to his heart; why he made life just a gamble- i can't talk the way i feel-in the game that i've been playing, you know this ain't no square deal! i will go away and leave you, but 'twould kind o' ease the pain if you'd only tell me, nancy- if you'd try--to--just explain. [illustration: "standing there, a pictured goddess sketched against a lowering storm."] 38 "if you wouldn't stand there looking with a face of livid white like the specter of the prairie that i saw one horrid night, riding through the endless darkness like a being doomed from birth just to roam outside of heaven and denied a place on earth. say one word to me! speak, nancy, if you have a voice and live! tell the worst, e'en though you ask me to be patient and forgive. i will listen--i will suffer- i will do the best i can; nancy, sweetheart! hear the pleading of a broken-hearted man," 39 "see here, billy! you gone crazy? charging like you got a fit? johnson ain't in--just at present- won't you stop and rest a bit? don't act strange. there's no hard feelings, though i've never seen before any man that knocked like you did on a peaceful neighbor's door. come right in; now, don't be backward, like old times to have _you_ 'round! you look tired, like you'd traveled over quite a stretch of ground. sit right here in this old rocker; johnson fixed it up one day, feeling certain you would never come meandering 'round this way. 40 "don't get up and act uneasy, rest yourself, now, if you can, you don't mind me like jim johnson- he's a most obedient man. you went off and left your eighty, roaming where the luck-wind blows, like a tumbleweed in winter, where you've been, lord only knows. while jim's gone we'll talk together, as we used to, months ago, when i tried to quench the burning of a love i didn't know. listen, billy, while i tell you all about my 'fickle part'; when i'm done you may know better how god made a woman's heart. 41 "while you're resting, i'll get supper, though there ain't much here to eat, 'cepting bran, to make some muffins, and a little rabbit meat. wish i had that pinch of coffee i saved up for--oh, so long, till one day i went and used it, though i somehow felt 'twas wrong; for i kind o' thought that sometime some one might be coming here worn out with a long, long journey, and would crave that kind o' cheer. now, then, billy, draw your stool up; what we've got is scant and plain-i ain't hungry--honest--billy, while you eat--why--i'll 'explain.'" nancy's story 1 "i went off and left you, billy, 'cause i'm used to being free, and i love my dear old daddie- he has been so good to me. ever since i learned to toddle we've been living on the run, and my first and only playthings were a saddle and a gun. when i went away with daddie, after trav'ling nigh a week, we were caught up by the posse in the bend on old man's creek. think i'd let them take my daddie? no: i held them all at bay, while the boys hitched up the horses, crossed the creek and got away. 2 "i just told them i would follow after all the fuss was through, but instead, all night i wandered, thinking all the time of you; for when we were last together you cast over me a spell that just seemed to change my nature, in a way that words can't tell; for it left a fire a-burning like a live and glowing coal, that at length blazed into longing till i craved with all my soul to be back, somehow, where you were, and to hear you tell once more that you loved me. that man-story i had never heard before. 3 "then i trailed back o'er the prairie, riding steady every night, picking out the wildest country with my luck to guide me right. when i'd see the hungry morning eat the stars up in the east, i would hide in gulch or timber like a wild and hunted beast. how i learned to love the darkness as it spread its mighty arm, close around me, like a lover, fondly shielding me from harm! and i knew the sweet caresses of the earth and sky above, as the night's mysterious voices soothed me with their tale of love. 4 "then i'd ride like forty devils just to catch upon my face all the kisses which the tempest pressed upon me in the race. how i thought of poor old daddie, whom, perhaps, i'd see no more if i went clear back to your place, while he hurried on before! i could hardly bear the burden when i'd think of--both of you; but that fire you set a-burning, one night told me what to do-i would see and ask you, billy, if you wouldn't go with me where we both could be with daddie, way out west, where he must be. 5 "then at last the night that loved me, turned its pent-up furies loose, roaring out on me its anger and unpitying abuse. how the rain beat down upon me! how the lightning burned its track through the clouds of storm and thunder as i reached your sod-walled shack! all was dark within, and quiet, when i rapped upon the door. then i saw the flash of matches and the lamplight on the floor; heard you stomp your heavy boots on, heard you walk and draw the bar, but the door, when thrown wide open, showed jim johnson standing thar. 6 "'what you doing here?' i shouted, when i saw his hateful leer; 'tell me what this means, jim johnson. where is billy? ain't he here?' he was standing on the doorstep, and the light that shone within seemed to twist his wrinkled features in a sort of wonder-grin. 'well! well! nancy! sure's i'm livin'! out there in the pouring wet! sure i'll care for you, miss nancy, i'll protect you, don't you fret! i'm a friend that you can count on, does me good to see your face! come in, gal, and dry your garments, you have struck the very place!' 7 "you don't blame me, do you, billy, if i did go in and stay, warming by your stove and fire, just to hear what he would say? i will try to tell his story as he told it, if i can, putting in what i remember of his 'interesting plan.' 'now, then, gal, i heard you calling as you stood there in the dark, on a fellow, named bill truly, but you shot 'way off the mark. billy ain't here now, and further, he won't be here, you can bet; anyhow, that's what he told me two weeks past, when we last met. 8 "'when your folks all skipped the country i decided i'd move, too; thought perhaps you'd get in trouble and i'd try to help you through; so i got beyond the posse, rode like fire upon your track, found your dad, and _you_ not with him, so i turned and came right back. riding home along the solomon,- for the truth i pledge my word-i met billy with his horses three miles east of mingo's ford. stopped and shook my hand and told me he was so far on his way to a ranch 'way up in utah, where he'd made his plans to stay. 9 "'said he wanted to be friendly, so the things that he had left, if i cherished no hard feelings, i could look on as his gift. "if you come across miss nancy you can say to her for me, that i've got another sweetheart, and that she is wholly free." billy'd never do to tie to- he's too fickle, gal, for you-so i just propose to offer you a man that will stay true. i have worked it out, miss nancy- it's the problem of my life; i have planned that you shall stay here as my own dear little wife.' 10 "'look here, johnson! you're a liar, when you say he's set me free! when you met him there at mingo's he had gone to hunt for me. don't you dare to touch me, scoundrel! don't you dare to slur his name! you're a cur--a thief--jim johnson! you have jumped my sweetheart's claim. don't you dare to venture near me! or you'll wish you'd not begun. all your schemes and double dealings, all your hatched-up plans are done. you start now and pack your fixin's! don't you leave the smallest bit! every filthy thing you own here, pack it up--you dog, and _git!_' 11 "he was standing there uncertain, and i felt to clinch his throat; but, instead, i shot--to scare him- all the buttons off his coat. then i pumped two in the corner, where he'd sunk down on his knees-slit his ear and cut his collar, never listening to his pleas. told him if he didn't mosey i would plant his carcass whole, in a grave i'd dig that evening on the eighty he had stole. then he promised, but i chased him 'way across the old saline, and so far as i have knowledge, he has never since been seen. 12 "when i got back here 'fore morning, thought of having kelly's mare, so i rode her to his stable and i left her standing there. for i knew that you'd consider twas the proper thing to do, if you came back here and found me holding down your claim for you. but i felt right sorry, billy, when i looked around next day, in the box there in the corner where the pans and dishes lay; for in fixing for my breakfast, my! the crockery was slim! more than half of it was busted by the bullets fired at jim: [illustration: "but, instead, i shot, to scare him, all the buttons off his coat."] 13 "i forgot to tell you, billy, that for thirteen months or more, you're the only man that's ever crossed the threshold of that door. i have stayed alone and waited, full of faith that you would come, so that i--might go to daddie, and that you'd--have back your home. though perhaps i've sometimes suffered from the cold and from the heat, and i've gone for days together, here, without a bite to eat, 'twasn't hunger of the body that i craved to satisfy, i was starved for--you--and daddie, as the weary weeks trailed by. 14 "how i tried to think and reason why the fire from one caress turned my burning, yearning spirit to a cinder of distress. some one told me, i remember, long ago when i was small, god made every star up yonder, everything--the world and all. then i thought that in his workshop, up there in the heavens above, he had made that curious hunger of the heart that we call love. p'r'aps my troubles and the waiting stirred me to this queer-like whim; but i couldn't help it, billy, i just had to talk to him. 15 "in the night, when god wa'n't busy and could hear the slightest sound, i would venture from my hiding to the top of north pole mound. i was sure he'd never let his angels come out this-a-way, but would use the wind to carry, prayers out here, that people pray. so i'd hold my hands, and stopping gusts that tried to struggle free, tell them this here simple message they must take to you from me: 'please, dear god, won't you tell billy that i'm holding down his claim? he don't come 'cause he's in trouble. thank you, god. he ain't to blame.'" 16 long before her honest story faltered to its hallowed close, pushing back his untouched supper, tremblingly her guest arose. vain for him to curb emotion, or to stammer out his praise through a storm of rude devotion, cast in halting human phrase. vain for him to frame a message never meant for words to tell, at the joy of reaching heaven by that trail that led through hell. but his fervent benediction was a passionate embrace, and the amen love's own ending, as he kissed her fearless face. university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 10, no. 3, pp. 77-127, 2 pls., 7 figs. in text, 4 tables december 31, 1956 the forest habitat of the university of kansas natural history reservation by henry s. fitch and ronald l. mcgregor university of kansas lawrence 1956 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, a. byron leonard, robert w. wilson volume 10, no. 3, pp. 77-127, 2 pls., 7 figs. in text, 4 tables published december 31, 1956 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by ferd voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1956 26-3855 the forest habitat of the university of kansas natural history reservation by henry s. fitch and ronald l. mcgregor introduction in northeastern kansas, before it was disturbed by the arrival of white settlers in the eighteen fifties, tall grass prairies and deciduous forests were both represented. these two contrasting types of vegetation overlapped widely in an interdigitating pattern which was determined by distribution of moisture, soil types, slope exposure and various biotic factors. the early explorers who saw this region, and the settlers who came later, left only incomplete descriptions, which were usually vague as to the locality and the species of plants represented. as a result, there is but little concrete information as to the precise boundaries between the forests and grasslands, and opinions differ among ecologists. no representative sample of either type remains. it may be assumed that the plant communities existing one hundred years ago and earlier were far more stable than those of the present that have resulted from man's disruptive activities. this stability was only relative, however. within the last few thousand years since the final withdrawal of the wisconsinan ice sheet, fairly rapid and continual change must have occurred, as a result of changing climate, the sudden extinction of various large, dominant mammals, and finally the impact of successive aboriginal cultures. the land north of the kansas river had been a reserve for the delaware indians. this land was thrown open to settlement as a result of two separate purchases from the tribe, in 1860 and 1866. the alluvial bottomlands were fertile and soon were under cultivation. history because the prairies and forests were soon destroyed or altered by cow, ax, plow and fire, knowledge of the region's ecology under the conditions that prevailed in the early nineteenth century and the centuries before must be gained largely from circumstantial evidence. although there were no ecologists among the first settlers in kansas, occasional glimpses of the region's ecology are afforded by the writings of early residents who mentioned native plant and animal life from time to time. however, such mention was usually casual and fragmentary. a brief early description of forest in northeastern kansas, which is casual and incomplete, and perhaps misleading, since it differs from later accounts, was included in major w. s. long's report of the exploring expedition that passed through country now included in johnson, douglas, shawnee, wabaunsee, riley, pottawatomie, jackson, jefferson and leavenworth counties in 1819. "the catalogue of the forest trees in this region is not very copious. the cottonwood and the plane tree [sycamore] everywhere form conspicuous features of the forests. with these are intermixed the tall and graceful acacia, the honey locust, and the bonduc, or coffee-tree, and carya [hickory] and fraxinus [ash] ..." (taft, 1950:442). a description of the country in northern douglas county and adjacent leavenworth county, while it was still in virtually undisturbed condition, was written by mr. george s. parks (1854). travelling up the kansas river from the missouri state line he described the vegetation and physiography with respect to specific landmarks that can be easily located at the present time. his descriptions of the areas he saw that were nearest the reservation, are quoted below, in part. [travelling west from near the mouth of stranger creek 10 miles ese reservation.] "... bluff with open woods and high rolling prairie in background. on the south side of the river ... grass and scattering timber forming a green lawn back with high prairie. in this neighborhood the shore is rocky. we passed a bald bluff on the north, with a rich bottom on the south side, and a high open lawn in the rear. a little farther on the elevated prairies strike the river, giving a charming variety of scenery--while on the north are extended bottoms of rich timbered lands. "in this vicinity we saw many indians along the banks; we also passed a grape thicket, in the bottom, spread over several thousand acres--while just above, on our right, rose a rocky bluff, covered with open woods. a little above this sugar creek empties into the kansas, from the right; and a little farther up, there is a low bluff--a short distance beyond, there being another fine grape thicket, and rich walnut bottom. on the right side of the river ... rises a beautiful undulating eminence ... open woods and a fine prairie about a mile back. "on the left, a short distance above, the wakarusa flows in--a considerable stream--with good timber for some way back. "on both sides of the river, above the wakarusa, there are excellent bottom lands; ... farther up on the south bank, the high prairie comes down to the water's edge.... away as far as the eye could reach in a southwest direction, the prairies were high and rolling, like the waves of old ocean--southward, beautiful groves dot the prairie and the dark line of timber that stretches along the wakarusa valley--with the great prairie-mound ... fixed there as a landmark of perpetual beauty--the meandering river with its dark skirting forests of timber on the north ... proceeding north, high rich bottoms extend for many miles and we saw vast thickets of grape-vines, pea-vines etc. and paw-paws. the timber was principally oak, walnut, ash, hickory, mulberry, hackberry, linden, cottonwood and coffee-bean. [between the reservation and the mouth of the delaware river, 10 miles west.] "a few miles below the mouth of the grasshopper [delaware] on the north the prairie undulates gradually back from the river as far as the eye can reach ... between the grasshopper and mud creek there is a prairie bottom where pioneers are making claims." in 1855 mrs. sara t. d. robinson, wife of dr. charles robinson who was the first governor of kansas, described in her diary the environs of lawrence (1899). in part, the areas described by her overlap those described by parks, and both writers impart similar impressions. mrs. robinson's writing was concerned chiefly with the social and political affairs of the territory and the occasional comments on the "scenery" in her voluble accounts must be regarded as impressions rather than purposeful and accurate descriptions, as certain inconsistencies are apparent. excerpts from several of her more significant descriptive passages are quoted below. [between lawrence and kansas city, april 17, 1855.] "... prairie stretching in all directions, noble forests marking the line of the rivers and creeks, ... tall oaks and walnuts grouped in admirable arrangement ... there were deep ravines ... skirted with graceful trees, while the water in their pebbly beds is limpid and clear." [north of wakarusa crossing.] "... stumps in every direction in the woods ..." [at lawrence, april 18, 1855.] "the town reaches to the river, whose further shore is skirted with a line of beautiful timber, while beyond all rise the delaware lands, which in the distance have all the appearance of cultivated fields and orchards.... a line of timber between us and blue mound marks the course of the wakarusa, while beyond the eye rests upon a country diversified in surface, sloping hills, finely rolling prairies, and timbered creeks ... to the northwest there is the most delightful mingling together of hill, valley, prairie, woodland, and river ... fine grove about a mile west of town, one of nature's grand old forests." [on trip to visit a neighbor four miles away from lawrence.] "there were high, conical hills, bearing on their tops forest trees, with dense, thick foliage; at the next moment a little shady nook, with a silvery rivulet running over its pebbly bed...." [on trip west toward topeka.] "timber was more abundant, not only marking the line of the creeks, but crowning the summit of many an elevation." [at lawrence.] "lawrence and its surroundings, of river flowing beneath the dim forests two miles deep on the north bank...." parks' and robinson's accounts seem to show that in general bottomlands and stream courses were wooded, and uplands were mainly prairie, but that local deviations from this pattern were numerous, with trees and groves isolated or partly isolated in a variety of situations. this condition suggests that prairies were then encroaching into formerly wooded areas. a climatic shift toward hotter and drier conditions, or a change in native practices, with more frequent burning, might have brought about the trend. further information concerning the distribution and composition of the forest is afforded by a series of letters from the settlers at lawrence, kansas, that were printed in various boston newspapers and in the milwaukee daily sentinel, in 1854, 1855, and 1856. in nine such letters which discuss, among other things, the availability of timber, several kinds of trees are listed. oak (species not mentioned), black walnut, and cottonwood are each listed in seven of the nine letters, while elm, hickory and "white walnut" are each listed in two, and ash, hackberry, sycamore, basswood, willow and locust are each mentioned only once. copies of these letters are in the files of dr. james c. malin, to whom we are much indebted for the privilege of examining them, and for his critical reading of parts of the manuscript. early u. s. government maps of northeastern kansas show the distribution of forest in the late eighteen fifties, and in general the pattern agrees well with that indicated by the accounts of parks and robinson. through the kindness of dr. malin, we have been permitted to examine his photostatic copies of a series of these early maps, covering the area discussed in our study, and made in the period extending from 1855 through 1860. a tracing taken from parts of two of these maps, showing the kansas river north and east of lawrence, and the area between the river and the north boundary of douglas county, is reproduced in fig. 1. for comparison, a map of the same area showing the stream courses and the distribution of timber, as traced from recent u. s. geological survey maps, is reproduced in fig. 2. the early maps agree with parks' and robinson's descriptions in showing an extensive belt of timber in the flood plain north of the river, and narrower belts of timber along its tributary streams. in fig. 1 the courses of the kansas river and of mud creek agree fairly well with those shown on modern maps, but there are gross errors in the minor drainage systems of the sections of land in the northeastern part. other evidence indicates that the distribution of forest was much different than that shown in this part of the map. field work by the map-makers in this marginal area must have been extremely sketchy. dr. malin explains that such inaccuracies are to be expected because the contracts for mapping were made on a political basis, with little or no regard for other qualifications of the applicant. the university of kansas natural history reservation is in the northeasternmost section (section 4, township 12s, range 20e) of douglas county, kansas. topographically, it is almost evenly divided into three parts: (1) peninsular extensions of the kansas river valley, sloping gradually up to a level approximately 100 feet above that of the flood plain; (2) hilltops 200 feet or more above the level of the flood plain; (3) steep slopes from the hilltops to the valley floor. the land that is now the reservation was part of a tract acquired in the eighteen sixties by former governor charles robinson, after the delaware reserve lands in the northeastern part of kansas territory were sold by the tribe. the section of land now comprising the reservation was used primarily for grazing after robinson acquired it. however, several squatters settled on the area and cultivated small acreages for periods of years in the eighteen seventies and eighteen eighties. in the eighteen nineties parts of the area including some of the hillsides were still covered with a mixed forest of virgin timber (_fide_ frank h. leonhard in conversation, october 19, 1951). mr. leonhard, who was long in the employ of the charles robinson family, remembered the area as far back as the early eighteen nineties when he worked on it cutting timber. he remembered, especially, cutting large walnut trees as much as two feet in diameter, which were valuable timber, but he thought that elm also was abundant at that time. by then the area, separated into east and west halves by a rock wall, had already been heavily grazed, and the original prairie vegetation, presumably dominated by big bluestem, had been much altered. the open upland portions were dominated by blue grass. [illustration: fig. 1. tracing from early (1855-60) u. s. government maps of northeastern douglas county, kansas, and adjacent western edge of leavenworth county, showing stream courses and approximate distribution of woodland before deforestation had occurred. section 4 to right of center at upper edge of figure, is now mostly included in the university of kansas natural history reservation. note inaccuracies in drainage systems on this part of map as compared with fig. 2.] [illustration: fig. 2. tracing from 1950 u.s. geological survey maps of same area shown in fig. 1, indicating present distribution of woodland, and the pattern of drainage systems.] by about 1900 control of the area had passed to the j. f. morgan family. the homesteads had long since been deserted and the entire area was used for grazing (_fide_ j. f. morgan, in conversation, january 13, 1952). parts of the bottomland were fenced and broken for cultivation in 1907, 1912, and 1915, and hilltop fields were first cultivated in 1909. tree cutting was more or less continual. many of the old stumps still present on the area are remnants of the trees cut in the "twenties" or even earlier. several acres of hilltop and south slope in the northwest corner of the area were protected from livestock and maintained for harvesting of prairie hay. the hay was mowed annually, and the vegetation was burned at less frequent intervals, usually in early spring. this treatment served to kill encroaching woody vegetation and to maintain a prairie type. in the mid-thirties control of the area passed to the university of kansas. at that time a program of development was launched by the university and the u. s. soil conservation service with relief labor (_fide_ c. g. bayles in conversation, november 10, 1953). the work included: filling gullies, digging diversion ditches and building check dams and terraces to prevent erosion; clearing extensive thickets; bindweed eradication from the cultivated areas; and fencing off the wooded hillsides from the valley and hilltop pastures for protection from livestock. this work extended over several years, and one main objective was to utilize the area for growing timber. however, plans to make extensive plantings of walnut and other valuable timber never materialized. in the forties the check dams fell into disrepair. the area was leased to a farmer and was again heavily overgrazed. in this period there was some tree-cutting by the university's department of buildings and grounds and by farmers, but this cutting was not on a commercial scale and was mainly for firewood and fence posts. one of the chief results of fencing off the wooded hillsides was that shrubs and young trees, formerly held in check by livestock, were allowed to flourish. understory thickets sprang up throughout most of the woodland, and especially in edge situations. late in 1948, after the area had been made a reservation, livestock were excluded. in the years following, the parts of the closely grazed pastures adjacent to woodland passed through stages similar to those that had occurred 10 to 12 years earlier in the parts protected by fences. young trees and shrubs sprang up in thickets, the numbers and kinds depending on amount of shade, seed sources, soil, moisture, and various other factors. although most of the tree-cutting was done prior to 1934, annual growth rings are discernible on many of the old stumps, indicating the age of the tree at the time it was cut. occasionally the stumps produced sprouts which had grown into sizable trees by 1954. in such instances the year that the tree was cut and the year that it originally began growing could be determined from a study of the annual growth rings. in 54 instances ring counts were obtained from stumps or logs, or from trees that had been split and fallen in wind storms. stumps that were otherwise intact often had small central cavities an inch or more in diameter. for these it was necessary to estimate the numbers of missing rings in order to obtain a figure for the approximate total age of the tree at the time it was cut. many of the logs and stumps were so much decayed that growth rings were no longer distinct, and on most there were a few rings that were not clearly defined. in the majority of instances the time of cutting could not be determined accurately, but it is known that there was little tree-cutting after 1934 on most parts of the area. probably most of the stumps on the reservation that were well enough preserved to provide counts were from 20 to 30 years old. most of the counts of growth rings on chestnut oaks were obtained on a hillside adjoining the reservation where the trees were cut in the early nineteen forties. width of the annual growth rings reflects rapidity of growth in the tree and is determined, in part, by the amount of annual rainfall, especially in this region on the western edge of the deciduous forests where moisture is the chief limiting factor. periods of drought or of unusually heavy rainfall may result in growth rings smaller or larger than average. because the trees draw moisture from the deeper soil layer there is a lag in their response to precipitation, and a single year that is much wetter or much drier than those preceding or following it may not stand out clearly in the annual rings. in individual trees the effect of precipitation is often obscured by the effects of crowding and shading by competitors, injury or disease. none of the trees examined for growth rings reflected the annual precipitation accurately for long periods though some indication of known drought periods or of series of wet years were usually discernible. for 35 black oaks, chestnut oaks, and american elms, growth rings averaged 3.81 per inch of trunk diameter (according to size of the tree; 5.1 rings per inch in those trees 9 to 12 inches in diameter, 4.0 in those 13 to 15 inches, 3.6 in those 16 to 24 inches, and 2.8 in those of more than 24 inches). data from a few complete counts and many incomplete counts indicate that in _gleditsia triacanthos_ growth is much more rapid, with only 2 to 3 rings per inch of trunk diameter, whereas in _juglans nigra_, _celtis occidentalis_, _carya ovata_, and _fraxinus americana_ growth is much slower, with usually five or more growth rings per inch of trunk diameter. individual trees deviate widely from the average for their species, and those in rich bottomland soil grow more rapidly than those in shallow soil of hilltops or those on rocky slopes. if such factors are taken into account the ages of trees may be estimated from the diameters of their trunks. in mature trees growth slows; age is likely to be underestimated rather than overestimated in those of exceptionally large size. the belief that this and similar areas in northeastern kansas were virtually treeless at the time of occupation by white settlers is shown to be wholly unfounded by the information obtained from growth rings. the ring counts show that many trees now growing on the area and others cut within the last 30 years, but still represented by stumps, were already present in the eighteen sixties when the area was first occupied. a few trees on the area probably are much older, dating back to the early eighteen hundreds. as there are no virgin stands of timber, and the more valuable trees have been removed by selective cutting at various times, it is to be expected that there are few or no trees on the area approaching the potential longevity for their species. the many oaks and elms on the area that are more than two feet in trunk diameter mostly date back to the eighteen sixties or earlier. the distribution of the larger trees and stumps provides a clue as to the original distribution of forest and grassland on the area. there is no description available of the area that is now the reservation in its original condition. however, mrs. anna morgan ward (1945) has recorded comments on the appearance of the country in the section of land adjoining the reservation on the south, as it appeared when her family settled there in 1864. this land differed from that of the reservation, as it consists of low rolling hills, well drained with predominately south exposure, and with sandy soil. it adjoins the present flood plain of the kansas river, and consists partly of the old menoken terrace deposited in the pleistocene. the following excerpts from mrs. ward's manuscript are selected as most descriptive of the original vegetation on this section of land. [in southwest part of section near the morgan house.] "... some hills that were covered with jack oak trees ... here we found wild strawberries on the hillsides. and along the creeks we located gooseberry bushes, wild grapes, both summer and winter grapes, plums, and paw paws in the fall. we found a crabapple tree ... plenty of walnuts and hazel nuts." [hilly south-central part of section, the j. p. whitney farm.] "... on a hill among many small trees ... especially on the east were many trees." [less hilly southeastern part of section.] "... was open prairie and free grazing ground for many years...." much of the land in this section is now under cultivation but there are still hilltop groves of blackjack oak, probably in about the same places where mrs ward noticed them 90 years ago--south of the house that was formerly robinson's residence, and west across the county road, beside the oakridge school building, and on other knolls to the east and southeast. the bottomland areas of the reservation are mainly grassland and no old stumps remain to indicate that trees were formerly present. nevertheless, it might be expected that under original conditions these bottomland areas supported forests, as the soil is deep and rich with abundant moisture. also most of the early accounts agree that forests occurred mainly along stream courses in this region. presumably these areas were cut over early, because they were most accessible, and because they supported the best stands of timber. one of the best indications of the former vegetation on these bottomland areas is provided by old bleached shells of snails and certain other mollusks, brought to the surface by plowing in cultivated fields adjoining the reservation on the south and west (fitch and lokke, 1956). a high proportion of the shells are of species limited to humus soil, decaying logs, or leaf litter in moist woodlands (_stenotrema leai_, _retinella electrina_, _zonitoides arboreus_, _vertigo ovata_, _helicodiscus parallelus_), to wet places (_lymnaea parva_, _succinea avara_) or even to standing pools (_physa hawni_, _helisoma trivolvis_, _pisidium compressum_). no living mollusks could be found in these fields and none could be expected to survive on land that is cultivated annually. as a whole the assemblage seems to be indicative of a humid, poorly drained forest habitat. presumably most of the shells or all of them are more than 100 years old, antedating the time when the area was first disturbed by human activities, and also antedating the time when the creeks (now 15 feet or more below the fields) had begun to erode their channels. that the shell deposits are of no great antiquity, and represent conditions prevailing within the last few hundred years, is suggested by the fact that all are species still living in douglas county, and with one exception, all still live on the reservation. [illustration: fig. 3. tracing from a contour map made in 1914, of the two small valleys on the reservation, showing changed position of contour lines at gullies by 1952. as a result of overgrazing, and cultivation of part of the upland drainage area, there was relatively rapid erosion in the 38-year interval.] [illustration: fig. 4. map of university of kansas natural history reservation, with 20-foot contours, showing probable approximate distribution of forest in early eighteen hundreds (vertical lines show slopes and hilltops that are still wooded; grid pattern shows bottomlands that were formerly wooded but later cleared for pasture or cultivated crops). stippled areas show those slopes and hilltops now wooded seemingly as a result of recent reinvasion, that probably were bluestem prairie earlier. unshaded areas are relatively flat hilltops that are still grassland and are thought to have been bluestem prairie.] mrs. ward (_op. cit._) in her manuscript concerning the early history of grant township, mentioned the small creek that drains the east part of the reservation. evidently in the sixties it had a more constant flow, usually with clear water. later it eroded its channel, cutting a deep gully. presumably the water table has been much lowered. in his verbal reminiscences of the area, mr. j. f. morgan told us that in the nineties this stream had eroded its channel but little within the present limits of the reservation. in a period of years, 1902 to 1905 inclusive, when there was abnormally heavy rainfall, severe erosion occurred, and the saturated soil of several hillside areas slipped downhill to the extent of several feet vertical displacement. the ravine draining into the present pond from the north was known as "sunken canyon" because of such soil slips. however, a map of the reservation and surrounding areas made by the university of kansas department of civil engineering in 1914, shows that by that time relatively little gullying had occurred. comparison of this contour map with a more detailed one prepared in 1952 shows that the gullies had eroded their channels to depths more than 15 feet greater in some places, in the 38-year interval (fig. 3). in june and july, 1951, when there was unusually heavy rainfall, gullies deepened perceptibly. dozens of trees including many large mature elms, honey locusts, and osage orange, growing along the banks were undermined and fell into the gullies. composition of the forest under present conditions, every one of the larger tree species dominates at least some small part of the area. for reasons that are usually obscure, locations that seem otherwise similar differ in the kinds, numbers, and sizes of trees they support. probably most of these differences have arisen in the varying treatments under human occupation in the last 100 years. in the two valley areas, presumably heavily wooded under primitive conditions, the trees growing at present seem to be secondary invaders. they include groves and isolated trees of elm, honey locust, walnut, and osage orange, and an occasional red haw, hackberry, or coffee-tree. the hilltops likewise are chiefly open, but forest of the hillsides encroaches onto them for as much as 100 yards in some places. the slopes between the hilltops and the valleys are almost everywhere wooded, but the aspect of the woods changes from place to place. subdivisions on a vertical scale, might be recognized as follows: the upper limestone outcrop (plattsmouth member) at the hilltop; the usually steep slope strewn with rocks, between the upper and lower (toronto) limestone outcrop; the lower limestone outcrop; an almost level terracelike formation often approximately 50 feet wide a few feet below the level of the toronto limestone; the slope below the terrace, variable in steepness, exposure, and soil type, and usually several times more extensive than the first four subdivisions combined. along both the upper and lower outcrops, elm and hackberry are especially prominent. chestnut oak is abundant along the outcrops and on the rocky slope between them in some situations. ash grows abundantly on some upper slopes but there are few growing on the upper outcrop. on the terrace, elm, ash, hackberry, honey locust, coffee-tree and black oak are abundant. on the lower slopes grow most of the blackjack oaks, post oaks, red oaks and mulberries. even greater differences in the local aspect of woodland on the hillsides are caused by slope exposure. on south facing slopes, especially, the woodland is noticeably different from that in other situations, and of more xeric aspect. the climax species, _quercus muehlenbergii_, _q. rubra_, _q. velutina_ and _carya ovata_ are almost totally absent. such trees as are present are of small to medium size. they are mostly red elm, american elm, walnut, honey locust, hackberry, and osage orange, with dogwood (_cornus drummondii_) and plum (_prunus americanus_) forming dense thickets. occasional patches of prairie grasses remain in more exposed situations where they have not been shaded out. these, together with the small size of most of the trees, indicate that the south slopes have become wooded rather recently, and originally were prairie. nevertheless, the small remaining groves of blackjack oak and post oak are on slopes that face south, southeast, or southwest, and probably under original conditions they occupied these situations, separate from the forests of other hardwoods. slopes facing east, west, and north, are more similar in relative abundance of various kinds of trees, and they do not differ much from hilltop edges that are wooded. chestnut oak and hickory are most abundant on north slopes, and ash occurs mainly on north slopes. table 1.--percentages of larger trees (a foot or more in trunk diameter) on different slope exposures. -----------------------+----------+------------+---------+--------- | north | | west | south | slopes | hilltops | slopes | slopes -----------------------+----------+------------+---------+--------- elm | 35.7 | 38.6 | 25.8 | 51.4 chestnut oak | 22.0 | 18.3 | 17.8 | 2.9 hickory | 8.8 | 4.0 | 3.6 | 5.0 walnut | 8.8 | 5.8 | 19.6 | 12.1 ash | 7.1 | .8 | | .4 hackberry | 8.2 | 1.6 | 2.4 | 6.9 black oak | 3.3 | 16.4 | | 1.0 red oak | 2.2 | | 23.8 | locust | 1.8 | 7.5 | 1.9 | 11.6 osage orange | .5 | 1.5 | .2 | 5.3 sycamore | .5 | | 2.1 | .1 coffee-tree | | 1.2 | 2.4 | 1.0 cherry | | 2.4 | | .1 red haw | | .4 | | 1.3 ailanthus | | | | .3 mulberry | | .5 | | .1 cottonwood | | | | .1 redbud | | .8 | .2 | .1 boxelder | | .1 | | .3 blackjack oak | | | .2 | | | | | total trees in sample | 182 | 890 | 467 | 898 -----------------------+----------+------------+---------+---------table 1 shows the percentages of different kinds of trees a foot or more in trunk diameter on different slope exposures sampled. elm is almost always the dominant tree, making up from one-fourth to one-half of the total stand. the other species dominate relatively small areas. chestnut oak usually makes up a substantial part of the stand on hilltops and slopes of north, east, or west exposure. black oak, red oak, and walnut may be prominent on the east and west slopes. walnut and locust are prominent on south slopes. hickory usually has a trunk diameter of less than one foot, and, therefore, it is not prominent anywhere among the larger trees. table 2, showing ratios of medium-small trees (more than 6 inches and less than one foot in trunk diameter) demonstrates that hickory is one of the more prominent trees on hilltops and on slopes other than those of south exposure. invasion of fields in 1948 when the extensive open parts of the reservation were grazed and cultivated, small trees were inconspicuous and few. mature trees, with trunk diameters of 9 inches to more than two feet, were distributed over the pastured areas, however, with groves of american elm, honey locust, and walnut near the edges of the woods, and occasional scattered trees of these species and of osage orange, coffee-tree, red haw, hackberry, and ash. table 2.--percentages of different kinds of small trees (six inches to a foot in trunk diameter) on different slope exposures. ---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------- | north | hilltops | west | south | slopes | | slopes | slopes ---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------- | | | | elm | 29.6 | 29.9 | 34.6 | 57.9 chestnut oak | 29.6 | 17.5 | 15.5 | .4 hickory | 11.1 | 25.4 | 28.4 | .8 walnut | 5.6 | .7 | 7.4 | 5.3 hackberry | 13.0 | 1.0 | 3.7 | 26.4 black oak | 1.9 | 16.3 | | red oak | 1.9 | | 6.8 | locust | | 3.3 | | 3.0 osage orange | | 2.0 | | 1.5 coffee-tree | 1.9 | .7 | | 1.1 cherry | | | | .4 red haw | | 2.4 | | mulberry | | .7 | | redbud | 9.3 | | 3.7 | .8 boxelder | | | | 2.6 | | | | total trees in sample | 54 | 295 | 162 | 266 ---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------in 1949 soon after the discontinuance of grazing and cultivation, a large crop of tree seedlings became established. each year thereafter the numbers were augmented by new crops of seedlings, but conditions rapidly became less favorable for their establishment, as the ground cover of herbaceous vegetation became thicker. the numbers and kinds of young trees that became established differed markedly in different situations. the seedlings present in large numbers were those of elm, honey locust, boxelder, dogwood, walnut, osage orange and crab-apple. there was none of the climax species--oaks or hickories--in the sample. table 3.--numbers of young trees per acre in fields of the reservation, june, 1952. ---------------------+----------+-------+----------+--------+------ | | |bottomland|hilltop | |bottomland|hilltop| fallow |fallow |prairie | pasture |pasture| field | field | ---------------------+----------+-------+----------+--------+------ no. of 1/100 acre | 250 | 80 | 70 | 80 | 50 plots sampled | | | | | | | | | | honey locust | 83.0 | 58.8 | | 5.6 | elm | 80.0 | 72.5 | 138.8 | 230.0 | 150.0 boxelder | 1.6 | 1.2 | 22.9 | | 200.0 dogwood | 18.8 | 18.8 | 11.4 | 51.2 | 44.0 walnut | 2.0 | 50.0 | 7.15 | | osage orange | 16.0 | 48.7 | | | crab-apple | 7.2 | 93.8 | | 1.2 | red haw | 5.2 | 17.5 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 4.0 coffee-tree | 4.8 | 1.2 | | | hackberry | 2.8 | | | | 2.0 cottonwood | .2 | | | | ash | | 8.8 | | 3.7 | plum | .8 | | | | peach | .2 | | | | cockspur thorn | .8 | 21.3 | | | sycamore | .4 | | | 1.2 | cherry | | 1.2 | | | 2.0 | | | | | total number counted | 236 | 393 | 279 | 296 | 402 ---------------------+----------+-------+----------+--------+------table 3 shows the numbers of young trees counted in a total of 530 plots of 1/100 acre each, in june, 1952. the trees counted included all those approximately one foot high or larger. a few were up to 12 feet tall, but most were between one foot and five feet in height. not included were the many smaller seedlings, which were mostly concealed beneath the dense layer of low herbaceous vegetation. of young trees there were most on the bluestem prairie area, less on the former pastures and least on the fallow fields. in both the pasture areas and the fallow fields, the bottomlands had fewer trees than the hilltops--60 per cent and 94.3 per cent, respectively. in every instance the abundance of young trees seemed to be inversely proportional to the amount of competing herbaceous vegetation. the bottomland fallow fields, which had the fewest tree seedlings, were dominated by a rank growth of giant ragweed and sunflower, often as much as ten feet tall, effectively shutting most of the light from the tree seedlings. by 1954, however, the sunflower was nearly eliminated, and the giant ragweed, though still abundant, was much stunted. the bluestem prairie on an area of hilltop and upper slope had not been burned over or otherwise disturbed for some years prior to 1948, and probably trees began to invade this area years before they invaded the fallow fields and pastures accounting, in part, for their greater abundance in 1952. approximately half of the young trees on this prairie area were boxelders, which were relatively scarce on the other four areas. elm was either first or second in abundance on each area. on both types of pasture areas honey locusts were appearing in abundance and osage orange seedlings were present in somewhat smaller numbers. however, these two kinds of trees were almost entirely absent from the other areas sampled, except that a few locusts were recorded on a hilltop fallow field. in 1948 honey locust seeds were noticed in great abundance in the droppings of cattle; their dispersal in this manner probably is in large part responsible for the abundance of young honey locusts throughout the former pastures. osage orange may have been distributed in the same manner. seedlings of dogwood were moderately numerous on each one of the areas sampled, and those of red haw were somewhat less abundant on each area. crab-apple was the most abundant species invading the hilltop pastures but was scarce or absent in the other situations. the remaining species of trees, including coffee-tree, hackberry, cottonwood, ash, plum, peach, cherry, cockspur thorn, sycamore, and redbud, each made up only a small percentage of the tree crop in the situations where they occurred. in late july and early august, 1954, counts of young trees were made again on the upland pasture area, with a total of 200 1/100-acre plot samples. this sample was taken at the end of one of the longest and most severe droughts in the history of the area. both 1952 and 1953 had drought summers, and up to the end of july the summer of 1954 was exceptionally dry also. the conditions of the young trees at this time, in the relatively dry and shallow hilltop soil, was especially significant. as might have been anticipated, in this 1954 count, young trees were more numerous than they had been on any of the areas sampled in 1952. however, the data for 1952 and 1954 are not entirely comparable, because in 1952 none of the plots sampled was nearer than 50 feet to the edge of the woods, whereas in 1954, the sample was arranged to be representative of the entire field, including the parts adjacent to the woods. the numbers per acre of each kind of tree, and the percentages that were dead or dying, were as follows: crab-apple 167 (33.5 per cent dead); locust 98 (3 per cent dead); elm 69.5 (2.9 per cent dead); osage orange 63.5 (none dead); walnut 36.5 (4.1 per cent dead); red haw 25.5 (none dead); ash 19.5 (none dead); cockspur thorn 17 (17.6 per cent dead); wild plum 14 (3.6 per cent dead); dogwood 9.5 (none dead); prickly ash 2 (25 per cent dead); black oak 1.5 (none dead); boxelder .5 (none dead). thus, of the species that were prominent invaders of the field, only crab-apple showed heavy mortality. in many instances the mortality in crab-apple was due wholly or in part to attack by cottontails (_sylvilagus floridanus_), which had completely girdled many of the stems. in general, mortality in the young trees was light in this grassland area compared with the mortality in any part of the woodland. competition and mortality the ratios of trees of different species and different size groups reflect, to some extent, the changes to which the area has been subjected. under original conditions mature trees of oak and hickory dominated the forest. with the opening up of the forest that resulted from cutting most of these mature trees, other kinds of trees increased and spread. species relatively intolerant of shading became established. chinquapin oak, honey locust, osage orange, cherry, dogwood, red haw, and crab-apple, being especially intolerant of shading, cannot grow in close competition with climax species, and they become established only in fairly open situations. their presence in thick woodland, along with climax competitors, usually is an indication that the woodland is either of recent origin or has been much disturbed in the past, permitting invasion by them. about 1934 when approximately half of the reservation, including nearly all the woodland areas, was fenced against livestock, shrubs and young trees sprang up in great abundance, especially in more open woodland situations, and at the edge of the forest. sumac (_rhus glabra_) often dominated at first in such situations. crab-apple, wild plum, red haw, chinquapin oak, prickly ash, dogwood, honey locust, and redbud also soon came into prominence. by 1954 thickets had grown up and the intense competition had killed much of the woody vegetation. sumac, especially, had been almost entirely killed out by the shading. by then, however, the adjacent fields had been protected for eight years from grazing, and sparse sumac thickets were present on the field sides of the fences, the average sizes of the plants progressively declining farther from the edge of the woods. much mortality had occurred also in all the other species mentioned, with only a few of the larger surviving in competition with elm, hackberry, ash and osage orange, and with reproduction practically stopped except near the edges of the thickets. in 1954, after approximately 20 years of protection from livestock, the woodland had become much denser, with a thick understory of saplings and tall shrubs in most places. from a time soon after protection was initiated, there was little or no reproduction (except where the woodland originally was open) in blackjack oak, dwarf or chinquapin oak, red haw, honey locust, and osage orange. on one south slope, an open woods with well scattered trees of black oak, american elm, hackberry, honey locust and osage orange, had by 1954 become so dense that it was almost impassable except with the aid of a brush knife to cut or break through the thickets. saplings of honey locust made up an important part of the understory vegetation on this slope. those of the smallest size group, up to 1â½ inches stem diameter, were mostly dead; in a strip 900 feet long and 50 feet wide there were 29 dead saplings and ten live ones of this size group. in the next largest size group, up to 2â½ inches in stem diameter, there were 17 dead and 53 live saplings, while in the size group 2â½ to 3â½ inches stem diameter, there was one dead sapling and 51 were alive. on another south slope, which had more large and medium-sized trees and less dense underbrush, 233 saplings six inches or less in stem diameter, counted on a sample strip 530 feet long and 40 feet wide, included elm 37.3%, dogwood 19.7%, hackberry 16.4%, coffee-tree 15.6%, honey locust 11.0%, plum 10.3%, chestnut oak 5.5%, crab-apple 3.4%, osage orange 2.1%, red haw 1.4%, hickory, redbud, mulberry and cockspur thorn each .7%. there was substantial mortality in the saplings of several of these species; plum 86.5%, dogwood 69.5%, elm 49.5%, locust 31.2%, chestnut oak 25.0%, coffee-tree 4.4%. by 1954 several areas of hilltop-edge and north slope, which presumably had been wooded originally, but which had been subjected to heavy cutting, supported thriving stands of young hickories mostly two to six inches in trunk diameter. most of these saplings seemed to have originated as stump-or root-sprouts. these numerous and closely spaced saplings produced a dense and almost continuous leaf canopy, shading and killing out many of the smaller trees of their own species as well as competing elms, redbuds, dogwoods, hackberries and others. on a north slope in the southeastern part of the reservation, many large stumps were found in late stages of decay, cut from 20 to 30 or more years before. insofar as could be determined, these old stumps were mostly of oaks, but in 1954 the trees growing on this slope were chiefly elms and coffee-trees less than one foot in diameter. effects of livestock livestock importantly affected the trend of succession. the tendency of grazing animals to hold back the forest by stripping the foliage from young trees and killing them is selective, however; the several kinds of trees differ in their tolerance to browsing and in their palatability to animals. the kind of animal and the season and intensity of use also have important bearing on the ultimate effect. several kinds of shrubs and small trees seem to be especially susceptible to damage by browsing; chinquapin oak, crab-apple, plum, hazel, dogwood, prickly ash, and paw paw were found to be either absent entirely from the parts of the woodland that were heavily used by stock, or much scarcer than they were on adjacent unbrowsed areas. some woody plants that are even more susceptible may have been completely eliminated by browsing. in the thirties when most of the woodland area was fenced off and protected from grazing, three wooded hillside areas of a few acres each, were maintained as connecting strips between the pastures of the hilltops and those of the bottomlands. these areas were utilized only at certain seasons, but by 1948 the effect of trampling and heavy browsing by livestock was conspicuous. herbaceous ground vegetation was almost lacking and low woody vegetation was also scarce, in contrast to the parts of the woodland that were adjacent but separated by fences that excluded livestock. the contrast was perhaps heightened along the fences because the animals tended to follow along the fence lines and their effects were concentrated there. table 4.--numbers of young trees of various kinds and sizes in 1954 on a .919-acre area consisting of six hillside strips each 20 feet wide. each strip was equally divided by a fence line, excluding livestock from one side during the period 1934 (approximately) to 1948. --------------------------------------------------------------------- |less than â½-inch | â½-inch to 4-inch|5-inch to 12-inch | stem diameter | stem diameter | stem diameter |-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------- | | percent-| | percent-| | percent | total | age in |total | age in | total | age in |number | browsed |number | browsed |number | browsed | | half | | half | | half ----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------- | | | | | | dogwood | 556 | 52.1 | 1058 | 16.4 | | redbud | 40 | 42.5 | 102 | 5.9 | | elm | 30 | 76.7 | 189 | 27.6 | 99 | 47.5 hackberry | 131 | 39.7 | 206 | 13.1 | 5 | 20.0 plum | 26 | 77.0 | 35 | 22.8 | 1 | 100.0 crab-apple | 11 | 100.0 | 46 | 37.0 | | red haw | 1 | 100.0 | 33 | 48.5 | 9 | 75.8 walnut | 7 | 28.6 | 32 | 43.7 | 26 | 61.5 honey locust | 2 | 100.0 | 20 | 15.0 | 11 | 27.3 osage orange | 1 | 100.0 | 7 | 57.1 | 2 | 50.0 shagbark hickory| 3 | 100.0 | 42 | 73.8 | 44 | 40.9 chestnut oak | | | 26 | 30.8 | 24 | 58.2 chinquapin oak | | | 12 | 100.0 | 1 | 100.0 coffee-tree | | | 11 | 18.1 | 8 | 12.5 ailanthus | 6 | 33.3 | 65 | 26.1 | 3 | 100.0 black oak | | | 5 | 40.0 | 7 | 16.6 american ash | 21 | 100.0 | 3 | 33.3 | | paw paw | 12 | | 61 | 27.8 | | ----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+--------in 1954 ten-foot wide strips were sampled on both sides of the fences. for both browsed and unbrowsed samples, the strips had a total length of 4000 feet, each representing an area of .919 acres. table 4 contrasts the number of young trees per acre on the browsed and unbrowsed areas, grouped in several size classes. in general the saplings up to one-fourth inch in diameter were those that had become established in the five growing seasons since browsing was discontinued and both areas were protected. for this size group the numbers were approximately equal, being slightly higher on the browsed strips. however, in the size group of â½ inch to 4 inches in stem diameter, the trees were nearly three times as abundant on the unbrowsed areas, and most trees within this size range must have become established within the time of differing treatments. the disparity in numbers was great for hackberry, redbud, elm and dogwood which made up the bulk of the saplings. in the size range 5 to 12 inches most trees antedated the fence, and the unbrowsed portion had only a few more than the portion that had been browsed. on the formerly browsed areas clumps of gooseberry bushes were conspicuous and were computed to cover 3.81 per cent of the area sampled, versus 2.87 per cent on the unbrowsed area. these thorny bushes seem to be resistant to browsing, and elsewhere have been noted in abundance in woodlands heavily used by livestock. the elimination of competing undergrowth by browsers may be a factor favoring development of gooseberry clumps. the trend was just the opposite for fragrant sumac, which was computed to cover 1.94 per cent of the browsed sample versus 3.23 per cent of the unbrowsed sample. greenbrier (_smilax tamnoides hispida_) was most abundant on the unbrowsed strips, with seven large clumps, and 56 smaller clumps (10 stems or fewer) as contrasted with five large clumps and 32 smaller clumps on the browsed strips. there were 32 grapevines (_vitis vulpina_) on the unbrowsed strips and only seven on those that were browsed. animal associates the invertebrates of the university of kansas natural history reservation have not been intensively studied. most of the species of vertebrates are characteristic of the deciduous forest of the eastern united states, or of the edge of woodland; relatively few kinds are characteristic of prairies. of birds, for example, some 23 species characteristic of the eastern deciduous forests have been found nesting on the reservation, as have 14 additional species that are mainly eastern in their distribution but are most characteristic of forest-edge thickets, clearings, or marshy places. the ruffed grouse (_bonasa umbellus_) and wild turkey (_meleagris gallopavo_) are not present on the area, although they may have occurred there earlier. other forest birds which occur in the general area, and which have been recorded from time to time on the reservation, although they seem not to nest there, are: chuck-will's-widow (_caprimulgus carolinensis_), scarlet tanager (_piranga olivacea_), acadian flycatcher (_empidonax virescens_), veery (_hylocichla fuscescens_), parula warbler (_parula americana_), oven-bird (_seiurus aurocapillus_), and orchard oriole (_icterus spurius_). for each of these, habitat conditions on the reservation seem to be deficient in some respect. on the other hand, the only typical prairie bird that breeds on the reservation is the dickcissel (_spiza americana_). others, including the swainson hawk (_buteo swainsoni_), greater prairie chicken (_tympanuchus cupido_), upland plover (_bartramia longicauda_), western kingbird (_tyrannus verticalis_) and loggerhead shrike (_lanius ludovicianus_), occur in the general area, and may even cross the reservation at times, but they do not become established. in the mammalian fauna, species typical of the deciduous forests include the opossum (_didelphis marsupialis_), short-tailed shrew (_blarina brevicauda_), eastern mole (_scalopus aquaticus_), eastern gray squirrel (_sciurus carolinensis_), and pine vole (_microtus pinetorum_), but the eastern chipmunk (_tamias striatus_) and southern flying squirrel (_glaucomys volans_) are lacking. also, the present fauna lacks large mammals that may have been present under original conditions: the white-tailed deer (_odocoileus virginianus_), recorded on the area from time to time but not permanently established there, the wapiti (_cervus americanus_), black bear (ursus americanus), and bobcat (_lynx rufus_). other species on the area, that are characteristic of the deciduous woodlands, but that occur also far west into prairie regions, include the little short-tailed shrew (_cryptotis parva_), raccoon (_procyon lotor_), fox squirrel (_sciurus niger_), white-footed mouse (_peromyscus leucopus_), eastern woodrat (_neotoma floridana_) and eastern cottontail. on the area, the only mammals that are sharply confined to grasslands, elsewhere as well as on the reservation, are the plains pocket gopher (_geomys bursarius_) and plains harvest mouse (_reithrodontomys montanus_), both of which are rare on the area, and the hispid cotton rat (_sigmodon hispidus_). the following species are typical of the plains, but they range eastward into the region of deciduous forests: western harvest mouse (_reithrodontomys megalotis_), deer mouse (_peromyscus maniculatus_), coyote (_canis latrans_), and spotted skunk (_spilogale putorius_). the following mammals, typical of grassland, are absent: black-tailed jack rabbit (_lepus californicus_), black-tailed prairie dog (_cynomys ludovicianus_), 13-lined ground squirrel (_spermophilus tridecemlineatus_), franklin's ground squirrel (_spermophilus franklinii_), southern lemming-mouse (_synaptomys cooperi_), and of course, the buffalo (_bison bison_), and the prong-horned antelope (_antilocapra americana_) long extinct in this part of their range. of amphibians and reptiles also, the majority are typical forest species, including: the american toad (_bufo terrestris_), common tree frog (_hyla versicolor_), brown skink (_lygosoma laterale_), common five-lined skink (_eumeces fasciatus_), worm snake (_carphophis amoenus_), pilot black snake (_elaphe obsoleta_), dekay snake (_storeria dekayi_), western ground snake (_haldea valeriae_), copperhead (_agkistrodon contortrix_), and timber rattlesnake (_crotalus horridus_). other typical forest species missing from the area include the spring peeper (_hyla crucifer_), carolina box turtle (_terrapene carolina_), coal skink (_eumeces anthracinus_), and red-bellied snake (_storeria occipitomaculata_). of typical prairie species only the kansas ant-eating frog (_gastrophryne olivacea_) and the ornate box turtle (_terrapene ornata_) are common, and, curiously, each seems to prefer a forest habitat on this area, in the absence of their closely related eastern representatives, the eastern ant-eating frog (_g. carolinensis_) and the carolina box turtle, respectively, which usually live in forests. the plains spadefoot (_spea bombifrons_), garden toad (_bufo woodhousii_), great plains skink (_eumeces obsoletus_), prairie skink (_eumeces septentrionalis_), slender tantilla (_tantilla gracilis_), prairie rat snake (_elaphe guttata_), bull snake (_pituophis catenifer_), and blotched king snake (_lampropeltis calligaster_) are all scarce on the area. the plains toad (_bufo cognatus_), collared lizard (_crotaphytus collaris_), except for an introduced colony, plains garter snake (_thamnophis radix_), lined snake (_tropidoclonion lineatum_), and massassauga (_sistrurus catenatus_) seem not to occur on the area at all. annotated list of species #juniperus virginiana.#--red cedar, the only native gymnosperm of northeastern kansas, occurs in nearly all woodlands of the region, although individual trees are widely scattered. it has increased remarkably in the past few years. no mature cedar trees grow anywhere on the reservation, but young trees, probably several dozen in all, are widely scattered in a variety of situations on the area. probably in every instance the seeds have reached the area in droppings of birds. approximately 15 miles south and a little east of the reservation is a stand of cedars some of which are 100 to 300 years old. near the southwest corner of the section, at the site of a former farm house there is a small grove of these trees, probably planted. these may have been the source for some of the young trees on the reservation. on several occasions cardinals (_richmondena cardinalis_) were observed to have nested in the young cedars, whose thick foliage provided well sheltered nesting sites. this shelter was utilized especially in early nestings when foliage had only begun to appear on other trees and shrubs. however, two such nests in cedars, that were checked repeatedly, were eventually destroyed by predators. #salix nigra.#--black willow is localized in the vicinity of the one small pond on the reservation. the pond was made in 1936; at the upper end of a small valley a dirt bank 100 yards long was built across a ravine through which an intermittent creek drained. hilltop fields draining into this ravine were then under cultivation. in the next few years heavy erosion occurred in the upland fields, and the soil carried downstream was deposited in the pond. most of the pond was filled up with a silt flat about an acre in area. on the higher part of this silt flat a dense thicket of saplings of elm, honey locust and osage orange sprang up. on the lower, wetter part of the silt bar a willow grove grew up, dominated by _s. nigra_, with _s. eriocephala_, _s. interior_ and _s. amygdaloides_ in smaller numbers. by 1955 some of these trees had attained a trunk diameter of eight inches and a height of thirty feet. elsewhere on the reservation, willow is represented only by a few scattered trees and bushes along the two intermittent creeks. the silty soil preferred by the willow is scarce as both streams are actively eroding their channels. the moist, silty soil beneath the willow grove is covered with a dense mat of low vegetation including giant ragweed, carpenter's square, dayflower, and rice cutgrass. short-tailed shrews, house mice (_mus musculus_), harvest mice and cotton rats thrive in this habitat. red-winged blackbirds (_agelaius phoeniceus_), yellow-billed cuckoos (_coccyzus americanus_), red-eyed vireos (_vireo olivaceus_), catbirds (_dumetella carolinensis_) and kentucky warblers (_oporornis formosus_) use it for nesting. the high humidity and dense vegetation in this grove render it favorable habitat for recently metamorphosed frogs and toads, especially the tree frog, which is sometimes extremely abundant there in summer. #populus deltoides.#--cottonwood is one of the less common trees on the area, but it attains a larger size than any of the other kinds. the larger of the two creeks on the reservation is lined with mature cottonwoods along the lower part of its course. along the smaller creek large cottonwoods are also present but they are more widely spaced. a few cottonwoods are present at well scattered points on slopes and hilltops, usually in forest edge situations or in woodland where other trees are sparse. by far the largest tree on the reservation is a cottonwood of 15-foot circumference (plate 1), growing on a hilltop near the south boundary of the reservation, at the edge of woodland adjacent to a cultivated field. the heavy rainfall of 1951 resulted in the establishment of hundreds of cottonwood seedlings, mostly in places remote from the mature trees. so far as observed, all these were in recent silt deposits. many of them have survived the drought of 1952-1954. because of their great height, towering above the level of the surrounding tree-tops, cottonwoods are preferred look-out perches of certain of the larger birds, notably red-tailed hawks (_buteo jamaicensis_), barred owls (_strix varia_), and crows (_corvus brachyrhynchos_). flocks of robins (_turdus migratorius_) and of rusty blackbirds (_euphagus carolinus_) preparing to roost have been noted habitually to gather in the tops of tall cottonwoods. in spring, large wandering flocks of goldfinches (_spinus tristis_) have been seen feeding on the leaf buds of cottonwoods. baltimore orioles (_icterus galbula_) and yellow-billed cuckoos often forage in cottonwoods. red-bellied woodpeckers (_centurus carolinus_) spend a disproportionately large amount of their time in cottonwoods. these woodpeckers have been observed nesting in the hollow branches on several occasions. downy woodpeckers (_dendrocopos pubescens_) also have been noticed foraging in cottonwoods on many occasions. certain large isolated cottonwoods along creeks were favorite stopping places of blue jays (_cyanocitta cristata_) which, on trips from one wooded hillside to another, usually perched briefly in the tops of these tall trees. calling and looking about, the jays seemed to maintain contact with distant mates or members of the flocks by using these high perches. often after a brief pause in the top of the cottonwood they flew off in a new direction. both woodrats and opossums have been known to utilize hollow cottonwoods as dens. fox squirrels have been seen climbing in cottonwoods occasionally. #juglans nigra.#--black walnut is one of the more prominent hardwoods. under original conditions, evidently many of the larger trees were of this species. being the most valuable timber species of the area, walnut has been subjected to heavy cutting over the past 85 years. most of the walnut trees still present are small or medium-sized, but the species is still abundant over much of the area. along certain hilltop edges there are groves of walnuts, growing in nearly pure stands, with an occasional elm, ash, coffee-tree or honey locust. elsewhere walnut trees are more scattered, but are distributed throughout the woodland. although the walnut trees growing in woods are of various sizes from those of mature size down to saplings, seedlings are to be found mainly in fields near the woodland edge. in these situations it is one of the more prominent of the woody species invading open lands. the seeds evidently are transported mainly by rodents, especially fox squirrels. in autumn every walnut tree that is bearing nuts becomes a focal point of activity for squirrels. over a period of weeks the squirrels concentrate their attention on the walnut crop, continuing until virtually every nut has been harvested. walnut seems to be the one most important food source, for both the fox squirrel and the gray squirrel. most of the nuts are stored for future use. many buried separately and never retrieved by the squirrels, grow into new trees. white-footed mice often store the nuts in their nests, in burrows, beneath rocks or in crevices. in summer, groves and isolated trees of walnuts are favorite haunts of the yellow-billed cuckoo, which finds concealment in the thick foliage, and probably feeds upon the tent caterpillars that commonly infest these trees. #carya ovata.#--shagbark hickory is one of the more important hardwoods of the area. the trees are relatively small compared with the larger oaks, elms, ashes and hackberry. however, on several parts of the area this hickory is dominant. it grows mainly on north slopes and hilltops. the trees most frequently associated with it are black oak, american elm and chestnut oak. scattered through the woodlands are occasional mature hickories of dbh 18 inches or more. however, many of the trees are six inches or less dbh and a large proportion of these have originated as stump sprouts from trees cut in the early thirties or before. shagbark is especially tolerant of shading. numerous young trees and seedlings noted all were growing in dense woods of larger hickories, oaks, or mature elms. none has been found in open fields or even in edge situations. this hickory is resistant to drought; relatively few died during the drought of 1952-1954, and these were mostly small trees in crowded stands. in parts of the woodland dominated by shagbark hickory the trees are mostly 5 to 6 inches or even smaller in trunk diameter and 20 to 30 feet high, sometimes growing in nearly pure stands, and with a leaf canopy so dense that shrubs and herbaceous vegetation are sparse. the mast crop produced by shagbark is an important food source for both fox squirrels and gray squirrels. both kinds of squirrels often use these hickories as sites for their stick nests. white-footed mice also store the nuts as a winter food source. birds which are most often seen in groves of shagbark include the yellow-billed cuckoo, tufted titmouse (_parus bicolor_), black-capped chickadee (_p. atricapillus_), blue jay, summer tanager (_piranga rubra_), and red-eyed vireo. the cooper hawk (_accipiter cooperii_) has been recorded nesting in this hickory. in dead trees of this species that are still standing, the interiors may decay more rapidly than the armorlike bark plates. on several occasions tufted titmice and chickadees have been recorded as nesting in such cavities. #quercus stellata.#--post oak is relatively scarce on the reservation. one area of approximately an acre on a south slope is dominated by it. there are several other small groves and scattered trees. all are on moderately steep south slopes in poor soil. trees often found associated with it include red elm, chestnut oak, chinquapin oak, blackjack oak, hickory, and dogwood. it seems likely that under original conditions this species occupied about the same area as it does at present. it is not spreading, and there are few young trees anywhere on the area. in every instance the groves are limited to a rocky clay soil, and edaphic factors obviously are of major importance. under original conditions fire was probably a limiting factor, and at the present time competition with other hardwoods may be even more important. #quercus macrocarpa.#--less than a dozen individuals of mossycup oak have been noticed on the area, at well scattered points. under original conditions, it probably grew chiefly in the bottomlands that have been completely cleared of timber for cultivation. the few now present are all on hillsides, and are medium to large trees. #quercus muehlenbergii.#--chestnut oak was perhaps the one most important tree species of the original climax forest on the area. because of its slow growth, scanty seed production, and large heavy fruits with seeds lacking effective dispersal mechanisms, it has lost ground to other kinds of trees as a result of the unnatural disturbances which have occurred. it still dominates on rocky upper slopes that have north, east or west exposures and forms nearly pure stands in limited areas. nearly all the larger trees of this species now present have been cut one or more times and have regenerated from stump sprouts. seedlings and young saplings of this oak are scarce even in parts of the woodland where the species is most common. it is evident that reproduction is slow, at least under present conditions. on the lower hill slopes these oaks are scarce and scattered, but some of the largest are in such situations. chestnut oak seems to be relatively resistant to drought. in the summer of 1954 when elms, and especially black oaks of all sizes were dying in large numbers, the chestnut oaks growing among them showed little evidence of injury in mature trees and only a small percentage of mortality in saplings. [illustration: fig. 5. map of reservation showing present distribution of chestnut oak (shaded). the species is not spreading and is thought to be largely confined to the area that was wooded before 1860. except in minor details, shagbark hickory conforms to the same distribution pattern on this area.] chestnut oak has a relatively slow growth rate. in 17 that were recorded, there were, on the average, 4.59 annual rings per inch of trunk diameter. near pigeon lake, miami county, kansas, counts were obtained from five cut in 1952 from a virgin stand in a habitat similar to that on the reservation. the five trees had trunk diameters of 16â½ to 25 inches and ranged in age from 65 to 183 years. several still growing on the reservation are larger and presumably are well over 100 years old. as this oak seems to be in process of being replaced by other trees, is slow-growing, and slow in dispersal, it seems probable that the areas now occupied by its stands supported stands of it under original conditions. whether it can regain dominance under present conditions of protection from cutting, fire and grazing remains to be seen. the chestnut oak produces a mast crop which is utilized by many kinds of animals. fox squirrels, gray squirrels, and white-footed mice feed upon the acorns and store them. blue jays, red-headed woodpeckers (_melanerpes erythrocephalus_), and red-bellied woodpeckers also eat them. the red-eyed vireo, summer tanager and tufted titmouse are among the birds that most frequently forage for insect food in chestnut oaks. relatively few kinds of birds seem to use this tree as a nest site. #quercus prinoides.#--the chinquapin oak on this area is a small shrubby tree, usually not more than 15 feet high and more typically only six to eight feet. it occurs chiefly in dry rocky situations along hilltop edges and upper slopes, usually where the slope exposure is at least partly to the south. in such situations it may grow in nearly pure stands. often it is associated with dogwood. the trunks are usually two to four inches in diameter, gnarled and twisted. the crowns are dense and spreading. this oak is the dominant plant in certain small areas of its preferred habitat. in other areas of hilltop edge and upper slope it is being eliminated by stands of hickory, chestnut oak, black oak and elm, which shade it out. the species is tolerant of moderate to heavy browsing, but seemingly can be eliminated by more intensive utilization; even the higher foliage is often within reach of livestock. in "horse woods" one of the hillside areas that was open to livestock until 1949, this oak was almost absent, but it was abundant in adjoining parts of the woods that were fenced in the thirties to exclude livestock. the thickets formed by this shrubby oak are frequented by cottontails, which feed upon the bark and foliage. the small acorns are used as food by rodents, especially the white-footed mouse. on several occasions, in winter, groups of long-eared owls (_asio otus_) have been found roosting in thickets of chinquapin oak. crows also utilize these thickets for roosting occasionally. the white-eyed vireo (_vireo griseus_), gnatcatcher (_polioptila caerulea_), and tufted titmouse, frequent the oak thickets. #quercus rubra.#--the red oak is one of the important climax species of the area. at present it is largely confined to a ravine in the northeastern part of the section. the woodland here is less disturbed than on most other parts of the reservation, and red oak is the dominant species. there are large trees, rather evenly distributed, growing on east-facing and west-facing slopes. just east of the reservation, in the "wall creek" area, the small valley on either side of the creek and the adjacent lower slopes are dominated by giant red oaks larger than any now growing on the reservation. farther up the slope in the area of limestone outcrops, dominance shifts to chestnut oak. that red oaks of similar size, and even larger, formerly occurred on the reservation, at least in the area still dominated by the species, is shown by the presence of a stump 49 inches in diameter, now in an advanced state of decay. [illustration: fig. 6. map of reservation showing present distribution of black oak (smaller dots) and red oak (larger dots). neither species is spreading and both are thought to be largely confined to the area that was wooded before 1860.] the large acorns of the red oak are a favorite food of the gray squirrel, which is most numerous on the parts of the reservation where these trees are present. the red-headed woodpecker on the area tends to concentrate its activities where there are red oaks. the fox squirrel, white-footed mouse, and blue jay are important consumers of the acorns of red oak. a pair of barred owls resided in the deep woods formed by these oaks and the associated trees. #quercus velutina.#--black oak is one of the dominant species of the original forest climax, and is still one of the more important trees of the woodland. like chestnut oak it shows little tendency to spread beyond its present limits. wherever there are small trees there are old mature trees or remains of them nearby. for this reason the present distribution of black oak on the area is thought to fall entirely within the area occupied by the original forest. at present it occurs throughout most of the woodland except in the warmer and drier situations, such as on south slopes. in some hilltop situations it is common, with occasional large mature trees. in some parts of the bottomland and lower slopes it is abundant also, but there are scarcely any on the upper dry rocky slopes that are the preferred habitat of chestnut oak. growth in the black oak is somewhat more rapid than in the chestnut oak, as the black oak usually grows on better soil. for 15 the average growth amounted to 3.21 annual rings per inch of trunk diameter. in 1954 a study of annual rings in a large, long dead, black oak at the bottom of a north slope near the reservation headquarters showed that the tree was 96 years old, and hence was growing before the area was settled. within the period of this study black oak underwent reduction in numbers more severe than that noted in any other species of tree on the reservation. the effect of drought may have been the primary factor, although undoubtedly disease was involved also. in 1953, the second successive drought year, mortality was noticeable. precipitation continued below normal until august 1954. by then the oaks had been decimated. on a sample strip of hilltop where 29 were recorded, 21 had recently succumbed, and their leaves were dry and withered; two were dying, though still having some green foliage, and only six were surviving, all evidently in critical condition. the mortality included trees of all sizes, even the largest and oldest. no further mortality was noted in 1955 when precipitation was only slightly below normal. on the reservation there are many old logs, and snags still standing, of mature black oaks long dead. earlier drought periods such as those of 1936-37 and 1925-26 possibly were also times of unusually heavy mortality. in any case it seems clear that this oak was originally more prominent in the woodlands than it is at present, and has been steadily losing ground. even where the mature trees remain in greatest numbers the saplings are relatively scarce as compared with those of elm, ash, hackberry, and hickory. the westernmost limits of the range are nearly 100 miles west of the reservation. black oak provides a mast crop which is utilized by various small mammals, notably squirrels and white-footed mice. gray squirrels have often been noticed in or about these trees. hairy woodpeckers (_dendrocopos villosus_), black and white warblers (_mniotilta varia_), and brown creepers (_certhia familiaris_) have often been noticed foraging on the trunks. blue jays, myrtle warblers (_dendroica coronata_), tufted titmice, and summer tanagers frequently forage through the crowns. often black oak trunks are hollow and the cavities are utilized by various birds and mammals including the screech owl (_otus asio_), barred owl, raccoon, opossum, fox squirrel, gray squirrel, woodrat, and white-footed mouse. #quercus marilandica.#--black jack oak is localized in four small compact groves on the reservation. these sites, though well separated, are similar. all are on steep lower slopes, where there is dry rocky clay soil and the exposure is mainly south. probably all four groves date back to the time when the area was still in an undisturbed state. originally they were perhaps largely separated from the remainder of the woodland. black jack oak is more tolerant of heat and drought than most of the other hardwoods are. the species is intolerant of fire, but perhaps was partly protected under original conditions by the sparseness of herbaceous vegetation on the poor soil where the groves were situated. these oaks are relatively slow-growing. one stump of 9-inch diameter, typical of the larger black jack trees, had approximately 60 annual rings. under present conditions there is little or no reproduction and these trees are dying out as a result of competition by other hardwoods. under protection from fire and browsing, elms, other oaks, locust and dogwood have closed in about the groves and seem to be shading them out. there are several mature oaks of anomalous appearance, in different places within a few hundred feet at most of the groves of black jack. most of these appear to be hybrids between the present species and _q. velutina_, as they are somewhat intermediate in size, bark texture, and leaves. this oak produces a mast crop used by various birds and mammals, and groves are frequented by blue jays, fox squirrels, white-footed mice and woodrats. in the mid-forties when the woodrat population was high, there were many of the rats' stick houses in the groves, built either at the bases of the trunks or among the dense branchlets in tops of fallen trees. by 1952 the population of woodrats was much reduced and had disappeared entirely from these groves. the houses were collapsed and decaying. horned owls (_bubo virginianus_) and barred owls often make their day roosts among the dense interlacing twigs of these trees, and red-tailed hawks have been known to roost for the night in the same kinds of situations. #ulmus americana.#--on most parts of the area american elm is the dominant tree. it occurs throughout the woodland, and most of the larger trees are of this species. in each of the fields that were formerly cultivated, and in the pasture areas, there are many saplings. more than one hundred elms of dbh two feet or more have been recorded. presumably these mostly date back 90 years or more and were already growing on the area when it was relatively undisturbed. on the area the distribution of these large elms corresponds in a general way with the present distribution of the oak-hickory type. the coinciding distribution of the climax species and of the largest trees is believed to reflect the distribution pattern of the original forest, except that clearing was thorough in the bottomlands so that hardly any trees of the climax species, or large trees of any kind remain. several elms of three feet or more dbh were recorded, and the largest one measured was 46 inches. the largest elms are in alluvial soil near small creeks in the two valleys. also many large elms grow along the upper slopes, especially along the outcrops of the two main strata of the oread limestone. such sites along the outcrops on open slopes are the first to be invaded. the rock strata are relatively impervious to water, which is held at a depth where it is readily available to the trees. along rocky upper slopes between the two outcrops, where chestnut oak is abundant, elms are relatively scarce and seem unable to compete successfully. it is noteworthy that elm is not mentioned in several of the descriptions (taft, 1950; parks, 1854; robinson, 1899) of the original forest, even in listings of the species present. it must have been much less prominent until favored by disturbed conditions. [illustration: fig. 7. map of reservation showing present distribution of the largest american elms, those more than two feet in trunk diameter. american elm is increasing and spreading on the area, and smaller trees are abundant even in former cultivated fields and pastures. growth rate varies according to site, but these larger trees are, in many instances, 90 years or more in age and most of them are thought to be in the area wooded in the eighteen sixties and before.] in july and august, 1954, a large proportion of the elms on the area died. the die-off included trees of all sizes, and evidently the cumulative effect of drought in 1952 and 1953, continuing into the spring and summer of 1954, was the primary cause, although diseases such as phloem necrosis, and insect infestations, may have intensified its effect. in august of 1954 the bare dead elms stood out conspicuously in the mass of green foliage surrounding them. most of them had survived the two dry summers of 1952 and 1953 with little evident loss in vitality. however, the continued lack of moisture as the 1954 growing season progressed, and the extremely hot weather of june and july caused heavy mortality. in the course of a few days the foliage of the upper branches would wither, die and turn brown. in some instances numerous sucker shoots grew from the trunk of the tree as the top was dying. mortality was especially heavy on south-facing slopes. certain ecologists believe that over the years, as trees deplete subsoil moisture and periodic droughts make their effects felt, other species also will die off and eventually prairie will replace them where the present forests are growing in dry and exposed situations. infestations of the introduced bark beetle, _scolytus multistriatus_, were common and probably contributed to death of many elms. in the winter of 1953-54 before much mortality had occurred, the bark beetle infestations had become conspicuous. especially on south slopes elms of about six inches dbh were heavily infested. woodpeckers, including the downy, hairy, and red-bellied, habitually resorted to the elm trunks to forage. as a result of their activities chips of bark accumulated sometimes to a depth of several inches around the bases of the trunks, and the exposed inner layers of brown bark caused the infested trees to contrast with the predominantly gray color of those that were still healthy and retained the outer layer of bark. in april and early may seeds of the american elm constitute a major food source for birds, including the black-capped chickadee, tufted titmouse, junco (_junco hyemalis_), red-eyed towhee (_pipilo erythrophthalmus_), harris sparrow (_zonotrichia querula_), cardinal, goldfinch, tree sparrow (_spizella arborea_) and field sparrow (_s. pusilla_). birds recorded as nesting in the american elm include the mourning dove (_zenaidura macroura_), cooper hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad-winged hawk (_buteo platypterus_), turkey vulture (_cathartes aura_), screech owl, horned owl, barred owl, red-bellied woodpecker, downy woodpecker, tufted titmouse, black-capped chickadee, gnatcatcher, red-eyed vireo, summer tanager, indigo bunting (_passerina cyanea_), field sparrow and cardinal. opossums, raccoons, fox squirrels and white-footed mice often live in cavities in elms. insectivorous birds that find their food on foliage and prefer elm or use it to a large extent are: yellow-billed cuckoo, tufted titmouse, black-capped chickadee, blue-gray gnatcatcher, red-eyed vireo, white-eyed vireo and warblers, including the myrtle, audubon (_dendroica auduboni_), yellow (_d. petechia_), black-throated green (_d. virens_), black-poll (_d. striata_), tennessee (_vermivora peregrina_), orange-crowned (_v. celata_), nashville (_v. ruficapilla_) and american redstart (_setophaga ruticilla_). #ulmus rubra.#--the red elm (or slippery elm) is widely distributed over the area, but only a few trees with a trunk diameter of twelve inches or more are present. throughout the woodlands of the reservation the saplings of this species constitute a prominent part of the understory. however, few survive beyond the sapling stage. the red elm is never abundant in kansas woodlands. it is intolerant of drought conditions, and is one of the first trees to die. this fact probably explains the scarcity of mature trees of this species on the reservation. #celtis occidentalis.#--hackberry is widely distributed on the area, but is not dominant anywhere. its favorite site is along hilltop limestone outcrops, especially where there is south exposure. there are few on hilltops away from the outcrops. hackberries are scattered in small numbers over the wooded slopes. there are a few of unusually large size, along edges of the bottomlands. hackberries are slow-growing. counts of annual rings for four indicated an average of 7.1 rings per inch of trunk diameter. young hackberries of all sizes are numerous throughout the woodland. therefore it seems likely that this species is in process of spreading and probably has already extended beyond the situations which it originally occupied. the fruits of hackberry provide a fall and winter food supply for various animals. opossums are especially fond of them. red-bellied woodpeckers have been seen storing them. migrating flocks of robins may utilize them as a major food source temporarily. white-footed mice and woodrats store them and eat them. #morus rubra.#--red mulberry is moderately common in certain heavily wooded areas, especially the lower parts of north slopes. a few are present on wooded hilltops. most of the trees are between ten and twenty feet tall, and generally die before growing larger. red mulberry is present in most woodlands of eastern kansas and is seemingly distributed by birds. it is never an important component of woodlands in the area. catbirds (_dumetella carolinensis_) and wood thrushes (_hylocichla mustelina_) especially have been noted frequenting the vicinity of mulberry trees in fruit. probably many other kinds of birds utilize the fruits to some extent. #maclura pomifera.#--osage orange was not a member of the original flora, but early settlers in kansas valued it for windbreaks and fence posts, and they made extensive plantings. presumably it was introduced onto the area of the present study in the eighteen sixties. at the present time it occurs throughout the woodland, with scattered mature trees and many young trees on the former pastures. this aggressive invader spread despite frequent cutting, and now plays an important part in the ecology of the area. most of the larger trees have been cut one or more times, but have regenerated from stump sprouts with multiple stems and spreading habit. the tough and durable wood is useful for fence posts. the growth rate is slow, similar to that of oaks and elms. osage orange is intolerant of fire and is easily killed by scorching. it is damaged by browsing, and cannot grow in deep shade. it is drought resistant. mortality was light during the drought period of 1952-1954, although many of the trees were growing on poor soil in the hotter and drier sites. where there are stands of mixed hardwoods, osage orange is relatively scarce and tends to be on or near the edges of the stands. the osage orange trees growing in competition with oaks, elms and hickories may have tall, slender trunks and narrow crowns, in contrast with the spreading habit of those growing in more open sites. in the woodlands small and medium-sized trees are scarce and there is hardly any reproduction. obviously the osage orange, like honey locust became established in the forests when the stands were more open, probably after cutting of the large trees. in contrast to the meager reproduction in shaded sites is the abundant crop of young saplings along edges of fields adjacent to woods or about isolated osage orange trees. evidently the tree does not become established readily on bluestem prairie. on a hillside adjoining the northwest corner of the reservation, long subjected to heavy grazing, osage orange dominates, but just across the fence on the reservation side, it is almost absent. this area had been maintained as bluestem prairie until about 1934 by occasional burning and since then had partly grown up into thickets in which dogwood, and saplings of elm and hackberry were abundant. the dense thorny branches provide shelter and nesting sites for many kinds of animals. on this area the cardinal utilizes it for nesting sites more frequently than any other kind of tree. some nests were so well protected by the thorns that they could scarcely be reached. indigo buntings, field sparrows, and yellow-billed cuckoos also use these trees or young saplings for nesting sites. in the forties, when the woodrat was common on the area, its local distribution seemed to be determined mainly by the osage orange. many houses of the woodrat were built around old stumps at the bases of large, spreading osage orange trees. frequently the houses were in the main crotch of a tree two to eight feet from the ground. characteristically the rats used horizontal or gently inclined, low branches of the tree as runways to and from the house. in summer and early autumn these rats stored foliage of the osage orange in large quantities in chambers adjacent to the nest. the seeds also provided an important food source. during the period 1948 to 1951 the woodrat population steadily decreased, and one by one the houses in osage orange trees were deserted, until the small surviving population of woodrats was limited to hilltop rock outcrops not associated with osage orange trees. the seeds are well liked by other rodents also. in late fall and winter after the "hedge balls" have fallen, fox squirrels visit the trees and shred the fruits to gain access to the seeds. over periods of weeks heaps of the shredded refuse accumulate at the base of the tree trunk. the seeds probably constitute the one most important winter food of the fox squirrel. the tufted titmouse also relies to a large extent on the seeds for its winter food. being unable to shred the bulky hedge balls itself, it depends almost entirely on the seeds in fruits torn open by the squirrel but not fully utilized by it. at times when the ground and trees are snow-covered, making unavailable most other food sources, the osage orange seeds gleaned from refuse heaps in the sheltered feeding places of the squirrels are probably of critical importance to the titmouse. the cottontail and white-footed mouse also eat the seeds. #platanus occidentalis.#--sycamores are few and scattered on the area, but those present seem to be holding their own if not gaining in numbers. they include some of the largest trees on the reservation. the most typical habitat is along rocky ravines on wooded slopes. occasional trees are scattered through the woods away from ravines on slopes of north, east, or west exposures, or on hilltop edges, providing strong evidence that these areas were more open at the time the sycamore seedlings became established. cutting of the mature trees in the original forest and subsequent grazing might have created the conditions favorable for their establishment. many saplings have sprung up in the fallow hilltop fields that were formerly cultivated. many of the larger sycamores have cavities and these are inhabited by various animals. a large sycamore in a ravine below a pond had a cavity in its base within which a raccoon reared its litter of young one summer. at other times this same cavity was inhabited by woodrats and by fox squirrels. seemingly this cavity was the habitat of a certain chigger which was found on both the squirrels and the woodrat. red-bellied woodpeckers excavated a cavity high on this same tree trunk, in which they reared their brood. several large sycamores died as a result of the cumulative effect of drought in the summers of 1952, 1953 and 1954, but many others survived. #prunus americana.#--wild plum is a small tree, usually not more than three inches in trunk diameter, nor more than twelve feet high. it tends to grow in dense thickets which are spotty in distribution. several of these thickets are in edges of former pastures at the woodland edge. other extensive thickets are in the following situations: along hilltop rock ledges and encroaching into adjacent prairie on upper south-facing slope maintained as bluestem prairie by mowing and burning, until 1934; along a ravine in formerly cultivated hilltop fields; along tops of steep creek banks at edge of old corn field. in a few situations within the woodland there are dead and dying thickets of wild plum, shaded out by the closing in of the tree canopy, as fast-growing trees such as elm, honey locust, and cherry sprang up in former clearings. the woodrat lived in several plum thickets that provided the type of shelter from predators that it requires. the bark, fruit and foliage are used as food. in autumn the plums sometimes are the chief food of the opossum. plum thickets provide the preferred habitat for the bell vireo (_vireo bellii_). the white-eyed vireo, field sparrow, tree sparrow, harris sparrow, and white-throated sparrow (_zonotrichia albicollis_) also frequently use these thickets. #prunus serotina.#--isolated trees of black cherry six to fifteen inches in trunk diameter, have been noted on various parts of the reservation at widely scattered points. on a flat hilltop at the southeastern corner of the reservation there are many large trees of black cherry, which make up a major portion of the stand, and trunks of some are as much as 21 inches in diameter. other trees in the vicinity are mostly elms and honey locusts, and seemingly the area was more open or perhaps entirely treeless in the recent past. the presence of black cherry in forest often can be interpreted as indicating more open conditions at the time the seedling became established. black cherry prefers a rich soil and an open habitat; hence it is generally not common in woodlands of northeastern kansas. the fruits of black cherry are a favorite food of the opossum, and the seeds have often been noticed in the scats of this animal. white-footed mice store and eat the seeds. two trees of black cherry well isolated from other trees except for saplings in low thickets, constituted the headquarters of a bell vireo's territory each summer from 1951 through 1955. #pyrus ioensis.#--crab-apple is a small tree, usually less than five inches in trunk diameter and less than 12 feet high. it grows both in woodlands and in former pastures, but chiefly along the line of contact. after removal of livestock in early 1949, crab-apple spread into the edges of hilltop pastures, from the adjacent protected woodland. each year thickets of encroaching crab-apple have extended farther into the fields, until, in 1955, there were graded series from the trees along the fence, six feet high or more, to the seedlings 30 to 50 feet out in the fields. dogwood, red haw, and smooth sumac are among the most common associates of crab-apple as they share its tendency to invade open land adjacent to the forest. evidently the tree is intolerant of browsing by livestock, as few were growing in the pastured areas in 1948, but as soon as livestock were removed these areas were rapidly invaded. the thickets formed by crab-apple provide shelter for many kinds of animals. cottontails, especially, tend to stay in or near these thickets. in autumn the fruits are eaten by them, and in winter, when the ground is covered with snow, the bark is a major food source. most mature or partly grown trees show old scars near their bases, where the rabbits have attacked them. often the trees are completely girdled. in years when snow lies on the ground for long periods girdling is extensive and a substantial portion of the trees in the thickets may be killed, but this mortality has been insufficient to check the rapid spread of crab-apple. the crab-apple is one of the trees preferred as a nesting site by the cardinal. other birds that frequently use the crab-apple tree as a nest site include the field sparrow, towhee and indigo bunting. white-footed mice, prairie voles and pine voles eat the fruit and seed. #crataegus mollis.#--red haw occurs over much of the reservation, both in woodland and former pastures. the trees are scattered, and are not dominant, even on small areas. in the woodland, haw usually grows in the more open situations. where there are haws in denser woods, they are usually large and old; seemingly they are survivors from a time when the woods were more open. haw is intolerant of shading, and being of lesser height than any of the climax species, it cannot compete with them. the present wide distribution of haw on the area is secondary, resulting from the extensive cutting of the larger trees and opening up of the woodland. haw trees are most numerous on south facing slopes that have grown up into thickets in the last 30 years. here its associates are chiefly honey locust, osage orange, dogwood and elm. red haws have been recorded as nest trees of horned owls, yellow-billed cuckoos, cardinals, and fox squirrels. cavities in the trunks are used by downy woodpeckers, titmice, chickadees and white-footed mice. #cercis canadensis.#--redbud is abundant in some parts of the woodland. trees are up to nine inches in diameter and 25 feet high. they grow chiefly in rich soil on hillsides in moist situations. redbud and dogwood are in part complementary in distribution, each forming an understory in parts of the woodland where the leaf canopy of larger trees is not too dense. however, redbud is more tolerant of shade. in general dogwood grows in the drier, more rocky situations and redbud in better soil and damper sites. in the southeastern part of the reservation, on a west facing slope, redbud dominates, with smaller numbers of elm, blackjack oak, and dogwood. several times nests of yellow-billed cuckoos were found in redbuds. titmice, chickadees, and red-eyed vireos forage in redbuds on many occasions. brown creepers forage on the trunks. titmice, chickadees, and downy woodpeckers used cavities in dead or dying redbuds. however, there is no evidence that this tree is especially attractive to any kind of vertebrate, or plays an important part in the ecology of the area. #gymnocladus dioica.#--kentucky coffee-tree is one of the less important trees on the area but it is widely distributed. in general it is absent from the denser woods. on limited areas of certain slopes it is the dominant species. the groves sometimes are in nearly pure stands. slope exposure evidently is not the determining factor in the local distribution as groves have been found on hillsides of varying exposure. the tree seems to flourish where the forest has been opened by cutting of the larger trees. groves are mainly on the more gently sloping parts of the hillsides, or on the nearly level terrace. there are few coffee-trees more than 12 inches in trunk diameter. the largest tree examined was 27 inches. in may, groups of orchard orioles (_icterus spurius_) have been observed in coffee-trees, seemingly attracted by the blossoms. these concentrations never lasted more than a few days and seemed to involve individuals that were still migrating or newly arrived and not yet established on their territories. in winter the large pods of this tree are used as food to a limited extent by cottontails. the large hard shelled seeds resist attack by most animals. seemingly they are used by white-footed mice, as they have often been found stored in the nest cavities of these mice, beneath rocks or in logs. #gleditsia triacanthos.#--honey locust is at present one of the more important species of trees on the area. there are scattered locusts throughout most parts of the woodland. in the bottomland fields there are groves and scattered trees of medium to large size. on south slopes honey locust, osage orange and red elm form thickets. on hilltops, along woodland edges where fences were installed in the mid-thirties, young honey locusts have become established and are now abundant. some have grown to a diameter of 8 inches or more. honey locust is the fastest growing of the trees on the area and therefore has an early advantage in competing with other kinds. a locust of 25-inch diameter cut in 1950 was found to have 32 annual rings, an average of only 1.3 rings per inch as contrasted with an average of 3.8 for all the trees studied, and more than 9 for some of the slowest growing. in open fields, both those used for pasture and those formerly cultivated, young honey locusts have sprung up in abundance since the discontinuance of grazing in 1948. the species is resistant to drought. it seems to have been limited on the area mainly by grazing and shading. the locusts growing in the woods tend to be concentrated near its edges. those that are deeper in woodland evidently became established after heavy tree-cutting had opened clearings. locusts in such situations, competing with other hardwoods are of much different form than those growing in the open; the trunks are long and slender and the crowns are narrow. the south slopes that were originally prairie, were evidently only sparsely clothed with trees up until the thirties when livestock were fenced out. then the abundant growth of shrubs and young trees formed thickets. honey locust, growing rapidly tended to dominate. the younger locust saplings that were shaded beneath the leaf canopy died in large numbers. honey locust plays an important part in the over-all ecology of the area, providing both food and shelter for many kinds of animals. the foliage is well liked by livestock; consequently young trees have little chance of surviving in heavily grazed pastures. rabbits like both the foliage, and the bark. often they girdle or injure young trees, and eat the beans. both the prairie vole and the pine vole often feed upon the inner bark and root crowns of small saplings, sometimes completely undermining them. these voles also store and eat the seeds. beneath large mature locusts, runway systems and burrows of the pine vole are sometimes much in evidence. as ground vegetation is scanty in these places it seems that the voles are attracted by the abundant supply of locust seeds. the spiny branches of locusts provide well protected nesting sites that are utilized by various kinds of birds; mourning dove, horned owl, yellow-billed cuckoo, gnatcatcher, cardinal and goldfinch have been recorded nesting in locusts. the wood is relatively soft. the hairy woodpecker has been recorded nesting in a cavity which it had dug in a living honey locust, while the black-capped chickadee and red-bellied woodpecker have been recorded nesting in cavities in dead limbs. the summer tanager prefers large locusts near the edge of woodland as singing stations. fox squirrels also often exploit the spiny protection provided by locust trunks, and build their stick nests in these trees, usually in a fork of the main trunk eight to twelve feet above the ground. such nest trees often are either isolated or are in groves of other locusts. presumably the squirrels are attracted to them by the supply of locust seeds. #acer negundo.#--boxelder probably was not a part of the original flora of the reservation. the trees present now are few and scattered, and most are not more than eight inches in trunk diameter. the species seems intolerant of shade and does not grow in the denser woodlands. a few are present along the banks of the intermittent streams, and there are others in open woodlands of south slopes. the small patch of bluestem prairie remaining at the northwest corner of the reservation is being invaded by a variety of shrubs and saplings, and boxelder is by far the most prominent of these invaders, with two hundred seedlings and saplings per acre. #ailanthus altissima.#--tree-of-heaven is an asiatic species that was introduced early into northeastern kansas, and has become established locally in the woodland. most of those on the reservation are near the central part of the southwestern one-fourth. concentrated about the site of an old homestead, occupied in the eighteen-seventies, within a few acres, there are dozens of mature trees, up to 22 inches in trunk diameter, and hundreds of saplings. elsewhere on the reservation the species is scarce and is represented by isolated trees and scattered clumps at a few places. #cornus drummondi.#--this dogwood is the most abundant tree on the area. however, it scarcely reaches the size of a tree. most mature examples are 1â½ to 3â½ inches in trunk diameter, and rarely more than twelve feet high. dogwood grows in greatest abundance on dry rocky slopes where other trees are scarce. in small areas it may be the dominant tree, often closely associated with chinquapin oak and red elm. in parts of the woodland where there are larger trees, dogwood may form an understory, its development depending largely on the amount of light passing through the upper leaf canopy. where the canopy is dense and nearly continuous, dogwood tends to be eliminated by shading. in some situations where forest has recently closed in, most of the dogwoods are dead or dying. especially on formerly cut-over north slopes, where oak and hickory have sprung up in a dense stand 20 feet high, with a thick canopy, most of the dogwoods have been eliminated. on the remaining hillside prairie near the northwest corner of the reservation, dogwood is the most prominent of the trees and shrubs encroaching onto the area since it has been protected from fire--a period of approximately 20 years. there are dense thickets of dogwood along the borders of the prairie and the woodland edge. the white-eyed vireo and bell vireo both forage and nest in thickets of dogwood and other shrubs. #fraxinus americana.#--white ash is localized on the reservation and most of the mature trees are within an area of perhaps three acres on a steep slope of northwest exposure. several of the largest trees, well over a foot in trunk diameter, grow at the lower limestone outcrop. ash is most abundant at this level and at the terrace just below it. on the one slope where it is concentrated, ash is one of the most common trees, growing in association with american elm, chestnut oak, black oak, and shagbark hickory. this area is one of the most mesic on the reservation. the soil is usually damp, with thick leaf litter and rich humus. in hilltop fields, formerly cultivated or pastured, saplings of white ash are among the most prominent invaders. the leaves of this tree and especially its saplings, are favorite foraging places for the tree frog. the groves of this tree provide favorable habitat for the opossum, short-tailed shrew, gray squirrel, and white-footed mouse. birds that frequent the same habitat include the black-capped chickadee, tufted titmouse, blue jay, rose-breasted grosbeak (_pheucticus ludovicianus_), yellow-billed cuckoo, red-eyed vireo, gnatcatcher, hairy woodpecker, kentucky warbler, and crested flycatcher (_myiarchus crinitus_). [illustration: plate 7 explanation of plate 7 upper figure shows gully in southeastern part of reservation, which has enlarged and deepened greatly in the past 40 years. heavy precipitation in the summer of 1951 resulted in the undermining and collapse of many large and medium sized trees, as shown in this photograph taken in march, 1956, by h. s. fitch. lower figure shows cottonwood fifteen feet in circumference, growing on hilltop near south edge of the reservation. this is the largest tree on the area. several exceptionally large black oaks, chestnut oaks, and elms are present on the same hilltop. photograph taken in december, 1954, by h. s. fitch.] [illustration: plate 8 large american elm at edge of bottomland field in west part of the reservation. photograph taken on april 2, 1955, by h. s. fitch.] summary and conclusions the university of kansas natural history reservation, in the northeastern corner of douglas county, kansas, is situated in an area that originally supported two types of climax vegetation, tall grass prairie, and hardwood forest. these associations were distinct and sharply defined. the present distribution of the different species of trees on the area, supplemented by the data from snails, indicates the approximate distribution of the two original climaxes. the principal climax trees of the original forest were mossy-cup oak (mainly in bottomlands), black walnut, shagbark hickory, hackberry, red oak, black oak (mainly on hillsides and hilltop edges), chestnut oak (mainly on rocky upper slopes). subclimax trees characteristic of marginal situations include: american elm, red elm, white ash, honey locust, osage orange, coffee-tree, red haw, dogwood, redbud, cherry, wild plum and crab-apple. others characteristic of hydroseral situations include sycamore, willow (of four species), and cottonwood. in the kansas river flood plain and small tributary valleys, rich mesophytic forest of predominantly oak-hickory type was present. in somewhat stunted form, and with partial replacement of its species by those of more xeric habit, it extended up onto hillsides sloping north, east or west, and onto the adjacent hilltop edges. slopes having poor shallow soil and exposures mainly to the south supported chiefly tall grass prairie, but also had compact clumps of blackjack oak and post oak, usually more or less isolated from other parts of the woodland. hilltops were mostly treeless (except near their edges) and supported a tall-grass prairie vegetation. shrubs and various kinds of small trees must have been a much less conspicuous part of the woodland flora than they are at present, and occurred in small ravines where shelter was inadequate for the larger forest trees, and also along the extensive line of contact between forest and open land. one of the earliest changes was the destruction of the bottomland forest. with the rapid settlement of the region in the sixties and seventies, lumber was in demand and the supply was limited. the cleared land was productive as pasture. heavy grazing combined with drought, gradually altered the original tall grass prairie; the bluestems and other perennial grasses were replaced by the introduced blue grass and by various weedy forbs. prolonged protection from fire permitted encroachment of trees and shrubs into situations where they had not grown previously. heavy grazing however, tended to hold in check the spread of the woody vegetation. when the bottomlands had been cut over, lumbering operations were extended onto those hillsides where the better stands of trees were located. the cutting of large, mature oaks, walnuts, and hickories opened up the woodland and permitted large scale encroachment by subclimax species. american elm, especially, sprang up in thickets. ash, honey locust, cherry, red haw, crab-apple, dogwood, and the introduced osage orange, thrived and spread in the situations to which they were especially adapted. these species largely replaced the original climax. some of the trees cut, the oaks, sycamores, and hickories, usually produced fast-growing stump sprouts and competed vigorously with the invaders. at each successive cutting, however, the climax species lost ground. american elm, being tremendously prolific of seed, and only a little less tolerant of shading than its climax competitors, soon became the dominant tree of the woodlands. literature cited braun, e. l. 1950. deciduous forests of eastern north america. the blakiston co., philadelphia, xiv + 595 pp. fernald, m. l. 1950. gray's manual of botany, 8th edition. the american book co., n. y., lxiv + 1632 pp. fitch, h. s. 1952. the university of kansas natural history reservation. univ. kansas mus. nat. hist. misc. publ. no. 4: 1-38. fitch, h. s. and d. h. lokke 1956. the molluscan record of succession on the university of kansas natural history reservation. trans. kans. acad. sci. 59(4). flora, s. d. 1948. climate of kansas. rept. kansas state board agric. 67, no. 285, pp. xii + 320. leonard, a. b. and c. r. goble 1952. mollusca of the university of kansas natural history reservation. univ. kansas sci. bull. 34: 1013-1053, 2 pls. parks, g. s. 1854. "the tourist" [column]. the kansas herald of freedom, 1 (no. 1) wakarusa, kansas terr., october 21, 1854. robinson, [mrs.] s. t. d. 1899. kansas; its interior and exterior life including a full view of its settlement, political history, social life, climate, soil, productions, scenery, etc. journal publishing co., lawrence, kansas (10th ed.) xi + 438 pp. taft, r. 1950. the great sandy desert. trans. kansas acad. sci., 53: 441-442. ward, [mrs.] a. m. ms. as i knew them--early settlers of grant township--douglas co., kansas. univ. kansas library, 26 pp. _transmitted april 20,1956._ * * * * * * * transcriber's notes with the exception of the typographical correction noted below, the text in this file is that presented in the original printed version. minor corrections of missing periods or commas may have been made; but are not reported here. some of the text was rearranged so that figures and tables do not split paragraphs. emphasis notation _text_ : italics #text# : bold-italics typographical corrections page 92 para. 4: plaes => places * * * * * * * ================================================================== university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 8, no. 5, pp. 307-359, 1 figure in text --------------------- march 10, 1956 --------------------- check-list of the birds of kansas by harrison b. tordoff university of kansas lawrence 1956 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, a. byron leonard, robert w. wilson volume 8, no. 5, pp. 307-359, 1 figure published march 10, 1956 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed by ferd voiland, jr., state printer topeka, kansas 1956 25-9006 check-list of the birds of kansas by harrison b. tordoff kansas was one of the first states for which a detailed book on birds was published (n. s. goss, "history of the birds of kansas," topeka, kansas, 1891). ornithological progress in kansas in recent years, however, has not kept pace with work in many other states. as a result, knowledge of the birds of kansas today is not sufficiently detailed to make possible a modern, definitive report. one purpose of this check-list is to show gaps in our information on birds of the state. each student of birds can contribute importantly by keeping accurate records of nesting, distribution, and migration of any species in kansas and by making these records available through publication in appropriate journals. the museum of natural history at the university of kansas solicits records and specimens which contribute to our knowledge of birds in kansas. files and collections at the museum are available to any qualified person for study. the last state-wide list of birds was prepared by w. s. long (trans. kansas acad. sci., 43, 1940:433-456). this list and the unpublished thesis from which the list was abstracted have been of great value in preparing the present report. many other persons have contributed and among these the names of the following must be mentioned because of the value of their contributions: ivan l. boyd, l. b. carson, arthur l. goodrich, jr., richard graber, jean graber, harold c. hedges, r. f. miller, john m. porter, and marvin d. schwilling. full standing in this check-list has been given only to species for which at least one specimen from kansas has been examined by some qualified student. exceptions to this admittedly arbitrary rule have been made in three cases, trumpeter swan, turkey, and carolina paroquet, because there is no reason to doubt that each of these three species once occurred in kansas and because opportunity for obtaining specimens from kansas has been lost through disappearance of the species from the state. other species reported from the state but not authenticated by specimens have been relegated to the hypothetical list and their names and my remarks concerning these birds are enclosed in brackets. this procedure is intended to encourage collection of such species; it is not intended necessarily to indicate doubt of a record. in the case of a carefully identified but uncollected accidental, opportunity for obtaining a specimen may not exist again for a long period. this is unfortunate but emphasizes the need for judicious collecting. a total of 375 species (or 459 species and subspecies), of which four are introduced, is included in this check-list. additionally, 15 species are discussed in the hypothetical list. an asterisk (*) preceding an account indicates positive evidence of breeding in kansas of the species so marked. the total of species known to have bred at least once in the state is 173. nomenclature in this list follows the american ornithologists' union "check-list of north american birds" (1931, 4th edition) and its supplements. species on the hypothetical list are included in their current taxonomic position in the main list. _gavia immer_ (brünnich). common loon. uncommon transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _gavia stellata_ (pontoppidan). red-throated loon. rare transient. one specimen: female (univ. michigan mus. zool. 65778), marais des cygnes river, near ottawa, franklin county, october 20, 1925, captain joe r. white. several sight records from shawnee and johnson counties within past 10 years. no subspecies recognized. _colymbus grisegena._ red-necked grebe. rare transient. one specimen: female (ku 7697), kansas river east of lawrence, douglas county, october 29, 1910, logan i. evans. subspecies in kansas: _c. g. holböllii_ (reinhardt). _colymbus auritus._ horned grebe. rare transient. two authentic specimens: manhattan, riley county, september 30, 1878; male (ku 27465), 2-1/2 miles north of lawrence, douglas county, november 16, 1945, e. c. olson and ralph l. montell. several sight records, from eastern, central, and western kansas. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. cornutus_ gmelin. _colymbus caspicus._ eared grebe. regular transient throughout state; more common than horned grebe. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. californicus_ (heermann). _aechmophorus occidentalis_ (lawrence). western grebe. rare transient, perhaps more common in west but status poorly known. no subspecies recognized. * _podilymbus podiceps._ pied-billed grebe. common transient and irregular summer resident, rare winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _p. p. podiceps_ (linnaeus). _pelecanus erythrorhynchos_ gmelin. white pelican. common transient throughout state. occasional individuals, probably sick or wounded, remain beyond normal migration periods in spring and fall. no subspecies recognized. _pelecanus occidentalis._ brown pelican. accidental. one specimen: adult, sex not determined (ku 10468), parker, linn county, june, 1916, found dead by g. g. mcconnell. one seen at wichita, sedgwick county, by r. h. sullivan, april 25, 1910. subspecies in kansas: _p. o. carolinensis_ gmelin. * _phalacrocorax auritus._ double-crested cormorant. regular transient, in small to moderate numbers. one nesting record: several nests, eggs, and small young seen, cheyenne bottoms, barton county, august, 1951, otto tiemeier. subspecies in kansas: _p. a. auritus_ (lesson). _phalacrocorax olivaceus._ mexican cormorant. accidental. one record: specimen taken 4 miles south of lawrence, douglas county, april 2, 1872. present location unknown but specimen identified by s. f. baird and r. ridgway. subspecies in kansas: _p. o. mexicanus_ (brandt). _anhinga anhinga._ water-turkey. accidental. several specimens and sight observations are on record but most are prior to 1900. several records and one specimen at cheyenne bottoms, barton county, since 1928 (frank robl). in recent years, some reported water-turkeys have proved to be cormorants. subspecies in kansas: _a. a. leucogaster_ (vieillot). _fregata magnificens._ man-o'-war-bird. accidental. one record: specimen (present location unknown) taken on the north fork of the solomon river, osborne county, august 16, 1880, by frank lewis. subspecies in kansas: _f. m. rothschildi_ mathews. * _ardea herodias._ great blue heron. common transient and summer resident nesting in widely scattered colonies. subspecies in kansas: three reported, _a. h. herodias_ linnaeus in northeast, _a. h. wardi_ ridgway in southeast, and _a. h. treganzai_ court in west, but status of these poorly known because of lack of sufficient breeding specimens. _casmerodius albus._ american egret. regular postbreeding summer visitant; occasional spring and summer resident. no definite nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. egretta_ (gmelin). * _leucophoyx thula._ snowy egret. regular postbreeding summer visitant; rare and local summer resident; occasional in spring. one nesting record: two nests found, summer, 1952, 6 miles north and 4-1/2 miles west of garden city, finney county, marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _l. t. thula_ (molina). _hydranassa tricolor._ louisiana heron. accidental. two records: specimen taken at lake inman, mcpherson county, august 9, 1934, by r. e. mohler and richard h. schmidt; one seen, 1-1/2 miles south of iatan marsh, atchison county (near iatan, missouri), september 12, 1948, first reported by r. f. miller and mr. and mrs. ivan l. boyd, seen by several other observers. subspecies in kansas: _h. t. ruficollis_ (gosse). * _florida caerulea._ little blue heron. regular postbreeding summer visitant; rare and local summer resident; occasional in spring. usually more common than snowy egret. one nesting record: one nest found, summer, 1952, 6 miles north and 4-1/2 miles west of garden city, finney county, marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _f. c. caerulea_ (linnaeus). * _butorides virescens._ green heron. common transient and summer resident. subspecies in kansas: _b. v. virescens_ (linnaeus). * _nycticorax nycticorax._ black-crowned night heron. transient and summer resident, breeding in scattered colonies. subspecies in kansas: _n. n. hoactli_ (gmelin). * _nyctanassa violacea._ yellow-crowned night heron. summer resident throughout state, rare in north; numbers perhaps augmented in late summer by postbreeding stragglers. subspecies in kansas: _n. v. violacea_ (linnaeus). * _botaurus lentiginosus_ (rackett). american bittern. common transient; summer resident locally. two definite nesting records: nest with 4 newly hatched young (male collected, ku 30468), 1/2 mile east and 2 miles south of welda, anderson county, june 9, 1951, maurice f. baker; nest with eggs, 6 miles north and 3-1/2 miles west of kalvesta, finney county, summer, 1952, raymond erkic (_fide_ marvin d. schwilling). no subspecies recognized. * _ixobrychus exilis._ least bittern. transient and irregular summer resident. two nests found at lake quivira, johnson county, june 3, 1949, harold c. hedges; on june 28, one of the nests contained 4 eggs, on july 10 this nest was empty. no other definite nesting records. subspecies in kansas: _i. e. exilis_ (gmelin). _mycteria americana_ linnaeus. wood ibis. accidental. several sight records and one specimen: male (ku 9489), 5 miles north-*east of goodland, sherman county, october 4, 1913, willis feaster. no subspecies recognized. * _plegadis mexicana_ (gmelin). white-faced glossy ibis. irregular transient and summer visitant; more common in west. one definite nesting record: photograph of downy young ("kansas fish and game," vol. 9, no. 3, jan. 1952, p. 7) taken at cheyenne bottoms, barton county, presumably in summer of 1951, by l. o. nossaman. frank robl has seen individuals in summer in cheyenne bottoms on many occasions. reports of eastern glossy ibis (_plegadis falcinellus_) in kansas probably are based on dark-faced immatures of the present species, although the eastern species has been taken in oklahoma. no subspecies recognized. _ajaia ajaja_ (linnaeus). roseate spoonbill. accidental. one authentic specimen (present location not known): male, near douglass, on four-mile creek, butler county, march 20, 1899, taken by dr. r. matthews, identification verified by jerold volk and wilfred goodman. no subspecies recognized. _phoenicopterus ruber_ linnaeus. flamingo. accidental. two birds seen in autumn, 1928, at little salt marsh, stafford county, one of which was killed on opening day of duck season and now (1955) is mounted at kansas forestry, fish, and game commission headquarters at pratt. no subspecies recognized. _olor columbianus_ (ord). whistling swan. transient and winter resident, formerly common, now rare. many specimens are on record; at least four were taken in winter. no subspecies recognized. _olor buccinator_ (richardson). trumpeter swan. formerly occasional migrant, no longer occurs in kansas. all specimens from kansas alleged to be of this species are actually whistling swans. the early sight records seem valid, however, and the species should remain on the state list. no subspecies recognized. * _branta canadensis._ canada goose. common transient; some winter in suitable places. this species was found nesting along the missouri river near atchison by early explorers. modern breeding records probably pertain to captives or their descendants. subspecies in kansas: _b. c. moffitti_ aldrich, _b. c. leucopareia_ (brandt), _b. c. minima_ ridgway, and _b. c. hutchinsi_ (richardson) have been collected in kansas. additionally, subspecies _interior_ todd and _parvipes_ (cassin) probably pass through the state but no specimens have been saved. canada geese of widely varying size are regularly seen in migration. _branta bernicla._ brant. accidental. several sight records and one specimen: unsexed bird (ku 7490), leavenworth county, november 15, 1879, a. lange. some hunters refer to immature blue geese as "brant." orville o. rice saw 4 brant 2 miles north of burlington, near the neosho river, coffey county, march 24, 1955, that appeared to be black brant, _branta nigricans_ (lawrence). subspecies in kansas: _b. b. hrota_ (müller). _anser albifrons._ white-fronted goose. regular transient throughout state, more common in central and western parts. subspecies in kansas: _a. a. frontalis_ baird. _chen hyperborea._ snow goose. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. h. hyperborea_ (pallas). _chen caerulescens_ (linnaeus). blue goose. common transient in east, less common in central and western parts of state. in east, this species predominates in early spring migration whereas the snow goose is most numerous later. hybrids between the two are regularly seen. no subspecies recognized. [_chen rossii_ (cassin). ross goose. one reported at wyandotte county lake, november 22, 1951, by john bishop. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen.] _dendrocygna bicolor._ fulvous tree-duck. accidental. frank robl carefully examined and identified three specimens killed in 1929 or 1930, in cheyenne bottoms, barton county. none saved. specimens collected also in nearby areas of missouri. subspecies in kansas: _d. b. helva_ wetmore and peters, on geographical grounds. * _anas platyrhynchos._ mallard. abundant transient, regular winter resident, irregular and local summer resident. modern breeding distribution poorly known but several nests found in widely scattered areas in past years. nests regularly in kearny, finney, and barton counties. subspecies in kansas: _a. p. platyrhynchos_ linnaeus. _anas rubripes_ brewster. black duck. regular but rare or uncommon transient and winter resident in east and central (cheyenne bottoms, barton county) sections. no subspecies recognized. _anas fulvigula._ mottled duck. accidental. four specimens allegedly of this species have been reported. of these, two are actually mallards, one is a gadwall, and one, female, neosho falls, woodson county, march 11, 1876, goss, is a mottled duck. subspecies in kansas: _a. f. maculosa_ sennett. _anas strepera_ linnaeus. gadwall. transient and occasional winter resident throughout state. rare summer resident but no satisfactory nesting record reported. no subspecies recognized. * _anas acuta_ linnaeus. pintail. abundant transient throughout state, irregular winter resident, local summer resident nesting in recent years in barton, finney, meade, and leavenworth counties, but summer distribution poorly known. no subspecies recognized. _anas carolinensis_ gmelin. green-winged teal. common transient, rare winter resident (records from meade county and kansas city). no subspecies recognized. * _anas discors_ linnaeus. blue-winged teal. common transient, locally common summer resident. no subspecies recognized. _anas cyanoptera._ cinnamon teal. rare transient in east, uncommon or fairly common transient in west. subspecies in kansas: _a. c. septentrionalis_ snyder and lumsden. * _spatula clypeata_ (linnaeus). shoveller. common transient throughout state. frank robl found a female with young in cheyenne bottoms, barton county, in approximately 1930. nest with eggs found 1-1/2 miles south of friend, finney county, in spring, 1952, marvin d. schwilling. no subspecies recognized. [_mareca penelope_ (linnaeus). european widgeon. carl and david holmes reported a pair at lake shawnee, shawnee county, april 16, 1954. placed on hypothetical list until a specimen is taken.] _mareca americana_ (gmelin). baldpate. common transient throughout state, rare winter resident. no subspecies recognized. * _aix sponsa_ (linnaeus). wood duck. transient, rare in west to locally common in extreme east. summer resident in eastern part of state; breeding distribution poorly known. no subspecies recognized. * _aythya americana_ (eyton). redhead. fairly common transient and occasional winter resident throughout state. frank robl found a nesting pair in cheyenne bottoms, barton county, in 1928 (approximate). the adults were neither captives nor cripples. no subspecies recognized. _aythya collaris_ (donovan). ring-necked duck. fairly common transient throughout state, rare winter resident. no subspecies recognized. _aythya valisineria_ (wilson). canvas-back. fairly common transient and occasional winter resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _aythya marila._ greater scaup duck. rare transient, status poorly known. several sight records, one in winter. floyd t. amsden, a competent sportsman and amateur ornithologist of wichita, identified 3 male specimens killed 3 miles north and 1 mile east of sharon, barber county, on october 27 (2) and november 3 (1), 1951. frank robl has seen specimens killed in cheyenne bottoms, barton county. every effort should be made to preserve specimens from kansas. subspecies in kansas: _a. m. nearctica_ stejneger, on geographical grounds. _aythya affinis_ (eyton). lesser scaup duck. common transient throughout state. a few records of wintering and summering (non-*breeding) individuals. no subspecies recognized. _bucephala clangula._ golden-eye. uncommon transient and winter resident. specimens from kansas alleged to be the barrow golden-eye (_bucephala islandica_) all are of the present species. subspecies in kansas: _b. c. americana_ (bonaparte). _bucephala albeola_ (linnaeus). buffle-head. fairly common transient and occasional winter resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _clangula hyemalis_ (linnaeus). old-squaw. rare transient and winter visitant. at least five specimens taken (but only two or three preserved) and numerous sight records, from widely separated parts of state. no subspecies recognized. _somateria mollissima._ eider. accidental. one record: immature male (ku 3620), kansas river near lecompton, douglas county, november 3, 1891, a. l. wiedman. subspecies in kansas: _s. m. v. nigra_ bonaparte (identification checked by a. wetmore). _somateria spectabilis_ (linnaeus). king eider. accidental. one record: immature male (ku 27487), kansas river 1 mile east of lawrence, douglas county, november 27, 1947, r. l. montell. no subspecies recognized. _melanitta deglandi._ white-winged scoter. rare transient. nine specimens from douglas and leavenworth counties, taken from 1927 to 1938; several sight records from eastern kansas. subspecies in kansas: _m. d. deglandi_ (bonaparte). _melanitta perspicillata_ (linnaeus). surf scoter. rare transient. eight known specimens (three of which are now in university of kansas collection), all taken in autumn, seven in douglas county, one in sedgwick county; several sight records from eastern kansas. no subspecies recognized. _oidemia nigra._ common scoter. accidental. the two preserved specimens from kansas supposedly of this species are actually surf scoters. l. b. carson, however, identified an adult male common scoter killed by a hunter at horton lake, brown county, in the early 1930's. others have been seen by reliable field observers. every effort should be made to secure specimens from kansas. subspecies in kansas: _o. n. americana_ swainson, on geographical grounds. * _oxyura jamaicensis._ ruddy duck. common transient throughout state, rare winter resident. one breeding record: frank robl saw an adult female with one small young at cheyenne bottoms, barton county, in approximately 1929. subspecies in kansas: _o. j. rubida_ (wilson). _lophodytes cucullatus_ (linnaeus). hooded merganser. uncommon transient and winter resident throughout state. probably nests occasionally (two specimens at ku taken in east in june), but no proof of this available. no subspecies recognized. _mergus merganser._ american merganser. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _m. m. americanus_ cassin. _mergus serrator._ red-breasted merganser. uncommon transient throughout state; probably also rare winter resident but records lacking. this species is more common than hooded merganser in west, less common than hooded in east. subspecies in kansas: _m. s. serrator_ linnaeus. * _cathartes aura._ turkey vulture. common transient throughout state; common summer resident west at least to clark county. breeding distribution in west poorly known. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. teter_ friedmann. _coragyps atratus_ (meyer). black vulture. once occurred in southeast, but no record since 1885. goss quotes dr. george lisle ("a close observer") as finding this species common and breeding at chetopa, labette county, on the oklahoma line, prior to 1883. lisle found a nest with two eggs in 1858. goss also reports one killed by watson at ellis, ellis county, on march 27, 1885, but the location of the specimen is unknown. the species may still occur in southeastern kansas. no subspecies recognized. * _elanoïdes forficatus._ swallow-tailed kite. formerly summer resident in at least eastern half of state. last specimen from kansas taken by dr. g. c. rinker at hamilton, greenwood county, may 17, 1914. subspecies in kansas: _e. f. forficatus_ (linnaeus). * _ictinia misisippiensis_ (wilson). mississippi kite. common summer resident in south-central kansas, east to harvey, north to barton, and west to kearny counties. occasional records from douglas (nested once), johnson, greenwood, and hamilton counties. no subspecies recognized. _accipiter gentilis._ goshawk. rare and irregular winter visitor in east. status in west unknown. subspecies in kansas: _a. g. atricapillus_ (wilson). * _accipiter striatus._ sharp-shinned hawk. transient and winter resident throughout state; less common in east. status in summer poorly known; one nest found in cloud county, july 11, 1938, j. m. porter. subspecies in kansas: _a. s. velox_ (wilson). * _accipiter cooperii_ (bonaparte). cooper hawk. resident throughout state but nesting records only from the eastern half, west to cloud county. no subspecies recognized. * _buteo jamaicensis._ red-tailed hawk. abundant transient and winter resident in east; in high plains of west, largely restricted to river bottoms in winter. common summer resident in east; status in summer in west poorly known. subspecies in kansas: _b. j. borealis_ (gmelin) is the breeding bird of eastern kansas. _b. j. calurus_ cassin probably nests in west but no specimens available. _b. j. borealis_, _b. j. calurus_, _b. j. kriderii_ hoopes, and _b. j. harlani_ (audubon), the latter considered here as conspecific with _jamaicensis_, all occur as transients and winter residents. more specimens needed to establish details of distribution of various subspecies. * _buteo lineatus._ red-shouldered hawk. uncommon transient and summer resident and irregular winter resident in eastern kansas. breeding records from leavenworth and woodson counties; doubtless breeds in other eastern counties but definite evidence lacking. subspecies in kansas: _b. l. lineatus_ (gmelin). * _buteo platypterus._ broad-winged hawk. fairly common transient and local summer resident in eastern kansas. breeding records only from douglas, leavenworth, and johnson counties, where species nests regularly. subspecies in kansas: _b. p. platypterus_ (vieillot). * _buteo swainsoni_ bonaparte. swainson hawk. abundant transient in west, fairly common in east. nests commonly throughout western two-thirds of state and at least occasionally in eastern portion. supposed winter records should be substantiated by specimens. no subspecies recognized. _buteo lagopus._ rough-legged hawk. winter resident, fairly common in east to common in west. subspecies in kansas: _b. l. s. johannis_ (gmelin). * _buteo regalis_ (gray). ferruginous rough-leg. common transient and winter resident in west, rare in east. rare summer resident in west. two nesting records: nest with four young, south fork of smoky hill river, near wallace, may 27, 1883, goss; nest with three young, west of russell springs, logan county, may 29, 1954, marvin d. schwilling. no subspecies recognized. _parabuteo unicinctus._ harris hawk. accidental. two records: male, wichita, sedgwick county, december 14, 1918, leroy snyder; female (ku 10752), 7-1/2 miles southwest of lawrence, douglas county, december 25, 1918, fred hastie. subspecies in kansas: _p. u. harrisi_ (audubon). * _aquila chrysaëtos._ golden eagle. formerly common resident throughout state. now common in winter in west to rare in east. one positive nesting record: a pair nested for several years (prior to 1891) in southeastern comanche county on a high gypsum ledge, goss. subspecies in kansas: _a. c. canadensis_ (linnaeus). _haliaeetus leucocephalus._ bald eagle. rare transient and winter resident in east; fairly common winter resident in west, where large numbers may gather to roost. subspecies in kansas: _h. l. alascanus_ townsend. previous students refer all bald eagles from the state to _h. l. leucocephalus_ (linnaeus) but specimens in the k. u. collection, all taken in winter, are large (three females, wing, 645, 655, 680 mm.) and are clearly of the northern subspecies. _circus cyaneus._ marsh hawk. resident, common in winter, less common and local in summer. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. hudsonius_ (linnaeus). _pandion haliaetus._ osprey. occurs irregularly throughout state but less frequently in west. most records in spring and autumn but a few at other seasons. no definite nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _p. h. carolinensis_ (gmelin). _falco rusticolus._ gyrfalcon. accidental. one specimen: manhattan, riley county, december 1, 1880, a. l. runyan (specimen at kansas state college). subspecies in kansas: _f. r. obsoletus_ gmelin. _falco mexicanus_ schlegel. prairie falcon. rare summer and fairly common winter resident in west; occasional transient and winter resident in east. no satisfactory breeding records. no subspecies recognized. * _falco peregrinus._ duck hawk. rare transient and winter resident, probably more common in west. formerly nested but no nesting record since before 1900. subspecies in kansas: _f. p. anatum_ bonaparte. _falco columbarius._ pigeon hawk. uncommon transient and rare winter resident in east; more common in migration in west but status there in winter not known. subspecies in kansas: _f. c. columbarius_ linnaeus is most frequent in eastern part, west to reno county; _f. c. richardsonii_ ridgway is the common subspecies in west, occasional in east; _f. c. bendirei_ swann is known in kansas from one specimen (ku 4425) from ellis county, october, 1875, taken by dr. l. watson (identified by james l. peters). * _falco sparverius._ sparrow hawk. common resident and transient throughout state (but status in winter in northwest not known). subspecies in kansas: _f. s. sparverius_ linnaeus. _bonasa umbellus._ ruffed grouse. formerly common resident in eastern part; now probably extirpated in state but observers in extreme east should watch for it. one authentic specimen (ku 31944), southeastern kansas, between 1885 and 1910, alexander j. c. roese. no definite nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _b. u. umbellus_ (linnaeus). * _tympanuchus cupido._ greater prairie chicken. resident, but highly local; absent in southwestern quarter of state. subspecies in kansas: _t. c. pinnatus_ (brewster). * _tympanuchus pallidicinctus_ (ridgway). lesser prairie chicken. resident, but local, in southwestern quarter of state, north to hamilton and finney counties and east to pawnee and barber counties. a few old records east to anderson and neosho counties in winter. no subspecies recognized. _pedioecetes phasianellus._ sharp-tailed grouse. formerly resident in western part of state; scattered old records from eastern localities. now extirpated, or nearly so, in kansas; observers in northwestern counties should watch for it. no definite nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _p. p. jamesi_ lincoln. * _colinus virginianus._ bob-white. resident, common in east, less common and local in west. subspecies in kansas: _c. v. virginianus_ (linnaeus) in east, intergrading through central part with _c. v. taylori_ lincoln in west. * _callipepla squamata._ scaled quail. locally common resident in southwest, formerly north to wallace county but now primarily south of arkansas river, eastern limit not known. breeding records from hamilton, kearny, finney, stanton, morton, stevens, and clark counties, marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _c. s. pallida_ brewster. * _phasianus colchicus_ linnaeus. ring-necked pheasant. introduced. common in western two-thirds, gradually invading east where a few are now found in most counties. origin of north american stock obscure; no subspecies now recognized here. _meleagris gallopavo._ turkey. formerly common resident, west along streams at least to riley county; now extirpated in kansas. no known specimen from kansas with authentic data. no definite nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _m. g. silvestris_ vieillot. _grus americana_ (linnaeus). whooping crane. regular transient, now rare. probably most individuals go through east-central part of state. several early specimens from state and several recent sight records and one specimen: adult female (ku 31198), found crippled 8-1/2 miles south of sharon, barber county, october 31, 1952, thane s. robinson. no subspecies recognized. _grus canadensis._ sandhill crane. transient, rare in east, common to abundant in west. subspecies in kansas: _g. c. canadensis_ (linnaeus) and _g. c. tabida_ (peters); comparative status of the two subspecies not known. * _rallus elegans._ king rail. transient and summer resident, locally common. subspecies in kansas: _r. e. elegans_ audubon. _rallus limicola._ virginia rail. transient and summer resident, but breeding status poorly known. one breeding record: adult with six small, downy young, 8 miles south of richfield, morton county, may 24, 1950, richard and jean graber. subspecies in kansas: _r. l. limicola_ vieillot. * _porzana carolina_ (linnaeus). sora. common transient throughout state; status in summer poorly known. two breeding records: osawatomie, miami county, prior to 1914 (no other details), record by colvin, a careful observer; two nests, at least one with eggs, finney county state lake, august 21, 1951, marvin d. schwilling. additional nesting records should be sought. no subspecies recognized. _coturnicops noveboracensis._ yellow rail. rare or generally overlooked transient. records only from eastern part of state (west to sedgwick county). subspecies in kansas: _c. m. noveboracensis_ (gmelin). * _laterallus jamaicensis._ black rail. rare or generally overlooked summer resident. at least ten records, including at least seven specimens from widely scattered localities. two breeding records: nest with eight eggs, manhattan, riley county, june, 1880, c. p. blachly; nest with nine eggs, near garden city, finney county, june 6, 1889, h. w. menke. subspecies in kansas: _l. j. jamaicensis_ (gmelin). _porphyrula martinica_ (linnaeus). purple gallinule. rare and irregular summer visitant. five specimens taken in april and june in douglas, sedgwick, and riley counties. several sight records from eastern kansas. no subspecies recognized. * _gallinula chloropus._ florida gallinule. rare summer resident; status poorly known. two breeding records: nest found "on a board," coffey county, june (year not given), p. b. peabody; nest (female, ku 27509, and two eggs taken), 3 miles northeast of lawrence, douglas county, may 22, 1945 (previously published as 1946), r. l. montell. subspecies in kansas: _g. c. cachinnans_ bangs. * _fulica americana._ american coot. uncommon summer resident, abundant transient, and local winter resident in east and central parts; status in west poorly known. breeding record: 3 newly hatched young (ku 16694-6), little salt marsh, stafford county, june 13, 1927, h. c. parker and w. h. burt. the few other nesting localities include one in finney county. subspecies in kansas: _f. a. americana_ gmelin. _charadrius hiaticula._ semipalmated plover. regular transient throughout state, often fairly common. subspecies in kansas: _c. h. semipalmatus_ bonaparte. _charadrius melodus._ piping plover. rare transient. three specimens from douglas county, march and april, and a female (ku 15492) from little salt marsh, stafford county, july 16, 1925, t. e. white. nests in nebraska, south at least to lincoln; observers in north-central kansas should watch for possible breeding birds. subspecies in kansas: _c. m. circumcinctus_ (ridgway). * _charadrius alexandrinus._ snowy plover. summer resident on salt plains of clark, comanche, stafford, barton, and probably other counties. breeding range in kansas poorly known. one definite nesting record: adults with young, and one nest with 3 eggs, comanche county, june 18, 1886, goss. one female (ku 7787), from lawrence, douglas county, april 22, 1909, l. l. dyche. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. tenuirostris_ (lawrence). * _charadrius vociferus._ killdeer. common transient and summer resident throughout state. occasional winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _c. v. vociferus_ linnaeus. * _eupoda montana_ (townsend). mountain plover. summer resident in high plains of western kansas, but current status poorly known. many specimens from west and one positive breeding record: two half-grown, partly downy males (ku 5512, 5513), 5 miles south of tribune, greeley county, june 21, 1911, bunker and rocklund. no subspecies recognized. _pluvialis dominica._ golden plover. regular transient in east, sometimes common; more common in spring than in autumn. formerly abundant; status in west not known. subspecies in kansas: _p. d. dominica_ (müller). _squatarola squatarola_ (linnaeus). black-bellied plover. regular transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _arenaria interpres._ ruddy turnstone. rare transient. several sight records from eastern part of state and two specimens: one killed at topeka, shawnee county, august 16, 1898, f. w. forbes (location of specimen unknown); male, hamilton, greenwood county, october 1, 1911, g. c. rinker. subspecies in kansas: _a. i. morinella_ (linnaeus). * _philohela minor_ (gmelin). american woodcock. uncommon transient west to scott and kearny counties. probably does not occur farther west. one early nesting record: adult with several "at least one-fourth grown" young, near neosho falls, woodson county, may 25, 1874, goss. no subspecies recognized. _capella gallinago._ wilson snipe. common transient and occasional winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. g. delicata_ (ord). * _numenius americanus._ long-billed curlew. transient and uncommon summer resident in west; occasional transient in east. female and two downy young (ku 11607, 8, 9) taken 1 mile from spring creek, morton county, june 27, 1927, w. h. burt and l. v. compton. subspecies in kansas: _n. a. americanus_ bechstein is the breeding form; _n. a. parvus_ bishop occurs in migration (specimens from riley, lyon, and douglas counties). [_numenius phaeopus._ hudsonian curlew. reported by goss, and one seen at iatan marsh, atchison county, may 16, 1948, by harold c. hedges, but here placed in hypothetical list until a specimen from kansas is taken.] _numenius borealis_ (forster). eskimo curlew. formerly abundant transient in eastern kansas; now extinct, or nearly so. one unsexed bird (ku 6951) taken in douglas county, may 6, 1873, by n. j. stevens. no subspecies recognized. * _bartramia longicauda_ (bechstein). upland plover. abundant transient and locally common summer resident in suitable habitat; most numerous in west. nesting records from johnson, wabaunsee, chase, finney, and kearny counties. no subspecies recognized. * _actitis macularia_ (linnaeus). spotted sandpiper. common transient and summer resident throughout state. breeding records from leavenworth county and kansas city region. no subspecies recognized. _tringa solitaria._ solitary sandpiper. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _t. s. solitaria_ wilson is most common in eastern part and _t. s. cinnamomea_ (brewster) is most common in western part of kansas, with much overlap of the two. _catoptrophorus semipalmatus._ willet. transient throughout state, usually uncommon, but sometimes locally common. subspecies in kansas: _c. s. inornatus_ (brewster). _c. s. semipalmatus_ (gmelin) has been reported, probably erroneously; all specimens seen are of the western subspecies, _inornatus_. _totanus melanoleucus_ (gmelin). greater yellow-legs. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _totanus flavipes_ (gmelin). lesser yellow-legs. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _calidris canutus._ american knot. rare transient. sight records from eastern and western kansas; only one specimen preserved, hamilton, greenwood county, september 19, 1911, g. c. rinker. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. rufa_ (wilson). _erolia melanotos_ (vieillot). pectoral sandpiper. common transient through state. no subspecies recognized. _erolia fuscicollis_ (vieillot). white-rumped sandpiper. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _erolia bairdii_ (coues). baird sandpiper. common transient in east; abundant transient in west. no subspecies recognized. _erolia minutilla_ (vieillot). least sandpiper. common transient throughout state, but less numerous in west than in east. no subspecies recognized. _erolia alpina._ red-backed sandpiper. rare or uncommon transient; reported only from eastern half of state, west to cloud county. few specimens have been preserved. subspecies in kansas: _e. a. pacifica_ (coues). _limnodromus griseus._ short-billed dowitcher. rare or uncommon transient in east, status in west not known. one specimen: male (ku 29403), 3 miles east of lawrence, douglas county, may 14, 1946, r. l. montell. dowitchers having noticeably short bills should be collected when possible. subspecies in kansas: _l. g. hendersoni_ rowan. _limnodromus scolopaceus_ (say). long-billed dowitcher. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _micropalama himantopus_ (bonaparte). stilt sandpiper. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _ereunetes pusillus_ (linnaeus). semipalmated sandpiper. common transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _ereunetes mauri_ cabanis. western sandpiper. uncommon transient in east; probably common in west but status there unknown. no subspecies recognized. _tryngites subruficollis_ (vieillot). buff-breasted sandpiper. uncommon but regular transient in autumn in eastern kansas, west to republic county; few spring records. no subspecies recognized. _limosa fedoa_ (linnaeus). marbled godwit. rare or uncommon transient throughout state. status somewhat uncertain because some observers confuse this species with female hudsonian godwits. the latter are larger and often much duller than male hudsonian godwits. marbled godwits, however, show no contrasting tail pattern in flight. no subspecies recognized. _limosa haemastica_ (linnaeus). hudsonian godwit. uncommon transient in eastern and central kansas; status in west poorly known (reported from ness and kearny counties). no subspecies recognized. _crocethia alba_ (pallas). sanderling. rare transient in eastern and central kansas; status in west not known. three specimens have been taken, two from douglas county (october) and one from stafford county (july). no subspecies recognized. * _recurvirostra americana_ gmelin. avocet. uncommon transient in east; common transient and uncommon summer resident in west. breeding records from kearny, finney, haskell, meade, and barton counties. no subspecies recognized. _himantopus mexicanus_ (müller). black-necked stilt. rare transient. records from crawford, sedgwick, cloud, stafford, finney, and kearny counties; few recent records. no satisfactory nesting record. no subspecies recognized. _phalaropus fulicarius_ (linnaeus). red phalarope. very rare transient. two specimens: female (ku 3778), lake view, douglas county, november 5, 1905, e. e. brown; male (ottawa univ. 96), near ottawa, franklin county, october 25, 1926, wesley clanton (identification checked by tordoff). no subspecies recognized. * _steganopus tricolor_ vieillot. wilson phalarope. common transient throughout state. one definite nesting record: adult male with downy young, cheyenne bottoms, barton county, june 26, 1954, ted f. andrews and homer stephens. goss mentioned "breeding birds" in meade county but the record is not convincing. no subspecies recognized. _lobipes lobatus_ (linnaeus). northern phalarope. rare transient. goss shot five and preserved one (now in goss collection) of 17 or 18 seen at fort wallace, wallace county, may 25, 1883. several sight records. no subspecies recognized. _stercorarius pomarinus_ (temminck). pomarine jaeger. accidental. one record: immature male (ku 6967), kansas river near lawrence, douglas county, october 10, 1898, gus berger and banks brown. this specimen erroneously reported as a parasitic jaeger, _stercorarius parasiticus_ (linnaeus), in previous lists of birds of kansas. no subspecies recognized. _stercorarius longicaudus_ vieillot. long-tailed jaeger. accidental. one record: female (ku 32610), cheyenne bottoms, barton county, june 23, 1955, william m. lynn and larry d. mosby. no subspecies recognized. [_larus hyperboreus._ glaucous gull. one bird with crippled leg seen at lake shawnee, shawnee county, january 27, 1951, and several days thereafter, by many observers including the author. placed on hypothetical list until specimen is taken in kansas.] _larus argentatus._ herring gull. transient, regular along missouri river, uncommon to rare elsewhere in state; probably rare winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _l. a. smithsonianus_ coues. _larus californicus_ lawrence. california gull. accidental. one record: specimen (location unknown) taken by goss, arkansas river, reno county, october 20, 1880. no subspecies recognized. _larus delawarensis_ ord. ring-billed gull. transient, locally common; rare winter resident. no subspecies recognized. _larus atricilla_ linnaeus. laughing gull. accidental. one specimen taken 3 miles east and 2-1/2 miles south of canton, in marion county, may 15, 1933, richard h. schmidt (specimen in his collection); sight records from barton and shawnee counties. no subspecies recognized. _larus pipixcan_ wagler. franklin gull. transient, abundant in west, common in east. no subspecies recognized. _larus philadelphia_ (ord). bonaparte gull. rare transient. all specimens from eastern part, west to cloud county; status in west not known. no subspecies recognized. [_rissa tridactyla._ kittiwake. immature bird seen at lake shawnee, shawnee county, october 20, 1951, by l. b. carson and o. s. pettingill, jr. in the absence of a specimen, the species is placed on the hypothical list.] _xema sabini._ sabine gull. three records: immature male, taken at humboldt, allen county, september 19, 1876, peter long (now in goss collection); immature male, taken at hamilton, greenwood county, october 3, 1909, g. c. rinker; immature bird seen but not collected on october 18, 28, and 29, 1952, at lake shawnee, shawnee county, by several observers (orville o. rice secured good photographs of this bird). subspecies in kansas: _x. s. sabini_ (sabine). _sterna forsteri_ nuttall. forster tern. transient, locally common in eastern half of state; status in west unknown. no subspecies recognized. _sterna hirundo._ common tern. rare transient. two specimens: female, anderson county, may 11, 1878 (in goss collection); male, munger's lake, near hamilton, greenwood county, september 2, 1912, g. c. rinker. subspecies in kansas: _s. h. hirundo_ linnaeus. * _sterna albifrons._ least tern. uncommon transient and local summer resident throughout state. one definite nesting record: five nests, each with two eggs, arkansas river at coolidge, hamilton county, july 1, 1936, otto tiemeier. subspecies in kansas: _s. a. athalassos_ burleigh and lowery. _hydroprogne caspia_ (pallas). caspian tern. uncommon transient throughout state. many sight records but only one specimen: female (ku 17147), douglas county, september 27, 1928, harold standing (skin and body skeleton of this tern saved; erroneously reported previously as two specimens). no subspecies recognized. _chlidonias niger._ black tern. common transient and, in north-central part, regular summer resident but no positive breeding record. subspecies in kansas: _c. n. surinamensis_ (gmelin). * _columba livia_ gmelin. rock dove. introduced. common around habitations; nesting locally in feral state on cliffs in western kansas. no subspecies recognized because of mixed ancestry of birds introduced into new world. * _zenaidura macroura._ mourning dove. common transient and summer resident, uncommon winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _z. m. carolinensis_ (linnaeus) in east, _z. m. marginella_ (woodhouse) in west, intergrading in central part. * _ectopistes migratorius_ (linnaeus). passenger pigeon. extinct. formerly irregular transient and summer resident. two specimens, both males, taken at neosho falls, woodson county, april 14, 1876, by goss, who also reported this species to nest there occasionally. no subspecies recognized. [_columbigallina passerina._ ground dove. one seen on kansas river, 3 miles west of st. marys, pottawatomie county, november 11, 1954, by thomas a. hoffman and james mulligan. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen from kansas.] [_scardafella inca_ (lesson). inca dove. one seen daily at halstead, harvey county, november 10, 1951, to january 21, 1952, by edna l. ruth and others. one seen in topeka, shawnee county, last week of june, 1952, e. j. rice. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen from kansas.] * _conuropsis carolinensis._ carolina paroquet. extinct. formerly common resident in wooded areas of east; west along stream bottoms. goss reported nesting of small flock near neosho falls, woodson county, in spring, 1858. no specimen from kansas preserved. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. ludovicianus_ (gmelin), on geographical grounds. * _coccyzus americanus._ yellow-billed cuckoo. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. americanus_ (linnaeus). * _coccyzus erythropthalmus_ (wilson). black-billed cuckoo. uncommon transient and summer resident. nesting records: female (ku 15480) and nest containing two black-billed cuckoo eggs and one yellow-billed cuckoo egg, 7-1/2 miles southwest of lawrence, douglas county, june 5, 1926, charles d. bunker; nests found in cloud county in june, 1932 (1), 1933 (1), 1934 (1), 1935 (1), 1938 (2), j. m. porter. no subspecies recognized. * _geococcyx californianus_ (lesson). road-runner. resident in south-central and southwestern kansas; abundance and distribution subject to wide fluctuation, current status unknown. four nests found, april to july, 1934, 4-1/2 miles east of arkansas city, cowley county, walter colvin. no subspecies recognized. _crotophaga sulcirostris._ groove-billed ani. accidental. three records: specimen (ku 31948), mccune, crawford county, between 1885 and 1910, alexander j. c. roese; specimen, lyon county, november 1, 1904; male (ku 31951), 6-3/4 miles northeast of blue rapids, marshall county, october 28, 1952, elizabeth g. mccleod. subspecies in kansas: _c. s. sulcirostris_ swainson. * _tyto alba._ barn owl. uncommon resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _t. a. pratincola_ (bonaparte). * _otus asio._ screech owl. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: following reported: _o. a. naevius_ (gmelin) in northeast, _o. a. hasbroucki_ ridgway in south-central, _o. a. aikeni_ (brewster) and _o. a. swenki_ oberholser in west. the status of these subspecies is poorly known; additional breeding specimens and revisionary study are needed. * _bubo virginianus._ horned owl. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _b. v. virginianus_ (gmelin) in east, _b. v. occidentalis_ stone in west. _nyctea scandiaca_ (linnaeus). snowy owl. rare and irregular winter visitant throughout state. no subspecies recognized. [_surnia ulula._ hawk owl. none of the several sight records from kansas is convincing to me. reports from eastern kansas indicating regular occurrence there of this far-northern species are surely erroneous and probably pertain to short-eared owls.] * _speotyto cunicularia._ burrowing owl. common summer resident in west; irregular transient in east. numbers seem to be decreasing. subspecies in kansas: _s. c. hypugea_ (bonaparte). * _strix varia._ barred owl. resident in east, locally fairly common. status in west not known. subspecies in kansas: _s. v. georgica_ latham in southeast; _s. v. varia_ barton elsewhere in state. * _asio otus._ long-eared owl. uncommon summer resident, locally common transient and winter resident throughout state. nesting records from ottawa, douglas, doniphan, and meade counties. status in summer poorly known. subspecies in kansas: _a. o. wilsonianus_ (lesson). * _asio flammeus._ short-eared owl. resident, probably throughout state, in suitable habitat. more common in winter. nesting records from woodson, republic, and marshall counties. subspecies in kansas: _a. f. flammeus_ (pontoppidan). * _aegolius acadicus._ saw-whet owl. rare winter resident throughout state. one nesting record: a pair found in kansas city, wyandotte county, in winter, 1950, remained at least to september, 1951, and were seen with young birds in summer, 1951, john bishop. subspecies in kansas: _a. a. acadicus_ (gmelin). * _caprimulgus carolinensis_ gmelin. chuck-will's-widow. locally common summer resident in eastern kansas, western limit of distribution poorly known. no subspecies recognized. * _caprimulgus vociferus._ whip-poor-will. locally common summer resident in eastern kansas; two specimens reported from finney county, but status in west poorly known. two nests reported, at geary, doniphan county, june 16 and june 14 to july 3, 1923, by linsdale. in recent years, chuck-will's-widows seem to have increased at the expense of whip-poor-wills in kansas. subspecies in kansas: _c. v. vociferus_ wilson. * _phalaenoptilus nuttallii._ poor-will. summer resident, common in west, rare and local in east. subspecies in kansas: _p. n. nuttallii_ (audubon). * _chordeiles minor._ nighthawk. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: nesting; _c. m. minor_ (forster) in northeast, _c. m. chapmani_ coues in southeast, and _c. m. howelli_ oberholser in west, intergrading with one another through fairly broad zones. migration; _c. m. sennetti_ coues throughout state. * _chaetura pelagica_ (linnaeus). chimney swift. common transient and summer resident in east; status in west poorly known. schwilling reports this species only in migration in finney and neighboring counties. no subspecies recognized. * _archilochus colubris_ (linnaeus). ruby-throated hummingbird. common transient and summer resident in east; much less common in west, status there poorly known. no subspecies recognized. _stellula calliope_ (gould). calliope hummingbird. one record: immature female, 8 miles south of richfield and 6 miles east of kansas highway 27, morton county, september 3, 1952, jean w. graber. no subspecies recognized. * _megaceryle alcyon._ belted kingfisher. common summer resident and uncommon winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _m. a. alcyon_ (linnaeus). * _colaptes auratus._ yellow-shafted flicker. common resident throughout state, but partly replaced in west by red-shafted flicker and hybrids between the two species. subspecies in kansas: _c. a. auratus_ (linnaeus) in southeast, _c. a. luteus_ bangs in remainder of state. _c. a. borealis_ ridgway has been reported in winter in east. * _colaptes cafer._ red-shafted flicker. common resident in west, hybridizing with, and replaced by, yellow-shafted flicker eastward. uncommon winter resident in east. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. collaris_ vigors. * _dryocopus pileatus._ pileated woodpecker. formerly common resident in eastern kansas, now much reduced in numbers and distribution. recent sight records from leavenworth, wyandotte, douglas, miami, linn, and neosho counties may indicate that this species is increasing in its former range. definite nesting records only from linn county where frank wood and ivan sutton found a nest with 4 eggs and a nest with two young and one egg, along marais des cygnes river, near pleasanton, some years ago. eunice and wilson dingus have noted this species at mound city, linn county, regularly for several years. subspecies in kansas: _d. p. abieticola_ (bangs) in northeast, _d. p. pileatus_ (linnaeus) in southeast. * _centurus carolinus._ red-bellied woodpecker. common resident in eastern part, breeding west at least to comanche county; additional records in west from morton, finney, and kearny counties. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. zebra_ (boddaert). * _melanerpes erythrocephalus._ red-headed woodpecker. common transient and summer resident throughout state. occasional winter resident west to cloud county; not found in winter in southwest by schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _m. e. erythrocephalus_ (linnaeus), intergrading in west with _m. e. caurinus_ brodkorb. _asyndesmus lewis_ (gray). lewis woodpecker. possibly rare resident in southwest but status uncertain. several specimens and sight records from western third of state; one specimen, female (ku 7890), from lawrence, douglas county, november 7, 1908, bunker and wetmore. no subspecies recognized. _sphyrapicus varius._ yellow-bellied sapsucker. uncommon transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. v. varius_ (linnaeus) in eastern kansas, _s. v. nuchalis_ baird in western part (three specimens, wallace and morton counties). [_sphyrapicus thyroideus._ williamson sapsucker. an adult male seen at concordia, cloud county, april 4, 1935, by dr. j. m. porter. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen.] * _dendrocopos villosus._ hairy woodpecker. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _d. v. villosus_ (linnaeus). * _dendrocopos pubescens._ downy woodpecker. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _d. p. pubescens_ (linnaeus) in southeast (labette and montgomery counties), _d. p. medianus_ (swainson) in rest of state, with fairly broad zone of intergradation between the two subspecies. _dendrocopos scalaris._ ladder-backed woodpecker. common resident in extreme southwestern kansas (morton county). six specimens. no nest found yet in kansas. subspecies in kansas: _d. s. symplectus_ (oberholser). * _tyrannus tyrannus_ (linnaeus). eastern kingbird. common transient and summer resident throughout state; most numerous in east. no subspecies recognized. * _tyrannus verticalis_ say. western kingbird. common transient and summer resident east to flint hills; uncommon transient and summer resident in east (occurs regularly at lawrence but rarely at kansas city). no subspecies recognized. _tyrannus vociferans._ cassin kingbird. transient and summer resident in extreme western part, east to finney county. one specimen: male, kansas highway 27 at cimarron river [7-1/2 miles north of elkhart], morton county, may 26, 1950, richard and jean graber. no nesting record. status poorly known. subspecies in kansas: _t. v. vociferans_ swainson. * _muscivora forficata_ (gmelin). scissor-tailed flycatcher. common summer resident in southern and central kansas; nesting west to morton county, north to cloud county, east to neosho county. sporadic records elsewhere in state. no subspecies recognized. * _myiarchus crinitus._ crested flycatcher. common transient and summer resident throughout state, but perhaps less numerous in west. subspecies in kansas: _m. c. boreus_ bangs. _myiarchus cinerascens._ ash-throated flycatcher. known only from morton county; several seen in may, 1950, and a female with somewhat enlarged ovary taken, 8 miles south of richfield, may 7, 1950, richard and jean graber. no nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _m. c. cinerascens_ (lawrence). * _sayornis phoebe_ (latham). eastern phoebe. common transient and summer resident in east; occurs, but must less common, in west. no subspecies recognized. * _sayornis saya._ say phoebe. common transient and summer resident in west. nesting records from rawlins, jewell, logan, and ness counties. in migration, reported east to republic and lyon counties. subspecies in kansas: _s. s. saya_ (bonaparte) is the breeding bird; _s. s. yukonensis_ bishop probably occurs in migration. _empidonax flaviventris_ (baird and baird). yellow-bellied flycatcher. uncommon transient in east. specimens from johnson, douglas, and shawnee counties. no subspecies recognized. * _empidonax virescens_ (vieillot). acadian flycatcher. summer resident in eastern kansas. specimens from doniphan, leavenworth, douglas, woodson, montgomery, and labette counties. nesting records from doniphan county (jean m. linsdale), linn county (wilson j. and eunice dingus), and douglas county (r. f. miller). no subspecies recognized. _empidonax traillii._ alder flycatcher. transient throughout state; no satisfactory nesting records or specimens taken in breeding season. subspecies in kansas: _e. t. brewsteri_ oberholser transient, probably more common in west, and _e. t. traillii_ (audubon) transient and perhaps breeding in east. _empidonax minimus_ (baird and baird). least flycatcher. common transient throughout state; no satisfactory evidence of nesting. no subspecies recognized. _empidonax oberholseri_ phillips. wright flycatcher. known only from three specimens, may 8 (male and female) and may 12 (male), 1950, eight miles south of richfield, morton county, richard and jean graber. no subspecies recognized. _empidonax difficilis._ western flycatcher. known only from two specimens taken eight miles south of richfield, morton county; september 3, 1952, immature female, jean graber; september 5, 1952, immature male (ku 31203), richard graber. subspecies in kansas: _e. d. hellmayri_ brodkorb (female specimen); intermediate between _e. d. hellmayri_ and _e. d. difficilis_ baird (male specimen). * _contopus virens_ (linnaeus). eastern wood pewee. common transient and summer resident in east, rare transient in west. breeding distribution in state poorly known. no subspecies recognized. _contopus richardsonii._ western wood pewee. common transient and probably summer resident in west; rare transient in east (specimen from greenwood county and one seen in cloud county). no nesting record. subspecies in kansas: _c. r. richardsonii_ (swainson). _nuttallornis borealis_ (swainson). olive-sided flycatcher. uncommon transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. * _eremophila alpestris._ horned lark. common transient and resident throughout state. numbers augmented by northern birds in winter. subspecies in kansas: _e. a. praticola_ (henshaw) resident in east; _e. a. enthymia_ (oberholser) resident west of flint hills; _e. a. hoyti_ (bishop), _e. a. alpestris_ (linnaeus), and _e. a. leucolaema_ (coues) in winter. [_tachycineta thalassina._ violet-green swallow. five birds seen at lake shawnee, shawnee county, april 14, 1947, by l. b. carson. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen.] * _iridoprocne bicolor_ (vieillot). tree swallow. summer resident in extreme northeastern kansas; common transient throughout eastern half of state, status in west not known. nesting records only from doniphan county, along missouri river, four nests located by linsdale, in 1922, 1923, and 1924, and leavenworth county, nests found by brumwell along missouri river. no subspecies recognized. * _riparia riparia._ bank swallow. common transient and summer resident, probably throughout state but status in northwest not known. subspecies in kansas: _r. r. riparia_ (linnaeus). * _stelgidopteryx ruficollis._ rough-winged swallow. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. r. serripennis_ (audubon). * _hirundo rustica._ barn swallow. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _h. r. erythrogaster_ boddaert. * _petrochelidon pyrrhonota._ cliff swallow. common transient and locally common summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _p. p. pyrrhonota_ (vieillot). _progne subis._ purple martin. common transient and summer resident in east to uncommon or rare in west. subspecies in kansas: _p. s. subis_ (linnaeus). * _cyanocitta cristata._ blue jay. common transient and resident throughout state; less common in northern and western sections in winter. subspecies in kansas: _c. c. bromia_ oberholser in east, _c. c. cyanotephra_ sutton in west, intergrading through central kansas. [_cyanocitta stelleri._ steller jay. several sight records from southwestern kansas. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen.] _aphelocoma coerulescens._ scrub jay. irregular winter resident in southwestern kansas. five specimens (ku 20812-5, 21213), 12 miles northeast of elkhart, morton county, november 8, 10, 14, 1934, w. s. long and fred hastie. two seen in finney county, january 15, 1955, by marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _a. c. woodhouseii_ (baird). _aphelocoma ultramarina._ arizona jay. accidental. one specimen: "probably female," near mt. jesus, clark county, march, 1906, b. ashton keith. identification confirmed by l. l. dyche; present location of specimen unknown. subspecies in kansas: _a. u. arizonae_ (ridgway). * _pica pica._ american magpie. common resident in west; occasional in east in winter. eastward extent of breeding range poorly known; nests from ottawa (1951), republic (1951 and 1953), and cloud (1954) counties. extending breeding range eastward (j. m. porter). subspecies in kansas: _p. p. hudsonia_ (sabine). _corvus corax._ american raven. formerly occurred on high plains, precise status not known. no records since disappearance of bison herds. one specimen: jewell county, date unknown, edward kern (specimen now at kansas state college, manhattan). subspecies in kansas: _c. c. sinuatus_ wagler. * _corvus cryptoleucus_ couch. white-necked raven. common summer resident in western two tiers of counties; occasional resident east to ford county. locally common winter resident (finney, scott, and sherman counties). one shot at larned, pawnee county, about october 25, 1937, by frank robl. no subspecies recognized. * _corvus brachyrhynchos._ crow. common resident in east, less common in west. abundant transient and winter resident in central kansas. subspecies in kansas: _c. b. brachyrhynchos_ brehm. _gymnorhinus cyanocephalus_ wied. piñon jay. irregular winter visitant, more frequent in west than in east. reported from douglas (twice), sedgwick, mitchell, clark, finney, and kearny counties. no subspecies recognized. _nucifraga columbiana_ (wilson). clark nutcracker. irregular winter visitant, more frequent in west than in east. reported from marshall (twice), ellis, lyon, finney, and seward counties. no subspecies recognized. * _parus atricapillus._ black-capped chickadee. common resident in entire state except for southern tier of counties, where either rare or absent in summer and locally common in winter. subspecies in kansas: _p. a. atricapillus_ linnaeus in east, where most specimens are more or less intermediate toward _p. a. septentrionalis_ harris, the resident subspecies in the west. * _parus carolinensis._ carolina chickadee. common resident in southern tier of counties; taken also in greenwood county. reported occurrence in douglas county is erroneous. proof of breeding rests on partly grown juveniles taken in barber county, and on two nests found in montgomery county by l. b. carson. subspecies in kansas: _p. c. atricapilloides_ lunk. * _parus bicolor_ linnaeus. tufted titmouse. common resident in eastern kansas, west at least to barber, harvey, and cloud counties. western limit of breeding range poorly known. no subspecies recognized. * _sitta carolinensis._ white-breasted nuthatch. uncommon and local resident and winter visitant throughout state. three positive nesting records, all from douglas county, by c. d. bunker, r. f. miller, and katherine kelley. subspecies in kansas: _s. c. carolinensis_ latham resident in labette and montgomery counties; _s. c. nelsoni_ mearns occurs in at least morton county, status uncertain; _s. c. cookei_ oberholser resident and winter visitant in rest of state. _sitta canadensis_ linnaeus. red-breasted nuthatch. uncommon transient and winter resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _certhia familiaris._ brown creeper. fairly common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. f. americana_ bonaparte. * _troglodytes aëdon._ house wren. transient and summer resident, common in east to uncommon in west. subspecies in kansas: _t. a. parkmanii_ audubon. _troglodytes troglodytes._ winter wren. rare or uncommon transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _t. t. hiemalis_ vieillot. _thryomanes bewickii._ bewick wren. resident, common in south, rare in north; status poorly known. nesting records from shawnee, johnson, and montgomery counties. subspecies in kansas: _t. b. bewickii_ (audubon) in northern and northeastern part, _t. b. cryptus_ oberholser in rest of state. (_t. b. niceae_ sutton, a questionably valid subspecies, has been reported from meade and morton counties.) * _thryothorus ludovicianus._ carolina wren. resident, common in south, less common to north and west. one record from hamilton county; status in northwest unknown. subspecies in kansas: _t. l. ludovicianus_ (latham). * _telmatodytes palustris._ long-billed marsh wren. uncommon transient throughout state; known as a breeding bird only from doniphan county, where linsdale found several nests and collected a juvenile (ku 12869) with half-grown tail, august 31, 1922. subspecies in kansas: _t. p. dissaëptus_ (bangs). * _cistothorus platensis._ short-billed marsh wren. uncommon transient and irregular summer resident in east, no records from west. one breeding record: male (ku 29665), female (ku 29666), and their nest with four eggs, eight miles west of lawrence, douglas county, august 30, 1950, h. b. tordoff and g. p. young. subspecies in kansas: _c. p. stellaris_ (naumann). * _salpinctes obsoletus._ rock wren. common transient and summer resident in west, rare transient in east; eastern limit of breeding range not known. nests found in hamilton, scott, and logan counties. subspecies in kansas: _s. o. obsoletus_ (say). * _mimus polyglottos._ mockingbird. resident throughout state, less common in north, especially in winter. subspecies in kansas: _m. p. polyglottos_ (linnaeus) in east, _m. p. leucopterus_ (vigors) in west (most specimens from kansas are intermediate between the two subspecies). * _dumetella carolinensis_ (linnaeus). catbird. common transient and summer resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. * _toxostoma rufum._ brown thrasher. common transient and summer resident throughout state; occasional winter resident at least in east. subspecies in kansas: _t. r. rufum_ (linnaeus) in east, _t. r. longicauda_ baird in west. _oreoscoptes montanus_ (townsend). sage thrasher. rare transient in west. two unsexed specimens (ku 31941, 31942), 1 mile south of holcomb, finney county, september 20 and october 2, 1954, marvin d. schwilling. a third individual seen in morton county, september 27, 1954, and a fourth in kearny county, march 23, 1955, by schwilling. no subspecies recognized. * _turdus migratorius._ robin. common transient and summer resident; locally common winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _t. m. migratorius_ linnaeus breeds in most of state but birds in southeast are intermediate toward _t. m. achrusterus_ (batchelder); _t. m. propinquus_ ridgway occurs in west, at least in migration, and irregularly in other parts of state in winter. _ixoreus naevius._ varied thrush. accidental. one record: specimen (present location unknown) taken at garden city, finney county, october 17, 1891, h. w. menke. subspecies in kansas: probably _i. n. meruloides_ (swainson), on geographical grounds. * _hylocichla mustelina_ (gmelin). wood thrush. common transient and summer resident in east, absent in west, western limit of breeding in kansas not known (nests, but uncommonly, in cloud county). no subspecies recognized. _hylocichla guttata._ hermit thrush. transient throughout state, usually uncommon. rare in winter in east. subspecies in kansas: _h. g. faxoni_ bangs and penard in east, _h. g. sequoiensis_ (belding) in west. _hylocichla ustulata._ olive-backed thrush. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _h. u. swainsoni_ (tschudi). _hylocichla minima._ gray-cheeked thrush. fairly common transient in east; probably does not occur in west but western limit in migration in kansas unknown (rare in cloud county, three records by j. m. porter). subspecies in kansas: _h. m. minima_ (lafresnaye). _hylocichla fuscescens._ veery. transient, rare in east, fairly common in west. subspecies in kansas: _h. f. salicicola_ ridgway. * _sialia sialis._ eastern bluebird. common resident and transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. s. sialis_ (linnaeus). [_sialia mexicana._ chestnut-backed bluebird. said to be winter resident at coolidge, hamilton county, by shanstrum. reliably reported from southeastern colorado. placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen from kansas.] _sialia currucoides_ (bechstein). mountain bluebird. common winter resident in west; occurs regularly east to cloud and barber counties and irregularly farther east (to douglas and anderson counties). bunker and rocklund took a full-grown juvenal female (ku 5900) on june 20, 1911, near the colorado line northwest of coolidge, hamilton county. no subspecies recognized. _myadestes townsendi._ townsend solitaire. winter resident in small numbers in west; irregular in winter in east. subspecies in kansas: _m. t. townsendi_ (audubon). * _polioptila caerulea._ blue-gray gnatcatcher. common transient and summer resident in east, probably transient only in west but status there poorly known. nesting records from doniphan, douglas, and barber counties. subspecies in kansas: _p. c. caerulea_ (linnaeus). _regulus satrapa._ golden-crowned kinglet. common transient throughout state; uncommon winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _r. s. satrapa_ lichtenstein. _regulus calendula._ ruby-crowned kinglet. common transient throughout state; rare winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _r. c. calendula_ (linnaeus). _anthus spinoletta._ water pipit. common transient throughout state, more numerous in west. subspecies in kansas: _a. s. rubescens_ (tunstall). _anthus spragueii_ (audubon). sprague pipit. transient throughout state, perhaps more common in central or western parts; status poorly known. specimens known from trego, cloud, greenwood, woodson, and anderson counties. no subspecies recognized. _bombycilla garrulus._ bohemian waxwing. rare winter visitant throughout state. few specimens on record, from riley, shawnee, jefferson, greenwood, and sedgwick counties. subspecies in kansas: _b. g. pallidiceps_ reichenow. * _bombycilla cedrorum_ vieillot. cedar waxwing. common transient and irregular winter resident throughout state; rare summer resident in northeast. breeding records: four nests found at lake quivira, wyandotte county, july 22, 1947 (nestling collected, ku 32374), july 3, 1949 (young in nest), july 4, 1950, july 10, 1952 (young in nest), harold c. hedges; nest found in topeka, shawnee county, june 16, 1953, cliff olander and t. w. nelson. no subspecies recognized. _lanius excubitor._ northern shrike. winter resident, rare in east, uncommon in west. subspecies in kansas: _l. e. borealis_ vieillot in east, _l. e. invictus_ grinnell in west (most specimens from kansas are intermediate between the two). * _lanius ludovicianus._ loggerhead shrike. common resident and transient throughout state, but may leave north-central and northwestern parts in winter. subspecies in kansas: _l. l. migrans_ palmer in extreme east, _l. l. excubitorides_ swainson in west, east to norton, ness, and clark counties; birds from rest of state mostly intermediate. * _sturnus vulgaris._ starling. introduced. first appeared in early 1930's, now common transient and resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. v. vulgaris_ linnaeus. * _vireo atricapillus_ woodhouse. black-capped vireo. summer resident in comanche and possibly other south-central counties. status poorly known. goss collected three pairs in southeastern comanche county, may 7 to 18, 1885, and found a nest under construction on may 11, 1885. sight records from manhattan, riley county, june 18, 1953, by scott searles, and halstead, harvey county, may 16, 1951, by edna l. ruth. no subspecies recognized. * _vireo griseus._ white-eyed vireo. locally common transient and summer resident in east. status poorly known. nesting records from doniphan county (linsdale) and kansas city region; specimens taken in summer from douglas, montgomery, and labette counties. subspecies in kansas: _v. g. noveboracensis_ (gmelin). * _vireo bellii._ bell vireo. common summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _v. b. bellii_ audubon. * _vireo flavifrons_ vieillot. yellow-throated vireo. uncommon transient and local, uncommon summer resident throughout state. goss reported two nests, one with 1 cowbird and 3 vireo eggs, at neosho falls, woodson county, may 9, 1877, and one under construction at topeka, shawnee county, may 18, 1883. t. w. nelson found a nest at topeka in 1947 (date approximate). r. f. miller found an occupied nest 3 miles north of baldwin, douglas county, may 6, 1947. no subspecies recognized. _vireo solitarius._ solitary vireo. fairly common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _v. s. solitarius_ (wilson) in east, _v. s. plumbeus_ coues and _v. s. cassinii_ xantus in west. * _vireo olivaceus_ (linnaeus). red-eyed vireo. common transient and summer resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _vireo philadelphicus_ (cassin). philadelphia vireo. uncommon transient in east (often overlooked); reported west to harvey county but western limit of migration in kansas not known. no subspecies recognized. * _vireo gilvus._ warbling vireo. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _v. g. gilvus_ (vieillot). * _mniotilta varia_ (linnaeus). black and white warbler. common transient throughout state, local and uncommon summer resident in east. breeding distribution in state poorly known. nests reported in douglas and leavenworth counties. no subspecies recognized. * _protonotaria citrea_ (boddaert). prothonotary warbler. locally common transient and summer resident in eastern kansas. nesting records from doniphan, leavenworth, johnson, douglas, shawnee, and woodson counties. no subspecies recognized. * _helmitheros vermivorus_ (gmelin). worm-eating warbler. rare transient (specimens from doniphan, douglas, and woodson counties) and summer resident in east. linsdale saw a singing bird on july 11, 1923, in doniphan county. hilton (wilson bull., 32, 1920:85-86) reports finding a newly-fledged young bird with an adult at fort leavenworth, leavenworth county, on june 7, 1919 (some of hilton's records seem highly improbable, but the one in question is convincing to me). no subspecies recognized. _vermivora chrysoptera_ (linnaeus). golden-winged warbler. rare transient in east. several sight records and one specimen: female (ku 12700), 3 miles south of lawrence, douglas county, may 2, 1921, e. r. hall. no subspecies recognized. _vermivora pinus_ (linnaeus). blue-winged warbler. uncommon transient in east. possibly nests rarely but no definite evidence. no subspecies recognized. _vermivora peregrina_ (wilson). tennessee warbler. common transient in east, uncommon transient in west. no subspecies recognized. _vermivora celata._ orange-crowned warbler. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _v. c. celata_ (say) throughout state, _v. c. orestera_ oberholser in west. _vermivora ruficapilla._ nashville warbler. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _v. r. ruficapilla_ (wilson). _vermivora virginiae_ (baird). virginia warbler. transient in extreme west. known in kansas only from 8 miles south of richfield, morton county: five birds seen, two collected, may 4 to 10, 1950, richard and jean graber. no subspecies recognized. * _parula americana_ (linnaeus). parula warbler. fairly common transient and local summer resident in eastern kansas. nesting records from riley, doniphan, douglas, and woodson counties; western limit of breeding distribution unknown. no subspecies recognized. * _dendroica petechia._ yellow warbler. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _d. p. aestiva_ (gmelin) breeding in all except southwestern kansas; _d. p. sonorana_ brewster probably breeding in extreme southwest (specimens from morton county); _d. p. rubiginosa_ (pallas) transient, probably throughout state. _dendroica magnolia_ (wilson). magnolia warbler. uncommon transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica tigrina_ (gmelin). cape may warbler. rare transient in east. several sight records but only one specimen from state: immature male (ku 31644), lawrence, douglas county, december 6, 1954 (abnormally late date), mary edith kizer. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica caerulescens._ black-throated blue warbler. rare transient, more records from west than from east. subspecies in kansas: _d. c. caerulescens_ (gmelin). _dendroica coronata._ myrtle warbler. common transient throughout state, rare winter resident. (see also audubon warbler.) subspecies in kansas: _d. c. coronata_ (linnaeus) and _d. c. hooveri_ mcgregor. _dendroica auduboni._ audubon warbler. common transient in west, rare in east, specimens taken east to trego county. hybrids between this species and myrtle warbler common in west. subspecies in kansas: _d. a. auduboni_ (townsend). _dendroica nigrescens_ (townsend). black-throated gray warbler. common transient in extreme western kansas. several sight records and four specimens from 8 miles south of richfield, morton county, may 8 to 13, 1950, richard and jean graber. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica townsendi_ (townsend). townsend warbler. transient in extreme western kansas. five records: all from 8 miles south of richfield, morton county, may 3 (female collected), 11, and 20, 1950, september 3 and 5 (immature female, ku 31206), 1952, richard and jean graber. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica virens._ black-throated green warbler. transient, uncommon in east and rare in west. subspecies in kansas: _d. v. virens_ (gmelin). _dendroica cerulea_ (wilson). cerulean warbler. uncommon transient and possibly summer resident in east, but status poorly known. no definite nesting record. only five specimens on record. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica fusca_ (müller). blackburnian warbler. transient, uncommon in east, rare in west. no subspecies recognized. [_dendroica dominica._ sycamore warbler. a few sight records from east and possibly breeds in southeast but placed on hypothetical list until a specimen from state is obtained.] _dendroica pensylvanica_ (linnaeus). chestnut-sided warbler. transient, fairly common in east, uncommon in west. only three specimens from state, two from shawnee county, one from morton county. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica castanea_ (wilson). bay-breasted warbler. uncommon transient throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _dendroica striata_ (forster). black-poll warbler. common transient in east, uncommon or rare in west. no subspecies recognized. [_dendroica pinus._ pine warbler. probably rare transient in east where several have been reported seen, but placed in hypothetical list in absence of a specimen from kansas. linsdale reported taking a pine warbler in doniphan county, september 13, 1923, but the specimen is actually a cerulean warbler.] * _dendroica discolor._ prairie warbler. known to occur regularly only in wyandotte and johnson counties, where locally common transient and summer resident; newly fledged young have been found. one specimen: male (ku 32376), 2 miles west of lake quivira, johnson county, may 3, 1942, harold c. hedges. subspecies in kansas: _d. d. discolor_ (vieillot). _dendroica palmarum._ palm warbler. uncommon transient in east, west at least to cloud county. western limit of occurrence in migration not known. subspecies in kansas: _d. p. palmarum_ (gmelin). * _seiurus aurocapillus._ oven-bird. fairly common transient throughout state; local summer resident in northeast. brumwell reported one pair nesting in june, 1939, and in 1940, at fort leavenworth, leavenworth county. his report is lacking in details but no other nesting records are available. subspecies in kansas: _s. a. aurocapillus_ (linnaeus) throughout state, _s. a. cinereus_ a. h. miller taken in cheyenne county. _seiurus noveboracensis._ northern water-thrush. fairly common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. n. notabilis_ ridgway. * _seiurus motacilla_ (vieillot). louisiana water-thrush. fairly common transient and summer resident in east, uncommon transient in west. approximately 11 breeding records, all from miami and linn counties. summer distribution in state inadequately known. no subspecies recognized. * _oporornis formosus_ (wilson). kentucky warbler. common transient and summer resident in east. nests west to riley county, but not reported from cloud county by porter. no subspecies recognized. _oporornis philadelphia_ (wilson). mourning warbler. locally common transient in east, west rarely to sedgwick and cloud counties. sight records supposedly of connecticut warblers (_oporornis agilis_) may, at least in part, refer to this species. no specimens of _o. agilis_ known from state. no subspecies recognized. _oporornis tolmiei._ macgillivray warbler. common transient in extreme western kansas, accidental in east. specimens from morton, hamilton, and marshall (1) counties. subspecies in kansas: _o. t. monticola_ phillips. * _geothlypis trichas._ yellow-throat. common transient throughout state; common summer resident in east, less common in west. subspecies in kansas: _g. t. brachidactyla_ (swainson) breeds in east; _g. t. occidentalis_ brewster breeds in west. distribution in kansas of these subspecies and identity of transients poorly known. * _icteria virens._ yellow-breasted chat. common transient and summer resident, perhaps less common in west. subspecies in kansas: _i. v. virens_ (linnaeus) in east, _i. v. auricollis_ (lichtenstein) in west, intergrading through most of state. _wilsonia citrina_ (boddaert). hooded warbler. formerly common summer resident in east, now rare and perhaps no longer nests in state. no satisfactory breeding record. three males from leavenworth county, may 9, 1871, and one from shawnee county, may 17, 1871, taken by j. a. allen, are now at harvard. no subspecies recognized. _wilsonia pusilla._ wilson warbler. common transient throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _w. p. pusilla_ (wilson) in east, _w. p. pileolata_ (pallas) in west; precise distribution in migration unknown. _wilsonia canadensis_ (linnaeus). canada warbler. uncommon transient in east, reported west to sedgwick and cloud counties. no subspecies recognized. * _setophaga ruticilla._ american redstart. common transient and local summer resident in east; probably only transient in west but breeding range in state poorly known. few definite nesting records: brumwell reported nesting at fort leavenworth, leavenworth county; j. m. porter found a nest in republic county, may 22, 1940. subspecies in kansas: _s. r. ruticilla_ (linnaeus) is breeding form; _s. r. tricolora_ (müller) occurs in migration. * _passer domesticus._ english sparrow. introduced. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _p. d. domesticus_ (linnaeus). * _dolichonyx oryzivorus_ (linnaeus). bobolink. transient, uncommon in east and rare in west in spring; rare in east and absent in west in fall. in 1940, several pairs remained until july 21 near jamestown state lake, cloud county, and two pairs were seen feeding fledglings on june 25 (j. m. porter). no other good evidence of breeding. no subspecies recognized. * _sturnella magna._ eastern meadowlark. common transient and resident in eastern part. nests locally west to jewell county in north and barber county in south. less common in winter. subspecies in kansas: _s. m. magna_ (linnaeus) in northeast, _s. m. argutula_ bangs in southeast. _sturnella neglecta._ western meadowlark. common transient and resident in western part. nests commonly east to flint hills, irregularly and uncommonly in east. largely replaces eastern meadowlark in east in winter. subspecies in kansas: _s. n. neglecta_ audubon. * _xanthocephalus xanthocephalus_ (bonaparte). yellow-headed blackbird. transient, common in west and uncommon in east, and uncommon, local summer resident. breeds more frequently in west; nesting records from meade, wallace, barton, stafford, doniphan, and douglas counties. one winter record, riley county. no subspecies recognized. * _agelaius phoeniceus._ red-wing. common transient and summer resident throughout state, less common winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _a. p. phoeniceus_ (linnaeus) breeds in most of state; _a. p. fortis_ ridgway may nest in west and occurs in migration; _a. p. arctolegus_ oberholser occurs in migration. * _icterus spurius_ (linnaeus). orchard oriole. common transient and summer resident throughout state. no subspecies recognized. _icterus cucullatus._ hooded oriole. accidental. one record: bird banded at los angeles, california, january 22, 1939, found dead by dr. f. s. williams, 16 miles southeast of garden city, finney county, about august 5, 1939; foot of specimen preserved. subspecies in kansas: _i. c. californicus_ (lesson), on geographic grounds. * _icterus galbula_ (linnaeus). baltimore oriole. common transient and summer resident through most of state; hybridizes freely with bullock oriole in west. one winter record: immature male (ku 31988), lawrence, douglas county, december 25, 1953, h. b. tordoff. no subspecies recognized. * _icterus bullockii._ bullock oriole. common transient and summer resident in west, rarely east to stafford county (breeding?) and douglas county (transient). subspecies in kansas: _i. b. bullockii_ (swainson). _euphagus carolinus._ rusty blackbird. common transient and locally common winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _e. c. carolinus_ (müller). _euphagus cyanocephalus_ (wagler). brewer blackbird. transient and local winter resident. common in west, uncommon in east. probably nests in northwest, but no satisfactory evidence of this. no subspecies recognized. _quiscalus quiscula._ bronzed grackle. common transient and summer resident throughout state; local winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _q. q. versicolor_ vieillot. * _molothrus ater._ cowbird. common transient and summer resident throughout state; local winter resident. subspecies in kansas: _m. a. ater_ (boddaert) is breeding bird; _m. a. artemisiae_ grinnell transient, common in west and possibly nesting in northwest. _piranga ludoviciana_ (wilson). western tanager. fairly common transient and perhaps summer resident in extreme west. two males taken 4-1/2 miles west of kendall, hamilton county, may 20 and june 1, 1893, h. w. menke; many seen and two males and a female (ku 31207) taken 8 miles south of richfield, morton county, may 6, 1950 (males) and september 4, 1952, richard and jean graber. no subspecies recognized. * _piranga olivacea_ (gmelin). scarlet tanager. fairly common transient in east and uncommon summer resident in northeast. distribution in state poorly known; breeding records from doniphan, leavenworth, and cloud counties. no subspecies recognized. * _piranga rubra._ summer tanager. common transient and summer resident, distribution poorly known. recorded in migration (possibly breeding?) west to morton county and breeding in doniphan and douglas counties. not reported by porter as nesting in cloud county. subspecies in kansas: _p. r. rubra_ (linnaeus). * _richmondena cardinalis._ cardinal. common resident in east, uncommon in west, rare in extreme southwest. subspecies in kansas: _r. c. cardinalis_ (linnaeus). * _pheucticus ludovicianus_ (linnaeus). rose-breasted grosbeak. common transient and locally common summer resident in east. reported in summer west to rawlins county; probably absent in summer from southeast. distribution poorly known. no subspecies recognized. * _pheucticus melanocephalus._ black-headed grosbeak. common transient and summer resident in west, nesting east to cloud and harvey counties. occasionally occurs farther east in migration. subspecies in kansas: _p. m. melanocephalus_ (swainson). * _guiraca caerulea._ blue grosbeak. common transient and summer resident in most of state; locally common in summer in northeast. subspecies in kansas: _g. c. caerulea_ (linnaeus) in east, _g. c. interfusa_ dwight and griscom in west; most specimens from state are intergrades. _passerina cyanea_ (linnaeus). indigo bunting. common transient and summer resident west to finney county, status in extreme west not known but probably absent there. no subspecies recognized. _passerina amoena_ (say). lazuli bunting. common transient and probably summer resident in extreme western kansas. no breeding record. rare in east in migration. no subspecies recognized. * _passerina ciris._ painted bunting. fairly common summer resident in east, west to barber and north to riley and shawnee counties. one positive nesting record: nest with young, successfully fledged, lawrence, douglas county, spring and summer, 1918, bessie d. reed. subspecies in kansas: _p. c. pallidior_ mearns. * _spiza americana_ (gmelin). dickcissel. transient and summer resident throughout state; common in east, locally common in west. no subspecies recognized. _hesperiphona vespertina._ evening grosbeak. rare and irregular winter visitant. reported from widely scattered localities throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _h. v. vespertina_ (cooper); _h. v. brooksi_ grinnell may occur in west. _carpodacus purpureus._ purple finch. fairly common transient and winter resident in east; status in west not known. subspecies in kansas: _c. p. purpureus_ (gmelin). _carpodacus mexicanus._ house finch. occurs in southwestern kansas, reported common north to hamilton county and east to finney county. one record from concordia, cloud county, 2 or 3 birds seen from february 26 to march 6, 1954, lillie and ida cook, j. m. porter. most records in winter; status in summer uncertain. subspecies in kansas: _c. m. frontalis_ (say). [_pinicola enucleator._ pine grosbeak. one old record (possibly based on a specimen, but convincing details are lacking) and a few recent sight records from east. placed in hypothetical list in absence of an authentic specimen from state.] _acanthis flammea._ redpoll. rare and irregular winter visitant. records from cloud, riley (specimen), douglas (specimens), and woodson counties, and kansas city region. subspecies in kansas: _a. f. flammea_ (linnaeus). * _spinus pinus._ pine siskin. common but irregular transient and winter resident throughout state. two breeding records: nest with 3 or 4 young, later successfully fledged, onaga, pottawatomie county, may 3, 1920, f. f. crevecoeur; nest with 3 eggs (young successfully fledged), 1 mile southwest of concordia, cloud county, observed from april 6 to 30, 1954, j. m. porter. subspecies in kansas: _s. p. pinus_ (wilson). * _spinus tristis._ eastern goldfinch. common resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. t. tristis_ (linnaeus). * _loxia curvirostra._ red crossbill. irregular winter visitant throughout state, locally common at times. one nesting record: nest with one egg, topeka, shawnee county, march 22, 1917, a. sidney hyde. this nest later held three eggs, all hatched, three young fledged, and the family left the area in june. subspecies in kansas (in approximate decreasing order of frequency): _l. c. benti_ griscom, _l. c. bendirei_ ridgway, _l. c. minor_ (brehm), _l. c. stricklandi_ ridgway, _l. c. sitkensis_ grinnell. _loxia leucoptera._ white-winged crossbill. rare and irregular winter visitant throughout the state. only two specimens taken (douglas and ellis counties). subspecies in kansas: _l. l. leucoptera_ gmelin. _chlorura chlorura_ (audubon). green-tailed towhee. fairly common transient in west; rare winter visitant in east (shawnee county, wyandotte county). no subspecies recognized. * _pipilo erythrophthalmus._ red-eyed towhee. common transient and winter resident throughout state; uncommon summer resident in east, status in west in summer not known. no nest found, but recently fledged young reported in several counties. subspecies in kansas: _p. e. erythrophthalmus_ (linnaeus) resident; _p. e. arcticus_ (swainson) winter resident throughout state; _p. e. montanus_ swarth reported as transient only from morton county. * _calamospiza melanocorys_ stejneger. lark bunting. common transient and summer resident in west, rare transient in east. nesting in southwestern kansas irregular; absent some years and present in other years. one nesting record from east, in franklin county. no subspecies recognized. _passerculus sandwichensis._ savannah sparrow. common transient and rare winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _p. s. savanna_ (wilson), _p. s. nevadensis_ grinnell, _p. s. oblitus_ peters and griscom. * _ammodramus savannarum._ grasshopper sparrow. common transient and local summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _a. s. perpallidus_ (coues). _ammodramus bairdii_ (audubon). baird sparrow. one record: male? (u. s. natl. mus. 155884), pendennis, lane county, april 25, 1897, j. a. loring. this species probably occurs regularly in the state but is overlooked. no subspecies recognized. _passerherbulus caudacutus_ (latham). leconte sparrow. common transient and irregular, locally common winter resident west at least to lane county. no subspecies recognized. * _passerherbulus henslowii._ henslow sparrow. uncommon transient and uncommon, local summer resident in east, west at least to cloud county. breeding records from morris, shawnee, douglas, and anderson counties. subspecies in kansas: _p. h. henslowii_ (audubon). _ammospiza caudacuta._ sharp-tailed sparrow. rare transient in east. specimens taken in shawnee, douglas, woodson, and mcpherson counties. supposed nesting reported by goss probably erroneous. subspecies in kansas: _a. c. nelsoni_ (allen). _pooecetes gramineus._ vesper sparrow. common transient throughout state. may nest in northwest but no evidence available. subspecies in kansas: _p. g. gramineus_ (gmelin) in east, _p. g. confinis_ baird in west. * _chondestes grammacus._ lark sparrow. common transient and summer resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. g. grammacus_ (say) east of flint hills, _c. g. strigatus_ swainson in west; the two subspecies intergrade in central kansas. _aimophila ruficeps._ rufous-crowned sparrow. two records: male (ku 29222), schwarz canyon, comanche county, june 7, 1936, c. w. hibbard; one seen near point rock, morton county, may 21, 1950, richard and jean graber. subspecies in kansas: _a. r. scottii_ (sennett). _aimophila aestivalis._ pine-woods sparrow. one specimen: male (ku 32377), lake quivira, in wyandotte county, april 26, 1948, harold c. hedges. one seen, lake quivira, in johnson county, april 24, 1949, harold c. hedges. subspecies in kansas: _a. a. illinoensis_ (ridgway). * _aimophila cassinii_ (woodhouse). cassin sparrow. common summer resident in southwestern kansas, known north to hamilton county and east to finney county. one nesting record: nest with two young and one pipped egg, one mile south of garden city, finney county, may 24, 1954, marvin d. schwilling. no subspecies recognized. _amphispiza bilineata._ black-throated sparrow. one record: specimen of unknown sex (ku 31356), 4 miles north and 3 miles east of garden city, finney county, november 25, 1952, marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _a. b. deserticola_ ridgway. _junco aikeni_ ridgway. white-winged junco. fairly common transient and winter resident in western kansas. specimens from wallace, ellis, hamilton, and morton counties. no subspecies recognized. _junco hyemalis._ slate-colored junco. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _j. h. hyemalis_ (linnaeus), _j. h. cismontanus_ dwight. _junco oreganus._ oregon junco. common transient and winter resident in west, uncommon in east. subspecies in kansas: _j. o. montanus_ ridgway, _j. o. mearnsi_ ridgway. _spizella arborea._ tree sparrow. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. a. arborea_ (wilson) common in east; _s. a. ochracea_ brewster common throughout state. * _spizella passerina._ chipping sparrow. common transient and summer resident in east, less common in west. only two actual nesting records: occupied nest at lawrence, douglas county, may, 1954, james s. findley; nest with 4 large young, 6 miles south of atchison, atchison county, may, 1934 or 1935, homer a. stephens (photographs taken of nest and adult). subspecies in kansas: _s. p. passerina_ (bechstein) in east, _s. p. arizonae_ coues in west. _spizella pallida_ (swainson). clay-colored sparrow. common transient throughout state. possibly breeds in northwest: male (ku 31950) with greatly enlarged testes (9 × 6 mm.), 1 mile north of st. francis, cheyenne county, june 12, 1954, h. b. tordoff. no subspecies recognized. _spizella breweri._ brewer sparrow. common transient in west. five specimens known: four males, morton county, april 8 to may 1, 1950, richard and jean graber; one specimen (sex?), finney county, may 3, 1954, marvin d. schwilling. subspecies in kansas: _s. b. breweri_ cassin. * _spizella pusilla._ field sparrow. common transient and summer resident and uncommon winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _s. p. arenacea_ chadbourne, intergrading in east with _s. p. pusilla_ (wilson). _zonotrichia querula_ (nuttall). harris sparrow. common transient and winter resident in east, uncommon in west. no subspecies recognized. _zonotrichia leucophrys._ white-crowned sparrow. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _z. l. leucophrys_ (forster) common in east, uncommon in west; _z. l. gambelii_ (nuttall) common in west, fairly common in east. _zonotrichia albicollis_ (gmelin). white-throated sparrow. fairly common transient, uncommon winter resident west at least to cloud and sedgwick counties. status in west poorly known; not reported at garden city by marvin d. schwilling. no subspecies recognized. _passerella iliaca._ fox sparrow. fairly common transient and uncommon winter resident in east; probably occurs in west but status there poorly known. subspecies in kansas: _p. i. iliaca_ (merrem); other subspecies may be found in west when specimens become available. _melospiza lincolnii._ lincoln sparrow. common transient and uncommon winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _m. l. lincolnii_ (audubon) throughout state; _m. l. alticola_ (miller and mccabe) in extreme west. _melospiza georgiana._ swamp sparrow. common transient and uncommon winter resident in east. western limit of range in kansas not known (rare transient in cloud and finney counties--porter and schwilling). subspecies in kansas: _m. g. georgiana_ (latham), _m. g. ericrypta_ oberholser. _melospiza melodia._ song sparrow. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _m. m. euphonia_ wetmore, _m. m. juddi_ bishop, _m. m. montana_ henshaw. _rhynchophanes mccownii_ (lawrence). mccown longspur. transient, common in west, rare in east, and winter resident, uncommon in west, rare in east. no subspecies recognized. _calcarius lapponicus._ lapland longspur. common transient and winter resident throughout state. subspecies in kansas: _c. l. lapponicus_ (linnaeus) is the common form; _c. l. alascensis_ ridgway occurs uncommonly (specimens from douglas and hamilton counties). _calcarius pictus_ (swainson). smith longspur. fairly common transient and locally common winter resident except in extreme east, where rare. no subspecies recognized. * _calcarius ornatus_ (townsend). chestnut-collared longspur. common transient and winter resident in west, uncommon in east. formerly, at least, occurred in summer in high plains of west; nests found in ellis county in 1871 by j. a. allen. no recent records in summer. no subspecies recognized. _plectrophenax nivalis._ snow bunting. winter visitant at irregular and, sometimes, long intervals. no specimens preserved in state since 1879. subspecies in kansas: _p. n. nivalis_ (linnaeus). _transmitted may 19, 1955._ index to common names acadian flycatcher, 334 alder flycatcher, 334 american bittern, 312 american coot, 322 american egret, 311 american knot, 325 american magpie, 336 american merganser, 317 american raven, 336 american redstart, 346 american woodcock, 323 arizona jay, 336 ash-throated flycatcher, 333 audubon warbler, 343 avocet, 326 baird sandpiper, 325 baird sparrow, 350 bald eagle, 319 baldpate, 315 baltimore oriole, 347 bank swallow, 335 barn owl, 330 barn swallow, 335 barred owl, 330 bay-breasted warbler, 344 bell vireo, 341 belted kingfisher, 331 bewick wren, 338 black and white warbler, 342 black-bellied plover, 323 black-billed cuckoo, 329 blackbirds, 346-348 blackburnian warbler, 344 black-capped chickadee, 337 black-capped vireo, 341 black-crowned night heron, 312 black duck, 314 black-headed grosbeak, 348 black-necked stilt, 326 black-poll warbler, 344 black rail, 322 black tern, 328 black-throated blue warbler, 343 black-throated gray warbler, 344 black-throated green warbler, 344 black-throated sparrow, 352 black vulture, 318 blue goose, 314 blue-gray gnatcatcher, 340 blue grosbeak, 348 blue jay, 336 blue-winged teal, 315 blue-winged warbler, 342 bobolink, 346 bob-white, 321 bohemian waxwing, 340 bonaparte gull, 328 brant, 314 brewer blackbird, 347 brewer sparrow, 352 broad-winged hawk, 319 bronzed grackle, 348 brown creeper, 337 brown pelican, 311 brown thrasher, 338 buff-breasted sandpiper, 326 buffle-head, 316 bullock oriole, 347 buntings, 348-354 burrowing owl, 330 california gull, 327 calliope hummingbird, 331 canada goose, 313 canada warbler, 346 canvas-back, 316 cape may warbler, 343 cardinal, 348 carolina chickadee, 337 carolina paroquet, 329 carolina wren, 338 caspian tern, 328 cassin kingbird, 333 cassin sparrow, 351 catbird, 338 cedar waxwing, 340 cerulean warbler, 344 chestnut-backed bluebird, 339 chestnut-collared longspur, 354 chestnut-sided warbler, 344 chickadees, 337 chimney swift, 331 chipping sparrow, 352 chuck-will's-widow, 331 cinnamon teal, 315 clark nutcracker, 337 clay-colored sparrow, 352 cliff swallow, 335 common loon, 310 common scoter, 317 common tern, 328 cooper hawk, 318 cormorants, 311 corvids, 336-337 cowbird, 348 cranes, 321 crested flycatcher, 333 crossbills, 350 crow, 336 cuckoos, 329-330 dickcissel, 349 double-crested cormorant, 311 doves, 328-329 downy woodpecker, 333 duck hawk, 320 ducks, 314-317 eagles, 319 eared grebe, 310 eastern bluebird, 339 eastern goldfinch, 350 eastern kingbird, 333 eastern meadowlark, 346 eastern phoebe, 334 eastern wood pewee, 335 eider, 316 english sparrow, 346 eskimo curlew, 324 european widgeon, 315 evening grosbeak, 349 falcons, 320 ferruginous rough-leg, 319 field sparrow, 352 finches, 348-354 flamingo, 313 florida gallinule, 322 flycatchers, 333-335 forster tern, 328 fox sparrow, 353 franklin gull, 327 fulvous tree-duck, 314 gadwall, 315 geese, 313-314 glaucous gull, 327 goatsuckers, 331 golden-crowned kinglet, 340 golden eagle, 319 golden-eye, 316 golden plover, 323 golden-winged warbler, 342 goshawk, 318 grasshopper sparrow, 350 gray-cheeked thrush, 339 great blue heron, 311 greater prairie chicken, 320 greater scaup duck, 316 greater yellow-legs, 325 grebes, 310 green heron, 312 green-tailed towhee, 350 green-winged teal, 315 groove-billed ani, 330 grosbeaks, 348-349 ground dove, 329 grouse, 320-321 gulls, 327-328 gyrfalcon, 320 hairy woodpecker, 333 harris hawk, 319 harris sparrow, 353 hawk owl, 330 hawks, 318-320 henslow sparrow, 351 hermit thrush, 339 herons, 311-312 herring gull, 327 hooded merganser, 317 hooded oriole, 347 hooded warbler, 346 horned grebe, 310 horned lark, 335 horned owl, 330 house finch, 349 house wren, 337 hudsonian curlew, 324 hudsonian godwit, 326 hummingbirds, 331 ibises, 312-313 inca dove, 329 indigo bunting, 349 jaegers, 327 jays, 336-337 juncos, 352 kentucky warbler, 345 killdeer, 323 king eider, 316 kingfisher, 331 kinglets, 340 king rail, 321 kites, 318 kittiwake, 328 ladder-backed woodpecker, 333 lapland longspur, 353 lark, 335 lark bunting, 350 lark sparrow, 351 laughing gull, 327 lazuli bunting, 349 least bittern, 312 least flycatcher, 334 least sandpiper, 325 least tern, 328 leconte sparrow, 351 lesser prairie chicken, 320 lesser scaup duck, 316 lesser yellow-legs, 325 lewis woodpecker, 332 lincoln sparrow, 353 little blue heron, 312 loggerhead shrike, 341 long-billed curlew, 324 long-billed dowitcher, 325 long-billed marsh wren, 338 long-eared owl, 330 longspurs, 353-354 long-tailed jaeger, 327 loons, 310 louisiana heron, 312 louisiana water-thrush, 345 macgillivray warbler, 345 magnolia warbler, 343 magpie, 336 mallard, 314 man-o'-war-bird, 311 marbled godwit, 326 marsh hawk, 320 mccown longspur, 353 meadowlarks, 346-347 mexican cormorant, 311 mississippi kite, 318 mockingbird, 338 mottled duck, 314 mountain bluebird, 340 mountain plover, 323 mourning dove, 329 mourning warbler, 345 myrtle warbler, 343 nashville warbler, 343 nighthawk, 331 northern phalarope, 327 northern shrike, 341 northern water-thrush, 345 nuthatches, 337 old-squaw, 316 olive-backed thrush, 339 olive-sided flycatcher, 335 orange-crowned warbler, 343 orchard oriole, 347 oregon junco, 352 orioles, 347 osprey, 320 oven-bird, 345 owls, 330-331 painted bunting, 349 palm warbler, 345 parula warbler, 343 passenger pigeon, 329 pectoral sandpiper, 325 pelicans, 311 phalaropes, 326-327 philadelphia vireo, 342 pied-billed grebe, 310 pigeon hawk, 320 pigeons, 328-329 pileated woodpecker, 332 pine grosbeak, 349 pine siskin, 349 pine warbler, 344 pine-woods sparrow, 351 piñon jay, 337 pintail, 315 piping plover, 323 pipits, 340 plovers, 323 pomarine jaeger, 327 poor-will, 331 prairie falcon, 320 prairie warbler, 344 prothonotary warbler, 342 purple finch, 349 purple gallinule, 322 purple martin, 336 quail, 321 rails, 321-322 ravens, 336 red-backed sandpiper, 325 red-bellied woodpecker, 332 red-breasted merganser, 317 red-breasted nuthatch, 337 red crossbill, 350 red-eyed towhee, 350 red-eyed vireo, 342 redhead, 315 red-headed woodpecker, 332 red-necked grebe, 310 red phalarope, 326 redpoll, 349 red-shafted flicker, 332 red-shouldered hawk, 318 red-tailed hawk, 318 red-throated loon, 310 red-wing, 347 ring-billed gull, 327 ring-necked duck, 316 ring-necked pheasant, 321 road-runner, 329 robin, 339 rock dove, 328 rock wren, 338 roseate spoonbill, 313 rose-breasted grosbeak, 348 ross goose, 314 rough-legged hawk, 319 rough-winged swallow, 335 ruby-crowned kinglet, 340 ruby-throated hummingbird, 331 ruddy duck, 317 ruddy turnstone, 323 ruffed grouse, 320 rufous-crowned sparrow, 351 rusty blackbird, 347 sabine gull, 328 sage thrasher, 338 sanderling, 326 sandhill crane, 321 sandpipers, 323-326 savannah sparrow, 350 saw-whet owl, 330 say phoebe, 334 scaled quail, 321 scarlet tanager, 348 scissor-tailed flycatcher, 333 screech owl, 330 scrub jay, 336 semipalmated plover, 323 semipalmated sandpiper, 325 sharp-shinned hawk, 318 sharp-tailed grouse, 321 sharp-tailed sparrow, 351 short-billed dowitcher, 325 short-billed marsh wren, 338 short-eared owl, 330 shrikes, 341 shoveller, 315 slate-colored junco, 352 smith longspur, 353 snow bunting, 354 snow goose, 314 snowy egret, 311 snowy owl, 330 snowy plover, 323 solitary sandpiper, 324 solitary vireo, 341 song sparrow, 353 sora, 322 sparrow hawk, 320 sparrows, 348-354 spotted sandpiper, 324 sprague pipit, 340 starling, 341 steller jay, 336 stilt sandpiper, 325 summer tanager, 348 surf scoter, 317 swainson hawk, 319 swallows, 335-336 swallow-tailed kite, 318 swamp sparrow, 353 swans, 313 swift, 331 sycamore warbler, 344 tanagers, 348 tennessee warbler, 342 terns, 328 thrashers, 338 thrushes, 339-340 towhees, 350 townsend solitaire, 340 townsend warbler, 344 tree sparrow, 352 tree swallow, 335 trumpeter swan, 313 tufted titmouse, 337 turkey, 321 turkey vulture, 317 upland plover, 324 varied thrush, 339 veery, 339 vesper sparrow, 351 violet-green swallow, 335 vireos, 341-342 virginia rail, 322 virginia warbler, 343 vultures, 317-318 warblers, 342-346 warbling vireo, 342 water pipit, 340 water-turkey, 311 waxwings, 340 western flycatcher, 334 western grebe, 310 western kingbird, 333 western meadowlark, 347 western sandpiper, 326 western tanager, 348 western wood pewee, 335 whip-poor-will, 331 whistling swan, 313 white-breasted nuthatch, 337 white-crowned sparrow, 353 white-eyed vireo, 341 white-faced glossy ibis, 313 white-fronted goose, 314 white-necked raven, 336 white pelican, 311 white-rumped sandpiper, 325 white-throated sparrow, 353 white-winged crossbill, 350 white-winged junco, 352 white-winged scoter, 317 whooping crane, 321 willet, 324 williamson sapsucker, 333 wilson phalarope, 326 wilson snipe, 324 wilson warbler, 346 winter wren, 337 wood duck, 315 wood ibis, 312 woodpeckers, 331-333 wood thrush, 339 worm-eating warbler, 342 wrens, 337-338 wright flycatcher, 334 yellow-bellied flycatcher, 334 yellow-bellied sapsucker, 332 yellow-billed cuckoo, 329 yellow-breasted chat, 346 yellow-crowned night heron, 312 yellow-headed blackbird, 347 yellow rail, 322 yellow-shafted flicker, 331 yellow-throat, 345 yellow-throated vireo, 341 yellow warbler, 343 [illustration: fig. 1. map of kansas showing names of counties.] university of kansas publications, museum of natural history institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the exchange librarian, university of kansas library, lawrence, kansas. copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the museum of natural history, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. there is no provision for sale of this series by the university library which meets institutional requests, or by the museum of natural history which meets the requests of individuals. however, when individuals request copies from the museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * an asterisk designates those numbers of which the museum's supply (not the library's supply) is exhausted. numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: vol. 1. nos. 1-26 and index. pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. index. pp. 605-638. *vol. 2. (complete) mammals of washington. by walter w. dalquest. pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. april 9, 1948. vol. 3. *1. the avifauna of micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. by rollin h. baker. pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. june 12, 1951. *2. a quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. by george h. lowery, jr. pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. june 29, 1951. 3. phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. by m. dale arvey. pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. october 10, 1951. 4. birds from the state of veracruz, mexico. by george h. lowery, jr., and walter w. dalquest. pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. october 10, 1951. index. pp. 651-681. *vol. 4. (complete) american weasels. by e. raymond hall. pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. december 27, 1951. vol. 5. 1. preliminary survey of a paleocene faunule from the angels peak area, new mexico. by robert w. wilson. pp. 1-11, 1 figure in text. february 24, 1951. 2. two new moles (genus scalopus) from mexico and texas. by rollin h. baker. pp. 17-24. february 28, 1951. 3. two new pocket gophers from wyoming and colorado. by e. raymond hall and h. gordon montague. pp. 25-32. february 28, 1951. 4. mammals obtained by dr. curt von wedel from the barrier beach of tamaulipas, mexico. by e. raymond hall. pp. 33-47, 1 figure in text. october 1, 1951. 5. comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some north american rabbits. by e. raymond hall and keith r. kelson. pp. 49-58. october 1, 1951. 6. two new subspecies of thomomys bottae from new mexico and colorado. by keith r. kelson. pp. 59-71, 1 figure in text. october 1, 1951. 7. a new subspecies of microtus montanus from montana and comments on microtus canicaudus miller. by e. raymond hall and keith r. kelson. pp. 73-79. october 1, 1951. 8. a new pocket gopher (genus thomomys) from eastern colorado. by e. raymond hall. pp. 81-85. october 1, 1951. 9. mammals taken along the alaskan highway. by rollin h. baker. pp. 87-117, 1 figure in text. november 28, 1951. *10. a synopsis of the north american lagomorpha. by e. raymond hall. pp. 119-202. 68 figures in text. december 15, 1951. 11. a new pocket mouse (genus perognathus) from kansas. by e. lendell cockrum. pp. 203-206. december 15, 1951. 12. mammals from tamaulipas, mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 207-218. december 15, 1951. 13. a new pocket gopher (genus thomomys) from wyoming and colorado. by e. raymond hall. pp. 219-222. december 15, 1951. 14. a new name for the mexican red bat. by e. raymond hall. pp. 223-226. december 15, 1951. 15. taxonomic notes on mexican bats of the genus rhogeëssa. by e. raymond hall. pp. 227-232. april 10, 1952. 16. comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some north american woodrats (genus neotoma). by keith r. kelson. pp. 233-242. april 10, 1952. 17. the subspecies of the mexican red-bellied squirrel, sciurus aureogaster. by keith r. kelson. pp. 243-250, 1 figure in text. april 10, 1952. 18. geographic range of peromyscus melanophrys, with description of new subspecies. by rollin h. baker. pp. 251-258, 1 figure in text. may 10, 1952. 19. a new chipmunk (genus eutamias) from the black hills. by john a. white. pp. 259-262. april 10, 1952. 20. a new piñon mouse (peromyscus truei) from durango, mexico. by robert b. finley, jr. pp. 263-267. may 23, 1952. 21. an annotated checklist of nebraskan bats. by olin l. webb and j. knox jones, jr. pp. 269-279. may 31, 1952. 22. geographic variation in red-backed mice (genus clethrionomys) of the southern rocky mountain region. by e. lendell cockrum and kenneth l. fitch. pp. 281-292, 1 figure in text. november 15, 1952. 23. comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of north american microtines. by e. raymond hall and e. lendell cockrum. pp. 293-312. november 17, 1952. 24. the subspecific status of two central american sloths. by e. raymond hall and keith r. kelson. pp. 313-317. november 21, 1952. 25. comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some north american marsupials, insectivores, and carnivores. by e. raymond hall and keith r. kelson. pp. 319-341. december 5, 1952. 26. comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some north american rodents. by e. raymond hall and keith r. kelson. pp. 343-371. december 15, 1952. 27. a synopsis of the north american microtine rodents. by e. raymond hall and e. lendell cockrum. pp. 373-498, 149 figures in text. january 15, 1953. 28. the pocket gophers (genus thomomys) of coahuila, mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 499-514, 1 figure in text. june 1, 1953. 29. geographic distribution of the pocket mouse, perognathus fasciatus. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 515-526, 7 figures in text. august 1, 1953. 30. a new subspecies of wood rat (neotoma mexicana) from colorado. by robert b. finley, jr. pp. 527-534, 2 figures in text. august 15, 1953. 31. four new pocket gophers of the genus cratogeomys from jalisco, mexico. by robert j. russell. pp. 535-542. october 15, 1953. 32. genera and subgenera of chipmunks. by john a. white. pp. 543-561, 12 figures in text. december 1, 1953. 33. taxonomy of the chipmunks, eutamias quadrivittatus and eutamias umbrinus. by john a. white. pp. 563-582, 6 figures in text. december 1, 1953. 34. geographic distribution and taxonomy of the chipmunks of wyoming. by john a. white. pp. 584-610, 3 figures in text. december 1, 1953. 35. the baculum of the chipmunks of western north america. by john a. white. pp. 611-631, 19 figures in text. december 1, 1953. 36. pleistocene soricidae from san josecito cave, nuevo leon, mexico. by james s. findley. pp. 633-639. december 1, 1953. 37. seventeen species of bats recorded from barro colorado island, panama canal zone. by e. raymond hall and william b. jackson. pp. 641-646. december 1, 1953. index. pp. 647-676. *vol. 6. (complete) mammals of utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. by stephen d. durrant. pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. august 10, 1952. vol. 7. *1. mammals of kansas. by e. lendell cockrum. pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. august 25, 1952. 2. ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch and lewis l. sandidge. pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. august 24, 1953. 3. the silky pocket mice (perognathus flavus) of mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. february 15, 1954. 4. north american jumping mice (genus zapus). by philip h. krutzsch. pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. april 21, 1954. 5. mammals from southeastern alaska. by rollin h. baker and james s. findley. pp. 473-477. april 21, 1954. 6. distribution of some nebraskan mammals. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 479-487. april 21, 1954. 7. subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse, microtus montanus, in wyoming and colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. july 23, 1954. 8. a new subspecies of bat (myotis velifer) from southeastern california and arizona. by terry a. vaughn. pp. 507-512. july 23, 1954. 9. mammals of the san gabriel mountains of california. by terry a. vaughn. pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. november 15, 1954. 10. a new bat (genus pipistrellus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 583-586. november 15, 1954. 11. a new subspecies of pocket mouse from kansas. by e. raymond hall. pp. 587-590. november 15, 1954. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, cratogeomys castanops, in coahuila, mexico. by robert j. russell and rollin h. baker. pp. 591-608. march 15, 1955. 13. a new cottontail (sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 609-612. april 8, 1955. 14. taxonomy and distribution of some american shrews. by james s. findley. pp. 613-618. june 10, 1955. 15. distribution and systematic position of the pigmy woodrat, neotoma goldmani. by dennis g. rainey and rollin h. baker. pp. 619-624, 2 figs. in text. june 10, 1955. index. pp. 625-651. vol. 8. 1. life history and ecology of the five-lined skink, eumeces fasciatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 1-156, 2 pls., 26 figs. in text, 17 tables. september 1, 1954. 2. myology and serology of the avian family fringillidae, a taxonomic study. by william b. stallcup. pp. 157-211, 23 figures in text, 4 tables. november 15, 1954. 3. an ecological study of the collared lizard (crotaphytus collaris). by henry s. fitch. pp. 213-274, 10 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 4. a field study of the kansas ant-eating frog, gastrophryne olivacea. by henry s. fitch. pp. 275-306, 9 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 5. check-list of the birds of kansas. by harrison b. tordoff. pp. 307-359, 1 figure in text. march 10, 1956. more numbers will appear in volume 8. vol. 9. 1. speciation of the wandering shrew. by james s. findley. pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. december 10, 1955. 2. additional records and extensions of ranges of mammals from utah. by stephen d. durrant, m. raymond lee, and richard m. hansen. pp. 69-80. december 10, 1955. 3. a new long-eared myotis (myotis evotis) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker and howard j. stains. pp. 81-84. december 10, 1955. more numbers will appear in volume 9. university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 11, no. 7, pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figs. in text, 5 tabl. may 8, 1959 fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas by w. l. minckley university of kansas lawrence 1959 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, henry s. fitch, robert w. wilson volume 11, no. 7, pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figs. in text, 5 tables published may 8, 1959 university of kansas lawrence, kansas a contribution from the state biological survey of kansas printed in the state printing plant topeka, kansas 1959 [union label] 27-7080 fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas by w. l. minckley contents page introduction 403 acknowledgments 404 tuttle creek dam and reservoir 404 big blue river basin 404 geology of the basin 405 climate, population, and land-use 406 physical features of streams 407 previous records of fishes 410 methods and materials 410 collecting stations 412 annotated list of species 414 hybrid combinations 431 relative abundance and discussion of species 431 creel census 435 recommendations 437 summary 438 literature cited 438 introduction the big blue river in northeastern kansas will soon be impounded by the tuttle creek dam, located about five miles north of manhattan, kansas. since the inception of this project by the u. s. army corps of engineers much argument has arisen as to the values of the dam and reservoir as opposed to the values of farmland and cultural establishments to be inundated (schoewe, 1953; monfort, 1956; and van orman, 1956). also, there has been some concern about the possible effects of impoundment on the fish-resources of the area, which supports "a catfish fishery that is notable throughout most of the state of kansas and in some neighboring states (u. s. fish and wildlife service, 1953:9)." the objectives of my study, conducted from march 30, 1957, to august 9, 1958, were to record the species of fish present and their relative abundance in the stream system, and to obtain a measure of angler success prior to closure of the dam. these data may be used as a basis for future studies on the fish and fishing in the big blue river basin, kansas. acknowledgments i thank messrs. j. e. deacon, d. a. distler, wallace ferrel, d. l. hoyt, f. e. maendele, c. o. minckley, b. c. nelson, and j. c. tash for assistance in the field and for valuable suggestions. dr. j. b. elder, kansas state college, arranged for loan of specimens, and mr. b. c. nelson supplied data on _notropis deliciosus_ (girard) in kansas, and on specimens in the university of michigan museum of zoology. i thank the many landowners who allowed me access to streams in the big blue river basin. the u. s. army corps of engineers, kansas city district, also allowed access in the reservoir area, and furnished information and some photographs. mr. j. c. tash did chemical determinations on my water samples. dr. frank b. cross guided me in this study and in preparation of this report. drs. e. raymond hall and k. b. armitage offered valuable suggestions on the manuscript. equipment and funds for my study were furnished by the state biological survey of kansas, and the kansas forestry, fish and game commission granted necessary permits. tuttle creek dam and reservoir the data on tuttle creek dam and reservoir that follow were furnished by mr. donald d. poole, u. s. army corps of engineers, kansas city district. the dam, an earth-fill structure, will be 7,500 feet in length, with a maximum height of 157 feet above the valley floor. release of water will be from beneath the west end of the dam, through two tunnels 20 feet in diameter that have a capacity of 45,000 cubic feet per second; however, releases exceeding 25,000 c. f. s. are not planned. the gated spillway is located at the east end of the dam. freeboard will be 23 feet at the top of flood-control pool. the reservoir will have a maximum pool of 2,280,000 acre-feet capacity, a 53,500-acre surface area, and 368 miles of shoreline. the present operational plan provides for a conservation pool having a surface area of 15,700 acres, a shoreline of 112 miles, and a length of 20 miles. big blue river basin big blue river and its tributaries, a sub-basin of the kansas river system, drain approximately 9,600 square miles, of which 2,484 miles are in kansas (colby, _et al._, 1956:44). the headwaters of the big blue river are in central hamilton county, nebraska, near the platte river (fig. 1). the stream flows generally south and east for 283 miles to its confluence with the kansas river near manhattan, kansas. little blue river, the largest tributary to the big blue, rises in eastern kearney and western adams counties, nebraska, and flows southeast for 208 miles to join the big blue near blue rapids, kansas (nebraska state planning board, 1936:628). the big blue river basin varies in width from 129 miles in the northwest, to approximately ten miles near the mouth (colby, _et al._, 1956:44). geology of the basin in kansas, outcrops of pennsylvanian and cretaceous age occur along the extreme eastern and western sides of the big blue river basin, respectively, whereas permian beds (overlain by pleistocene deposits) occur throughout most of the remainder of the watershed (see moore and landes, 1937). the big blue and little blue rivers and their tributaries have deeply incised the permian beds of the flint hills in kansas, exposing limestones and shales of the admire, council grove, chase, and sumner groups (wolfcampian and leonardian series) (walters, 1954:41-44). pleistocene deposits in the big blue basin in kansas consist of alluvium, glacial till, and glacial outwash from the kansan glacial stage, overlain by loess deposits of wisconsin and recent stages (frye and leonard, 1952: pl. 1). [illustration: fig. 1. big blue river basin, kansas and nebraska.] the big blue river was formed "in part on the till plain surface and in part by integration of spillway channels," in the latter portion of the kansan glaciation (frye and leonard, 1952:192). this stream, and the republican river to the west, carried waters from the areas that are now the platte, niobrara, and upper missouri river basins (lugn, 1935:153). drainage was southward, through oklahoma, until establishment of the east-flowing kansas river (frye and leonard, 1952:189-190). as kansan ice receded the blue and republican rivers retained what is now the platte river basin. the lower platte river developed and the surface drainage became distinct in the iowan (tazwellian) portion of the wisconsin glacial stage (lugn, 1935:152-153). however, according to lugn (1935:203) the platte river basin contributes about 300,000 acre-feet of water per year to the big blue and republican rivers by percolation through sands and gravels underlying the uplands that now separate the basins. climate, population, and land-use climate of the big blue river basin is of the subhumid continental type, with an average annual precipitation of 22 inches in the northwest and 30 inches in the southeast. the mean annual evaporation from water surfaces exceeds annual precipitation by approximately 30 inches (colby, _et al._, 1956:32-33). the average annual temperature for the basin is 53° f. (flora, 1948:148). according to kincer (1941:704-705) the average temperature in july, the warmest month, is 78° f., and the coolest month, january, averages 28° f. periods of extreme cold and heat are sometimes of long duration. length of the growing season varies from less than 160 days in the northwest to 180 days in the southeast (kincer, _loc. cit._). the human population of the big blue basin varies from about 90 persons per square mile in one nebraska county in the northwest and one kansas county in the southeast, to as few as six persons per square mile in some northeastern counties. the population is most dense along the eastern border of the basin, decreasing toward the west. this decrease in population is correlated with the decrease in average annual precipitation from east to west (colby, _et al._, 1956:80). the principal land-use in the big blue watershed is tilled crops, with wheat, sorghums, and corn being most important. beef cattle are important in some portions of the basin. colby, _et al._ (1956:24) reported that in 1954 as much as 55 per cent of the land in some counties near the mouth of the big blue river was in pasture. only one nebraska county had less than 15 per cent in pastureland. physical features of streams streams of the big blue river basin are of three kinds: turbid, sandy-bottomed streams, usually 150 to 300 feet in width; relatively clear, mud-bottomed streams, ten to 60 feet in width; and clear, deeply incised, gravel-bottomed streams, usually five to 30 feet in width. sand-bottomed streams.--the big blue and little blue rivers represent this kind of stream. the bottoms of these rivers consist almost entirely of fine sand; nevertheless, their channels are primarily deep and fairly uniform in width, rather than broad, shallow, and braided as in the larger kansas and arkansas rivers in kansas (plate 11, fig. 1). in the big blue river, gravel occurs rarely on riffles, and gravel-rubble bottoms are found below dams (plate 11, fig. 2). the big blue flows over a larger proportion of gravelly bottom than does the little blue. big blue river rises at about 1,800 feet above mean sea level and joins the kansas river at an elevation of 1,000 feet above m. s. l. the average gradient is 2.8 feet per mile. little blue river, originating at 2,200 feet, has an average gradient of 5.3 feet per mile, entering the big blue at 1,100 feet above mean sea level (nebraska state planning board, 1936:628, 637). the little blue is the shallower stream, possibly because of the greater amount of sandy glacial deposits in its watershed and the swift flow that may cause lateral cutting, increased movement, and "drifting" of the sandy bottom. for approximately a 50-year period, stream-flow in the big blue river at its point of entry into kansas (barnston, nebraska) averaged 603 cubic feet per second, with maximum and minimum instantaneous flows of 57,700 c. f. s. and one c. f. s. the little blue river at waterville, kansas, averaged a daily discharge of 601 c. f. s. (maximum 50,400, minimum 28). below the confluence of the big blue and little blue rivers, at randolph, kansas, the average daily discharge was 1,690 c.f.s. (maximum 98,000, minimum 31) (kansas water resources fact-finding and research committee, 1955:27). the turbidity of the big blue river, as determined by use of a jackson turbidimeter, varied from 27 parts per million in winter (january 10, 1958) to as high as 14,000 p.p.m. (july 12, 1958). the little blue river has similar turbidities, with high readings being frequent. in the summer of 1957, ph ranged from 7.2 to 8.4 in the big blue river basin--values that correspond closely with those of canfield and wiebe (1931:3) who made 25 determinations ranging from 7.3 to 8.3 in the streams of the nebraskan portion of this basin in july, 1930. surface temperatures at various stations varied from 38° f. on january 10, 1958, to 90° f. in backwater-areas on july 19, 1957. the average surface temperature at mid-day in july and august, 1957, was approximately 86.5° f. chemical determinations were made on water-samples from my station 4-s on the big blue river, and station 50-s on the little blue (table 1). these samples were taken from the surface in strong current. determinations were made by methods described in _standard methods for the examination of water and sewage_, 10th edition, 1955. table 1.--chemical determinations in milligrams per liter at five stations in the big blue river basin, kansas, 1958. table legend: column a: phenolphthalein alkalinity column b: methyl-orange alkalinity column c: chlorides column d: sulphates column e: nitrates column f: nitrites column g: ammonia column h: phosphate ==========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== station | | | | | | | | and | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h date | | | | | | | | ----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- 4-s | | | | | | | | august 9 | 0.0 | 154 | 16 | 28 | 3.5 |.083 |.250 |.225 | | | | | | | | 50-s | | | | | | | | august 9 | 0.0 | 125 | 24 | 20 | 2.5 |.669 |.427 |.240 | | | | | | | | 35-m | | | | | | | | august 9 | 0.0 | 366 | 15 | 108 | 9.4 |.220 |.750 |.080 | | | | | | | | 11-g | | | | | | | | july 8 | 0.0 | 272 | 15 | 60 | 4.5 |.060 |.625 |.140 | | | | | | | | 18-g | | | | | | | | july 22 | 0.0 | 183 | 10 | 60 | 1.6 |.938 |.293 |.240 ----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----the banks of both the big blue and little blue rivers support narrow riparian forests comprised primarily of elm, _ulmus americanus_, cottonwood, _populus deltoides_, sycamore, _platanus occidentalis_, and willow, _salix_ spp. maple, _acer_ sp., oak, _quercus_ spp., and ash, _fraxinus_ sp. occur where the rivers flow near steep, rocky hillsides. many of the hills are virgin bluestem prairies (_andropogon_ spp.), but the floodplains are heavily cultivated. mud-bottomed streams.--streams of this kind are present in the watershed of the black vermillion river that enters big blue river from the east. the area east of the big blue river and north of the black vermillion river is till plains, where relief seldom exceeds 100 feet (walters, 1954:12). streams in this portion of the basin, and streams entering the little blue river from the west (mill creek and horseshoe creek systems), tend to have v-shaped channels, fewer riffles than the little blue and big blue rivers and in the gravelly streams (to be described later), and have bottoms of mud or clay, with few rocks (plate 12, fig. 1). however, in the extreme headwaters of most western tributaries of the little blue river (in washington and republic counties) sandy bottoms predominate. the black vermillion river flows on a broad floodplain and is a mud-bottomed, sluggish stream, with an average gradient of approximately one foot per mile. fringe-forests of elm, cottonwood, sycamore, and willow persist along most of these stream-courses. notwithstanding the mud bottoms, the water in this kind of stream in the big blue basin remains clearer than that of the big blue and little blue rivers. heavy algal blooms were noted in the black vermillion river and mill creek, washington county, in 1957 and 1958. temperatures at stations 45-m and 46-m on mill creek, washington county, averaged 85.5° f. on july 31, 1957. chemical characteristics of a water-sample from station 35-m, black vermillion river, are in table 1. gravel-bottomed streams.--most streams of this kind are tributary to the big blue river; however, streams entering black vermillion river from the south are also of this type (plate 12, fig. 2). the streams are "characteristically a series of large pools (to 100 feet in length and more than two feet in depth) connected by short riffles and smaller pools" (minckley and cross, in press). the average gradients are high: carnahan creek, 33 feet per mile; mill creek, riley county, 21 feet; clear creek, 16 feet per mile. stream-flow is usually less than five cubic feet per second. in summer, these streams may become intermittent, but springs and subsurface percolation maintain pool-levels (minckley and cross, _loc. cit._). the average temperatures of these small streams (79.5° to 81.0° f. in july and august, 1957) were lower than temperatures in stream-types previously described. turbidities were usually less than 25 p.p.m. the chemical properties of water-samples from two of these streams (stations 11-g and 18-g) are listed in table 1. previous records of fishes the earliest records of fishes from the big blue river basin are those of cragin (1885) and graham (1885) in independently published lists of the fishes of kansas. meek (1895) recorded fishes collected in 1891 "from both branches of the blue river, a few miles west of crete, nebraska." evermann and cox (1896) reported five collections from the nebraskan part of the basin. their collections were made in october, 1892, and august, 1893, and the stations were: in 1892, big blue river at crete; in 1893, big blue river at seward, lincoln creek at seward and york, and beaver creek at york. canfield and wiebe (1931) obtained fish from 18 localities in nebraska in july, 1930; however, their major concern was determination of water quality. their stations were: big blue river at stromsburg, polk co.; surprise and ulysses, butler co.; staplehurst, seward, and milford, seward co.; crete and wilber, saline co.; beatrice, blue springs, and barnston, gage co.; little blue river at fairbury, jefferson co.; hebron, thayer co.; sandy creek at alexandria, thayer co.; west fork of big blue river at stockham, hamilton co.; mccool junction, york co.; beaver crossing, seward co.; and beaver creek at york, york co. breukelman (1940) and jennings (1942) listed fishes from the university of kansas museum of natural history and the kansas state college museum, respectively, including some specimens collected from the big blue river system in kansas. because records in these two papers pertain to collections that were widely spaced in the basin and in time, the specific localities are not given herein. one of jennings' (_loc. cit.)_ records, _scaphirhynchus platorynchus_ (rafinesque), was cited by bailey and cross (1954:191). more recently, minckley and cross (in press) recorded several localities, and cited some papers mentioned above, in a publication dealing with _notropis topeka_ (gilbert) in kansas. information on the fishes of the nebraskan portion of the big blue river basin was compiled, and additional localities were reported, in a doctoral thesis by dr. raymond e. johnson, entitled the distribution of nebraska fishes, 1942, at the university of michigan. methods and materials _collection of fishes_ the gear and techniques used are listed below: entrapment devices.--hoop and fyke nets and wire traps were used for 288 trap/net hours in 1957. the nets were not baited, and were set parallel to the current, with the mouths downstream. hoop nets were 1½ to three feet in diameter at the first hoop, with a pot-mesh of one inch; fyke nets were three feet at the first hoop, pot-mesh of one inch; wire traps, with an opening at each end, were 2½ feet in diameter and covered with one-inch-mesh, galvanized chicken wire. gill nets.--experimental gill nets were set on three occasions in areas with little current. these nets were 125 feet in length, with 3/4 to two inch bar-mesh in 25-foot sections. seines.--seining was used more than other methods. an attempt was made to seine all habitats at each station. in swift water, seine-hauls were usually made downstream, but in quiet areas seining was done randomly. haul-seines six to 60 feet in length, three to eight feet in depth, and with meshes of 1/8 to 1/2 inch were used. for collection of riffle-fishes, the seine was planted below a selected area and the bottom was kicked violently by one member of the party, while one or two persons held the seine, raising it when the area had been thoroughly disturbed. seining on riffles was done with a four-foot by four-foot bobbinet seine. rotenone.--rotenone was used in pools of smaller streams, mouths of creeks, borrow-pits, and cut-off areas. both powdered and emulsifiable rotenone were used. the rotenone was mixed with water and applied by hand, or into the backwash of an outboard motor. electric shocker.--the electrical unit used in this study generated 115 volts and 600 to 700 watts, alternating current. the shocking unit consisted of two booms, each with two electrodes, mounted on and operated from a slowly moving boat. fish were recovered in scape nets, or in many cases were identified as they lay stunned and were not collected. _estimation of relative abundance_ data on relative abundance of fishes were obtained by counts of seine hauls at 29 of the 59 stations, counts of rotenoned fish at seven stations, and results with the electric shocker at nine stations. counts were usually made in the field; however, in some collections all fish were preserved and counted in the laboratory. some fish (or "swirls" presumed to be fish) observed while shocking were not identified and are not included in the calculations. however, all fish positively identified while shocking are included. _age and growth of fishes_ fish from selected size-groups were aged in this study. scales for age-determinations were removed from positions recommended by lagler (1952:108). scales were placed in water between glass slides and were read on a standard scale-projection device. pectoral spines of catfish were removed from one or both sides, sectioned, and read by methods described by marzolf (1955:243-244). calculation of length at the last annulus for both scale-fish and catfish was made by direct proportion. all measurements are of total length to the nearest tenth of an inch unless specified otherwise. _creel census_ from april 6 to may 28, 1957, a creel census was taken below turtle creek dam. from june 16 to july 24, 1958, i periodically visited the main points of access to the big blue river, beginning approximately eight miles downstream from tuttle creek dam and ending six miles upstream from the maximal extension of the reservoir at capacity level. access-points consisted of 11 bridges, two power dams, and three areas where county roads approached the river. eleven eight-hour days were spent in the 1957 census and 22 checks in 15 days were made in 1958. an equal number of morning (6:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon) and afternoon (12:00 noon to 8:30 p.m.) checks were made. fishermen contacted were asked the following questions: home address (or residence at the time of the fishing trip); time they started fishing; kind of fish sought; number and kinds of fish in possession; and baits used. also, the number of poles and type of fishing (from the bank, from boat, _etc._) were recorded. fishes caught were examined to confirm identifications. about 80 per cent of all fishermen seen were contacted. fish per man-hour, as used in this report, refers to the average number of fish of all species caught by one fisherman in one hour. fisherman-day is the average time spent fishing in one day by one person. because some fishermen used more than one pole, the data are also expressed as catch per pole-hour. collecting stations in the list that follows, stations are numbered consecutively from the mouth of the big blue river, listing stations on each tributary as it is ascended. the letters following station-numbers indicate the general type of stream: s = sandy; m = muddy; and g = gravelly. the big blue river is the boundary between riley and pottawatomie counties, kansas, along part of its length. stations in this area have been designated riley county. the legal description of each station is followed by the date(s) of collection, and each station is plotted in figure 2. [illustration: fig. 2. collection stations in the big blue river basin, kansas, 1957 and 1958.] [illustration: plate 11 fig. 1. big blue river at station 3-s. u.s. army corps of engineers photograph no. 563697. fig. 2. big blue river at oketo, marshall county, kansas. u.s. army corps of engineers, photograph no. 67516.] [illustration: plate 12 fig. 1. black vermillion river, approximately one mile upstream from its mouth. photograph by robert g. webb. fig. 2. carnahan creek at station 11-g. photograph by robert g. webb.] 1-s: pottawatomie co., mouth of big blue river, sec. 16, t. 10s, r. 8e, june 20, 1958. 2-s: riley co., big blue river, sec. 4, t. 10s, r. 8e, june 6, 12, and 14, 1957. 3-s: riley co., big blue river, e ½, sec. 30, t. 9s, r. 8e, mar. 30, apr. 6, july 15, 16, 17, aug. 14, and dec. 26, 1957; apr. 26, june 20, and aug. 5, 1958. 4-s: riley co., big blue river at rocky ford dam, w ½, sec. 30, t. 9s, r. 8e, aug. 14, 1957; and aug. 5, 1958. 5-g: pottawatomie co., mcintire creek, sec. 12, t. 9s, r. 7e, july 14, 1958. 6-s: riley co., big blue river and adjacent borrow-pit, sec. 24, t. 9s, r. 7e, july 18 and 19, 1957; and july 11, 1958. 7-g: riley co., tuttle creek, sec. 10, t. 9s, r. 7e, aug. 5, 1958. 8-s: riley co., big blue river, sec. 10, t. 9s, r. 7e, aug. 14, 1957. 9-g: riley co., mill creek, sec. 4, t. 9s, r. 7e, july 20 and 25, 1958. 10-g: riley co., mill creek, sec. 2, t. 9s, r. 6e, aug. 13, 1957. 11-g: pottawatomie co., carnahan creek, sec. 22, 27, and 34, t. 8s, r. 7e, aug. 1, 1957; and july 8, 1958. 12-g: pottawatomie co., unnamed tributary to carnahan creek, sec. 15, t. 8s, r. 7e, mar. 19, 1956 (collection made before my formal study was begun). 13-g: pottawatomie co., carnahan creek, sec. 36, t. 7s, r. 7e, aug. 13, 1957. 14-s: riley co., big blue river, sec. 18, t. 8s, r. 7e, mar. 22, 1958. 15-s: riley co., big blue river, sec. 7, t. 8s, r. 7e, apr. 3, and june 12, 1958. 16-g: riley co., unnamed creek, sec. 1, t. 8s, r. 6e, july 10, and aug. 5, 1958. 17-g: riley co., unnamed creek, sec. 10, t. 8s, r. 6e, june 26, 1958. 18-g: riley co., fancy creek, sec. 14, t. 7s, r. 6e, july 29, 1957. 19-g: riley co., walnut creek, sec. 20, t. 7s, r. 6e, june 26, 1958. 20-g: riley co., fancy creek, sec. 2, t. 7s, r. 5e, mar. 13, 1957; and june 26, 1958. 21-g: riley co., schoolhouse branch, sec. 35, t. 6s, r. 5e, july 22, 1958. 22-g: riley co., fancy creek, sec. 33, t. 6s, r. 5e, june 1, 1957. 23-g: riley co., west branch fancy creek, sec. 32 and 33, t. 6s, r. 5e, june 1 and 3, 1957. 24-g: clay co., west branch fancy creek, sec. 32 and 33, t. 6s, r. 4e, july 22, 1958. 25-s: riley co., big blue river, sec. 5, t. 7s, r. 7e, aug. 7, 1958. 26-g: riley co., swede creek, sec. 21, t. 6s, r. 7e, mar. 22, 1958. 27-g: pottawatomie co., unnamed creek, sec. 14, t. 6s, r. 7e, sept. 10, 1957. 28-g: pottawatomie co., bluff creek, sec. 6, t. 6s, r. 8e, oct. 6, 1957. 29-g: pottawatomie co., bluff creek, sec. 15, t. 6s, r. 8e, june 29, 1958. 30-m: marshall co., black vermillion river, sec. 9, t. 5s, r. 8e, mar. 5, 1958. 31-g: pottawatomie co., clear creek, sec. 3, t. 6s, r. 9e, july 14, 1958. 32-g: pottawatomie co., unnamed creek, sec. 14, t. 6s, r. 9e, july 14, 1958. 33-m: marshall co., robidoux creek, sec. 20, t. 2s, r. 9e, july 23, 1958. 34-m: marshall co., little timber creek, sec. 10, t. 4s, r. 9e, oct. 6, 1957. 35-m: marshall co., black vermillion river, sec. 15, t. 4s, r. 9e, aug. 9, 1958. 36-m: marshall co., unnamed creek, sec. 8, t. 4s, r. 9e, oct. 6, 1957. 37-m: marshall co., black vermillion river, sec. 11, t. 4s, r. 10e, oct. 6, 1957. 38-s: marshall co., big blue river, sec. 18, t. 5s, r. 8e, aug. 8, 1958. 39-s: marshall co., big blue river, sec. 20, t. 4s, r. 7e, may 29, 1958. 40-m: washington co., coon creek, sec. 27, t. 4s, r. 4e, july 22, 1958. 41-s: marshall co., little blue river, sec. 9, 16, and 17, t. 4s, r. 6e, june 27, 1958. 42-s: washington co., little blue river, sec. 21, t. 3s, r. 5e, aug. 8, 1958. 43-s: washington co., little blue river, sec. 5 and 8, t. 3s, r. 5e, july 30, 1957. 44-s: washington co., little blue river, sec. 36, t. 1s, r. 4e, july 31, 1957. 45-m: washington co., mill creek, sec. 35 and 36, t. 1s, r. 4e, july 31, 1957. 46-m: washington co., mill creek, sec. 4, t. 2s, r. 4e, july 31, 1957. 47-m: washington co., spring creek, sec. 11 and 12, t. 2s, r. 3e, june 19, 1958. 48-m: washington co., mill creek, sec. 28, t. 2s, r. 2e, june 19, 1958. 49-m: republic co., mill creek, sec. 8 and 17, t. 2s, r. 1w, july 23, 1958. 50-s: washington co., little blue river, sec. 5, t. 1s, r. 4e, aug. 9, 1958. 51-m: republic co., rose creek, sec. 20, t. 1s, r. 2w, july 23, 1958. 52-s: marshall co., big blue river, sec. 6, t. 4s, r. 7e, aug. 6, 1958. 53-s: marshall co., big blue river, sec. 18, t. 3s, r. 7e, july 29 and 30, 1957; may 28, and aug. 6, 1958. 54-g: marshall co., hop creek, sec. 13 and 18, t. 3s, r. 7e, may 28, 1958. 55-m: marshall co., spring creek, sec. 29, t. 2s, r. 8e, july 9, 1958. 56-s: marshall co., big blue river at marysville dam, sec. 20, t. 2s, r. 7e, june 16, 1958. 57-m: marshall co., horseshoe creek, sec. 6, t. 2s, r. 7e, july 1, 1958. 58-g: marshall co., unnamed creek, sec. 2, t. 1s, r. 7e, july 1, 1958. 59-g: marshall co., mission creek, sec. 3, t. 1s, r. 8e, nov. 30, 1957. annotated list of species forty-eight species were obtained in this survey and five others have been recorded in literature or are deposited in museums: ksc = kansas state college museum; and ummz = university of michigan museum of zoology. specimens, unless designated otherwise, are in the university of kansas museum of natural history (ku). in this list, the scientific name of each species is followed by the common name, citations of previous records, and the stations where the species was obtained. i follow bailey (1956:328-329) in treating _lepisosteus osseus_ (linnaeus), _catostomus commersonnii_ (lacépède), _semotilus atromaculatus_ (mitchill), _notropis lutrensis_ (baird and girard), _pimephales promelas_ rafinesque, _ictalurus melas_ (rafinesque), _ictalurus punctatus_ (rafinesque), and _lepomis macrochirus_ rafinesque, in binomial form only. =scaphirhynchus platorynchus= (rafinesque), shovelnose sturgeon: jennings (1942:364) as _scaphirhynchus platorhynchus_ (rafinesque); bailey and cross (1954:191). stations 3-s and 4-s. shovelnose sturgeon were found only in the lower portion of the big blue river. on april 20, 1957, many were seen in fishermen's creels at stations 3-s and 4-s. one male and two females that i examined on that date were ripe or nearly so; eggs seemed well developed and milt flowed freely from the male. after april, 1957, none was collected or observed until april 26, 1958, when one specimen was obtained while shocking. forbes and richardson (1920:27) reported that shovelnose sturgeon spawn in illinois between april and june, and eddy and surber (1947:80) reported spawning in may and early june in wisconsin and minnesota. =lepisosteus platostomus= rafinesque, shortnose gar: jennings (1942:364). stations 3-s and 4-s. i saw shortnose gar at various times in 1956 and 1957 at rocky ford dam on the big blue river (station 4-s). one was seen while shocking at station 3-s on december 26, 1957. =lepisosteus osseus= (linnaeus), longnose gar: jennings (1942:364) as _lepisosteus osseus oxyurus_ rafinesque. stations 1-s, 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 8-s, 9-g, 15-s, 18-g, 25-s, 41-s, 44-s, 52-s, and 53-s. longnose gar were abundant in the mainstream of the big blue river but usually evaded capture. this species, and the shortnose gar, resided in the larger rivers, with _l. osseus_ being taken in only two creeks near their mouths. in periods of high water, gar moved into the flooded creeks, but returned to the river as stream-levels subsided. young-of-the-year _l. osseus_, averaging 21.5 mm. in total length (range 13 to 30 mm.), were taken on june 14, 1957, and larger young (estimated 60 to 70 mm. total length) were taken on june 27, 1958. =dorosoma cepedianum= (lesueur), gizzard shad: jennings (1942:364). stations 1-s, 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 8-s, 44-s, 45-m, and 53-s. most gizzard shad were young-of-the-year, taken on july 16 and 17, 1957, at stations 3-s and 4-s. twenty specimens from station 6-s that were in their second summer of life were from 3.8 to 5.9 inches total length at the last annulus (average 4.3). this species was usually found in quiet water and was most abundant near the mouth of the big blue river. =hiodon alosoides= (rafinesque), goldeye. stations 3-s, 4-s, and 53-s. i caught five specimens of _h. alosoides_ from the big blue river, and another specimen, obtained by dr. r. b. moorman in 1954, is at kansas state college (ksc 4984). one goldeye that i caught on april 20, 1956, prior to the beginning of my study, was a ripe female measuring 15.5 inches total length. the fish was beginning its seventh summer of life. =cycleptus elongatus= lesueur, blue sucker. the blue sucker is included on the basis of a single specimen (ksc 2917) collected by i. d. graham and labeled "blue river." no other data are with the specimen; however, most fishes deposited at kansas state college by graham are dated "1885" or "1886" and were caught near "manhattan" (riley county). =ictiobus cyprinella= (valenciennes), bigmouth buffalo. stations 3-s, 6-s, and 30-m. bigmouth buffalo were rare, and were taken only in quiet parts of larger streams, and in the borrow-pit at station 6-s. =ictiobus niger= (rafinesque), black buffalo. stations 3-s, 41-s, and 53-s. only four individuals of _i. niger_ were taken. all were large adults (more than 20 inches in total length), and all were shocked in the deeper, swifter areas, where the channel narrowed. =ictiobus bubalus= (rafinesque), smallmouth buffalo. stations 1-s, 3-s, 6-s, 7-g, 18-g, 38-s, 41-s, 43-s, 46-m, and 53-s. this species was found in relatively quiet waters in the main channel, in cut-off areas, and in creek-mouths. the ages and total lengths of 30 individuals obtained at station 6-s were (average followed by number of fish in parentheses): i, 2.4 (11); ii, 4.4 (14); and iii, 6.6 (5). canfield and wiebe (1931:6-7, 10) recorded "buffalo-fish" and "buffalo" from the big blue basin in nebraska; however, no specific designation was given. =carpiodes forbesi= hubbs, plains carpsucker. station 3-s. this represents the first record known to me of the plains carpsucker from kansas. the specimen (ku 4180), 430 mm. in standard length, has the following characters: lower lip without a median, nipple-like projection; dorsal fin-rays, 25; lateral-line scales, 38; diameter of orbit into distance from anterior nostril to tip of snout, 1.1; body-depth into standard length, 3.3; and head-length into standard length, 3.9. the specimen was taken while shocking a wide, shallow channel, over sand bottom. =carpiodes carpio carpio= (rafinesque), river carpsucker: jennings (1942:364). stations 1-s, 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 5-g, 6-s, 7-g, 8-s, 9-g, 11-g, 14-s, 15-s, 18-g, 19-g, 23-g, 25-s, 27-g, 28-g, 30-m, 38-s, 39-s, 41-s, 42-s, 43-s, 44-s, 45-m, 50-s, 52-s, and 53-s. the river carpsucker occurred at most stations on the larger streams, and in many of the smaller tributaries. in smaller streams _c. c. carpio_ frequented the largest pools, in or near the floodplains of larger streams. a marked preference for still water, soft, silty bottoms, and areas with drift or other cover was apparent; however, the species also occurred in open waters with moderate to swift currents. the sizes attained by the river carpsucker at different ages were (averages followed by number of fish in parentheses): i, 1.9 (10); ii, 3.9 (5); iii, 5.3 (8); iv, 7.7 (5); v, 11.9 (2); vi, 11.6 (7); vii, 12.8 (6); viii, 13.1 (1); ix, 14.9 (2); x, 15.8 (8); and xi, 17.6 (1). these averages are significantly less than those reported by buchholz (1957:594) for the river carpsucker in the des moines river, iowa. examination of the gonads of river carpsucker in summer, 1957, indicated that spawning occurred in late july. young-of-the-year, averaging 21 mm. in total length, first appeared in my collections on july 30, 1957. =carpiodes velifer= (rafinesque), highfin carpsucker: meek (1895:135); evermann and cox (1896:389). the highfin carpsucker was not taken in my survey. meek (1895:135) reported "this small sucker [_c. velifer_] ... common in blue river at crete," characterizing the specimens as having "dorsal rays, 24 to 30; scales in the lateral-line, 36 to 41; head 3½ to 4; and depth 2½ to 3." the ranges in the number of dorsal rays and the number of scales in the lateral-line are higher than usual in _c. velifer_, or in _c. c. carpio_, which is now common in the big blue river basin. both species normally have 33 to 37 lateral-line scales and 27 or fewer dorsal rays (bailey, 1956:352-353; moore, 1957:79; and trautman, 1957:81-82). the other characters listed by meek would fit the young and some adults of either species, or possibly a composite including _c. forbesi_. graham (1885:72) and cragin (1885:107) reported _ictiobus velifer_ (= _carpiodes velifer_) from "eureka lake," riley county, kansas. this lake, which no longer exists, was in the kansas river valley, about ten miles upstream from the mouth of the big blue river. other, more recent records from the kansas river basin, in the vicinity of the big blue river, are: maple leaf lake, riley co., oct. 4, 1925; deep creek, riley co., no date; wildcat creek, riley co., sept. 7, 1923; and wildcat creek, riley co., sept. 29, 1925 (ummz 122187-90). most of the collections were made by minna e. jewell (nelson, personal communication). =moxostoma aureolum= (lesueur), northern redhorse: cragin (1885:108) as _moxostoma macrolepidotum_ lesueur; meek (1895:136) as _moxostoma macrolepidotum duquesnei_ (lesueur); evermann and cox (1896:394-395); and jennings (1942:364) as _moxostoma erythrurum_ (rafinesque). stations 41-s, 43-s, 44-s, and 53-s. i collected three northern redhorse from the big blue river basin, and another specimen was seined in the mouth of mill creek, riley county (my present station 9-g) by the kansas state college class in fisheries management in 1954 (ksc 5068). i reidentify as _m. aureolum_ the two specimens recorded by jennings (_loc. cit._) as _m. erythrurum_. the subspecific status of _m. aureolum_ in the kansas river basin is to be the subject of another paper. =catostomus commersonnii= (lacépède), white sucker: canfield and wiebe (1931:8) as "common suckers"; and breukelman (1940:380). stations 7-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 18-g, 19-g, 23-g, 29-g, 31-g, 53-s, 57-m, and 58-g. the white sucker occurred primarily in upland streams of the flint hills, with one occurrence in muddy habitat, and one in the main stream of the big blue river. young _c. commersonnii_ were often taken in riffles, but adults were in the larger, deeper pools. the ages and total lengths at the last annulus for 12 white suckers were: i, 2.8 (4); ii, 3.9 (6); iii, 8.2 (1); and iv, 9.2 (1). =cyprinus carpio= linnaeus, carp: canfield and wiebe (1931:5-8, 10) as "carp." stations 1-s, 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 7-g, 8-s, 15-s, 16-g, 18-g, 23-g, 24-g, 25-s, 27-g, 30-m, 35-m, 38-s, 41-s, 42-s, 43-s, 44-s, 45-m, 52-s, 53-s, and 56-s. carp occurred throughout the basin. the habitat of this species closely approximated that of the river carpsucker; however, carp were more often taken in moderate to swift water than were _c. c. carpio_. the ages and average lengths at the last annulus for 40 carp from the big blue river basin were: i, 2.3 (4); ii, 4.7 (10); iii, 7.0 (10); iv, 9.0 (3); v, 11.3 (4); vi, 18.6 (1); vii, 18.9 (3); viii, no fish; ix, 20.6 (3); x, 19.1 (2); xi, 21.1 (1); xii, 22.0 (1); and xiii, 24.1 (2). =carassius auratus= (linnaeus), goldfish. station 4-s. i saw goldfish seined from station 4-s by anglers obtaining bait on april 20, 1957. goldfish were commonly used for bait at stations 4-s and 54-s. =semotilus atromaculatus= (mitchill), creek chub: evermann and cox (1896:399); and jennings (1942:364) as _semotilus atromaculatus atromaculatus_ (mitchill). stations 5-g, 7-g, 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 17-g, 18-g, 23-g, 24-g, 27-g, 28-g, 29-g, 31-g, 32-g, 33-m, 34-m, 36-m, 37-m, 40-m, 46-m, 47-m, 48-m, 49-m, 50-s, 53-s, 54-g, 55-m, 56-s, 57-m, 58-g, and 59-g. creek chubs were found in all habitats in the big blue river basin, but were abundant only in the headwaters of muddy streams and in clear upland creeks. =chrosomus erythrogaster= (rafinesque), southern redbelly dace: jennings (1942:365). stations 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 27-g, 29-g, and 53-s. this colorful species occupied the headwaters of the clear, spring-fed creeks where it was abundant. only one specimen was taken in muddy or sandy habitat (at the mouth of a small creek at station 53-s), where it may have been washed by floods just prior to my collecting. =hybopsis storeriana= (kirtland), silver chub. station 3-s. one specimen of _h. storeriana_ (ku 3810) was seined in swift water near a sandbar on april 6, 1957, and another was taken at the same locality on april 26, 1958. =hybopsis aestivalis= (girard), speckled chub: meek (1895:137); and evermann and cox (1896:409), both as _hybopsis hyostomus_ gilbert. stations 3-s, 4-s, 14-s, 25-s, 38-s, 39-s, 50-s, and 56-s. this species was restricted to wide, swift parts of the big blue and little blue rivers, and was found over clean, sometimes shifting, sand bottoms. on may 29, 1958, three males in breeding condition were collected and on june 16, 1958, a large series of both male and female _h. aestivalis_, all with well-developed gonads, was collected. the water temperature was 77.0°f. hubbs and ortenburger (1929:25-26) reported that _extrarius tetranemus_ (gilbert) (= _hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus_) spawns in summer especially in early july. cross (1950:135) reported a single pair of _h. a. tetranemus_ that he considered in breeding condition on june 9, 1948. breukelman (1940:380) recorded speckled chubs in the kansas river basin as _extrarius_ (= _hybopsis_) _aestivalis_: _sesquialis_ × _tetranemus_; however, the name _sesquialis_ is a _nomen nudum_, and the status of this species in the kansas river basin is yet to be elucidated. =phenacobius mirabilis= (girard), plains suckermouth minnow: meek (1895:136); and evermann and cox (1896:408). stations 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 5-g, 6-s, 7-g, 8-s, 9-g, 11-g, 16-g, 18-g, 25-s, 26-g, 27-g, 35-m, 38-s, 39-s, 40-m, 42-s, 47-m, 50-s, 52-s, 53-s, 54-g, and 56-s. _phenacobius mirabilis_ was widespread in the basin, occurring most frequently on riffles over bottoms of clean sand or gravel. young-of-the-year were usually taken in backwaters. =notropis percobromus= (cope), plains shiner. stations 3-s and 4-s. the plains shiner occurred only in the lower part of the main stream of the big blue river. =notropis rubellus= (agassiz), rosyface shiner. station 5-g. one rosyface shiner (ku 4195) was taken. this species was previously reported from only two localities in the kansas river basin: in the mill creek watershed, wabaunsee county, and blacksmith creek, shawnee county as _notropis rubrifrons_ (cope) (gilbert, 1886:208). mill creek and blacksmith creek are northward-flowing tributaries of the kansas river that arise in the flint hills. graham (1885:73) also recorded _n. rubellus_ (as _n. rubrifrons_) from the "kansas and missouri rivers"; however, i suspect that his specimens were _notropis percobromus_, a species not generally recognized in graham's time (see hubbs, 1945:16-17). _notropis rubellus_ is now abundant in the mill creek watershed (wabaunsee county), but, except for my specimen no. 4195, has not been taken recently in other streams in the kansas river basin. =notropis umbratilis umbratilis= (girard), redfin shiner. station 3-s. one specimen of _n. u. umbratilis_ was captured near a sandbar on march 26, 1958. the absence of this species in flint hills streams of the big blue river basin is unexplained; redfin shiners occur commonly in southern tributaries of the kansas river both upstream and downstream from the mouth of the big blue river. in kansas this species is usually associated with the larger pools of clear, upland streams. canfield and wiebe (1931:6-8) may have referred to this species in recording "black-fin minnows" from the nebraskan portion of the big blue river basin. =notropis cornutus frontalis= (agassiz), common shiner. stations 4-s, 5-g, 7-g, 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 18-g, 22-g, 26-g, 27-g, 28-g, 29-g, 31-g, 32-g, and 59-g. common shiners were most abundant in middle sections of the clear, gravelly creeks. =notropis lutrensis= (baird and girard), red shiner: meek (1895:136); and evermann and cox (1896:404-405). all stations excepting 1-s, 17-g, 30-m, and 51-m. red shiners were the most widespread species taken in my survey, occurring in all habitats, and in all kinds of streams. on two occasions i observed what apparently was spawning behavior of this species. both times the specimens collected were in the height of breeding condition, stripping in the hand easily, and often without pressure. at the first locality (station 29-g) no attempt was made to obtain eggs, but by disturbing the bottom at the second (55-m) i found eggs that were thought to be those of red shiners. the eggs were slightly adhesive, clinging to the hand and to the bobbinet seine. on june 29, 1958, at station 29-g, red shiners appeared to be spawning in an open-water area measuring about 15 by 15 feet, over nests of _lepomis cyanellus_ rafinesque and _l. humilis_ (girard). no interspecific activity was noted between the sunfish and the red shiners. water temperature at this station was 73.4°f., and the bottom was gravel, sand, and mud. observations were made from a high cut-bank, by naked eye and by use of 7-x binoculars. the red shiners moved rapidly at the surface of the water, with one male (rarely two or more) following one female. the male followed closely, passing the female and causing her to change direction. at the moment of the female's hesitation, prior to her turn, the male would erect his fins in display, at the side and a little in front of the female. after brief display, usually less than two seconds, the male resumed the chase, swimming behind and around the female in a spiral fashion. after a chase of two to three feet, the female would sometimes allow the male to approach closely on her left side. the male nudged the female on the caudal peduncle and in the anal region, moving alongside with his head near the lower edge of the left operculum of the female, thus placing his genital pore about a head-length behind and below that of the female. at this time spawning must have occurred; however, possibly because of the speed of the chase, i observed no vibration of the fish as described for other species of _notropis_ at the culmination of spawning (pfeiffer, 1955:98; raney, 1947:106; and others). while the spawning act presumably occurred the pair was in forward motion in a straight course, for three to five feet, at the end of which the male moved rapidly away, gyrating to the side and down. the female then swam away at a slower rate. in instances when the female failed to allow the male to move alongside, the male sometimes increased his speed, striking the female, and often causing her to jump from the water. some conflict between males was observed, usually when two or more followed one female. the males would leave the female, swerve to one side, and stop, facing each other or side by side. at this moment the fins were greatly elevated in display. there was usually a rush on the part of one male, resulting in the flight of the other, and the aggressive male would pursue for about two feet. many times the pursued male jumped from the water. at station 55-m, on july 9, 1958, activity similar to that described above was observed in a small pool near a mass of debris. at this station i watched from the bank, three feet from the spawning shiners. water temperature was not recorded. the minnows performed the same types of chase and display, all in open water, as described for station 29-g, however, at station 55-m, much activity of males occurred near the small deposit of debris. it seemed that conflict was taking place, with males behaving as described above, and milling violently about. examination of the area revealed nests of _l. cyanellus_ near the debris, and some of the activity by the shiners may have been raids on nests of the sunfish. however, females nearing the group of males were immediately chased by one to four individual males, with one usually continuing pursuit after a short chase by the group. the male again moved into position at the lower left edge of the operculum of the female as at station 29-g. another kind of behavior was observed also, in which the female sometimes stopped. the male approached, erecting his fins and arching his body to the left. the female also assumed this arch to the left, and the pair moved in a tight, counter-clockwise circle, with the male on the inside. after a short period in this position, the male moved aside in display, and gyrated to the side and down. females at both stations moved about slowly, usually remaining in the immediate vicinity of activity by males, and returning to the area even when pursued and deserted some distance away. =notropis deliciosus= (girard), sand shiner: meek (1895:136); evermann and cox (1896:402), both as _notropis blennius_ (girard); and jennings (1942:365) as _notropis deliciosus missuriensis_ (cope). all stations excepting 1-s, 10-g, 12-g, 17-g, 20-g, 21-g, 22-g, 24-g, 29-g, 30-m, 31-g, 32-g, 33-m, 35-m, 51-m, 55-m, 57-m, 58-g, and 59-g. nelson (personal communication) has studied the sand shiner in kansas, and has found that the big blue river is an area of intergradation between the southwestern subspecies (_deliciosus_) and the plains subspecies (_missuriensis_). _notropis d. deliciosus_ prefers cool, rocky habitat, and occurs in small streams of the flint hills, whereas _n. d. missuriensis_ occupies the sandy, turbid big blue and little blue rivers. intergrades occur most frequently in the big blue river, but are found in all habitats. =notropis topeka= (gilbert), topeka shiner: meek (1895:136); evermann and cox (1896:403); and minckley and cross (in press). stations 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 19-g, 31-g, and 32-g. this species was common locally in the upland streams. female topeka shiners stripped easily at station 11-g on july 8, 1958, and adult _n. topeka_ in high breeding condition were collected at station 31-g on july 14, 1958. the water temperature at both stations was 77.5°f. evermann and cox (1896:403-404) recorded female topeka shiners "nearly ripe" on june 29, 1893. =notropis buchanani= meek, ghost shiner. stations 3-s and 4-s. only two specimens of _n. buchanani_ were taken, both on august 14, 1957. these specimens (ku 3833), a female with well-developed ova, and a tuberculate male, were near a sandbar in the main channel. to my knowledge, this is the first published record of the ghost shiner from the kansas river basin. mr. james booth, state biological survey, collected _n. buchanani_ from two stations on mill creek, wabaunsee county, kansas, 1953. =hybognathus nuchalis= agassiz, silvery minnow. stations 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 7-g, 8-s, and 16-g. this species was taken sporadically, but sometimes abundantly, in the big blue river. at stations 7-g and 16-g a few young-of-the-year were found. table 2. comparisons of three series of _hybognathus_, 50 specimens each, from different stream systems. table legend: column a: [=x] = mean;, column b: [sigma] = one standard deviation; column c: 2 [sigma]_{m} = two standard errors. ranges are in parentheses. standard lengths of specimens are: walnut river, kansas, 60.0 to 72.7 mm., [=x] = 67.1; big blue river, 43.3 to 63.3 mm., [=x] = 52.0; and chippewa river, wisconsin, 57.6 to 74.4 mm., [=x] = 65.9. ================+=================+=================+================== | walnut river, | | chippewa river, | kansas | | wisconsin count or | _h. n. placita_,| big blue river, | _h. n. nuchalis_, proportional | ku 3869 | kansas ku 3812 | ku 2012 measurement +-------+----+----+-------+----+----+-------+-----+--- | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c ----------------+-------+----+----+-------+----+----+-------+-----+--- lateral-line | 38.9 | 1.1| 0.4| 37.2 | 1.1| 0.4| 37.3 | 1.0 | 0.2 scales |(37-41)| | |(35-39)| | |(35-39)| | | | | | | | | | | predorsal | 16.8 | 0.9| 0.7| 15.9 | 0.8| 0.2| 15.1 | 0.5 | 0.1 scale-rows |(15-19)| | |(14-17)| | |(14-17)| | | | | | | | | | | scale-rows below| 15.6 | 1.2| 0.3| 14.9 | 1.0| 0.3| 12.9 | 0.7 | 0.2 lateral-line |(13-18)| | |(12-16)| | |(12-15)| | | | | | | | | | | scale-rows | 16.2 | 1.1| 0.3| 15.8 | 0.8| 0.2| 13.8 | 0.6 | 0.2 around caudal |(15-19)| | |(14-18)| | |(12-15)| | peduncle | | | | | | | | | ----------------+-------+----+----+-------+----+----+-------+-----+--- table 2.--concluded. ============+===================+==================+=================== | walnut river, | | chippewa river, | kansas | | wisconsin count or | _h. n. placita_, | big blue river, | _h. n. nuchalis_, proportional| ku 3869 | kansas ku 3812 | ku 2012 measurement +-------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----+---- | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c ------------+-------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----+---- orbit ÷ | .051 |.0035|.0010| .059 |.0047|.0013| .068 |.0044|.0013 standard |(044 | | |(047| | |(059 | | length | 61)| | | 71)| | | 77)| | | | | | | | | | | gape-width ÷|.066 |.0046|.0013| .064 |.0044|.0013| .056 |.0038|.0011 standard |(055 | | |(055| | |(046 | | length | 75)| | | 74)| | | 64)| | | | | | | | | | | orbit ÷ | .776 |.0083|.0024| .907 |.0080|.0023| 1.223 |.0119|.0034 gape-width |(647 | | |(712| | |(953 | | | 945)| | |1.067)| | | 1.566)| | ------------+-------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----+----bailey (1956:333) does not consider the southwestern _hybognathus placita_ (girard) specifically distinct from the northeastern _h. nuchalis_, but little evidence of intergradation has been published. in table 2, i have compared measurements and counts of 50 specimens of _hybognathus_ from the big blue river, 50 _h. n. placita_ from the walnut river, kansas (arkansas river basin), and 50 _h. n. nuchalis_ from wisconsin. measurements and counts were made by methods described by hubbs and lagler (1947:8-15) and measurements are expressed as thousandths of standard length. _hybognathus_ from the big blue river tend to have fewer, larger scales than _h. n. placita_ from the walnut river, kansas, but more and smaller scales than _h. n. nuchalis_ from wisconsin. in specimens from the blue river, the size of the orbit divided by standard length, and the width of gape divided by standard length and width of orbit, are also intermediate between the walnut river and wisconsin specimens, but tend toward the former. specimens from the big blue river resemble _h. n. placita_ from the walnut river in body shape, robustness, and in the embedding of scales on the nape. =pimephales notatus= (rafinesque), bluntnose minnow: meek (1895:136); and evermann and cox (1896:399). stations 2-s, 3-s, 5-g, 6-s, 8-s, 9-g, 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 19-g, 27-g, 29-g, 53-s, 54-g, and 58-g. the bluntnose minnow preferred the clearer creeks, with gravel or gravel-silt bottoms, but occurred rarely in the mainstream of the big blue river. males and females in high breeding condition were taken on july 14, 1958. the temperature of the water was 75.5° f. =pimephales promelas= rafinesque, fathead minnow: meek (1895: 136); and evermann and cox (1896:397-398). all stations excepting 1-s, 4-s, 12-g, 30-m, 43-s, 44-s, and 56-s. small muddy streams were preferred by _p. promelas_; however, the fathead minnow was taken in all habitats, and in association with most other species. canfield and wiebe (1931:6-7) may have recorded _p. promelas_ from the big blue river basin, nebraska, as "blackhead minnows." =campostoma anomalum plumbeum= (girard), stoneroller. all stations excepting 1-s, 2-s, 3-s, 14-s, 15-s, 21-g, 22-g, 28-g, 30-m, 33-m, 34-m, 35-m, 36-m, 37-m, 38-s, 41-s, 44-s, 45-m, 51-m, 52-s, and 55-m. stonerollers were usually taken in riffles with gravel-rubble bottoms. those individuals collected in areas with mud or sand bottoms were almost invariably in the current, or in the edge of currents. specimens from the big blue river basin have an average of 47.4 scale-rows around the body (range 42-54). =ictalurus melas= (rafinesque), black bullhead: evermann and cox (1896:387) as _ameiurus melas_ (rafinesque); and canfield and wiebe (1931:5-7, 10) as "bullheads." stations 2-s, 6-s, 7-g, 11-g, 16-g, 20-g, 22-g, 23-g, 24-g, 28-g, 35-m, 40-m, 51-m, 53-s, 55-m, 56-s, 57-m, and 58-g. black bullhead occurred in all habitats, but were less commonly taken in the big blue and little blue rivers than in other streams. =ictalurus natalis= (lesueur), yellow bullhead. stations 7-g, 9-g, 10-g, 11-g, 17-g, 18-g, 19-g, 34-m, 35-m, 36-m, 37-m, 40-m, 47-m, 48-m, 53-s, and 55-m. the yellow bullhead inhabited the muddy-bottomed streams and the upland, gravelly creeks, usually occurring in the headwaters. i obtained only one _i. natalis_ in the sandy big blue river. =ictalurus punctatus= (rafinesque), channel catfish: cragin (1885:107); meek (1895:135); evermann and cox (1896:386); and canfield and wiebe (1931:6-7, 10) as "channel catfish." stations 1-s, 2-s, 3-s, 4-s, 5-g, 6-s, 7-g, 8-s, 9-g, 11-g, 14-s, 15-s, 16-g, 18-g, 25-s, 27-g, 30-m, 35-m, 38-s, 39-s, 41-s, 42-s, 43-s, 44-s, 46-m, 50-s, 51-m, 52-s, 53-s, and 56-s. channel catfish were most common in the larger, sandy streams, but occurred in other kinds of streams. the ages and calculated total lengths at the last annulus for 40 channel catfish were: i, no fish; ii, 7.3 (16); iii, 10.6 (5); iv, 12.3 (5); v, 13.3 (6); vi, 15.5 (4); vii, 18.0 (3); and viii, 21.9 (1). these lengths are slightly lower than averages reported by finnell and jenkins (1954:5) in oklahoma impoundments. the length-frequency distribution of 438 channel catfish, collected by rotenone on august 5 and 7, 1958, indicated that two age-groups were represented. without examination of spines, i assigned 265 fish to age-group o (1.3 to 2.9 inches, average 2.5) and 173 fish to age-group i (3.1 to 5.8 inches, average 4.5). the average total length of age group i (4.5 inches) is only slightly higher than the total length at the first annulus reported as average for oklahoma (4.0 inches, finnell and jenkins, _loc. cit._). it seems unlikely that my yearling fish taken in august, 1958, would have reached the length at the second annulus recorded in my study of spines (7.3 inches) by the end of the 1958 growing season. from 1952 to 1956, severe drought was prevalent in kansas, probably causing streams to flow less than at any previously recorded time (minckley and cross, in press). this drought must have resulted in reduced populations of fishes in the streams. the channel catfish hatched in 1956 were therefore subjected to low competition for food and space when normal flow was resumed in 1957, and grew rapidly, reaching an average total length of 7.3 inches at the second annulus, while channel catfish that were members of the large 1957 and 1958 hatches suffered more competition and grew more slowly. =noturus flavus= rafinesque, stonecat: jennings (1942:365). stations 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 16-g, 25-s, 28-g, 38-s, 41-s, 42-s, 43-s, 52-s, 53-s, and 56-s. _noturus flavus_ frequented riffles and swift currents along sandbars in the big blue and little blue rivers. cross (1954:311) reported that "the shale-strewn riffles of the south fork [of the cottonwood river, kansas] provide ideal habitat for the stonecat." in my study-area, this species was found not only on rubble-bottomed riffles, but occurred along both stationary and shifting sandbars where no cover was apparent. =pylodictis olivaris= (rafinesque), flathead catfish: canfield and wiebe (1931:7) as "yellow catfish." stations 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 8-s, 15-s, 25-s, 38-s, 41-s, 43-s, 44-s, 53-s, and 56-s. flathead catfish were found only in the larger rivers. the species was taken rarely by seine, but was readily obtained by electric shocker. data on the age and growth and food-habits of this species are to be the subject of another paper. =anguilla bostoniensis= (lesueur), american eel: jennings (1942:365). american eels are now rare in kansas, and none was taken in my survey. the specimen reported by jennings (_loc. cit._) is at kansas state college (ksc 2916), and was taken by i. d. graham from the big blue river, riley county, 1885. =fundulus kansae= garman, plains killifish. station 42-s. the plains killifish was collected by me only at station 42-s. specimens were collected from my station 4-s by the kansas state college class in fisheries management in 1954 (ksc 4985). my specimens were 11 to 13 mm. in total length. =roccus chrysops= (rafinesque), white bass. station 3-s. that the white bass is indigenous to kansas is evidenced by records of graham (1885:77) and cragin (1885:111); however, since that time, and prior to the introduction of this species into reservoirs in the state, _r. chrysops_ has rarely been recorded in kansas. i collected young white bass at station 3-s in both 1957 and 1958, and i collected them also in an oxbow of the kansas river four miles west of manhattan, riley county, kansas, in the mouth of mcdowell's creek, riley county, and in deep creek, wabaunsee county, and i saw other specimens from an oxbow of the kansas river on the fort riley military reservation, riley county, kansas. the apparent increase in abundance of white bass in the kansas river basin must be attributable to introductions in reservoirs, with subsequent escape and establishment in the streams. =micropterus salmoides salmoides= (lacépède), largemouth bass. stations 6-s, 11-g, 43-s, and 45-m. four largemouth bass were taken. this species has been widely stocked in farm-ponds and other impoundments in kansas. =lepomis cyanellus= rafinesque, green sunfish: breukelman (1940:382); and canfield and wiebe (1931:5, 7-8, 10) as "green sunfish." all stations excepting 1-s, 2-s, 4-s, 8-s, 9-g, 15-s, 22-g, 25-s, 30-m, 32-g, 34-m, 38-s, 39-s, 41-s, 42-s, 43-s, 44-s, 45-m, 46-m, 47-m, 50-s, and 52-s. green sunfish occurred primarily in the muddy streams. the ages and total lengths at the last annulus for 25 specimens are as follows: i, 1.1 (9); ii, 2.2 (4); iii, 3.1 (7); iv, 5.4 (4); and v, 6.0 (1). male green sunfish were seen on nests on june 29, july 1, and july 9, 1958. =lepomis humilis= (girard), orangespotted sunfish: meek (1895:137); evermann and cox (1896:418); canfield and wiebe (1931:6) as "orange spots"; and breukelman (1940:382). all stations excepting 1-s, 9-g, 13-g, 15-g, 17-g, 21-g, 26-g, 34-m, 36-m, 38-m, 43-m, 44-s, 47-m, 50-s, and 52-s. _lepomis humilis_ was most common over sand-silt bottoms. only two age-groups were found; their calculated total lengths were i, 1.7 (15); and ii, 2.4 (10). orangespotted sunfish were seen nesting on the same dates as _lepomis cyanellus_. =lepomis macrochirus= rafinesque, bluegill. stations 7-g, 13-g, 16-g, 24-g, and 59-g. this species has been widely stocked in kansas. only young-of-the-year and sub-adults were taken, and these were rare. =pomoxis annularis= rafinesque, white crappie: canfield and wiebe (1931:5-8, 10) as "white crappie." stations 3-s, 6-s, 8-s, 12-g, 42-s, and 53-s. white crappie were rare, except in a borrow-pit at station 6-s. ages and calculated total lengths at the last annulus for 50 specimens from 6-s are as follows: i, 3.6 (22); ii, 5.0 (14); iii, 7.1 (5); iv, 8.3 (7); and v, 10.7 (2). =pomoxis nigromaculatus= (lesueur), black crappie. station 6-s. one black crappie (ku 4174) was taken. canfield and wiebe (1931:10) noted: "the black crappie has been planted here [big blue river basin in nebraska] by the state, but, apparently, is not propagating itself." =stizostedion canadense= (smith), sauger. station 56-s. mr. larry stallbaumer, of marysville, kansas, obtained a sauger (ku 4179) while angling on may 25, 1958. =stizostedion vitreum= (mitchill), walleye. though i failed to obtain the walleye in my survey, dr. raymond e. johnson (personal communication) reported that the species occurred in the nebraskan portion of the big blue river in recent years. canfield and wiebe (1931:6, 10) reported that "yellow pike are taken at crete [nebraska]," but may have referred to either the walleye or the sauger. =perca flavescens= (mitchill), yellow perch: canfield and wiebe (1931:5-6, 10) as "ring perch" and "yellow perch." this fish was not taken in my survey. canfield and wiebe (_loc. cit_.) reported that the yellow perch "had been planted by the state [nebraska]." =etheostoma nigrum nigrum= rafinesque, johnny darter: jennings (1942:365) as _boleosoma nigrum nigrum_ (rafinesque). stations 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 29-g, 40-m, 53-s, and 54-g. the larger pools of gravelly streams were preferred by johnny darters, but one specimen was taken from the main stream of the big blue river, and the species was abundant in one stream over hard, sand-silt bottom. =etheostoma spectabile pulchellum= (girard), orangethroat darter: jennings (1942:365) as _poecilichthys spectabilis pulchellus_ (girard). stations 5-g, 7-g, 10-g, 11-g, 12-g, 13-g, 16-g, 17-g, 18-g, 21-g, 23-g, 27-g, 28-g, 29-g, 33-m, 40-m, 49-m, 53-s, 54-g, and 59-g. the orangethroat darter was less restricted in habitat than the johnny darter, occurring in all stream-types, but most often in the riffles of gravelly streams. most specimens from muddy or sandy streams were small. =aplodinotus grunniens= rafinesque, freshwater drum. stations 3-s, 4-s, 6-s, 7-g, 8-s, 15-s, 38-s, 39-s, 53-s, and 56-s. the ages and calculated total lengths at the last annulus for 42 freshwater drum from the big blue river were: i, 3.0 (10); ii, 5.7 (6); iii, 9.4 (7); iv, 12.1 (13); v, 14.0 (3); vi, 15.1 (2); and vii, 16.3 (1). hybrid combinations i obtained two hybrid fishes in my study-area. one specimen of _notropis cornutus frontalis_ × _chrosomus erythrogaster_ was taken at station 29-g. this combination was recorded by trautman (1957:114) in ohio. the other hybrid was _lepomis cyanellus_ × _lepomis humilis_, captured at station 24-g. this combination was first recorded by hubbs and ortenburger (1929:42). hubbs and bailey (1952:144) recorded another hybrid combination from my area of study: _campostoma anomalum plumbeum_ × _chrosomus erythrogaster_, ummz 103132, from a "spring-fed creek on 'doc' wagner's farm, riley county, kansas; september 21, 1927; l. o. nolf [collector]." relative abundance and discussion of species the relative abundance of different species was estimated by combining counts of individual fishes taken in 290 seine-hauls, 26 hours and 15 minutes of shocking, and seven samples obtained with rotenone. at some stations all seine-hauls were counted. at other stations the seine-hauls in which complete counts were recorded had been selected randomly in advance; that is to say, prior to collecting at each station. i selected those hauls to be counted from a table of random numbers (snedecor, 1956:10-13). i did not use the frequency-of-occurrence method as proposed by starrett (1950:114), in which the species taken and not the total number of individuals are recorded for all seine-hauls. however, the frequency of occurrence of each species is indicated by the number of stations at which it was found, and those stations are listed in the previous accounts. table 3 shows the percentage of the total number of fish that each species comprised in three kinds of streams: sandy (big blue and little blue rivers), muddy, and gravelly streams. the habitat preferences of some species affect their abundance in different stream-types. _notropis lutrensis_ and _p. mirabilis_ seemed almost ubiquitous. _notropis deliciosus_ also occurred in all kinds of streams (rarely in muddy streams); however, this species was represented by the sand-loving _n. d. missuriensis_ in the big blue and little blue rivers, and _n. d. deliciosus_ in the clear, gravelly, upland creeks (nelson, personal communication). because of its widespread occurrence, and for purposes of later discussion, i refer to this minnow also as an ubiquitous species in the big blue river basin. _carpiodes carpio_, _cyprinus carpio_, _i. punctatus_, _i. melas_, and _l. humilis_ were widespread, but each was absent or rare in one of the kinds of streams (table 3). _carpiodes carpio_, _cyprinus carpio_, and _i. punctatus_ occurred most frequently in the sandy streams, whereas _l. humilis_ was most common in muddy streams. the high per cent of _i. melas_ in collections from the big blue river is a direct result of one large population that was taken with rotenone in a borrow-pit at station 6-s. in my opinion, this species actually was most abundant in the muddy streams. table 3. relative abundance of fishes in per cent of the total number taken, big blue river basin, kansas. trace (tr.) is used for values less than .05 per cent, and dashes signify that the species did not occur in the counted collections although it may have occurred in uncounted collections from the same stream-type. three species, _c. auratus_, _n. buchanani_, and _s. canadense_, were not taken in counted collections. ====================+=================+=========+========== | sandy streams | | +--------+--------+ muddy | gravelly species | big | little | streams | streams | blue | blue | | | river | river | | --------------------+--------+--------+---------+--------- _n. lutrensis_ | 43.5 | 55.9 | 27.6 | 56.0 _i. punctatus_ | 14.0 | 7.0 | 1.2 | 4.2 _carpiodes carpio_ | 11.9 | 2.0 | 5.0 | 0.5 _n. deliciosus_ | 8.2 | 28.2 | 3.1 | 11.1 _i. melas_ | 2.5 | - | 1.3 | 0.5 _cyprinus carpio_ | 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 0.2 _p. olivaris_ | 1.8 | 0.8 | - | - _l. humilis_ | 1.7 | - | 9.0 | 5.1 _i. bubalus_ | 1.4 | 0.1 | - | tr. _p. mirabilis_ | 1.3 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 1.3 _h. nuchalis_ | 1.2 | - | - | tr. _p. promelas_ | 0.8 | 1.0 | 28.7 | 4.0 _h. aestivalis_ | 0.7 | 0.2 | - | - _a. grunniens_ | 0.5 | - | - | 0.2 _l. osseus_ | 0.5 | 1.0 | - | - _c. anomalum_ | 0.4 | 0.2 | 2.7 | 4.6 _c. commersonnii_ | 0.4 | - | - | 0.7 _d. cepedianum_ | 0.4 | tr. | 0.1 | - _n. percobromus_ | 0.3 | - | - | - _p. annularis_ | 0.3 | tr. | - | - _n. flavus_ | 0.2 | 0.4 | - | tr. _s. atromaculatus_ | 0.2 | 0.1 | 12.2 | 1.7 _m. aureolum_ | 0.1 | 0.2 | - | - _i. cyprinella_ | 0.1 | - | 0.1 | - _p. notatus_ | 0.1 | - | - | 2.2 _i. niger_ | 0.1 | 0.1 | - | - _h. alosoides_ | 0.1 | - | - | - _e. spectabile_ | 0.1 | - | 1.4 | 1.6 _r. chrysops_ | 0.1 | - | - | - _l. cyanellus_ | 0.1 | - | 3.5 | tr. _h. storeriana_ | tr. | - | - | - _l. platostomus_ | tr. | - | - | - _m. salmoides_ | tr. | - | - | - _p. nigromaculatus_ | tr. | - | - | - _i. natalis_ | tr. | - | 1.0 | tr. _n. umbratilis_ | tr. | - | - | - _c. forbesi_ | tr. | - | - | - _s. platorynchus_ | tr. | - | - | - _f. kansae_ | - | tr. | - | - _e. nigrum_ | tr. | - | 0.1 | 0.2 _n. rubellus_ | - | - | - | tr. _n. topeka_ | - | - | - | 1.0 _n. cornutus_ | - | - | - | 1.0 _c. erythrogaster_ | - | - | - | 1.0 _l. macrochirus_ | - | - | - | 1.0 --------------------+--------+--------+---------+---------some fish were almost restricted to the sandy streams, apparently because of preference for larger waters, or sandy stream-bottoms: _p. olivaris_, _i. bubalus_, _h. nuchalis_, _h. aestivalis_, _a. grunniens_, _l. osseus_, _d. cepedianum_, _n. percobromus_, _p. annularis_, _n. flavus_, _m. aureolum_, _i. niger_, _h. alosiodes_, and _r. chrysops_. other species that were taken only in the larger rivers, and that are sometimes associated with streams even larger (or more sandy) than the big blue river are _h. storeriana_, _l. platostomus_, _m. salmoides_, _p. nigromaculatus_, _c. forbesi_, _s. platorynchus_, _f. kansae_, _n. buchanani_, _s. canadense_, and _c. auratus_. _ictiobus cyprinella_ also occurred more frequently in the larger streams. the muddy-bottomed streams supported populations composed primarily of _p. promelas_, _n. lutrensis_, and _s. atromaculatus_. no species was restricted to this habitat, but the following were characteristic there: _p. promelas_, _s. atromaculatus_, _l. humilis_, _l. cyanellus_, and _i. natalis_. _carpiodes carpio_, _cyprinus carpio_, _c. anomalum_, _e. spectabile_, and _e. nigrum_ were locally common in muddy streams, but the first two were most frequent in larger, sandy streams, and the last three in gravelly streams. in gravel-bottomed, upland streams, _n. cornutus_, _n. rubellus_, _n. topeka_, and _c. erythrogaster_ characteristically occurred; with the exception of _n. rubellus_ (only one specimen taken), all were common at some stations. other species in gravelly creeks were _n. lutrensis_, _c. anomalum_, _c. commersonnii_, _p. notatus_, _l. macrochirus_, _e. spectabile_, and _e. nigrum_. although the one specimen of _n. umbratilis_ taken in this survey was from the big blue river, this species is more characteristic of the clearer creeks in kansas. in order to illustrate the composition of the fauna in some specific streams in the big blue river basin, i segregated the fishes into ecological groups, as in the above discussion: ubiquitous types; species of larger, sandy streams; fishes of muddy streams; and fishes of clear, gravelly creeks. the total number of species taken in each of the streams was divided into the number of species from that stream that were in each of these units, to give a percentage. the resultant data are presented graphically in figure 3. [illustration: fig. 3. composition of the fauna of the entire big blue river basin, and of seven streams or stream systems in that basin. "mill creek, wash. co." refers to all streams in the mill creek system, washington and republic counties. "bl. vermillion r. system" includes all streams in that watershed excepting clear creek and one of its tributaries (stations 31-g and 32-g).] [illustration: fig. 4. composition of the fauna of the big blue river, and of five collecting-sites on carnahan creek, pottawatomie county. lowermost sites are at the left of the figure.] figure 3 gives a generalized picture of the faunal composition in different kinds of streams. however, the fauna of a small tributary becomes more distinct from the fauna of the larger stream into which the small stream flows as one moves toward the headwaters (metcalf, 1957:92, 95-100). figure 4 illustrates this in carnahan creek. station 11-g included four sampling-sites, which were approximately one, two, three, and four miles upstream from the mouth of carnahan creek. station 13-g (one collection) was about four miles upstream from the closest sampling-site of station 11-g. applying the same methods as for figure 3, my findings show a gradual decline in the per cent of the fauna represented by the "large-river-fishes," and an increase in the segment classified as "upland-fishes," from downstream to upstream. creel census fifty-three fishermen were interviewed in the 1957 creel census period, and 152 in 1958. only those fishermen using pole and line were interviewed. in the area censused, much additional fishing is done with set-lines, that are checked periodically by the owners. in the 1958 census, 22 checks along approximately 80 miles of river were made, and seven of these trips were made without seeing one fisherman. the average fishing pressure for the entire area was estimated at one fisherman per 7.9 miles of stream, or one fisherman per 15.7 miles of shoreline. seven species of fish were identified from fishermen's creels in 1957 and 1958. these, in order of abundance were: channel catfish; carp; freshwater drum; flathead catfish; shovelnose sturgeon; smallmouth buffalo; and river carpsucker. shovelnose sturgeon occurred in fishermen's creels only in april, 1957, and freshwater drum occurred more frequently in the spring-census of 1957 than in the summer of 1958. sixty-two of the fishermen interviewed in 1958 were fishing for "anything they could catch," 68 were fishing specifically for catfish, and 22 sought species other than catfish. the order of preference was as follows: channel catfish, 21.1 per cent; flathead catfish, 15.1 per cent; unspecified catfish, 12.5 per cent; carp, 9.2 per cent; freshwater drum, 1.3 per cent; and unspecified, 40.8 per cent. the kinds of fish desired by those fishermen checked in 1957 were not ascertained. of all fishermen checked in 1957 and 1958, 165 were men, 17 were women, and 24 were children. ninety-three per cent were fishing from the bank, five per cent were fishing from bridges, and two per cent were wading. all but two per cent of those checked were fishing "tightline"; the remainder fished with a cork. the ten baits most commonly used, in order of frequency, were worms, doughballs, minnows, liver, beef-spleen, chicken-entrails, coagulated blood, crayfish, shrimp, and corn. for purposes of later comparison the data on angler success (table 4) have been divided according to areas: area i, below tuttle creek dam; area ii, in the tuttle creek reservoir area; and area iii, above the reservoir. areas i and iii received the most fishing pressure, especially station 4-s (in area i), and station 56-s (in area iii). in area i, the success ranged from 0.91 fish per fisherman-day in 1957 to 0.26 fish per fisherman-day in 1958. the 1957 census was made in april and may, when fishing in warm-water streams is considered better than in july (harrison, 1956:203). the 1958 census was from late june through july, and stream-flow in this period was continuously above normal. therefore, fewer people fished the river, and catches were irregular. catches in 1958 ranged from 0.26 fish per fisherman-day in area i to 0.44 fish per fisherman-day in area iii. in 1951, in the republican river of kansas and nebraska, the average fisherman-day yielded 0.36 fish, 0.09 fish per man-hour, and 0.06 fish per pole-hour (u. s. fish and wildlife service, 1952:13-14). the average fisherman-day in the republican river study was 3.0 hours, whereas the average on the big blue river was 2.2 hours for all areas in 1958 (table 4). table 4. angling success in the big blue river, kansas, 1957 and 1958. ================================================================= area, year, |average |number |number |number and number |length of |fish per |fish per|fish per of fishermen |fisherman-day|fisherman-day|man-hour|pole-hour[a] ---------------+-------------+-------------+--------+----------- area i, 1957 | 2.7 hours | 0.91 | 0.33 | 0.23 53 fishermen | | | | area i, 1958 | 2.5 hours | 0.26 | 0.10 | 0.07 84 fishermen | | | | area ii, 1958 | 1.7 hours | 0.37 | 0.22 | 0.14 27 fishermen | | | | area iii, 1958 | 2.4 hours | 0.44 | 0.16 | 0.11 41 fishermen | | | | all areas, 1958| 2.2 hours | 0.33 | 0.14 | 0.09 152 fishermen| | | | [a] fishermen used an average of 1.44 poles. in the big blue river 47.7 per cent of all fishermen were successful in area i in 1957, while only 13.1 per cent were successful in the same area in 1958 (table 5). in the republican river, 24 per cent of the fishing parties were successful (1.64 persons per party) (u. s. fish and wildlife service, _loc. cit._). the average distance that each fisherman had traveled to fish in the big blue river was 15.7 miles. seventy-nine per cent of the persons contacted lived within 25 miles of the spots where they fished. in the study on the republican river, 77 per cent of the parties interviewed came less than 25 miles to fish. table 5. per cent of total fishermen successful, and distances travelled to fish, big blue river basin, kansas, 1957 and 1958. all distances were measured in airline miles. ============================+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== | 1957 | 1958 | 1958 | 1958 | 1958 | area | area | area | area | all | i | i | ii | iii | areas ----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----- per cent of | 47.1 | 13.1 | 18.5 | 19.5 | 15.8 fishermen successful | | | | | | | | | | distances traveled to fish | 0-121 | 1-197 | 0-124 | 0-60 | 0-197 (averages in parentheses) |(15.6) |(20.5) |(13.5) |(7.4) |(15.7) ----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------recommendations my primary recommendation is for continued study of the tuttle creek reservoir, and the big blue river above and below the reservoir, to trace changes in the fish population that result from impoundment. probably the fishes that inhabit the backwaters, creek-mouths, and borrow-pits in the big blue river basin (gars, shad, carpsucker, buffalo, carp, sunfishes, and white bass) will increase in abundance as soon as tuttle creek reservoir is formed. also, as in eastern oklahoma reservoirs (see finnell, _et al_., 1956:61-73), populations of channel and flathead catfish should increase. because of the presence of brood-stock of the major sport-fishes of kansas (channel and flathead catfish, bullhead, bluegill, crappie, largemouth bass, and white bass), stocking of these species would be an economic waste: exception might be made for the white bass. it may be above tuttle creek dam, but was not found there. i do recommend immediate introduction of walleye, and possibly northern pike (_esox lucius_ linnaeus), the latter species having been successfully stocked in harlan county reservoir, nebraska, in recent years (mr. donald d. poole, personal communication). these two species probably are native to kansas, but may have been extirpated as agricultural development progressed. reservoirs may again provide habitats suitable for these species in the state. if tuttle creek reservoir follows the pattern found in most oklahoma reservoirs, large populations of "coarse fish"--fishes that are, however, commercially desirable--will develop (finnell, _et al._, _loc. cit._). to utilize this resource, and possibly to help control "coarse fish" populations for the betterment of sport-fishing, some provision for commercial harvest should be made in the reservoir. summary 1. the big blue river basin in northeastern kansas was studied between march 30, 1957, and august 9, 1958. the objectives were to record the species of fish present and their relative abundance in the stream, and to obtain a measure of angling success prior to closure of tuttle creek dam. 2. fifty-nine stations were sampled one or more times, using seines, hoop and fyke nets, wire traps, experimental gill nets, rotenone, and an electric fish shocker. 3. forty-eight species of fish were obtained, and five others have been recorded in literature or found in museums. one species, _carpiodes forbesi_, is recorded from kansas for the first time. 4. _notropis lutrensis_ was the most abundant fish in the big blue river basin, followed by _notropis deliciosus_ and _ictalurus punctatus_. the most abundant sport-fishes were _i. punctatus_, _i. melas_, and _pylodictis olivaris_, respectively. 5. the spawning behavior of _notropis lutrensis_ is described. 6. a creel census at major points of access to the big blue river, was taken in 1957 (below tuttle creek dam) and in 1958 (above, in, and below the dam-site). fishing pressure averaged one fisherman per 15.7 miles of shoreline. the average length of the fisherman-day averaged 2.2 hours, with an average of 0.33 fish per fisherman-day being caught in 1958. the average number of fish per man-hour in 1958 was 0.14 and 15.8 per cent of the fishermen were successful. distances traveled in order to fish ranged from 0 to 197 miles (airline) and averaged 15.7 miles. 7. the primary recommendation is that studies be continued, to document changes that result from impoundment. because brood-stock of the major sport-fishes is already present, stocking is unnecessary, except for walleye and northern pike. also, i recommend commercial harvest of non-game food-fishes. literature cited bailey, r. m. 1956. a revised list of fishes of iowa, with keys for identification. _in_ iowa fish and fishing, by j. r. harlan and e. b. speaker. iowa state cons. comm., des moines, pp. 325-377. ----, and cross, f. b. 1954. river sturgeons of the american genus _scaphirhynchus_: characters, distribution, and synonymy. pap. michigan acad. sci., arts, and letters, 39 (1953): 169-208. breukelman, j. 1940. a collection of kansas fish in the state university museum. trans. kansas acad. sci., 43: 377-384. buchholz, m. 1957. age and growth of river carpsucker in des moines river, iowa. proc. iowa acad. sci., 64: 589-600. canfield, h. l., and wiebe, a. h. 1931. a cursory survey of the blue river system of nebraska. u. s. dept. comm., bur. of fisheries, econ. circ. 73: 1-10. colby, c., dillingham, h., erickson, e., jenks, g., jones, j., and sinclair, r. 1956. the kansas basin, pilot study of a watershed. univ. of kansas press, lawrence, ix + 103 pp. cragin, f. w. 1885. preliminary list of kansas fishes. bull. washburn lab. of nat. hist., 1 (3):105-111. cross, f. b. 1950. effects of sewage and of a headwaters impoundment on the fishes of stillwater creek in payne county, oklahoma. amer. midl. nat., 43 (1):128-145. 1954. fishes of cedar creek and the south fork of the cottonwood river, chase county, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 57 (3): 303-314. eddy, s., and surber, t. 1947. northern fishes, with special reference to the upper mississippi valley. univ. of minnesota press, minneapolis, xii + 276 pp. evermann, b. w., and cox, u. o. 1896. report upon the fishes of the missouri river basin. appendix 5. rept. u. s. commissioner of fish and fisheries for 1894. pp. 325-429. finnell, j. c., and jenkins, r. m. 1954. growth of channel catfish in oklahoma waters: 1954 revision. oklahoma fish res. lab. rept. 41: ii + 1-37. ----, jenkins, r. m. and hall, g. e. 1956. the fishery resources of the little river system, mccurtain county, oklahoma. oklahoma fish. res. lab. rept. 55: ii + 1-82. flora, s. d. 1948. climate of kansas. rept. kansas state board of agri., 67 (285): xii + 1-320. forbes, s. a., and richardson, r. e. 1920. the fishes of illinois. nat. hist. survey of illinois. illinois printing co., danville, cxxxi + 357 pp. frye, j. c., and leonard, a. b. 1952. pleistocene geology of kansas. kansas geol. survey, bull. 99: 1-230. gilbert, c. h. 1886. third series of notes on the fishes of kansas. bull. washburn lab. of nat. hist., 1 (6): 207-211. graham, i. d. 1885. preliminary list of kansas fishes. trans. kansas acad. sci., 9: 69-78. harrison, h. m. 1956. angling for channel catfish. _in_ iowa fish and fishing, by j. r. harlan and e. b. speaker. iowa state cons. comm., des moines. pp. 202-212. hubbs, c. l. 1945. corrected distributional records for minnesota fishes. copeia, 1945 (1):13-22. ----, and ortenburger, a. i. 1929. further notes on the fishes of oklahoma with descriptions of new species of cyprinidae. pub. univ. oklahoma biol. survey, 1 (2): 17-43. ----, and lagler, k. f. 1947. fishes of the great lakes region. cranbrook inst. of sci., bull. 26: xi + 1-186. ----, and bailey, r. m. 1952. identification of _oxygeneum pulverulentum_ forbes, from illinois, as a hybrid cyprinid fish. pap. michigan acad. sci., arts, and letters, 37 (1951): 143-152. jennings, d. 1942. kansas fish in the kansas state college museum at manhattan. trans. kansas acad. sci., 45: 363-366. kansas water resources fact-finding and research committee. 1955. water in kansas. a report to the kansas state legislature ... univ. of kansas. 1-216 pp. kincer, j. b. 1941. climate and weather data for the united states. _in_ climate and man, yearbook of agri. for 1941. house doc. 27. pp. 685-699. lagler, k. f. 1952. freshwater fishery biology. wm. c. brown co., dubuque, iowa. x + 360 pp. lugn, a. l. 1935. the pleistocene geology of nebraska. nebraska geol. survey, bull. 10, 2nd series: 1-223. marzolf, r. c. 1955. use of pectoral spines and vertebrae for determining age and rate of growth of the channel catfish. jour. wildl. mgmt., 19 (2): 243-249. meek, s. e. 1895. notes on the fishes of western iowa and eastern nebraska. bull. u. s. fish comm., 14 (1894): 133-138. metcalf, a. l. 1957. fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. univ. kansas publ., mus. nat. hist., 11:345-400. minckley, w. l., and cross, f. b. in press. habitat, distribution, and abundance of _notropis topeka_ (gilbert) in kansas. amer. midl. nat. monfort, e. 1956. a layman looks at water. trans. kansas acad. sci., 59 (1):118-123. moore, g. a. 1957. fishes. _in_ vertebrates of the united states, by w. blair, a. blair, p. brodkorb, f. cagle, and g. moore. mcgraw-hill book co., new york, n. y. pp. 31-210. moore, r. c., and landes, k. k. 1937. geologic map of kansas. scale 1:500,000. kansas geol. survey. nebraska state planning board. 1936. water resources of nebraska. mimeo. by nebraska state planning board. lincoln, xxviii + 695 pp. pfeiffer, r. a. 1955. studies on the life history of the rosyface shiner, _notropis rubellus_. copeia, 1955 (2):95-104. raney, e. c. 1947. subspecies and breeding behavior of the cyprinid fish _notropis procne_ (cope). copeia, 1947 (2):103-109. schoewe, w. h. 1953. the geography of kansas, part iii--concluded, hydrogeography. trans. kansas acad. sci., 56 (2):131-190. snedecor, g. w. 1956. statistical methods. iowa state college press, ames. xiii + 534 pp. starrett, w. c. 1950. distribution of the fishes of boone county, iowa, with special reference to the minnows and darters. amer. midl. nat., 43 (1): 112-127. trautman, m. b. 1957. the fishes of ohio. waverly press, inc., baltimore, md. xvii + 683 pp. u. s. fish and wildlife service. 1952. a one-year creel census and evaluation of the republican river, nebraska and kansas, 1951. mimeo. by the staff, missouri river basin studies, billings, mont. 29 pp., appendix. 1953. a preliminary report on fish and wildlife resources in relation to the water development plan for the tuttle creek dam and reservoir, big blue river, missouri river basin, kansas. mimeo. by the staff, missouri river basin studies, billings, mont. 25 pp. van orman, c. r. 1956. surface water--its control and retention for use. trans. kansas acad. sci., 59 (1):105-110. walters, k. l. 1954. geology and ground-water resources of marshall county, kansas. kansas geol. survey, bull. 106:1-116. _transmitted december 19, 1958._ [] 27-7080 university of kansas publications museum of natural history institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the exchange librarian, university of kansas library, lawrence, kansas. copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the museum of natural history, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. there is no provision for sale of this series by the university library which meets institutional requests, or by the museum of natural history which meets the requests of individuals. however, when individuals request copies from the museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * an asterisk designates those numbers of which the museum's supply (not the library's supply) is exhausted. numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: vol. 1. nos. 1-26 and index. pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *vol. 2. (complete) mammals of washington. by walter w. dalquest. pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. april 9, 1948. vol. 3. *1. the avifauna of micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. by rollin h. baker. pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. june 12, 1951. *2. a quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. by george h. lowery, jr. pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. june 29, 1951. 3. phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. by m. dale arvey. pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. october 10, 1951. 4. birds from the state of veracruz, mexico. by george h. lowery, jr., and walter w. dalquest. pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. october 10, 1951. index. pp. 651-681. *vol. 4. (complete) american weasels. by e. raymond hall. pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. december 27, 1951. vol. 5. nos. 1-37 and index. pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *vol. 6. (complete) mammals of utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. by stephen d. durrant. pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. august 10, 1952. vol. 7. *1. mammals of kansas. by e. lendell cockrum. pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. august 25, 1952. 2. ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch and lewis l. sandidge. pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. august 24, 1953. 3. the silky pocket mice (perognathus flavus) of mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. february 15, 1954. 4. north american jumping mice (genus zapus). by philip h. krutzsch. pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. april 21, 1954. 5. mammals from southeastern alaska. by rollin h. baker and james s. findley. pp. 473-477. april 21, 1954. 6. distribution of some nebraskan mammals. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 479-487. april 21, 1954. 7. subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse. microtus montanus, in wyoming and colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. july 23, 1954. 8. a new subspecies of bat (myotis velifer) from southeastern california and arizona. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 507-512. july 23, 1954. 9. mammals of the san gabriel mountains of california. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. november 15, 1954. 10. a new bat (genus pipistrellus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 583-586. november 15, 1954. 11. a new subspecies of pocket mouse from kansas. by e. raymond hall. pp. 587-590. november 15, 1954. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, cratogeomys castanops, in coahuila, mexico. by robert j. russell and rollin h. baker. pp. 591-608. march 15, 1955. 13. a new cottontail (sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 609-612. april 8, 1955. 14. taxonomy and distribution of some american shrews. by james s. findley, pp. 613-618. june 10, 1955. 15. the pigmy woodrat, neotoma goldmani, its distribution and systematic position. by dennis g. rainey and rollin h. baker. pp. 619-624, 2 figures in text. june 10, 1955. index. pp. 625-651. vol. 8. 1. life history and ecology of the five-lined skink, eumeces fasciatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 1-156, 26 figs. in text. september 1, 1954. 2. myology and serology of the avian family fringillidae, a taxonomic study. by william b. stallcup. pp. 157-211, 23 figures in text, 4 tables. november 15, 1954. 3. an ecological study of the collared lizard (crotaphytus collaris). by henry s. fitch. pp. 213-274, 10 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 4. a field study of the kansas ant-eating frog, gastrophryne olivacea. by henry s. fitch. pp. 275-306, 9 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 5. check-list of the birds of kansas. by harrison b. tordoff. pp. 307-359, 1 figure in text. march 10, 1956. 6. a population study of the prairie vole (microtus ochrogaster) in northeastern kansas. by edwin p. martin. pp. 361-416, 19 figures in text. april 2, 1956. 7. temperature responses in free-living amphibians and reptiles of northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch. pp. 417-476, 10 figures in text, 6 tables. june 1, 1956. 8. food of the crow, corvus brachyrhynchos brehm, in south-central kansas. by dwight platt. pp. 477-498, 4 tables. june 8, 1956. 9. ecological observations on the woodrat neotoma floridana. by henry s. fitch and dennis g. rainey. pp. 499-533, 3 figures in text. june 12, 1956. 10. eastern woodrat, neotoma floridana; life history and ecology. by dennis g. rainey. pp. 585-646, 12 plates, 13 figures in text. august 15, 1956. index. pp. 647-675. vol. 9. 1. speciation of the wandering shrew. by james s. findley. pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. december 10, 1955. 2. additional records and extensions of ranges of mammals from utah. by stephen d. durrant, m. raymond lee, and richard m. hansen. pp. 69-80. december 10, 1955. 3. a new long-eared myotis (myotis evotis) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker and howard j. stains. pp. 81-84. december 10, 1955. 4. subspeciation in the meadow mouse, microtus pennsylvanicus, in wyoming. by sydney anderson. pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. may 10, 1956. 5. the condylarth genus ellipsodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 6. additional remains of the multituberculate genus eucosmodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 7. mammals of coahuila, mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. june 15, 1956. 8. comments on the taxonomic status of apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from north china. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. august 15, 1956. 9. extensions of known ranges of mexican bats. by sydney anderson. pp. 347-351. august 15, 1956. 10. a new bat (genus leptonycteris) from coahuila. by howard j. stains. pp. 353-356. january 21, 1957. 11. a new species of pocket gopher (genus pappogeomys) from jalisco, mexico. by robert j. russell. pp. 357-361. january 21, 1957. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, thomomys bottae, in colorado. by phillip m. youngman. pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. february 21, 1958. 13. new bog lemming (genus synaptomys) from nebraska. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 385-388. may 12, 1958. 14. pleistocene bats from san josecito cave, nuevo leon, mexico. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 389-396. december 19, 1958. 15. new subspecies of the rodent baiomys from central america. by robert l. packard. pp. 397-404. december 19, 1958. more numbers will appear in volume 9. vol. 10. 1. studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. by harrison b. tordoff and robert m. mengel. pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. september 12, 1956. 2. comparative breeding behavior of ammospiza caudacuta and a. maritima. by glen e. woolfenden. pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. december 20, 1956. 3. the forest habitat of the university of kansas natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch and ronald r. mcgregor. pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. december 31, 1956. 4. aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (microtus ochrogaster). by henry s. fitch. pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. december 19, 1957. 5. birds found on the arctic slope of northern alaska. by james w. bee. pp. 163-211, pls. 9-10, 1 figure in text, march 12, 1958. 6. the wood rats of colorado: distribution and ecology. by robert b. finley, jr. pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. november 7, 1958. more numbers will appear in volume 10. vol. 11. 1. the systematic status of the colubrid snake, leptodeira discolor günther. by william e. duellman. pp. 1-9, 4 figs. july 14, 1958. 2. natural history of the six-lined racerunner, cnemidophorus sexlineatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 11-62, 9 figs., 9 tables. september 19, 1958. 3. home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch. pp. 63-326, 6 plates, 24 figures in text, 3 tables. december 12, 1958. 4. a new snake of the genus geophis from chihuahua, mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 327-334, january 28, 1959. 5. a new tortoise, genus gopherus, from north-central mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 335-343, april 24, 1959. 6. fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. by artie l. metcalf. pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figures in text, 10 tables. may 6, 1959. 7. fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas. by w. l. minckley. pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figures in text, 5 tables. may 8, 1959. more numbers will appear in volume 11. transcriber's notes except as noted below, the text presented herein is that contained in the original printed version. minor corrections (such as missing punctuation) may have been corrected. the original version had a list of publications printed inside the cover and inside and on the back cover. the cover page was not retained as it is a copy of the first page and the list inside the cover was moved past the end of the article. notations the greek letter sigma is represented as [sigma]. and [=x] indicates letter x with a line above it which is a standard notation for mean. typographical corrections page correction ==== ================================= 408 phenophthalein => phenolphthalein text emphasis _text_ : italics =text= : bold and italics ==================================================================== university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 11, no. 6, pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figs. in text, 10 tables --------------------- may 6, 1959 ------------------------ fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas by artie l. metcalf university of kansas lawrence 1959 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, henry s. fitch, robert w. wilson volume 11, no. 6, pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figs. in text, 10 tables published may 6, 1959 university of kansas lawrence, kansas a contribution from the state biological survey of kansas printed in the state printing plant topeka, kansas 1959 27-7079 fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas by artie l. metcalf contents page introduction 347 physical characteristics of the streams 351 climate 351 present flora 353 history 354 conservation 357 previous ichthyological collections 357 acknowledgments 358 materials and methods 358 collecting stations 359 annotated list of species 362 fishes of doubtful or possible occurrence 383 faunal comparisons of different streams 384 distributional variations within the same stream 387 faunas of intermittent streams 390 east-west distribution 392 summary 394 literature cited 397 introduction aims of the distributional study here reported on concerning the fishes of a part of the arkansas river basin of south-central kansas were as follows: (1) ascertain what species occur in streams of the three counties. (2) ascertain habitat preferences for the species found. (3) distinguish faunal associations existing in different parts of the same stream. (4) describe differences and similarities among the fish faunas of the several streams in the area. (5) relate the findings to the over-all picture of east-west distribution of fishes in kansas. (6) list any demonstrable effects of intermittency of streams on fish distribution within the area. cowley and chautauqua counties form part of the southern border of kansas, and elk county lies directly north of chautauqua. the following report concerns data only from those three counties unless otherwise noted. they make up an area of 2,430 square miles having a population of 50,960 persons in 1950 (55,552 in 1940, and 60,375 in 1930). the most populous portion of the area is western cowley county where arkansas city with 12,903 inhabitants and winfield with 10,264 inhabitants are located. each of the other towns has less than 2,000 inhabitants. in the flint hills, which cross the central portion of the area surveyed, population is sparse and chiefly in the valleys. topographically, the area is divisible into three general sections: the extensive wellington formation and the floodplain of the arkansas river in western cowley county; the flint hills in the central part of the area; and the "chautauqua hills" in the eastern part. the drainage pattern is shown in figure 1. the wellington formation, which is devoid of sharp relief, borders the floodplain of the arkansas river through most of its course in cowley county. a short distance south of arkansas city, however, the arkansas is joined by the walnut river and enters a narrow valley walled by steep, wooded slopes. frye and leonard (1952:198) suggest that this valley was originally carved by the walnut river, when the arkansas river flowed southward west of its present course. they further suggest that during nebraskan glacial time the arkansas probably was diverted to the rapidly downcutting walnut. the arkansas river has a gradient of 3.0 ft. per mile in cowley county. this gradient and others cited were computed, by use of a cartometer, from maps made by the state geological survey of kansas and the united states geological survey. northward along the walnut, steep bluffs and eroded gulleys characterize both sides of the river, especially in southern cowley county. two massive limestones, the fort riley and the winfield, form the bluffs in most places. the well-defined winfield limestone is persistent on the west bank of the river across the entire county. the walnut has only a few small tributaries in the southern half of cowley county (fig. 1). in the northern half, however, it is joined from the east by timber creek and rock creek. timber creek drains a large level area, formed by the eroded upper portion of the fort riley limestone, in the north-central portion of the county. the gradient of timber creek is 12.9 feet per mile. the gradient of the walnut river is only 2.3 ft. per mile from its point of entrance into the county to its mouth. [illustration: fig. 1. map of cowley, chautauqua and elk counties, kansas, showing the streams mentioned in the text.] grouse creek, like the walnut, has formed a valley of one to three miles in width, rimmed by prominent wooded bluffs. those on the west side are capped by the fort riley limestone with the resistant wreford and crouse limestones forming lower escarpments. on the east side the wreford and crouse limestones provide the only escarpments along the stream above the vinton community, except for occasional lower outcrops of morrill limestone. below vinton the fort riley limestone again appears, capping the hills above the wreford limestone. the headwaters of the western tributaries of grouse creek are generally in the doyle shale formation; the eastern tributaries are in the wreford limestone, matfield shale, and barnestone limestone formations. the gradient of grouse creek is 9 ft. per mile, of silver creek 14.6 ft. per mile, and of crab creek 14.4 ft. per mile. the big caney river (fig. 1), having a gradient of 15.4 ft. per mile in the area studied, drains an area with considerable geological and topographic variation. the main stream and its western tributaries originate in permian formations, whereas the eastern tributaries originate in pennsylvanian formations. cedar creek is exemplary of western tributaries of big caney. this creek arises in the wreford limestone, as do several nearby tributaries of grouse creek. although the grouse tributaries descend through only part of the council grove group, cedar creek flows downward through the entire grove, admire, and wabaunsee groups and part of the shawnee group (moore, 1951). in only 15 miles, cedar creek traverses formations comprising more than 60 per cent of the entire exposed stratigraphic section in cowley county. bass (1929:16) states that reliefs of 350 feet within a mile are present in parts of this area. large terraces of limestone characterize the eastern flank of the flint hills, which the western tributaries of big caney drain. most striking is the foraker limestone. it characteristically consists of three massive members in cowley county, the uppermost of which forms the prominent first crest of the flint hills. as the rapid-flowing western tributaries of big caney descend over these successive limestone members, large quantities of chert and limestone rubble are transported and deposited in stream beds of the system. in many places the streams of the big caney system flow over resistant limestone members, which form a bedrock bottom. the eastern tributaries of big caney drain, for the most part, formations of the wabaunsee group of the pennsylvanian. most of these streams have lower gradients than those entering big caney from the west. the tributaries of big caney, along with length in miles and gradient in feet per mile, are as follows: spring creek, 7.1, 54.5; union creek, 6.3, 42.9; otter creek, 14.6, 27.4; cedar creek, 11.6, 31.0; rock creek, 15.9, 26.5; wolf creek, 9.3, 17.2; turkey creek, 8.5, 26.4; grant creek, 13.9, 23.4; and sycamore creek, 8.9, 27.0. spring creek and union creek are short and have formed no extensive floodplain. the high gradients of these creeks are characteristic also of the upper portions of several other tributaries such as cedar creek and otter creek. middle caney creek (fig. 1) has its source in the wabaunsee and shawnee groups of the pennsylvanian but its watershed is dominated by the "chautauqua hills" of the douglas group. this area is described by moore (1949:127) as "an upland formed by hard sandstone layers." the rough rounded hills supporting thick growths of oaks differ in appearance from both the big caney watershed on the west and the verdigris river watershed on the east. the gradient of middle caney in chautauqua county is 10.8 feet per mile. its largest tributary, north caney creek, has a gradient of 15.5 feet per mile. the elk river basin resembles the big caney river basin topographically. elk river has a gradient of 14.4 feet per mile. physical characteristics of streams the stream channels derive their physical characteristics from the geological make-up of the area and from land-use. the arkansas river typically has low banks; however, in a few places, as in the ne 1/4 of section 21, t. 33 s, r. 3 e, it cuts into limestone members to form steep rocky banks. the bottom is predominantly sand. in years of heavy rainfall the river is turbid, but during 1956, when it occupied only a small portion of its channel, it was clear each time observed. all streams surveyed were clear except after short periods of flooding in june, and except in some isolated pools where cattle had access to the water. in the walnut river, sand bottoms occur in the lower part of the stream but the sand is coarser than that of the arkansas river. upstream, gravel and rubble bottoms become more common. steep rocky banks border most of the course of the walnut. during 1956, stream-flow was confined to the center of the channel, remote from these rocky banks. the rubble and bedrock bottoms found in most streams of the flint hills have been described. in the alluvial valleys of their lower courses mud bottoms are found. gravel is present in some places but sand is absent. banks are variable but often steep and wooded. along eastor west-flowing streams the north bank characteristically is low and sloping whereas the south bank is high, rises abruptly, and in many places is continuous with wooded hills. the lower sections of otter creek, cedar creek, and rock creek fit this description (bass, 1929:19) especially well, as does elk river near howard. streams in the chautauqua hills resemble those of the flint hills in physical characteristics, except that a larger admixture of sandstone occurs in the rubble. climate the climate of the area is characterized by those fluctuations of temperature, wind, and rainfall typical of the great plains. the mean annual temperature is 58 degrees; the mean july temperature is 81 degrees; the mean january temperature is approximately 34 degrees. the mean annual precipitation is 32.9 in cowley county, 38.5 in chautauqua county, and 35.1 in elk county. wind movement is great; flora (1948:6) states that south-central kansas ranks close to some of the windiest inland areas in the united states. the area has been periodically subjected to droughts and floods. such phenomena are of special interest to ichthyological workers in the area. at the time of this study drought conditions, which began in 1952, prevailed. even in this period of drought, however, flooding occurred on grouse creek and water was high in big caney river after heavy local rains on the headwaters of these streams on june 22, 1956. some of the lower tributaries of these same streams (such as crab creek and cedar creek) did not flow while the mainstreams were flooding. this illustrates the local nature of many of the summer rains in the area. table 1 indicates maximum, minimum, and average discharges in cubic feet per second at several stations in the area and on nearby streams. these figures were provided by the u. s. geological survey. table 1.--cubic feet per second of water discharged at gauging stations in chautauqua, elk, montgomery, and cowley counties for years prior to 1951. ======================================================================= gauging |drainage |avg |maximum| |minimum| station |area |dis |dis | |dis | |(sq. mi.)|charge|charge | date |charge | date ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|---------- arkansas river | 43,713 |1,630 |103,000| june 10, | 1 |october 9, at arkansas | | | | 1923 | | 1921 city | | | | | | ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|--------- walnut river | 1,840 | 738 |105,000| april 23,| 0 |1928, 1936 at winfield | | | | 1944 | | ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|--------- big caney river| 445 | 264 | 35,500| april 10,| 0 |1939, 1940, at elgin | | | | 1944 | |1946, 1947 ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|--------- elk river near | 575 | 393 | 39,200| april 16,| 0 |1939, 1940, elk city | | | | 1945 | |1946 ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|--------- fall river near| 591 | 359 | 45,600| april 16,| 0 |1939, 1940, fall river | | | | 1945 | |1946 ---------------|---------|------|-------|----------|-------|--------- verdigris river| 2,892 |1,649 |117,000| april 17,| 0 |1932, 1934, at independence| | | | 1945 | |1936, 1939, | | | | | |1940 ----------------------------------------------------------------------something of the effect that drought and flash-flood have had on big caney river is shown by the monthly means of daily discharge from october, 1954, to september, 1956, at the stream-gauging station near elgin, kansas (table 2). within these monthly variations there are also pronounced daily fluctuations; on big caney river approximately 1/4 mile south of elgin, kansas, discharge in cubic feet per second for may, 1944, ranged from .7 to 9,270.0 and for may, 1956, from .03 to 20.0. table 2.--monthly means of daily discharge in cubic feet per second for big caney river at elgin, kansas _month_ _1954-55_ _1955-56_ october 103.00 69.60 november .31 .78 december .18 1.92 january .78 1.65 february 4.76 2.08 march 3.37 1.27 april 4.91 .47 may 624.00 7.37 june 51.30 35.20 july 1.20 1.85 august 0.00 0.00 september .04 0.00 present flora the flora of the region varies greatly at the present time. land-use has altered the original floral communities, especially in the intensively cultivated area of western cowley county and in the river valleys. the sandy arkansas river floodplain exhibits several stages ranging from sparsely vegetated sandy mounds near the river through stages of johnson grass, willow, and cottonwood, to an elm-hackberry fringe-forest. the wellington formation bordering the floodplain supports a prairie flora where not disturbed by cultivation; gates (1936:15) designates this as a part of the mixed bluestem and short-grass region. _andropogon gerardi_ vitman., _andropogon scoparius_ michx., _sorghastrum nutans_ (l.), and _panicum virgatum_ l. are important grasses in the hilly pasture-lands. although much of this land is virgin prairie, the tall, lush condition of the grasses described by early writers such as mooso (1888:304), and by local residents, is not seen today. these residents speak of slough grasses (probably _tripsacum dactyloides_ l. and _spartina pectinata_ link.) that originally formed rank growths. these no doubt helped conserve water and stabilize flow in small headwater creeks. remnants of some of these sloughs can still be found. the streams in the flint hills have fringe-forests of elm, hackberry, walnut, ash, and willow. eastward from the flint hills these fringe-forests become thicker with a greater admixture of hickories and oaks. the north slopes of hills also become more wooded. however, grassland remains predominant over woodland in western chautauqua and elk counties, whereas in the eastern one-half of chautauqua county and the eastern one-third of elk county the wooded chautauqua hills prevail. this is one of the most extensive wooded upland areas in kansas. hale (1955:167) describes this woodland as part of an ecotonal scrub-oak forest bordering the great plains south through texas. he found stand dominants in these wooded areas to be _quercus marilandica_ muenchh., _quercus stellata_ wang., and _quercus velutina_ lam. few true aquatic plants were observed in the arkansas river although mats of duckweed were found in shallow backwater pools at station a-3 (fig. 2) on december 22, 1956. in the walnut river _najas guadalupensis_ spreng. was common at station w-2. stones were usually covered with algae in both the arkansas and walnut rivers. a red bloom, possibly attributable to _euglena rubra_ (johnson), was observed on a tributary of the walnut river on july 9, 1956, at station w-4. green algae were abundant at all stations in the caney, elk, and grouse systems during may and june, 1956, and reappeared late in september. _chara_ sp. was common in these streams in april and may. the most characteristic rooted aquatic of streams in the flint hills was _justicia americana_ l. at station g-7 on grouse creek and station c-8 on big caney river (fig. 3), _nelumbo lutea_ (willd.) was found. _myriophyllum heterophyllum_ michx. formed dense floating mats at a number of stations. other aquatic plants observed in the caney, elk, and grouse systems included _potamogeton gramineus_ l., _potamogeton nodosus_ poir., _potamogeton foliosus_ raf., _sagittaria latifolia_ willd., _typha latifolia_ l., and _jussiaea diffusa_ forsk. history in 1857, a survey was made of the southern boundary of kansas. several diaries (miller, 1932; caldwell, 1937; bieber, 1932) were kept by members of the surveying party, which traveled from east to west. these accounts contain complaints of difficulty in traversing a country of broken ridges and gulleys as the party approached the area now comprising chautauqua county. one account by hugh campbell, astronomical computer for the party (caldwell, 1937) mentions rocky ridges covered with dense growth of "black jack," while another by col. joseph johnson, commander (miller, 1932) speaks of "a good deal of oakes in the heights"--indicating that the upland oak forest of the chautauqua hills was in existence at that time. on reaching big caney river near elgin, campbell wrote of a stream with very high banks and of a valley timbered with oak and black walnut. while the party was encamped on big caney river some fishing was done. campbell (caldwell, 1937:353) described the fish taken as "cat, trout or bass, buffalo and garr." eugene bandel (bieber, 1932:152) wrote, "this forenoon we did not expect to leave camp, and therefore we went fishing. in about two hours we caught more fish than the whole company could eat. there were some forty fish caught, some of them weighing over ten pounds." it was noted that the waters of big caney and its tributaries were "very clear." progressing up rock creek, johnson wrote of entering a high rolling plain covered with fine grass, and crossed occasionally by clear wooded streams (probably big and little beaver creeks and grouse creek). the diary of hugh campbell (caldwell, 1937:354) contains a description of the arkansas river valley near the oklahoma border. "the arkansas river at this point is about 300 yards wide, its waters are muddy, not quite so much so, as those of the mississippi or rio bravo. its valley is wooded and about two miles in width, the main bottom here, being on the east side. on the west it is a rolling prairie as far as the eye can see, affording excellent grass." some seining was done while encamped on the arkansas river and "buffalo, catfish, sturgeons, and gars" were taken (bieber, 1932:156). an editorial in the winfield courier of november 16, 1899, vigorously registers concern about a direct effect of settlement on fish populations in rivers of the area: "the fish in the streams of cowley county are being slaughtered by the thousands, by the unlawful use of the seine and the deadly hoop net. fish are sold on the market every day, sometimes a tubful at a time, which never swallowed a hook. "the fish law says it is unlawful to seine, snare, or trap fish but some of the smaller streams in the county, it is said are so full of hoop and trammel nets that a minnow cannot get up or down stream. these nets not only destroy what fish there are in the streams but they keep other fish from coming in, they are not operated as a rule by farmers to supply their own tables but by fellows who catch the fish to sell with no thought or care for the welfare of others who like to catch and eat fish. "if there is a fishwarden in cowley county so far as his utility goes the county would be as well off without him and his inactivity has caused many of those interested to get together for the purpose of seeing that the law is enforced. "depredations like this work injury in more ways than one. they not only deplete the streams of fish large enough to eat and destroy the source of supply but if the u. s. fish commission discovers that the law is not enforced and the fish not protected, there will be no free government fish placed in cowley county streams. it is useless for the government to spend thousands of dollars to keep the streams well supplied if a few outlaws are allowed to ruthlessly destroy them. the new organization has its eye on certain parties now and something is liable to drop unexpectedly soon." graham (1885:78) listed 13 species of fish that had already been introduced into kansas waters prior to 1885 by the state fish commission. these early references indicate that direct effects of settlement on the native flora and fauna were recognized early. concern such as that expressed in the editorial above persists today; however, it is not clear whether the fish fauna of the streams of the area has been essentially changed by man's predation. the indirect effects through human modifications of the environment seem to be of much importance. three modifications which have especially affected streams have been agricultural use, urbanization, and industrialization. the effect of land-use on streams is closely related to its effect on the flora of the watershed. turbidity, sedimentation, and the rate, periodicity, and manner of flow all bear some relationship to the land-use of the watershed. stream-flow in the area has been discussed in the section on climate. the effects of urbanization are more tangible and better recognized than those of agricultural land-use. streams that flow through cities and other populous areas undergo some modification, especially of the streamside flora. another effect of urbanization has been increased loads of sewage discharged into the streams. the combined populations of arkansas city and winfield rose from 3,986 in 1880 to 23,167 in 1950. arkansas city found it necessary to construct a sewage system in 1889; winfield in 1907. there are, at the present time, nine towns within the area that have municipal sewage systems. the state training home at winfield also has a sewage system. the kansas state board of health, division of sanitation, has provided information concerning adequacy of these systems and certain others in nearby counties as of february 5, 1957. this information is shown in table 3. representatives of the division of sanitation, kansas state board of health, expressed the belief that pollution by both domestic sewage and industrial wastes would be largely eliminated in the "lower arkansas" and in the walnut watershed by 1959. important oil and gas resources have been discovered in each of the three counties. the first producing wells were drilled between 1900 and 1902 (jewett and abernathy, 1945:24). the arkansas river flows through several oilfields in its course across cowley county (jewett and abernathy, 1945:97). a number of producing wells have been drilled in the grouse creek watershed since 1939 and many of these wells are near the banks of the creek. in the big caney watershed of cowley and chautauqua counties there has been little oil production in recent years; however, a few small pools are presently producing in southwestern elk county. clapp (1920:33) stated that "many of the finest streams of our state are now destitute of fish on account of oil and salt pollution. the walnut river, once as fine a bass stream as could be found anywhere, and a beautiful stream, too, is now a murky oil run, and does not contain a single fish so far as i know. the fall and verdigris rivers are practically ruined. both the caney rivers are affected, and may soon be ruined for fishing." doze (1924:31) noted "some of the finest streams in the state have been ruined as habitat for wild life, the walnut river is probably the most flagrant example." table 3.--sewage disposal facilities in some south-central kansas communities. ======================================================================= community | status on february 5, | remarks | 1957 | -----------------------+------------------------+--------------------- cowley county: | | arkansas city | discharging raw sewage | adequate plant in | | design stage. geuda springs | discharging raw sewage | winfield | inadequate | state training school| adequate | udall | adequate | -----------------------+------------------------+--------------------- chautauqua county: | | cedar vale | inadequate | sedan | adequate | in operation 30 | | days. elgin | adequate | -----------------------+------------------------+--------------------- elk county: | | moline | inadequate | howard | adequate | -----------------------+------------------------+--------------------- sumner county: | | belle plaine | discharging raw sewage | adequate plant under | | construction. mulvane | discharging raw sewage | adequate plant under | | construction. oxford | discharging raw sewage | construction on | | adequate plant to | | start soon. -----------------------+------------------------+--------------------- butler county: | | augusta | adequate | el dorado | discharging raw sewage | adequate plant under | | construction. douglass | discharging raw sewage | adequate plant to | | go into operation | | within 30 days. ----------------------------------------------------------------------pollution by petroleum wastes from refineries has also affected the streams studied. the only refinery within the area is at arkansas city. in butler county there are four refineries on the walnut watershed upstream from the area surveyed. metzler (1952) noted that "fish-kills" occurred from the mid-1940's until 1952 in connection with wastes periodically discharged from these refineries. however, the largest kill, in 1944, was attributed to excessive brine pollution. in arkansas city a meat-packing plant, a large railroad workshop, two flour mills, two milk plants, and several small manufacturing plants contribute wastes which may figure in industrial pollution. there are milk plants and small poultry processing plants at winfield. in chautauqua and elk counties there is little industrial activity. conservation in recent years several measures have been implemented or proposed to conserve the water and land resources of the arkansas river basin. droughts and floods have focused public attention on such conservation. less spectacular, but nevertheless important, problems confronting conservationists include streambank erosion, channel deterioration, silting, recreational demands for water, and irrigation needs. congress has authorized the u. s. corps of engineers (by the flood control act of 1941) to construct six dam and reservoir projects in the verdigris watershed. two of these--hulah reservoir in osage county, oklahoma, on big caney river, and fall river reservoir in greenwood county, kansas--have been completed. other reservoirs authorized in the verdigris watershed include toronto, neodesha, and elk city (table mound) in kansas and oologah in oklahoma. construction is underway on the toronto reservoir and some planning has been accomplished on the neodesha and elk city projects. the possibilities of irrigation projects in the verdigris and walnut river basins are under investigation by the united states bureau of reclamation (foley, _et al._, 1955:f18). an area of 11 square miles in chautauqua and montgomery counties is included in the aiken creek "pilot watershed project," a co-operative effort by federal, state, and local agencies to obtain information as to the effects of an integrated watershed protection program (foley, _et al._, 1955:131). previous ichthyological collections few accounts of fishes in the area here reported on have been published. evermann and fordice (1886:184) made a collection from timber creek at winfield in 1884. the state biological survey collected actively from 1910 to 1912, but localities visited in the arkansas river system were limited to the neosho and verdigris river basins (breukelman, 1940:377). the only collection made in the area considered here was on the elk river in elk county on july 11, 1912. the total species list of this collection is not known. in the years 1924-1929 minna e. jewell collected at various places in central kansas. on june 30, 1925, jewell and frank jobes made collections on timber creek and silver creek in cowley county. hoyle (1936:285) mentions collections made by himself and dr. charles e. burt, who was then professor of biology at southwestern college, winfield, kansas. records in the department of biology, kansas state teachers college at emporia, indicate that dr. burt and others made collections in the area which have not been published on. table 4.--collections made by dr. frank b. cross of the state biological survey in 1955. ==================================================================== collection number | date | river | location ------------------+---------------+-----------+-------------------- c-131 | april 5, 1955 | elk | sec. 3, t31s, r11e ------------------+---------------+-----------+-------------------- c-132 | april 5, 1955 | sycamore | sec. 5, t34s, r10e ------------------+---------------+-----------+-------------------- c-133 | april 5, 1955 | big caney | sec. 12, t34s, r8e ------------------+---------------+-----------+-------------------- c-136 | april 6, 1955 | walnut | sec. 29 or 32, t32s, | | | r4e -------------------------------------------------------------------claire schelske (1957) studied fishes of the fall and verdigris rivers in wilson and montgomery counties from march, 1954, to february, 1955. in the annotated list of species that follows, records other than mine are designated by the following symbols: e&f--evermann and fordice sbs--state biological survey (1910-1912) j&j--jewell and jobes (collection on silver creek) c--collection number--cross (state biological survey, 1955) ummz--university of michigan museum of zoology oam--oklahoma a&m college museum of zoology acknowledgments i am grateful to professor frank b. cross for his interest in my investigation, for his counsel, and for his penetrating criticism of this paper. this study would have been impossible without the assistance of several persons who helped in the field. mr. artie c. metcalf and mr. delbert metcalf deserve special thanks for their enthusiastic and untiring co-operation in collecting and preserving of specimens. mrs. artie c. metcalf, miss patricia metcalf, mr. chester metcalf, and mr. forrest w. metcalf gave help which is much appreciated. i am indebted to the following persons for numerous valuable suggestions: dr. john breukelman, kansas state teachers college, emporia, kansas; dr. george moore, oklahoma a&m college, and mr. w. l. minckley, lawrence, kansas. materials and methods collections were made by means of: (1) a four-foot net of nylon screen; (2) a 10ã�4-foot "common-sense" woven seine with 1/4-inch mesh; (3) a 15ã�4-foot knotted mesh seine; (4) a 20ã�5-foot 1/4-inch mesh seine; (5) pole and line (natural and artificial baits). at most stations the four-foot, ten-foot, and twenty-foot seines were used; however, the equipment that was used varied according to the size of pool, number of obstructions, nature of bottom, amount of flow, and type of streambank. usually several hours were spent at each station and several stations were revisited from time to time. percentages noted in the list of species represent the relative number taken in the first five seine-hauls at each station. collecting stations collecting was done at stations listed below and shown in fig. 2. each station was assigned a letter, designating the stream system on which the station was located, and a number which indicates the position of the station on the stream. this number increases progressively upstream from mouth to source. code letters used are as follows: a--arkansas river; w--walnut river system; b--beaver creek system; c--big caney river system; g--grouse creek system; m--middle caney creek system; e--elk river system. all dates are in the year 1956. [illustration: fig. 2. map of cowley, chautauqua and elk counties, kansas, showing stations at which collecting was done.] a-1. arkansas river. sec. 2 and 3, t. 35 s, r. 4 e. june 14 and august 20. braided channel with sand bottom. water slightly turbid, with layer of oil sludge on bottom. a-2. arkansas river. sec. 22, t. 34 s, r. 3 e. august 25. flowing through diverse channels. average depth 12 inches. bottom sand. (plate 9, fig. 1.) a-3. arkansas river. sec. 21, t. 33 s, r. 3 e. august 27 and december 22. flowing over fine sand. average depth 11 inches. some areas of backwater with oil sludge on bottom. w-1. walnut river. sec. 20, t. 34 s, r. 4 e. july 7. flowing rapidly, with large volume, because of recent rains. average width 300 feet. bottom gravel. water turbid. w-2. walnut river. sec. 11, t. 34 s, r. 4 e. july 20. rubble riffles and large shallow pools with gravel bottoms. average width, 100 feet. water clear. w-3. walnut river. sec. 29, t. 32 s, r. 4 e. july 17. pools and riffles below tunnel mill dam at winfield. water clear. w-4. badger creek. sec. 6, t. 33 s, r. 5 e. july 17. small pools. average width 7 feet, average length 40 feet, average depth 8 inches. water turbid and malodorous. bottoms and banks mud. much detritus present. w-5. timber creek. sec. 35, t. 31 s, r. 4 e. june 6. intermittent pools, widely separated. average width 9 feet, average depth 8 inches. bottom mud and gravel. b-1. big beaver creek. sec. 8, t. 35 s, r. 7 e. may 28. isolated pools. average width 10 feet, average depth one foot. water turbid. bottom rubble. b-2. little beaver creek. sec. 18, t. 35 s, r. 6 e. july 21. intermittent pools. average width 10 feet, average length 35 feet, average depth 10 inches. bottoms rubble, mud, and bedrock. b-3. big beaver creek. sec. 28, t. 34 s, r. 7 e. july 22. series of small turbid pools. g-1. grouse creek. sec. 5, t. 35 s, r. 5 e. may 30, september 5, and september 24. intermittent pools in close succession. average width 22 feet, average depth 16 inches. water turbid on may 30 but clear in september. bottom rubble. steep banks. little shade for pools. g-2. grouse creek. sec. 23, t. 34 s, r. 5 e. august 29. series of shallow intermittent pools. average width 42 feet, average length 120 feet, average depth 15 inches. bottom bedrock and mud. (plate 9, fig. 2.) g-3. grouse creek. sec. 6, t. 34 s, r. 6 e. july 12. intermittent pools. average width 20 feet, average length 65 feet, average depth 14 inches. bottom bedrock and gravel. _justicia americana_ l. abundant. g-4. grouse creek. sec. 12, t. 33 s, r. 6 e. june 1 and september 7. intermittent pools. average width 15 feet, average length 100 feet, average depth 18 inches. water turbid in june, clear in september. _najas guadalupensis_ spreng., and _myriophyllum heterophyllum_ michx. common. g-5. grouse creek. sec. 19, t. 32 s, r. 7 e. july 2. succession of riffles and pools. water clear. volume of flow approximately one cubic foot per second, but creek bankful after heavy rains on june 22. average width 20 feet, average depth 18 inches. g-6. grouse creek. sec. 32, t. 31 s, r. 7 e. july 8. small intermittent pools to which cattle had access. water turbid, bottom mud and rubble. average width 10 feet, average depth 8 inches. stream-bed covered with tangled growths of _sorghum halepense_ (l.). g-7. grouse creek. sec. 34, t. 30 s, r. 7 e. july 8. stream flowing slightly. water clear. average width of pools 30 feet; average depth 20 inches. bottom bedrock and gravel. _myriophyllum heterophyllum_ michx., _nelumbo lutea_ (willd.), and _justicia americana_ l. common in shallow water. g-8. silver creek. sec. 1, t. 33 s, r. 5 e. july 17. intermittent pools. average width 30 feet, average length 120 feet, average depth 12 inches. water clear. g-9. silver creek. sec. 4, t. 32 s, r. 6 e. july 17. small upland brook with volume less than one-half cfs. average width 12 feet, average depth 10 inches. water clear, bottom mostly rubble. g-10. crab creek. sec. 33, t. 33 s, r. 6 e. june 24. intermittent pools, showing evidence of having flowed after rains on june 22. average width 15 feet, average depth 16 inches. g-11. crab creek. sec. 35, t. 33 s, r. 6 e. july 16. small intermittent pools. average width 13 feet, average length 55 feet, average depth 11 inches. water clear. bottom rubble and mud. g-12. crab creek. sec. 28, t. 33 s, r. 7 e. june 2 and july 20. isolated pools. average width 18 feet, average depth one foot. water turbid. bottom bedrock and rubble. _myriophyllum heterophyllum_ and _justicia americana_ abundant. g-13. crab creek. sec. 21, t. 33 s, r. 7 e. july 29. isolated pools 300 feet by 24 feet. average depth 12 inches. water turbid. g-14. unnamed creek (hereafter called grand summit creek). sec. 26, t. 31 s, r. 7 e. august 30. intermittent pools. average width 15 feet, average length 45 feet, average depth 11 inches. water clear. bottom rubble. [illustration: plate 9 1. station a-2. arkansas river. (cowley county, section 22, t. 34 s, r. 3 e.) 2. station g-2. grouse creek. (cowley county, section 23, t. 34 s, r. 5 e.)] [illustration: plate 10 1. station c-12. cedar creek. (cowley county, section 17, t. 34 s, r. 8 e.) 2. station c-16. spring creek. (elk county, section 26, t. 31 s, r. 8 e.) volume of flow of this small creek is indicated by riffle in foreground.] g-15. unnamed creek (same as above). sec. 17, t. 31 s, r. 8 e. july 27. small upland creek bordered by bluestem pastures. pools with average width of 10 feet, average length 30 feet, average depth 9 inches. water slightly turbid. bottom rubble and mud. g-16. crab creek. sec. 22, t. 33 s, r. 7 e. july 25. small isolated pools. average width 17 feet, average length 58 feet, average depth 9 inches. water turbid. g-17. crab creek. sec. 23, t. 33 s, r. 7 e. july 25. upland brook bordered by bluestem pastures. unshaded intermittent pools. average width 7 feet, average length 40 feet, average depth 9 inches. water turbid. c-1. big caney river. sec. 16, t. 33 s, r. 10 e. july 19. intermittent pools. average width 47 feet, average length 90 feet, average depth 13 inches. bottom rubble and bedrock. water clear to slightly turbid. c-2. big caney river. sec. 1, t. 35 s, r. 9 e. september 5. series of intermittent pools. bottom rubble and large stones. c-3. big caney river. sec. 29, t. 34 s, r. 9 e. june 17. large shallow pool below ledge 3 feet high forming "osro falls." bottom bedrock. c-4. big caney river. sec. 32, t. 34 s, r. 9 e. june 3. three large pools (50 feet by 300 feet) with connecting riffles. water turbid. bottom bedrock and rubble. c-5. big caney river. sec. 11 and 12, t. 34 s, r. 8 e. may 27, may 29, june 11, june 18, june 19, and june 27. from a low-water dam, 6 feet high, downstream for 1/4 mile. pools alternating with rubble and bedrock riffles. collecting was done at different times of day and night, and when stream was flowing and intermittent. c-6. big caney river. sec. 26, t. 33 s, r. 8 e. june 16. intermittent pools with bedrock bottom. water slightly turbid. average width 16 feet, average depth 10 inches. c-7. otter creek. sec. 26, t. 33 s, r. 8 e. june 16. pools and riffles. water clear. algae abundant. average width 10 feet, average depth 10 inches. c-8. big caney river. sec. 1, t. 33 s, r. 8 e. june 10. intermittent pools. average width 10 feet, average depth 14 inches. water clear. bottom rubble and gravel. aquatic plants included _chara_ sp., _sagittaria latifolia_ willd., _jussiaea diffusa_ forsk., and _nelumbo lutea_ (willd.). c-9. big caney river. sec. 6 and 7, t. 32 s, r. 9 e. june 27. clear, flowing stream, 20 feet wide, volume estimated at 5 cfs. bottom gravel and rubble. extensive gravel riffles. c-10. big caney river. sec. 29 and 32, t. 31 s, r. 9 e. june 27. water clear and flowing rapidly, volume estimated at 5-6 cfs. bottom rubble with a few muddy backwater areas. c-11. big caney river. sec. 7, t. 31 s, r. 9 e. july 26. flowing, with less than 1 cfs. average width 20 feet, average depth 22 inches. water extremely clear. bottom gravel and rubble. _myriophyllum heterophyllum_, _potamogeton foliosus_, and _justicia americana_ common. c-12. cedar creek. sec. 17, t. 34 s, r. 8 e. march 10, april 2, june 1, june 6, and august 24. pools and riffles along 1/4 mile of stream were seined in the early collections. in august only small isolated pools remained. bottom bedrock and rubble. much detritus along streambanks. (plate 10, fig. 1.) c-13. otter creek. sec. 16, t. 33 s, r. 8 e. june 15. flowing, less than 1 cfs. pools interspersed with rubble riffles. water clear. c-14. otter creek. sec. 30, t. 32 s, r. 8 e. may 31, and september 3. series of small pools. average width 10 feet, average depth 15 inches. shallow rubble riffles. water extremely clear. temperature 68â° at 6:30 p.m. on may 31; 78â° at 2:00 p.m. on september 3. c-15. spring creek. sec. 35, t. 31 s, r. 8 e. june 28. small, clear, upland brook with rubble bottom. pools 10 feet in average width and 11 inches in average depth. numerous shallow rubble riffles. c-16. spring creek. sec. 26, t. 31 s, r. 8 e. july 9. small intermittent pools. average width 10 feet; average depth 8 inches. bottom gravel. (plate 10, fig. 2.) c-17. west fork big caney river. sec. 36, t. 30 s, r. 8 e. july 27. small pool below low-water dam. pool 20 feet by 30 feet with average depth of 20 inches. c-18. east fork big caney river. sec. 31, t. 30 s, r. 9 e. july 27. isolated pool 25 feet by 25 feet with an average depth of 15 inches. m-1. middle caney creek. sec. 23, t. 33 s, r. 10 e. july 4. intermittent pools. average width 45 feet, average depth 15 inches. water stained brown. oil fields nearby but no sludge or surface film of oil noted. bottom rubble and bedrock. m-2. pool creek. sec. 25, t. 33 s, r. 10 e. may 26. pool 120 feet by 40 feet below limestone ledge approximately 12 feet high forming butcher's falls. other smaller pools sampled. water clear. bottom bedrock and rubble. e-1. elk river. sec. 12, t. 31 s, r. 11 e. july 9. four intermittent pools seined. average width 32 feet, average depth 13 inches. bottom bedrock, rubble, and mud. water turbid. e-2. elk river. sec. 3, t. 31 s, r. 11 e. june 28. intermittent pools below and above sandstone ledge approximately 6 feet high forming "falls" at elk falls. average width 33 feet, average depth 15 inches. bottom bedrock, rubble and mud. water slightly turbid. e-3. elk river. sec. 21, t. 30 s, r. 11 e. june 28. two small pools, 10 feet by 30 feet with average depth of 6 inches. bottom bedrock. e-4. elk river. sec. 12, t. 30 s, r. 10 e. june 28. one long pool 500 feet by 50 feet with a variety of depths and bottom conditions ranging from mud to bedrock. average depth 18 inches. water turbid and pools unshaded. e-5. elk river. sec. 32, t. 29 s, r. 10 e. august 30. intermittent pools. average width 21 feet, average depth 20 inches. bottom rubble. water clear. e-6. elk river. sec. 23, t. 29 s, r. 9 e. august 30. small isolated pools. river mostly dry. bottom bedrock. water slightly turbid with gray-green "bloom." e-7. wildcat creek. sec. 11, t. 31 s, r. 10 e. volume of flow less than one cfs. average width 20 feet, average depth 18 inches. domestic sewage pollution from town of moline suspected. annotated list of species #lepisosteus osseus oxyurus# (linnaeus): stations a-1, w-2, w-3, g-2, g-3, g-4, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-5, c-8. of 34 longnose gar taken, 27 were young-of-the-year. the latter were from shallow isolated pools (bedrock bottom at c-1, c-3, c-4; gravel bottom at c-6). at station w-1 in moderate flood conditions several young-of-the-year were found in the most sheltered water next to the banks. the longnose gar was found only in the lower parts of the streams surveyed (but were observed by me in smaller tributaries of these streams in years when the streams had a greater volume of flow). a preference for downstream habitat is suggested in several other surveys: cross (1950:134, 1954a:307) on the south fork of the cottonwood and on stillwater creek; cross and moore (1952:401) on the poteau and fourche maline rivers; moore and buck (1953:21) on the chikaskia river. #lepisosteus platostomus# rafinesque: one shortnose gar (k. u. 3157) has been taken from the arkansas river in cowley county. this gar was taken by mr. richard rinker on a bank line on april 10, 1955, at station a-3. #dorosoma cepedianum# (le sueur): stations w-3, g-4, c-4, c-5, m-1, e-1, e-4. in smaller streams such as the elk and caney rivers adult gizzard shad seemed scarce. they were more common in collections made in larger rivers (walnut, verdigris, and neosho). in impoundments of this region shad often become extremely abundant. schoonover (1954:173) found that shad comprised 97 per cent by number and 83 per cent by weight of fishes taken in a survey of fall river reservoir. #carpiodes carpio carpio# (rafinesque): stations a-1, a-2, a-3, w-3, g-1, c-3. hubbs and lagler (1947:50) stated that the river carpsucker was "mostly confined to large silty rivers." of the stations listed above c-3 least fits this description being a large shallow pool about 1/3 acre in area having bedrock bottom and slightly turbid water. the other stations conform to conditions described by hubbs and lagler (_loc. cit._). #carpiodes velifer# (rafinesque): sbs. three specimens of the highfin carpsucker (k. u. 177-179) were collected on july 11, 1912, from an unspecified location on elk river in elk county. #ictiobus bubalus# (rafinesque): stations w-3, g-1, g-2, c-1, c-3, c-4, c-6, e-1, e-2, e-3. the smallmouth buffalo shared the downstream proclivities of the river carpsucker. in half of the collections (g-2, c-1, e-1, e-2, e-3) only large juveniles were taken; in the other half only young-of-the-year were found. in one pool at station c-1 hundreds of young buffalo and gar were observed. this large shallow pool was 100 ã� 150 feet, with an average depth of 8 inches. the bottom consisted of bedrock. station c-6 was a small pool with bedrock bottom, eight feet in diameter, with an average depth of only 4 inches. station e-3 was also a small isolated pool with bedrock bottom and an average depth of 6 inches. #ictiobus niger# (rafinesque): station c-5. only two specimens of the black buffalo were taken. an adult was caught on spinning tackle, with doughballs for bait. the second specimen was a juvenile taken by seining one mile below station c-5 on september 22. #ictiobus cyprinella# (valenciennes): station g-2. two juvenal bigmouth buffalo were taken in a shallow pool, along with several juvenal smallmouth buffalo. #moxostoma aureolum pisolabrum# trautman and #moxostoma carinatum# (cope): sbs. two specimens of _moxostoma aureolum pisolabrum_ (k. u. 242-243) and one specimen of _moxostoma carinatum_ (k. u. 223) were taken from an unspecified locality on elk river in elk county on july 11, 1912. there are no other records for any of these fish in the collection area. _m. aureolum pisolabrum_ has been taken in recent years in eastern kansas (trautman, 1951:3) and has been found as far west as the chikaskia drainage in northern oklahoma by moore and buck (1953:21). that occasional northern redhorse enter the larger rivers of the area here reported on seems probable. _m. carinatum_ has been reported only a few times from kansas. the only recent records are from the verdigris river (schelske, 1957:39). elkins (1954:28) took four specimens of _m. carinatum_ from cutoff pools on salt creek in osage county, oklahoma, in 1954. this recent record suggests that occurrences in southern kansas are probable. #moxostoma erythrurum# (rafinesque): stations g-5, g-7, g-10, g-12, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-8, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-15, e-1, e-2, e-4 (c-131, c-133, c-136). the golden redhorse was common in several of the streams surveyed, and utilized the upland parts of streams more extensively than any of the other catostomids occurring in the area. _m. erythrurum_ and _ictiobus bubalus_ were taken together at only two stations. in no case was _i. bubalus_ taken from a tributary of grouse creek or of big caney river. in contrast _m. erythrurum_ reached its greatest concentrations in such habitat, although it was always a minor component of the total fish population. stations c-5 and e-2 were the lowermost environments in which this redhorse was taken. the largest relative number of golden redhorse was found at station g-12 on crab creek where 7.5 per cent of the fishes taken were of this species. this station consisted of intermittent pools averaging one foot in depth. bottoms were bedrock and rubble and the water was clear and shaded. the fish were consistently taken in the deeper, open part of the pool where aquatic vegetation, which covered most of the pool, was absent. another station at which _m. erythrurum_ was abundant was c-12 on cedar creek. here a long, narrow, clear pool was the habitat, with average depth of 17 inches, and bottom of bedrock. #minytrema melanops# (rafinesque): stations g-10, c-4, c-12, e-1. occurrences of the spotted sucker were scattered. at stations c-4 and g-10 single specimens were taken. at station e-1 (july 9) one specimen was taken at the mouth of a small tributary where water was turbid and quiet. this specimen (k. u. 3708) was the largest (9-3/8 inches total length) found, and possessed pits of lost tubercles. #cyprinus carpio# linnaeus: stations a-1, w-1, w-2, w-3, w-4, g-3, g-4, g-6, g-8, c-3, c-5, e-4. carp were taken most often in downstream habitat. no carp were taken above station c-5 on big caney river. the earliest date on which young were taken was july 7, when 46 specimens, approximately 1/2 inch in total length, were taken from the walnut river at station w-1. the small carp showed a preference for small shallow pools; adults were found in deeper pools. #hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus# (gilbert): station a-3. only one specimen of the speckled chub was taken. the species has been recorded from nearby localities in the arkansas river and its tributaries both in kansas and oklahoma. its habitat seems to be shallow water over clean, fine sand, and it occurs in strong current in mid-channel in the arkansas river. suitable habitat does not occur in other parts of the area covered by this report. #notropis blennius# (girard): stations a-1, a-2, a-3. the river shiner was taken only in the arkansas river and in small numbers. in all instances _n. blennius_ was found over sandy bottom in flowing water. females were gravid at station a-1 on june 14. to my knowledge there are no published records of this shiner from the arkansas river basin in kansas. in oklahoma this species prefers the large, sandy streams such as the arkansas river. cross and moore (1952:403) found it in the poteau river only near the mouth. #notropis boops# gilbert: stations g-5, g-7, c-3, c-5, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-15, c-16, e-4, e-5, m-1, m-2. widespread occurrence of the bigeye shiner in this area seems surprising. except for this area it is known in kansas only from the spring river drainage in the southeastern corner of the state (cross, 1954b:474). _n. boops_ chose habitats that seemed most nearly like ozarkian terrain. the largest relative number of bigeye shiners was taken at c-11 in a clear stream described in the discussion of _notropis rubellus_. at this station _n. boops_ comprised 14.11 per cent, and _n. boops_ and _n. rubellus_ together comprised 24.78 per cent of all fish taken. at station g-7 on grouse creek the percentage of _n. boops_ was 7.15. here, as at station c-11, water was clear. at both stations _myriophyllum heterophyllum_ was abundant and at g-7 _nelumbo lutea_ was also common. at g-7 _n. boops_ seemed most abundant in the deeper water, but at c-11 most shiners were found in the shallower part of a large pool. two other collections in which _n. boops_ were common were from spring creek. it is a small, clear flint hills brook running swiftly over clean gravel and rubble. it had, however, been intermittent or completely dry in its upper portion throughout the winter of 1955-'56 and until june 22, 1956. in collections at c-15 on june 28, _n. boops_ formed 6.5 per cent of the fish taken. farther upstream, at c-16 on july 9, in an area one mile from the nearest pool of water that existed prior to the rains of june 22, _n. boops_ made up 7.2 per cent of the fish taken. in streams heading in the hilly area of western elk county, the relative abundance of _notropis boops_ decreased progressively downstream. on upper elk river percentages were lower than on upper grouse creek and upper big caney river. hubbs and lagler (1947:66) characterize the habitat of this species as clear creeks of limestone uplands. there are numerous records of the bigeye shiner from extreme eastern oklahoma. it has been reported as far west as beaver creek in osage county, oklahoma. beaver creek originates in cowley county, kansas, near the origin of cedar creek and crab creek. drought had left a few pools of water in beaver creek in kansas at the time of my survey. the fish-fauna seemed sparse and _n. boops_ was not among the species taken. of interest in considering the somewhat isolated occurrence of the bigeye shiner in the flint hills area of kansas is a record of it by ortenburger and hubbs (1926:126) from panther creek, comanche county, oklahoma, in the wichita mountain area of that state. #notropis buchanani# meek: stations g-1, e-4 (c-131). at station g-1 the ghost shiner was taken in small numbers in the shallow end of a long pool (150 ã� 40 feet.) the three individuals taken at station e-4 were in an isolated pool (50 ã� 510 feet) averaging 1-1/2 feet in depth. water was turbid, and warm due to lack of shade. the habitat preferences of this species and of the related species _n. volucellus_ have been described as follows by hubbs and ortenburger (1929b:68): "it seems probable that _volucellus_ when occurring in the range of _buchanani_ occupies upland streams, whereas _buchanani_ is chiefly a form of the large rivers and adjacent creek mouths." the results of this survey and impressions gained from other collections, some of which are unpublished, are in agreement with this view. a collection on the verdigris river at independence, kansas, directly downstream from the mouth of the elk river, showed _n. buchanani_ to be common while _n. volucellus_ was not taken. at station e-5 upstream from e-4, however, _n. volucellus_ was taken but _n. buchanani_ was not found. in the upper neosho basin, cross (1954a:310) took _n. volucellus_ but not _n. buchanani_. other collections have shown _n. buchanani_ to be abundant in the lower neosho river in kansas. moore and paden (1950:85) observe that _n. buchanani_ was found only near the mouth of the illinois river in oklahoma and was sharply segregated ecologically from _n. volucellus_ that occupied a niche in the clear main channels in contrast to the more sluggish waters inhabited by _n. buchanani_. #notropis camurus# (jordan and meek): stations c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, e-1, e-5 (c-131). highest concentrations of the bluntface shiner were found close to the mouths of two tributaries of big caney river: rock creek and otter creek. on rock creek (station c-4) this shiner was abundant in a shallow pool below a riffle where water was flowing rapidly. many large males in breeding condition were taken (june 3). the species formed 20.2 per cent of the fish taken. on otter creek (station c-13) the species was common in shallow bedrock pools below riffles. it formed 12.1 per cent of the fish taken. at station c-5, _n. camurus_ was characteristically found in an area of shallow pools and riffles. at station c-10 it was found in clear flowing water over rubble bottom and in small coves over mud bottom. at c-11 (july 26) _n. camurus_ was taken only in one small pool with rapidly flowing water below a riffle. in this pool _n. camurus_ was the dominant fish. at station c-12, on april 2, _n. camurus_ was abundant in the stream, which was then clear and flowing. on august 24, it was not taken from the same pool, which was then turbid and drying. the frequent occurrence of this species in clear, flowing water seems significant. cross (1954a:309) notes that the bluntface shiner prefers moderately fast, clear water. hall (1952:57) found _n. camurus_ only in upland tributaries east of grand river and not in lowland tributaries west of the river. moore and buck (1953:22) took this species in the chikaskia river, which was at that time a clear, flowing stream. they noted that in oklahoma it seems to be found only in relatively clear water. _n. camurus_ did not seem to ascend the smaller tributaries of big caney river as did _n. rubellus_ and _n. boops_ even when these tributaries were flowing. #notropis deliciosus missuriensis# (cope): stations a-1, a-2, a-3, w-1, w-2, w-3 (c-136). sand shiners seemed to be abundant in the arkansas river, rare in the walnut river and absent from other streams surveyed. this shiner was most abundant in shallow, flowing water in the arkansas river; in backwaters, where _gambusia affinis_ prevailed, _n. deliciosus_ formed only a small percentage of the fish population. #notropis girardi# hubbs and ortenburger: stations a-2 and a-3. at station a-2 the arkansas river shiner made up 14.6 per cent of all fish taken. at a-2, it was found only in rapidly-flowing water over clean sand in the main channels. it was absent from the shallow, slowly-flowing water where _n. deliciosus missuriensis_ was abundant. at a-3 _n. girardi_ made up 22 per cent of the total catch, and again preferred the deeper, faster water over clean-swept sand. failure to find _n. girardi_ at station a-1 is not understood. females were gravid in both collections (august 25 and 27). in neither collection were young-of-the-year taken. moore (1944:210) has suggested that _n. girardi_ requires periods of high water and turbidity to spawn. additional collecting was done at station a-3 on december 22, 1957. a few adults were taken in flowing water but no young were found. in this area, _n. girardi_ showed no tendency to ascend tributaries of the arkansas river. not far to the west, however, this pattern changes as shown by hubbs and ortenburger (1929a:32) who took this fish at seven of ten stations on the cimarron, canadian, and salt fork of the arkansas. _n. girardi_ was taken only in the lowermost stations on both stillwater creek (cross, 1950:136) and the chikaskia river (moore and buck, 1953:22). in the next major stream west of the chikaskia, the medicine river, _n. girardi_ seems to occur farther upstream than in the chikaskia. (collection c-5-51 by dr. a. b. leonard and dr. frank b. cross on elm creek near medicine lodge on july 20, 1951.) #notropis lutrensis# (baird and girard): stations a-1, a-2, w-1, w-2, w-3, w-4, g-1, g-2, g-4, g-5, g-8, g-9, g-10, g-11, g-12, g-13, g-14, g-15, g-16, b-1, b-2, b-3, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, m-1, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-7 (e&f, c-131, c-133, c-136). the red shiner was taken in every stream surveyed. the relative abundance seemed to be greatest in two types of habitat which were separated geographically. the first habitat was in large rivers such as the arkansas and walnut. in the arkansas river the red shiner consistently made up 20 per cent to 25 per cent of the catch. on the walnut river percentages ranged from 10 per cent (station w-3) to 45 per cent (station w-2). the second habitat in which numbers of _n. lutrensis_ reached high proportions was in the upper parts of the most intermittent tributaries. at the uppermost station in silver creek this species formed 30 per cent of the fish taken. in crab creek the following percentages were taken in six collections from mouth to source: 20.6%, 26.1%, 25%, 85%, 14.6%, and 1%. in the mainstream of grouse creek the highest percentage taken was 19.27 near the mouth at station g-1. in middle sections of grouse creek this species was either absent or made up less than 2 per cent of the fish taken. at no station on big caney river was the red shiner abundant. the smallest relative numbers were found at upstream stations, in contrast to collections made on tributaries of grouse creek. this distributional pattern possibly may be explained by the severe conditions under which fish have been forced to live in the upper tributaries of grouse creek. water was more turbid, and pools were smaller than in big caney. these factors possibly decimate numbers of the less hardy species permitting expansion by more adaptable species, among which seems to be _n. lutrensis_. in the upper tributaries of big caney river conditions have not been so severe due to greater flow from springs and less cultivation of the watershed in most places. under such conditions _n. lutrensis_ seems to remain a minor faunal constituent. #notropis percobromus# (cope): stations a-1, a-2, w-1, w-2, w-3, g-1. at station w-1 the plains shiner constituted 20 per cent of the fish taken. the river was flowing rapidly with large volume at the time of this collection, and all specimens were taken near the bank in comparatively quiet water over gravel bottom. at station w-3, below tunnel mill dam at winfield, _n. percobromus_ comprised 18.7 per cent of the fish taken, second only to _lepomis humilis_ in relative abundance. immediately below the west end of the dam, plains shiners were so concentrated that fifty or more were taken in one haul of a four-foot nylon net. the amount of water overflowing the dam at this point was slight. water was shallow (8-12 inches) and the bottom consisted of the pitted apron or of fine gravel. at the east end of the dam where water was deeper (1-3 feet) and the flow over the dam greater, large numbers of _lepomis humilis_ were taken while _n. percobromus_ was rare. in the arkansas river smaller relative numbers of this shiner were obtained. at station a-2, it formed 4.68 per cent of the total. at this station _n. percobromus_ was taken with _n. lutrensis_ in water about 18 inches deep next to a bank where the current was sluggish and tangled roots and detritus offered some shelter. at station g-1 on grouse creek the plains shiner made up 7.68 per cent of the fish taken. the habitat consisted of intermittent pools with rubble bottoms at this station, which was four miles upstream from the mouth of the creek. the plains shiner seems rarely to ascend the upland streams of the area. #notropis rubellus# (agassiz): stations c-3, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14 (j&j). no fish in these collections showed a more persistent preference than _notropis rubellus_ for clear, cool streams. all collections of the rosyface shiner were in the big caney river system, but at only four stations in this system was it common. at station c-11 the highest relative numbers (10.6 per cent) were obtained. this site possessed the most limpid water of any station on the mainstream of big caney. aquatic plants (_myriophyllum heterophyllum_ and _potamogeton nodosus_) were common. other fishes that flourished at this station were _n. boops_, _n. camurus_, _campostoma anomalum_, and _etheostoma spectabile_. the water temperature was 86â° at surface and 80â° at bottom whereas air temperature was 97â°. _n. rubellus_ was common at all stations in otter creek, the clear, upland character of which has been discussed. in may and june only adults were found. on september 1, examination of several pools in upper otter creek revealed numerous young-of-the-year in small spring-fed pools. literature is scarce concerning this shiner in kansas. cross (1954a:308) stated that it was abundant in the south fork of the cottonwood river and was one of those fishes primarily associated with the ozarkian fauna, rather than with the fauna of the plains. elliott (1947) found _n. rubellus_ in spring creek, a tributary of fall river which seems similar to otter creek in physical features. between the fall river and big caney river systems is the elk river, from which there is no record of the rosyface shiner. perhaps its absence is related to the intermittent condition of this stream at present. the elk river is poor in spring-fed tributaries, which seem to be favorite environs of the rosyface shiner. _n. rubellus_ was taken by minna jewell and frank jobes in silver creek on june 30, 1925 (ummz 67818). the shiner was not found in any stream west of the big caney system in my collections. in oklahoma, hall (1952:57) found _n. rubellus_ in upland tributaries on the east side of grand river and not in the lowland tributaries on the west side. martin and campbell (1953:51) characterize _n. rubellus_ as preferring riffle channels in moderate to fast current in the black river, missouri. it is the only species so characterized by them which was taken in my collections. moore and paden (1950:84) state "_notropis rubellus_ is one of the most abundant fishes of the illinois river, being found in all habitats but showing a distinct preference for fast water...." #notropis topeka# (gilbert): two specimens (formerly indiana university 4605) of the topeka shiner labeled "winfield, kansas" are now at the university of michigan museum of zoology. collector and other data are not given. evermann and fordice (1886:185) noted that two specimens of _n. topeka_ were taken from sand creek near newton in harvey county, but do not list it from cowley county near winfield. they deposited their fish in the museum of indiana university. #notropis umbratilis# (girard): stations g-1, g-3, g-4, g-7, g-8, g-9, g-12, g-14, b-2, b-3, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, c-15, c-16, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-5, m-1, m-2 (j&j, c-131, c-132). the redfin shiner flourished in all the streams surveyed except the arkansas and walnut rivers. _n. umbratilis_ has been found in upland tributaries of the walnut river, some of which originate in terrain similar to that in which elk river, big caney river, and grouse creek originate. (collection c-26-51 by cross on durechon creek, october 7, 1951.) this suggests downstream reduction in relative numbers of this species, a tendency which also seemed to exist on both big caney river and grouse creek. _n. umbratilis_ was the most abundant species in big caney river except at the lowermost stations where it was surpassed in relative abundance by _n. lutrensis_ and _gambusia affinis_. _n. umbratilis_ was a pool-dweller, becoming more concentrated in the deeper pools as summer advanced. in may and early june, large concentrations of adult _n. umbratilis_ were common in the shallow ends of pools together with _n. rubellus_, _n. boops_, _pimephales notatus_, and _pimephales tenellus_. by july and august, only young of the year were taken in shallow water, and adults were scarcely in evidence. #notropis volucellus# (cope): stations g-5, g-8, c-3, c-5, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, m-1, e-4, e-5. the mimic shiner was a minor element in the fauna, 2.02 per cent at station c-5 being the largest percentage taken. in the big caney river system _n. volucellus_ was taken only in the main stream. in the grouse creek drainage it was found at two stations in the upper part of the watershed, where water is clearer, gradient greater, and pools well-shaded and cool. in the elk river the mimic shiner was taken only in the upper part of the main stream. the dominant shiner in situations where _n. volucellus_ was taken was, in all cases, _n. umbratilis_. elliott (1947) found _n. volucellus_ in spring creek, a tributary of fall river. farther north in the flint hills region, _n. volucellus_ was reported by cross (1954a:310). #notemigonus crysoleucas# (mitchell): station w-5. this isolated record for the golden shiner consisted of nine specimens collected on june 6 in timber creek, a tributary of the walnut river. most of the creek was dry. _n. crysoleucas_ was taken in one pool with dimensions of 8 feet by 4 feet with an average depth of 4 inches. this creek is sluggish and silt-laden, even under conditions of favorable precipitation. hubbs and ortenburger (1929b:89) observed that the golden shiner prefers sluggish water. hall (1952:58) took the golden shiner only in the lowland tributaries west of grand river and not east of the river in upland tributaries. #phenacobius mirabilis# girard: stations w-3, c-3. in no case was the suckermouth minnow common; it never comprised more than 1 per cent of the fish population. #pimephales notatus# (rafinesque): stations w-4, g-5, g-7, g-9, g-12, g-13, b-3, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, c-15, c-16, c-17, c-18, m-1, m-2, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-5, e-7 (j&j, c-131, c-132, c-133). this was much the most abundant of the four species of _pimephales_ in this area. it was taken at 33 stations as compared with 10 for _p. tenellus_, 8 for _p. promelas_, and 3 for _p. vigilax_. the bluntnose minnow was taken almost everywhere except in the main stream of the arkansas and walnut rivers and in lower grouse creek. _p. notatus_ seemed to prefer clearer streams of the flint hills part of my area. there was a marked increase in percentages taken in the upland tributaries of both caney river and grouse creek. in the elk river, too, higher concentrations were found upstream. the highest relative numbers of bluntnose minnows were taken at station g-12 on crab creek, station c-12 on cedar creek and station c-16 on spring creek. at g-12, this minnow was abundant in the deeper isolated pools. males in breeding condition were taken on june 9. in cedar creek the population of bluntnose minnows was observed periodically in one pool in which they were dominant. this pool was 100 feet by 50 feet, shallow, and with bedrock bottom. at its upper end, however, there was a small area of heavily-shaded deeper water. throughout the spring bluntnose minnows were found in large schools in the shallow area. as the summer progressed they were no longer there, but seining revealed their presence in the deeper, upper end. at station c-16 on spring creek on july 9 male _p. notatus_ were taken in extreme breeding condition, being light brick-red in color and with large tubercles. #pimephales tenellus# (girard): stations g-1, c-2, c-3, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, m-1, e-2, e-4 (c-131 c-133). the mountain minnow was never taken far from the mainstream of big caney, middle caney, or elk river. in this respect it differed from _p. notatus_, which reached large concentrations in the small upland tributaries. on the other hand, _p. tenellus_ was not so abundant as _p. vigilax_ in the silty larger streams. in no collection was the mountain minnow common. the highest percentages were 2.4 per cent (station c-5), and 2.1 per cent (station c-7) on big caney river. these stations consisted of clear, flowing water over rubble bottoms. males at c-7 (june 16) were in breeding condition. moore and buck (1953:23) reported finding this species among rocks in very fast water rather than in the quiet backwaters frequented by _p. vigilax_. other records of the mountain minnow from the flint hills indicate that it seeks areas of maximum gradient and flow; in this distributional respect it is like _notropis camurus_. the two species are recorded together from other streams in this region such as the chikaskia (moore and buck, 1953:23), cottonwood (cross, 1954a:310), and spring creek, tributary of fall river (elliott, 1947). it is conceivable that a preference for flowing water might explain its restriction to the medium-sized, less intermittent streams in this area. the only tributary which the species seemed to ascend to any extent was otter creek, which is seldom intermittent downstream. #pimephales vigilax perspicuus# (girard): stations a-3, c-1, c-4. the parrot minnow was found only in downstream habitats. collection c-4 (june 3) on rock creek was made about 1/2 mile from the mouth of this tributary of big caney and the creek here had almost the same character as the river proper. the presence of other channel fishes such as _ictiobus bubalus_ indicates the downstream nature of the creek. some males of _p. vigilax_ in breeding condition were taken in this collection. at c-1, only one specimen was found in a turbid, isolated pool with bedrock bottom. at a-1 only one parrot minnow was taken; it was in deep, fairly quiet water near the bank. other collections outside the three-county area revealed the following: in the neosho river, several parrot minnows were found in quiet backwaters and in shallow pools. in the verdigris river three were taken directly under water spilling over the dam at this station, while others were found, together with _p. promelas_, in the mouth of a small creek that provided a backwater habitat with mud bottom. cross and moore (1952:405) found this species only at stations in the lower portion of the poteau river. farther west the minnow may ascend the smaller sandy streams to greater distances. moore and buck (1953:23) took parrot minnows at six of 15 stations on the chikaskia river and found the species as far upstream as drury, kansas. elliott (1947), in comparing the south ninnescah and spring creek fish faunas, found only _p. vigilax_ and _p. promelas_ on the sandy, "flatter" ninnescah and only _p. notatus_ and _p. tenellus_ on spring creek, an upland, flint hills stream in greenwood county. #pimephales promelas# rafinesque: stations a-2, a-3, w-3, w-4, g-9, b-1, m-1, e-4 (e&f, c-136). occurrences of the fathead minnow were scattered, but included all streams sampled except big caney. three of the collections were in small intermittent streams where conditions were generally unfavorable for fishes and in one instance extremely foul. two of these stations had turbid water and all suffered from siltation. in middle caney creek the species was rare but in the elk river (june 28) more than 100 specimens, predominantly young, were taken. this station consisted of a large isolated pool with a variety of bottom types. water was turbid and the surface temperature was high (93â° f.). in different parts of the pool the following numbers of specimens were taken in single seine-hauls: 15 over shallow bedrock; 35 over gravel (1-1/2 feet deep); 50 over mud bottom (1 foot deep). _p. promelas_ was found also in the large, flowing rivers: arkansas, walnut, verdigris, and neosho. the species was scarce in the arkansas river, and was found principally in muddy coves. in the walnut (w-3), this minnow comprised 7.65 per cent of the fish taken and was common in quiet pools. #campostoma anomalum# rafinesque: stations w-4, g-4, c-1, c-3, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, c-15, c-16, c-17, c-18, b-3 (e&f, c-131, c-136). although the stoneroller was found in most streams surveyed, it was taken most often in the big caney system, where it occurred at 16 of the 18 stations. in contrast, it was represented at only one of 17 stations on grouse creek. high percentages were found in three creeks--cedar, otter, and spring. as noted above, these streams are normally clear, swift and have steep gradients and many rubble and gravel riffles. on these riffles young stonerollers abounded. station c-16 on spring creek typifies the habitat in which this species was most abundant. the stream has an average width of 10 feet and depth of a few inches. the volume of flow was less than 1 cubic foot per second but turbulence was great. water was clear and the bottom was gravel and rubble. following rains in june, stonerollers quickly occupied parts of spring creek (upstream from c-16) that had been dry throughout the previous winter. on april 2 many _c. anomalum_ and _etheostoma spectabile_ were taken in shallow pools and riffles in an extensive bedrock-riffle area on cedar creek near station c-12. most of the females were gravid and the males were in breeding condition. on june 6 these pools were revisited. flow had ceased and the pools were drying up. young-of-the-year of the two species were abundant, but only a few mature stonerollers were taken. on august 24, prolonged drought had drastically altered the stream and all areas from which stonerollers and darters had been taken were dry. seining of other pools which were almost dry revealed no stonerollers. collections on may 31, june 15, and june 16 in otter creek revealed large numbers of stonerollers. they were found in riffle areas, in aquatic vegetation, and especially in detritus alongside banks. most of the specimens were young-of-the-year. #anguilla bostoniensis# (le sueur): an american eel was caught by me in grouse creek in 1949. #gambusia affinis# (baird and girard): stations a-1, a-2, a-3, w-1, w-2, w-3, w-4, w-5, g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-5, g-7, g-8, g-9, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-6, c-15, e-1. mosquitofish occurred widely but in varied abundance. huge populations were in the shallow sandy backwaters and cut-off pools of the arkansas river. in the shallow pools of several intermittent streams such as station g-8 on silver creek this fish also flourished. _g. affinis_ was taken at every station in the arkansas, walnut and grouse systems except those stations on two upland tributaries of grouse creek (crab creek and grand summit creek). the mosquitofish was not observed in the clear upland tributaries of big caney, nor on upper big caney river itself in may, june, and july. on september 3, however, _gambusia_ were taken at station c-15 on otter creek and others were seen at station c-14 on the same date. hubbs and ortenburger (1929b:99) and cross and moore (1952:407) observed that _g. affinis_ usually was absent from small upland tributaries, even though it was abundant in lower parts of the same river systems. #fundulus kansae# (garman): stations a-2, a-3, evermann and fordice as _fundulus zebrinus_. at station a-2, seven plains killifish were taken together with a great many _notropis deliciosus_ and _gambusia affinis_ in a shallow, algae-covered channel with slight flow and sand bottom. at station a-3 many young killifish were taken in small shallow pools on december 22. _fundulus kansae_ has been found in the lower part of the walnut river basin, especially where petroleum pollution was evident. eastward from the walnut river plains killifish have not been taken. #fundulus notatus# (rafinesque): stations b-1, g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-5, g-7, g-8, g-10, g-11, g-14, c-1, m-1, e-1, evermann and fordice as _zygonectes notatus_. the black-banded topminnow was not taken in the arkansas river but was common in the walnut and grouse systems. it was common also in middle caney, but in big caney and elk river it was taken only at the lowermost stations. this species did not seem to ascend far into smaller tributaries of grouse creek. in crab creek it was taken at the lower two of six stations and in grand summit creek at the lower of two stations. the highest relative numbers were taken at stations g-3 (17.5 per cent), g-4 (24 per cent), g-10 (25.75 per cent) and g-11 (41.52 per cent), on crab creek and grouse creek. both upstream and downstream from these stations, which were within five miles of each other, the relative abundance dropped off sharply. the bottoms at these stations were mostly rubble and mud, and water was turbid at three of the stations. at g-10 (june 24) and g-11 (july 16) young-of-the-year were abundant. #ictalurus melas# (girard): stations w-2, w-3, w-4, w-5, b-1, b-2, b-3, g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-5, g-8, g-9, g-11, g-12, g-13, g-14, g-17, c-1, c-9, c-11, c-12, c-14, c-15, c-17, c-18, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-5, e-6, n-1, evermann and fordice as _ameiurus melas_ (c-133). the black bullhead was taken at slightly more than half of the stations, and probably was present at others. larger numbers were taken in grouse creek than in any other stream system. in many small, shallow pools in the grouse creek system young black bullheads shared dominance with _gambusia affinis_ in the late summer. _i. melas_ was also abundant in isolated pools at the extreme upper ends of crab creek, beaver creek and grand summit creek. _i. melas_ was most common in areas with silty bottoms. the species seemed scarce in the main stream of big caney river but was common in some of its tributaries. #pylodictis olivaris# (rafinesque): stations a-3, g-1, c-5. flathead catfish were taken by angling at stations a-3 and c-5. at station g-1 (september 5) a flathead catfish five inches long was taken in the four-foot nylon net. #ictalurus punctatus# (rafinesque): stations a-3, w-2, w-3, g-2, c-5, e-4. channel catfish from stations w-3, a-3, and c-5 were taken on hook and line. at station g-2 (august 29) twenty young-of-the-year were seined from the shallow narrow end of a large pool. all collections of both _i. punctatus_ and _p. olivaris_ were in the larger streams surveyed. #ictalurus natalis# (lesueur): stations g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-8, g-11, c-12, c-14, c-15. the yellow bullhead was taken at only 9 stations, compared with 33 stations for the black bullhead. _i. natalis_ was represented in 7 of 17 stations in the grouse creek system but in only 3 of 18 stations in the big caney system. of the seven records from grouse creek four were from the main stream. at every station where yellow bullheads were taken, black bullheads were found also and were abundant, usually several times more abundant than _i. natalis_. at g-11 on crab creek (july 16), _i. natalis_ made up 3.8 per cent of the fish taken. all were young-of-the-year, existing in a tiny, gravelly pool containing not more than five gallons of water, and were the only fish present. young yellow bullheads were also found in small pools with gravel bottoms at station g-4 on september 7. #labidesthes sicculus# (cope): stations g-1, g-2, g-3, g-7, g-10, b-2, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-12, e-1, e-2, e-3, e-7, m-1 (e&f, c-131). the brook silversides was taken, sometimes abundantly, in all stream systems except the walnut and arkansas. at station g-7 on july 8, 41.8 per cent of the fish taken were of this species. _l. sicculus_ was most abundant in large pools where the bottom was predominantly bedrock and gravel. the highest concentrations were in the mainstreams of big caney, grouse, and elk rivers. brook silversides were taken rarely in the smaller tributaries of these streams. #percina phoxocephala# (nelson): stations c-2, c-3, c-5, g-1 (c-133). slenderhead darters were scarce, and were found only over gravel bottoms. specimens were taken from flowing and quiet water, and from both shallow and deep water. larger numbers of _p. phoxocephala_ were taken by the writer in other collections made during 1956 on the neosho and verdigris rivers over bottoms of rubble or gravel. restriction of this darter to the larger streams follows a pattern observed by cross (1954a:313) who noted it was absent from smaller riffles in minor tributaries. elliott (1947), however, took one specimen of _p. phoxocephala_ in spring creek, a tributary of fall river. #percina caprodes carbonaria# (baird and girard): stations g-3, g-4, g-7, g-12, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-9, c-12, c-13, c-14 (j&j, c-131, c-133). the logperch was generally distributed in the caney, elk, and grouse systems. this species usually comprised less than 1 per cent of the fish taken; however, at station g-12 it formed 3.76 per cent of the total. in many instances the logperch was taken over submerged gravel bars, often along the edges of the larger pools. at 8 of 13 stations where the logperch was taken, the golden redhorse was also found. at every station where logperch were found, _notropis umbratilis_ was taken and _pimephales notatus_ also occurred at all but three of these stations. #percina copelandi# (jordan): stations c-4, c-5, c-6, c-8, g-1 (c-131, c-133, j&j). channel darters were collected over bottoms of rubble or gravel, both in flowing streams and in isolated pools. although _p. copelandi_ was found only in big caney river and at the lowermost station on grouse creek (g-1) in this survey, this species has been taken previously from elk river (k. u. 3463 and k. u. 3197) and from silver creek. _notropis camurus_ occurred everywhere that _h. copelandi_ was found. in several instances the two species were taken in the same seine-haul. #etheostoma spectabile pulchellum# (girard): stations w-4, g-1, g-4, g-5, c-6, c-9, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, c-15, c-16, c-17, c-18, e-1, e-5. evermann and fordice as _etheostoma coeruleum_ (c-131, c-132). the habitat preferences of the orangethroat darter seemed similar to those of _campostoma anomalum_. there were sixteen stations at which both species were taken, seven where only _e. spectabile pulchellum_ was taken and six where only _c. anomalum_ was taken. the largest relative numbers of both species were found in the same small, clear upland tributaries of big caney river. on may 31, collections from riffles at station c-15 (upper otter creek) consisted almost entirely of these two species. on september 1 at this station the stream was intermittent, but even the tiniest pools abounded with young darters and stonerollers. gravid females and males in breeding condition were taken in riffles in cedar creek on april 2. during june numerous young and adult orangethroat darters were taken in cedar creek, in partly decayed leaves which lined the banks. on june 15 in otter creek young darters were abundant in streamside detritus and in clear, shallow, rubble riffles. at station c-11 a few darters were taken on rubble riffles; however, large numbers were found inhabiting thick mats of _potamogeton foliosus_ raf., which grew in shallow water. many darters (_etheostoma spectabile pulchellum_ and _percina phoxocephala_) were taken in september along gravelly banks at stations c-2 and c-3 by disturbing small rocks and leaf-litter along the shores. young orangethroat darters seemed to seek out sheltered areas and in some cases were found in sluggish, even foul, water (stations w-4, b-1 and g-12). moore and buck (1953:26) note that the orangethroat darter is able to thrive in oklahoma in rather sluggish and even intermittent waters which reach quite high summer temperatures. unlike other darters taken in this survey, the orangethroat darter was common to abundant at several stations and was found at a great many more stations than any other darter. the comparatively great tolerance of this species to varying habitats, suggested by this survey, is also reflected by its widespread distribution in kansas. #micropterus salmoides salmoides# (lacepede): stations b-1, g-4, g-5, g-7, g-12, c-1, c-3, e-1, e-2, e-3. most of the largemouth bass taken were young-of-the-year. in big caney river this species seemed rare, being found at only two downstream stations compared with eight stations at which _m. punctulatus_ was taken. many ponds in the flint hills have been stocked with largemouth bass. at present largemouth bass are frequently caught by hook and line in crab creek (station g-12); however, mr. a. c. metcalf, who has fished this stream for approximately 45 years, states that he took no bass in the creek prior to the building and stocking of large ponds on nearby ranches. #micropterus punctulatus# (rafinesque): stations c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-10, c-14, c-15, e-2, e-5 (c-133). the spotted bass was taken only in tributaries of the verdigris river, where it seemed more numerous than the preceding species. it has been reported from other verdigris tributaries such as fall river (elliott, 1947) and is common eastward from the verdigris basin. a spotted bass (k. u. 3467) was taken by cross on the little walnut river in butler county on april 5, 1955. this seems to be the only record of this species from the walnut river basin at the present time. #pomoxis annularis# (rafinesque): stations w-3, w-5, g-1, g-2, g-5, g-10, g-11, g-12, c-1, c-2, c-4, c-5, c-6, m-1, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-5 (c-136). white crappie were found in almost all habitats and were taken in all rivers except the arkansas. the relative abundance of this species was greater at downstream than at upstream stations on grouse creek, big caney, and elk river. schools of young crappie were frequently found and the factor of chance in taking or failing to take a school of crappie prevented confident appraisal of abundance. white crappie usually sought quiet waters. often they were found in backwaters and many times schools were taken over bottoms where mud and detritus had been deposited. it was not uncommon to take _pomoxis annularis_ and _ictalurus melas_ in the same seine-haul in such areas. #pomoxis nigromaculatus# (lesueur): station c-1. black crappie were taken in otter creek on may 29 and september 3. several ponds in eastern cowley county are stocked with black crappie, but none was taken from streams into which these ponds drain. #lepomis cyanellus# (rafinesque): stations w-3, w-4, w-5, b-1, b-2, b-3, g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-5, g-8, g-9, g-10, g-12, g-13, g-14, g-15, g-16, g-17, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-14, c-16, c-17, c-18, e-1, e-4, e-5, e-6, e-7, m-2 (c-131, c-132, c-133, c-136, e&f). the green sunfish was taken at 45 of 60 stations, which is the greatest number recorded for one species. the only stream from which it was not obtained was the arkansas river. green sunfish constituted a minor but consistent part of the fauna in big caney river except for some intermittent pools on small tributaries, where it was high in relative abundance. it usually comprised approximately 4 per cent of the fish taken at stations on grouse creek. in some intermittent tributaries of grouse creek and elk river percentages also were high. funk and campbell (1953:74) observed that _l. cyanellus_ held a definite but minor place in all collections made on the black river in missouri. this pattern was also observed by the writer in collections made on the neosho and spring rivers in southeastern kansas. this seems to indicate that the big caney river populations (exclusive of the upstream stations in intermittent streams) follow a pattern commonly found in southeastern kansas and probably in the ozark region. #lepomis humilis# (girard): stations a-3, w-2, w-3, w-4, w-5, g-1, g-2, g-3, g-4, g-5, g-7, g-8, g-9, g-10, g-11, g-12, g-14, g-15, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, c-6, c-7, c-8, c-9, c-10, c-11, c-12, c-13, c-16, c-17, b-2, b-3, e-1, e-2, e-4, e-5, e-6, e-7, m-1. (c-131, c-132, c-133, c-136, j&j, e&f.) the orangespotted sunfish was found in every stream surveyed, although only one specimen was taken from the arkansas river. the largest relative number of this species (44.6) was taken at station g-1. percentages at other stations on grouse creek and its tributaries progressively declined in an upstream direction. in big caney river representation of _l. humilis_ in collections varied from 1.56 per cent at station c-1 to 23.47 per cent at station c-7. this sunfish was usually the dominant species in collections made from the elk river, where the relative abundance ranged from 10 to 30 per cent. the orangespotted sunfish is widespread in kansas and seems to be a diagnostic constituent of the plains fauna. moore and buck (1953:26) found it "very common" in the chikaskia river in kansas and oklahoma. cross (1950:140) noted that in stillwater creek it seemed to be the most tolerant and consequently the most abundant of the stream's cent rarchids. moore and paden (1950:91) note that _l. humilis_ is most common in muddy waters and found in overflow pools, backwaters, and oxbow lakes. this species is frequently found in farm ponds in the area surveyed, which further suggests a wide range of habitat tolerance. #lepomis megalotis breviceps# (baird and girard): stations w-3, w-4, w-5, b-1, b-2, g-1, g-4, g-5, g-7, g-8, g-9, g-10, g-11, g-12, g-13 (all big caney river stations except c-18), e-1, e-2, e-3, e-4, e-5, e-6, m-1, m-2 (c-131, c-132, c-133, j&j, e&f). in big caney river the longear sunfish shared dominance with the redfin shiner (_notropis umbratilis_) at almost every station. the average of its relative abundance at all stations in the big caney system was 16.5 per cent. it was also abundant at several stations on grouse creek and made up 43.25 per cent of all fish taken at station g-4. cross (1950:140) observed that _l. megalotis breviceps_ increased in stillwater creek probably as a result of clearer water and stabilized water level. in collections made west of the area treated here (moore and buck, 1953:26; elliott, 1947) the longear sunfish is less abundant than in big caney river and grouse creek. #lepomis macrochirus# (rafinesque): stations w-3, g-3, g-4, g-5, c-3, c-5, e-1, e-2 (c-131, c-132, c-133). the bluegill was, in all cases, a minor constituent in the fish fauna. no clear pattern of habitat preference can be deduced. in the verdigris river at independence (collection am-53, august 22, 1956) bluegills were common in quiet pools and coves below a low-water dam. moore and paden (1950:91) note that _l. macrochirus_ prefers quiet waters and hubbs and lagler (1947:94) state that it is "generally restricted to the quieter pools." the bluegill is widely-stocked in impoundments of the area treated here. #aplodinotus grunniens# (rafinesque): stations c-4, e-2. the dearth of stations from which the freshwater drum is reported may indicate difficulty in taking this species with seines, rather than scarcity. both collections were at downstream stations. at station c-4 three half-grown drum were taken. fishermen take "drum" at least as far upstream as station c-5 on big caney river. in the elk river one specimen was taken in a 20-foot seine below a dam at elk falls. fishes of doubtful or possible occurrence in addition to the species listed above, the following species have been reported nearby and may occur within the area surveyed. _lepisosteus productus_ (cope)--this gar has not been reported from kansas. it has been taken at several points in the northern half of oklahoma and as far west as canton reservoir by buck and cross (1951). a specimen of the spotted gar was taken by elkin (1954:28) in salt creek in osage county, oklahoma. _polyodon spathula_ (walbaum)--the paddlefish has never been reported from the arkansas river system in kansas. several reports by fishermen were traced by the writer, but authentication was not achieved. one mounted specimen was examined in a sporting goods store in arkansas city. this fish was said to have been taken on the arkansas river south of arkansas city but information on the date and method of capture were vague. mr. darrell wheat of arkansas city reported taking four paddlefish below a dam at oxford, kansas, in 1948 and 1949. _hiodon alosoides_ (rafinesque)--one specimen (k. u. 3095) of the goldeye was taken in 1953 on the arkansas river near oxford in sumner county. fishermen also report taking this fish occasionally in the walnut river in cowley county. _noturus flavus_ (rafinesque)--the stonecat was taken in the verdigris system by r. d. lindsay in 1911 (k. u. 2058) and more recently by cross in montgomery county (c-120) and schelske (1957:46) in wilson and montgomery counties. the close proximity of these collection areas to lower portions of the elk river indicate probable occurrence in elk river and other verdigris tributaries. _noturus nocturnus_ (jordan and gilbert)--the freckled madtom has been taken on all sides of the area studied making its occurrence therein highly probable. this madtom has been taken in beaver creek in osage county, oklahoma (oam 4771); from a tributary of the walnut river in sedgwick county by cross (1954); from the chikaskia river (moore and buck, 1953:24); and from several localities on the verdigris river (schelske, 1957:47). _etheostoma cragini_ (gilbert)--one cragin's darter (k. u. 3470) was taken by cross in the arkansas river near the sumner-cowley county line (sec. 25, t31s, r2e). records of this darter are few and widely scattered geographically. several collections from north-eastern oklahoma are noted by moore and cross (1950:144). _etheostoma whipplii_ (girard)--schelske (1957:38) reports the redfin darter from the verdigris river three miles southeast of benedict, kansas. dr. george moore of oklahoma a. & m. college states that it has been taken in the verdigris drainage in oklahoma at several locations. _etheostoma zonale arcansanum_ (jordan and gilbert)--two banded darters (k. u. 3213) have been reported by schelske (1957:49) from fall river near neodesha, kansas. because a tributary of fall river enters elk county its presence in this and other verdigris tributaries in the area seems possible. this darter has been reported from only one other stream in kansas, shoal creek in cherokee county, where it has been collected often. _roccus chrysops_ (rafinesque)--the white bass has been stocked in hulah reservoir on big caney river in oklahoma. to date it has not been reported from the big caney in kansas. white bass are common in many reservoirs of kansas and oklahoma and have been taken in rivers in both states. mr. clement gillespie of arkansas city, kansas forestry, fish and game commission wildlife protector for the area, states that two hundred young of _r. chrysops_ were released in grouse creek several years ago under auspices of the commission. the fish has not been reported by fishermen since that time to the knowledge of mr. gillespie or of the writer. _lepomis microlophus_ (gunther)--one redear sunfish was taken on salt creek in osage county, oklahoma, by elkin (1954:28). because this species has been stocked widely in oklahoma its eventual occurrence in kansas seems probable. _chaenobryttus gulosus_ (cuvier)--the warmouth has been taken south of the collection area in osage county on salt creek by elkin (1954:28). faunal comparisons of different streams the faunas of elk river, big caney river, and grouse creek were generally similar. these streams and most of their tributaries originate in the same hilly area of eastern cowley county and western elk and chautauqua counties; their similarities and differences have been pointed out. the following species were taken in all of these streams: _lepisosteus osseus_ _dorosoma cepedianum_ _ictiobus bubalus_ _moxostoma erythrurum_ _minytrema melanops_ _cyprinus carpio_ _campostoma anomalum_ _notropis boops_ _notropis lutrensis_ _notropis umbratilis_ _notropis volucellus_ _pimephales notatus_ _pimephales tenellus_ _fundulus notatus_ _gambusia affinis_ _ictalurus melas_ _ictalurus punctatus_ _etheostoma spectabile_ _percina caprodes_ _micropterus salmoides_ _pomoxis annularis_ _lepomis cyanellus_ _lepomis humilis_ _lepomis megalotis_ _lepomis macrochirus_ _labidesthes sicculus_ no species was found in elk river to the exclusion of big caney and grouse creek. fish taken exclusively in grouse creek were _ictiobus cyprinella_ at station g-2 and _notropis percobromus_ at station g-1. the following species were taken only in big caney river: _ictiobus niger_, _notropis rubellus_, _phenacobius mirabilis_, _pimephales vigilax_, and _pomoxis nigromaculatus_. _notropis buchanani_ and _pimephales promelas_ were taken in grouse creek and elk river, but not in big caney river, although the watershed of big caney lies largely between these two streams. three species, _notropis camurus_, _micropterus punctulatus_, and _aplodinotus grunniens_, were found in elk river and big caney but not in grouse creek. _ictalurus natalis_, _pylodictis olivaris_, and _percina phoxocephala_ were taken in big caney river and grouse creek but not in elk river. _percina copelandi_ was taken by cross on elk river in 1954 and 1955 (k. u. 3464 and k. u. 3197). forty species were taken in big caney river, 35 in grouse creek and 31 in elk river. collections were made from only six stations on elk river as compared with 18 from big caney and 17 from grouse creek. twenty-four species were taken in the walnut river system, only one of which (_notemigonus crysoleucas_) was taken exclusively there. in the arkansas river 18 species were found, four of which did not occur elsewhere. these were _hybopsis aestivalis_, _notropis blennius_, _n. girardi_, and _fundulus kansae_. table 5 lists the number of stations in each of the streams surveyed from which each species was taken. table 5.--species of fishes collected and number of stations in each stream system at which each species was found. key: a: arkansas river 3 stations b: walnut river 5 stations c: grouse creek 17 stations d: big caney river 18 stations e: elk river 6 stations f: middle caney 2 stations g: beaver creek 3 stations ============================================================ total number | | | | | | | of stations | a | b | c | d | e | f | g --------------------+-------+---+----+----+--------+---+--- _l. osseus_ | 1 | 3 | 3 | 6 | seen | | _d. cepedianum_ | seen | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 1 | _carpiodes carpio_ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | _i. bubalus_ | | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | | _i. cyprinella_ | | | 1 | | | | _i. niger_ | | | | 2 | | | _m. erythrurum_ | | | 4 | 10 | 3 | | _m. melanops_ | | | 1 | 3 | 1 | | _cyprinus carpio_ | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 1 | | _c. anomalum_ | | 1 | 1 | 14 | 2 | | 1 _h. aestivalis_ | 1 | | | | | | _n. blennius_ | 2 | | | | | | _n. boops_ | | | 2 | 14 | 2 | 2 | _n. buchanani_ | | | 1 | | 1 | | _n. camurus_ | | | | 13 | 2 | | _n. deliciosus_ | 3 | 3 | | | | | _n. girardi_ | 2 | | | | | | _n. lutrensis_ | 3 | 4 | 13 | 14 | 5 | 1 | 3 _n. rubellus_ | | | | 11 | | | _n. percobromus_ | 3 | 3 | 1 | | | | _n. umbratilis_ | | | 8 | 18 | 4 | 2 | 2 _n. volucellus_ | | | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | _n. crysoleucas_ | | 1 | | | | | _h. placita_ | 3 | 2 | | | | | _p. mirabilis_ | | 1 | | 1 | | | _p. notatus_ | | 1 | 6 | 18 | 5 | 2 | 1 _p. promelas_ | 2 | 2 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 1 _p. vigilax_ | 1 | | | 3 | | 1 | _p. tenellus_ | | | 1 | 7 | 1 | 2 | _f. notatus_ | | 4 | 10 | 1 | 1 | | 1 _f. kansae_ | 2 | | | | | | _g. affinis_ | 3 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 1 | | _i. melas_ | 1 | 4 | 12 | 9 | 5 | | 3 _i. natalis_ | | | 6 | 3 | | | _i. punctatus_ | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 1 | | _p. olivaris_ | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | _e. spectabile_ | | 1 | 4 | 17 | 2 | | 1 _p. copelandi_ | | | 1 | 5 | | | _p. phoxocephala_ | | | 1 | 4 | | | _p. caprodes_ | | | 5 | 8 | 1 | | _m. salmoides_ | | | 4 | 2 | 3 | | 1 _m. punctulatus_ | | | | 7 | 1 | | _p. annularis_ | | 2 | 7 | 1 | 4 | 1 | _p. nigromaculatus_ | | | | 1 | | | _l. cyanellus_ | | 3 | 14 | 17 | 5 | 1 | 3 _l. humilis_ | 1 | 4 | 13 | 17 | 6 | 1 | 2 _l. megalotis_ | | 3 | 9 | 18 | 6 | 2 | 2 _l. macrochirus_ | | 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | | _a. grunniens_ | | | | 1 | 1 | | _l. sicculus_ | | | 5 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 1 -----------------------------------------------------------distributional variations within the same stream an analysis of faunal variations in different parts of the same stream system was made for big caney river and grouse creek. collecting was more extensive in these streams, and sampling was done over a wider range of habitat, than in the arkansas and walnut rivers. the fish taken in the first five seine hauls at each station were counted and the number of each species was recorded as a percentage of the total number of fish taken. these percentages were calculated for the main stream and for each tributary in an attempt to discern possible intra-stream faunal patterns. in table 6 lower, middle, and upper segments of each stream have been segregated and the average of all stations within each segment is shown. the results are subject to several sources of error, some of which are discussed below: (1) seining techniques could not be entirely standardized. one station might present a series of long narrow riffles and narrow, shallow pools in which only a small seine could be used effectively; another station might consist of a large, deep, isolated pool in which a larger seine was needed for effective sampling. in practice, the five seine hauls were made with any of several seines ranging from ten to twenty feet in length. (2) seines are species-selective, due partly to the preference of certain fishes for special habitat niches. fishes that are often found under stones or in weedy pools require special collecting techniques and frequently were not represented in the initial five hauls. if work subsequent to the first five hauls indicated that such fish were a prominent part of the fauna at a particular station, these results were considered before percentages were calculated. (3) temporal variations occur in populations at the same station. there were both seasonal and diurnal differences in relative numbers of species taken in these collections. this was noted especially at station c-5 where collecting was done both at night and by day. spawning by certain species during the course of the study complicated estimates of their relative abundance. (4) in tabulating percentages of fishes obtained an arbitrary element is often unavoidable in deciding whether a station, especially a station on a tributary, should be considered as part of the lower, middle, or upper segment of a river system. despite these disadvantages it is felt that table 6 has factual basis permitting some reliable interpretation. table 6.--relative abundance in per cent of fishes in collections from three stream segments. ==================================================================== | big caney river grouse creek |------------------------+---------------------- | lower | middle | upper | lower | middle | upper -------------------+-------+--------+-------+-------+--------+----- _l. osseus_ | .7 | .5 | | .6 | .02 | _d. cepedianum_ | .3 | | | | .02 | _carpiodes carpio_ | .06 | | | 1.0 | | _i. bubalus_ | .6 | .45 | | 1.4 | | _i. cyprinella_ | | | | .1 | | _i. niger_ | .01 | | | | | _m. erythrurum_ | .2 | 1.1 | 1.0 | .03 | .5 | 1.1 _m. melanops_ | .1 | .01 | | | .1 | _cyprinus carpio_ | .7 | | | 1.3 | .2 | _c. anomalum_ | .6 | 5.9 | 18.0 | | .1 | _n. boops_ | .6 | .6 | 5.1 | | 1.3 | _n. buchanani_ | | | | .01 | | _n. camurus_ | 6.4 | 5.5 | .4 | | | _n. lutrensis_ | 8.8 | 1.0 | .5 | 6.4 | 11.4 | 15.2 _n. percobromus_ | | | | 1.1 | | _n. rubellus_ | .4 | 1.4 | 3.9 | | | _n. umbratilis_ | 17.6 | 28.3 | 15.4 | 2.5 | 3.9 | 5.5 _n. volucellus_ | .3 | .4 | | | .3 | _p. mirabilis_ | .3 | | | | | _p. notatus_ | 3.5 | 5.7 | 13.0 | | .9 | 6.6 _p. vigilax_ | .8 | | | | | _p. promelas_ | | | | | | 2.9 _p. tenellus_ | .7 | .5 | | .01 | | _g. affinis_ | 14.6 | .4 | .4 | 20.8 | 10.2 | 1.0 _f. notatus_ | .1 | | | 6.6 | 17.2 | 1.4 _i. melas_ | .9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 5.6 | 2.3 | 18.0 _i. natalis_ | | | .5 | .5 | .8 | _p. olivaris_ | .01 | | | .01 | | _i. punctatus_ | .3 | | | .4 | | _e. spectabile_ | 1.9 | 4.9 | 18.0 | .4 | .3 | .3 _p. copelandi_ | .8 | .1 | | .01 | | _p. phoxocephala_ | .1 | | | .1 | | _p. caprodes_ | .4 | .6 | .2 | .2 | .2 | .4 _m. salmoides_ | .06 | | | | 1.1 | .3 _m. punctulatus_ | .5 | 1.7 | .4 | | | _p. annularis_ | 3.9 | .8 | | 2.9 | 4.2 | .3 _l. cyanellus_ | 3.4 | .8 | 6.6 | 5.2 | 1.8 | 30.5 _l. humilis_ | 10.6 | 13.1 | 1.8 | 31.4 | 17.7 | 14.8 _l. megalotis_ | 12.4 | 22.3 | 12.0 | 3.6 | 14.0 | 1.7 _l. macrochirus_ | .3 | | | .2 | 1.3 | _a. grunniens_ | .1 | | | | | _l. sicculus_ | 7.1 | 1.6 | .4 | 7.7 | 10.2 | -------------------------------------------------------------------_big caney river_ the "lower segment" of big caney river is immediately upstream from hulah reservoir, and is not the lowermost portion of the entire river basin, but merely the lower part of the river in the area studied. a conspicuous characteristic of the lower segment was the general restriction of the deep-bodied suckers and the carp to this part of the stream. other fishes that were most common in the lower section were _pimephales vigilax_, _percina phoxocephala_, _gambusia affinis_, and _aplodinotus grunniens_. _labidesthes sicculus_ and _lepisosteus osseus_ ranged into the middle section of the stream, but were present in larger numbers downstream. _ictalurus punctatus_, _pomoxis annularis_, and _lepomis macrochirus_ were taken chiefly in downstream habitats; however, stocking has confused the distributional pattern of these species. _notropis lutrensis_, although found throughout the system, progressively declined in numbers taken in the middle and upper sections. approximately 18 species were usually taken in downstream collections. no species were found exclusively in the middle section of the big caney system. _micropterus punctulatus_, _notropis umbratilis_, and _lepomis megalotis_ tended to be most common in the middle section of the main stream. these three species were taken together at stations c-5, c-6, c-8, and c-10. the upper section yielded no species that did not occur also in another section. fishes most abundant in the upper section included: _campostoma anomalum_, _etheostoma spectabile_, _notropis boops_, _notropis rubellus_, _pimephales notatus_, and _lepomis cyanellus_. _ictalurus natalis_ also seemed more common upstream than in lower parts of the basin. _campostoma anomalum_ was one of the most common fishes taken at many of the stations on small upland tributaries. in downstream collections its relative abundance was less, although it was often concentrated on riffles. in the big caney system as a whole _notropis umbratilis_ was the most abundant species. several species were present throughout the system in proportions varying, sometimes greatly, from station to station. _lepomis megalotis_ and _lepomis humilis_ were erratic in occurrence, and the numbers of _notropis camurus_ and _ictalurus melas_ varied without pattern. _grouse creek_ the fauna of the main stream of grouse creek fluctuated more in number and kinds of fish from station to station than did the fauna of big caney river. again, the deep-bodied suckers showed downstream proclivities. in addition, _notropis buchanani_, _pimephales tenellus_, _percina copelandi_, _percina phoxocephala_, _notropis percobromus_ and _pylodictis olivaris_ were taken only at the lowermost station (g-1). at stations g-2 and g-3 the creek is sluggish and often turbid, meandering between high mud banks in a flood plain. at these stations _fundulus notatus_, _gambusia affinis, la_-_bidesthes sicculus_, _ictalurus melas,_ and _lepomis humilis_ were the most common fishes. shiners (_notropis_ spp.) and _lepomis megalotis_ were rarely taken. hall (1953:36) states that _gambusia affinis_, _fundulus notatus_, and _labidesthes sicculus_ are usually associated with overflow pools, oxbows, and vegetated backwaters. those fishes mentioned in the preceding paragraph remained common in the middle section of the stream. in addition _notropis lutrensis_, _notropis umbratilis_, and _lepomis megalotis_ were important members of the fauna. in the uppermost section shiners (_notropis_ spp.) were common. in the few upstream stations that were still in good condition with clear flowing water, the fauna resembled that of the upstream stations on big caney river. most upstream stations on grouse creek were located on highly intermittent streams that are treated below. faunas of intermittent streams because of severe, protracted drought, most of the streams studied had ceased to flow by the close of the survey period. however, the duration of intermittency varied greatly in different streams, as did its effect in terms of the number and sizes of residual pools, water temperatures, pollution, and turbidity. crab creek, beaver creek, and a small unnamed tributary of grouse creek were severely affected by intermittency. their faunas are discussed below. in crab creek six collections were made from points near the mouth to the uppermost pool in which water was found. pools near the mouth were as large as thirty feet in width and ninety feet in length, while those that were uppermost were shallow puddles averaging ten feet in length and five feet in width. the uppermost station was situated in bluestem pasture without benefit of shade from trees. the species taken and their relative abundances based on five seine hauls at each station are shown in table 7. at the uppermost pool (g-17) only small green sunfish were found. at g-16, next downstream, this species was joined by large numbers of black bullheads and a few redfin shiners and red shiners. g-13 was similar to g-16, but two additional species occurred there. g-12 was a clear, deep pool much larger than any at the stations upstream. here, seven species were added to the fauna, and the percentages of _ictalurus melas_ and _lepomis cyanellus_ were much less. at g-10 _fundulus notatus_, _labidesthes sicculus_, and _minytrema melanops_ appeared. nevertheless, fewer species (10) were captured here than at station g-12 upstream. table 7.--percentages of fishes taken on crab creek. ==================================================================== stations | g-10 | g-11 | g-12 | g-13 | g-16 | g-17 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+----- _minytrema melanops_ | 8.7 | | | | | _labidesthes sicculus_ | 20.0 | 1.0 | | | | _fundulus notatus_ | 25.7 | 41.0 | | | | _ictalurus natalis_ | | 3.8 | .43| | | _pomoxis annularis_ | 8.8 | 11.8 | 1.9 | | | _lepomis humilis_ | 15.45| 9.9 | 8.5 | | | _micropterus salmoides_ | | | 1.9 | | | _etheostoma spectabile_ | 1.0 | | 1.9 | | | _percina caprodes_ | | | 3.8 | | | _moxostoma erythrurum_ | 1.0 | | 7.0 | | | _lepomis megalotis_ | 5.7 | 2.3 | 7.0 | 2.0 | | _pimephales notatus_ | | 34.0 | 9.0 | | | _ictalurus melas_ | 5.3 | .5 | 29.0 | 49.0 | | _notropis umbratilis_ | | 4.7 | 9.0 | 1.0 | | _notropis lutrensis_ | 20.6 | 26.0 | 25.0 | 14.0 | 1.0 | _lepomis cyanellus_ | 1.0 | | 1.9 | 34.0 | 49.0 | 100.0 --------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+----- table 8.--fish taken in nine pools on upper beaver creek (progressing from downstream to upstream). ===================================================================== | _notropis | _notropis | _lepomis | _lepomis | _ictalurus | umbratilis_ | lutrensis_| humilis_ | cyanellus_ | melas_ ------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+----------- pools:| | | | | 1 | 5 adults | 4 adults | adults | young | 1 juvenile | | 7 young | abundant | abundant | | | | | | 2 | 2 adults | 4 adults | 6 adults | young | | | | | abundant | | | | | | 3 | | 1 adult | 7 adults | 3 juveniles| 2 juveniles | | | | | 4 | | | 4 adults | young | young | | | | abundant | abundant | | | | | 5 | | | 2 adults | | | | | | | 6 | | | | 28 young | | | | | | 7 | | | | | | | | | | 8 | | | | | 1 adult | | | | | 9 | | | | | 1 adult -------+-------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------a series of collections similar to that on crab creek was carried out along 1-1/2 miles of beaver creek on july 22, 1956. nine pools were sampled (table 8) of which number nine was the uppermost point where water was found (except for farm ponds). mainly young of _lepomis cyanellus_ and _ictalurus melas_ were found in the uppermost stations, as on crab creek. only adults of _notropis lutrensis_ and _notropis umbratilis_ were taken. in another small intermittent tributary of grouse creek two collections (g-14 and g-15) were made. one was from several isolated pools near the source of the creek and the other was 1-1/2 miles upstream from the mouth. the two stations were approximately four miles apart. table 9 indicates approximate percentages of fish taken in five seine hauls at these stations. table 9.--fishes taken in a tributary of grouse creek. ================================================= species | upstream | downstream | station | station --------------------------+----------+---------- _ictalurus melas_ | 45% | _lepomis humilis_ | 48% | 40% _notropis lutrensis_ | 5% | 30% _lepomis cyanellus_ | 2% | 20% _fundulus notatus_ | | 10% --------------------------+----------+----------at two other stations, only _lepomis cyanellus_ was found. one of these stations consisted of several small spring-fed pools in a dry arroyo tributary to little beaver creek. around these small "oases" rushes and smartweeds grew and blackbirds were nesting in the rushes. although green sunfish up to eight inches in length were common in the shallow pools, no other species was found. the second station (c-17) on the east fork big caney river is of special interest. the pool was isolated, had dimensions of about 25ã�25 feet, and had an average depth of 15 inches. the water was foul; cows had been fed fodder in a sheltered area above the pool during the preceding winter and the entire bottom was covered to a depth of 6 inches to 1 foot with a detritus of decomposing fodder, cattle feces, and leaves. the water became almost inky in consistency when the bottom was stirred and its odor was offensive. a thick gray-green bloom lay on the surface. this bloom was full of bubbles indicating gases rising from the bottom muds. one hundred fifty-three green sunfish, all less than 5 inches in length, were taken in one seine-haul at this station. east-west distribution in the arkansas river system in kansas there are marked differences between fish faunas of the western and eastern parts of the state. this can be illustrated by comparison of spring river in cherokee county with the cimarron river in southwestern kansas. single collections from spring river or its tributaries usually contain 25 or more species of fish. collections from the cimarron rarely contain more than five or six species. many of those fishes found in spring river are characteristic of an ozarkian fauna, and some are endemic to the ozark uplands. fish found in the cimarron or arkansas in western kansas are members of a plains fauna of wide distribution. there is mingling of these two faunal groups across the state, with the number of ozarkian species diminishing westward, and certain plains species diminishing eastward. a number of species such as _moxostoma duquesnii_ and _notropis spilopterus_ are limited, on the basis of present records, to spring river and its tributaries in kansas. others have not been taken west of the neosho drainage. the verdigris river provides the next major avenue of westward dispersal followed by caney river, grouse creek, and the walnut river. west of the walnut river system ozarkian species have been almost always absent from collections. the chikaskia river is somewhat exceptional. moore and buck (1953) reported from this river several species that seem more typical of eastern faunal associations. table 10 indicates the stream system in which the present westernmost records are located for a number of fishes found in the arkansas river system in kansas. table 10.--present westernmost records of some fishes in the arkansas river basin in kansas. spring river _cottus carolinae_ _dionda nubila_ _etheostoma blennioides_ _etheostoma gracile_ _etheostoma nigrum nigrum_ _etheostoma punctulatum_ _etheostoma saxatile_ _hypentelium nigricans_ _moxostoma duquesnii_ _notropis spilopterus_ _noturus exilis_ neosho river _cycleptus elongatus_ _etheostoma chlorosomum_ _etheostoma flabellare lineolatum_ _hybopsis amblops_ _hybopsis biguttata_ _hybopsis x-punctata_ _notropis zonatus pilsbryi_ verdigris river _etheostoma whipplii_ _etheostoma zonale arcansanum_ _percina copelandi_ _moxostoma carinatum_ _notropis boops_ _notropis volucellus_ _noturus miurus_ chikaskia river _ictalurus natalis_ _percina phoxocephala_ _labidesthes sicculus_ _lepomis megalotis breviceps_ _micropterus punctulatus_ _moxostoma aureolum pisolabrum_ _moxostoma erythrurum_ _notropis camurus_ _pimephales notatus_ _pimephales tenellus_ _noturus nocturnus_ the westernmost records for seven species are in the area studied. 1. _lepisosteus platostomus._ 2. _carpiodes velifer._ 3. _moxostoma carinatum._ 4. _minytrema melanops._ one specimen taken at station g-10 near the mouth of crab creek constitutes the present westernmost record. a specimen has been taken by cross (c-24-51) in the headwaters of the walnut river. 5. _notropis boops._ the westernmost record is station g-5 on grouse creek. this fish has been reported slightly west of this in oklahoma on big beaver creek in kay county (number 4776, oklahoma a & m college museum of zoology). 6. _notropis volucellus._ two specimens were taken at station g-8 on silver creek. 7. _percina copelandi._ the westernmost record is from station g-1, two miles above the mouth of grouse creek. the easternmost occurrences of four species are in the area studied. these species are _hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus_ (station a-2), _notropis blennius_ (station a-1), _notropis girardi_ (station a-2), and _fundulus kansae_ (station a-2 and walnut river). these fish are associated with the arkansas river proper and its sandy western tributaries. in oklahoma, these fish are found in the arkansas river as it proceeds eastward and in the downstream portions of some of its tributaries. these fish show little tendency to ascend the streams of the flint hills. summary the fish fauna of the area studied is transitional between the ozarkian and great plains faunas. fluctuation in water level seemed especially important in determining distribution of fishes in the area studied. variable climate characteristic of the region studied causes recurrent floods and intermittency in streams. both of these conditions have probably been accentuated by man's modifications of the habitat. the effects of intermittency were most strikingly demonstrated in small creeks of the uplands. the number of species of fish in the highly intermittent streams was small--especially in the uppermost pools sampled--but the actual number of fish was often high even though the number of species was low. in several instances the only fishes found in these isolated pools were _lepomis cyanellus_ and _ictalurus melas_. this phenomenon of concentrated numbers of individuals of a few species would indicate the presence of limiting factors that allow only those species most tolerant of the particular factor to flourish. soon after rains restored flow in these intermittent creeks _l. cyanellus_ and _i. melas_ appeared in parts of the channels that had previously been several miles from the nearest water. rapid upstream movements of other species after rains was also noted. it was impossible to ascertain the precise effects of gradient and bottom-type on distribution, but certain species such as _notropis blennius_, _notropis girardi_, and _fundulus kansae_ were taken only in streams with sandy bottoms. _notropis deliciosus_ and _hybognathus placita_ were most abundant over sandy bottoms. the high gradient of upland tributaries in the flint hills area produced turbulence and bottoms predominantly of rubble. a fauna of which _etheostoma spectabile_ and _campostoma anomalum_ were characteristic existed in these waters while they were flowing. as flow decreased and intermittency commenced, qualitative and quantitative changes in the fish faunas were observed. gradient did not change during drought, but turbulence did. because turbulence varies with water level as well as gradient, the effect of gradient on fish distribution ultimately is linked to climate. probably the small number of fish taken on the walnut river in comparison with other eastern kansas rivers (verdigris, neosho) results, in part, from the long-term pollution of the stream noted by clapp (1920:33) and doze (1924). no percid fishes, black bass, or madtom catfish were taken on the walnut in cowley county and the species of _notropis_ numbered only three. four faunal associations seem to be recognizable in the area. _arkansas river fauna_ this fauna contained _notropis girardi_, _notropis blennius_, _hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus_, and _fundulus kansae_ which, in this area, did not seem to wander far from the sandy main stream of the arkansas. minnows abounded; _notropis lutrensis_ and _n. deliciosus missuriensis_ predominated; and _notropis girardi_, _n. percobromus_, and _hybognathus placita_ were common. in quiet backwaters, coves, and shallow pools _gambusia affinis_ occurred in great numbers. _lepisosteus osseus_ seemed to be the most important predator. _lower walnut river fauna_ the walnut river in cowley county supported large populations of deep-bodied suckers, carp, and gar. _notropis lutrensis_ and _n. percobromus_ were characteristic minnows. _lepomis_ _humilis_ abounded at some stations. the fauna of the main stream of the walnut river was somewhat intermediate between that of the arkansas river and that of the three streams considered below. fifteen of the species common to the big caney, elk, and grouse systems were also taken in the walnut river main stream. thirteen species were common to the walnut and arkansas rivers. seven species were common to all these streams. _caney-elk-grouse main stream fauna_ this fauna includes fishes living not only in the main streams but also in the lower parts of the larger tributaries of these streams. the fauna was comparatively rich: in the main stream of big caney river 39 species were taken, in grouse creek 35 species, in the walnut river main stream 21 species, and in the arkansas river 19 species. it has been pointed out that large rivers such as the walnut and arkansas have been subjected to greater direct and indirect modification by man, possibly resulting in a less diverse fauna than would otherwise occur in these streams. at present, there is a paucity of ecological niches in the upland tributaries and large rivers, as compared with streams of intermediate size. fishes typical of the caney-elk-grouse association were _notropis umbratilis_, _lepomis megalotis_, _lepomis humilis_, _labidesthes sicculus_, _fundulus notatus_, and the two species of _micropterus (micropterus punctulatus_ was not taken in grouse creek). _upland tributary fauna_ tributary faunas were divisible into two categories: (1) those of the walnut river and grouse creek (intermittency was severe, species were few, with _ictalurus melas_ and _lepomis cyanellus_ predominating); (2) those of big caney river (stream-flow was more stable, and eastern fishes, some of which have ozarkian affinities, occurred in greater abundance than in any other part of the area surveyed). in the latter streams _campostoma anomalum_ and _etheostoma spectabile_ usually were dominant. _pimephales notatus_, _notropis volucellus_, _n. camurus_, _n. boops_, and _n. rubellus_ characteristically occurred. _notropis lutrensis_ was sparsely represented in flowing tributaries. _notropis umbratilis_, which seems to prefer habitats intermediate between those of _notropis lutrensis_ and ozarkian shiners, was usually represented. deep-bodied suckers and carp were not taken in upland tributaries but _moxostoma erythrurum_ was common and _minytrema melanops_ was taken. the kinds and numbers of shiners (_notropis_) taken at different points along grouse creek seem significant. _n. lutrensis_ and _n. umbratilis_ occurred throughout the stream but were rare in sluggish areas where populations of _gambusia affinis_, _fundulus notatus_, and _labidesthes sicculus_ flourished. at the lowermost station _notropis percobromus_ and _n. buchanani_ were taken; these were not present in other collections. in the uppermost stations where water remained plentiful, _n. boops_ and _n. volucellus_ were taken, and _n. rubellus_ has been recorded. in the broader distributional sense those fishes that seemed most tolerant of intermittency (_lepomis cyanellus_, _lepomis humilis_, _ictalurus melas_, _notropis lutrensis_) are widely distributed in the arkansas river basin, and are common in the western part of the arkansas river basin. species less tolerant of intermittency are _notropis boops_, _notropis camurus_, _notropis rubellus_, _notropis volucellus_, and _pimephales tenellus_; they have not been taken far west of the area studied, and become more common east of it. literature cited bass, n. w. 1929. the geology of cowley county, kansas. kansas geol. survey bull., 12:1-203, 23 figs., 12 pls. bieber, r. p. 1932. frontier life in the army, 1854-1861. southwest historical series, 2:1-330. breukelman, j. 1940. a collection of fishes in the state university museum. trans. kansas acad. sci., 43:377-384. buck, h., and cross, f. b. 1951. early limnological and fish population conditions of canton reservoir, oklahoma, and fishery management recommendations. a report to the oklahoma game and fish council reprinted by the research foundation, oklahoma a&m college. 110 pp., 17 figs. caldwell, m. b. 1937. the southern kansas boundary survey. kansas hist. quart., 6:339-377. clapp, a. 1920. stream pollution. kansas fish and game department bull., 6:33. cross, f. b. 1950. effects of sewage and of a headwaters impoundment on the fishes of stillwater creek in payne county, oklahoma. amer. midl. nat., 43 (1):128-145, 1 fig. 1954a. fishes of cedar creek and the south fork of the cottonwood river, chase county, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci. 57:303-314. 1954b. records of fishes little-known from kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci. 57:473-479. cross, f. b., and moore, g. a. 1952. the fishes of the poteau river, oklahoma and arkansas. american midl. nat., 47 (2):396-412. doze, j. b. 1924. stream pollution. bien. report. kansas fish and game dept. 5:1-42. elkin, r. e. 1954. the fish population of two cut-off pools in salt creek, osage county, oklahoma. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 35:25-29. elliott, a. 1947. a preliminary survey and ecological study of the fishes of the south ninnescah and spring creek. unpublished thesis, kansas state college. evermann, b. w., and fordice, m. w. 1886. list of fishes collected in harvey and cowley counties, kansas. bull. washburn lab. nat. hist., 1:184-186. flora, s. d. 1948. climate of kansas. rept. kansas state board agric. 67:xii-320, illus. foley, f. c., smrha, r. v., and metzler, d. f. 1955. water in kansas. a report to the kansas state legislature as directed by the kansas state finance council. university of kansas, pp. 1-216--a1-j6. frye, j. c., and leonard, a. b. 1952. pleistocene geology of kansas. bull. kansas geol. surv., 99:1-230. 17 figs., 19 pls. funk, j. l., and campbell, r. s. 1953. the population of larger fishes in black river, missouri. univ. missouri studies, 26:69-82. gates, f. c. 1936. grasses in kansas. rept. kansas state board agric., 55 (220-a):1-349, frontispiece, 270 figs., 224 maps. graham, i. d. 1885. preliminary list of kansas fishes. trans. kansas acad. sci., 9:69-78. hale, m. e., jr. 1955. a survey of upland forests in the chautauqua hills, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 58:165-168. hall, g. e. 1952. observations on the fishes of the fort gibson and tenkiller reservoir areas, 1952. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 33:55-63. 1953. preliminary observations on the presence of stream-inhabiting fishes in tenkiller reservoir, a new oklahoma impoundment. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 34:34-40. hoyle, w. l. 1936. notes on faunal collecting in kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 39:283-293. hubbs, c. l., and ortenburger, a. i. 1929a. further notes on the fishes of oklahoma with descriptions of new species of cyprinidae. publ. univ. oklahoma biol. surv., 1(2):17-43. 1929b. fishes collected in oklahoma and arkansas in 1927. publ. univ. oklahoma biol. surv., 1 (3):47-112, 13 pls. hubbs, c. l., and lagler, k. f. 1947. fishes of the great lakes region. cranbrook inst. sci. bull., 26 (revised edition):i-xi-1-186, illus. jewett, j. m., and abernathy, g. e. 1945. oil and gas in eastern kansas. bull. kansas geol. survey, 57:1-244, 21 figs., 4 pls. metzler, d. f. 1952. water pollution report, walnut river basin. department of sanitation, kansas state board of health (unpublished), 64 pp. miller, n. h. 1932. surveying the southern boundary line of kansas. kansas hist. quarterly, 1:104-139. moore, g. a. 1944. notes on the early life history of _notropis girardi_. copeia, 1944 (4):209-214, 4 figs. moore, g. a., and cross, f. b. 1950. additional oklahoma fishes with validation of _poecilichthys parvipinnis_ (gilbert and swain). copeia, 1950 (2):139-148. moore, g. a., and paden, j. m. 1950. the fishes of the illinois river in oklahoma and arkansas. amer. midl. nat, 44:76-95, 1 fig. moore, g. a., and buck, d. h. 1953. the fishes of the chikaskia river in oklahoma and kansas. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 34:19-27. moore, r. c. 1949. divisions of the pennsylvanian system in kansas. bull. kansas geol. survey, 83:1-203, 37 figs. moore, r. c., frye, j. c., jewett, j. m., lee, w., and o'conner, h. g. 1951. the kansas rock column. bull. kansas geol. survey, 89:1-132, 52 figs. mooso, j. 1888. the life and travels of josiah mooso. telegram post, winfield, kansas, pp. 1-400. ortenburger, a. i., and hubbs, c. l. 1926. a report on the fishes of oklahoma, with descriptions of new genera and species. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 6:132-141. schelske, c. l. 1957. an ecological study of the fishes of the fall and verdigris rivers in wilson and montgomery counties, kansas, march 1954, to february 1955. emporia state research studies, 5(3):31-56. schoonover, r., and thompson, w. h. 1954. a post-impoundment study of the fisheries resources of fall river reservoir, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 57:172-179. trautman, m. b. 1951. _moxostoma aureolum pisolabrum_, a new subspecies of sucker from the ozarkian streams of the mississippi river system. occ. papers mus. zool. univ. michigan, 534:1-10, 1 pl. _transmitted december 19, 1958._ 27-7079 university of kansas publications museum of natural history institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the exchange librarian, university of kansas library, lawrence, kansas. copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the museum of natural history, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. there is no provision for sale of this series by the university library which meets institutional requests, or by the museum of natural history which meets the requests of individuals. however, when individuals request copies from the museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * an asterisk designates those numbers of which the museum's supply (not the library's supply) is exhausted. numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: vol. 1. nos. 1-26 and index. pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *vol. 2. (complete) mammals of washington. by walter w. dalquest. pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. april 9, 1948. vol. 3. *1. the avifauna of micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. by rollin h. baker. pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. june 12, 1951. *2. a quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. by george h. lowery, jr. pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. june 29, 1951. 3. phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. by m. dale arvey. pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. october 10, 1951. 4. birds from the state of veracruz, mexico. by george h. lowery, jr., and walter w. dalquest. pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. october 10, 1951. index. pp. 651-681. *vol. 4. (complete) american weasels. by e. raymond hall. pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. december 27, 1951. vol. 5. nos. 1-37 and index. pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *vol. 6. (complete) mammals of utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. by stephen d. durrant. pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. august 10, 1952. vol. 7. *1. mammals of kansas. by e. lendell cockrum. pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. august 25, 1952. 2. ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch and lewis l. sandidge. pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. august 24, 1953. 3. the silky pocket mice (perognathus flavus) of mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. february 15, 1954. 4. north american jumping mice (genus zapus). by philip h. krutzsch. pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. april 21, 1954. 5. mammals from southeastern alaska. by rollin h. baker and james s. findley. pp. 473-477. april 21, 1954. 6. distribution of some nebraskan mammals. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 479-487. april 21, 1954. 7. subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse. microtus montanus, in wyoming and colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. july 23, 1954. 8. a new subspecies of bat (myotis velifer) from southeastern california and arizona. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 507-512. july 23, 1954. 9. mammals of the san gabriel mountains of california. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. november 15, 1954. 10. a new bat (genus pipistrellus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 583-586. november 15, 1954. 11. a new subspecies of pocket mouse from kansas. by e. raymond hall. pp. 587-590. november 15, 1954. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, cratogeomys castanops, in coahuila, mexico. by robert j. russell and rollin h. baker. pp. 591-608. march 15, 1955. 13. a new cottontail (sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 609-612. april 8, 1955. 14. taxonomy and distribution of some american shrews. by james s. findley. pp. 613-618. june 10, 1955. 15. the pigmy woodrat, neotoma goldmani, its distribution and systematic position. by dennis g. rainey and rollin h. baker. pp. 619-624, 2 figures in text. june 10, 1955. index. pp. 625-651. vol. 8. 1. life history and ecology of the five-lined skink, eumeces fasciatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 1-156, 26 figs, in text. september 1, 1954. 2. myology and serology of the avian family fringillidae, a taxonomic study. by william b. stallcup. pp. 157-211, 23 figures in text, 4 tables. november 15, 1954. 3. an ecological study of the collared lizard (crotaphytus collaris). by henry s. fitch. pp. 213-274, 10 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 4. a field study of the kansas ant-eating frog, gastrophryne olivacea. by henry s. fitch. pp. 275-306, 9 figures in text. february 10, 1956. 5. check-list of the birds of kansas. by harrison b. tordoff. pp. 307-359, 1 figure in text. march 10, 1956. 6. a population study of the prairie vole (microtus ochrogaster) in northeastern kansas. by edwin p. martin. pp. 361-416, 19 figures in text. april 2, 1956. 7. temperature responses in free-living amphibians and reptiles of northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch. pp. 417-476, 10 figures in text, 6 tables. june 1, 1956. 8. food of the crow, corvus brachyrhynchos brehm, in south-central kansas. by dwight platt. pp. 477-498, 4 tables. june 8, 1956. 9. ecological observations on the woodrat, neotoma floridana. by henry s. fitch and dennis g. rainey. pp. 499-533, 3 figures in text. june 12, 1956. 10. eastern woodrat, neotoma floridana: life history and ecology. by dennis g. rainey. pp. 535-646, 12 plates, 13 figures in text. august 15, 1956. index. pp. 647-675. vol. 9. 1. speciation of the wandering shrew. by james s. findley. pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. december 10, 1955. 2. additional records and extensions of ranges of mammals from utah. by stephen d, durrant, m. raymond lee, and richard m. hansen. pp. 69-80. december 10, 1955. 3. a new long-eared myotis (myotis evotis) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker and howard j. stains. pp. 81-84. december 10, 1955. 4. subspeciation in the meadow mouse, microtus pennsylvanicus, in wyoming. by sydney anderson. pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. may 10, 1956. 5. the condylarth genus ellipsodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 6. additional remains of the multituberculate genus eucosmodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 7. mammals of coahuila, mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. june 15, 1956. 8. comments on the taxonomic status of apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from north china. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. august 15, 1956. 9. extensions of known ranges of mexican bats. by sydney anderson. pp. 347-351. august 15, 1956. 10. a new bat (genus leptonycteris) from coahuila. by howard j. stains. pp. 353-356. january 21, 1957. 11. a new species of pocket gopher (genus pappogeomys) from jalisco, mexico. by robert j. russell. pp. 357-361. january 21, 1957. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, thomomys bottae, in colorado. by phillip m. youngman. pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. february 21, 1958. 13. new bog lemming (genus synaptomys) from nebraska. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 385-388. may 12, 1958. 14. pleistocene bats from san josecito cave, nuevo leon, mexico. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 389-396. december 19, 1958. 15. new subspecies of the rodent baiomys from central america. by robert l. packard. pp. 397-404. december 19, 1958. more numbers will appear in volume 9. vol. 10. 1. studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. by harrison b. tordoff and robert m. mengel. pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. september 12, 1956. 2. comparative breeding behavior of ammospiza caudacuta and a. maritima. by glen e. woolfenden. pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. december 20, 1956. 3. the forest habitat of the university of kansas natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch and ronald r. mcgregor. pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. december 31, 1956. 4. aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (microtus ochrogaster). by henry s. fitch. pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. december 19, 1957. 5. birds found on the arctic slope of northern alaska. by james w. bee. pp. 163-211, pls. 9-10, 1 figure in text. march 12, 1958. 6. the wood rats of colorado: distribution and ecology. by robert b. finley, jr. pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. november 7, 1958. more number will appear in volume 10. vol. 11. 1. the systematic status of the colubrid snake, leptodeira discolor gã¼nther. by william e. duellman. pp. 1-9, 4 figs. july 14, 1958. 2. natural history of the six-lined racerunner, cnemidophorus sexlineatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 11-62, 9 figs., 9 tables. september 19, 1958. 3. home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch. pp. 63-326, 6 plates, 24 figures in text, 3 tables. december 12, 1958. 4. a new snake of the genus geophis from chihuahua, mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 327-334, 2 figures in text. january 28, 1959. 5. a new tortoise, genus gopherus, from north-central mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 335-343, 2 plates. april 24, 1959. 6. fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. by artie l. metcalf. pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figures in text, 10 tables. may 6, 1959. more numbers will appear in volume 11. * * * * * transcriber's notes 1. passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_. 2. passages in bold-italics are surrounded by #bold#. 3. images and tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break. university of kansas publications museum of natural history volume 13, no. 9, pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figs. august 11, 1961 fish populations, following a drought, in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers of kansas by james everett deacon (joint contribution from the state biological survey and the forestry, fish, and game commission) university of kansas lawrence 1961 university of kansas publications, museum of natural history editors: e. raymond hall, chairman, henry s. fitch, robert w. wilson volume 13, no. 9, pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figs. published august 11, 1961 university of kansas lawrence, kansas printed in the state printing plant topeka, kansas 1961 28-7576 fish populations, following a drought, in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers of kansas by james everett deacon contents page introduction 363 description of neosho river 366 description of marais des cygnes river 367 methods 368 electrical fishing gear 368 seines 369 gill nets 370 sodium cyanide 370 rotenone 370 dyes 370 determination of abundance 371 names of fishes 371 annotated list of species 371 fish-fauna of the upper neosho river 405 description of study-areas 405 methods 406 changes in the fauna at the upper neosho station, 1957 through 1959 407 local variability of the fauna in different areas at the upper neosho station, 1959 409 temporal variability of fauna in the same areas 411 population-estimation 412 movement of marked fish 416 similarity of the fauna at the upper neosho station to the faunas of nearby streams 418 comparison of the fish-faunas of the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers 419 faunal changes, 1957 through 1959 420 conclusions 423 acknowledgments 425 literature cited 425 tables page 1. stream-flow in cubic feet per second (c. f. s.), neosho river near council grove, kansas 364 2. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, neosho river near parsons, kansas 364 3. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, marais des cygnes river near ottawa, kansas 364 4. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, marais des cygnes river at trading post, kansas 365 5. numbers and sizes of long-nosed gar 372 6. numbers and sizes of short-nosed gar 374 7. length-frequency of channel catfish from the neosho river 388 8. length-frequency of freshwater drum 402 9. average number of individuals captured per hour 402 10. numbers of fish seen or captured per hour 403 11. numbers of occurrences and numbers counted 404 12. percentage composition of the fish fauna at the upper neosho station in 1957, 1958 and 1959, as computed from results of rotenone collections 408 13. relative abundance of fish 410 14. changes in numbers of individuals 411 15. data used in making direct proportion population-estimations 414 16. data on movement of marked fish 416 introduction this report concerns the ability of fish-populations in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers in kansas to readjust to continuous stream-flow following intermittent conditions resulting from the severest drought in the history of the state. the variable weather in kansas (and in other areas of the great plains) markedly affects its flora and fauna. weaver and albertson (1936) reported as much as 91 per cent loss in the basal prairie vegetative cover in kansas near the close of the drought of the 1930's. the average annual cost (in 1951 prices) of floods in kansas from 1926 to 1953 was $35,000,000. in the same period the average annual loss from the droughts of the 1930's and 1950's was $75,000,000 (in 1951 prices), excluding losses from windand soil-erosion. thus, over a period of 28 years, the average annual flood-losses were less than one-half the average annual drought-losses (foley, smrha, and metzler, 1955:9; anonymous, 1958:15). weather conditions in kansas from 1951 to 1957 were especially noteworthy: 1951 produced a bumper crop of climatological events significant to the economy of the state. notable among these were: wettest year since beginning of the state-wide weather records in 1887; highest river stages since settlement of the state on the kansas river and on most of its tributaries, as well as on the marais des cygnes and on the neosho and cottonwood. the upper arkansas and a number of smaller streams in western kansas also experienced unprecedented flooding (garrett, 1951:147). this period of damaging floods was immediately followed by the driest five-year period on record, culminating in the driest year in 1956 (garrett, 1958:56). water shortage became serious for many communities. the neosho river usually furnishes adequate quantities of water for present demands, but in some years of drought all flow ceases for several consecutive months. in 1956-'57, the city of chanute, on an emergency basis, recirculated treated sewage for potable supply (metzler _et al._, 1958). the water shortage in many communities along the neosho river became so serious that a joint project to pump water from the smoky hill river into the upper neosho was considered, and preliminary investigations were made. if the drought had continued through 1957, this program might have been vigorously promoted. data on stream-flow in the neosho and marais des cygnes (1951-'59) are presented in tables 1-4. these severe conditions provided a unique opportunity to gain insight into the ability of several species of fish to adjust to marked changes in their environment. for this reason, and because of a paucity of information concerning stream-fish populations in kansas, the study here reported on was undertaken. table 1. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, neosho river near council grove, kansas. drainage area: 250 square miles. ========================================================= water-year[a] | average flow | maximum | minimum | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ 1951 | 498.0 | 121,000 | 3.0 | 1952 | 82.1 | 4,850 | .7 | 1953 | 5.37 | 202 | .1 | 1954 | 8.53 | 2,720 | .1 | 1955 | 31.2 | 6,480 | 0 | 1956 | 10.1 | 5,250 | 0 | 1957 | 68.5 | 12,300 | 0 | 1958 | 131.0 | 5,360 | .8 | 1959 | 114.0 | 7,250 | 8.5 | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ table 2. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, neosho river near parsons, kansas. drainage area: 4905 square miles. ========================================================= water-year[b] | average flow | maximum | minimum | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ 1951 | 8,290 | 410,000 | 124.0 | 1952 | 2,021 | 20,500 | 20.0 | 1953 | 173 | 4,110 | .3 | 1954 | 430 | 27,900 | .1 | 1955 | 645 | 18,600 | 0 | 1956 | 180 | 6,170 | 0 | 1957 | 1,774 | 25,000 | 0 | 1958 | 3,092 | 27,200 | 78.0 | 1959 | 1,609 | 22,600 | 139.0 | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ table 3. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, marais des cygnes river near ottawa, kansas. drainage area: 1,250 square miles. ========================================================= water-year | average flow | maximum | minimum | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ 1951 | 2,113 | 142,000 | 25.0 | 1952 | 542 | 12,000 | .2 | 1953 | 36.5 | 2,690 | .2 | 1954 | 73.6 | 5,660 | .5 | 1955 | 75.7 | 5,240 | .7 | 1956 | 26 | 1,590 | .7 | 1957 | 442 | 11,200 | .7 | 1958 | 775 | 9,130 | 5.6 | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ table 4. stream-flow in cubic feet per second, marais des cygnes river at trading post, kansas. drainage area: 2,880 square miles. ========================================================= water-year | average flow | maximum | minimum | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ 1951 | 5,489 | 148,000 | 36.0 | 1952 | 1,750 | 20,400 | 3.0 | 1953 | 261 | 7,590 | 0 | 1954 | 334 | 12,500 | 0 | 1955 | 786 | 16,100 | .2 | 1956 | 202 | 10,000 | 0 | 1957 | 871 | 14,700 | 0 | 1958 | 2,453 | 20,400 | 120.0 | [c]1959 | 750 | 10,900 | 3.4 | ---------------+--------------+------------+------------+ [a] (oct. 1-sept. 30, inclusive) [b] (oct. 1-sept. 30, inclusive) [c] the gaging station was moved a short distance downstream to the kansas-missouri state line. description of neosho river the neosho river, a tributary of arkansas river, rises in the flint hills of morris and southwestern wabaunsee counties and flows southeast for 281 miles in kansas, leaving the state in the extreme southeast corner (fig. 1). with its tributaries (including cottonwood and spring rivers) the neosho drains 6,285 square miles in kansas and enters the arkansas river near muskogee, oklahoma (schoewe, 1951:299). upstream from its confluence with cottonwood river, the neosho river has an average gradient of 15 feet per mile. the gradient lessens rapidly below the mouth of the cottonwood, averaging 1.35 feet per mile downstream to the state line (anonymous, 1947:12). the banks of the meandering, well-defined channel vary from 15 to 50 feet in height and support a deciduous fringe-forest. the spelling of the name originally was "neozho," an osage indian word signifying "clear water" (mead, 1903:216). [illustration: fig. 1. neosho and marais des cygnes drainage systems. dots and circles indicate collecting-stations.] _neosho river, upper station._--two miles north and two miles west of council grove, morris county, kansas (sec. 32 and 33, t. 15 s., r. 8 e.) (pl. 28, fig. 2, and pl. 29, fig. 1). width 20 to 40 feet, depth to six feet, length of study-area one-half mile (one large pool plus many small pools connected by riffles), bottom of mud, gravel, and rubble. muddy banks 20 to 30 feet high. according to h. e. bosch (landowner) this section of the river dried completely in 1956, except for the large pool mentioned above. this section was intermittent in 1954 and 1955; it again became intermittent in the late summer of 1957 but not in 1958 or 1959. a second section two miles downstream (on land owned by herbert white) was studied in the summer of 1959 (sec. 3 and 10, t. 16 s., r. 8 e.) (pl. 29, fig. 2 and pl. 30, figs. 1 and 2). this section is 20 to 60 feet in width, to five feet in depth, one-half mile in length (six small pools with intervening riffles bounded upstream by a low-head dam and downstream by a long pool), having a bottom of gravel, rubble, bedrock, and mud, and banks of mud and rock, five to 20 feet in height. _neosho river, middle station._--one mile east and one and one-half miles south of neosho falls, woodson county, kansas (sec. 3 and 4, t. 24 s., r. 17 e.) (pl. 26, fig. 1). width 60 to 70 feet, depth to eleven feet, length of study-area two miles (four large pools with connecting riffles), bottom of mud, gravel and rock. mud and rock banks 30 to 40 feet high. according to floyd meats (landowner) this section of the river was intermittent for part of the drought. _neosho river, lower station._--two and one-half miles west, one-half mile north of saint paul, neosho county, kansas (sec. 16, t. 29 s., r. 20 e.). width 100 to 125 feet, depth to ten feet, length of study-area one mile (two large pools connected by a long rubble-gravel riffle), bottom of mud, gravel, and rock. banks, of mud and rock, 30 to 40 feet high (pl. 26, fig. 2). this station was established after one collection of fishes was made approximately ten miles upstream (sec. 35, t. 28 s., r. 19 e.). the second site, suggested by ernest craig, game protector, provided greater accessibility and a more representative section of stream than the original locality. description of marais des cygnes river the marais des cygnes river, a tributary of missouri river, rises in the flint hills of wabaunsee county, kansas, and flows generally eastward through the southern part of osage county and the middle of franklin county. the river then takes a southeasterly course through miami county and the northeastern part of linn county, leaving the state northeast of pleasanton. with its tributaries (dragoon, salt, pottawatomie, bull and big sugar creeks) the river drains 4,360 square miles in kansas (anonymous, 1945:23), comprising the major part of the area between the watersheds of the kansas and neosho rivers. the gradient from the headwaters to quenemo is more than five feet per mile, from quenemo to osawatomie 1.53 feet per mile, and from osawatomie to the state line 1.10 feet per mile (anonymous, 1945:24). the total length is approximately 475 miles (150 miles in kansas). the river flows in a highly-meandering, well-defined channel that has been entrenched from 50 to 250 feet (schoewe, 1951:294). "marais des cygnes" is of french origin, signifying "the marsh of the swans." _marais des cygnes river, upper station._--one mile south and one mile west of pomona, franklin county, kansas (sec. 12, t. 17 s., r. 17 e.) (pl. 27, fig. 1). width 30 to 40 feet, depth to six feet, length of study-area one-half mile (three large pools with short connecting riffles), bottom of mud and bedrock. mud banks 30 to 40 feet high. according to p. lindsey (landowner) this section of the river was intermittent for most of the drought. flow was continuous in 1957, 1958 and 1959. there are four low-head dams between the upper and middle marais des cygnes stations. _marais des cygnes river, middle station._--one mile east of ottawa, franklin county, kansas (sec. 6, t. 17 s., r. 20 e.) (pl. 27, fig. 2). width 50 to 60 feet, depth to eight feet, length of study-area one-half mile (one large pool plus a long riffle interrupted by several small pools), bottom of mud, gravel, and rock. mud and sand banks 30 to 40 feet high. this section of the river was intermittent for much of the drought. in the winter of 1957-'58 a bridge was constructed over this station as a part of interstate highway 35. because of this construction many trees were removed from the stream-banks, the channel was straightened, a gravel-bottomed riffle was rerouted, and silt was deposited in a gravel-bottom pool. _marais des cygnes river, lower station._--at eastern edge of marais des cygnes wildlife refuge, linn county, kansas (sec. 9, t. 21 s., r. 25 e.). width 80 to 100 feet, depth to eight feet, length of study-area one-half mile (one large pool plus a long riffle interrupted by several small pools), bottom of mud, gravel, and rock. mud banks 40 to 50 feet high. this section of the river ceased to flow only briefly in 1956. methods _electrical fishing gear_ the principal collecting-device used was a portable (600-watt, 110-volt, a. c.) electric shocker carried in a 12-foot aluminum boat. two 2 ã� 2-inch wooden booms, each ten feet long, were attached to the front of the boat in a "v" position so they normally were two feet above the surface of the water. a nylon rope attached to the tips of the booms held them ten feet apart. electrodes, six feet long, were suspended from the tip and center of each boom, and two electrodes were suspended from the nylon rope. the electrodes extended approximately four feet into the water. of various materials used for electrodes, the most satisfactory was a neoprene-core, shielded hydraulic hose in sections two feet long. these lengths could be screwed together, permitting adjustment of the length of the electrodes with minimum effort. at night, a sealed-beam automobile headlight was plugged into a six-volt d. c. outlet in the generating unit and a coleman lantern was mounted on each gunwale to illuminate the area around the bow and along the sides of the boat (pl. 3a). in late summer, 1959, a 230-volt, 1500-watt generating unit, composed of a 115-volt, 1500-watt homelite generator was used. it was attached to a step-up transformer that converted the current to 230 volts. the same booms described above were used with the 230-volt unit, with single electrodes at the tip of each boom. a 5.5-horsepower motor propelled the boat, and the stunned fish were collected by means of scap nets. fishes seen and identified but not captured also were recorded. on several occasions fishes were collected by placing a 25-foot seine in the current and shocking toward the seine from upstream. the shocker was used in daylight at all six stations in the three years, 1957-'59. collections were made at night in 1958 and 1959 at the middle neosho station and in 1959 at the lower neosho station. _seines_ seines of various lengths (4, 6, 12, 15, 25 and 60 feet), with mesh-sizes varying from bobbinet to one-half inch, were used. the 4-, 12-, and 25-foot seines were used in the estimation of relative abundance by taking ten hauls with each seine, recording all species captured in each haul, and making a total count of all fish captured in two of the ten hauls. the two hauls to be counted were chosen prior to each collection from a table of random numbers. additional selective seining was done to ascertain the habitats occupied by different species. _trap, hoop, and fyke nets._--limited use was made of unbaited trapping devices: wire traps 2.5 feet in diameter, six feet long, covered with one-inch-mesh chicken wire; hoop nets 1.5 feet to three feet in diameter at the first hoop with a pot-mesh of one inch; and a fyke net three feet in diameter at the first hoop, pot-mesh of one inch with wings three feet in length. all of these were set parallel to the current with the mouths downstream. the use of trapping devices was abated because data obtained were not sufficient to justify the effort expended. _gill nets_ gill-netting was done mostly in 1959 at the lower neosho station. use of gill nets was limited because frequent slight rises in the river caused nets to collect excessive debris, with damage to the nets. gill nets used were 125 feet long, six feet deep, with mesh sizes of 3/4 inch to 2-1/2 inches. nets, weighted to sink, were placed at right angles to the current and attached at the banks with rope. _sodium cyanide_ pellets of sodium cyanide were used infrequently to collect fish from a moderately fast riffle over gravel bottom that was overgrown with willows, making seining impossible. the pellets were dissolved in a small amount of water, a seine was held in place, and the cyanide solution was introduced into the water a short distance upstream from the seine, causing incapacitated fish to drift into the seine. most of these fish that were placed in uncontaminated water revived. _rotenone_ rotenone was used in a few small pools in efforts to capture complete populations. this method was used to check the validity of other methods, and to reduce the possibility that rare species would go undetected. rotenone was applied by hand, and applications were occasionally supplemented by placing rotenone in a container that was punctured with a small hole and suspended over the water at the head of a riffle draining into the area being poisoned. this maintained a toxic concentration in the pool for sufficient time to obtain the desired kill. rotenone acts more slowly than cyanide, allowing more of the distressed fish to rise to the surface. _dyes_ bismark brown y was used primarily at the upper neosho station to stain large numbers of small fish. the dye was used at a dilution of 1:20,000. fishes were placed in the dye-solution for three hours, then transferred to a live-box in midstream for variable periods (ten minutes to twelve hours) before release. _determination of abundance_ in the accounts of species that follow, the relative terms "abundant," "common," and "rare" are used. assignment of one of these terms to each species was based on analysis of data that are presented in tables 9-16, (pages 402, 403, 404, 405, 408, 410, 411, 414-415, and 416). the number of fish caught per unit of effort with the shocker (table 10) and with seines (table 11) constitute the main basis for statements about the abundance of each species at all stations except the upper neosho station. species listed in each table (10 and 11) are those that were taken consistently by the method specified in the caption of the table; erratically, but in large numbers at least once, by that method; and those taken by the method specified but not the other method. for the species listed in table 10, the following usually applies: abundant=more than three fish caught per hour; common=one to three fish caught per hour; rare=less than one fish caught per hour. tables 12-16 list all fish obtained at the upper neosho station by means of the shocker, seines, and rotenone. _names of fishes_ technical names of fishes are those that seem to qualify under the international rules of zoological nomenclature. vernacular names are those in special publication no. 2 (1960) of the american fisheries society, with grammatical modifications required for use in the university of kansas publications, museum of natural history. annotated list of species #lepisosteus osseus# (linnaeus) long-nosed gar the long-nosed gar was abundant at the lower and middle neosho stations and the lower marais des cygnes station. numbers increased slightly in the period of study, probably because of increased, continuous flow. the long-nosed gar was not taken at the upper neosho station. at lower stations the fish occurred in many habitats, but most commonly in pools where gar often were seen with their snouts protruding above the water in midstream. gar commonly lie quietly near the surface, both by day and by night, and are therefore readily collected by means of the shocker. twice, at night, gar jumped into the boat after being shocked. young-of-the-year were taken at the middle and lower stations on both the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers, and all were near shore in quiet water. many young-of-the-year were seined at the lower neosho station on 18 june 1959, near the lower end of a gravel-bar in a small backwater-area having a depth of one to three inches, a muddy bottom, and a higher temperature than the mainstream. forty-three of these young gar averaged 2.1 inches in total length (t.l.). comparison of sizes of long-nosed gar taken by means of the shocker and gill nets at the lower and middle neosho stations revealed that: the average size at each station remained constant from 1957 to 1959; the average size was greater at the lower than at the middle station; and, with the exception of young-of-the-year, no individual shorter than 13 inches was found at the middle station and only one shorter than 16 inches was taken at the lower station (table 5). because collecting was intensive and several methods were used, i think that the population of gars was sampled adequately. wallen (_fishes of the verdigris river in oklahoma_, 1958:29 [mimeographed copy of dissertation, oklahoma state university]) took large individuals in the mainstream of the verdigris river in oklahoma and small specimens from the headwaters of some tributaries. because i took young-of-the-year at the lower neosho station, it is possible that long-nosed gar move upstream when small and then slowly downstream to the larger parts of rivers as the fish increase in size. this pattern of size-segregation, according to size of river, merits further investigation. ripe, spent, and immature long-nosed gar (38 males and 10 females) were taken in three gill nets, set across the channel, 150 to 500 yards below a riffle, at the lower neosho station on june 16, 17, and 18, 1959. on 23 june, 1959, 12 males and two females were taken in gill nets set 50, 150, and 400 yards above the same riffle. operations with the shocker between 24 june and 10 july, 1959, yielded 29 males and three females. the fish were taken from many kinds of habitat in a three-mile section of the river. direction of movement as recorded from gill nets shows that of 67 gar taken, 45 had moved downstream and 22 upstream into the nets. only ten of the above gar were taken from the nets set above the riffle; six of the ten were captured as they moved downstream into the nets. on one occasion i watched minnows swimming frantically about, jumping out of the water, and crowding against the shore, presumably to avoid a long-nosed gar that swam slowly in and out of view. i have observed similar activity when gar fed in aquaria. stomachs of a few gar from the neosho river were examined and found to contain minnows and some channel catfish. long-nosed gar have a relatively long life span (breder, 1936). this longevity and their ability to gulp air probably insure excellent survival through periods of adverse conditions. the population of long-nosed gar probably would not be drastically affected even in the event of a nearly complete failure of one or two successive hatches. maturity is attained at approximately 20 inches, total length. collections at the middle neosho station in 1958 indicate that the long-nosed gar is more susceptible to capture at night than in daytime (table 9, p. 402). table 5. numbers and sizes of long-nosed gar captured by shocker and gill nets at the middle and lower neosho stations in 1957, 1958 and 1959. average total location date number length (inches) range middle neosho 1957 19 22.2 14-32 middle neosho 1958 57 22.2 14-40 middle neosho 1959 64 21.6 13-43 lower neosho 1957 14 29.4 9-45 lower neosho 1958 7 25.3 23-28 lower neosho 1959 107 26.2 16-43 #lepisosteus platostomus rafinesque# short-nosed gar only one short-nosed gar was taken in 1957, at the lower station on the neosho river. in 1958 this species was taken at the lower station on the marais des cygnes and in 1958 and 1959 at the lower and middle stations on the neosho. more common in the neosho than the marais des cygnes, _l. platostomus_ occurs mainly in large streams and never was taken in the upper portions of either river. although short-nosed gar were about equally abundant at the middle and lower stations on the neosho, the average size was greater at the lower station (table 6). this kind of segregation by size is shared with long-nosed gar, and was considered in the discussion of that species. short-nosed gar were taken only in quiet water. both species were collected most efficiently by means of gill nets and shocker. while shocking, i saw many gar only momentarily, as they appeared at the surface, and specific identification was impossible. the total of all gar seen while shocking indicated that gar increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959 (see tables 5 and 6). judging from the gar that were identified, the increase was more pronounced in short-nosed gar than in long-nosed gar. at the lower neosho station in 1959, two ripe females and one spent female were taken in gill nets (16, 23 and 17 june, respectively) and were moving downstream when caught. no males were taken in the nets. subsequently, by means of the shocker (26 june-8 july), two spent and two ripe males were captured in quiet water of the mainstream that closely resembled areas in which the gill nets were set. no females were taken by means of the shocker. table 6. numbers and sizes of short-nosed gar captured by shocker and gill nets at the middle and lower neosho stations in 1958 and 1959. average total location date number length (inches) range middle neosho 1958 6 14.9 13.9-15.5 middle neosho 1959 9 13.6 11.0-16.0 lower neosho 1958 3 21.0 20.3-21.6 lower neosho 1959 5 21.3 18.0-24.5 #dorosoma cepedianum# (lesueur) gizzard shad gizzard shad declined in abundance from 1957 to 1959. the largest population occurred at the middle station on the marais des cygnes in 1957. shad were mainly in quiet water; often, when the river-level was high, i found them predominately in backwaters or in the mouths of tributary streams. examination of nine individuals, ranging in size from seven inches to 13.5 inches t. l., indicated that maturity is reached at 10 to 11 inches t. l. spawning probably occurred in late june in 1959 ("ripe" female caught on 26 june); young-of-the-year were first recorded in mid-july. #cycleptus elongatus# (lesueur) blue sucker the blue sucker was taken rarely in the neosho river and not at all in the marais des cygnes in my study. cross (personal communication) obtained several blue suckers in collections made in the mainstream of the neosho river in 1952; both young and adults occupied swift, deep riffles. the species seemingly declined in abundance during the drought, and at the conclusion of my study (1959) had not regained the level of abundance found in 1952. #ictiobus cyprinella# (valenciennes) big-mouthed buffalo big-mouthed buffalo were found in quiet water at all stations, but were rare. a ripe female, 21.5 inches long, was taken at the lower station on the neosho on 16 june, 1959. #ictiobus niger# (rafinesque) black buffalo and #ictiobus bubalus# (rafinesque) small-mouthed buffalo black buffalo were not taken at the upper station on the neosho and were rare at other stations. small-mouthed buffalo were taken at all stations and were common in the lower portions of the two streams. while the shocker was being used, buffalo were often seen only momentarily, thereby making specific identification impossible; both species were frequently taken together, and for this reason are discussed as a unit. both species maintained about the same level of abundance throughout my study. the two species were taken most often in the deeper, swifter currents of the mainstream, but were sometimes found in pools, creek-mouths and backwaters. on several occasions in the summer of 1959, buffalo were seen in shallow parts of long, rubble riffles, with the dorsal or caudal fins protruding above the surface. ernest craig, game protector, said buffalo on such riffles formerly provided much sport for gig-fishermen. he stated that the best catches were made at night because the fish were less "spooky" then than in daytime. in my collections made by use of the shocker, buffalo were taken more frequently at night (table 9, p. 402). on 19 june, 1959, i saw many buffalo that seemed to be feeding as they moved slowly upstream along the bottom of a riffle. the two species, often side by side, were readily distinguishable underwater. small-mouthed buffalo appeared to be paler (slate gray) and more compressed than the darker black buffalo. to test the reliability of underwater identifications, i identified all individuals prior to collection with a gig. correct identification was made of all fish collected on 19 june. the smallest individual obtained in this manner was 18.5 inches t. l. on 26 august, 1959, 16 small-mouthed buffalo were captured and many more were seen while the shocker was in use in the same riffle for one hour and ten minutes. one small-mouthed buffalo was caught while the shocker was being used in the pool below that riffle for one hour and fifty minutes. no black buffalo were taken on 26 august. spawning by buffalo was not observed but probably occurred in spring; all mature fish in my earliest collections (mid-june of each year) were spent. small-mouthed buffalo reach maturity at approximately 14 inches t. l. #carpiodes carpio carpio# (rafinesque) river carpsucker river carpsucker were abundant throughout the study at all stations. adults were taken most frequently in quiet water, but depth and bottom-type varied. the greatest concentrations occurred in mouths of creeks during times of high water; occasionally, large numbers were taken in a shallow backwater near the head of a riffle at the middle neosho station. river carpsucker feed on the bottom but seem partly pelagic in habit. they were taken readily by means of the shocker and gill nets at all depths. the population of _c. carpio_ in the neosho river probably was depleted by drought, although many individuals survived in the larger pools. when stream-flow was restored, carpsucker probably moved rapidly upstream but had a scattered distribution in 1957. trautman (1957:239) states that in the scioto river, ohio, river carpsucker moved upstream in may and downstream in late august and early september. numbers found at the middle and lower neosho stations suggest similar movements in the neosho river in 1957. in midsummer they were common at the middle station but rare at the lower station; however, they became abundant at the lower station in november. the abundance in late fall at the lower neosho station might have resulted either from downstream migration or from continued upstream movement into thinly populated areas. no indication of seasonal movement was found in 1958 or 1959. river carpsucker reach maturity at approximately 11 inches t. l., and spawning occurs in may or june. a ripe male was taken from a gravel-bottomed riffle, three feet deep, at the middle station on the neosho station on 10 june 1959. the size-distribution of individuals taken at the middle neosho station is presented in fig. 2. the collection in early july of 1958 indicates that one size-group (probably the 1957 year-class) had a median length of approximately seven inches. the modal length of this group was nine inches in june, 1959. a second, predominant size-group (fig. 2) seemed to maintain almost the same median size throughout all the collection periods, although specimens taken in the spring of 1959 were slightly smaller than those obtained in 1958. this apparent stability in size may have been due to an influx of the faster-growing individuals from a smaller size-group, coupled with mortality of most individuals more than 14 inches in length. young-of-the-year were taken at every station. extensive seining along a gravel bar at the lower neosho station indicated that the young are highly selective for quiet, shallow water with mud bottom. in these areas, young-of-the-year carpsucker were often the most abundant fish. river carpsucker were collected more readily by use of the shocker after dark than in daylight (table 9, p. 402). [illustration: fig. 2. length-frequency of river carpsucker in the neosho river, 1958 and 1959.] #carpiodes velifer# (rafinesque) high-finned carpsucker a specimen of _carpiodes velifer_ taken at the lower station on the neosho in 1958 provided the only record of the species in kansas since 1924. many specimens, now in the university of kansas museum of natural history, were taken from the neosho river system by personnel of the state biological survey prior to 1912. the species has declined greatly in abundance in the past 50 years. #moxostoma aureolum pisolabrum# trautman short-headed redhorse the short-headed redhorse occurred at all stations. it was common at the middle and lower stations on the neosho, rare at the upper station on the neosho, abundant at the upper station on the marais des cygnes in 1957, and rare thereafter at all stations on the marais des cygnes. short-headed redhorse typically occur in riffles, most commonly at the uppermost end where the water flows swiftly and is about two feet deep. an unusually large concentration was seen on 13 june, 1959, in shallow (six inches), fast water over gravel bottom at the middle station on the neosho river. thirty-nine individuals were marked by clipping fins at the middle neosho station in 1959. four were recovered from one to 48 days later: two at the site of original capture (one 48 days after marking), one less than one-half mile downstream, and one about one mile downstream from the original site of capture. at the middle neosho station in 1958, this species was taken more readily by use of the shocker at night than by day (table 9, p. 402). #moxostoma erythrurum# (rafinesque) golden redhorse the golden redhorse was abundant at the upper neosho station, rare at the middle neosho station, and did not occur in collections at other stations. this species was taken most frequently over gravelor rubble-bottoms in small pools below riffles, and was especially susceptible to collection by means of the shocker. twenty-nine golden redhorse of the 1957 year-class, taken at the upper neosho station on 9 september 1958, were 6.2 to 8.6 inches in total length (average 7.4 inches); 26 individuals of the same year-class caught on 21 august 1959 were 9.3 to 13.5 inches in total length (average 10.9 inches). #cyprinus carpio# linnaeus carp the carp decreased in abundance from 1957 to 1959 at the upper and middle marais des cygnes station and at the middle and lower neosho stations. carp were more abundant in the marais des cygnes than in the neosho, although the largest number in any single collection was found in one pool at the upper neosho station in 1958. carp were taken most commonly in quiet water near brush or other cover. at the middle neosho station, collecting was most effective between the hours of 6:30 a.m. and 12:30 p.m. and least effective between 12:30 p.m. and 6:30 p.m. (table 9, p. 402). ripe males were taken as early as 19 april (16.1 inches, 19.4 inches t. l.) and as late as 30 july (16 inches t. l.) at the middle neosho station. ripe females were taken as early as 19 april at the middle neosho station (19.2 inches t. l.) and as late as 7 july at the lower neosho station (16 inches t. l.). young-of-the-year were taken first at the middle marais des cygnes on 8 july 1957. they were recorded on later dates at the upper marais des cygnes and at the lower and middle neosho stations. #notemigonus crysoleucas# (mitchill) golden shiner the golden shiner was taken rarely at the upper marais des cygnes station in 1958 and 1959 and at the middle marais des cygnes station in 1957 and 1958. at the middle neosho station _notemigonus_ was seined from a pond that is flooded frequently by the river, but never was taken in the mainstream. #semotilus atromaculatus# (mitchill) creek chub the creek chub was taken only at the upper stations on both rivers. it increased in abundance at the upper neosho station from 1957 to 1959, and was not taken in the upper marais des cygnes until 1959. #hybopsis storeriana# (kirtland) silver chub a single specimen from the lower marais des cygnes station provides the only record of the species from the marais des cygnes system in kansas, and is the only silver chub that i found in either river in 1957-1959. the species is taken often in the kansas and arkansas rivers. #hybopsis x-punctata# hubbs and crowe gravel chub the gravel chub, present only at the lower and middle neosho stations, occupied moderate currents over clean (free of silt) gravel bottom. the gravel chub was not taken in 1957, was rare at both neosho stations in 1958, became common at the lower neosho station in part of 1959, but was never numerous at the middle neosho station. dr. f. b. cross recorded the species as "rare" in 1952 at a collection site near my middle neosho station, but larger numbers were taken then than in any of my collections at that station. the population was probably reduced by drought, and recovery was comparatively slow following restoration of flow. young-of-the-year and adults were common in collections from riffles at the lower neosho station from 1 july through 8 july, 1959. i obtained only one specimen in intensive collections in the same area on 25, 26, and 27 august. seemingly the species had moved off shallow riffles into areas not sampled effectively by seining. #phenacobius mirabilis# (girard) sucker-mouthed minnow the sucker-mouthed minnow was common at the middle marais des cygnes station but was not taken at the upper and lower stations until 1959, when it was rare. at the middle and lower neosho stations this fish increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959; at the upper station, sucker-mouthed minnows were not taken until 1959 when collections were made on the white farm. there, the species was common immediately below a low-head dam, but was not taken in extensive collections on the bosch farm in 1959. the species was most common immediately below riffles, or in other areas having clean gravel bottom in the current. on 5 june, 1959, many individuals were taken at night (11:30 p.m.) on a shallow gravel riffle (four inches in depth) where none had been found in a collection at 5:00 p.m. on the same date. young-of-the-year were taken at the lower neosho station on 24 june, 1959, and commonly thereafter in the summer. #notropis rubellus# (agassiz) rosy-faced shiner in 1958, the rosy-faced shiner was taken rarely at the lower stations on both streams. this species is common in smaller streams tributary to the lower portions of the two rivers, and probably occurs in the mainstream only as "overflow" from tributaries. possibly, during drought, rosy-faced shiners found suitable habitat in the mainstream of neosho and marais des cygnes rivers, but re-occupied tributary streams as their flow increased with favorable precipitation, leaving diminishing populations in the mainstream. #notropis umbratilis# (girard) red-finned shiner the red-finned shiner, most abundant at the upper neosho station, occurred at all stations except the upper marais des cygnes. this fish seems to prefer small streams, not highly turbid, having clean, hard bottoms. it is a pool-dwelling, pelagic species. #notropis camurus# (jordan and meek) blunt-faced shiner the blunt-faced shiner was taken only in 1957, at the middle neosho station, where it was rare. this species, abundant in clear streams tributary to the neosho river (field data, state biological survey) may have used the mainstream as a refugium during drought. the few specimens obtained in 1957 possibly represent a relict population that remained in the mainstream after flow in tributaries was restored by increased rainfall. #notropis lutrensis# (baird and girard) red shiner the red shiner, abundant in 1952 (early stage of drought), was consistently the most abundant fish in my collections in the marais des cygnes and at the lower and middle neosho stations. however, the abundance declined from 1957 to 1959 at the two neosho stations. at the upper neosho station the species was fourth in abundance in 1957, and third in 1958 and 1959 (table 12). the red shiner is pelagic in habit and occurs primarily in pools, though it frequently inhabits adjacent riffles. collections by seining along a gravel bar at the lower station showed this fish to be most abundant in shallow, quiet water over mud bottom, or at the head of a gravel bar in relatively quiet water. at the lower end of the gravel bar in water one to four feet deep, with a shallow layer of silt over gravel bottom and a slight eddy-current, red shiners were replaced by ghost shiners or river carpsucker young-of-the-year as the dominant fish. fifty-nine dyed individuals were released in an eddy at the lower end of a gravel bar at the middle neosho station on 5 june, 1959. some of these fish still were present in this area when a collection was made 30 hours later. no colored fish were taken in collections from quiet water at the upper end of the gravel bar. a swift riffle intervening between the latter area and the area of release may have impeded their movement. forty-six individuals, released at the head of the same gravel bar on 10 june, 1959, immediately swam slowly upstream through quiet water and were soon joined by other minnows. these fish did not form a well-organized school, but moved about independently, with individuals or groups variously dropping out or rejoining the aggregation until all colored fish disappeared about 50 feet upstream from the point of release. evidence of inshore movement at night was obtained on 8 june, 1959, in a shallow backwater, having gravel bottom, at the head of a gravel bar at the middle neosho station. a collection made in the afternoon contained no red shiners, but they were abundant in the same area after dark. in kansas, red shiners breed in may, june, and july. minckley (1959:421-422) described behavior that apparently was associated with spawning. because of its abundance, the red shiner is one of the most important forage fishes in kansas streams, and frequently is used as a bait minnow. #notropis volucellus# (cope) mimic shiner the mimic shiner was taken only rarely at the two lower neosho stations. this species, like _n. camurus_, is normally more common in clear tributaries than in the neosho river, and probably frequents the mainstream only during drought. #notropis buchanani# meek ghost shiner field records of the state biological survey indicate that the ghost shiner was common in the mainstream of the lower neosho river during drought. in 1957, the species was abundant at the lower and middle stations on the neosho river and at the lower marais des cygnes station. collections at all stations show that the species has a definite preference for eddies--relatively quiet water, but adjacent to the strong current of the mainstream rather than in backwater remote from the channel. the bottom-type over which the ghost shiner was found varied from mud to gravel or rubble. #notropis stramineus# (cope) sand shiner the sand shiner was taken rarely in the neosho and commonly in the marais des cygnes in 1952. in my study the species occurred at all stations, but not until 1959 at the upper and lower neosho stations. sand shiners were found with equal frequency in pools and riffles. spawning takes place in june and july. #pimephales tenellus tenellus# (girard) mountain minnow the mountain minnow was common at the lower and middle neosho stations throughout the period of study, and increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959. it was taken only in 1959 at the upper neosho station, where it was rare. this species does not occur in the marais des cygnes river. the largest numbers were found in 1959 at the lower neosho station, where this fish occurred most commonly in moderate current over clean gravel bottom. the mountain minnow, like _hybopsis x-punctata_, was common in late june and early july but few were found in late august, 1959. the near-absence of this species in collections made in late august is responsible for the apparent slight decline in abundance from 1957 to 1959, as shown in table 11. metcalf (1959) found mountain minnows most commonly in streams of intermediate size in chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. the predilection of this species for permanent waters resulted in an increase in abundance during my study. with continued flow, this species possibly will decrease in abundance in the lower mainstream of the neosho river. i suspect that the species is, or will be (with continued stream-flow), abundant in tributaries of intermediate size in the neosho river basin. #pimephales vigilax perspicuus# (girard) parrot minnow the parrot minnow was not taken in the marais des cygnes river and was absent at the upper neosho station until 1959. this species was common at the lower and middle neosho stations throughout the period of study and increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959. at the lower neosho station, this fish preferred slow eddy-current over silt bottom, along the downstream portion of a gravel bar. the parrot minnow was taken less abundantly in the latter part of the summer, 1959, than in early summer, but the decline was less than occurred in the mountain minnow. #pimephales notatus# (rafinesque) blunt-nosed minnow the blunt-nosed minnow was common, and increased in abundance in both rivers from 1957 to 1959. the largest numbers were found at the upper neosho station in 1959, and a large population also was present at the lower neosho station in 1959. pools having rubble bottom, bedrock, and small areas of mud were preferred at the upper neosho station. at the lower neosho station the fish was most common in quiet water at the lower end of a gravel bar. the parrot minnow also was common in this general area; nevertheless, these two species were seldom numerous in the same seine-haul, indicating segregation of the two. the blunt-nosed minnow was taken frequently in moderate current over clean gravel bottom, especially in late summer, 1959, when _p. notatus_ increased in abundance as the mountain minnow decreased. #pimephales promelas# rafinesque fat-headed minnow the fat-headed minnow was taken at all stations except at the lower one on the marais des cygnes, and was most abundant at the upper neosho station. intensive seining at the lower neosho station indicated that this species preferred quiet water and firm mud bottom. in the neosho river in 1957 to 1959, habitats of the species of _pimephales_ seemed to be as follows: _pimephales tenellus_ (mountain minnow) occurred primarily in moderately flowing gravel riffles in the downstream portions of the river. _pimephales vigilax_ (parrot minnow) was mostly in the quiet areas having mud bottom at the downstream end of gravel bars, and less commonly on adjacent riffles, at the lower station. _pimephales notatus_ (blunt-nosed minnow) had a wider range of habitats, occurring in quiet areas and moderate currents both upstream and downstream. _pimephales promelas_ (fat-headed minnow) occurred throughout both rivers but was most abundant in the quiet water at the uppermost stations. #campostoma anomalum# (rafinesque) stoneroller the stoneroller was most abundant at the upper neosho station and was not taken at the lower marais des cygnes station. this fish increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959, but was never common at the middle marais des cygnes or the middle and lower neosho stations. the stoneroller prefers fast, relatively clear water over rubble or gravel-bottom. #ictalurus punctatus# (rafinesque) channel catfish the abundance of channel catfish was greatly reduced as a result of the drought of 1952-1956. with the resumption of normal stream-flow in 1957, the small numbers of adult channel catfish present in the stream produced unusually large numbers of young. these young of the 1957 year-class, which reached an average size of about nine inches by september 1959, will provide an abundant adult population for several years. the reduction in number of channel catfish in streams can be related to the changed environment in the drought. when stream levels were low in 1953 (tables 1-4), fish-populations were crowded into a greatly reduced area. an example of these crowded conditions was observed by roy schoonover, biologist of the kansas forestry, fish and game commission, in october, 1953, when he was called to rescue fish near iola, kansas. the neosho river had ceased to flow and a pool (less than one acre) below the city overflow dam was pumped dry. schoonover (personal communication) estimated that 40,000 fish of all kinds were present in the pool. about 30,000 of these were channel catfish, two inches to 14 inches long, with a few larger ones. fish were removed in the belief that sustained intermittency in the winter of 1953-1954 would result in severe winterkill. these conditions almost certainly were prevalent throughout the basin. in addition to winterkill, crowding probably resulted in a reduced rate of reproduction by channel catfish, and by other species as well. this kind of density-dependent reduction of fecundity is known for many species of animals (lack, 1954, ch. 7). in fish, it is probably expressed by complete failure of many individuals to spawn, coupled with scant survival of young produced by the adults that do spawn. reproductive failure of channel catfish in farm ponds, especially in clear ponds, is well known, and is often attributed to a paucity of suitable nest-sites (marzolf, 1957:22; davis, 1959:10). in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers, the intermittent conditions prevalent in the drought resulted in reduced turbidity in the remaining pools. many spawning sites normally used by channel catfish were exposed, and others were rendered unsuitable because of the increased clarity of the water. in addition, predation on young channel catfish is increased in clear water (marzolf; davis, _loc. cit._), and would of course be especially pronounced in crowded conditions. the population was thereby reduced to correspond to the carrying capacity of each pool in the stream bed. the return of normal flow in 1957 left large areas unoccupied by fish and the processes described above were reversed. the expanded habitat favored spawning by nearly the entire adult population, and conditions for survival of young were excellent. as a result, a large hatch occurred in the summer of 1957. (several hundred small channel catfish were sometimes taken by use of the shocker a short distance upstream from a 25-foot seine, set in a riffle). subsequent survival of the 1957 year-class has been good. by 1959, few of the catfish spawned in 1957 had grown large enough to contribute to the sport fishery, but they are expected to do so in 1960 and 1961. the 1957 year-class was probably the first strong year-class of channel catfish since 1952. davis (1959:15) found that channel catfish in kansas seldom live longer than seven years. the 1952 year-class reached age seven in 1959. the extreme environmental conditions to which these fish were subjected in drought caused a higher mortality than would occur in normal times. the adult population in the two rivers probably was progressively reduced throughout the drought, and the reduction will continue until the strong 1957 year-class replenishes it. for these reasons, fishing success was poor in 1957-1959. juvenile channel catfish were more abundant in the neosho than in the marais des cygnes in 1958 and 1959, although both streams supported sizable populations. in the marais des cygnes the upper station had fewer channel catfish than the middle and lower stations. in the neosho, populations were equally abundant both upstream and downstream. the habitat of channel catfish in streams has been discussed by bailey and harrison (1948). i found adults in various habitats throughout the stream, but most abundantly in moderately fast water at the lower and middle neosho stations. at the upper neosho station where riffles are shallow, yearlings and two-year-olds were numerous in many of the small pools over rubble-gravel bottom. cover was utilized where present, but large numbers were taken in pools devoid of cover. young-of-the-year were nearly always taken from rubbleor gravel-riffles having moderate to fast current at both upstream and downstream stations. collections showed that young of 1957 were abundant on riffles throughout the summer and until 17 november, 1957. subsequent collections were not made until 11 may, 1958, at which time 1957-class fish still were abundant on riffles at the lower neosho station; on that date, the larger individuals were in deeper parts of the riffles than were smaller representatives of the same year-class. in a later collection (2 june, 1958), numbers present on the riffles were greatly reduced and the larger individuals were almost entirely missing. some of the smaller individuals were still present in the shallower riffle areas. table 7 compares sizes of the individuals obtained on 2 june with sizes collected from deep riffles at the middle neosho station on 7 june, 1958. the larger size of the group present in deep riffles is readily apparent. the yearlings almost completely disappeared from subsequent collections on riffles. a bimodal size-distribution of young-of-the-year was noted also in 1958 and 1959; but, no segregation of the two sizes occurred on riffles in summer. marzolf (1957:25) recorded two peaks in spawning activity in missouri ponds. two spawning periods may account for the bimodal size distribution of young-of-the-year observed in my study. in 1959, young-of-the-year began to appear in the latter part of june and became abundant by the first part of july. individuals as small as one inch t. l. were taken in gravel-bottomed riffles on 1 july, 1959. yearling individuals at the lower and middle neosho stations showed a pronounced tendency to move into shallow, moderately fast water over rubble or gravel bottom at night, where they were nearly ten times more abundant than in daytime (table 9). adults probably have the same pattern of daily movement as yearlings, except that at night the adults move to deeper riffles. bailey and harrison (1948:135-136) demonstrated that channel catfish feed most actively from sundown to midnight. channel catfish (especially two-year-olds and adults) were abundant on a rubble-riffle during the day in some collections at the lower neosho station in 1959. table 7. length-frequency of channel catfish from the neosho river, 1957, 1958 and 1959. (numbers in vertical columns indicate the number of individuals of a certain size collected on that date.) june 2 june 7 1958 1958 length nov. 2 (shallow (deep sept. 9 sept. 11 in inches 1957 riffle) riffle) 1958 1959 1.5 1 2.0 3 2.5 13 2 1 2 3.0 4 11 3 4 3.5 3 21 7 1 14 4.0 11 12 9 4.5 4 10 1 5.0 2 11 2 5.5 1 7 26 6.0 58 2 6.5 1 32 5 7.0 16 5 7.5 1 4 5 8.0 22 8.5 45 9.0 81 9.5 41 10.0 21 10.5 8 11.0 4 11.5 1 12.0 3 12.5 1 13.0 1 near the end of the spawning season in 1959, i found spawning catfish at the lower neosho station. ripe females were taken between 9 june and 30 june, 1959; and, on 19 june i found a channel catfish nest with eggs (water temp. 79â° f.). the nest-site was a hole in the base of a clay bank; the floor was clean gravel with a small mound of gravel at the entrance. the nest-opening, five to six inches in diameter, widened almost immediately into a chamber about two and one-half feet long and one foot wide. normally the water was about six inches deep in the mainstream as it ran over a riffle adjacent to the catfish nest. when i put my hand into the opening the fish bit vigorously, but became quiescent when i stroked its belly. i then felt the rounded gelatinous mass of eggs on the bottom of the nest. on june 22 (water temp. 86â° f.) the fish was removed, struggling, from the nest, and returned to the stream. the next day (23 june 1959, water temp. 84â° f.) the eggs had hatched and the young were in a swarm in the nest. the adult did not attempt to bite but left as soon as i put my hand into the hole. marzolf (1957:25) reports that young remain in the nest from seven to eight days after hatching. my seining records show a marked increase in abundance of small young-of-the-year on the first of july. probably the time of hatching of the nest described above correlated well with hatches of other nests. one and sometimes two channel catfish were found in other holes in the stream-bank or bottom. the fish occasionally attacked my hand vigorously, but at other times remained quiet or left without attacking. no other channel catfish eggs were found, although one hole under a rock in the middle of the river had one or two individuals in it each time it was checked until 11 july, 1959. a local fisherman informed me of his belief that these holes are occupied only in the spawning season. observations that i made in a pond owned by dr. e. c. bryan of erie indicated that channel catfish, when disturbed in the early stages of guarding the eggs, either eat the eggs and abandon the nest or leave the nest exposed to predation by other animals. in the later stages of nesting, the fish, if removed, will return to guard the nest. after the eggs hatch the guarding response probably diminishes and the fish leaves the nest readily. at the lower neosho station, several "artificial" holes were dug into the clay bank and two pieces of six-inch pipe were forced into the bank. nearly all these holes were occupied by catfish for a short period in june; many of the holes were enlarged, either by the current or by fish. i suspect that fish enlarged some holes, because in the spawning season several males were observed that had large abrasions atop their heads, around their lips, and to a lesser extent on their sides. these could have been caused by butting and scraping the sides, roof and floor of a hole. i found it possible to enlarge the holes by rapidly moving my hand while it was inside a hole. the growth-rate of channel catfish in the neosho was approximately the same at all stations, and the large 1957 year-class grew to an average size of about nine inches by mid-september, 1959 (table 7). channel catfish mature at a total length of 12 to 15 inches. thus, most individuals of the 1957 year-class in the neosho river probably will mature in their fourth or fifth summer (1960 or 1961 spawning season). the sizes attained by young-of-the-year in 1957 differed in the two rivers. six hundred and thirty-three young taken in the marais des cygnes river attained an average size of 4.7 inches (range two to six inches) by mid-september. (age was determined by length-frequency and verified by examining cross-sections of fin-spines from the larger individuals). one hundred and fifty young from the neosho river averaged 3.0 inches (range 2 to 3.7 inches) on 2 november. gross examination of the riffle-insect faunas indicated a larger standing crop in the neosho than in the marais des cygnes river. thus, the slower growth of young channel catfish in the neosho seemed not to be correlated with food supply. bailey and harrison (1948:125-130) found that young channel catfish in the des moines river, iowa, fed almost exclusively on aquatic insect larvae. my observations indicate that this is true in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers also. young produced in 1958 in the neosho river attained an average total length of three inches by 26 august, and young produced in 1959 attained an average size of 3.5 inches by 11 september. both groups probably continued growth until october, and may have averaged four inches total length at that time. the 1958 and 1959 year-classes were much less abundant than were the 1957 young. therefore, it seems likely that the growth of the 1957 young in the neosho river was depressed because of crowding. the 1959 year-class was larger than the small 1958 year-class, thus conforming to a general expectation that strong year-classes will be followed by weak year-classes. reproduction by channel catfish in 1957 seemed greater in the neosho river than in the marais des cygnes river (table 10); this coincided with a greater change in volume of flow in the neosho river than in the marais des cygnes river (tables 1-4). the 1957 year-class seemed more crowded, and grew more slowly, in the neosho than in the marais des cygnes river. #ictalurus natalis# (lesueur) yellow bullhead yellow bullhead were taken only at the middle station on the marais des cygnes and upper station on the neosho. the yellow bullhead is more restricted to streams than is the black bullhead. both species decreased in abundance during a period of continuous flow (1957 to 1959) following drought at the upper neosho station. collections in 1958-'59 indicated an increase in average size. of four individuals marked and released at the upper neosho station in 1959, one was recaptured about three hours after being released. it had not moved from the area of release. #ictalurus melas# (rafinesque) black bullhead the black bullhead was abundant at the upper stations on each river, especially in backwaters having mud-bottom. the species was not taken in the mainstream of the lower and middle neosho stations, but was taken at the middle neosho station in a pond that is often flooded by the river. although the fish was common or abundant in nearly all pools at the upper neosho station, it was most abundant in one pool that had a bottom predominately of mud. at the middle marais des cygnes station, 109 individuals were collected and fin-clipped on 8, 9 and 24 july 1957. three of the 19 marked on 8 july were recaptured in the same area on 9 july. the area was poisoned on 13 september, 1957, and 130 black bullhead were taken, none of which had been marked. in 1959, 96 black bullhead were taken at the upper neosho station (five in area 1 and 91 at the white farm). in these collections, 25 were marked (fin-clipped or dyed) and six were recaptured. four of the six had not left the area of capture one and two days after being released. the fifth fish recaptured was one of five individuals that had been displaced one pool downstream. when recaptured seven days later, this fish had moved upstream over two steep riffles (two to three inches deep, 75 feet and 166 feet long) past the site of original capture to the next pool. the sixth fish, marked at the same time but returned to the original pool, was recaptured nine days after original capture and had moved upstream over a long riffle (two to three inches deep, 166 feet long) and a short riffle into the second pool above the original site of its capture. rotenone was applied to a small (.04 acre-feet) backwater ditch having a soft mud bottom at the upper marais des cygnes station on 25 july, 1957; 1526 black bullhead, one green sunfish and one white crappie were collected. a sample of 60 bullhead averaged 4.6 inches t.l. (range 3.5 to 6.6 inches) and 540 individuals averaged .7 ounce each. these fish probably represented the 1956 year-class. the upper neosho station had a large population of black bullhead, strongly dominated by fish less than four inches t. l. (range 1.5 to 3.8 inches), in the spring of 1957. most were approximately two inches t. l. and probably represented the 1956 year-class. growth, according to length-frequency, following restoration of stream-flow, shows a regular increase in length of this dominant 1956 year-class (fig. 3). a scarcity of young, especially in 1958 and 1959, is apparent in fig. 3. this may be due to the fact that a strong year-class usually is followed by one or several weak year-classes. however, it more probably reflects the fact that black bullhead are characteristically pond fish, and as such are not so well adapted to reproduction in flowing streams as are many other species. metcalf (1959) found this species most abundantly in the intermittent headwaters of walnut river and grouse creek in cowley county, kansas. [illustration: fig. 3. length-frequency of black bullhead at the upper neosho station, 1957, 1958 and 1959.] #pylodictis olivaris# (rafinesque) flat-headed catfish the flathead is the largest sport-fish occurring in kansas. several weighing more than 40 pounds are caught from streams each year, and the species reportedly attains sizes in excess of one hundred pounds. several aspects of the biology of the flathead in kansas have been discussed by minckley and deacon (1959). the abundance of flathead declined slightly from 1957 through 1959, counting fish of all sizes. this trend is attributable to a large hatch in 1957; the 1957 year-class strongly dominated the population throughout my study. natural mortality in that year-class was compensated by increased average size of the individuals (to six inches in autumn, 1958, and 11 inches in autumn, 1959). the numbers of flathead caught at the upper stations on the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers differed from the general trend in that the species was rare in 1957 and increased slightly by 1959. flathead are most numerous in large streams, and in the drought they probably were almost extirpated from the headwaters. after 1957, continuous flow and increased volume of flow were accompanied by a gradual increase in numbers of flathead in the upstream parts of the two rivers. the species was most abundant at the middle and lower neosho stations, where 10.5 per cent of all fish shocked in 1957 and 1958 were _p. olivaris_. the habitat of the flathead varied with size of the individuals. young-of-the-year inhabited swift riffles having rubble bottom; individuals four to 12 inches in total length were distributed throughout the stream; those more than 12 inches in total length were most commonly in pools in association with cover (rocks, or drifts of fallen timber). male flathead mature at 15 to 18 inches total length, females at 18 to 20 inches. the spawning season in 1959 probably began in early june and extended to mid-july. i attempted to find spawning fish on 19 june and for one month thereafter. on 19 june nine holes were dug into a 75-yard section of a clay bank adjacent to a long, shallow, rubble riffle. a flathead was first found in one of these holes on 22 june, and others were frequently found in this and one other hole until mid-july. although channel catfish were often found in nearby holes, that species was never present in the two holes used by flatheads. the holes occupied by flathead (as well as those used by channel catfish) characteristically had silt-free gravel bottoms and a ridge of clean gravel across the entrance. a nest containing a flathead and eggs was located on 11 july. in checking the hole i first put my foot into the entrance, then slowly advanced my hand into the hole, feeling along the bottom with my fingers until they entered the open mouth of a large catfish. i backed off slowly and then felt beneath the fish. the fish was directly above the egg-mass, seemingly touching the eggs with its belly. as i touched the front of the egg-mass the fish struck viciously, taking my entire fist into its mouth. it continued striking until i removed my hand from the hole after obtaining a small sample of eggs, which proved to be in an early stage of development (no vascularization evident). when the nest was checked again on 13 july the eggs and fish were gone. as in the case of channel catfish, i suspect that disturbance of a flathead in the early stages of guarding the nest results in destruction of the nest either by the guardian fish or by predation resulting from its absence. the hole occupied by the above fish was one that i had dug seven to nine inches in diameter and extending two and one-half to three feet into the bank. at the time this fish occupied the hole its depth was approximately the same as originally, but the entrance had been enlarged to 14 inches in diameter, and the chamber widened to 32 inches. the holes were checked later in the summer and all were heavily silted or had been undercut by action of the current. the number of flathead of catchable size was not reduced as severely during my study as was the number of large channel catfish. flathead have a longer life-span than channel catfish; therefore, it is not surprising that, of flathead and channel catfish that survived the drought, a higher proportion of flathead persisted throughout the next three years, in which my study was made. in drought, when fish were concentrated in residual pools, the piscivorous (fish eating) habit of flatheads may have favored their survival. the growth rate of flathead taken from the neosho river in 1957 and 1958 was reported by minckley and deacon (1959:351-352). individuals hatched in 1955 and 1956 and collected in 1957 had attained average sizes of 9.5 inches and 4.8 inches, respectively, by the end of the 1956 growing-season. flatheads of the 1956 and 1957 year-classes attained average sizes of 8.7 and 3.2 inches, respectively, by the end of the 1957 growing season. these data indicate that growth was retarded in the summer of 1957. many species, including _p. olivaris_, had an exceptionally large hatch in 1957, associated with increased water levels in that year. despite the great increase in amount of water, i suppose that young-of-the-year and yearlings were subjected to crowding resulting from exceptional hatches. this caused reduction in growth of young flathead, and probably in several other species. food of flatheads 4.0 inches and shorter was nearly all insect larvae; that of fish 4.1 to 10 inches was insect larvae, fishes and crayfish; and that of larger flatheads was mostly fish and crayfish. the specific kind of food eaten was correlated with abundance of the food item in the stream (minckley and deacon, 1959:350-351). #noturus flavus# rafinesque stonecat the stonecat was not taken at the upper marais des cygnes station, and was less abundant at the middle marais des cygnes station than at other stations. the abundance of the stonecat was greatest at the lower marais des cygnes station in 1957 and at the upper neosho station in 1959. the species increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959 in the neosho river, where the principal habitat was riffles over rubble bottom. thirty-three stonecats were marked at the upper neosho station in 1959. five of these were recaptured three hours after release, all near the point of release. one individual was taken from a riffle, fin-clipped, and released at the foot of the next riffle downstream. when recaptured four days later, this fish was still in the area of release. young-of-the-year were taken on july 1, 1959, at the lower neosho station. #noturus gyrinus# (mitchill) tadpole madtom trautman (1957:444-445) describes the habitat of the tadpole madtom as "low-gradient lowland streams, springs, marshes, oxbows, pothole lakes, and protected harbors and bays of lake erie, where conditions were relatively stable, the water was usually clear, the bottom was of soft muck which generally contained varying amounts of twigs, logs, and leaves, and where there usually was an abundance of such rooted aquatics as pondweeds and hornwort. the species seemed to be highly intolerant to much turbidity and rapid silting,..." the tadpole madtom was obtained only at the middle marais des cygnes station in a small, deep, mud-bottomed pool in 1957 after water levels, and probably turbidity, had been low for five years. the occurrence provides the westernmost record station in kansas. cross and minckley (1958:106) reported the species from the lower part of the marais des cygnes in kansas. #noturus nocturnus# jordan and gilbert freckled madtom the freckled madtom was taken only at the middle neosho station on 19 april, 1958. this species occurs most frequently in small streams, and individuals living in the mainstream of the neosho probably are "strays" from nearby tributaries. this species may have utilized the mainstream as a refugium in the drought of 1952-'56. #noturus exilis# nelson slender madtom the slender madtom was taken only at the middle marais des cygnes station in the fall of 1957. this species prefers permanent riffles of clear streams (deacon and metcalf, 1961:317). my specimen possibly strayed from a nearby tributary; or, it was a relict from a population living in the mainstream during drought. #noturus sp.# neosho madtom a description of this species, which is endemic to neosho river, has been prepared but not yet published by dr. w. ralph taylor. i found the neosho madtom only at the middle station in 1958 and 1959, and at the lower station in 1959, where the species was common in shallow water having moderate current over clean gravel bottom. specimens were most effectively collected by digging into the gravel above the seine and allowing the gravel to wash into the seine. in 1952, cross (1954:311) found this species in abundance in riffles at the confluence of the south fork and cottonwood river, and at several other localities in the neosho mainstream (personal communication). the neosho madtom is nearly restricted to gravel riffles having moderate flow; therefore, it may be drastically reduced by intermittency of flow. i found none in 1957 and few in 1958. by 1959, the third summer of continuous flow, the neosho madtom was again common. #fundulus notatus# (rafinesque) black-striped topminnow the black-striped topminnow was rare in the mainstream at the lower marais des cygnes and the middle and lower neosho stations, where it was found in quiet water near shore. near the middle neosho station, a large population was present in an oxbow lake that is frequently flooded by the river. #labidesthes sicculus# (cope) brook silversides the brook silversides occurred rarely at the lower marais des cygnes and at the middle and lower neosho stations. #micropterus dolomieui# lacã©pã¨de small-mouthed bass one individual was taken at the lower neosho station in 1957. #micropterus punctulatus punctulatus# (rafinesque) spotted bass the spotted bass occurs in kansas only in the southeastern part of the state--in southern tributaries of the osage system, in spring river drainage, and in relatively clear streams of the flint hills. at my stations on the neosho river, this fish was more abundant in 1957 than in 1958 or 1959. spotted bass were taken most frequently over rubble bottom or near boulders in moderate current. collections made in the evening or early morning more often contained spotted bass than collections made at other times of day (table 9). data from a few specimens that were marked, released, and recaptured indicated that the species is relatively sedentary; therefore, the greater abundance in the morning and evening collections probably indicates increased activity during these periods, possibly in connection with feeding. the spawning season in 1957 may have continued as late as 10 july when a ripe female 11.3 inches t. l. was taken. young-of-the-year were taken on 24 june in moderate current over gravel bottom and in quiet water over mud bottom. spotted bass normally form a small part of the game-fish fauna in the lower neosho river. the species attains greater abundance in smaller, clear streams of the arkansas river basin in kansas (cross, 1954, and unpublished data of state biological survey of kansas). during the drought, the lower neosho probably assumed many characteristics of a smaller stream in normal times. flow was reduced or entirely interrupted and turbidity was lessened. these conditions resulted in faunal changes in which spotted bass were more prominent than in years of normal flow. during this period of reduced flow, some fishermen turned from catfishing to bass-fishing; i think this constitutes evidence for an increase in numbers of bass, accompanied by a decrease in numbers of channel catfish. with the return of continuous flow and a consequent rise in turbidity, bass declined in abundance in the mainstream. #micropteras salmoides salmoides# (lacã©pã¨de) large-mouthed bass the large-mouth was rare at all stations. it prefers quiet water near cover; to become abundant, the large-mouth probably requires clearer water than is afforded by most kansas streams. this species, like spotted bass, declined in abundance during the period of study. nevertheless, young-of-the-year were taken in 1957 and 1958 (earliest date of capture, 7 june in 1958). #lepomis cyanellus# rafinesque green sunfish green sunfish were taken at all stations, but most abundantly at the upper neosho station where the number captured increased slightly from 1957 to 1959. young-of-the-year and adults were most common in shallow backwater. at the upper neosho station green sunfish inhabit quiet pools, where recaptures of marked fish indicated that the species is notably sedentary in habit. hasler and wisby (1958) have shown that green sunfish exhibit a homing reaction. this fish provides some sport for fishermen, especially in the smaller streams, but i found few green sunfish that were larger than six inches t. l. at any station. #lepomis megalotis# (rafinesque) long-eared sunfish long-eared sunfish were taken at all stations but were notably more abundant in the neosho river, where the largest population occurred at the upper station. in all three years of the study, large samples were obtained by means of rotenone in the same pool at the upper neosho station. there were fewer long-eared sunfish present each year, and average size increased slightly. collections in other pools at this station indicated that long-eared sunfish maintained a high level of abundance throughout my study. long-eared sunfish occurred in pools having bottoms of gravel or bedrock at the upper neosho station, or near shore over rubble or gravel in slow to moderate current at the middle neosho station. #lepomis humilis# (girard) orange-spotted sunfish the orange-spotted sunfish occurred at all stations; it was most abundant in the neosho river, especially at the uppermost station. this fish was taken in a variety of habitats, but was most common in areas where the current was slack, often over mud or silt bottom. #lepomis macrochirus# rafinesque bluegill bluegill were taken at all stations but were rare. this species occurred exclusively in pools, usually near cover (brush or trees in the water). bluegill are predominately pond-fish in kansas, and populations in rivers may consist partly of individuals that escaped from ponds in time of overflow. i know of no stream in kansas that has a population large enough to contribute significantly to the sport fishery. #pomoxis nigromaculatus# (lesueur) black crappie this species was represented by only one specimen, taken at the lower neosho station in 1957. #pomoxis annularis# rafinesque white crappie white crappie were taken at all stations, but were common only at the upper and middle stations on the marais des cygnes and the upper neosho station. at the last station, this fish was abundant in a single large pool that contained much more water during drought than any other area at this station. there was little dispersal into several smaller pools, below the large pool, which were sampled in 1957, 1958 and 1959. white crappie were not taken in the lower pools until 1959, and then were rare. most crappie were taken in quiet water near cover or near shore. young-of-the-year were found in 1957, 1958 and 1959, but never abundantly. at the lower neosho station in 1959, ripe individuals were collected on 19 june, a spent female on 24 june, and young-of-the-year on 1 july. the young were present in quiet, shallow water over mud bottom at the lower end of a gravel bar. large white crappie (10-14 inches t. l.) were common at the middle and lower neosho stations in 1957 and in april, 1958. large fish were almost entirely absent from later collections. average size, maximum size and abundance declined during the period of study. #percina phoxocephala# (nelson) slender-headed darter the slender-headed darter was taken at all stations but was more abundant in the neosho than in the marais des cygnes. the lower marais des cygnes, however, was the only station with a relatively large population in 1957. slender-headed darters were rare in the neosho river in 1957 and did not become common until 1959. the largest population was found at the upper neosho station in 1959. this darter occurs most frequently in swift water over gravel bottom, but was taken in various habitats, including an intermittent pool at the upper neosho station on 7 september, 1957. at the middle and lower neosho stations, considerably greater numbers were taken in june, july, and early august than in may or late august. the abundance in my collections diminished from a peak in early july, to scarcity in late august. young-of-the-year were taken at the lower neosho station on 1 july, 1959 (and subsequently), in moderately fast water over gravel. on 21 august, 1958, a ripe female (eggs stripped easily) was the only slender-headed darter present in a collection from riffles at the middle neosho station. #percina caprodes# (rafinesque) logperch logperch were not taken in the marais des cygnes. they were rare in the neosho, where they were taken most frequently at the upper station in water two to three feet deep, over gravel bottom, in moderate to slight current. this species was present in intermittent pools at the upper neosho station in 1957. #percina copelandi# (jordan) channel darter one specimen was taken at the lower neosho station in 1959. because no others ever have been found in the mainstream of the neosho river, i suspect that my specimen is a "stray" from one of the smaller tributaries, where channel darters are locally common. #etheostoma flabellare# rafinesque fan-tailed darter the fan-tailed darter is represented in my collections by one specimen, obtained in the mainstream of the neosho river at the lower station in 1957. records of this species in kansas are almost confined to the smallest, clear, permanent streams of the southeastern part of the state. my specimen may represent a small population that retreated to the mainstream of the neosho during drought. #etheostoma spectabile# (agassiz) orange-throated darter orange-throated darters were common at the upper marais des cygnes and upper neosho stations in 1959, rare at the middle and lower neosho stations, and absent from the middle and lower marais des cygnes stations. the species was found almost exclusively on upstream riffles over gravel-rubble bottom. the population in the upper neosho was decimated by drought, and the fish did not become common until the summer of 1959, the third year after resumption of normal stream-flow. deacon and metcalf (1961:320) indicated that long periods of intermittency result in depletion or elimination of populations of the orange-throated darter in the wakarusa river, kansas. a limited number of orange-throated darters probably survived in the few permanent pools in the upper neosho and provided the brood-stock necessary to repopulate this section of the stream. #aplodinotus grunniens# rafinesque freshwater drum drum were taken at all stations, but were most abundant at the middle and lower neosho stations. a high level of abundance also was found in 1957 at the middle marais des cygnes station. the abundance of drum declined from 1957 to 1959, but the average size increased because of a dominant 1957 year-class that was moderately reduced by natural mortality in 1958-'59. although the population was composed largely of young-of-the-year and adults in 1957, it was dominated by yearling individuals in 1958. by 1959 the number had declined considerably and the population consisted mostly of juveniles and adults. fish of the 1957 year-class reached a length of approximately ten inches by mid-summer of 1959 (table 8). adults were taken in a variety of habitats, but most often in quiet water. on the other hand, yearlings were extremely abundant in 1958 near shore in shallow, moderately fast water over rubble bottom at night. drum were rare in the same areas in daylight (table 9). young-of-the-year occur in shallow, quiet water, usually over mud-bottom. the freshwater drum matures at about 12 inches t. l. ripe males were taken as late as 23 june 1959; however, the height of the spawning season probably is in may. table 8. length-frequency of freshwater drum from the middle neosho station in 1957, 1958 and 1959. total length aug. 19 aug. 19-26 july 27-aug. 4 in inches 1957 1958 1959 2 1 3 1 4 4 5 1 6 12 7 21 1 8 3 14 2 9 3 3 2 10 4 6 6 11 2 4 1 12 2 13 2 14 1 table 9. average number of individuals captured per hour, using the shocker, at different times of the day and night at the middle neosho station in 1958. numbers in parentheses indicate total number captured. ====================================================================== | morning | afternoon | early night | late night | | 5 hours | 6 hours | 18 hours | 8 hours | species | of effort | of effort | of effort | of effort | | expended | expended | expended | expended | | 6:30 a.m. | 12:30 p.m. | 6:30 p.m. | 12:30 a.m. | | 12:30 p.m. | 6:30 p.m. | 12:30 a.m. | 6:30 a.m. | ----------------+------------+------------+-------------+------------+ long-nosed gar | 0 | 0.3 (2) | 1.2 (21) | 1.1 (9) | short-nosed gar | 0.2 (1) | 0 | 0.2 (3) | 0.4 (3) | gizzard shad | 0.2 (1) | 0.3 (2) | 0.1 (1) | 0.1 (1) | black buffalo | 0 | 0.2 (1) | 0.1 (1) | 0 | small-mouthed | | | | | buffalo | 0.4 (2) | 0.3 (2) | 0.8 (14) | 0.8 (6) | river | | | | | carpsucker | 3.4 (17) | 3.3 (20) | 5.7 (102) | 4.9 (39) | redhorse | 0 | 0.2 (1) | 0.6 (10) | 0.6 (5) | carp | 1.8 (9) | 0.2 (1) | 0.7 (12) | 0.8 (6) | channel catfish | 1.6 (8) | 1.0 (6) | 10.2 (183) | 10.5 (84) | flathead | 2.2 (11) | 1.3 (8) | 2.4 (43) | 3.6 (29) | spotted bass | 0.4 (2) | 0.5 (3) | 0.3 (6) | 0.1 (1) | green sunfish | 0.2 (1) | 0.2 (1) | 0.2 (3) | 0.1 (1) | long-eared | | | | | sunfish | 0 | 0 | 0.1 (2) | 0.4 (3) | orange-spotted | | | | | sunfish | 0.2 (1) | 0 | 0 | 0 | white crappie | 0.2 (1) | 0.2 (1) | 0.2 (5) | 0.4 (3) | freshwater drum | 1.0 (5) | 0.8 (5) | 5.6 (101) | 5.3 (42) | number captured | | | | | per hour | 13.4 | 9.3 | 29.5 | 33.8 | ----------------+------------+------------+-------------+------------+ table 10. numbers of fish seen or captured per hour by use of the shocker. excludes fish taken by shocking into a seine on riffles; young-of-the-year channel catfish and flathead catfish predominated in samples taken by that method. ==================================================================== | marais des cygnes river | |-----------------+-----------------+-----------+ species | upper | middle | lower | -------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 1957| 1958| 1959| 1957| 1958| 1959| 1957| 1958| -------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ gar | .7 | 1.3 | 1.2 | .6 | 2.7 | ... | 2.2 | 9.4 | gizzard shad | .9 | .2 | ... | 9.9 | 2.5 | ... | ... | .5 | buffalo | 2.0 | 3.7 | .6 | .8 | 2.0 | ... | 5.7 | 6.4 | river carpsucker | 4.0 | 4.9 | .6 | 6.5 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 1.8 | 3.9 | shortheaded | | | | | | | | | redhorse | 3.3 | .9 | .6 | .8 | .2 | ... | ... | ... | carp |10.6 | 6.4 | 2.4 | 8.6 | 5.0 | 3.5 | 6.0 |10.4 | black bullhead | ... | ... | ... | 3.9 |17.2 | ... | ... | ... | channel catfish | .5 | .9 | ... | 4.7 | 2.5 | ... | 1.8 | .7 | flathead | .2 | ... | 2.4 | .5 | ... | ... | 1.8 | .5 | largemouth | 1.0 | ... | ... | .3 | .2 | ... | ... | ... | white crappie | 1.7 | 5.1 | .6 | 1.3 | .7 | ... | ... | .2 | freshwater drum | .9 | 1.6 | .6 |24.5 | 2.2 | ... | .7 | .2 | | | | | | | | | | hours shocked |4-1/2|4-1/2|1-2/3| 4 | 4 | 2 |2-5/6|4-1/2| -------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | neosho river | |-----------------------------------------------| | middle | lower | |-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | 1957 | 1958 | 1959 | 1957 | 1958 | 1959 | -------------------|-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ gar | 3.2 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 5.3 | 4.9 | 8.4 | gizzard shad | .5 | .2 | .4 | 1.9 | 1.0 | .4 | buffalo | 2.9 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 6.2 | .9 | 1.5 | river carpsucker | 5.5 | 7.4 | 2.9 | 7.5 | 13.3 | 6.3 | shortheaded | | | | | | | redhorse | 1.9 | .6 | 1.6 | .7 | ... | 1.6 | carp | 2.1 | 2.1 | 1.4 | 3.4 | 1.2 | 1.1 | channel catfish | 2.6 | 8.8 | .9 | 107.0 | .5 | .7 | flathead | 7.6 | 3.7 | 2.7 | 10.8 | .2 | 1.2 | bass | 1.6 | .4 | .1 | .2 | .2 | .1 | white crappie | ... | .9 | .2 | 1.8 | .7 | .1 | freshwater drum | 3.9 | 3.3 | .8 | 15.9 | 2.8 | .7 | | | | | | | | hours shocked | 5-2/3 | 55-5/6| 48-1/2| 4-1/6 | 4 | 16-5/6| | | | | | | | -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ table 11. number of occurrences (roman type) and number counted (_italic type_) per seining unit. one seining unit equals 30 seine-hauls (ten each with the 4-foot, 12-foot and 25-foot seine) of which six randomly-chosen hauls were counted. dashes signify that the species occurred in uncounted collections only. ====================================================================== | marais des cygnes stations | neosho +-----------+----------+-----------+-------------- species | upper | middle | lower | lower station +-----+-----+----+-----+-----------+------+------- |1957 |1959 |1957| 1959| 1957 |1959| 1957 | 1959 -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- golden shiner | ... | ... |--| ... | ... | ...| ... | ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- creek chub | ... | --|... | ... | ... | ...| ... | ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- silver chub | ... | ... |... | ... | --| ...| ... | ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- gravel chub | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| ... | 3.0 | | | | | | | | _2.3_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- sucker-mouthed | --| 6 |... | 3 | ... | 1 | 2 | 10.0 minnow | | | | _1_ | | | | _43.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- red-finned shiner | ... | ... |... | 1 | 2.5 | 2 | ... | 4.7 | | | | | _5.0_| | | _2.3_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- blunt-faced shiner | ... | ... |--| ... | ... | ...| ... | ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- red shiner |21 | 15 | 8 | 19 | 16.0 | 15 | 27 | 20.0 |_6_ | |_4_ |_22_ |_69.0_|_22_|_1119_|_102.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- mimic shiner | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| --| ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- ghost shiner | 7.5 | 1 |... | 1 | 9.5 | 2 | 17 | 11.7 | | | | |_96.5_| | _54_| _76_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- sand shiner | --| 7 |... | 8 | 1.5 | 3 | ... | 1 | | | | _2_ | | | | _.3_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- mountain minnow | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| 12 | 9.3 | | | | | | | _25_| _13.6_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- blunt-nosed minnow | --| 2 |... | 8 | 1.0 | 1 | 6 | 14.0 | | | | | _.5_| | _4_| _7.6_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- parrot minnow | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| 12 | 19.0 | | | | | | | _6_| _28.6_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- fat-headed minnow |10.5 | 4 | 5 | 7 | ... | ...| ...| 8.3 |_1.5_| |_2_ | _1_ | | | | _3.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- stoneroller | --| 6 |--| ... | ... | ...| --| 2.3 | | | | | | | | _1.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- black bullhead | ... | ... |... | ... | .5 | ...| ... | ... -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- channel catfish | 4.5 | 2 | 1 | 13 | 5.0 | 10 | 12 | 6.3 |_1.5_| |_1_ | _7_ | _1.0_| _6_| _5_| _41.6_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- flathead | --| 1 |--| --| 1.0 | ...| --| .3 -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- stonecat | ... | ... |--| ... | 6.0 | ...| --| 1.0 | | | | | _.5_| | | -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- neosho madtom | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| ... | 3.3 | | | | | | | | _2.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- brook silversides | ... | ... |... | ... | .5 | ...| ... | 1.7 | | | | | _1.0_| | | -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- black-striped | ... | ... |... | ... | 1.0 | 2 | ... | 1.0 topminnow | | | | | _1.0_| | | _.7_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- spotted bass | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| 2 | 3.7 | | | | | | | | _.3_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- largemouth | ... | ... | 1 | 3 | ... | ...| 1 | ... | | |_1_ | _1_ | | | _2_| -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- green sunfish | 9 | 8 | 9 | 17 | 11.0 | 3 | 7 | 10.0 |_7.5_| |_3_ | _3_ |_12.0_| _1_| _2_| _3.6_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- long-eared sunfish | ... | ... |... | ... | .5 | ...| 6 | 4.3 | | | | | | | | _.7_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- orange-spotted | 4.5 | --| 2 | 3 | 2.5 | ...| 12 | 12.0 sunfish |_6_ | |_4_ | | | | _5_| _5.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- bluegill | 1.5 | 1 |... | 6 | 3.5 | 1 | 1 | .3 | | | | _1_ | | | | _.3_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- white crappie | ... | ... | 4 | 4 | ... | ...| ... | ... | | |_7_ | | | | | -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- logperch | ... | ... |... | ... | ... | ...| 1 | .3 | | | | | | | | _.7_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- slender-headed | --| 13 |... | 2 | 6.5 | 3 | 1 | 8.3 darter | | | | |_15.0_| _1_| | _3.0_ -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- orange-throated | --| 7 |... | ... | ... | ...| 1 | -- darter | | | | | | | | -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+------- seining units | 2/3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 3 -------------------+-----+-----+----+-----+------+----+------+-------fish-fauna of the upper neosho river collections at the upper neosho station were more intensive than at any other station, especially in 1959. rotenone was used in the summers of 1957, 1958 and 1959, to obtain large samples of the population in one section of the stream. in september, 1959, the shocker was used in other sections in order to estimate populations in particular pools and riffles, to measure variability in the fauna between areas having slightly different habitat, and to record movement of marked individuals in a short section of the stream. description of study-areas two sections of the stream, each about one-half mile long (see p. 366), were studied. additional description of particular areas is presented below. area 1 and the pools in which rotenone was used are on the bosch farm approximately two miles upstream from the white farm where areas 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are situated. area 1 has a length of 210 feet, an average width of four feet, and a maximum depth of two feet. the upper half is a swift, rubble riffle four inches in average depth; the lower half is one and one-half feet in average depth and has a slow current (pl. 29, fig. 1). area 3 has a length of 186 feet, an average width of 34 feet, and a maximum depth of two and one-half feet. this area includes a shallow riffle at both upstream and downstream ends of a pool 73 feet long and approximately one foot in average depth (pl. 29, fig. 2). area 5 has a length of 250 feet, an average width of 50 feet, and a maximum depth of two and one-half feet. this is a shallow, quiet pool over rubble and bedrock bottom except for a small area of mud bottom (backwater) above the point where a short riffle drains into this pool from area 6 (pl. 30, fig. 1). area 6 has a length of 200 feet, an average width of 50 feet, and a maximum depth of one and one-half feet. this is a shallow, quiet pool over bedrock bottom, except for a small area of mud bottom at one side of the upper end of the pool. a short, steep, rubble-riffle is included in this area at the upstream end (pl. 30, fig. 2). areas 2, 4, and 7 resemble at least one of the areas described above but were sampled less intensively. data from areas 2, 4, and 7 are included in discussion of the total fauna of the upper neosho river but are excluded from the discussion of representative parts of that fauna. methods _rotenone_ rotenone was applied to an intermittent pool in 1957. in 1958 and 1959 rotenone was applied to the upper end of a pool and mixed by agitating the water. the concentration in the pool was maintained by slowly introducing part of the rotenone into the riffle at the head of the pool. this was the most effective means of obtaining a large sample of fish from the deeper, slowly flowing water of the upper neosho. pools in which rotenone was used had areas of as much as one-half acre and depths in excess of six feet. _shocker_ in 1959 the shocker was used extensively in several areas of the upper neosho. because of the small size of the stream, "tennis-racket" electrodes were used effectively by two men--one carrying the electrodes and one picking up fish and placing them in a live-box. in fast water, many fish floated into a seine placed across the lower end of the area. a large segment of the population was collected in this manner. areas in which fish were collected by means of the shocker included riffles, and pools having flowing water no more than three feet in maximum depth. the bottom-type was usually gravel, rubble or bedrock, but a small amount of mud bottom was present in many pools. because of the necessity of wading, we could not use the shocker effectively in water more than three feet deep. in addition, turbidity of the water prevented effective collection of stunned fish in the deeper pools. therefore, rotenone was more effective in deep water than was the shocker. in shallow, swift riffles and pools, the shocker yielded more reliable samples than did rotenone, because of difficulty in maintaining adequate concentrations of rotenone where flow was swift. the relative abundance of each species in the upper neosho was calculated from cumulative results obtained by use of the shocker in seven areas in 1959. population estimates were made by collecting fish with the shocker, marking them by clipping fins or staining them in bismark brown y at a concentration of 1:20,000 (deacon, 1961), returning them to the stream, and making a second collection three hours (areas 1 and 3) or 24 hours (area 6) later. the same area was shocked again within two to eight days. collections throughout the one-half-mile section yielded information on movement. changes in the fauna at the upper neosho station, 1957 through 1959. the following discussion is based principally on collections made with rotenone in 1957, 1958 and 1959 (table 12). other supplementary data aid in understanding the changes that occurred after the resumption of normal flow at the upper neosho station. the population in 1957 was strongly dominated by black bullhead and young-of-the-year channel catfish. other common species were long-eared sunfish, red shiner, yellow bullhead, orange-spotted sunfish and green sunfish. this fauna, with the exception of young-of-the-year individuals, was a fauna produced during the years of drought. deacon and metcalf (1961:318-321) found a similar fauna in streams of the wakarusa river basin that had been seriously affected by drought. the black bullheads taken in 1957 were predominately yearlings. it is likely that by 1956 the total fish population in the upper neosho had been decimated by drought. the ponded conditions prevalent in that year were conducive to production and survival of young black bullheads. fig. 3 shows that this dominant 1956 year-class reached an average length of approximately 6.5 inches by august, 1959. reproduction by black bullheads was limited in 1957, 1958, and 1959, and slight reduction in relative abundance occurred from 1957 to 1958. the relative abundance in 1959 remained nearly stable. if stream-flow remains essentially continuous for the next few years, the number of black bullheads probably will decline as individuals of the 1956 year-class reach the end of their life-span. reference has been made to the large hatch of channel catfish in 1957, in a discussion of that species. conditions for survival of young channel catfish at the upper neosho station in 1957 were good because there was continuous flow over many gravel-rubble riffles, which were largely unoccupied by other fish, in the spring and summer of 1957. table 12. percentage-composition of the fish-fauna at the upper neosho station in 1957, 1958 and 1959, as computed from collections obtained by using rotenone. ============================================================ species | 1957 | 1958 | 1959 ----------------------------------+--------+-------+------- big-mouthed buffalo...............| ...... | t[d] | t small-mouthed buffalo.............| ...... | ..... | t river carpsucker..................| t | 0.8 | 1.8 golden redhorse...................| t | 3.0 | 5.7 creek chub........................| ...... | t | 0.8 red-finned shiner.................| 1.3 | 3.0 | 0.8 red shiner........................| 6.5 | 13.1 | 12.1 ghost shiner......................| t | t | ...... blunt-nosed minnow................| t | t | t fat-headed minnow.................| t | t | 1.4 stoneroller.......................| 0.8 | 1.5 | 3.5 black bullhead....................| 40.8 | 30.5 | 32.0 yellow bullhead...................| 5.3 | 8.8 | 2.5 channel catfish...................| 28.4 | 15.5 | 18.5 flathead..........................| t | t | t stonecat..........................| t | t | 1.4 spotted bass......................| t | t | 0.8 largemouth........................| t | t | t green sunfish.....................| 3.1 | 6.8 | 6.4 long-eared sunfish................| 8.8 | 3.7 | 1.9 orange-spotted sunfish............| 3.1 | 8.9 | 2.5 bluegill..........................| t | t | t white crappie.....................| t | ..... | t logperch......................... | t | 2.1 | 0.8 slender-headed darter.............| 0.6 | 0.6 | 3.1 orange-throated darter............| ...... | t | 2.5 total number of fish..............| 786 | 965 | 513 size of sample-area in acre-feet..| .002 | .33 | .33 ----------------------------------+--------+-------+------- [d] t denotes less than one-half of one per cent of the population. channel catfish also showed a slight decline in relative abundance after 1957, resulting from mortality in the 1957 year-class. with continuous flow, channel catfish will probably remain abundant, although annual reproductive success probably will be less than in 1957. the big-mouthed buffalo, small-mouthed buffalo, creek chub and orange-throated darter were not taken in 1957, but appeared in collections in 1958. the river carpsucker, golden redhorse, red shiner, fat-headed minnow, stoneroller, stonecat, and slender-headed darter also increased in abundance between 1957 and 1959. the increased abundance of all these species in 1958 and 1959 resulted in a more diversified fauna, with lesser predominance by any single species, than in 1957 (table 12); this change is related to the increased, permanent flow in 1958 and 1959. local variability of the fauna in different areas at the upper neosho station, 1959 the shallow areas in which the shocker was used in 1959 are the prevalent habitat in the upper neosho river. the relative abundance of fishes found in these areas is presented in table 13. the red shiner was most abundant and was followed (in decreasing order) by long-eared sunfish, minnows of the genus _pimephales_, green sunfish, red-finned shiner, channel catfish, and stoneroller. other species combined comprise less than ten per cent of the population. table 13 also shows the variability in relative abundance of different species among areas that have the same general kind of habitat. the species composition is similar in all areas. the sample obtained with rotenone in 1959 is included in table 13 to show differences in the fauna of deep, slowly flowing areas and shallower areas with stronger current. the differences in relative abundance indicate the kind of habitat that each species is able to utilize most fully. golden redhorse and black bullhead were most abundant in large, deep, quiet pools (5.7 per cent and 32 per cent of the total population) and were more abundant in area 5 (3.2 per cent and 7.3 per cent respectively) than in any of the other shallow areas. area 5 has greater average depth, more mud bottom, and less riffle area than areas 1, 3 and 6. the golden redhorse and black bullhead have specific habitat preferences that are not evident in the above discussion. my collections indicate that the golden redhorse prefers deep water having some current, whereas the black bullhead prefers little or no current. species that prevailed in or near riffles were: creek chub, sucker-mouthed minnow, stoneroller, channel catfish (young-of-the-year only), flathead (young-of-the-year only), stonecat, slender-headed darter, and orange-throated darter. of these species, the sucker-mouthed minnow, slender-headed darter and orange-throated darter reached their greatest abundance at area 3, where the riffle is shallow, slow, and has a bottom composed of flat limestone rubble. the riffle at area 1 is, for the most part, deeper and faster than at area 3 and has a bottom composed of gravel and small rocks. the creek chub, stoneroller, channel catfish (young-of-the-year), flathead (young-of-the-year), and stonecat reached their greatest abundance in area 1. all species that showed a preference for riffles were rare or absent in area 5 where no riffle-habitat was sampled. the riffle-dwelling species that were present in collections made with rotenone in the deeper pools were taken from the riffle into which rotenone was introduced. the river carpsucker, blunt-nosed minnow, fat-headed minnow, channel catfish (yearlings and two-year-olds), flathead (yearlings and two-year-olds), green sunfish and long-eared sunfish showed a preference for shallow, quiet water. all of these species were more common in collections from areas 5 and 6 than in collections from other areas. table 13. relative abundance of fish (per cent of total population made up by each species), in the first collection made in each of four different shallow areas by means of the shocker, is shown in vertical columns 1-4. results of the use of rotenone in a fifth, deeper area are shown in column 5. column 6 combines data from all collections made by using the shocker in seven shallow areas (including columns 1-4). ====================================================================== | area | area | area | area | | all | 1 | 3 | 5 | 6 | rotenone | areas ------------------------+------+------+------+------+----------+----- big-mouthed buffalo | .... | .... | t[e] | .... | t | t small-mouthed buffalo | .... | .... | .6 | .... | t | t river carpsucker | .... | t | 10.6 | t | 1.8 | .8 river carpsucker (yy)[f]| .... | .8 | t | 3.7 | .... | 1.0 short-headed redhorse | .... | .... | .6 | .... | .... | t golden redhorse | .8 | 1.0 | 3.2 | .... | 5.7 | t carp | .... | .... | .... | .... | .... | t golden shiner | .... | .... | .... | .... | .... | t creek chub | 1.6 | t | t | t | .8 | t sucker-mouthed minnow | .... | 11.2 | t | 3.4 | .... | 1.4 red-finned shiner | .... | .... | .... | 4.0 | .8 | 8.1 red shiner | 18.2 | 24.0 | 7.8 | 20.1 | 12.1 | 35.9 sand shiner | .... | 5.2 | .... | 1.1 | .... | t pimephales (yy) | .... | .... | .... | .... | .... | 6.7 mountain minnow | .... | .... | .... | t | .... | t blunt-nosed minnow | .... | .8 | 4.1 | 11.7 | t | 3.4 parrot minnow | .... | .... | .... | .... | .... | t fat-headed minnow | t | t | 3.4 | 12.1 | 1.4 | 2.6 stoneroller | 27.7 | 17.4 | .6 | 5.8 | 3.5 | 5.1 black bullhead | 2.1 | t | 7.3 | t | 32.0 | .6 yellow bullhead | t | t | .... | t | 2.5 | t channel catfish (j)[g] | 5.8 | 7.6 | 41.3 | t | 14.6 | 4.2 channel catfish (yy) | 9.5 | 7.0 | t | 4.3 | 3.9 | 2.5 flathead (j) | .... | .8 | 2.1 | t | t | t flathead (yy) | 1.6 | t | .... | .... | .... | t stonecat | 10.3 | 1.4 | .... | .... | 1.4 | .7 spotted bass | .... | t | .6 | t | .8 | t largemouth | .... | .... | t | .... | t | t green sunfish | 11.2 | 3.5 | 5.9 | 12.2 | 6.4 | 10.1 long-eared sunfish | 5.4 | 6.0 | 5.1 | 14.6 | 1.9 | 12.8 orange-spotted sunfish | t | t | 1.4 | 1.8 | 2.5 | .5 bluegill | .... | .... | 1.0 | .... | t | t white crappie | .... | .... | .... | .... | t | t logperch | t | t | t | t | .8 | t slender-headed darter | t | 11.4 | 1.1 | 1.6 | 3.1 | 1.3 orange-throated darter | .8 | 1.8 | t | .5 | 2.5 | t freshwater drum | .... | .... | t | .... | .... | t total number of fish | 242 | 484 | 727 | 924 | 513 |17,796 area in square feet | 840 | 6324 |12500 |10000 | .... | .... volume | .... | .... | .... | .... | 1/3 | | | | | |acre-foot | ------------------------+------+------+------+------+----------+----- [e] "t" designates species that comprised less than 0.5 per cent of the population. [f] (yy) signifies young-of-the-year. [g] (j) signifies yearlings or two-year-olds. temporal variability of fauna in the same areas the variability of the population in successive collections from the same area is presented in table 14. supplementary data obtained in areas 2, 4 and 7 support conclusions discussed below for areas 1, 3 and 6. the abundance of some species maintained a constant level, whereas that of others varied. table 14. numbers of individuals collected by means of the shocker at varying intervals in september, 1959. the number at the top of each column is the date when the collection was made. ====================================================================== | area 1 | area 3 | area 6 species +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- | 3 | 4 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 15 | 16 | 18 | 20 ----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- golden redhorse | 2 | 2 | ... | 5 | 5 | 2 | ... | ... | 3 creek chub | 4 | 3 | 7 | 1 | ... | ... | 1 | 2 | ... sucker-mouthed | | | | | | | | | minnow | ... | ... | ... | 54 | 42 | 25 | 31 | 7 | 6 red-finned | | | | | | | | | shiner | ... | ... | 1 | ... | ... | 4 | 31 | 13 | 4 red shiner | 44 | 7 | 211 | 117 | 170 | 438 | 186 | 209 | 62 blunt-nosed | | | | | | | | | minnow | ... | ... | ... | 4 | 10 | 19 | 108 | 91 | 13 fat-headed | | | | | | | | | minnow | 1 | ... | ... | 1 | 2 | 3 | 112 | 156 | 48 stoneroller | 67 | 39 | 49 | 84 | 107 | 55 | 54 | 67 | 22 black bullhead | 5 | ... | 1 | 2 | 1 | ... | ... | 3 | 7 yellow bullhead | 1 | 1 | ... | 2 | 1 | ... | 1 | ... | 3 channel catfish | 14 | 7 | ... | 36 | 16 | ... | 3 | 1 | 23 channel | | | | | | | | | catfish(yy)[h]| 23 | 16 | 17 | 34 | 34 | 22 | 40 | 23 | 28 flathead | ... | ... | ... | 4 | 8 | 1 | 2 | ... | 1 flathead(yy) | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | ... | ... | ... stonecat | 25 | 8 | 12 | 7 | 7 | 5 | ... | ... | ... green sunfish | 27 | 17 | 12 | 13 | 16 | 17 | 62 | 62 | 74 long-eared | | | | | | | | | sunfish | 13 | 12 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 10 | 22 | 31 logperch | 1 | ... | ... | 2 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... slender-headed | | | | | | | | | darter | ... | 1 | 2 | 55 | 45 | 23 | 15 | 1 | 1 orange-throated | | | | | | | | | darter | 2 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 11 | 8 | 5 | ... | 1 ----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- total | 233 | 115 | 316 | 438 | 480 | 626 | 661 | 657 | 347 ----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+---- [h] (yy) means young-of-the-year only. stoneroller, channel catfish (young-of-the-year), green sunfish, and long-eared sunfish formed the most stable element of the population, in that the numbers of these species varied less in successive collections than did numbers of other species. the number of orange-throated darters remained constant at areas 1 and 3, and the number of stonecats changed little in successive collections from area 3. i suspect that an apparent decline in stonecats at area 1 on september 4 was due to a slow rate of dispersal from the point of release (see pages 413, 414). some species (sucker-mouthed minnow, red-finned shiner, slender-headed darter, and fat-headed minnow) decreased significantly in successive samples from the same area because of mortality in handling or movement out of the area of initial capture. the decrease in abundance of the sucker-mouthed minnow may have been due to some mobility of the species. evidence for mortality caused by handling was obtained for the red-finned shiner and probably accounts for the reduction of this species in area 6. the red-finned shiner is also probably a mobile species. the reduction in abundance of the slender-headed darter seems unexplainable because no evidence was obtained for either movement or mortality. fat-headed minnows also declined markedly in successive collections from area 6, the only area in which the species was common. no marked fat-headed minnows were taken outside the area of release, indicating low mobility of the species. i cannot certainly account for their decline; possibly there was latent mortality due to shocking. the numbers of red shiners, blunt-nosed minnows, and juvenile channel catfish varied erratically in successive collections, probably as a result of movement. this problem is discussed for all species in a later section. population-estimation the direct-proportion method was used to estimate fish populations in areas 1, 3 and 6. reliable results could not be obtained for all species because of scarcity, mortality in handling, mobility, or other factors. a high rate of mortality due to handling was observed in area 1 for the red shiner and in area 6 for river carpsucker (young-of-the-year), sucker-mouthed minnows, red-finned shiner, red shiner, blunt-nosed minnow, and stoneroller. in area 3, in contrast, there was little mortality in the same species during the twelve-hour interval that fish were held in traps prior to release as marked individuals. the following species were common in at least one area, but probably are sufficiently mobile (see page 416) to invalidate estimates of static populations in small areas: red shiner, red-finned shiner, and channel catfish (yearlings and older). other species were rare and are indicated as "t" in table 13. those species for which population-estimates seem warranted include: golden redhorse, sucker-mouthed minnow, red shiner, sand shiner, fat-headed minnow, stoneroller, stonecat, channel catfish (young-of-the-year), green sunfish, long-eared sunfish, slender-headed darter, and orange-throated darter. i consider the estimate valid if a high percentage of the marked fish is recaptured. results are presented in table 15, and ordinarily will not be referred to in the following discussion of the population in each of the three areas. _area 1_ the order of abundance at area 1, in terms of the estimated population per 500 square feet, was as follows: stoneroller (47.6), stonecat (29.4), channel catfish (young-of-the-year) (20.6), green sunfish (19.4), red shiner (18.2), long-eared sunfish (9.4), channel catfish (yearlings and older) (6.5), golden redhorse (1.2). insufficient data make inclusion of other species unreliable. a comparison of the order of abundance between the estimated total population and the percentage composition in the first collection from each area shows significant correlations. the percentage-composition of the fish fauna at area 1 was calculated as follows: stoneroller (27.7%), red shiner (18.2%), green sunfish (11.2%), stonecat (10.3%), channel catfish (young-of-the-year) (9.5%), channel catfish (yearlings and older) (5.8%), long-eared sunfish (5.4%), golden redhorse (0.8%). it can be seen that the stoneroller, green sunfish, long-eared sunfish and golden redhorse follow each other in the same order in both calculations. the stonecat is shown to be more common than channel catfish (young-of-the-year) in both calculations, but both species appear to be more abundant than green sunfish and red shiner in calculations of the total population and less abundant in the percentage-composition in the first collection. i think that the order of abundance as shown by percentage-composition is the more accurate figure for area 1. the abundance of the red shiner is known to have been affected by mortality in collecting. furthermore, as will be shown later, the species is so mobile that its abundance often changes markedly in a short time. therefore, it is not surprising to find the red shiner in widely varying positions of relative and absolute abundance. however, the green sunfish maintains stable populations and should remain in about the same position of abundance in relation to other species (such as the stonecat and channel catfish young-of-the-year) that also maintain stable populations. the differences in order of abundance obtained by the two methods for green sunfish and channel catfish young-of-the-year are not great. however, in the estimation of total population the abundance of the stonecat seems significantly greater, in relation to other species, than in the calculation of percentage-composition. i believe that this difference can be attributed to the relatively low number of marked fish recaptured, which is probably due to a slow rate of dispersal from the point of release. stonecats were released in relatively quiet water, and if they remained there they might be missed in subsequent collections, because they lack air-bladders and tend to remain on the bottom when shocked. therefore, the calculated total population of the stonecat in area 1 may be too high. table 15. data used in estimating total populations, by direct proportions, in areas 1, 3, and 6 at the upper neosho stations. ====================================================================== | number | number | number | captured first | marked and |captured second species | collection | released | collection +----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+--- | 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 ----------------------+----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+--- golden redhorse | 2 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 0 sucker-mouthed minnow | 0 | 54 | 31 | 0 | 51 | 15 | 0 | 42 | 12 red shiner | 44 | 116 | 186 | 22 |106 | 86 | 7 | 165 | 202 sand shiner | 0 | 25 | 10 | 0 | 25 | 7 | 0 | 35 | 10 blunt-nosed minnow | 0 | 4 | 108 | 0 | 3 | 28 | 0 | 10 | 91 fat-headed minnow | 1 | 1 | 112 | 1 | 1 |101 | 0 | 2 | 156 stoneroller | 67 | 84 | 54 | 58 | 79 | 33 | 39 | 107 | 67 channel catfish(j)[i] | 14 | 37 | 3 | 9 | 32 | 3 | 7 | 16 | 1 channel catfish(yy)[j]| 3 | 34 | 40 | 22 | 33 | 39 | 16 | 34 | 23 stonecat | 25 | 7 | 0 | 25 | 7 | 0 | 8 | 7 | 0 green sunfish | 27 |[k]--| 62 | 27 | -| 62 | 17 | -| 62 long-eared sunfish | 13 | 6 | 10 | 13 | 6 | 10 | 12 | 3 | 22 ----------------------+----+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+--- ====================================================================== number of | estimated | percent of | number marked fish | total | marked fish | per 500 recaptured | population | recovered | square feet ----+----+----+----+-----+------+-----+-----+----+------+------+----- 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 ----+----+----+----+-----+------+-----+-----+----+------+------+----- 2 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 0 | 100 | 100 | -| 1.2 | .4 | 0 0 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 126 | -| -| 33 | 0 | 0 | 10.0 | - 5 | 18 | 14 | 31 | 972 | 1284 | 23 | 17 | 11 | 18.2 | 77.1 | 64 -| 12 | 1 | 0 | 73 | -| -| 48 | -| 0 | 5.8 | - 0 | 1 | 8 | 0 | -| 319 | -| 33 | 28 | 0 | -| 16 0 | 0 | 19 | -| -| 830 | 0 | 0 | 19 | -| -| 41.5 28 | 35 | 8 | 81 | 242 | 276 | 48 | 44 | 24 | 47.6 | 19.2 | 13.8 6 | 13 | 0 | 11 | 39 | -| 67 | 41 | 0 | 6.5 | 3.1 | - 10 | 11 | 1 | 35 | 102 | -| 45 | 33 | 3 | 20.6 | 8.1 | - 4 | 1 | -| 50 | -| 0 | 16 | 14 | -| 29.4 | -| 0 14 | -| 22 | 33 | -| 175 | 52 | -| 35 | 19.4 | -| 8.8 10 | 3 | 6 | 16 | 6 | 37 | 76 | 50 | 60 | 9.4 | .5 | 1.9 ----+----+----+----+-----+------+-----+-----+----+------+------+----- [i] (j) denotes juveniles only. [j] (yy) denotes young-of-year only. [k] a dash denotes incomplete or insufficient data. _area 3_ the order of abundance of the species at area 3, in terms of the estimated population per 500 square feet, was as follows: red shiner (77.1), stoneroller (19.2), sucker-mouthed minnow (10.0), channel catfish (young-of-the-year) (8.1), sand shiner (5.8), channel catfish (yearlings and older) (3.1), long-eared sunfish (0.5), golden redhorse (0.4). insufficient data make inclusion of other species unreliable. for comparison with the estimates of total population, the percentage-composition in the first collection gives the following results: red shiner (24.0%), stoneroller (17.4%), sucker-mouthed minnow (11.2%), channel catfish (yearlings and older) (7.6%), channel catfish (young-of-the-year) (7.0%), long-eared sunfish (6.0%), sand shiner (5.2%), and golden redhorse (1.0%). for the most part, the species have the same order of abundance in both methods of analysis. those that are apparently out of order are channel catfish (yearlings and older) and long-eared sunfish. the first species is mobile (excepting young-of-the-year) and commonly fluctuates widely in numbers in the same area; the second species was treated differently in that only adults were considered in the population-estimation whereas both young and adults were considered in calculating percentage-composition. (i found that i could not confidently distinguish between young-of-the-year of green sunfish, long-eared sunfish and orange-spotted sunfish after staining.) _area 6_ the order of abundance of the species at area 6, in terms of the estimated population per 500 square feet, was as follows: red shiner (64.0), fat-headed minnow (41.5), blunt-nosed minnow (16.0), stoneroller (13.8), green sunfish (8.8), long-eared sunfish (1.9). insufficient data make inclusion of other species unreliable. calculations of percentage-composition give the following results: red shiner (20.1%), long-eared sunfish (14.6%), green sunfish (12.2%), fat-headed minnow (12.1%), blunt-nosed minnow (11.7%), stoneroller (5.8%). the two species of sunfish form a more significant part of the population in the latter analysis because young are included. only adults were considered in the estimation of total population. the fact that estimates of the total population and the percentage-composition agree in most respects lends support to the validity of both methods of analysis. it should be re-emphasized that differences in the order of abundance in the various areas reflect the ability of each species to utilize each particular kind of habitat. movement of marked fish table 16. data on movement of marked fish at the upper neosho station, september, 1959. ====================================================================== | number | number | number | number species | marked | recaptured | moved | moved | | | upstream | downstream ------------------------+--------+------------+----------+------------- golden redhorse | 24 | 16 | 0 | 2 sucker-mouthed minnow | 68 | 27 | 7 | 0 red-finned shiner | 74 | 0 | 0 | 0 red shiner | 1326 | 152 | 48 | 25 blunt-nosed minnow | 136 | 32 | 1 | 10 fat-headed minnow | 151 | 40 | 0 | 0 stoneroller | 177 | 90 | 1 | 0 black bullhead | 25 | 6 | 2 | 0 channel catfish (j)[l] | 294 | 36 | 4 | 7 channel catfish (yy)[m] | 145 | 34 | 2 | 0 stonecat | 33 | 6 | 0 | 0 green sunfish | 124 | 68 | 1 | 0 long-eared sunfish | 33 | 21 | 0 | 0 slender-headed darter | 70 | 1 | 0 | 0 orange-throated darter | 13 | 0 | 0 | 0 ------------------------+--------+------------+----------+----------- [l] (j) denotes juveniles only. [m] (yy) denotes young-of-year only. some measure was gained of the amount of movement exhibited by several species of fish. results are biased in favor of a conclusion that a species is sedentary because a large percentage of the recaptures were made in collections taken in the same immediate area three hours after release of marked fish, the total area checked was not large (one mile), and collecting was limited to an eleven-day period. nevertheless, some species were shown to be definitely mobile and others exhibited pronounced sedentary tendencies. the results of experiments on movement are presented in table 16. marked fish (dyed and fin-clipped) were taken as long as seven days after being marked. only those species in which more than ten individuals were marked are included. blunt-nosed minnow, red shiner, and channel catfish (yearlings and older) are more mobile than other species. the mobility of channel catfish has been discussed by muncy (1958) and funk (1957). my records show that of 36 marked channel catfish that were recaptured, 11 were taken in areas other than the one into which they had been returned. a pronounced mobile tendency on the part of the red shiner and blunt-nosed minnow is shown by the fact that of 152 marked red shiners recaptured, 73 had moved from the area of release; and of 32 marked blunt-nosed minnows recaptured, 11 had moved from the area of release. the fact that the habitat occupied by these species is not precise (ranging from swift riffles to quiet pools) supports a conclusion that the species are mobile. the fat-headed minnow, stoneroller, channel catfish (young-of-the-year), green sunfish and long-eared sunfish form a sedentary element of the population. with the exception of the fat-headed minnow, the sedentary group also maintained relatively stable numbers in areas 1, 3 and 6 throughout the study (table 14). it is interesting to note that, in contrast to the mobile group, the species forming the sedentary group have rather well-defined habitat preferences. a third group of species, represented by the red-finned shiner, stonecat, slender-headed darter and orange-throated darter, was characterized by having a low rate of recapture. i suspect that mortality is a factor contributing to the failure to recapture red-finned shiners, because in one collection only four of 31 red-finned shiners captured were successfully marked and released, in another case 70 of 818. the red-finned shiner occurs most often in pools but is also taken in other areas, is pelagic, and probably is a mobile species. the stonecat, slender-headed darter and orange-throated darter are generally restricted to riffle-habitats, and are probably sedentary. the low number of recaptures for these three species probably is due either to a slow rate of dispersal from the point of release or to latent mortality resulting from shock. table 14 shows that these three species maintain comparatively stable populations, but there seems to be a tendency for a reduction in numbers with continued collecting, even though all fish captured were returned to the stream. golden redhorse showed a high rate of recapture. all individuals marked were recaptured three hours after release in areas 1 (two fish) and 3 (five fish). nine individuals were taken from area 4 on 11 september; seven of these were marked and released in the next pool downstream (area 3). on 15 september, two fish were retaken in area 3 and two were retaken in area 2, the next pool downstream. the species was common in area 5 also where five of eight marked individuals were recaptured two days after release. it seems that the golden redhorse is somewhat restricted in movement, at least for short periods. the sucker-mouthed minnow and black bullhead showed some movement--less than such mobile species as red shiners and channel catfish, but more than the sedentary group. seven of 27 marked sucker-mouthed minnows were taken in areas adjacent to the one to which they had been returned. two of six black bullheads that were recaptured had moved. the black bullhead moved the greater distance. the extent of short-term movement by several of the species in the upper neosho correlates well with redistribution subsequent to drought in the wakarusa river, discussed by deacon and metcalf (1961). similarity of the fauna at the upper neosho station to the faunas of nearby streams the fauna that i found to be characteristic at the upper neosho station has affinity with the upland tributary-fauna described by metcalf (1959) for chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. the primary difference is a nearly complete absence at my station of the ozarkian element of the population. some species (red-finned shiner, long-eared sunfish, and spotted bass) listed by metcalf as characteristic of the mainstream of smaller rivers occur at the upper neosho station in greater abundance then elsewhere in the neosho. this difference is probably due to the fact that the upper neosho station is somewhat larger and slightly more turbid than metcalf's "upland tributaries." hall (1952) reported on the distribution of fishes in the vicinity of fort gibson reservoir, an impoundment on the grand (neosho) river in oklahoma. he separated the fishes into three groups according to habitat-preference: species restricted to upland tributaries on the east side of grand (neosho) river, species restricted to lowland tributaries on the west side of grand (neosho) river, and species occurring in the grand river proper and/or tributaries on one or both sides. several species found in the upper neosho river also occur in the area studied by hall. of these, only the creek chub was restricted to upland tributaries on the east side of grand (neosho) river. the sucker-mouthed minnow and red-finned shiner were restricted to the lowland tributaries on the west side of grand (neosho) river in the fort gibson reservoir area. golden redhorse, stoneroller, yellow bullhead, spotted bass, green sunfish, long-eared sunfish, and orange-throated darter were present in collections from the grand river proper and/or tributaries on both sides of the river, most commonly in tributaries. hall's data show that black bullhead, large-mouthed bass, white crappie, and logperch occurred most frequently in or near the quiet water of the reservoir. in my study these fish were most common in the larger, quiet pools at the upper neosho station. comparison of the fish faunas of the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers the marais des cygnes river has less gradient (especially in the upstream portions), fewer and shorter riffles, and more mud bottom than does the neosho river. stream-flow during drought was reduced to a proportionately greater degree in the neosho river than it was in the marais des cygnes river. average flow of the neosho river near parsons (drainage area: 4905 square miles), kansas, was less than average flow of the marais des cygnes river at trading post (drainage area: 2880 square miles), kansas, in 1953, 1955 and 1956. in normal times the neosho river carries a larger volume of water than the marais des cygnes. the neosho river has a greater variety of habitat-conditions and a more diversified fish-fauna than the marais des cygnes. the following species were taken in the neosho river but not in the marais des cygnes river: blue sucker, high-finned carpsucker, golden redhorse, gravel chub, mimic shiner, mountain minnow, parrot minnow, neosho madtom (the only endemic in either river), mosquitofish, spotted bass, smallmouth, black crappie, logperch and fan-tailed darter. most of the above species are usually found in association with gravel-bottom, which is prevalent in neosho river. the blue sucker, high-finned carpsucker, gravel chub, mountain minnow, and parrot minnow normally occur in the larger streams in kansas. the last three species became more abundant in the neosho river following resumption of flow. the golden redhorse also increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959, but was most numerous at the upper neosho station, whereas the other species occurred mainly at the lower stations. the mimic shiner, spotted bass, smallmouth, and fan-tailed darter are characteristic of upstream habitats with clear water (tributaries, rather than the mainstream), and were taken in the neosho river only in 1957 or became less abundant from 1957 to 1959. the silver chub, slender madtom and tadpole madtom were taken in the marais des cygnes river only in 1957 and were not taken in the neosho river. the following species, common to both rivers, were more abundant in the neosho: long-nosed gar, short-nosed gar, river carpsucker, creek chub, sucker-mouthed minnow, red-finned shiner, red shiner, ghost shiner, blunt-nosed minnow, fat-headed minnow, stoneroller, yellow bullhead, channel catfish, flathead, stonecat, largemouth, long-eared sunfish, slender-headed darter, and freshwater drum. these species, collectively, reflect the more diversified habitats (more gravel-bottom, more riffle-areas, more gradient, greater range of stream-size sampled) in the neosho river. the following species, common to both rivers, were more abundant in the marais des cygnes: gizzard shad, carp, sand shiner, black bullhead and white crappie. these species (with the exception of sand shiner) emphasize the fact that the marais des cygnes is a sluggish stream with large areas of mud bottom. differences in the abundance of the sand shiner in the two rivers are part of taxonomic and distributional studies being conducted by mr. bernard c. nelson. the following species were not consistently more abundant in one river than the other: big-mouthed buffalo, black buffalo, small-mouthed buffalo, short-headed redhorse, green sunfish, orange-spotted sunfish and orange-throated darter. these species, excepting the orange-throated darter and short-headed redhorse, occurred in a wide variety of habitats. faunal changes, 1957 through 1959 the following species increased in abundance from 1957 to 1959 (tables 10 and 11): long-nosed gar, short-nosed gar, river carpsucker, creek chub, gravel chub, sucker-mouthed minnow, mountain minnow, blunt-nosed minnow, parrot minnow, stoneroller, stonecat, neosho madtom, green sunfish, slender-headed darter, and orange-throated darter. these species can be separated into three groups, characteristic of different habitats but having in common a preference for permanent flow. one group, composed of long-nosed gar, short-nosed gar, river carpsucker, gravel chub, mountain minnow, parrot minnow, and neosho madtom, prefers streams of moderate to large size. a second group composed of creek chub, sucker-mouthed minnow, stoneroller, and orange-throated darter occurs most abundantly in small, permanent streams. the green sunfish may be included here on the basis of its abundance at the upper neosho station; however, this is a pioneer species and does not require permanent flow. the third group is characteristic of continuously flowing water, but in both upstream and downstream situations. the species in this group (blunt-nosed minnow, stonecat, and slender-headed darter), increased in response to a resumption of permanent flow, but did not respond as quickly as did channel catfish, flatheads and freshwater drum, which are discussed subsequently. the fact that riffle-insects were abundant throughout my study convinces me that food was not a limiting factor in the re-establishment of the fish-fauna on riffles of the neosho river. the following species decreased in abundance during my study (tables 10 and 11): gizzard shad, carp, rosy-faced shiner, blunt-faced shiner, red shiner, mimic shiner, black bullhead, yellow bullhead, channel catfish, flathead, slender madtom, tadpole madtom, freckled madtom, spotted bass, largemouth, black crappie, fan-tailed darter, and freshwater drum. among the species that decreased, three groups, characteristic of different habitats, can be distinguished. the first group occurs most commonly in ponded conditions or in slowly flowing streams. species in this group are: shad, carp, black bullhead, tadpole madtom, largemouth, black crappie, and white crappie. bullhead, bass and crappie commonly occur in farm ponds and lakes in kansas and seem less well adapted to streams. it is therefore not surprising to find that these species decreased in abundance when flow was resumed. a second group, composed of rosy-faced shiner, blunt-faced shiner, mimic shiner, slender madtom, freckled madtom, spotted bass, and fan-tailed darter, normally is characteristic of clear tributaries rather than the mainstream of rivers. these species probably used the mainstream as a refugium during drought; with the resumption of flow, conditions became unsuitable for these populations in the mainstream. at the same time, conditions probably became favorable to the re-establishment of these species in tributaries. metcalf (1959:396) listed the rosy-faced shiner, blunt-faced shiner and mimic shiner as species that were characteristic of upland tributaries in the flint hills and chautauqua hills of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties in kansas. the slender madtom and fan-tailed darter are more common in clear streams of southeast kansas than in other areas of the state (cross, personal communication and data of the state biological survey of kansas). both species are recorded by hall (1952:57-58) only in upland tributaries on the east side of grand (neosho) river in the fort gibson reservoir area of oklahoma. neither species was taken in faunal studies of the verdigris river in oklahoma (wallen, 1958), in the verdigris and fall rivers in kansas (schelske, 1957), or by metcalf (1959). the spotted bass is not so restricted in its distribution and its habitat-requirements as are other species in this group; but, in kansas, spotted bass are most abundant in clear creeks in the southeast part of the state. the freckled madtom was taken in most of the studies cited above and is most common in the smaller streams of the southeast one-fourth of kansas and the northeast one-fourth of oklahoma. schelske (1957:47) reports that the freckled madtom was taken only in march, april, october and november in the verdigris river, kansas. my only record of this species was obtained in the neosho river in april, 1958. the third group is composed of channel catfish, flathead, and freshwater drum. this group represents that element of the population that responded most quickly to the resumption of continuous flow. the fact that adult channel catfish and flatheads live in pools and do not require flowing water to spawn gives these species a survival advantage as well as a reproductive advantage over obligatory riffle fishes (such as most darters) in the highly variable conditions found in kansas streams. these factors resulted in unusually high reproductive success in 1957. subsequent survival of fry was excellent; however, some mortality in the highly-dominant 1957 year-class became apparent in the 1958 and 1959 collections, accounting for a numerical decline in these species. the ability to respond immediately to increased flow is an adaptive feature that allows these species to maintain high levels of abundance in the highly fluctuating streams of kansas. the continuous flow that occurred in 1957 in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers, for the first time in four years, provided the necessary habitat for survival of young catfish hatched in that year. the nearly complete absence of other species on the riffles, and the abundant populations of riffle-insects that i observed in the summer of 1957, were undoubtedly factors contributing to the survival of young. the decrease in abundance of the red shiner may be partially due to an increase in the numbers of other species that are well adapted to conditions of permanent flow. at the completion of my study, the red shiner was still the most abundant minnow in both rivers. in 1957 this species was common in many habitats, including swift riffles, that were later occupied by madtoms, darters, the gravel chub, mountain minnow and sucker-mouthed minnow. the basic pattern of change was clearly an increase in the species that are characteristic of permanently flowing waters, and a decrease in the species that are characteristic of ponds or small, clear streams. plate 26 [illustration: fig. 1. neosho river, middle station, sec. 3 and 4, t. 24 s., r. 17 e., looking upstream, july, 1958.] [illustration: fig. 2. neosho river, lower station, sec. 16, t. 29 s., r. 20 e., along gravel bar, july, 1959.] plate 27 [illustration: fig. 1. marais des cygnes river, upper station, sec. 12, t. 17 s., r. 17 e., looking downstream, june, 1960.] [illustration: fig. 2. marais des cygnes river, middle station, sec. 6, t. 17 s., r. 20 e., looking downstream, june, 1960.] plate 28 [illustration: fig. 1. electrical fishing gear used at night.] [illustration: fig. 2. pool at the upper neosho station in which rotenone was used, sec. 33, t. 15 s., r. 8 e., looking downstream, june, 1960.] plate 29 [illustration: fig. 1. area 1, upper neosho station, sec. 33, t. 15 s., r. 8 e., looking upstream, june, 1960.] [illustration: fig. 2. area 3, upper neosho station, sec. 10, t. 16 s., r. 8 e., looking downstream, june, 1960.] plate 30 [illustration: fig. 1. area 5, upper neosho station, sec. 3, t. 16 s., r. 8 e., looking upstream, june, 1960.] [illustration: fig. 2. area 6, upper neosho station, sec. 3, t. 16 s., r. 8 e., looking upstream, june, 1960.] conclusions the fauna of the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers is capable of a wide range of adjustment in response to marked environmental changes. as these rivers become low and clear they take on many of the faunal characteristics of smaller tributaries and ponds. species such as black bullhead, spotted bass, largemouth, white crappie, red shiner, rosy-faced shiner, blunt-faced minnow, mimic shiner, and slender madtom assume a more prominent position in the total population. other species such as channel catfish, flathead, freshwater drum, blue sucker, and such riffle-dwelling species as the gravel chub, neosho madtom, and slender-headed darter hold a less prominent position in the total population. when permanent flow is re-established the more mobile and the more generalized species (with respect to habitat) are able to utilize the available space immediately. as a result, these species increase rapidly in numbers. this increase occurs both by movement from more permanent waters and by reproduction. channel catfish, flathead, freshwater drum, and river carpsucker are mobile species (funk, 1957; trautman, 1957) and long-nosed gar probably are mobile. individuals that move supplement those that survive in residual pools, and provide brood stock adequate to produce a large year-class in the first year of permanent flow. the five species last mentioned are found in diverse kinds of streams, indicating that they are adaptable to varying habitats. a sixth species, the red shiner, although probably less mobile, is able to utilize opportunistically nearly any kind of habitat in plains streams. although this species seldom is abundant in riffles, it was, in 1957, abundant in both pool and riffle situations at all my stations. these riffles were almost unoccupied by other species in 1957 until mid-summer, when hatches of channel catfish and flatheads occurred. although adult channel catfish and flatheads live well in pools, the young occupy mainly riffles. this ageand size-segregation, in different habitats, was an advantage to the rapid re-establishment of these species in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers in 1957. species that occupy restricted habitats, especially riffle-dwellers such as the neosho madtom, gravel chub, and slender-headed darter, were slowest to increase following drought. these species seem less capable of adapting to the variable conditions prevalent in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers than species that have more generalized habitat-requirements. in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers nearly all species that were found in years just prior to the drought of 1952-1956 were again found in the last year of my survey; however, some species that live in a restricted habitat may eventually be extirpated in these two rivers. the high-finned carpsucker _carpiodes velifer_, common shiner _notropis cornutus_, horny-headed chub _hybopsis biguttata_, and johnny darter _etheostoma nigrum_ all have specific habitat requirements and have disappeared or become restricted to one tributary in the wakarusa river system (deacon and metcalf, 1961). the disappearance or reduction of these species implies long-term changes in the environment. suckers, minnows and catfishes constitute the main fauna of the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers, because these families contain many species that have generalized habitat-requirements. many of these fish are able to live successfully in either ponds or flowing waters and others are capable of long migrations. because these fish predominate in the streams of kansas, attempts should be made to utilize them more effectively. in years such as 1957, large numbers of young channel catfish could be collected and used to stock new ponds and lakes. so doing would not affect the numbers of _adults_ produced in the stream, and, if enough young could be removed, those remaining in the streams might grow faster. suckers and carp are abundant in the two rivers and mostly are unused at present, because current regulations preclude the use of methods effective for the capture of these species. acknowledgments the investigation here reported on was supported jointly by the kansas forestry, fish and game commission and the state biological survey of kansas. i thank messrs. w. l. minckley, d. a. distler, j. mcmullen, a. l. metcalf, l. j. olund, m. topping, b. nelson and claude hastings for assistance in the field, and mr. ernest craig, game protector, erie, kansas, for valuable suggestions and co-operation. i am especially grateful to associate professor frank b. cross for his pre-drought data, guidance, and criticism throughout the course of the work. i thank the many landowners who allowed me access to streams, and am especially indebted to mr. and mrs. floyd meats and mr. and mrs. oliver craig for their hospitality and assistance. assistant professor kenneth b. armitage and associate professor ronald l. mcgregor read the manuscript and gave helpful advice. mrs. maxine deacon typed the manuscript and assisted in other ways. literature cited anonymous. 1945. kansas state board of agriculture. river basin problems and proposed reservoir projects for a state plan of water resources development: div. of water resources, 63(264):1-62, figs. 1-16. 1947. kansas state board of agriculture. the neosho river basin plan of state water resources development: div. of water resources, 66(280):1-132, figs. 1-10. 1958. drought: a report. united states government printing office, 492400:1-45. bailey, r. m., and harrison, h. m., jr. 1948. food habits of the southern channel catfish (_ictalurus lacustris punctatus_) in the des moines river, iowa. trans. am. fish. soc., 75:110-138. breder, c. m., jr. 1936. long-lived fishes in the aquarium. bull. n. y. zool. soc., 39:116-117. cross, f. b. 1954. fishes of cedar creek and the south fork of the cottonwood river, chase county, kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 57(3):303-314. ----, and minckley, w. l. 1958. new records of four fishes from kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 61(1):104-108. davis, j. 1959. management of channel catfish in kansas. univ. kansas misc. publ., mus. nat. hist., 21:1-56. deacon, j. e. 1961. a new staining method for marking large numbers of small fish. prog. fish cult., 23(1):41-42. ----, and metcalf, a. l. fishes of the wakarusa river, kansas. univ. of kansas publ., mus. nat. hist., 13(6):309-322. foley, f. c., smrha, r. v., and metzler, d. f. 1955. water in kansas. a report to the kansas state legislature. university of kansas, pp. 1-216. funk, j. l. 1957. movement of stream fishes in missouri. trans. am. fish. soc., 85(1955), pp. 39-57. garrett, r. a. 1951. kansas flood producing rains of 1951. trans. kansas acad. sci., 54(3):346-355. 1958. _in_ kansas agriculture 1956-57. kansas state board of agriculture, 40th report, pp. 1-288. hall, g. e. 1952. observations on the fishes of the fort gibson and tenkiller reservoir areas, 1952. proc. oklahoma acad. sci., 33:55-63. hasler, a. d. and wisby, w. j. 1958. the return of displaced largemouth bass and green sunfish to a "home" area. ecology 39(2):289-293. lack, d. 1954. the natural regulation of animal numbers. oxford university press, amen house, london e. c. 4. viii + 1-343. marzolf, r. c. 1957. the production of channel catfish in missouri ponds. jour. wildl. mgt., 21:22-28. mead, j. r. 1903. origin of names of kansas streams. trans. kansas acad. sci., 18:215-216. metcalf, a. l. 1959. fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. univ. kansas publ., mus. nat. hist., 11:345-400. metzler, d. f., culp, r. l., stoltenberg, h. a., woodward, r. l., walton, g., chang, s. l., clarke, n. a., palmer, c. m., and middleton, f. m. 1958. emergency use of reclaimed water for potable supply at chanute, kansas. journ. am. water works assoc., 50(8):1021-1060. minckley, w. l. 1959. fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas. univ. kansas publ., mus. nat. hist., 11:401-442. ----, and deacon, j. e. 1959. biology of the flathead catfish in kansas. trans. am. fish. soc., 88:344-355. muncy, r. j. 1958. movements of channel catfish in des moines river, boone county, iowa. iowa st. col. jour. of sci., 32(4):563-571. schelske, c. l. 1957. an ecological study of the fishes of the fall and verdigris rivers in wilson and montgomery counties, kansas, march 1954, to february 1955. emporia state research studies, 5(3):31-56. schoewe, w. h. 1951. the geography of kansas. trans. kansas acad. sci., 54(3):263-329. trautman, m. b. 1957. the fishes of ohio. waverly press, inc., baltimore, md. xvii + 1-683. weaver, j. e., and albertson, f. w. 1936. effects of the great drought on the prairies of iowa, nebraska, and kansas. ecology 17(4):567-639. _transmitted march 30, 1961._ 28-7576 university of kansas publications museum of natural history institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain this series by addressing the exchange librarian, university of kansas library, lawrence, kansas. copies for individuals, persons working in a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the museum of natural history, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. there is no provision for sale of this series by the university library, which meets institutional requests, or by the museum of natural history, which meets the requests of individuals. however, when individuals request copies from the museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping and mailing. * an asterisk designates those numbers of which the museum's supply (not the library's supply) is exhausted. numbers published to date, in this series, are as follows: vol. 1. nos. 1-26 and index. pp. 1-638, 1946-1950. *vol. 2. (complete) mammals of washington. by walter w. dalquest. pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. april 9, 1948. vol. 3. *1. the avifauna of micronesia, its origin, evolution, and distribution. by rollin h. baker. pp. 1-359, 16 figures in text. june 12, 1951. *2. a quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds. by george h. lowery, jr. pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. june 29, 1951. 3. phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. by m. dale arvey. pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. october 10, 1951. 4. birds from the state of veracruz, mexico. by george h. lowery, jr., and walter w. dalquest. pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2 tables. october 10, 1951. index. pp. 651-681. *vol. 4. (complete) american weasels. by e. raymond hall. pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. december 27, 1951. vol. 5. nos. 1-37 and index. pp. 1-676, 1951-1953. *vol. 6. (complete) mammals of utah, _taxonomy and distribution_. by stephen d. durrant. pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. august 10, 1952. vol. 7. *1. mammals of kansas. by e. lendell cockrum. pp. 1-303, 73 figures in text, 37 tables. august 25, 1952. 2. ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern kansas. by henry s. fitch and lewis l. sandidge. pp. 305-338, 5 figures in text. august 24, 1953. 3. the silky pocket mice (perognathus flavus) of mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text. february 15, 1954. 4. north american jumping mice (genus zapus). by phillip h. krutzsch. pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables. april 21, 1954. 5. mammals from southeastern alaska. by rollin h. baker and james s. findley. pp. 473-477. april 21, 1954. 6. distribution of some nebraskan mammals. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 479-487. april 21, 1954. 7. subspeciation in the montane meadow mouse, microtus montanus, in wyoming and colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 489-506, 2 figures in text. july 23, 1954. 8. a new subspecies of bat (myotis velifer) from southeastern california and arizona. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 507-512. july 23, 1954. 9. mammals of the san gabriel mountains of california. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 513-582, 1 figure in text, 12 tables. november 15, 1954. 10. a new bat (genus pipistrellus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 583-586. november 15, 1954. 11. a new subspecies of pocket mouse from kansas. by e. raymond hall. pp. 587-590. november 15, 1954. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, cratogeomys castanops, in coahuila, mexico. by robert j. russell and rollin h. baker. pp. 591-608. march 15, 1955. 13. a new cottontail (sylvilagus floridanus) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 609-612. april 8, 1955. 14. taxonomy and distribution of some american shrews. by james s. findley. pp. 613-618. june 10, 1955. 15. the pigmy woodrat, neotoma goldmani, its distribution and systematic position. by dennis g. rainey and rollin h. baker. pp. 619-624, 2 figures in text. june 10, 1955. index. pp. 625-651. vol. 8. nos. 1-10 and index. pp. 1-675, 1954-1956. vol. 9. 1. speciation of the wandering shrew. by james s. findley. pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. december 10, 1955. 2. additional records and extension of ranges of mammals from utah. by stephen d. durrant, m. raymond lee, and richard m. hansen. pp. 69-80. december 10, 1955. 3. a new long-eared myotis (myotis evotis) from northeastern mexico. by rollin h. baker and howard j. stains. pp. 81-84. december 10, 1955. 4. subspeciation in the meadow mouse, microtus pennsylvanicus, in wyoming. by sydney anderson. pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. may 10, 1956. 5. the condylarth genus ellipsodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 6. additional remains of the multituberculate genus eucosmodon. by robert w. wilson. pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. may 19, 1956. 7. mammals of coahuila, mexico. by rollin h. baker. pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. june 15, 1956. 8. comments on the taxonomic status of apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from north china. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. august 15, 1956. 9. extensions of known ranges of mexican bats. by sydney anderson. pp. 347-351. august 15, 1956. 10. a new bat (genus leptonycteris) from coahuila. by howard j. stains. pp. 353-356. january 21, 1957. 11. a new species of pocket gopher (genus pappogeomys) from jalisco, mexico. by robert j. russell. pp. 357-361. january 21, 1957. 12. geographic variation in the pocket gopher, thomomys bottae, in colorado. by phillip m. youngman. pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. february 21, 1958. 13. new bog lemming (genus synaptomys) from nebraska. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 385-388. may 12, 1958. 14. pleistocene bats from san josecito cave, nuevo leã³n, mã©xico. by j. knox jones, jr. pp. 389-396. december 19, 1958. 15. new subspecies of the rodent baiomys from central america. by robert l. packard. pp. 397-404. december 19, 1958. 16. mammals of the grand mesa, colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text, may 20, 1959. 17. distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, microtus montanus. by sydney anderson. pp. 415-511, 12 figures in text, 2 tables. august 1, 1959. 18. conspecificity of two pocket mice, perognathus goldmani and p. artus. by e. raymond hall and marilyn bailey ogilvie. pp. 513-518, 1 map. january 14, 1960. 19. records of harvest mice, reithrodontomys, from central america, with description of a new subspecies from nicaragua. by sydney anderson and j. knox jones, jr. pp. 519-529. january 14, 1960. 20. small carnivores from san josecito cave (pleistocene), nuevo leã³n, mã©xico. by e. raymond hall. pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. january 14, 1960. 21. pleistocene pocket gophers from san josecito cave, nuevo leã³n, mã©xico. by robert j. russell. pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. january 14, 1960. 22. review of the insectivores of korea. by j. knox jones, jr., and david h. johnson. pp. 549-578. february 23, 1960. 23. speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus baiomys. by robert l. packard. pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. june 16, 1960. index. pp. 671-690. vol. 10. 1. studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. by harrison b. tordoff and robert m. mengel. pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. september 12, 1956. 2. comparative breeding behavior of ammospiza caudacuta and a. maritima. by glen e. woolfenden. pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. december 20, 1956. 3. the forest habitat of the university of kansas natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch and ronald r. mcgregor. pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. december 31, 1956. 4. aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (microtus ochrogaster). by henry s. fitch. pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. december 19, 1957. 5. birds found on the arctic slope of northern alaska. by james w. bee. pp. 163-211, plates 9-10, 1 figure in text. march 12, 1958. 6. the wood rats of colorado: distribution and ecology. by robert b. finley, jr. pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. november 7, 1958. 7. home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in kansas. by donald w. janes. pp. 553-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. may 4, 1959. 8. natural history of the salamander, aneides hardyi. by richard f. johnston and gerhard a. schad. pp. 573-585. october 8, 1959. 9. a new subspecies of lizard, cnemidophorus sacki, from michoacã¡n, mã©xico. by william e. duellman, pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. may 2, 1960. 10. a taxonomic study of the middle american snake, pituophis deppei. by william e. duellman. pp. 599-610, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. may 2, 1960. index. pp. 611-626. vol. 11. 1. the systematic status of the colubrid snake, leptodeira discolor gã¼nther. by william e. duellman. pp. 1-9, 4 figures. july 14, 1958. 2. natural history of the six-lined racerunner, cnemidophorus sexlineatus. by henry s. fitch. pp. 11-62, 9 figures, 9 tables. september 19, 1958. 3. home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the natural history reservation. by henry s. fitch. pp. 63-326, 6 plates, 24 figures in text, 3 tables. december 12, 1958. 4. a new snake of the genus geophis from chihuahua, mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 327-334, 2 figures in text. january 28, 1959. 5. a new tortoise, genus gopherus, from north-central mexico. by john m. legler. pp. 335-343. april 24, 1959. 6. fishes of chautauqua, cowley and elk counties, kansas. by artie l. metcalf. pp. 345-400, 2 plates, 2 figures in text, 10 tables. may 6, 1959. 7. fishes of the big blue river basin, kansas. by w. l. minckley. pp. 401-442, 2 plates, 4 figures in text, 5 tables. may 8, 1959. 8. birds from coahuila, mã©xico. by emil k. urban. pp. 443-516. august 1, 1959. 9. description of a new softshell turtle from the southeastern united states. by robert g. webb. pp. 517-525, 2 plates, 1 figure in text. august 14, 1959. 10. natural history of the ornate box turtle, terrapene ornata ornata agassiz. by john m. legler. pp. 527-669, 16 pls., 29 figures in text. march 7, 1960. index pp. 671-703. vol. 12. 1. functional morphology of three bats: eumops, myotis, macrotus. by terry a. vaughan. pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text. july 8, 1959. 2. the ancestry of modern amphibia: a review of the evidence. by theodore h. eaton, jr. pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. july 10, 1959. 3. the baculum in microtine rodents. by sydney anderson. pp. 181-216, 49 figures in text. february 19, 1960. 4. a new order of fishlike amphibia from the pennsylvanian of kansas. by theodore h. eaton, jr., and peggy lou stewart. pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. may 2, 1960. more numbers will appear in volume 12. vol. 13. 1. five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (cyprinidae). by frank b. cross and w. l. minckley. pp. 1-18. june 1, 1960. 2. a distributional study of the amphibians of the isthmus of tehuantepec, mã©xico. by william e. duellman. pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figures in text. august 16, 1960. 3. a new subspecies of the slider turtle (pseudemys scripta) from coahuila, mã©xico. by john m. legler. pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figures in text. august 16, 1960. 4. autecology of the copperhead. by henry s. fitch. pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. november 30, 1960. 5. occurrence of the garter snake, thamnophis sirtalis, in the great plains and rocky mountains. by henry s. fitch and t. paul maslin. pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. february 10, 1961. 6. fishes of the wakarusa river in kansas. by james e. deacon and artie l. metcalf. pp. 309-322, 1 figure in text. february 10, 1961. 7. geographic variation in the north american cyprinid fish, hybopsis gracilis. by leonard j. olund and frank b. cross. pp. 323-348, pls. 21-24, 2 figures in text. february 10, 1961. 8. descriptions of two species of frogs, genus ptychohyla; studies of american hylid frogs, v. by william e. duellman. pp. 349-357, pl. 25, 2 figures in text. april 27, 1961. 9. fish populations, following a drought in the neosho and marais des cygnes rivers of kansas. by james everett deacon. pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figs. august 11, 1961. more numbers will appear in volume 13. vol. 14. 1. neotropical bats from western mã©xico. by sydney anderson. pp. 1-8. october 24, 1960. 2. geographic variation in the harvest mouse. reithrodontomys megalotis, on the central great plains and in adjacent regions. by j. knox jones, jr., and b. mursaloglu. pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. july 24, 1961. 3. mammals of mesa verde national park, colorado. by sydney anderson. pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figures in text. july 24, 1961. more numbers will appear in volume 14. images generously made available by kentuckiana digital library (http://kdl.kyvl.org/) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see 19071-h.htm or 19071-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/0/7/19071/19071-h/19071-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/0/7/19071/19071-h.zip) images of the original pages are available through kentuckiana digital library. see http://kdl.kyvl.org/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kyetexts;cc=kyetexts;xc=1&idno=b92-271-32003857&view=toc +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | while this book is full of dialect and very odd spelling, | | there are a number of obvious typographical errors which | | have been corrected in this text. for a complete list, | | please see the end of this document. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ the way of the wind by zoe anderson norris drawings by oberhardt [illustration: zoe anderson norris] new york published by the author 1911 copyright, 1911, by zoe anderson norris printed in the united states of america published in october, 1911. by zoe anderson norris. office of the east side magazine, 338 east 15th st., new york prologue and as the sturdy pilgrim fathers cut their perilous way through the dense and dangerous depths of the forest primeval for the setting up of their hearthstones, so the courageous pioneers of the desolate and treeless west were forced to fight the fury of the winds. the graves of them lie mounded here and there in the uncultivated corners of the fields, though more often one wanders across the level country, looking for them in the places where they should be and are not, because of the tall and waving corn that covers the length and breadth of the land. and yet the dead are not without memorial. each steady stalk is a plumed standard of pioneer conquest, and through its palmy leaves the chastened wind remorsefully sighs requiems, chanting, whispering, moaning and sighing from balmy springtime on through the heat of the long summer days, until in the frost the farmers cutting the stalks and stacking them evenly about in the semblance of long departed tepees, leave no dangling blades to sigh through, nor tassels to flout. the author. the way of the wind chapter i. [illustration] looking back upon it, the little kentucky town seemed to blossom for celia like the rose, one broad expanse of sloping lawns bordered with flower beds and shaded by quiet trees, elms and maples, brightly green with young leaflets and dark with cedars and pines, as it was on the day when she stood on the vine-covered veranda of her mother's home, surrounded by friends come to say good-by. jane whitcomb kissed her cheek as she tied the strings of her big poke bonnet under her chin. "i hope you will be happy out theah, celia," she said; "but if it was me and i had to go, i wouldn't. you couldn't get me to take such risks. wild horses couldn't. all them whut wants to go west to grow up with the country can go, but the south is plenty good enough fo' me." "fo' me, too," sighed celia, homesickness full upon her with the parting hour. "it's seth makes me go. accordin' to him, the west is the futuah country. he has found a place wheah they ah goin' to build a magic city, he says. he's goin' to maik a fortune fo' me out theah, he says, in the west." "growin' up with the country," interrupted sarah simpson, tying a bouquet of flowers she had brought for celia with a narrow ribbon of delicate blue. "yes," admitted celia, "growing up with the country." sarah handed her the flowers. "it's my opinion," concluded she, "that it's the fools, beggin' youah pahdon, whut's goin' out theah to grow up with the country, and the wise peepul whut's stayin' at home and advisin' of 'em to go." celia shuddered. "i'm ha'f afraid to go," she said. "they say the wind blows all the time out theah. they say it nevah quits blowin'." "'taint laik as if you wus goin' to be alone out theah," comforted mansy storm, who was busy putting away a little cake she had made with her own hands for celia's lunch basket. "youah husband will be out theah." she closed the lid down and raised her head brightly. "whut diffunce does it maik?" she asked, "how ha'd the wind blows if you've got youah husband?" lucy brown flipped a speck of dust from the hem of celia's travelling dress. "yes," said she, "and such a husband!" celia looked wistfully out over the calm and quiet street, basking in the sunlight, peacefully minus a ripple of breeze to break the beauty of it, her large eyes sad. "i'm afraid of the wind," she complained. "sto'ms scah me." and she reiterated: "i'm afraid of the wind!" sarah suddenly ran down the walk on either side of which blossomed old fashioned flowers, marsh marigolds, johnny-jump-ups and brown-eyed susans. she stood at the front gate, which swung on its hinges, leaning over it, looking down the road. "i thoat i heahd the stage," she called back. "yes. suah enuf. heah it is, comin'." at that celia's mother, hurrying fearfully out the door, threw her arms around her. celia fell to sobbing. "it's so fah away," she stammered brokenly, between her sobs. "i'm afraid ... to ... go.... it's so fah ... away!" "theah! theah!" comforted her mother, lifting up her face and kissing it. "it's not so fah but you can come back again. the same road comes that goes, deah one. theah! theah!" "miss celia," cried a reproachful voice from the door. "is you gwine away, chile, widout tellin' youah black mammy good-by?" celia unclasped her mother's arms, fell upon the bosom of her black mammy and wept anew. "de lawd be wid you, chile," cooed the voice of the negress, musical with tenderness, "an' bring you back home safe an' soun' in his own time." the stage rolled up with clash and clatter and flap of curtain. it stopped at the gate. there ensued the rush of departure, the driver, after hoisting the baggage of his one passenger thereto, looking stolidly down on the heartbreak from the height of his perch, his long whip poised in midair. celia's friends swarmed about her. they kissed her. they essayed to comfort her. they thrust upon her gifts of fruit and flowers and dainties for her lunch. they bore her wraps out to the cumbersome vehicle which was to convey her to lexington, the nearest town which at that time boasted of a railroad. they placed her comfortably, turning again and again to give her another kiss and to bid her good-by and god-speed. it was as if her heartstrings wrenched asunder at the jerk of the wheels that started the huge stage onward. "good-by, good-by!" she cried out, her pale face at the window. "good-by," they answered, and mansy storm, running alongside, said to her: "you give my love to seth, celia. don't you fo'get." then breathlessly as the stage moved faster: "if evah the good lawd made a man a mighty little lowah than the angels," she added, "that man's seth." the old stage rumbled along the broad white lexington pike, past houses of other friends, who stood at gates to wave her farewell. it rumbled past little front yards abloom with flowers, back of which white cottages blinked sleepily, one eye of a shuttered window open, one shut, past big stone gates which gave upon mansions of more grandeur, past smaller farms, until at length it drew up at the tollgate. here a girl with hair of sunshine, coming out, untied the pole and raised it slowly. "you goin' away, miss celia?" she asked in her soft southern brogue, tuneful as the ripple of water. "i heah sumbody say you was goin' away." celia smothered a sob. "yes," she answered, "i am goin' away." "it's a long, long way out theah to the west," commented the girl wistfully as she counted out the change for the driver, "a long, long way!" as if the way had not seemed long enough! celia sobbed outright. "yes," she assented, "it is a long, long way!" "i am sawy you ah goin', miss celia," said the girl. "good-by. good luck to you!" and the stage moved on, celia staring back at her with wide sad eyes. the girl leaned forward, let the pole carefully down and fastened it. as she did so a ray of sunshine made a halo of her hair. celia flung herself back into the dimness of the corner and wept out her heart. it seemed to her that, with the letting down of that pole, she had been shut out of heaven. chapter ii. [illustration] in all her life celia had not travelled further from her native town than lexington, which was thirty miles away. it was not necessary. she lived in the garden spot of the world, an eden with all things sufficient for a simple life. as she stood at the station, waiting for her train, an old negro shuffled by. he hummed the refrain of "old kentucky home," "fare you well, my lady!" it seemed meant for her. the longing was strong within her to fly back to the old town she loved so well; but the train, roaring in just then, intimidated her by its unaccustomed turmoil and she allowed herself to be hauled on board by the brakeman and placed in the car. passing into the open country, the speed of the train increased. the smoke and cinders poured into the open window. timid because of her strange surroundings, she silently accepted the infliction, cowering into her seat without attempting to put the window down. when a man in the opposite seat leaned forward and pulled it down for her, she was too abashed to thank him, but retained her crouching position and began silently to weep. a terrible night of travel began. it was a day car. celia crouched into her seat, trying to sleep, afraid of everything, of the staring eyes of the porter, of the strange faces about her, of the jet black of the night that gloomed portentously through the window. then came the dawn and with it the long gray bridge spanning the drab and sullen mississippi, then st. louis, with its bustle and rush and more and more strange faces, a sea of strange faces through which she must pass. after another weary day of travel through which she dozed, too tired to think, too tired to move, at twilight she reached kansas city, a little town on the edge of the desert. here, worn out mentally and physically, she was forced to stop and rest a night and sleep in a bed. and the next day the wind! a little way out from the town she could see it beginning, bending the pliant prairie grasses to earth, flinging them fiercely upward, crushing them flat again and pressing them there, whistling, whistling, whistling! the car moved fairly fast for a car of that day, but the wind moved faster. it shook the windows with terrific force. it blew small grains of sand under the sill to sting celia, moaning, moaning, moaning in its mad and unimpeded march across the country straight to the skies. she looked out in dismay. back of her, on either side of her and beyond, stretched this vast prairie country, desolate of shrub, undergrowth, or tree, a barren waste, different from the beautiful, still, green garden spot that she called home, a spot redolent of flowers, sweet with the odor of new-mown grass, and pungent with whiff of pine and cedar, different as night is from day. her heart sank within her as she looked. it was late in the afternoon when she came to her station, a collection of frame shanties dignified by that name, and seth, tall, tanned and radiant, clasped her in his arms, and man though he was, shed tears of pure rapture. his joy served to thrill her momentarily to the extent of forgetting the wind, but with his departure for the vehicle which was to convey her to their home, the discomfort of it returned to her. the madness of it! the fury of it! its fiendish joy! it tore at her skirts. it wrapped them about her. it snatched them away again, flapping them flaglike. it was with difficulty that she kept her hat on her head. she held it with both hands. the wind seemed to make sport of her, to laugh at her. it treated her as it would a tenderfoot. it tried to frighten her. it blew the shutters of the shanties open and slammed them to with a noise like guns. it shrieked maniacally as if rejoicing in her discomfort. at times it seemed to hoot at her. added to this, when seth returned for her with the vehicle, it proved to be a common two-wheeled cart drawn by a mule, a tall, ungainly cart of dull and faded blue. she kept back the tears as seth helped her in. then she sat silently by him throughout their jolting journey over the prairie country into what seemed to her to be the nowhere, listening to the wind chant, now requiems, now dirges, listening to its shriek and whistle, listening to it cry aloud and moan, die down to a whisper, then rise once more and wail like a living thing in unendurable pain. seth, too, by and by fell into silence, but from a different cause. the wind failed to distress him. he had become accustomed to it in the months spent in preparing her home. it was like an old friend that sometimes whispered in his tired ears words of infinite sweetness. he forgave the wanton shrieks of it because of this sweetness, the sweetness of a capricious woman, all the more sweet because of her capriciousness. he was silent from pure happiness at having celia there beside him, going over the same road with him in the old blue cart. from time to time he glanced at her timidly as if half afraid if he looked too hard the wind might blow her away. and, indeed, there did appear to be some danger; for the wind that had loved seth from the first was apparently jealous of celia. it tore at her as though to toss her to unreachable distances in the way it ripped the tumbleweeds from their small brittle stems and tossed them away. seth looked at her profile, white from the fatigue of the journey, but beautiful as alabaster; at the blue of her eyes; at the delicate taper of her small white hands that from her birth had done only the daintiest of service; at the small feet that had never once walked the rough and sordid pathway of toil. beautiful! beautiful! his eyes caressed her. except that he must hold the reins both arms would have encircled her. as it was, she rested in the strong and tender half-circle of one. all at once the wind became frantic. it blew and blew! finding it impossible to tear celia from the tender circling of that arm, it wreaked its vengeance upon the tumbleweeds, broke them fiercely from their stems, and sent them pell-mell over the prairie before the tall blue cart, about it, at the sides of it, a fantastic cortege, airily tumbling, tumbling, tumbling! yes. the wind was jealous of celia. strong as it was, it failed of accomplishing its will, which would have been to snatch her from the cart and toss her to the horizon in company with the tumbleweeds. it shrieked its despair, the despair of a jealous woman balked of her vengeance, tumultuously wild. at last at about twilight, at the time of day when the prairie skies are mellow with tints fit for a turner and the prairie winds sough with the tenderness of lullabies, resting for a period, in order to prepare for the fury of the night, they came upon the forks of the two rivers, sparsely sheltered by a few straggling and wind-blown trees. seth reined in the animal, sprang down over the high wheel of the cart and helped celia out. "darling," he said, "let me welcome you home!" "home," she repeated. "where is it?" for she saw before her only a slight elevation in the earth's surface, a mound enlarged. going down a few steps, seth opened wide the door of their dugout, looking gladly up at her, standing stilly there, a picture daintily silhouetted by the pearl pink of the twilit sky. "heah!" he smiled. celia stared down into the darkness of it as into a grave. "a hole in the ground," she cried. then, as the beflowered home she had left rose mirage-like in the window of her memory, she sobbingly re-stammered the words: "a ... hole ... in ... the ... ground!" chapter iii. [illustration] it was not yet june, but the winds blow cold on the prairie later than june at nightfall. the moment the sun goes down, up come the chill winds. sick at heart, seth coaxed the shuddering celia down the steps into the cellar-like habitation dimly lighted by a single half window dug out mansard fashion at the side. he was silent, hurt in every fibre of his being. his manner was one of profound apology. she was right. it was only a hole in the ground; but he, accustomed to dugouts during the months he had spent on the prairie preparing for the joy of her coming, had overlooked its deficiencies and learned to think of it as home. there were two chairs. he was glad of that. for a long time there had been only one. he placed her in the new one, bought in honor of her coming, seating her deferentially as if she had been a queen, and went hurriedly about, building a fire of little dry twigs he had torn from shrubs along the river that the gay crackle of them might cheer her. as she sat looking on, she saw in this humble service not his devotion, but his humiliation, not his great love for her which glorified all service humble or exalted, but the fact that he had so descended in the scale of life as to put his hand to work that she had been used to see done only by negroes. her pride, her only inheritance from haughty slave-holding ancestors, was wounded. not all seth's devotion, not all his labor in her behalf could salve that wound. as he knelt before the blazing twigs, apparently doing their best to aid him in his effort to cheer her, something of this feeling penetrated to his inner consciousness. nevertheless, he piled on twig after twig until the refreshing flames brilliantly illumined the dugout. from dirt floor to dirt roof they filled it with light. the poor little twigs, eagerly flashing into flame to help him! better far if, wet and soggy, they had burned dimly or not at all; for their blaze only served to exhibit every deficiency seth should have endeavored to hide. the thatch of the roof, the sod, the carpetless floor, the lack of furniture, the plain wooden bedstead in the corner with its mattress of straw, the crazy window fashioned by his own rude carpentry, the shapeless door which was like a slap in the face with its raw and unpainted color of new wood. after the first wild glance about her, celia buried her face in her hands, resolutely shutting out the view for fear of bursting into uncontrollable tears. seth, seeing this, rose from his knees slowly, lamely, as if suddenly very tired, and went about his preparations for their evening meal. men with less courage than it required to perform this simple duty have stood up to be shot at. knowing full well that with each act of humble servitude he sank lower and lower in the estimation of the one living creature in whose estimation he wished to stand high, he once more knelt on the hearth, placed potatoes in the ashes, raked a little pile of coals together and set the coffee pot on them. he drew the small deal table out and put upon it two cups and saucers, plates and forks for two. there was but one knife. that was for celia. a pocket knife was to serve for himself. it had been his pleasure throughout his lonely days of waiting to picture this first meal which celia and he should eat together. never once had he dreamed that the realization could come so near breaking a strong man's heart,--that things seemingly of small import could stab with a thrust so knife-like. he felt the color leave his cheek at the thought that he had failed to provide a cloth for the table, not even a napkin. he fumbled at his bandana, then hopelessly replaced it in his pocket. he grew cold at the realization that every luxury to which she had been accustomed, almost every necessity, was absent from that plain board. he had counted on her love to overlook much. it had overlooked nothing. when all was in readiness he drew up a chair and begged her to be seated. he took the opposite chair and the meal proceeded in silence, broken only by the wail of the wind and the crackle of the little dry twigs that burned on the hearth. "i am afraid of it," sighed celia. "of what, sweet?" he asked, and she answered: "i am afraid of the wind." "there is nothing to be afraid of," he explained quickly. "it is only the ordinary wind of the prairies. it ain't a cyclone. cyclones nevah come this way, neah to the forks of two rivers wheah we ah," and waxing eloquent on this, his hobby, he began telling her of the great and beautiful and prosperous city which was sometime to be built on this spot; perhaps the very dugout in which they sat would form its center. he talked enthusiastically of the tall steepled temples that would be erected, of the schools and colleges, of the gay people beautifully dressed who would drive about in their carriages under the shade of tall trees that would line the avenues, of the smiling men and women and children whose home the magic city would be, and how he was confident they would build it here because, in the land of terrible winds, when people commenced to erect their metropolis, they must put it where no deadly breath of cyclone or tornado could tear at it or overturn it. with that he went on to describe the destructive power of the cyclones, telling how one in a neighboring country had licked up a stream that lay in its course, showering the water and mud down fifty miles away. "but no cyclone will ever come here," he added and explained why. because it was the place of the forks of two rivers, the big arkansas and the little arkansas. a cyclone will go out of its way, he told her, rather than tackle the forks of two rivers. the indians knew that. they had pitched their tents here before they had been driven into the territory and that was what they had said. and they were very wise about some things, those red men, though not about many. but celia could not help putting silent questions to herself. why should a cyclone that could snatch up a river and toss it to the clouds, fight shy of the forks of two? looking fearfully around at the shadows, she interrupted him: "i am afraid," she whispered. "i am afraid!" seth left his place at the table and took her in his arms. "po' little gurl," he said. "afraid, and tiahd, too. travelin' so fah. of cose, she's tiahd!" and with loving hands, tender as a mother's, he helped her undress and laid her on the rough bed of straw, covered with sheets of the coarsest, wishing it might be a bed of down covered with silks, wishing they were back in the days of enchantment that he might change it into a couch fit for a princess by the wave of a wand. then he left her a moment, and walking out under the wind-blown stars he looked up at them reverently and said aloud: (for in the dreary deserts of loneliness one often learns to talk aloud very openly and confidentially to god, since people are so scarce and far away:) "tempah the wind to this po' shiverin' lam, deah fathah!" then with a fanatic devotion, he added: "and build the magic city!" chapter iv. [illustration] upon each trip to the station for provision or grain seth met with tail ends of cyclones, or heard of rumors of those that had just passed through, or were in process of passing, strange enough stories of capers cut by the fantastic winds. he told these tales to celia with a vein of humor meant to cheer her, but which had an opposite effect. love blinded, he failed to see that the nervous laughs with which she greeted them were a sign of terror rather than amusement. one night, he related, after a day whose sultriness had been almost unendurable, a girl had stood at the door to her dugout, bidding her sweetheart good night. she opened the door, he stepped outside, and a cyclone happening to pass that way, facetiously caught him into the atmosphere and carried him away somewhere, she never knew where. strewn in the path of that cyclone were window-sashes, doors, shingles, hair mattresses, remnants of chimneys, old iron, bones, rags, rice, old shoes and dead bodies; but not the body of her blue-eyed sweetheart. for many months she grieved for him, dismally garbed in crape, which was extremely foolish of her, some said, for all she knew he might still be in the land of the living. possibly the cyclone had only dropped him into another county where, likely as not, he was by this time making love to another girl. but though she mourned and mourned and waited and waited for the wild winds to bring him back, or another in his place, none came. "they've got to tie strings to their sweethearts in this part of the country," the old gray-haired man at the corner grocery had said, "if they want to keep them." another playful cyclone had snatched up a farmer who wore red and white striped socks. the cyclone had blown all the red out of the socks, the story teller had said, so that when they found the farmer flattened against a barn door as if he had been pasted there, his socks were white as if they had never contained a suspicion of red. they had turned white, no doubt, through fright. evidently knives had flown promiscuously about in another cyclone, he said. hogs had been cut in two and chickens carved, ready for the table. there were demons at work as well as knives. a girl was engaged to be married. all her wedding finery had been made. dainty, it was, too; so dainty that she laid it carefully away in a big closet in a distant wing of the house, far from the profane stare of strange eyes. she made discreet pilgrimages to look at those dainty things so dear to her, lingerie white and soft and fine, satin slippers, fans, gloves and a wedding gown of dazzling snowiness. the day was set for the wedding. unfortunately--how could she know that?--the same day was set for a cyclone. the girl could almost hear the peal of the wedding bells; when along came the tornado, rushing, roaring, shrieking like mad, and grasping that wing of the house, that special and precious wing containing her trousseau, bore it triumphantly off. a silk waist was found in one county, but the skirt to match it lay in another, many miles away. her beplumed hat floated in a pool of disfiguring water, her long suede gloves lay in a ditch and her white satin wedding slippers, alas, hung by their tiny heels at the top of a tree in a neighboring township, the only tree in the entire surrounding county, put there, in all probability, to catch and hold them for her. naturally, the wedding was postponed until new wedding finery could be prepared, but alas! a man's will is the wind's will! by the time the second trousseau was well on the way, the affections of the girl's sweetheart had wafted away and wound themselves about another girl. here and there the prairie farmers had planted out trees in rows and clumps, taking tree claims from the government for that purpose. in many instances cyclones had bent these prospective forests double in their extreme youth, leaving them to grow that way, leaning heavily forward in the attitude of old men running. of course, there were demons. god could have nothing to do with their devilments, seth said. seth had great belief in god. one had maliciously torn up all the churches in a town by the roots, turned them upside down and stuck their steeples in the ground as if in mockery of religion. "why do you call them cyclones?" the old man at the corner grocery had asked. "they are not cyclones. they are tornadoes." and this old man who had once been a doctor of medicine in an eastern village and who was therefore learned, though he had been persuaded by some wise men to go west and grow up with the fools, went on to explain the difference. "a cyclone," he said, "is miles and miles in width. it sweeps across the prairie screeching and screaming, but doing not so very much damage as it might do, just getting on the nerves of the people and helping to drive them insane. that is all. "then along comes a hailstone. it drops into the southeast corner of this cyclone and there you are! it generates a tornado and that is the thing that rends the universe." seth had listened to these stories undismayed; for what had they to do with his ranch and the magic city upon which it was to be built? a cyclone would never come to the forks of two rivers. the indians had said so. tradition had it that an old squaw whose name was wichita had bewitched the spot with her incantations, defying the wind to touch the ground on which she had lived and died. it must have been that this old squaw still occupied the spot, that her phantom still stooped over seething kettles, or stalked abroad in the darkness, or chanted dirges to the slap and pat of the grim war dance of the indians; for the winds, growing frightened, had let the forks of the river alone. seth was very careful to relate this to celia, to reiterate it to this fearful celia who started up so wildly out of her sleep at the maniacal shriek of the wind. very tenderly he whispered the reassurance and promise of protection against every blast that blew, thus soothing her softly back to slumber, after which he lay awake, watching her lest she wake again and wishing he might still the universe while she slept. he redoubled his care of her by night and by day, doing the work of the dugout before he began the work of the fields, not only bending over the tubs early in the morning for fear such bending might hurt her, but hanging out the clothes on the line for fear the fierce and vengeful wind might tan her beautiful complexion and tangle the fine soft yellow of her hair. for the same reason, he brought in the clothes after the day's labor was over, and ironed them. he also did the simple cooking in order to protect her beauty from blaze of log and twinkle of twig. if he could he would have hushed the noise of the world for love of her. and yet, day after day, coming home from his work in the fields, he found her at the door of their dugout, peering after the east-bound train, trailing so far away as to seem a toy train, with a look of longing that struck cold to his heart. his affection counted as nothing. his care was wasted. in spite of which he was full of apologies for her. other women, making these crude caves into homes for themselves and their children, had found contentment, but they were women of a different fibre. he would not have her of a different and coarser fibre, this exquisite southern creature, charming, delicate, set like a rare exotic in the humble window of his hut. it was not her fault. it was his. it was his place to turn the hut into a palace for his queen; and so he would, when the wise men came out of the east and built the magic city. when the fools had made the plains a fit place for human beings to inhabit, planting trees to draw down the reluctant rain from the clouds, sowing seed and raising crops sometimes, to their surprise and the amazement of those who heard of it, the wise men would appear and buy the land, and the building of great cities would begin. already they had reared a town that dared approach in size to a city on the edge of the desert, but what had happened? an angry cyclone, hearing of it, had come along and snatched it into the clouds. furious at sight of its spick and span newness, its yellow frame shanties and shining shingles, it had carried it off as if it had been a hen coop and set it down somewhere in texas, a state that had been longer settled and was therefore a better place for houses and fences, and left it there. then the wise men, growing discouraged, had gone away. but they would come again, he promised himself. they would come again. they must. not to pass through in long vestibule trains whose sparks out of pure fiendishness lighted the furious prairie fires that were so hard to put out, smothering the innocent occupants of the dugouts in their sleep and burning their grain. not to gaze wild-eyed through the shining windows of these splendid cars as they passed on and on to some more promising unwind-blown country, to build there their beautiful cities of marble and of stone. they would come to stay. when? why, when they should find a spot unvisited by cyclones, and that spot would be in the place of their dugout at the forks of these two rivers, the big arkansas and the little arkansas, the little river that had real water trickling along its shallow bed year in and year out, and the big river whose bed was dry as a bone all the year round until june, when the melting snows of the rockies sent the water down in floods. in fierce, uncontrollable and pitiless floods to drown the crops that had been spared by the chinch bugs, the grasshoppers and the hot winds. all this seth told celia, finishing with his old rapturous picture of the glory of the magic city, which he called after the old witch who had driven the winds from the forks of the rivers, wichita. he talked on, trying hard not to let her listless air of incredulity freeze the marrow of his bones and the blood in his veins, or cut him so deeply as to destroy his enrooted hope in their splendid future. taking her in his arms, partly to hide her cold face from his view and partly to comfort her, he offered every possible apology for her unbelief, wrapping her about with his love and tenderness as with a mantle. he thought by day of the coming of the child, and dreamed of it by night, trusting that, whether or not she shared his belief in the magic city, when she held it warmly in her arms, that little baby, his and hers, the homesick look would give place to a look of content, and the hole in the ground would become to her a home. chapter v. [illustration] seth was toiling slowly along a furrow back of his plow, bending sidewise with the force of the wind, not resentfully that it persisted in making it so difficult for him to earn his bread, for resentment was not in his nature, besides which, seth loved the wind,--but humming a little tune, something soft and reminiscent about his old kentucky home, with its chorus of "fare you well, my lady," when a broncho, first a mere speck on the horizon ahead of him, then larger and larger, rushed out of the wind from across the prairie with flashing eyes and distended nostrils, and lunged toward him. at first he thought it was a wild broncho, untamed and riderless; but as his eyes became accustomed to dust and sunlight, he discovered that the saddle held a girl. for the moment she had bent herself to the broncho's mane, which had the effect, together with the haze produced by the wind-blown dust, of rendering the animal apparently riderless. seth drew up his mule and halted. at the same time the broncho was jerked with a sudden rein that sent him back on his haunches, his front feet pawing the air. his rider, apparently accustomed to this pose, clung to him with the persistency of a fly to fly paper, righted him, swung herself from the saddle and stood before seth, a tall, slim girl of twelve, a girl of complexion brown as berries, of dark eyes heavily fringed with thick lashes and dusky hair tinged redly with sunburn. her hair, one of her beauties, blew about her ears in tangled curls that were unconfined by hat or bonnet. she smiled at him, showing rows of rice-like teeth, of an exaggerated white in contrast with the sunburn of her face. "hello," she said. "hello," said seth in return. then, in the outspoken manner of the prairie folk he asked: "who ah you?" "i am cyclona," she answered. "cyclona what?" "just cyclona. i ain't got no other name." seth smiled back at her, she seemed so timidly wild, like those little prairie dogs that stand on their haunches and bark, and yet are ever mindful of the safety of their near-by lairs, waiting for them in case of molestation. "wheah did you come frum?" he queried. "two or three hundred miles from here," she answered, "where we had a claim." "who is we?" asked seth. "my father and me. he ain't my real father. he's the man what adopted me." always courteous, seth stood, hand on plough, waiting for her to state her errand or move on. she did neither. "there be'n't many neighbors hereabout, be there?" she ventured presently, toying with her broncho's mane. "no," said seth. "they ah mighty scarce. one about every eighteen miles or so." cyclona looked straight at him out of her big dark eyes framed by their heavy lashes. "i am a neighbor of yourn," she said. "i'm glad of that," responded seth with ready southern cordiality. "wheah do you live?" cyclona turned and pointed to the horizon. "about ten or twelve miles away," she explained. "there!" "been theah long?" asked seth. "come down last week," said cyclona, adding lightly by way of explanation, "we blew down. father and his wife and me. never had no mother. a cyclone blew her away. that's why they call me cyclona." she drew her sleeve across her eyes. "it's mighty lonesome in these parts," she sighed, "without no neighbors. neighbors was nearer where we came from." "what made you move, then?" seth queried. "we didn't move," said cyclona. "we was moved. father likes it here, but i get awful lonesome without no neighbors." the plaint struck an answering chord. "look heah," said seth. "you see that little dugout 'way ovah theah? that's wheah i live. my wife's theah all by herself. she's lonesome, too. maybe she'd laik to have you come and visit her and keep her company. will you?" cyclona nodded a delighted assent, caught the mane of her broncho, and swung herself into her saddle with the ease and grace of a cowboy. seth was suddenly engrossed with the fear that celia, seeing the girl come out of the nowhere, as she had come upon him, might be frightened into the ungraciousness of unsociability. "wait," he cried. "i will go with you." so he took cyclona's rein and led her broncho over the prairie to celia's door, the girl, laughing at the idea of being led, chattering from her saddle like any magpie. he knocked at celia's door and soon her face, white, southern, aristocratic, in sharp contrast with the sunburned cheek and wild eye of cyclona, appeared. he waved a rough hand toward cyclona, sitting astride her broncho, a child of the desert, untamed as a coyote, an animated bronze of the untrammelled west emphasized by the highlights of sunshine glimmering on curl and dimple, on broncho mane and hoof, and backed by the brilliancy of sky, the far away line of the horizon and the howl of the wind. "look!" he called to her exultantly, in the voice of the prairies, necessarily elevated in defiance of the wind, "i have brought a little girl to keep you company." chapter vi. [illustration] it was in this way that cyclona blew into their lives and came to be something of a companion to celia, though, realizing that the girl was a distinct outgrowth of the country she so detested, she never came to care for her with that affection which she had felt for her southern girl friends. the kindly interest which most women, settled in life, feel for the uncertain destiny of every girl child bashfully budding into womanhood was absent. it is to be doubted if celia possessed a kindly heart to begin with, added to which there was nothing of the self-conscious bud about cyclona. she was ignorant of her beauty as a prairie rose. strange as her life had been, encompassed about by cyclones, the episode of her moving as told by the gray-haired doctor at the corner grocery was stranger. "the house was little," the doctor commenced, "or it might not have happened. there was only one room. it was built of boards and weighed next to nothing, which may have helped to account for it. "on that particular day the house was situated in the northern part of the state." he swapped legs. "but the next day," he resumed. "well, you can't tell exactly where any house will be the next day in kansas. "it was about noon and cyclona's foster father was out in the cornfield, plowing. the wind, as usual, was blowing a gale. it was a mild gale, sixty miles an hour, so jonathan did not permit it to interfere with his plowing. the rows were a little uneven because the wind blew the horse sidewise and that naturally dragged the plow out of the furrows, but as one rarely sees a straight row of corn in kansas, jonathan was not worried. if he took pains to sow the corn straight, in trim and systematic rows, like as not the wind would blow the seed out of the ground into his neighbor's cornfield, so what was the use? "like the horse and plough, jonathan was walking crooked, bent in the direction of the wind. he seldom walks straight or talks straight for that matter, the wind has had such an effect on him. "at any rate, leaving out the question of his reasoning which pursues a devious and zigzag course, varying according to the way the wind blows--and he is not alone in this peculiarity in kansas, as i say--jonathan steadily toiled against the wind, he stopped altogether, and taking out his lunch basket, he removed a pie and sat down on a log to eat it, while his horse, moving a little further along, propped himself against a cottonwood tree to keep from being entirely blown away, and also rested." he swapped tobacco wads from one cheek to the other and continued: "the pie was made of custard, jonathan said, with meringue on the top. the meringue blew away, but jonathan contentedly ate the custard, thankful that the hungry wind had not taken that. "mrs. jonathan had been going about all morning with a dust rag in her hand, wiping the dust from the sills and the furniture. "so, tired out at last, she had flung herself on the bed and was quietly napping when the cyclone came along. "of course, the house and the bed she was lying on were shaken, but mrs. jonathan had lived so long in kansas she couldn't sleep unless the wind rocked the bed. "she slept all the sounder, therefore, lulled by its whistling and moaning and sobbing, not waking even when cyclona, this girl they had adopted, opened the door and shut it suddenly with herself on the inside, and a fortunate thing, too, that was for cyclona, or the cyclone might have left her behind. "cyclona, standing by the window, saw it all, the swiftly passing landscape, the trees, the cows, as one would look from an observation car on a train. "the house was at last deposited rather roughly on terra firma and the jar awoke mrs. jonathan. she sat up and rubbed her eyes open. then she looked about her in some alarm. "the furniture was tumbled together in one corner all in a heap, jonathan says, and the pictures were topsy turvy. pictures are never on a level on kansas walls on account of the winds, so mrs. jonathan thought little of this, but the ceiling puzzled her. instead of arching in the old way, it pointed at her. it was full of shingles, moreover, like a roof, and the point reached nearly to her head when she sat up in the bed, staring about her. "'what on earth is the matter?' she asked of cyclona. "cyclona turned away from the window. "'we have moved,' said she. "mrs. jonathan arose then, and going to the door, opened it and found that what cyclona had said was true. the scenery was quite different. it is much further south here, you know, than in the northern part of the state. the grass was green and the trees, hardly budded at all where she came from, here had full grown leaves. "there was little or no debris in the path of the cyclone, nearly everything, with the exception of the house, having been dropped before it arrived at that point. "a few stray cows hung from the branches of the large cottonwood trees, jonathan says...." here the doctor was interrupted by a man who took his pipe out of his mouth and coughed. "but they presently dropped on all fours," he continued, "and began to munch on the nice green grass growing all about them. "the landscape thus losing all indications of the tornado's effect, assumed a sylvan aspect which was tranquil in the extreme. "not far off stood the horse still hitched to the plough, jonathan said. the horse had a dazed look, but the plough seemed to be in fit enough condition. one handle, slightly bent, had evidently struck against something on the journey, which gave it a rakish aspect, but that was all." "did the horse have its hide on?" asked the man who had coughed. "so far's i know," the doctor replied. "why?" "because there's a story goin' the rounds," answered the cougher, "to the effec' that a horse was blown a hundred miles in a cyclone and when they found him he was hitched to a tree and skinned." there was a period of thoughtful silence before the doctor went on with his story. "as mrs. jonathan looked out the door," he said, "she saw jonathan walking down the road in her direction. his slice of pie, which he had not had time to finish, was still in his hand. "'where are we at?' he asked her, curiously. "'i am sure i don't know,' answered mrs. jonathan, beginning, woman-like, to cry, now that the danger was over. "jonathan began to finish his pie, which the cyclone had interrupted. between mouthfuls he gave quick glances of surprise at the house. "'what on earth!' he exclaimed, 'is the matter with the roof?' "mrs. jonathan ran out to look. "the tornado had been busy with the roof. it had blown it skyward and then, upon second thoughts, had brought it back again and deposited it not right side up, but upside down. "the extreme suction caused by this sudden reversal of things had caught every rag of clothing in the house into the atmosphere where, adhering to the roof, they had been brought down with it, so that they hung in festoons all around the outside, the roof, fastening onto the walls with a tremendous jerk, securing all the different articles with the clinch of a massive and giant clothespin. "'it was a strange sight,' jonathan said. "mrs. jonathan's and cyclona's skirts, stockings, shirt waists, night dresses and handkerchiefs were strung along indiscriminately with jonathan's trousers, coats, waistcoats and socks. here and there, in between, prismatic quilts, red bordered tablecloths and fringed napkins varied the monotony. "'how are we ever going to get them down?' asked mrs. jonathan, the floodgate of her tears loosed once more at sight of her household and wearing apparel hung, as it were, from the housetop. "jonathan said his wife didn't seem to think of the kindness of the cyclone in bringing her husband along with the house when it might so easily have divorced them by dropping him into the house of some plump widow. all she seemed to think of was those clothes. "'don't you worry,' he told her. 'we will just wait till another cyclone comes along and turns the roof right side up again.' "for one becomes philosophical, you know, living in kansas. one must, or live somewhere else.... "jonathan looked delightedly about him. "the green prairies sloped away to the skies; there was a clump of cottonwood trees near by and a little creek, the same that gurgles by seth's claim, gurgled by his between twin rows of low green bushes. "he admired this scenery, jonathan did. he smiled a smile which stretched from one ear to the other when he discovered that his faithful and trusted horse had followed him down and was standing conveniently near by, ready for work. "'i like this part of the country,' he declared, 'better than the part we came from. we'll just stake off this claim and take possession.' "after a moment of thought, however, he added provisionally: "'that is, until another cyclone takes a notion to move us.'" chapter vii. [illustration] across the purple prairie, the wondering stars blinking down upon him, the wind tearing at him to know what the matter was, the tumbleweeds tumbling at the heels of his broncho, his heart in his mouth, seth madly rode in the wild midnight to fetch the weazened old woman who tended the women of the desert, rode as madly back again, leaving the midwife to follow. after an age, it seemed to him, she came, and the child was born. seth knelt and listened to the breathing of the little creature in the rapture felt by most mothers of newborn babes and by more fathers than is supposed. now and again this feeling, which more than any other goes to make us akin to the angels, is lacking in a mother. seth saw with a sadness he could not uproot that celia was one of these. his belief, therefore, in the efficacy of the child to comfort her went the way of other beliefs he had been forced one by one to relinquish. when, after some weeks of tending her, the old woman was gone, and celia was able to be about, it was he who took charge of the child, while she, in her weakness, gave herself up to an increased disgust for her surroundings and an even deeper longing to go back home. it was in vain that he showed her the broad green of the wheat fields, smiling in the sunlight, waving in the wind. some blight would come to them. fruitlessly he pictured to her the little house he would build for her when the crop was sold. she listened incredulously. * * * * * and then came the grasshoppers. for miles over the vastness of the desert they rushed in swarms, blackening the earth, eclipsing the sun. having accomplished their mission of destruction, they disappeared as quickly as they had come, leaving desolation in their wake. the prairie farms had been reduced to wastes, no leaves, no trees, no prairie flowers, no grasses, no weeds. one old woman had planted a garden near her dugout, trim, neat, flourishing, with its rows of onions, potatoes and peas in the pod. it was utterly demolished. she covered her head with her apron and wept old disconsolate tears at the sight of it. another was hanging her clothes on the line. when the grasshoppers were gone there were no clothes and no line. as for the beautiful wheat fields that had shone in the sun, that had waved in the wind, they lay before seth's tearless eyes, a blackened ruin. was it against god's wish that they make their feeble effort to cultivate the plains, those poor pioneer people, that he must send a scourge of such horror upon them? or had he forsaken the people and the country, as celia had said? seth walked late along the ruin of the fields, not talking aloud to god as was his wont when troubled, silent rather as a child upon whom some sore punishment has been inflicted for he knows not what, silent, brooding, heartsick with wondering, and above all, afraid to go back and face the chill of celia's look and the scorn of her eye. but what one must do one must do, and back he went finally, opened the badly hung door and stood within, his back to it, with the air of a culprit, responsible alike for the terror of the winds, the scourge of the grasshoppers and the harshness of god. "as a man," she said slowly, her blue eyes shining with their clear cold look of cut steel through slits of half-shut white lids, the words dropping distinctly, clearly, relentlessly, that he might not forget them, that he might remember them well throughout the endless years of desert life that were to follow, "you ah a failuah." he hung his head. "you ah right," he said. for though he had not actually gone after the grasshoppers and brought them in a deadly swarm to destroy his harvest, he had enticed her to the plains it seemed for the purpose of witnessing the destruction. "you ah right," he reiterated. in the night celia dreamed of home and the blue-grass hills and the whip-poor-wills and the mocking birds that sang through the moonlight from twilight till dawn. sobbing in her sleep, she waked to hear the demoniacal shriek of the tireless wind and the howl of a coyote, and wept, refusing to be comforted. the next day she said to seth firmly and conclusively: "i am goin' home." chapter viii. [illustration] to do her justice, celia would have taken the child with her; but young as he was, seth refused to give him up. he would buy a little goat, he said, feed the baby on its milk and look after him. at heart he said to himself that he would hold the child as ransom. surely, if love for him failed, love for the little one would draw the mother back to the hole in the ground. he found cyclona and implored her to keep the child while he hitched up the cart and drove the mother away over the same road she had come to the station. it was a silent drive; each occupied with individual thoughts running in separate channels; she glad that her eyes were looking their last on the wind-lashed prairies blackened by the scourge; he casting about in his mind for some bait with which to entice her to return. "you will come back to the child?" he faltered. but she made no answer. "if the crops succeed," he ventured, "and i build you a beautiful house, then will you come back?" for answer, she gave a scornful glance at the blackened plains, flowerless, grainless, grassless. "if the wise men come out of the east," it was his last plea, "and build the magic city, then you will come back?" at that she laughed aloud and the wind, to spare him the sound of it, tossed the laugh quickly out and away with the jeer of its cruel mockery. "the magic city!" she repeated. she laughed in derision of such violence that she fell to coughing. "the magic city!" she reiterated. "the magic city!" chapter ix. [illustration] for one mad moment, such as comes to the bravest, seth's impulse was to throw himself beneath the wheels of the car that was taking celia away from him. in another he would have lain a crushed and shapeless mass in their wake; but as he shut his eyes for the leap there came to him distinctly, pitifully, wailingly, the cry of the child. perhaps it came to him in reality across the intervening miles of wind-blown prairie. perhaps the wind blew it to him. who knows? our mother earth often sends us help in our sorest need in her own way, a way which oftentimes partakes of mystery. perhaps it came only in memory. however, it served. he opened his eyes, and the madness had passed. he pulled himself together dazedly, unfastened the hitch rein of the mule, mounted awkwardly into the high and ungainly blue cart and started off in the direction of the cry. the wind which on the coming trip had appeared to take fiendish delight in trying to tear celia's garments to ribbons, now suddenly died down, for the wind loved seth. it had done with celia. she was gone. but not by one breath would it add to the grief of seth. on the contrary, it spent its most dulcet music in the effort to soothe him. tenderly as the cooing of a dove it whispered in his ear, reminding him of the child. he answered aloud. "i know," he said. "i had forgotten him. the po' little mothahless chile!" and the wind kissed his cheek, its breath sweet as a girl's, caressing him, urging him over the vastness of the prairie to the child. on the road to the station, seth's mind had been filled with celia to the exclusion of all else. he had not observed the devastation of the prairie. unlike her, his heart held no hatred for the wayward winds. they were of heaven. he loved them. fierce they were at times, it was true, claws that clutched at his heart; but at other times they were gentle fingers running through his hair. their natures were opposite as the poles, his and hers. the prairies were her detestation. he loved them. he inherited the traits of his ancestors, the sturdy kentucky pioneers who had lived in log huts and felled the forests in settling the country. something not yet tamed within him loved the little wild things that had their homes in the prairie grasses: the riotous birds, the bright-colored insects, the prairie dogs in their curious towns, sitting on their haunches at the doors of their little dugouts, so similar to his own, and barking, then running at whistle or crack of whip into the holes to their odd companions, the owls and the rattlesnakes; the herds of antelope emerging from the skyline and brought down to equally diminutive size by the infinite distance, disappearing into the skyline mysteriously as they had come. but now he looked out on the prairie with a sigh. it was like a familiar face disfigured by a burn, scarred and almost unrecognizable. the prairie in loneliness is similar to the sea. in one wide circle it stretches from horizon to horizon. it stretched about him far as the eye could reach, scorched and hideous as the ruin of his life. he shut his eyes. he dared not look out on the ruin of his life. what if the ghastly spectacle should turn his brain? that had been known to happen among the prairie folk time out of number. many a brain stupefied by the lonely life of the dugout, the solemn, often portentous grandeur of the great blue dome, under which the pioneers crawled so helplessly, had been blown zigzag by the wild buffetings of the wayward, wanton winds, punctuating the dread loneliness so insistently, so incessantly, so diabolically by its staccato preludes, by its innuendoes of interludes prestissimo, by its finales frantically furious and fiendishly calculated to frighten the soul and tear the bewildered and weakened brain from its pedestal. the reproach of the thought held something of injustice, the wind blew with such gentleness, kissing his cheek. his mind ran dangerously on in the current of insanity. he endeavored to quiet it. the thought of his mother came to him. once he had heard her crying in the night, waiting for his father to come home, not knowing where he was, wondering as women will, and fearfully crying. then he heard her begin to count aloud in the dark: "one, two. one, two, three," she had counted, to quiet her brain. he fell mechanically to counting as she had done: "one, two. one, two, three." he must preserve his sanity, he said to himself, for the sake of the child. otherwise it would be good to lose all remembrance, to forget, to dream, to lapse into the nothingness of the vacant eye, the down-drooping lid and the drivel. "one, two. one, two, three," he counted, the wind listening. in spite of the counting, with his eyes fixed on the desolation of the prairie, his thoughts on celia, suddenly he felt himself seized by gusts of violent rage. the desire to dash out his brains against the unyielding wall of his relentless destiny tore him like the fingers of a giant hand. "one, two. one, two, three," he counted, and between the words came the cry of the child. if he could only render his mind a blank until it recovered its equilibrium, a ray of sunshine must leak in somewhere. it must for the sake of the child. but how was it possible for him to go back to the ghastliness of the dugout, the bereft house, where it was as if the most precious inmate had suddenly died--to the place that had held celia but would hold her no more! it was necessary to count very steadily here, to strangle an outcry of despair. "one, two, three. one, two, three. one, two, three, four, five." he could count no further. the wind, seeing his distress, soughed with a weird sweet sound like aeolian harps in the effort to comfort him, but he dropped the reins and laid his face in the hollow of his arm. it was the attitude of a woman, grief-stricken. he had evidently fallen into a lethargy of grief from which he must be aroused. so thought the wind. it blew a great blast. it whistled loudly as if calling, calling, calling! was it the wind or his heart? was it his mother nature, his guardian angel, or god? again pitifully, distinctly, wailingly, came the cry of the child. he raised his head, grasped the reins and hurried. on he went, on and on, faster and faster, until at last he came to the door of the tomb. he descended into it. he took the child from the arms of cyclona, who sat by the fire cuddling it, and held it close to his heart. "he has been crying," she told him, "every single minute since you have been gone. crying! crying! no matter what i did, no matter how hard i tried, i couldn't quiet him." chapter x. [illustration] on the following day cyclona sat in the low rocking chair, rocking the baby, singing to it, crooning a lullaby, a memory of her own baby days when some self-imposed mother, taking the place of her own, had crooned to her. "sleep, baby, sleep, the big stars are the sheep. the little stars are the lambs, i guess, the moon is the shepherdess, sleep, baby, sleep." but the baby sobbed, looking in bewilderment up at the dark gypsy face above it in search of the pale and beautiful face of his mother. finding it not, he hid his eyes upon her shoulder, and sobbed. the wind sobbed with him. outside the window it wailed in eerie lamentation. it dashed a near-by shrub, a ragged rosetree that seth had planted, against the window. the twigs tapped at the pane like human fingers. "there, there!" soothed cyclona, and she changed the baby's position, so that his little body curled warmly about her and his face was upturned to hers to coax him into the belief that she was celia. once more she drifted into the lullaby, crooning it very softly in her lilting young voice: "sleep, baby, sleep. the big stars are the sheep, the little stars are the lambs, i guess, the moon is the shepherdess, sleep, baby, sleep." but the wind seemed to oppose her efforts at soothing the child whose startled eyes stared at the window against which tapped the attenuated fingers of the twigs. the wind shrieked at him. his sobs turned into cries. cyclona got up and going to the bed laid him on it, talking cooing baby talk to him. she prepared his food. she warmed the milk and crumbled bread into it. taking him up again, she fed it to him spoonful by spoonful, awkwardly, yet in a motherly way. then she patted him on her shoulder, and tried to rock him to sleep, singing, patting him on the back cooingly when the howl of the wind startled him out of momentary slumber. the wind appeared to be extraordinarily perverse. it was almost as if, knowing this was celia's child, that celia whose hatred it had felt from the first, it took pleasure in punctuating his attempt to sleep with shrieks and wailings, with piercing and unearthly cries. once it tossed a tumbleweed at the window. the great round human-like head looked in and the child, opening his eyes upon it, broke into piteous moaning. the wind laughed, snatched the tumbleweed and tossed it on. "the wind seems to be tryin' itself," complained cyclona, getting up once more and walking about with the child in her arms, singing as she walked: "sleep, baby, sleep, the big stars are the sheep, the little stars are the lambs, i guess, the wind is the shepherdess, sleep, baby, sleep." the wind grew furious. with a wild yell it burst the door of the dugout open. cyclona put the baby back on the bed, faced the fury of the wind a moment, then cried out to it: "why can't you behave?" then she shut the door and placed a chair against it, taking the baby up and again walking it back and forth, up and down and back and forth. "it's just tryin' itself," she repeated. again she