through the malay archipelago. by emily richings. author of "sir walter's wife," "in chaucer's maytime," &c. london: henry j. drane, limited, danegeld house, 82a, farringdon street, e.c. o hundred shores of happy climes! how swiftly streamed ye by the bark! at times the whole sea burned--at times with wakes of fire we tore the dark. new stars all night above the brim of waters lightened into view; they climbed as quickly, for the rim changed every moment as we flew. we came to warmer waves, and deep across the boundless east we drove, where those long swells of breaker sweep the nutmeg rocks, and isles of clove. for one fair vision ever fled down the waste waters day and night, and still we followed where she led, in hope to gain upon her flight. contents. prologue. java. batavia and weltevreden--buitenzorg--soekaboemi and sindanglaya--garoet and her volcano- djokjacarta--boro-boedoer--brambanam- sourakarta--sourabaya and the tengger. celebes. makassar and western celebes--the minahasa- gorontalo and the eastern coast. a glimpse of borneo. the moluccas. ternate, batjan, and boeroe. ambon. banda. the solo-bessir isles. sumatra. the western coast and the highlands. a view of krakatau. penang. epilogue. prologue. the traveller who reaches those enchanted gates of the far east which swing open at the palm-girt shores of ceylon, enters upon a new range of thought and feeling. the first sight of tropical scenery generally awakens a passionate desire for further experiences of the vast archipelago in the southern seas which girdles the equator with an emerald zone. lured onward by the scented breeze in that eternal search for perfection destined to remain unsatisfied where every step marks a higher ideal than the one already attained, the pilgrim pursues his endless quest, for human aspiration has never yet touched the goal of desires and dreams. the cocoanut woods of ceylon and her equatorial vegetation lead fancy further afield, for the glassy straits of malacca beckon the wanderer down their watery highways to mysterious java, where vast forests of waving palms, blue chains of volcanic mountains, and mighty ruins of a vanished civilisation, loom before the imagination and invest the tropical paradise with ideal attractions. the island, seven hundred miles long, and described by marianne north as "one magnificent garden of tropical luxuriance," has not yet become a popular resort of the average tourist, but though lacking some of those comforts and luxuries found under the british flag, it offers many compensations in the wealth of beauty and interest afforded by scenery, architecture, and people. the two days' passage from singapore lies through a green chain of countless islets, once the refuge of those pirates who thronged the southern seas until suppressed by european power. the cliffs of banka, honeycombed with tin quarries, and the flat green shores of eastern sumatra, stretching away to the purple mountains of the interior, flank the silvery straits, populous with native _proas_, coasting steamers, _sampans_, and the hollowed log or "dug-out" which serves as the malayan canoe. patched sails of scarlet and yellow, shaped like bats' wings, suggest gigantic butterflies afloat upon the tranquil sea. the red roofs of whitewashed towns, and the tall shafts of white lighthouses emphasise the rich verdure between the silvery azure of sky and water. the little voyage ends at tandjon priok, nine miles from batavia, for a volcanic eruption of mount salak in 1699 filled up the ancient harbour, and necessitated the removal of shipping to a deep bay, as the old city was landed high and dry through the mass of mud, lava, and volcanic sand, which dammed up the lower reaches of the tjiligong river, and destroyed connection with the sea. the present model harbour, erected at tremendous cost, permits ships of heavy burden to discharge passengers and cargo with comfort and safety at a long wharf, without that unpleasant interlude of rocking _sampans_ and reckless boatmen common to eastern travel. a background of blue peaks and clustering palms rises beyond the long line of quays and breakwaters flanked by the railway, and a wealth of tropical scenery covers a marshy plain with riotous luxuriance. no europeans live either in tandjon priok or old batavia, and the locality was known for two centuries as "the european graveyard." flourishing arab and chinese _campongs_ or settlements appear immune from the terrible java fever which haunts the morasses of the coast, and the industrial celestial who absorbs so much of oriental commerce, possesses an almost superhuman imperviousness to climatic dangers. in the re-adjustment of power after the fall of napoleon, java, invaded by england in 1811, after a five years' interval of british rule under the enlightened policy of sir stamford raffles, was restored to the throne of holland. the supremacy of the dutch east india company, who, after a prolonged struggle, acquired authority in java as residuary legatee of the mohammedan emperor, ended at the close of the eighteenth century. perpetual warfare and rebellion, which broke out in central java after the return of the island to the dutch, taxed the resources of holland for five years. immense difficulties arrested and delayed the development of the fertile territory, until the "culture system" of forced labour within a certain area relieved the financial pressure. one-fifth of village acreage was compulsorily planted with sugar-cane, and one day's work every week was demanded by the dutch government from the native population. the system was extended to tea and coffee; and indigo was grown on waste land not needed for the rice, which constitutes java's staff of life. spices and cinchona were also diligently cultivated under official supervision, and the lives of many explorers were lost in search of the precious kina-tree, until java, after years of strenuous toil, now produces one-half of that quinine supply which proves the indispensable safeguard of european existence on tropic soil. the ruddy bark and scarlet branches of the cinchona groves glow with autumnal brightness amid the evergreen verdure of the javanese hills, and the "culture system," as a financial experiment, proved, in spite of cavillers, a source of incalculable benefit to the natives as well as to the colonists of java. as we travel through the length and breadth of an island cultivated even to the mountain tops with the perfection of detail common to the dutch, as the first horticulturists of the world, we realise the far-reaching wisdom, which in a few decades transformed the face of the island, clearing vast tracks of jungle, and pruning that riot of tropical nature which destroys as rapidly as it creates. a lengthened survey of java's political economy and past history would be out of place in a slight volume, written as a "compagnon de voyage" to the wanderer who adds a cruise in the archipelago to his eastern itinerary, but the colonial features of dutch rule which have produced many beneficial results demand recognition, for the varied characteristics of national genius and racial expansion suggest the myriad aspects of that creative power bestowed on humanity made in the divine image, and fulfilling the great destiny inspired by heavenly wisdom. java. batavia and weltevreden. from the railway station at batavia the comfortless "dos-a-dos," colloquially known as the _sado_, a vehicle resembling an elementary irish car, and drawn by a rat-like timor pony transports us to the fashionable suburb of weltevreden, away from the steamy port and fever-haunted commercial capital. the march of modern improvement scarcely affects old-world java, where jolting _sado_ and ponderous _milord_ remain unchanged since the early days of colonisation, for time is a negligeable quantity in this lotus-eating land, too apathetic even to adopt those alleviations of tropical heat common to british india. the java of the ancient world was considered "the jewel of the east," and possesses many claims to her immemorial title, but the stolid dutchman of to-day contents himself with the domestic arrangements which sufficed for his sturdy forefathers, scorning the mitigations of swinging punkah or electric fan. the word batavia signifies "fair meadows," and these swampy fields of rank vegetation, exhaling a deadly miasma, were considered such an adequate defence against hostile attack, that forts were deemed unnecessary in a locality where 87,000 soldiers and sailors died in the government hospital during the space of twenty years. batavia proper is a commonplace city of featureless streets, brick-walled canals, and ramshackle public buildings, but the residential town of weltevreden, suggesting a glorified holland, combines the quaint charm of the mother country with the oriental grace and splendour of the tropics. the broad canals bordered by colossal cabbage-palms, the white bridges gay with the many coloured garb of the malay population, the red-tiled roofs embowered in a wealth of verdure, and the pillared verandahs veiled with gorgeous creepers, tumbling in sheets of purple and scarlet from cornice to floor, compose a characteristic picture, wherein dutch individuality triumphs over incongruous environment. waving palms clash their fronds in the sea-breeze; avenues of feathery tamarind and bending waringen trees surround weltevreden with depths of green shadow; the scarlet hybiscus flames amid tangled foliage, where the orange chalices of the flowering amherstia glisten from sombre branches, and hang like fairy goblets from the interwoven roofs of tropical tunnels, pierced by broad red roads. on this sunday afternoon of the waning year which introduces us to weltevreden, family groups are gathered round tea tables canopied with flowers and palms, in the white porticos of the dutch villas, and the startling déshabille adopted by holland in the netherlands india almost defies description. the ladies, with stockingless feet thrust into heelless slippers, and attired in the malay _sarong_ (two yards of painted cotton cloth), supplemented by a white dressing-jacket, display themselves in verandah, carriage, or street, in a garb only fit for the bath-room; while the men, lounging about in pyjamas, go barefoot with the utmost _sangfroid_. the _sarong_, as worn by the slender and graceful malay, appears a modest and appropriate garb, but the grotesque effect of native attire on the broad-built dutchwoman affords conclusive proof that neither personal vanity nor a sense of humour pertain to her stolid personality. dutch puritanism certainly undergoes startling transformations under the tropical skies, and the netherlands india produces a modification of european ideas concerning what have been called "the minor moralities of life," unequalled in colonial experience. an identical exhibition fills the open corridors of the hotel nederlanden, built round a central court, and the general resort of the guests during the hot hours of the january days. evening dress is reserved for state occasions, and though _sarong_ and _kabaja_ be discarded at the nine o'clock dinner, the blouse and skirt of morning wear in england suffices even at this late hour for the fair hollander, who also concedes so far to the amenities of civilisation as sometimes to put on her stockings. so much of life in java is spent in eating, sleeping, and bathing, that but a small residuum can be spared for those outside interests which easily drop away from the european when exiled to a colony beyond the beaten track of travel, and destitute of that external friction which counteracts the enervating influence of the tropics. comfort is at a discount according to english ideas, but the arrangements of the hotel nederlanden, under a kindly and capable proprietor, render it an exception to the prevailing rule. each guest is apportioned a little suite, consisting of bedroom, sitting-room, and a section of the verandah, fitted up with cane lounge, table, and rocking-chair. the bathrooms, with porcelain tank and tiles, leave nothing to be desired, and the "dipper-bath," infinitely cooler than the familiar tub, becomes an unfailing delight. ominous prophecies have emphasised the rashness of coming to java in the rainy season, but it has expended its force before january arrives, and though daily showers cool the air, and the sky is often overcast, no inconvenience is experienced. lizards and mosquitoes are few, and in the marble-floored dining hall of cathedral proportions the absence of a punkah is generally unfelt, though the fact of a tropical climate is realised at the slightest exertion. the day begins at 6 a.m. with a cup of the java coffee, which, at first unpalatable, reveals by degrees the hidden excellence of the beverage, brought cold in a stoppered cruet, the potent essence requiring a liberal admixture of boiling water. at 9 a.m. a solid but monotonous breakfast of sausage, bacon, eggs, and cheese is customary, with the accompaniment of iced water, though tea and coffee are provided for the foreign traveller, unused to the cold comfort which commends itself to dutch taste. the mid-day _riz-tavel_ from beginning to end of a stay in java, remains the terror of the english visitor. each plate is heaped with a mound of rice, on which scraps of innumerable ingredients are placed--meat, fish, fowl, duck, prawns, curry, fried bananas, and nameless vegetables, together with chilis and chutneys, sembals, spices, and grated cocoanut, in bewildering profusion. the dutch digestion triumphantly survives this severe test at the outset of the meal, and courageously proceeds to the complementary courses of beefsteak, fritters and cheese. fortunately for those of less vigorous appetite, mine host of the nederlanden, far in advance of his javanese fraternity, kindly provides a simple "tiffin" as an alternative to this gargantuan repast. afternoon tea is served in the verandah, and at eight o'clock the dutch contingent, having slept off the effects of the rice table, prepares with renewed energies to attack a heavy dinner. new year's eve is celebrated by a very bombardment of fireworks from the chinese _campong_, and crowds hasten to the fine roman catholic church for benediction, te deum, and an eloquent, though to me incomprehensible, dutch sermon. crisp muslins and uncovered heads for the women, and white linen garb for the men, are the rule in church, for the slatternly undress of _sarong_ and pyjamas is happily inadmissible within the walls of the sanctuary, where the fair fresh faces and neat array compose a pleasing picture which imagination would fail to evolve from the burlesque ugliness of the slovenly déshabille wherewith the dutch colonist disguises every claim to beauty or grace. on alluding to the shock experienced by this grotesque travesty of native garb, a dutch officer asserts that there are in reality but few dutch ladies in java of pure racial stock, for one unhappy result of remoteness from european influence is shown by the gradual merging of the dutch colonists into the malay race by intermarriage. exile to java was made financially easy and attractive by the dutch government, but it was for the most part a permanent separation from the mother country, and a long term of years necessarily elapsed before the colonial planter could even return for a short visit to his native land. the overwhelming force of public opinion against mixed marriages, and the consequent degeneration of type, from a union which lowers one of the contracting parties without raising the other, beats but faintly against these remote shores, cut off from associations which mould and modify the crudities of individual thought in regions swept by the full tide of contemporary life. the idea of welding european and asiatic elements into one race, as a defence against external aggression, possesses a superficial plausibility, but ages of historical experiment only confirm the unalterable truth of the poetic dictum that east is east, and west is west, and never the two shall meet. until they stand on either hand, at god's great judgment seat! the sudden rise of an oriental race to the position of a great world-power, and the apprehensions of coming struggles for supremacy in eastern waters, present many future complications concerning java, even if not weakened by the assimilation of her european colonists to an inferior race. neither landlord nor secretary of the hotel nederlanden spare time or trouble in arranging the programme of sight-seeing, and but for their kindly help, only a partial success would be possible, owing to the difficulties presented by the two unknown tongues of dutch and malay. ignorance of the former involves separation from the world as revealed by newspapers, and though a smattering of "coolie malay" is picked up with the aid of a handbook, and the "hundred words" mastered, sanguinely asserted to suffice for colloquial needs, there are many occasions when even the practice of this elementary language requires a more extensive vocabulary. at a new year's fête given by the proprietor of the hotel to his numerous malay employés, we make our first acquaintance with native music. dancing girls, in mask and tinsel, gyrate to the weird strains of the _gamelon_, an orchestra of tiny gongs, bamboo tubes, and metal pipes. actors perform old-world dramas in dumb show, and conjurors in gaudy attire attract people of all ages to those time-honoured feats of legerdemain which once represented the sorcery of the mystic east. the simple malay has not yet adopted the critical and unbelieving attitude which rubs the gilt off the gingerbread or the bloom off the plum, and his fervid faith in mythical heroes and necromantic exploits gives him the key to that kingdom of fancy often closed to a sadder if wiser world. the electric tram provides an excellent method of gaining a general idea of batavia and weltevreden; the winding route skirting canals and palm groves, _campongs_ of basket-work huts, and gay _passers_, the native markets, with their wealth of many-coloured fruit. stacks of golden bananas, olive-tinted dukus, rambutans like green chestnut-shells with scarlet prickles, amber star-fruit, brown salak, the "forbidden apple," bread-fruit, and durian offer an embarassing choice. pineapples touch perfection on java soil; cherimoya and mango, papaya and the various custard-fruits, the lovely but tasteless rose-apple, and the dark green equatorial orange of delicious flavour, afford a host of unfamiliar experiences. the winter months are the season of the peerless mangosteen, in beauty as well as in savour the queen of tropical fruits. the rose-lined purple globes, with the central ball of ivory whiteness in each fairy cup, suggest fugitive essences of strawberry and nectarine combined with orange to produce this equatorial marvel, also considered perfectly wholesome. the mangosteen, ripening just north or south of the equator, according to the alternations of the wet and dry seasons, cannot be preserved long enough to reach the temperate zone, and though every year shows fresh varieties of tropical fruit successfully transported to european markets, the mangosteen remains unknown outside the narrow radius of the equatorial region to which the tree is indigenous. the flower markets blaze with many-coloured roses, tons of gardenias and a wealth of white heavy-scented flowers, such as tuberoses and arabian jasmine. all the spices of the east, in fact, seem breathing from these mounds of blossom, as well as from gums and essences distilled from them in archaic fashion. transparent sachets, filled with the scented petals of _ylang-ylang_, fill the air with intoxicating sweetness, and outside the busy _passer_, a frangipanni-tree, the native _sumboya_ or "flower of the dead," just opening a white crowd of golden-hearted blossoms to the sun, adds another wave of perfume to the floral incense, steaming from earth to sky with prodigal exuberance. batavia possesses few objects of interest. the dismal green-shuttered stadkirche, a relic of dutch calvinism; the earliest warehouse of the netherlands company, a commonplace lighthouse, and the gate of peter elberfeld's dwelling (now his tomb), with his spear-pierced skull above the lintel, as a reminder of the sentence pronounced on traitors to the dutch government, comprise the scanty catalogue. antiquities and archæological remains fill a white museum of classical architecture on the koenig's plein, a huge parade ground, flanked by the palace of the governor-general. gold and silver ornaments, gifts from tributary princes, shield and helmet, dagger, and _kris_, of varied stages in malay civilisation, abound in these spacious halls, where every javanese industry may be studied. buddhist and hindu temples have yielded up a treasury of images, censers, and accessories of worship, the excavations of ruined cities in central java, long overgrown with impenetrable jungle, opening a mine of archæological wealth in musical instruments, seals, coins, headgear, chairs and umbrellas of state. golden pipes and betel-boxes show the perfection of the goldsmith's art, and metal statues vie with those of sculptured wood or stone. here captain cook left his treasure trove from the southern seas, and the council chamber of the museum contains portraits and souvenirs of the great navigators who sailed into the uncharted ocean of geographical discovery, and in various stages of their adventurous careers anchored at java, to display the wondrous trophies of unknown lands in the island then regarded as the farthest outpost of contemporary civilisation. the _toelatingskaart_, or javanese passport, formerly indispensable for insular travel beyond the radius of forty miles from batavia, though not yet obsolete, proves practically needless, and is never once demanded during a six weeks' stay. the small addition contributed to the rich revenue by this useless official "permit," appears the sole reason for retaining it, now that vexatious restrictions are withdrawn. in the intervals of arranging an up-country tour from monotonous weltevreden, destitute of any attraction beyond the white colonnades and verdant groves flanking sleepy canals and quaint bridges, the local industry of _sarong_ stippling affords a curious interest. every city in java possesses a special type of this historic dress, represented on the walls of temples dating before the christian era, and worn by the malay races from time immemorial. this strip of cotton cloth, which forms the attire both of men and women, is twisted firmly round the body, and requires no girdle to secure it. palm-fronds, birds, and animals, geometric patterns, religious emblems, fruits and flowers, are represented in bewildering confusion. the girls, with flower-decked hair and scanty garb, occupy a long, low shed, filled with rude frames for stretching the cloth, painted in soft-tinted dyes--brown, blue, and amber for the most part--with tapering funnels. these waxed cloths allow infinite scope for native imagination, only a small panel of formal design being obligatory, the remaining surface fancifully coloured at will in harmonious hues. no two _sarongs_ are alike, and the painted _battek_, notwithstanding the simplicity of the cotton background, represents an amount of labour and finish which makes the archaic garment a costly, though almost indestructible production. the graceful _slandang_, a crossed scarf of the same material, only serves as a shoulder-strap, wherein the brown malay baby sits contentedly, for the ugly white jacket of the dutchwoman is now compulsory on the native. every variety of _battek_, basket-work, mats, and quaint silver or brass ware, is brought by native peddlers to the broad verandahs of the hotel, the patient and gentle people content to spend long hours on the marble steps, dozing between their scanty bargains, or crimsoning their months with the stimulating morsel of betel-nut, said to allay the hunger, thirst, and exhaustion of the steaming tropics. the conquered race, cowed by ages of tyranny under native princes, possesses those mild and effeminate characteristics fostered by a languid and enervating climate. that the salient angles of the sturdy dutch character, which accomplished so many feats of endurance in the earlier days of the colony, should undergo rapid disintegration by intermarriage with the native stock, must arouse regret in all who realise the claims to respect possessed by the fighting forefathers of holland's tropical dependencies. educational matters were for centuries in abeyance, and until 1864 the malays were forbidden to learn the language of their european rulers. many dialects are found in java's wide territory, but low malay has been declared the official tongue, and with the advance of public opinion, wider views prevail concerning the rights of the subject race. a good roman catholic priest, one of the most enlightened and liberal dutchmen encountered in java, asserts that in the schools of the colonial government, the malay boy possesses a mathematical facility superior to that of the dutch scholar, in spite of the advantage accruing from hereditary education. at the sunset hour, batavian life awakens from the long slumbers of the tropical afternoon, and as the golden light filters through the waving palms, the long schul-weg, beside the central canal, fills with saunterers, enjoying the delights of that brief spell, when peace and coolness fall on the world before the sudden twilight drops veil after veil of deepening gloom, merging into the "darkness which may be felt," for the twelve hours of the tropical night. gathering clouds reveal but scanty glimpses of the moon in these january weeks, but through rifts in the sombre canopy, the southern stars hang low in the dome of heaven, and shine like burning lamps, appearing almost within reach of an outstretched hand. buitenzorg. the first destination of the up-country traveller in java is buitenzorg, the dutch "sans souci," containing the governor-general's rural palace, the houses of court officials, and the superb botanical garden, which ranks first among the horticultural triumphs of the world. the two hours' journey by the railway, which now traverses the whole of java, shows a succession of tropical landscapes, appearing unreal in their fantastic and dream-like beauty. the glowing green of rice-fields, the dense forests of swaying palms, the porphyry tints of the teeming soil, and the purple mountains, carved into the weird contours peculiar to volcanic ranges, frame myriad pictures of unfamiliar native life with dramatic effect. villages of woven basket-work cluster beneath green curtains of banana and spreading canopies of palm, the central mosque surmounting the tiny huts with many-tiered roofs, and walls inlaid with gleaming tiles of white and blue. brown figures, with gay _sarong_ and turbaned headgear, bring bamboo buckets to moss-grown wells, gray water-buffaloes crop marshy herbage, a little bronze-hued figure seated on each broad back, and busy workers stand knee-deep in slush, to transplant emerald blades of rice or to gather the yellow crops, for seedtime and harvest go on together in this fertile land. our train halts at depok, a christian village unique in java, for the religious history of the island shows little missionary enterprise among a race strangely indifferent to the claims of faith, and lightly casting away one creed after another, with a carelessness which has ever proved a formidable bar to spiritual progress. the portuguese jesuits were expelled by the dutch, and english efforts at conversion were succeeded by a general exclusion of foreign missionaries. public opinion eventually prevented the continuance of this despotic rule, and at the present day a certain number of roman and protestant clergy are supported by the government, but roman zeal outstrips the niggardly spiritual provision, and proves the appreciation in which it is held by full churches and devout worshippers. the mohammedanism of the malay lacks the fiery fervour common to islam, and his slack hands are ever ready to forego all symbols of faith. from the region of rice and tapioca, maize and sugar-cane, we reach the great cacao plantations, hung with chocolate-coloured pods, and the ruddy kina-groves on the lower slopes of the mountain chain. the palms are everywhere, clashing their huge fronds, and undulating in waves of fiery green, the light and shadow of the golden evening reflected on the swaying foliage. stately palmyra, slender areca, graceful pandang with a length of scarlet crowning each smooth grey stem, the mighty royal palm, king of the forest, spreading cocoanuts, and a hundred unknown varieties, soaring among bread-fruit and teak, nutmeg and waringen, reveal the inexhaustible powers of tropical nature. buitenzorg occupies an ideal position between the blue and violet peaks of gedeh and salak, the guardian mountains of the fairy spot, perennially green with spring-like freshness, from the daily showers sweeping across the valley from one or other of the lofty crests, and possessing a delicious climate at an altitude of eight hundred feet. the hotel bellevue, where _back_ rooms should be secured on account of a superb prospect, comprising river, mountain and forest, stands near the great entrance of the world-famous gardens, and our balcony commands a profound ravine, carved by a clear river, winding away between forests of palm to the dark cone of mount salak, the climax of the picture. the artist destined to interpret the soul of java is yet unborn, or unable to grasp the character of her unique and distinctive scenery, but a village of plaited palm-leaves, accentuating this tropical eden, brings it down to the human level, where soft malay voices, glimpses of domestic life, and a canoe afloat on the brimming stream, remind us that we are still on _terra firma_, and not gazing at a dreamland paradise beyond earthly ken. sleeping accommodation in the hills suggests little comfort. a hard mattress beneath a sheet is the sole furniture of the huge four-poster, surrounded by thick muslin curtains to exclude air and creeping things; pillows are stuffed hard with cotton-down, and no coverings are provided--an unalterable custom possessing obvious disadvantages in a climate reeking with damp, where the walls of a room closed for a day or two become green with mould. rheumatic stiffness on waking is a matter of course in humid java, for the hour between darkness and dawn contains a concentrated essence of dew, mist, and malaria, which penetrates to the very marrow of unaccustomed bones, even when it lacks the frequent accompaniment of the violent cascade known as "a tropical shower." the glorious botanical garden is approached by a mighty avenue of colossal kanari-trees, over a hundred feet high, with yellow light filtering through the fretted roof of interlacing boughs, which suggests a vast aisle in some primeval forest. stately columns and spreading roots garlanded with stag-horn ferns, waving moss, white and purple orchids, or broad-leaved creepers, falling in sheets and torrents of shining foliage and knitting tree to tree, attest the irrepressible growth of vegetation, which flings a many-coloured veil of blossom and leaf over root, branch, and stem. a fairy lake glows with the pink and crimson blossoms of the noble victoria regia, the huge leaves like green tea-trays floating on the water, where a central fountain adds prismatic radiance to the scenic effect of the splendid lilies. climbing palms and massive creepers, splashed with orange, scarlet, and gold, tumble in masses from lofty branches, and the dazzling bougainvillea flings curtains of roseate purple over wall and gateway. a dense thicket of frangipanni scents the air with the symbolic blossoms, shining like stars from grey-green boughs of sharp-cut leaves. a copse of splendid tree-ferns flanks the forest-like plantation known as "the thousand palms," and beneath dusky avenues of waringen (a variety of the banyan species, which strikes staff-like boughs into the earth and springs up again in caverns of foliage), herds of deer are wandering, snatching at drooping vines, or sheltering from the fierce sun in depths of impenetrable shade. tufts of red-stemmed banka palms cluster on the green islets of lake and river, vista after vista opens up, each mysterious aisle appearing more lovely than the last, and luring the wanderer to the climax formed by a terraced knoll, commanding a superb view of gedeh and salak, the twin summits of chiselled turquoise, gashed by the amethyst shadows of deep ravines, with gedeh's curl of volcanic smoke staining the lustrous azure of the sky. many-coloured tree carnations, gorgeous cannas and calladiums, copses of snowy gardenia, and flowering shrubs of rainbow hues, blaze with splendour, or exhale their wealth of perfume on the languid air, thronged with the invisible souls of the floral multitude. graceful rattans shoot up in tall ladders of foliage-hidden cane, climbing to the topmost fronds of the loftiest palm, and, unless ruthlessly cut down, overthrowing the stately tree with their fatal embrace. sausage and candle trees, with strange parodies of prosaic food and waxen tapers, climbing palms, sometimes extending for five hundred feet, and gigantic blossoms like crimson trumpets, or delicately-tinted shells of ocean, comprise but a tithe of nature's wonders, crowned by the mighty "rafflesia," the largest flower in the world, with each vast red chalice often measuring a circumference of six feet. a hundred native gardeners are employed in this park-like domain, and seventy men work in the adjacent culture-garden of forty acres, where experiments in grafting and acclimatizing are carried on, as well as in the supplementary garden of tjibodas, beautifully situated on the lower slopes of mount salak. the white palace of the governor-general faces the lake, fed by the lovely river tjiligong, winding in silver loops round verdant lawn and palm-clad hill, or expanding into bamboo-fringed lakes, and bringing perennial freshness into the tropical eden of sun-bathed java. beyond the fretted arches of the great kanari avenue, the white tomb of lady raffles, who died during her husband's term of office in the island, forms a pathetic link with the past. when the colony was restored to holland, a clause in the treaty concerning it, made the perpetual care of this monument, to one deeply loved and mourned, binding upon the dutch governor--a condition loyally observed during the century since the cessation of english rule. cinnamon and clove scent the breeze which whispers mysterious secrets to the swaying plumes of the tall sago-palms, and dies away in the delicate foliage of tamarind and ironwood tree. a network of air roots makes a grotesque circle round the spreading boughs of the banyan grove, mahogany and sandal-wood, ebony and cork, ginger-tree and cardamom, mingle their varied foliage, the translucency of sun-smitten green shading through deepening tones into the sombre tints of ilex and pine with exquisite gradation. flamboyant trees flaunt fiery pyramids of blossom high in the air, and the golden bouquets of the salacca light up dusky avenues, where large-leaved lianas rope themselves from tree to tree in cables of vivid green. bare stems, except in the palms, are unknown in this richly-decorated temple of nature; climbing blade-plants with sword-like leaves of gold-striped verdure, huge orchids like many-coloured birds and butterflies fluttering in the wind, wreathe trunk and branch with fantastic splendour, and matted creepers weave curtains of dense foliage from spreading boughs. the austere and scanty vegetation of northern climes, which gives a distinct outline and value to every leaf and flower, has nothing in common with the prodigal and passionate beauty of the tropical landscape, where the wealth of earth is flung broadcast at our feet in mad profusion. day by day the marvellous gardens of buitenzorg take deeper hold of mind and imagination. the early dawn, when the dark silhouettes of the palms stand etched against the rose-tinted heavens, the hot noontide in the shadows of the colossal kanari-trees, the sunset gold transfiguring the foliage into emerald fire, and spilling pools of liquid amber upon the mossy turf, or the white moonlight which transmutes the forest aisles into a fairy world of sable and silver, invest this vision of paradise with varied aspects of incomparable beauty. the surrounding scenery, though full of interest, seems but the setting of the priceless gem, and when inexorable time, the modern angel of the flaming sword, at length bars the way, and banishes us from our javanese eden, the exiled heart turns back perpetually to the floral sanctuary, the antitype of that divinely-planted garden on the dim borderland of time which revealed and fulfilled the primeval beauty of earth's morning hours. soekaboemi and sindanglaya. soekaboemi (desire of the world), a favourite sanatorioum of the dutch, is approached by an exquisite railway, curving round the purple heights of forest-girt salak. the usual afternoon deluge weeps itself away, palm plumes and cassava boughs, overhanging the silvery tjiligong, drop showers of diamonds into the current, and giant bamboos creak in the spicy wind, redolent of gardenia and clove. the hills, scaled by green rice-terraces, each with tiny rill and miniature cascade, are vocal with murmuring waters. lilac plumbago, red hybiscus, and golden allemanda mingle with pink and purple lantana, yellow daisies, and hedges of scarlet tassels, enclosing wicker huts in patches of banana and cocoanut. brown girls, in blue and orange _sarongs_, occupy the steps of a basket-work shrine, from whence an unknown god, smeared with ochre, extends a sceptred hand, for hinduism left deep traces on inland java, dim with the dust of vanished creeds. the expense and trouble of former travel by the superb post-roads, made at terrible sacrifice of life in earlier days, is now done away with, though the noble avenues and picturesque shelters, erected for protection from sun or rain, suggest a pleasant mode of leisurely progress. no trains may run at night, not only on account of native incompetence, but from dangers caused by constant geographical changes on this volcanic soil, where rivers suddenly alter their course, and earthquakes obstruct the way with yawning chasms or heaps of debris. a paternal government provides the traveller with a half-way house, erecting a large hotel at maos, with uniform rates, entirely for the benefit of the passenger by rail. trains are built on the american plan, stations are spacious and airy, refreshments easily secured, and every halting-place offers an _embarras de richesses_ in the shape of tropical fruits, wherewith to supplement or replace the solidity of the dutch commissariat. coffee and tea plantations in ordered neatness, contrast with the untamed profusion of forest vegetation, clothing sharp promontory and shelving terrace. dusky villages cling like birds' nests to ledges of rock, screw-palms with airy roots frame mountain tarns, and a brazilian emperor-palm, with smooth column bulging into a pear-shaped base, accentuates the sunset glory from a crag crowned by the black canopy of colossal fronds. the preanger regency was the heart of ancient mataram, that historic kingdom of old-world java round which perpetual warfare waged for centuries. language and customs change as we cross the saddle between the blue peaks of salak and gedeh; gay crowds bring fruits to picturesque wayside markets, bearing bamboo poles laden with golden papaya and purple mangosteen, or plaited baskets containing the conglomerate native cuisine. the elastic and gracefully-modelled figures of the soendanese populace betoken a purer race than that of the steamy batavian lowlands, where foreign elements deteriorate the native stock. the hotel victoria at soekaboemi consists of detached white buildings round tree-filled courts, erected on the "pavilion system." every two visitors occupy a tiny bungalow of two bedrooms, opening on a spacious verandah divided by a screen, and each section provided with lamp, rocking-chair, and tea-table, the long public dining hall being approached by a covered alley. the rain, swishing down through the night in torrents and cataracts, clears at sunrise, and though heavy clouds still veil the heights of salak, the transparent beauty of the morning crystallises the atmosphere, and sharply defines every feature of the landscape. the country roads, shaded by towering palms and fruit-laden mangos, glow with a continuous procession of brown figures, the women clad in the universal _sarong_, but men and children often in nature's garb, with touches of orange or crimson in scarf and turban. water-oxen and buffaloes, goats and sheep, vary the throng, but cattle fare badly in fertile java, where the all-pervading rice ousts the pasture-land. glorious bamboos form arches of feathery green meeting across the road, and the busy china _campong_, or _désar_ in preanger parlance, is full of life and movement with the first streak of day, for all trade in java depends upon the indefatigable industry of the celestial. the idle gambling malay, though an expert hunter and fisher, takes no thought for the morrow, and is protected by the dutch government from ruin by an enforced demand of rice for storage, according to the numbers of the family. every village contains the great store barn of plaited palm leaves, so that, in case of need, the confiscated rice can be doled out to the improvident native, who thus contributes to the support of his family in times of scarcity. this regulation relieves want without pauperising, the common garner merely serving as a compulsory savings bank. many salutary laws benefit the malay, possessing a notable share of tropical slackness, and the lack of initiative partly due to a servile past under the sway of tyrannical native princes. the little brown people of java, eminently gentle and tractable, are honest enough for vendors of eatables to place a laden basket at the roadside for the refreshment of the traveller, who drops a small coin into a bamboo tube fastened to a tree for this purpose. the customary payment is never omitted, and at evening the owner of the basket collects the money, and brings a fresh supply of food for future wayfarers. country districts demonstrate the fact of java being a creedless land. this is sunday, and the feast of the epiphany, but the only honour paid to the day consists in a gayer garb, and a band playing for an hour in the palm-shaded garden. work goes on in rice-field and plantation, but no church bell rings from the closed chapel outside the gates, and no sign of religion is evident, whether from mosque, temple, or church. lovely lanes form alluring vistas. the pretty _désas_ of plaited palm and bamboo, hiding in depths of tropical woodland, with blue thunbergia clambering over every verandah, and the preanger girls, with their brilliant _slandangs_ of orange and scarlet, amber and purple, make vivid points of colour in the foreground of blue mountain and dusky forest. a copper-coloured boy carries on his head a basket of gold-fish large as salmon, the westering sun glittering on the ruddy scales. traditional servility remains ingrained in preanger character, and the crouching obeisance known as the _dodok_, formerly insisted upon, is still observed by the native to his european masters, the humble posture giving place to kneeling on a nearer approach. the kind proprietor of the soekaboemi hotel offers every facility to those guests anxious to penetrate below the surface of soendanese life, placing his carriage and himself at the disposal of the visitor, and affording a mine of information otherwise unattainable, for books on java are few and far between, and the work of sir stamford raffles continues the best authority on island life and customs, though a century has elapsed since it was written. why, one asks in amazement, did england part with this eastern paradise? rich not only in vegetation, but containing unexplored treasures of precious metal and the vast mineral wealth peculiar to volcanic regions, where valuable chemical products are precipitated by the subterranean forces of nature's mysterious laboratory. in the far-off days when "the grand tour" of europe was the climax of the ordinary traveller's ambition, beautiful java was relinquished on the plea of being an unknown and useless possession, too far from the beaten track of british sailing ships to be of practical value. the remonstrances of sir stamford raffles, and his representations of future colonial expansion, were regarded as the dreams of a romantic enthusiast, and the noble english governor, in advance of his age, while effecting during his brief tenure of office results unattainable by a century of ordinary labour, found his efforts wasted and his work undone. instead of returning home, he applied himself heroically to the developement of singapore, the eternal monument of patriotic devotion and invincible courage. the line to tjandjoer, the starting point for sindanglaya, traverses one of the exquisite plains characteristic of java. mountain walls, with palm-fringed base and violet crest, bound a fertile expanse, where myriad brooks foam through fairy arches of feathery bamboo and long vistas of spreading palm fronds. rice in every stage of growth, from flaming green to softest yellow, covers countless terraces, the picturesque outlines of their varied contours enhancing the beauty of the fantastic scene. a _sado_, with a team of three tiny ponies, dashes up the long avenue leading to the palm-fringed hills, the mighty amherstia trees forming aisles of dark green foliage, brightened with the vivid glow of orange red blossoms. the broad road is a kaleidoscope of brilliant colour, for native costume vies with the dazzling tints of tropical nature as we advance further into the preangers. the gay headgear, worn turbanwise, with two ends standing upright above plaited folds, and magenta _kabajas_, with _slandangs_ of apple green, amber or purple, make a blaze of colour against the forest background, or glow amidst the dusky shadows of palm-thatched sheds, where thirsty travellers imbibe pink and yellow syrups, the favourite beverages of the malay race. the ascending road commands superb views of the mountain chain, and the rambling two-storied hotel, widened by immense verandahs, stands opposite cloud-crowned gedeh, half-veiled by the spreading column of volcanic smoke. the misty blue of further hills leads the eye to the three weird peaks of the tangkoeban prahoe, the boat-shaped "ark" regarded as the ararat of java, for the universal tradition of the great deluge underlies the religious history welded from moslem, buddhist, and hindu elements. legendary lore clusters round the petrified "ark" in which the progenitors of the malayan stock escaped from the noachian flood. the storm-tossed and water-logged boat, lodged between jutting rocks, was reversed that it might dry in the sun, but the weary voyagers who traditionally peopled the malay archipelago remained in the lotus-eating land, and the disused "ark" or _prau_, fossilizing through the ages, became a portion of the peaks whereon it rested. the sacred mountain developed into a place of pilgrimage and prayer, and the ruins of richly-carved temples, together with four broken flights of a thousand steps, denote the former importance ascribed to the great altar of nature, and the power of religion on the social life of the past. generations of later inhabitants, dwelling in flimsy huts of bamboo and thatch, regarded the mysterious ruins of the tankahan prahoe as the work of giants or demons, and the haunted hill as a mysterious resort of evil spirits. in lofty sindanglaya, the swaying palms of the lowlands yield to glorious tree-ferns, shading road and ravine with feathery canopies of velvet green. a lake of azure crystal mirrors a thick fringe of the great fronds, and on every parapet of the ruddy cliffs the living emerald of the lanceolated foliage glows in vivid contrast with the splintered crags. sindanglaya is the refuge of fever-stricken europeans from malarial coast or inland swamp, but the hotel is now empty of invalids. the kind proprietor lavishes time and care on english guests, and the attentive malay "room-boys," squatting on the verandah outside our doors, fear to lose sight of their charges for a moment, lest some need of native help should arise. they watch hand and eye like faithful dogs, for their language is unintelligible to us as ours to them, and the only attempt at speech is "_chow-chow, mister!_" when the dinner-bell rings, the mystic words accompanied by a realistic pantomime of mouth and fingers. the following morning dawns like an ideal day of june, and we start in chairs, carried by four coolies, for the beautiful falls of tjibereum. a mountain road winds through rice-fields and tree-ferns towards fold upon fold of lilac peaks, until we reach the mountain garden of tjibodas, the beautiful supplement of incomparable buitenzorg. a strange sense of remoteness belongs to this lonely pleasaunce of the upper world, on a sheltered slope of ever-burning gedeh, quiescent now save for the blue curl of sulphurous smoke, which gives perpetual warning of those smouldering forces ever ready to devastate the surrounding country. subterranean activity increases during the rainy season, and tremors of earthquake occasionally startle the equanimity of those unused to the perils of existence on this thin crust of mother earth, for java's teeming soil and population rest upon an ominous fissure of the globe's surface, and twelve of the forty-five volcanos on this island of terror and beauty are still moderately active, sometimes displaying sudden outbursts of energy. the green lawns and towering camphor trees of tjibodas suggest the spellbound beauty of some enchanted spot, unprofaned by human foot. a glassy lake mirrors the tall bamboos and feathery tamarinds, their slender and sensitive foliage motionless in the still air of the dewy dawn. huge coleas accentuate the spring verdure with heavy masses of bronze and crimson, and magnolias exhale intoxicating odours from snowy chalices. blue lilies and flaxen pampas grass grow in thickets upon the emerald slopes, and the ordered loveliness of the mountain paradise, walled in by dense jungle and savage precipice, brings the glamour of dreamland into the stern environment of mysterious forest and frowning peak. a rudely-paved and mossy path, shadowed by the black foliage of stately casuarinas, leads into the gloomy jungle. the forest monarchs are curtained with tangled creepers and roped together with serpent-like lianas, stag-horn ferns, and green veils of filmy moss fluttering from every bough. a swampy path through rank grass and rough boulders pierces the dense thickets, matted together with inextricable confusion, teak and tamarind, acacia and bread-fruit, palm and tree-fern losing their own characteristics and merging themselves into concrete form. the appalling stillness and solemnity of the dense jungle appears emphasised by a solitary brown figure, with pipe and betel-box, beneath a thatched shed at an angle of the narrow track, where he presides over a little stall of cocoanuts, bananas, and coloured syrups, for the refreshment of coolies on their way from the tjibodas garden to villages across the heights of gedeh. no voice ever seems raised in these remote recesses of the mountains, where even the children of each brown hamlet play silently as figures in a dream. our bearers, swishing through wet grass and splashing across brimming brooks, push with renewed energies up a steep ascent to the heart of the wild solitude, where three mighty waterfalls dash in savage grandeur from a range of over hanging cliffs into a churning river, descending by continuous rapids over a stairway of brown-striped trap-rock and swirling between lichen-clad banks, to lose itself in the green gloom of the impenetrable woods. one of these huge cascades would make the fortune of a swiss valley, and we need no further efforts of our willing bearers in the cause of sight-seeing, but as neither words nor gestures prove intelligible to western obtuseness, a brown coolie seizes each arm, and rushes us up a grassy hill to a huge cavern, hung with myriad bats, and containing a pool of crystal water. the simple minds of these kindly mountaineers shirk no trouble for the benefit of the stranger, who, though regarded as a madman, must be humoured as such, not only to the top of his bent, but often beyond it. a descent through rice-fields and _désas_ skirts the serrated cliffs of gedeh's northward side, though tree-ferns growing in thousands afford shelter from the daily showers. the sudden passion of tropical rain dies away, leaving an atmosphere of unearthly transparency. gedeh, carved in amethyst, leans against a primrose sky, streaked by the puff of white smoke from the crater. villagers returning from work brighten the road with patches of scarlet and yellow; children, clad only in necklaces of red seeds and silver bangles, running about amid groups of women in painted _battek_, with brown babies carried in the orange or crimson folds of the _slandang_, pause before the doorways of woven basket-work huts, or carry crates of yellow bananas and strings of purple mangosteens, to supplement the "evening rice" of their frugal meal. the malay races have been called "the flower of the east," noted for their soft voices and courteous manners in the days of old, but european intercourse obliterates native characteristics, and the inhabitant of the sea-coast, or of the larger towns, unpleasantly imitates the brusquerie of his dutch masters, and even exaggerates it. the soendanese of the preanger hills, less in contact with the external world, retains traces of life's ancient simplicity, and though a keen intelligence forms no part of his mental equipment, his desire to please and satisfy his employer is of pathetic intensity. the governor-general of java, whose stipend is of double the amount received by the american president, owns a country palace at sindanglaya, in addition to the splendid official residences at batavia and buitenzorg. a lovely walk leads from this flower-girt mansion to a pavilion on the kasoer hill, commanding a prospect of four mountain ranges, outlined in tender hues of lavender and turquoise against the cobalt sky. in the foreground stretches a fertile plain, with bamboo and sugar-cane varying the eternal rice in brilliant shades of green and gold, always decorative, from the first emerald blade to the amber-tinted straw, for the sacred grain possesses a beauty far exceeding that of wheat, barley, or rye. undulating lines and ascending terraces break the uniformity of the lovely plains with the fascination of weird contour and fanciful design, intricate as the pattern traced on the native _sarong_. the rice-culture of these fields and valleys is a perfect survival of the primeval system, unchanged since the days when "the gift of the gods" was first bestowed on primitive man in this land of plenty. the peasant, toiling in the flooded _sawas_, and occupied from seedtime to harvest in the arduous labour demanded by the rice-field, combines with his agricultural work the idea of a sacred duty to the divinities who gave him the staple commodity whereon his life mainly depends. cocoanut and sugar-cane, maize and tapioca, banana and cassava, supplement the rice, but it ranks above all other products of the teeming soil, for sacramental efficacy and supernatural origin have hallowed the "grain of heaven" from the very dawn of history, and the hereditary belief in the efficacy of the sacred crop still remains mystically rooted in the sub-consciousness of the malay race. garoet and her volcano. the occasional drawback of weeping skies is counterbalanced by the gorgeous vegetation only seen to perfection in the rainy season, and that clouds should sometimes veil the burning blue to mitigate equatorial sunshine proves a source of satisfaction to those who fail to appreciate the rip van winkle life of womankind in java. the journey to garoet supplies a succession of vivid pictures, illustrating the individuality of the insular scenery. the weird outlines of volcanic ranges, shading from palest azure to deepest plum-colour, the dreamlike beauty of elysian plains, and the stately palm-forests extending league upon league, with mighty vans clashing in the mountain breeze, assume magical charm as we penetrate into the heart of the alluring land. two pyramidal peaks, haroeman and kaleidon, rise sheer from the fair plain of lelés in colossal stairways of green rice-terraces. knots of palm shelter innumerable villages which dot the mountain flanks, the woven huts fragile as houses of cards, but built up on identical sites through countless ages, recorded in perennial characters of living green on these twin trophies of primitive agriculture. many travellers have commented on the strange undertone of music, echoing from a thousand silvery rills and tiny cascades, which follow the verdant lines of terrace or parapet, and make the shimmering air vocal with melody, like the distant song of surf on a coral reef. variety of form belongs to all javanese agriculture as the result of handicraft, for the peasant unconsciously puts his own personality into his toil. the exquisite tints of the rice in different stages of growth display a translucence indescribable except in terms of light and fire. the amber gleam of young shoots, the green flames of the springing crop, the pulsating emerald of later growth, and the golden sheen of ripened ears, invest the "gift of the gods" with unearthly radiance. the eastern mind has ever responded to nature's touch, for the great mother whispers her closest secrets to simple hearts, and science now realises that civilisation has broken many of the subtle links which in earlier days were mystic bonds of union between man and the universe. malay idiosyncracy evidences the survival of many primal influences forgotten or denied by races of higher type and deeper culture. very little is known concerning the malayan people who mingled with almost every oriental stock. amphibious tastes suggest picturesque traditions of prolonged voyaging in search of fresh fishing grounds to supply the needs of a rapidly multiplying population. a strong malay element exists even in far-off japan, and the wide ramifications of the nomadic stock can be traced to broad rivers encountered on the southward journey, and luring stragglers from the main body by the mysterious glamour of winding water-ways piercing the tangled forests, and pointing to unknown realms of hope or promise. the malay retains many of the hereditary gifts bestowed on the untaught children of nature, and, in spreading his language and customs far over the vast pacific, adopted few extraneous ideas from the world through which he wandered. his primeval instincts still sway his life under other conditions. marvellous skill in hunting, fishing, boat-building, and navigation in tornado-swept waters, remains to him. the deft weaving of palm-leaf hut and wall of defence creates a village or destroys it at lightning speed. even now his basket-work home is never built on dry land, if water can be found wherein to plant the supporting poles of the fragile dwellings, suggesting the impermanence of a nomadic race. the malay never travels on foot to any place which can possibly be reached by water, his native element; winds and tides have imbued him with something of their own unstable and changing character, and the sea which nurtured him is still the supreme factor in his life. feet vie with fingers in marvellous capacity, and to see a native cocoanut gatherer run up the polished stem of a swaying palm, with greater ease and swiftness than anyone shows in mounting a ladder, transports thought to the distant past, when the ancestral stock, disembarking from the rude canoes at nightfall, sought an evening meal on the edge of the palm-forest, bowed beneath the weight of green and yellow nuts a hundred feet overhead. what wonder if in lands of perpetual summer the syren song of some "long bright river" should lure the storm-tossed mariners from the perilous seas to the comparative security of inland life! the stern environment of northern poverty stands out in terrible contrast with the teeming prodigality of tropical nature, offering all the richest fruits of earth in full measure to these early wanderers across the southern seas. the mountain railway, curving round ridge or precipice and spanning sombre gorge with bridge and aqueduct, affords superb views of the unrivalled plains. waterfalls foam over granite cliffs; a sinuous river flings a silver chain round the symmetrical base of kaleidon, and from our lofty vantage point we gaze into the luminous green of a million palms, where the warm heart of a deep forest opens to display the lustre and colour of molten emeralds. the soendanese quarter of the island gives place to the ancient javanese territory, and malay characteristics, though underlying and mingling with every insular stock, are here modified by a strain of hindu ancestry, which gives refinement of feature and grace of carriage. well-modelled figures and delicate hands and feet are attributed to the liberal admixture of royal and noble blood with that of the peasantry, for the ancient rulers of java respected no rights but their own, and the domestic arrangements of king solomon prevailed in a kingdom of tyrants and slaves. hindu thraldom was intensified under arab priests, who, following in the train of piratical moormen, claimed the sovereignty of java under their protection. the gold-embroidered jacket of civil or military rank, with the _kris_ thrust into a brilliant sash, here supplements the universal _sarong_, itself of bolder design and glowing colour in this old-world realm of mataram, the centre of java's historic interest. the crooked blade of the _kris_ is still used in divination, light and shadow playing over the wavy steel, ever suggesting cabalistic signs inscribed by an invisible hand on the azure surface. the _kris_ is popularly endowed with healing efficacy, and the availing touch of the sacred talisman is an article of javanese faith. a hundred varieties of the weapon are found in the malay archipelago, from the gold-hilted and diamond-studded royal _kris_ to the boat-handled dagger of common use, permitted to all but peasants; women of the higher class wear it in the girdle, and though unrepresented in the sculpture of javanese temples, the _kris_ is ascribed to the days of panji, a hindu warrior whose feats form the libretto of a popular drama, though his authenticity appears uncertain. the changes in local costume and character, as seen in wayside villages, enliven the journey until we reach the mountain gateway of tjadas pangeran, "the royal stone," flanked by flashing waterfalls, and forming the entrance to the region supreme in natural scenery, archaic art, and literary interest. the black cone of goentoer, "the thunder peak," accentuates the red blaze of the declining sun on the intricate rice-mosaic of green and gold in the divinely beautiful plain revealed through the rocky cleft. amid the many glories of javanese landscape, the poetic glamour of these palm-girt levels lingers longest in the memory, for the world-famed picture known as "the plains of heaven" might have been inspired by the haunting loveliness of these rolling uplands. our railway carriage contains a native regent, his principal wife, and a pretty daughter. javanese princes are made ostensible rulers of native districts, but associated with dutch residents as "elder brothers," who may be more accurately termed compulsory advisers. without a measure of despotic authority exercised by the fraternal partner, the spendthrift malay would cause perpetual hindrance to insular development and commercial prosperity. the old regent, with embroidered military jacket glittering above his elaborately-patterned _sarong_, looks a grim and forbidding figure, and evidently regards his womenkind as beneath notice. his head is tied up in a black kerchief, and a brilliant order conferred by the queen of holland adorns his breast. madame, in magenta shawl and purple gown, travesties european costume. diamonds blaze incongruously on arms and neck, a scarlet flower in oily black braids completing her startling attire. the girl, in yellow _sarong_ and pink cotton jacket glorified with rubies and pearls, shows her high breeding in slender wrists, delicate hands, and bare feet of exquisite modelling, a red stain of henna drawing attention to their statuesque contour. she staggers beneath a load of impedimenta belonging to her princely father: bags, bundles, and a heavy cloak. javanese parents of exalted rank treat their daughters with disdain, the approved discipline of family life consisting in stamping an impression of abject insignificance deeply on the plastic mind of girlhood. fertile plain and wooded slopes are alike destitute of domestic animals. the sheep was unknown to native races in this pastureless land, and, though introduced by the earliest colonists, is still spoken of as "the dutch goat," no other term existing for it in malay parlance. monkeys chatter and rustle in forest trees, gorgeous birds flit past on jewelled wings, and frogs in this rainy season make a deep booming like the tuning of numerous violoncellos. at length the little town of garoet appears in a green valley, encircled by a diadem of peaks which suggest a tropical engadine. volcanic mountains replace alpine crests, but the white battlements of papandayang's smoking crater give the effect of distant snow, and the dark pines of the swiss valley are merely translated into the lustrous green of crowding palms. brawling river, rustic bridge, and brown hamlets foster the strange illusion, and if it be true that somewhere in the wide world every face finds a counterpart, natural scenery may be subject to an identical law, and various ice-bound landscapes be mirrored under southern skies in pictures wreathed with palm-fronds and tropic flowers. the hotel rupert, garlanded with creepers, the open lattices trellised with ivy and roses, shows a more poetic aspect than any hostelry of the distant engadine. our hostess is the widow of a german physician, and her fair young daughter, alert and capable as the typical _hausfrau_ of her native land, has established a reputation for supplying the guests with the home comforts and restful atmosphere which make the hotel rupert an ideal abiding-place in stagnant java, where as a rule the sole luxuries are out-of-doors, and of nature's providing. that the dutchman flourishes on his diet of tinned meat, his appalling rice-table, and the extraordinary sequence of dishes which probably belonged to the early days of colonisation, either proves herculean strength or the triumph of mind over matter, but to those of less heroic mould the unwonted amenities of a more familiar civilisation are welcome as a green oasis in a sandy desert. a cool and healthy mountain climate gives unwonted zest for the lovely excursions of which garoet is the centre. from the little lake setoe bajendit, a covered raft plies to a cupola-crowned hill, facing a noble panorama of volcanic peaks the soendanese _désa_ of basket-work huts, through which we pass, presents a curious spectacle, with the village street lined on either side by rows of kneeling children, clad in dame nature's brown suit alone; each little figure holding up a long-stemmed flower--red hybiscus, creamy tuberose, or snowy gardenia--the imploring faces raised in silent entreaty to the white strangers for the infinitesimal coins which suffice to purchase a sheaf of blossom. changing lights and shadows sweep across the glancing emerald of the rice-filled vale, darken the purple rifts of mountain gorges, or intensify the luminous azure of soaring crests. wayside fruit-stalls make gay patches of colour among green piles of banana leaves, and thin yellow strips of bamboo, the approved paper and string of the tropics, in which every parcel is packed. tall sugar-cane and plumy maize surround each brown _désa_ beneath the knot of palms, and fields of tapioca vary the prevailing rice-grounds with sharp-pointed leaves and paler verdure. the entire tapioca crop of java belongs to huntley and palmer, for use in the manufacture of the biscuits which make a valuable supplement to the javanese commissariat, for unlimited rice seldom commends itself to english tastes. hot springs abound in this volcanic soil, and in the "five waters" of tjipanas, each of different temperature, the native finds a panacea wherein he can indulge to his heart's content, the healing springs rushing into stone tanks set in sheds of bamboo. the principal excursion from garoet is to the active crater of the papandayang, a long drive of twelve miles leading to the foot of the volcano. from this point a chair carried by six coolies is required for the steep road, formed by hundreds of moss-grown steps. plantations of coffee, cinchona, and tapioca girdle the lower slopes of the mountain, hedges and thickets of red and purple coleas bordering the primeval jungle of orchid-decked trees on the higher levels, the moss-grown boughs wreathed with epiphytal plants, the trunks covered with branching ferns, and the thick ropes of matted lianas strangling the dense forest in their green embrace. wild oleander mingles rosy blossoms with bushes of living gold like tall growths of double buttercups, and at length the cooler regions show the familiar ferns, violets, and primroses of the temperate zone. the weird silence of the jungle is emphasised by an occasional cry of a wild bird, flitting among the tall tree tops, or the crash of a bough, dragged down by the weight of some climbing rattan. a walk up a boulder-strewn slope reaches the old crater, or solfatara, almost surrounded by steep walls of rock. boiling and wheezing springs, fast-forming sulphur columns, and clouds of choking steam, rise from the yellow and orange-powdered earth. a deafening noise issues from the self-building architecture of ruddy pillars, the bubbling of boiling mud, and the shrill spouting of hot vapours from narrow orifices in the trembling crust of the fire-charged earth. golden sulphur-pools shower burning drops on every side, and from the mysterious _kawa_ or crater, echoes of subterranean thunder sound at intervals, from the traditional forge where native legends assert that a chained giant is condemned to work eternally in the service of the evil one. at night the broad verandah of the hotel rupert is transformed into a stage for a performance of the _topeng_ or national drama, chartered by an american guest. the weird spectacle, accompanied by the _gamelon_ music, transports us to the days of old-world java, story and performance being of ancient origin and religious signification. the subjects of the _topeng_ are derived from the panji group of dramatic poems, the ancient costumes, the curious masks, and the office of the _dalang_ or reciter, whose ventriloquial skill is required for the entire wording of the _libretto_, comprise a valuable memento of bygone days, otherwise entirely forgotten. the _wayang-wayang_ or "shadow dance" of puppets, vies with the _topeng_ in popularity, but the latter ranks as classic and lyrical drama. a graceful girl in pink, with floating scarf, and gleaming _kris_ in her spangled sash, exhibits wonderful skill in the supple play of wrist and fingers, through the process known as devitalization, a form of drill which gives to the arm a plastic power of detached movement, fascinating but uncanny. the dusky garden is filled with a native crowd, moved alternately to tears and laughter by exploits unintelligible to the european spectator, for the story of every national hero is known to the poorest and most ignorant of the people, from perpetual attendance on theatrical performances. the _al fresco_ entertainments necessitated by the climate provide exceptional opportunities of dramatic education in the legends of java's heroic age. the spacious verandahs gleaming with the soft light of chinese lanterns, and set in depths of shadow, the scented gloom of the tropical night veiling the dusky lawns, crowded with mysterious figures drawn by the weird music from every quarter, the brilliant robes and grotesque masks of the actors, compose a picture of archaic charm. passers-by pause on their way to look, and listen with unwearied interest to the oft-told tales, for the stories of the world's childhood, like the fairy lore of our own early days, deepen their significance to the untaught mind by perpetual repetition. the hindu cloudland which veils the javanese past "was reached by a ladder of realities," for the exploits of gods and mythical heroes were afterwards attributed to native rulers, until the medley of truth and fiction, history and mythology, became an inextricable tangle. the birds' beaks, and hooked noses of the masks in the _topeng_, and of the puppets in the shadow-play, were made compulsory after the arabic conquest, in order to reconcile the national pastime with the creed of islam, which forbade the dramatic representation of the human form. the reigning _susunhan_ evaded the decree by distorting mask and puppet, but although the outside world might no longer recognise the heroes of the play, javanese knowledge of national tradition easily pierced the flimsy disguise, and credited their deified heroes with a new power of metamorphosis. the fantastic play lasts so far into the night that the prolonged _libretto_ is brought to a summary conclusion by the hostess, since european nature can stand no more, though the rapt attention of the malay would continue till morning. the satiety of modern days has never touched these simple minds, and an entire absence of that critical element which disintegrates so many of life's simple joys, ministers to the supreme satisfaction derived from the crude ideals of native drama. silently the brown spectators slip away like shadows from the dim and dewy garden, for the simple and untaught malay, though eagerly welcoming the privileges permitted to him, never encroaches upon them, and the conduct of these eastern playgoers affords an example of order and sobriety which shames many an audience of higher education and social superiority in distant europe. djokjacarta. a long day's journey lies between garoet and djokjacarta, which popular parlance abbreviates into djokja. from the blue preanger hills and palm-shadowed upland plains, the railway descends by steep gradients to the dense jungle and fever-laden swamp known as the terra ingrata. malarious mists steam from marsh and mere, pink and purple lantana, yellow daisies, and the pallid blossoms of strangling creepers emphasise the gloom of the matted foliage, forming an impenetrable screen on either side of the narrow embankment across the dreary morass. the railway through the hundred miles of this miasma-haunted region was laid at immense sacrifice of human life, even the native workmen being compelled to sleep in camps far away from the scene of their daily toil. no white man could even direct the work, and the ubiquitous chinaman, proof against every ill that flesh is heir to in java, was deputed to superintend the solution of abstruse professional problems, between the short and hasty visits of dutch and english engineers. quagmire and quicksand, stagnant pool and sluggish stream, succeed in weary iteration. bleached skeletons of dead trees writhe in weird contortions against the dark background of jungle, as though some wizard's curse had blighted life and growth amid the rank vegetation rising from this dismal slough of despond. the brooding melancholy of atmosphere and scenery penetrates mind and soul, oppressed by an intangible weight, and escape from the dantesque horrors of this _selva oscura_ is accompanied by a sudden relief and buoyancy of spirit which perceptibly heightens the interest of the old-world city, once isolated by the woodland fastness of nature, and belonging to an ageless past, surrounding the authentic origin of djokjacarta with thick clouds of fable and myth. the modern name is derived from arjudja, a city recorded in java's ancient annals as being established by rama, the incarnate sun-god. na-yud-ja, the first king of this divinely-founded capital, also memorialises in his name the place which became the nucleus of the ancient hindu empire. temples and palaces, walls and watch-towers, ruined by earthquake, buried in jungle, and blackened by smoke of war, testify to the splendours of old mataram. a bitter resistance was offered by the invading hordes of islam, whether pirates or prophets, princes or soldiers, and the hindu territory remained independent until the fierce conflict in the 18th century with usurping mohammedans and dutch colonists, when family influence was undermined by political intrigues. the dutch, after many vicissitudes, became absolute rulers of java, though native princes, as tributaries, were suffered to retain a semblance of sovereignty. the shadowy paraphernalia of vanished power is still accorded to the sultan of djokjacarta, in melancholy travesty of past authority, though every hereditary privilege has been wrested from his grasp. a curious relic of primitive days remains in the _al fresco_ throne of judgment, a block of stone beneath a rudely-tiled canopy, moss-grown and hoary. two ancient waringen-trees, their aerial roots, drooping branches, and colossal main trunks denoting an almost fabulous age, flank the historic seat, where the turbaned ruler administered justice to the surging crowd which thronged around him, the indigo garb of the soendanese contrasting with the gay _sarongs_ of central java, glowing in the hot sunlight as it poured through the dark trellis of fluttering boughs. the city in the course of ages moved away from this ancient centre, and the rustic throne is now remote from the heart of civic life. the streets of djokjacarta, and the surrounding roads, consist of shady avenues, where open _tokos_ (the native shops) vary the monotony of dutch villas, their white colonnades and porticos gleaming against the background of stately trees, and rising from a mass of tropical vegetation. the prevailing indigo of soendanese dress gives a dull aspect to the wide but squalid streets, for in native capitals, though dutch cleanliness may enforce perpetual "tidying up," the lacking sense of order produces a strange impermanence in the conditions insisted upon. the inner court of the sultan's kraton, or royal enclosure, is now taboo to visitors, for the barbaric monarch, on the plea of age and infirmity, has obtained the privilege of privacy, and the palace can only be seen through a personal interview. the outer courts are accessible to carriages, which make the square-mile circuit of the spacious quadrangles. massive gates and crumbling machicolated walls command a green plain, where immense waringen-trees, clipped into the semblance of evergreen umbrellas, display the eastern symbol of sovereignty. officials passing to and fro show a continuous procession of these state _pajongs_. the sultan's august head is canopied with gold, edged by an orange stripe, the crown prince sporting an umbrella with a golden border. sultanas and royal children are known by white _pajongs_, while the vast concourse of court officials, with umbrellas of pink, blue, red, black, purple and green, show their status to the initiated eye through the sequence of colour by which the _pajongs_ form a complete system of heraldry. in the dusky angle of a mossy wall, four elephants, used in state processions, feed upon bundles of bamboo and sugar-cane. mud huts and bamboo sheds prop themselves against tiled eaves and windowless houses. open doors afford glimpses of squalid interiors, crowded with slatternly women and dirty children, the hereditary retainers and hangers-on of this effete and moribund royalty. private troupes of dancing _bedayas_, _gamelon_ players, actors, pipe, fan, and betel-box bearers, pertain to the tumbledown palace, and the patriarchal system of ancient java permits the presence of whole families belonging to these indispensable ministers of the royal pleasure. the people show the same indifference to mohammedanism as to the perished faiths of olden time, and a large funeral party encountered on leaving the kraton displays painful irreverence, though scattering rice and lighting incense sticks before a white coffin borne shoulder-high, and decked with a tracery of yellow marigolds and rosettes of pink paper. no priest accompanies the procession, and the laughter of the white-scarved mourners, preceded by men carrying ropes and planks, suggests an utter heartlessness and barbarity. gay _passers_, a busy _campong tchina_, a very hive of celestial industry, and innumerable drives beneath over-arching trees, with distant views of purple peaks, comprise the interests of old-world djokja, with the one exception of the famous taman sarie, or water castle, ruined by earthquake, but remaining as a pathetic memorial of bygone power and pride. pavilions and baths, grottoes and fish-ponds, set in the tangled verdure of a neglected garden, surround the arcaded parapets of a colossal tower. green plumes of fern wave from wall and battlement, velvet moss and orange lichen tapestry the blackened stone, and matted creepers sway their woven curtains in the evening wind. a dancing hall, which formerly rang with the weird music accompanying the "woven paces and waving hands" of court _bedayas_, in their spangled pink robes, now echoes to the tread of alien feet; the dim arcades teem with ghostly memories, and the mournful desolation of the taman sarie borrows fresh poignancy in the former scene of mirth and music. a moss-grown and slippery stairway leads to the green twilight of a subterranean grotto, containing the richly-carved stone bedstead of the sultan, who sought this cool retreat from the ardour of a tropical sun. a silvery curtain of murmuring water fell before his sculptured couch, and supplied this haunt of dreams with an ideal, if rheumatic environment of poetic beauty and lulling charm. superstition clings to the deserted resting-place, and to touch even the stone columns of the royal couch is to invoke the powers of evil, and the presence of death. the _sumoor gamelon_, or "musical spring," echoing with the voice of flowing waters, flanks the ancient banqueting hall, and cools a circle of vaulted grottoes, their shadowy depths bathed in the emerald twilight, deepened by the veil of verdure and the transparent foliage drooping over open window spaces. the sultan's oval bathing tank, with stone galleries and spiral pavilions, occupies a hollow tower, but a touch of young life dispels the gloom, for a group of brown children swim and dive in the cool depths, shouting and splashing with a merriment unsubdued by the solemn sadness of the deserted halls. a portuguese architect designed this fantastic retreat for an old-time sultan, who brought the idea of the water castle from a far-off indian home. the earthquake of 1867 rendered the taman sarie uninhabitable, choked the lake in which it stood, and destroyed the subaqueous tunnel which ensured the absolute seclusion of sultan and harem. the famous marshal daendels, weary of waiting for an interview with a dilatory sultan, yielded to natural impatience, and hearing the sound of distant music from the watery depths, dashed through the thicket of tamarinds which concealed the entrance to the water pavilion, and, dragging the sultan from the place of dreams, scattered _bedayas_ and _gamelon_ players in terror, forcing the so-called "regent of the world" and "shadow of the almighty" to accompany him to the dutch headquarters. rose garden and shrubbery, palm grove and pleasaunce, are fast relapsing into impenetrable jungle. broken fountains, and mouldering vases once filled with orange-trees, outline the balustraded terraces; gilt pavilions lift their upcurved eaves above a wild growth of oleander, but the enchanted scene of old romance is given up to bats and lizards, for the crumbling taman sarie is now a fast-vanishing monument of java's buried past. the number of _rechas_, or sacred stone figures of brahmin and buddhist origin, in the garden of the dutch residency, shows the scant care bestowed on the ancient temples, for years used as mere quarries of broken statuary, and still receiving inadequate recognition as historical remains, though sir stamford raffles a century ago realised the supreme importance of javanese sculpture as an indispensable link in archæological science. djokjacarta, interesting in itself as the survival of an ancient dynasty, borrows double attraction from the architectural wonders which surround it, buried for ages in the deep green grave of tropical vegetation, but now laid bare as an open book, wherein we may read those graven records which unveil the mysteries of the past, and enable us to gaze down the long vista of time and change. boro-boedoer. the archæological interest of java culminates in the mysterious temple known as boro-boedoer, "the aged thing," with an actual history lost in mist and shadow, though recorded in imperishable characters on this spellbound sanctuary of a departed faith. the little tramway from djokjacarta traverses fields of rice and sugar-cane, indigo and pepper; a range of dreamlike mountains bounds the view, crowned by the turquoise cone of soemboeung, the traditional centre of java, a green knoll at the base of the volcanic pyramid being regarded as the "spike" which fastens the floating isle to some solid rock in unfathomed depths of ocean. the fitful fancy of a wandering race, ever drifting across the changing seas, reflects itself in the legendary lore of the malay archipelago, often represented by weird traditions as though in perpetual motion. the vicissitudes of volcanic action, whereby islands were sometimes submerged or created, gives a colouring of fact to the vague ideas entertained by these nomads of the sea. merbaboe, the "ash-ejecting," and merapi, the "fire-throwing," flank the loftier crest, honeycombed with dim cave temples, now deserted and forgotten, but formerly sanctifying those watch-towers of nature which guard the hoary shrine of boro-boedoer. at matoelan we hear that the swift river separating the great temple from the secular world is in flood, the bridge broken down, and the supplementary raft impossible through the swirling current. this untoward event involves a further expedition to magelang, a sordid town of continuous markets, the javanese population being of pronounced hindu type, silent and sad, according to the idiosyncracy of their mysterious ancestors across the sea. the conversational difficulties presented by the dutch and malay languages, combined with the incapacity of our brown driver, eventually land us at mendoet, on the wrong side of the turbid stream--the jordan which divides the weary traveller from his land of promise. evening draws on, the clear sky flushes pink above the darkness of the palm-woods, and hope sinks apace, for the surging flood shows no sign of abatement. suddenly the apathetic driver rouses himself from what proves a profitable meditation, and, with folded hands, breathes the magic word _pasteur_, whipping up his sorry steeds to fresh exertions. we draw up at a white bungalow on the roadside, close to a rustic church, and find a friend in an english-speaking dutch priest, who, after giving us tea on his verandah, suggests inspection of mendoet's little moated temple, on the edge of the forest. an ever-growing tangle of lianas and vines buried this ancient shrine through the lapse of ages, until accident revealed the entombed sanctuary about eighty years ago. a processional terrace surrounds the walled pavement supporting the grey edifice, and the sculptured bas-reliefs denote the transitional stage of buddhist faith, as it materialised through jainism into the puranic mythology of hindu creed. the central chapel contains the famous picture in stone known as "the tree of knowledge," and represents the buddha beneath the sacred bo-tree of gaya. a fluted _pajong_, propped against the boughs, canopies his head, one hand being raised in benediction over kneeling converts, offering rice and incense. listening angels hover overhead, birds peep out from nests among the leaves, and kids lean with necks outstretched over fretted crags, magnetised by the mystic attraction of the inspired teacher. long-eared statues show nepalese influence, even the buddhist images being girt with the sacred cord of brahma. a controversy exists as to their identification with the hindu trinity, but as eastern cults frequently bestow divine attributes on mortals, the mysterious figures may possibly represent the murdered wives of the rajah who founded the mendoet temple in expiation of his crime. another legend suggests the petrification of a princely family, as a punishment for marrying within the forbidden degrees, but myth grows apace in this haunted land, and every century offers fresh variations of old-world stories, until original form is lost beneath a weight of accretion, like the thick moss blurring the chiselled outlines of some carven monument. after careful scrutiny of the miniature temple which suggests so many interpretations of symbolic imagery, we return to the little presbytery to hear of the subsiding river, and the good priest, announcing that the raft can now be safely negotiated, accompanies us to the tottering structure, a straw matting laid over three crazy boats punted across the turbulent stream. a half-hour's stroll beneath the arching boughs of a kanari avenue, ends at a picturesque rest house, facing the temple-crowned hill. surely we have reached the peace and silence of nirvana at last! and the exquisite beauty of the surrounding landscape, mountain and forest, park-like valley and winding glen, transfigured in the deepening gold of sunset, stamps an ineffaceable impression of boro-boedoer in that mystic gallery of imagination and memory which retains earth's fairest scenes as eternal possessions of mind and soul. a shadowy garden, fragrant and dim, stretches up to the pyramidal pile which covers the hill. a frangipanni grove scents the air, with gold-starred blossoms gleaming whitely amid the silvery green of lanceolated leaves, and a shaft of ruby light striking the stone buddhas which guard the portico, emphasises the inscrutable smile of the tranquil faces. like all stupendous monuments of art or nature, boro-boedoer at first sight seems a disappointment, simply because the mind fails to grasp the immensity of the noblest temple ever dedicated to the gentle sage whose renunciation typified the greater sacrifice offered by the saviour of the world. who that reads the story of sakya munyi can doubt that through the prince who gave up kingdom, throne, and earthly ties for the sake of downtrodden humanity, a prophetic gleam of heavenly light pierced the darkness of the future, and pointed to the distant cross? twenty-five centuries have rolled away since prince siddartha closed his unique career, and twelve centuries later the wondrous sanctuary of boro-boedoer was erected in honour of the creed eternally dear to the heart of the mystic east. the eight stately terraces which climb and encircle the sacred hill rise from a spacious pavement of blackened stone, and the walled processional paths display a superb series of sculptured reliefs, which would measure three miles in length if placed side by side. the grey and black ruins, with their rich incrustations of sacred and historic scenes, remain in such splendid preservation that fancy easily reconstructs the bygone glory of the golden age, when this mighty altar of faith witnessed the glittering pageantry of oriental devotion; when gaily-clad crowds flocked to the morning sacrifice of flowers and music, while monarchs brought their treasures from far-off lands to lay at the feet of the mystic sage, prophetically revealed as an incarnation of purity and peace vouchsafed to a world of oppression and sorrow. life-size buddhas, enthroned on the sacred lotus, rise above the crumbling altars of five hundred arcaded shrines, and stone stairways ascend from every side, beneath sharply-curved arches bordered with masks or gargoyles. the last three terraces form sweeping circles, flanked by bell-shaped _dagobas_ resembling gigantic lotus-buds. each open lattice of hoary stone reveals an enthroned buddha, mysteriously enclosed in his symbolical screen, for these triple terraces typify the higher circles of nirvana. each dreamy face turns towards the supreme shrine of the glorious sanctuary, a domed _dagoba_ fifty feet high, and once containing some authentic relic of the buddha's sacred person. certain archæologists recognise in this spire-tipped cupola a survival of nature-worship, incorporated with the later buddhism in a form derived from the tree temples of primeval days, and built over a receptacle for the cremated ashes of the buddhist priesthood. a touch of mysticism added by an unfinished statue in the gloom of the shadowy vault, suggests the unknown beauty of the soul which attains nirvana's supremest height, for the supernal exaltation of purified humanity to divine union may not be interpreted or expressed by mortal hands, but must for ever remain incommunicable and incomprehensible. from the central _dagoba_, ascended by a winding stair, the intricate design of the spacious sanctuary discloses itself with mathematical precision, and the changing glories of dawn, sunset, and moonlight idealize the sacred hill, rising amid the palm-groves and rice-fields of a matchless valley, sweeping away in green undulations which break like emerald waves against the deepening azure and amethyst of the mountain heights. the solemn grandeur of boro-boedoer blinds the casual observer to many details which manifest the ravages of time, the ruthlessness of war, and the decay of a discarded creed. headless and overthrown figures, broken _tees_, mutilated carvings, and shattered chapels abound, but the vast display of architectural features still intact conveys an impression of permanence rather than of ruin. for six centuries, boro-boedoer was blotted from the memory of the people, and the heavy pall of tropical verdure which veiled the vast temple remained unlifted. superincumbent masses of trees, parasites, and strangling creepers wove their intricate network of root, branch, and stem round the monumental record of a dead faith and a buried dynasty. the riotous luxuriance of tropical nature triumphed over the glories of art, hewn with incalculable toil and skill in the living rock. seeds borne on the wind, or sown by wandering birds, filled every interstice of the closely-matted verdure; stair and terrace, dome and spire, sank out of sight into the forest depths, and when english engineers arrived to excavate the monumental pile, the task of clearing away the tangled masses of foliage occupied two hundred coolies during six weeks of arduous toil. the brief english occupation of the island necessarily left the work unfinished, but dutch archæologists continued the labour, though with slower methods and feebler grasp of the situation. a transient cult sprang up among the javanese populace as the ancient sanctuary revealed itself anew. the statues were invoked with reverential awe, incense was offered; the saffron, used as a personal decoration on festive occasions, was smeared over the impassive faces, unchanged in the eternal calm of a thousand years, and fragrant flower petals were heaped on the myriad altars. vigils were kept on the summit, and the sick were laid at the feet of favourite images. this spurious devotion, hereditary or instinctive, sprang up in responsive hearts with simultaneous fervour, though the forgotten doctrines of buddhism were never reinstated. sentiment survived dogma in the subconscious soul, and the faint shadow cast by an immemorial past indicates the depths plumbed by the early creed in the abyss of eastern personality. the vague simulacrum quickly faded, like a flickering flame in the wind which fanned it into life; but simple souls, as they pass boro-boedoer in the brief twilight, mutter incantations, and brown hands grasp the silver amulets which ward off the powers of evil, for the deserted temple is still regarded as the haunt of unknown gods, who may perchance wreak vengeance on the world which has forsaken them. the long scroll of ancient history, unrolled by the sculptured terraces, represents the birth, growth, and development of buddhist faith. queen maya, jewelled and flower-crowned, with the miraculous babe on her knee, sits among her maidens, the earth breaking into blossom at the advent of her star-born child. his education in the mental and physical achievements imperative on eastern royalty, when the sword-pierced heart of the mother who typified the virgin queen of saints was translated to nirvana's rest, is contrasted with the sudden realisation of life's vanity when brought face to face with the world's threefold burden of sorrow, sickness and death. the renunciation of power, wealth and love follows, liberating the soul for the pilgrimage along the mystic "path," pursued until "the dew-drop fell into the shining sea" of eternity. the manifold details of the buddha's traditional career are vividly pourtrayed on the hoary walls of volcanic trachyte in outline clear and sharp, as though the sculptors of the eighth century had just laid down burin and chisel. the indented leaves of the bo-tree, beneath which the sage meditates, are so exquisitely carved that they almost seem to flutter in the breeze. the scene of the deer-park wherein he judges beasts and men, carefully weighing the tiniest birds in the balance of the sanctuary, suggests a prophetic vision of the greater saviour, who declared that even the humble sparrow is remembered by the creator. countless scriptural truths throw their anticipatory shadows across the life of the eastern mystic who approached so closely to the christian ideal of a later age, for the buddha's spiritual experiences became the inspiration of unnumbered hearts, and exercised a purifying influence over every creed of the philosophic east. the social life of ancient java, comprising public ceremonials, domestic occupations, architecture, agriculture, navigation, drama and music, is memorialised by succeeding terraces of the igneous rock which sufficed for the old-world sculptor as the medium of his art. an unknown king and queen, the traditional founders of boro-boedoer, appear in varied guise, throned and crowned, walking in religious processions beneath state _pajongs_, kneeling before buddha with open caskets of treasure, and receiving the homage of the people, accompanied by bearers of smoking censers and waving fans. armed warriors guard the jewelled thrones, and the popular attitude in every scene of the royal progress evidences the semi-sacred character awarded to indian sovereignty. the eighth century a.d. was the meridian of the javanese empire, and in the subsequent changes of nationality the facial type of the past has altered beyond recognition, for in the ancient civilisation depicted on these sculptured terraces, archæologists assert that every physiognomy is either of hindu or hellenic character. ships of archaic form, with banks of rowers; palm-thatched huts built on piles, in the unchanging fashion of the malay races; graceful _bedayas_, the nautch girls of java, performing the old-world dances still in vogue; and women with _lotahs_ on their heads, passing in single file to palm-fringed tanks, might be represented with equal truth in this twentieth century. seedtime and harvest, ploughing and reaping, bullock-carts and water-buffaloes, fruit-laden wagons and village _passers_, pass in turn before the spectator in this wondrous gallery of native art. richly-caparisoned elephants suggest indian accessories of royal life and state ceremonial, an occasional touch of humour enlivening the solemn pageantry. in one grotesque relief a _bedaya_ and an elephant stand _vis-a-vis_, the ponderous monster imitating the steps of the slim maiden in floating veil and embroidered robes, her slender limbs contrasting with the outflung feet of her clumsy partner. weird myths of the great fishes which guided and propelled the coracle-like boats of the first buddhist missionaries to the shores of java are perpetuated in stone, and the forest, sloping down to the wave-beaten coast, shows the rich vegetation which still clothes this island of eternal summer. the _sumboya_ or flower of the dead, droops over stately tombs; bamboo and palm, banana and bread-fruit, mingle their varied foliage; mangosteen and pomegranate, mango and tamarind, acacia and peepul, show themselves as indigenous growths of the fertile soil; while palace and temple, carven stairway, and flower-girt pavilion, suggest the wealth and prosperity of the ancient empire. the mighty temple of boro-boedoer, built up through successive ages, indicates the gradual change from the simplicity of the early faith, at first supplanting, and eventually becoming incorporated with, the brahminism which succeeded it in modified form, as though rising from the ashes of the earlier hindu creed which buddhism virtually destroyed. in the higher terrace, the last addition to this stupendous sanctuary, the images of buddha represent the ninth _avatar_ or incarnation of the god vishnu, though he still sits upon the lotus cushion and holds the sacred flower in one hand. this inclusion of sakya munyi within the puranic pantheon was a masterly feat of strategy accomplished by reviving brahminism, the heresy of the jains supplying the link between the rival creeds. all the sculptured figures, leaning forward in veneration of the mystic statue in the central cupola, are invested with the sacred thread of the vishnavite brahmin. the images of the highest circular terrace are carved in four symbolical attitudes. the "teaching" buddha rests an open palm on one knee; in the posture of "learning" his hands are outstretched to receive the gift of knowledge. in "exposition," one hand is raised towards heaven, and in the act of "demonstration," thumbs and index fingers are joined. ferguson points out that within the grey lattice of each lotus-bell _dagoba_, the right palm of the enthroned buddha curves over the left hand. this restful posture indicates the state of final comprehension, when the aspiring soul, raised to the different spheres of nirvana by steps of ascending sanctity, receives increasing peace and satisfaction from gradual absorption into the infinite. no creed passes unaltered through any crucible of national thought; indian buddhism borrowed both form and colour from races which, in accepting the new faith, retained their own individuality and modes of assimilation. they gave as well as received, and the value of the gift depended on the character of the giver. no inscriptions exist on the stones of boro-boedoer. the sculptured reliefs tell their own story, which admits of diverse interpretations. the relics of the world-renowned mystic were dispersed throughout asia in the sudden impulse of missionary enterprise three centuries after his death, and every buddhist temple received some infinitesimal treasure. no record is found of the date when the precious relic, probably a hair or an eyelash, was deposited in the great _dagoba_ of boro-boedoer, but an indian prince sailed with an imposing fleet to found a buddhist empire in java at the opening of the 7th century a.d., and a subsequent inscription discovered on the coast of sumatra commemorates the completion of a seven-storeyed _vihara_, evidently the colossal temple of boro-boedoer, by the contemporary king of "greater java," the ancient name of sumatra. in the tenth century, a reigning monarch sent his sons to india for religious education. they brought back in their train artists, sculptors, monks, priests, and the gorgeous paraphernalia then used in the ceremonial of buddhist worship, but the heart of the ancient faith was atrophied by the indifference of the people, and the zealous attempt to galvanise a moribund creed into fresh life failed even to arrest the progress of decay. national thought, fickle as the wind, had turned from an impersonal philosophy to the materialistic cult of hindu deities, as the israelites of old hankered after the visible symbol of isis and osiris in the golden calf. no definite creed succeeded in gaining a permanent hold upon the wandering minds and shallow feelings of a race whose deepest instincts reveal the fleeting fancies and inconstant ideas indigenous to a sea-faring stock, imbued with the spirit of change and unrest. a magical charm broods over the mysterious temple, the materialised dream of a mighty past rescued from the sylvan sepulchre of equatorial vegetation, and restored to a vivid reality beside which the paintings of egyptian tombs sink into comparative insignificance. the seclusion of the memory-haunted pile enhances the thrill of an unique experience. vista after vista opens into the world of long ago so graphically depicted on the monumental tablets of the processional paths, while type and symbol point also to the infinite future intensely realised by eastern mysticism. mortal life was but a fleeting mirage besides this vision of the life beyond. for the words "_shadow_, _unreality_, _illusion_," perpetually repeated by the yellow-robed monks on the beads of the buddhist rosary were inscribed on the inmost heart of the faithful disciple, who strove to attain that detachment from the world of sense inculcated by the creed expressed on the hoary stones of boro-boedoer. brambanam. the ruined temples of brambanam memorialise that phase of java's religious history, when the altars of buddha were finally deserted, and hinduism became the paramount creed of the fickle populace. an archæological report sent to sir stamford raffles a century ago, describes the remains of brambanam as "stupendous monuments of the science and taste belonging to a long-forgotten age, crowded together in the former centre of hindu faith." a rough country road leads from the little white railway station, perched on a desolate plain, to these far-famed temples. a brown village, shaded by the dark foliage of colossal kanari-trees, shows the usual fragility of structure in basket-work walls and roofs of plaited palm-leaves, but the humble dwellings, destroyed and rebuilt myriad times on the ancient site of java's hindu capital, have supplemented native workmanship by a multitude of carven stones, broken statues, and moss-grown reliefs, for the ruins, theoretically guarded from the spoiler's hand, are still inadequately protected, and the grey _recha_ have been used as seats, landmarks, or stepping-stones over muddy lane and brimming water-course. the conversion of java to the materialistic creed for which she forsook the subtleties of an impersonal buddhism, though shallow was complete, and the doctrine of impermanence, inculcated by the discarded faith, continued an essential factor in spiritual development, for the inconstancy of the national mind only found a temporary halting-place in each successive creed which arrested it. the seed was sown, the bud opened, and the flower faded, with incredible rapidity, but the growth while it lasted, showed phenomenal luxuriance. the erection of these hindu sanctuaries signalised the zenith of javanese power; their fame travelled across the seas, and numerous expeditions sailed for this early el dorado of the southern ocean. kublai khan came with his mongol fleet, but was repulsed with loss, and branded as a felon. a second and stronger attempt from the same quarter met with absolute defeat. marco polo, compelled to wait through the rainy season in sumatra for a favourable wind, came hither in the palmy days of mediæval portugal, but returned discomfited. goths from the northern bounds of thuringian pine forests followed in their turn, but the power and prestige of hindu java remained invincible until destroyed by the wayward fickleness of her own children. brahminism was finally discarded for the specious promises of arabian invaders, and the lightly-held faith succumbed to the creed of islam. mosques were built, hindu temples were forsaken, and nature's veil of vegetation was once more suffered to hide altar and statue, wall and stairway, until every sculptured shrine became a mere green mound of waving trees, strangling creepers, and plumy ferns. the memory of the past was entirely obliterated from the hearts of the people, and every year buried the relics of the former religion in a deeper grave. siva the destroyer, and also the life-giver, the third person of the hindu trinity, together with parvati and brahma, were worshipped here in their original character, and an exquisite statue of lora jonggran (parvati in her javanese guise) remains enshrined in a richly-decorated chapel, surrounded by dancing houris, inspired in their sacred measure by the flute-playing of krishna. a further instance of the mode already mentioned by which sentiment survives dogma in the malay races, is shown by the fact that lora jonggran still receives the homage of javanese women. flowers are laid at her feet, love affairs are confided to her advocacy, and as the shadows deepen across the great quadrangle, a weeping girl prostrates herself before the smiling goddess, and, raising brown arms in earnest supplication, kisses the stone slab at the feet of the beautiful statue, popularly endowed with some occult virtue which the loosely-held mohammedanism of a later day has failed to discredit or deny. the temples of brambanam were erected shortly after the completion of that upper terrace in the great sanctuary of boro-boedoer which marks the traditional epoch between buddhism and the later hinduism, including sakya munyi among the _avatars_ of vishnu. the sacred trees and lions carved here on the walls of the temple quadrangle, give place in the galleries to scenes from the great hindu epic of the ramayan. the familiar form of ganesh, the elephant-headed god of wisdom, looms from the shadows of a vaulted shrine; nandi, the sacred bull, stands beneath a carven canopy, and the great memorial of a bygone faith contains the identical galaxy of gods found in the indian temples of the present day, for the thin veil of javanese thought is a transparency rather than a disguise, softening rather than hiding the clear-cut outlines of the original idea. the "fatal beauty" of the graceful waringen-tree has played an ominous part in the destruction of the brambanam temples, for the interlacing roots, like a network of branching veins, make their devious way through crevice and cranny, splitting and uplifting the strongest slab, wherein one tiny crack suffices for the string-like fibres to gain foothold. masks and arabesques, fruit and flowers, fabulous monsters and sacred emblems, encrust the grey balustrades and bas-reliefs of the noble stairways. roof and column teem with richest ornament, for hindu art had reached the climax of splendour when the great city, formerly surrounding the monumental group of stately temples, attained to her utmost power and fame. the greek influences which prevailed in northern hindustan were translated to brambanam in their attributes of dignity and grace, for the flowing robes and easy postures of the sculptured figures correct and modify the grotesque and over-laden character of original hindu art. the great stone-paved court once contained an imposing group of twenty pyramidal shrines, but only three remain in the original contour of the so-called "pagoda style," peculiar to the dravidian temples of southern india, from whence java derived her special form of faith. the ruins on the opposite side of the grey quadrangle are mere cone-shaped piles of rubbish, dust, and broken stone, but the tapering pyramids, with their graceful galleries and processional terraces, richly carved and adorned with images, enable us to reconstruct in imagination the stately beauty of the architectural panorama once displayed by the temple courts. scenes from the ramayan and mahabharata adorn the great blocks of the boundary wall, sculptured in high relief. the vedic powers of nature, with indra as the god of storm and hurricane, manifest the recognition of that earlier belief which became submerged in the vast system of pantheistic mythology. the faith of further india takes form and colour from the idiosyncracy of java, and the goddess parvati, or kali, worshipped under these different names according to her attributes of glory or terror, becomes lora jonggran, the benignant goddess of java, popularly known as "the maiden of the beauteous form." four lofty stairways ascend to the hoary chapels within each sculptured pyramid, every dusky vault containing the broken image of the tutelary _deva_. only separated from brambanam by a winding path and a green belt of jungle, stands the great buddhist temple of chandi sewon, and the colossal figures flanking the entrance gate indicate a decadent phase of the ancient creed which boro-boedoer illustrates in the purity of earlier developement. chandi sewon, the "thousand temples," includes in the number myriad unimportant shrines, ruined, overthrown, or covered with a green network of interlacing creepers. the great architectural pile, built at a uniform level, surrounds the central sanctuary with five great enclosures. all the ancient faiths of the world contain foreshadowings or reflections of christian truth, and the cruciform temple which forms the climax of this monumental erection shows the mystic value attached to the sacred sign so frequently encountered in buddhist shrines, and known as the _shvastika_. the numerous chapels of chandi sewon contained the galaxy of tirthankas or buddhist saints which the materialism of the jains added to the impersonal subtleties of esoteric buddhism. the blank emptiness and desertion of this vast sanctuary produces an impression of unutterable desolation. the weed-grown courts, the ruined altars, and the moss-blackened arches, encumbered with indistinguishable heaps of shattered sculpture, lack all the reposeful charm of boro-boedoer, still a sermon in stone which he who runs may read. the degenerate creed memorialised by chandi sewon, has failed to impress itself on the colossal pile which bears melancholy witness to the evanescent character of the heretical offshoot from the parent stem. jungle and palm-forest in central java contain innumerable vestiges of pyramidal temples, palaces, and shrines; vaults hidden beneath the shrouding trees have yielded a rich store of gold, silver, and bronze ornaments, household utensils, and armour. for many years the peasants of the region between samarang and boro-boedoer paid their taxes in gold melted from the treasure trove turned up by the plough, or dug from the precincts of some forgotten sanctuary, buried beneath the rank vegetation of the teaming soil. the discarded hindu gods still haunt the forest depths, and the superstitious native, as he threads the dark recesses of the solemn woods, gazes with apprehensive eyes on the trident of siva, or the elephant's trunk of ganesh emerging from the trailing wreaths and matted tapestry of liana and creeper, veiling the blackened stone of each decaying shrine. nature has proved stronger than art or creed, in the eternal growth beneath an equatorial sun, of the kingdom over which she reigns in immortal life. silently and insidiously she undermines man's handiwork, and realisation of his futile conflict with her invincible power enters with disastrous effect into the popular mind, lacking that immutable force without which the spiritual temple of faith rests on a foundation of shifting sand. kawi literature, popularised by translation, and familiar through the medium of national drama, interprets javanese creeds and traditions. this "utterance of poetry" derived from sanskrit, fell into disuse after the mohammedan conquest, though a few arabic words became incorporated into the two-fold language comprising _krama_, the ceremonial speech, and _ngoko_, the speech of "thee and thou," or colloquial form of address. the island of bali, and the slopes of the tengger range, retain a modification of hinduism, and bali treasures a kawi version of the ramayan and mahabharata epics. many inspiring thoughts and noble sentiments, expressed in story and song, have become well-known maxims identified with javanese life. "rob no man of due credit, for the sun, by depriving the moon of her light, adds no lustre to his own." "as the lotus floats in water, the heart rests in a pure body." "ye cannot take riches to the grave, but he who succoureth the poor in this world shall find a better wealth hereafter." a _babad_ or rhythmical ballad of semi-religious character belongs to every province, but though many details of temple worship--buddhist, hindu, and mohammedan--may be gathered from the lengthy scroll, heroic and princely exploits, myths and traditions, encumber the sacred text, which eastern imagination transforms into a fairy tale. creeds lose their chiselled outline, and crumble away in the disintegrating medium of javanese thought, which blends them into each other with changing colour and borrowed light. the inconstant soul of the malay knows nothing of that rigid adherence to some centralising truth which often forms the heart of a living faith, and his religious history is an age-long record of failure, change, desertion, and oblivion, repeated in varying cadences, and inscribed in unmistakeable characters on the ruined sanctuaries of old mataram. sourakarta. the imperial city of sourakarta, commonly abbreviated into "solo," was the hereditary capital of the mohammedan emperors, now mere puppet-princes held in the iron grasp of holland. the present susunhan, descended from both hindu and arab ancestry, maintains a brilliant simulacrum of royal state, and his huge kraton, far surpassing that of djokjacarta, contains 10,000 inhabitants. the pronounced hindu type, though debased and degraded, remains noticeable even amid the all-pervading environment of squalor and disorder, which dims the gorgeous colour and brilliant ceremonial, producing the effect of jewels flung in the dust. a dense throng of brown humanity, clad and unclad, walks to and fro beneath the dusky avenues of feathery tamarinds which shield solo from the ardour of the tropical sun. old crones, with unkempt locks streaming over brown and bony necks, pass by, their wide mouths distorted and discoloured with sucking the scarlet lumps of _sarya_, from which the native derives unfailing consolation, even the javanese girl showing absolute disregard of the disfigurement produced by this favourite stimulant. deep moats, lichen-stained walls, and hoary forts, invest solo with a feudal aspect, and the grim tower of vostenberg menaces the kraton with bristling cannon, reminding the hereditary ruler of his subserviency to modern holland, for only a melancholy illusion of past glory remains to him. the dragon-carved eaves of the chinese quarter, the open _tokos_ beneath waringen boughs, the shadowy _passer_ brightened by mounds of richly-coloured fruits, and the stuccoed palaces of court dignitaries, framed in dark foliage, give character and interest to the city, where the life of the past lingers in a series of street pictures remaining from bygone days of pomp and show. ministers of state walk beneath many-coloured official umbrellas, held by obsequious attendants; graceful _bedayas_, in glittering robes, execute intricate dances, and _gamelon_ players discourse weird music on pipe and drum. court ballet-girls, known as _serimpi_, are borne swiftly through the crowd in gilded litters, and masked actors give _al fresco_ performances of the historic _wayang-wayang_, represented by living persons, for the actual "shadow-play" is impossible in broad daylight. the colour of the mask indicates the character assumed by the actor. the golden mask signifies divinity, heroes wear white, and evil spirits black or red. here, as elsewhere, the profile of the grotesque disguise invariably shows either the greek, or the hawk-nose strangely suggestive of egyptian origin, and which, as a variation on human physiognomy, specially commended itself to mohammedan thought as a skilful evasion of an inconvenient dogma. elsewhere the spirit of concession to alien ideas is almost unknown, even flower and leaf being conventionalised on those architectural monuments of islam which form the supreme expression of mussulman genius. the suppression of national amusements has ever proved a perilous step, and in the heart of this ancient kingdom the original setting of javanese life remained in stereotyped form. the moving panorama of the tree-shadowed streets possesses a strange fascination, and the light of the past lingers like a sunset glow over the human element of the changed and modernised city. the twang of double-stringed lutes, the tinkle of metal tubes, and the elusive melody of silvery gongs, echo from the ages whence dance and song descend as an unchanged inheritance. an itinerant minstrel recites the history of _johar mankain_, the una of java, who shone like a jewel in the world which could not tarnish the purity and devotion of one whose heart entertained no evil thought. in the intricate byways of the crumbling kraton, a professional story-teller draws a squalid crowd of women from their dark hovels and cellars, with the magic wand of enchantment wielded by the reciter of heroic deeds from the _panji_, exaggerated out of all recognition by the addition of fairies and giants, demons and dwarfs, to the simple human element of the original story. the apathy and decay of native life, lacking all the scope and interest common to a strenuous age, appears galvanised into some fleeting semblance of vitality by the extravaganza presented to it, for the language of hyperbole is the natural expression of eastern thought, and penetrates into mental recesses unknown and unexplored by the relater of unvarnished facts. the quick response of the native mind to nature's teaching, and the wealth of tradition woven round flower and tree, mountain and stream, foster the love of marvel and miracle in those whose daily wants are supplied by the prodigality of a tropical climate, for the innate poetry of the race has never been crushed out by the weight of practical necessities. a permit being obtained to view the interior of the susunhan's palace under a dutch escort, we present ourselves at the colonnaded portico, where the prince probolingo, brother of the susunhan, receives his visitors with simple courtesy. this descendant of a hundred kings is simply attired in a dark brown _sarong_ and turban, the _kris_ in his belt of embroidered velvet ablaze with a huge boss of diamonds. attendants, holding state umbrellas over the favoured guests, usher them through marble-paved courts, in one of which a little prince is seated, with furled golden umbrella behind him to denote his rank, a group of royal children playing round him, their lithe brown forms half-hidden in the green shadows of a great tamarind tree. a superb marble ball-room with crystal chandeliers, forms an incongruous modern feature of the spacious palace, but helps to popularise the so-called "nail of the universe" among the european inhabitants of solo, by the splendid entertainments continually given at the imperial command. the porcelain and glass rooms convey an idea of the boundless hospitality bestowed; the thousands of wine-glasses being especially noticeable, for 800 guests are often invited at a time. treasures of linen and costly embroidery, silken hangings and velvet banners, gorgeous carpets and mats of finest texture, are displayed to our admiring eyes, but possession rather than enjoyment is the keynote of eastern character, and the bales and bundles of priceless value, kept in huge cabinets of fragrant cedar-wood, seldom see the light of day. long counting-houses are crowded with native scribes, their brown bodies naked except for _sarong_ and _kris_, the perpetual rattle of the abacus making a deafening din, for apparently the smallest sum cannot be added up under eastern skies without the assistance of this wire frame with the ever-shifting marbles. cramped fingers move wearily over the yellow parchments, with their long lists of undecipherable hieroglyphics, and the turbaned heads are scarcely raised until the entrance of the prince necessitates the time-honoured salute of the _dodok_, the crouching posture assumed in the presence of a superior. the needs and luxuries of the immense royal household render the counting-house a feature of the utmost importance. the prince probolingo has himself forty wives, and a harem in proportion to their numbers, the susunhan's imperial harem far exceeding that of his brother. wonderful tales are told of the fairy-like loveliness belonging to these inner palaces, with their treasures of ivory and sandalwood, cedar and ebony, but they are jealously guarded from intrusion, and a glimpse of their fantastic glory seldom permitted to western eyes. after an exhibition of gold-encrusted litters and painted coaches of state, used in royal processions, the prince, a clever-looking man of forty, takes wine with his guests. each stand of solid silver contains six bottles, the crouching attendants also carrying silver trays of tumblers and wine-glasses, a gaily clad servitor with a huge silver ice-bowl bringing up the rear. after drinking the health of his royal highness in iced rhine wine, we make our adieux, and escape from our splendid _pajongs_ of rainbow hue on the steps of the great entrance, conveying our thanks through the medium of an interpreter. these fainéant princes learn no tongue but their own, greatly to the advantage of their dutch masters. the colossal incomes assigned to scions of the royal stock only serve the double purpose of political expediency and personal extravagance, for the luxury of a licentious court remains unchecked, and the idea of educating or reforming tributary princes is unknown in java. territorial rights were relinquished for pecuniary gains, and the entire court of the susunhan is in the pay of the dutch, the wealth amassed from the richest island in the world affording ample compensation for the pensions lavishly bestowed on the former owners of the tropical paradise. the dutch resident, in his capacity of "elder brother" to the indigenous race, claims the full privileges of his assumed position, but the advancing tide of social reform has even touched these distant shores, and the alien authority tends on the whole to the welfare of the community. hygienic regulations are compulsory, and even here the traditions of holland enjoin an amount of whitewashing and cleaning up unique in tropical colonies. the green and vermilion panelled _sarongs_ of solo are renowned for their elaborate designs, and the painting of _battek_, or cotton cloth, remains a flourishing industry of the ancient capital. the intricate beauty of the hand-made patterns far surpasses that of the woven fabrics wherewith new mills and factories begin to supply the market. centuries of hereditary training, from the days when royal solo was a self-supporting city, contribute to the amazing skill of the _battek_ girls, but the elaboration of native art is doomed to decay, for time, hitherto a negligeable quantity in this "summer isle of eden," begins to reveal a value unknown to the javanese past, and as the poetry of illumination vanished before the prose of the printing press, so the painting of _battek_ must inevitably give way to the wholesale methods of manchester in the near future of java, just awakening from her spellbound sleep to the changed conditions of life and labour. an exquisite plain, described by de charnay as unrivalled even in java, surrounds sourakarta with belts of palm, avenues of waringen, and picturesque rice-fields of flaming green and vivid gold. azure peaks frame the enchanting picture. the storied heights are rich in traditions of gods and heroes, with innumerable myths haunting the ruined temples which cluster round the base of the mountain range, and suggest themselves as relics of an earlier creed than buddhism or brahminism. archaic sculptures, obelisks, and gateways, massive and undecorated, recall the architecture of egyptian sanctuaries, but no record exists which throws any light on the origin of the extensive monuments of a forgotten past, though the triple pyramid of mount lawu is still a place of sacrifice to siva the destroyer. pilgrims climb the steep ascent to lay their marigold garlands and burn their incense-sticks at the foot of the rude cairn erected in propitiation of the divine wrath, typified by the cloud and tempest hovering round the jagged pinnacles of the volcanic range, which frowns with perpetual menace above the verdant loveliness of plain and woodland. the instinctive worship seems one of those hereditary relics of a perished faith so frequently encountered in java; a blind impulse for which no reason can be ascribed by the devotee, swayed by those mysterious forces of the subconscious self which seem imperishable elements in the brown races of the malay archipelago. the native court attracts myriad parasites, and the wealthy chinese half-castes, or _paranaks_ of solo, with their inborn commercial genius, surpass all competitors in the pursuit of fortune. the three centuries of mixed marriages have modified chinese conservatism, and though the _paranak_ is severely taxed, and excluded from all political offices, he remains supreme in the kingdom of finance, regarded even by the dutch as an indispensable factor in the complicated affairs of the island. the great _passer_ of solo becomes an endless delight, and the interminable corridors, where the fumes of incense mingle with the breath of flowers, convey strange suggestions of antiquity. simple meals of rice and bananas progress round cooking-pots of burnished copper. pink pomelo and purple mangosteen vary the repast; strips of green banana leaf folded into cups fastened with an acanthus thorn, or serving as plates for dame nature's prodigality, provide the accessories of the feast as well as the provisions. the javanese populace, wonderfully free from those household cares which involve so much time and trouble in northern nations strenuously occupied in keeping the wolf from the door, and left to carry out their own inventions, have evolved numerous methods of blending the different metals--steel and iron, brass and silver. the veinings of the _kris_, beautiful as those of any toledo blade, are produced by the welding of metals steeped in lime-juice and arsenic, which destroy the iron and retain the ingrained pattern. the chains of mingled brass and silver show exquisite designs and a special charm of colour, in the soft golden hue and subdued gleam of the heavy links, with their richly-enamelled talismans of ruby and turquoise enamel. soft voices, tranquil movements, and courteous manners are the age-long heritage of malay idiosyncracy, and even in the crowded _passer_, with its horde of buyers and sellers, noise and dispute are non-existent. it is a market of dreamland, and though echoes of marching feet and music of native bands remind us that we are in imperial sourakarta, the busy hive of the _passer_ suggests a panoramic picture of native life, rather than the pushing, jostling crowd represented by the ordinary idea of a market in that western hemisphere which, in bestowing so many priceless gifts on humanity, has taken from it the old-world grace of repose. sourabaya and the tengger. the port of sourabaya, supreme in mercantile importance, ranks as the second city of java, as it contains the military headquarters, the principal dockyards, and the arsenal. leagues of rice and sugar-cane lie between solo and sourabaya, the landscape varied by gloomy teak woods, feathery tamarinds, and stately mango trees. white towns nestle in rich vegetation, and the green common known as the _aloon-aloon_ marks each hybrid suburb, europeanized by dutch canals, white bridges, and red-tiled houses, planted amid a riotous wealth of palm and banana. a broad river, brimming over from the deluge of the previous night, flows through burning sourabaya; a canal, gay with painted _praus_ connecting it with the vast harbour, where shipping of all nations lies at anchor, the sheltered roads bristling with a forest of masts and funnels. bungalows, in gorgeous gardens, flank dusky avenues of colossal trees, for even sourabaya, the hottest place in steaming java, enjoys "a boundless contiguity of shade." in the _sawa_ fields broad-eaved huts, set on stilts above the swamp, protect the brown boys who frighten birds from the rice, for the clapping and shouting must be carried on under shelter from the ardent sun. no air blows from the rippling water, set with acres of lotus-beds, the fringed chalices of rose and azure swaying on their plate-like leaves of palest green. the heterogeneous character of sourabaya gives unwonted interest to the streets, uniquely brilliant in grouping and colour. gilded eaves of chinese houses, many-tiered arab mosques, encrusted with polished tiles of blue and purple, white colonnades of dutch bungalows, and pointed huts of woven basket-work within wicker gate and bamboo fence, mingle in fantastic confusion to frame a series of living pictures. cream-coloured bullocks and spirited timor ponies, in creaking waggons and ramshackle carriages, pass in endless procession. bronze-hued coolies balance heavy loads on the swaying _pikolan_, a sloping pole of elastic bamboo, and strolling players, rouged and tinselled, collect crowds in every open space where a fluttering tamarind-tree offers a welcome patch of shadow to each turbaned audience, clad in the paradisaical garb of the tropics. graceful malay women flit silently past, in pleasing contrast to their burly dutch mistresses, clad in a caricature of native garb which the appalling heat of sourabaya renders a more slatternly disguise than even colonial _sans géne_ accomplishes elsewhere. orchids spread broad spathes of scented bloom from grey trunks of courtyard trees, and cascades of crimson and purple creepers tumble over arch and wall. insinuating chinamen untie bundles of _sarongs_, scarves, and delicate embroideries on the marble steps of hotel porticoes, where the prolonged "shopping" of the drowsy east is catered for by the industrious celestial, when _tokos_ are closed, and the tradesman sleeps on the floor amid his piled-up wares, for the slumber of java is too deep to be lightly disturbed, and the solemnity of the long siesta seems regarded almost as a religious function. in this far-off land of dreams it seems "always afternoon," and the complacency wherewith the entire population places itself "hors de combat" becomes a perpetual irritation to the traveller, anxious to seize a golden opportunity of fresh experience. the sun sinks out of sight before the sultry atmosphere begins to cool. the weird "gecko," a large lizard which foretells rain, screams "becky! becky!" in the garden shadows, and a cry of "toko! toko!" echoes from another unseen speaker of a mysterious language, while wraith-like forms of his tiny brethren make moving patterns on the white columns, as the hungry little reptiles hunt ceaselessly for the mosquitos which form their staple diet. lashing rain and deafening thunder at length cool the fiery furnace, blue lightning flares on the solid blackness of heaven, and the storm only dies away when we start at dawn for tosari, the mountain sanatorium of the tengger. the flat and flooded land glows with the vivid green of springing rice, tremulous tamarind and blossoming teak bordering a road gay with pilgrim crowds, for the great volcano of the tengger remains one of nature's mystic altars, dedicated to prayer and sacrifice. moslem girls in yellow veils jostle brown men with white prayer-marks and clanking bangles. the _sari_ of india replaces the _sarong_ of java, with fluttering folds of red and purple; children, clad only in silver chains and medals, or strings of blue beads, dart through the crowd, from whence the familiar types of malay and javanese personality are absent. we change carts in a busy roadside _passer_, which drives a roaring trade in rice-cakes and fruit, syrups and stews, to mount through changing zones of vegetation, where palms give place to tree ferns, and luscious frangipanni or gardenia yields to rose and chrysanthemum. from the half-way house of poespo, a forest road ascends to tosari. sombre casuarina, most mournful of the pine tribe, mingles with teak and mahogany in dense woods falling away on either side from the shadowy path. innumerable monkeys swing from bough to bough, eating wild fruits, and breaking off twigs to pelt the intruders on their domains. at length the sylvan scenery gives place to endless fields of cabbage, potatoes, maize, and onions, for the cool heights of the tengger range serve the prosaic purpose of market-garden to eastern java, and all european vegetables may be cultivated here with success. a patchwork counterpane of green, brown, and yellow, clothes these steep slopes, but the extent of the mountain chain, and the phantasmal outlines of volcanic peaks, absorb the incongruities grafted upon them. valerian and violet border the track between swarthy pines with grey mosses hanging down like silver beards from forked branches, and sudden mists shroud the landscape in vaporous folds, torn to shreds by gusts of wind, to melt away into the blue sky, suddenly unveiled in dazzling glimpses between the surging clouds. a long flight of mossy steps ascends to the plateau occupied by the sanatorium, with wide verandahs and a poetic garden, like some old italian pleasaunce, with fountain and sundial, espaliered orange boughs, and ancient rose-trees overhanging paved walks, gay parterres, and avenues of myrtle or heliotrope. flowers are perennial even on these airy heights, and dense hedges of datura, with long white bells drooping in myriads over the pointed foliage, transform each narrow lane into a vista of enchantment. eastern java spreads map-like beneath the overhanging precipice, the blue strait of madoera curving between fretted peak and palm-clad isle. the velvety plum-colour of nearer ranges fades through tints of violet and mauve into the ethereal lilac of distant summits. the lowlands gleam with brimming fish-ponds and flooded _sawas_, as though the sea penetrated through creek and inlet to the heart of the green country, the vague glitter of this watery world investing the scene with dream-like unreality. brown _campongs_ cling to mountain crest and precipitous ledge. these almost inaccessible fastnesses were colonised after the moslem conquest by a hindu tribe which refused to relinquish brahminism. driven from place to place by the fanatical hordes of islam on the downfall of the hindu empire, the persecuted race, a notable exception to native inconstancy and indifference, retreated by degrees to this mountain stronghold, where they successfully retained their religious independence, and defended themselves from mohammedan hostility. brahminism through centuries of isolation, has assimilated many extraneous heathen rites, and wild superstitions have overlaid the original creed. the worship of the tenggerese is now mainly directed to the ever-active crater of the awe-inspiring bromo, always faced by the longer side of the windowless communal houses, built to contain the several generations of the families which in patriarchal fashion inhabit these spacious dwellings. huge clouds of smoke from the majestic volcano curl perpetually above the surrounding peaks, and float slowly westward, the thunderous roar of the colossal crater echoing in eternal menace through the rarefied air, and regarded as the voice of the god who inhabits the fiery inferno. these lonely hills, ravaged by tempest and haunted by beasts of prey, are the hiding-places of fear and the cradles of ever-deepening superstition. wild fancies sway the untaught mountaineers, responsive to nature's wonders, though powerless to interpret their signification. the constant struggle for existence produces a character utterly opposed to that of the suave and facile malay. the graces of life are unknown, but the strenuous temperament of the tenggerese is shown by indefatigable industry in the difficult agriculture of the mountain region, and the careful cultivation of the vegetables for which the district is renowned. day by day, the tenggerese women--gaunt, scantily-clad, and almost unsexed by incessant toil in the teeth of wind and weather--carry down their burdens to the plain, their backs bent under the weight of the huge crates, while the brown and wizened children are prematurely aged and deformed by their share in the family toil. the more prosperous inhabitant carries his vegetables on a mountain pony, trained to wonderful feats in the art of sliding up and climbing down walls of rock almost devoid of foothold, for the riding of tenggerese youth and maiden rivals that of the sioux indian. misdirected zeal strips the hills of forest growth; the scanty pines of the higher zone serving as fuel, and the ruthless destruction of timber brings the dire result of decreasing rainfall. only bamboo remains wherewith to build the communal houses, formerly constructed of tastefully blended woods, and the flimsy substitute, unfitted to resist drenching rain and raging wind, is dragged with the utmost difficulty from cleft and gorge along rude tracks hewn out in the mountain side. rice, elsewhere the mainstay of life in java, has never been cultivated by the tenggerese, the sowing and planting of the precious crop being forbidden to them during the era of gradual retreat before the mohammedan army centuries ago, and the innate conservatism of the secluded tribe, in spite of life's altered environment, clings to the dead letter of an obsolete law. the tigers, once numerous round tosari, have retreated into the jungle clothing the lower hills, and seldom issue from their forest lairs unless stress of weather drives them upward for a nightly prowl round byre and pen. the destruction of covert renders tosari immune from this past peril, and the tragic tiger stories related round the hearthstone of the communal house are becoming oral traditions of a forgotten day, gathering round themselves the moss and lichen of fable and myth. the main interest of tosari centres round the stupendous bromo, possessing the largest crater in the world, a fathomless cavity three miles in diameter, veiled in stygian darkness, and suggesting the yawning mouth of hell. this bottomless pit, bubbling like a boiling cauldron, pouring out black volumes of sulphureous smoke, and clamouring with unceasing thunder, was for ages a blood-stained altar of human sacrifice. every year the fairest maiden of the tengger was the chosen victim offered to siva, who, in his attribute of a consuming fire, occupied the volcanic abyss. the worship of the divine destroyer has ever been a fruitful source of crime and cruelty, and a tangible atmosphere of evil lingers round those hoary temples of india dedicated to the avenging deity, whose fanatical followers are reckoned by millions. through the inversion of creed peculiar to hindu pantheism, the propitiation of divine wrath has become the fundamental principle of religion, and pathetic appeals for mercy continually ascend from darkened hearts to those unseen powers vividly present to hindu thought, which, amid countless errors and degradations, has never ceased to grasp the central fact of eternity. the impalpable air teems with divinity. watchful eyes and clutching hands surround the pilgrim's path, and unseen spirits dog faltering footsteps as they stumble through the snares and pitfalls of earthly life. in the rude tribes of the tengger, hereditary faith reflects the uncompromising features of local environment. the lotus-eating races of the tropical lowlands, with their feeble grasp on the sterner aspects of creed and character, have nothing in common with this indian tribe, remaining on the outskirts of an alien civilisation. the creed for which the early tenggerese fought and conquered, has cooled from white heat to a shapeless petrifaction, and weird influences throng the ruined temple of a moribund faith, but the shadows which loom darkly above the mouldering altars still command the old allegiance, and a thousand hereditary ties bind heart and soul to the past. the expedition to the bromo, by horse or litter, affords the supreme experience of javanese volcanoes. the broken track, knee-deep in mud and rent by landslips, traverses fields of indian corn, rocky clefts, and rugged water-courses. the familiar flora of northern europe fringes babbling brooks, their banks enamelled with wild strawberries and reddening brambles. curtains of ghostly mist lift at intervals to disclose the magical pink and blue of the mountain distance, as sunrise throws a shaft of scarlet over the grim cliff's of the moengal pass. a chasm in the stony wall reveals the famous sand sea below the abrupt precipice, a yellow expanse of arid desert encircling three fantastic volcanoes. the pyramidal batok, the cloud-capped bromo, and the serrated widodaren, set in the wild solitude of this desolate sahara, form a startling picture, suggesting a sudden revelation of nature's mysterious laboratories. the deep roar of subterranean thunder, and the fleecy clouds of sulphureous smoke ever rising from the vast furnaces of the bromo, emphasise the solemnity of the marvellous scene. native ideas recognise this terror-haunted landscape as the point where times touches eternity, and natural forces blend with occult influences. tjewara lawang, "the gate of the spirits," traditionally haunted by the countless _devas_ of hindu pantheism, bounds the ribbed and tumbled sand sea with a black bridge of fretted crags, from whence the invisible host keeps watch and ward over the regions of eternal fire. by a fortunate coincidence, the annual festival of the bromo is celebrated to-day, when siva, the third person of the hindu triad, is propitiated by a living sacrifice. goats and buffaloes were flung into the flaming crater long after the offering of human victims was discontinued, but, alas for the chicanery of a degenerate age! even the terrified animals thrown into the air by the sacrificing priest never reach the mystic under-world, their downward progress being arrested by a skilled accomplice, who catches them at a lower level, and risks great siva's wrath by preserving them for more prosaic uses. the silence of the sand sea is broken to-day by the bustle of a gay market on the brink of the yellow plain. the terrific descent through a gash in the precipice, carved by falling boulders, landslips, and torrential rains, lands the battered pilgrim in the midst of a lively throng in festal array. girls in rose and orange _saris_, with silver pins in sleek dark hair plaited with skeins of scarlet wool, dismount from rough ponies for refreshment, or gallop across the sand sea to the mountain of sacrifice. the turbaned men in rough garb of indigo and brown show less zeal than their womenkind, and betel-chewing, smoking, or the consumption of syrups and sweetmeats, prove more attractive than the religious service, for modern materialism extends even to these remote shores, and the avenging god is often worshipped by proxy. the sand sea was originally the base of the tengger volcano, split from head to foot by an appalling eruption, which forced mud, sand, and lava from the enclosing walls into the surrounding valley. fresh craters formed in the vast depths of sand and molten metal; the three new volcanoes--bromo, battok, and widodaren--casting themselves up from the blazing crucibles hidden beneath the fire-charged earth. we stand on the thin and crumbling crust of the globe's most friable surface, a mere veil concealing fountains of eternal fire, foaming solfataras, and smoking fumaroles. circle after circle, the great belt of volcanic peaks rises around us, visible outlets of incalculable forces, ever menacing the world with ruin and havoc. on the steep descent, a few devout pilgrims offer preliminary sacrifices of food, or flowers, to the _devas_ of the mountains, laying the little treasures in oval vaults dug by human hands, before entering the inner courts of the fiery sanctuary. the yellow sand sea, swept by a moaning wind, sends up whirling eddies, and the dusky haze shimmers in fantastic outlines, which probably originated the idea of spiritual presences hovering round the scene. grey heather and clumps of cypress-grass dot the wild sahara with their dry and colourless monotony, but give place on the southern side to patches of fern and turf, the scanty pasture of the mountain ponies, herding together until sickness or accident breaks the ranks, when the hapless sufferer, deserted by his kind, falls an easy prey to the wild dogs of the tengger ranges. a heap of bleaching bones points to some past tragedy, and terrifies the swerving horses of the native pilgrims. the ascent of the bromo is negotiated from the eastern side to the lip of the gigantic crater. slanting precipices of lava, their grey flanks scored with black gullies below the volcanic ash which covers the upper slopes, rise to the jagged pinnacles bordering the black gulf of eternal mystery and night. a rickety ladder of bamboo, approached through a chaos of boulders, mounts to the edge of the profound abyss. the ladder has been renewed for this day of atonement, and worshippers clad in rainbow hues crowd round the base of the volcano, while the priests of siva, in motley robes of brilliant patchwork, adorned with cabalistic tracery in white, ascend the swaying rungs, bearing their struggling victims, bleating, crowing, and clucking in mortal terror. stalwart arms toss the black goat with accurate aim to an assistant priest, who passes on his clever "catch" to a third expert in the task of hoodwinking siva and depriving him of his lawful prey. sundry cocks and hens, evidently toothsome morsels, are then thrown from one priest to another, and saved for the cooking-pot, but a tough-looking chanticleer of the cochin china persuasion is finally selected, and cast into the seething pit to propitiate the terrible wrath of the avenging deity at the smallest expense and loss to the astute priesthood. at the close of the sacerdotal is sacreligious performance, we mount the shaking ladder to a thatched shed on the rim of the crater. from hence, between the dense volumes of smoke, the huge cavity is visible to a depth of 600 feet. sallow clouds of sulphur emerge from a pandemonium of tumultuous clamour; red-hot stones shoot upward, but fall back into the chasm before they reach us; burning ashes strike the smooth walls with a weird scream, and then whirl back into the darkness; yellow solfataras rise in foaming jets, with the fierce hiss of unseen serpents, and bellowing thunders shake the earth. the superb spectacle of nature's power in her armoury of terror is unique among the volcanos of java, for unless the bromo blazes in the throes of a violent eruption, when the ascent to the crater becomes impossible, no danger exists in gazing down into the mysterious abyss. at every gust which rages round this laboratory of nature, the vast clouds--black, yellow, and blue--floating away into space, assume grotesque forms suggesting primeval monsters or menacing giants, darkening the skies with their ghostly presence. driving rain and a rising gale hasten a rapid descent to the sand sea, but the sudden storm dies away into sunlit mists. the climb to the moenggal pass is complicated by a series of pools and cascades; the horses pick their own perilous way, but the management of the chairs by the noisy coolies demands superhuman strength and security of hand and foot, the crazy and battered _doolie_ escaping falls and collisions by a continuous miracle. the expedition to ngandwona, in the heart of the hills, skirts green precipices and traverses brown _campongs_ forlorn and neglected, like this stranded hindu race, incapable of adjustment to life's law of change, and retaining the form without the spirit of the past. the glens lie veiled in cloud, but the peaks bask in sunshine. waterfalls dash through thickets of crimson foxglove, and daturas swing their fragrant bells over the dancing water. a little goatherd, leading his bleating flock, plays on a reed flute to summon a straggler from a distant crag. the brown figure, in linen waistcloth and yellow turban, suggests that indian personality which has survived ages of exile on these lonely heights. the route to ngandwona discloses the tengger in a different aspect; the volcanos are far away, and this central region is rich in pastoral pictures full of lulling charm. the voice of the bromo still breaks the silence of the deep valley with a mysterious undertone, but only benignant _devas_ haunt this flower-filled hollow, remote alike from the terrors of nature and the influences of the external world. the following day varies the character of the range, exposed to every vicissitude of temperature and climate. white billows of fog beat upon the mountain tops like a silent sea, and blot out the landscape with an impenetrable veil. thunder echoes through the rocky caves with incessant reverberations, and rain settles down in a drenching flood. the chill of the wooden hotel penetrates to the bone; enthusiasm wanes below zero, and even scorching sourabaya appears preferable to this wet and windy refuge on the storm-swept heights. the hurricane proves brief in proportion to the violence displayed, and the walk to poespo at dawn, behind the baggage-coolie, is a vision of delight. violet mountains lean against the pale blue of a rain-washed sky, tjewara and teak glisten with jewelled lustre, and the tengger, bathed in amethystine light, lifts itself above the world as the realm of purity and peace, ever revealed and prophesied by the glory of mountain scenery. celebes. makassar and western celebes. each island of the great archipelago offers distinctive interests, for many alien races grafted themselves on the original stock, after those age-long wanderings across the southern seas which probably coincided with the westward march from central asia, whereby primeval man fulfilled the decrees of destiny. a long pull in a rickety _sampan_ across the harbour of sourabaya involves numerous collisions with fruit-boats, canoes, and rafts, before reaching the steamer in the offing. intervals of comparative safety permit cursory observation of the gorgeously-painted _praus_ with upturned stern, curving bamboo masts, and striped sails, the outline of the gaudy boats accentuated by a black line, and producing the effect of huge shells tossing on the tide. the green isle of madoera, and the level morasses of eastern java, bound the wide harbour, the blue cloud of the distant tengger soaring abruptly on the horizon. the ship becomes our home for a month, and affords a welcome relief from divers struggles on land, involved by a dual language, official red tape, and native incompetence. a brilliant sunset flames across the heavens, and we glide across a golden sea as a fitting prelude to unknown realms of enchantment. the dreamful calm of the two days' passage obliterates the memory of bygone difficulties and perturbations, the interval between past and future experiences falling like refreshing dew on the weary spirit, and increasing the receptive capacity required for the assimilation of new impressions. the vast extent of the malay archipelago, and the stupendous size of the principal islands, comes as a fresh revelation to travellers whose ideas have been limited by vague recollections of schoolroom geography. the seven hundred miles of java's length, sumatra's vast extent of fourteen hundred miles, the area of borneo equalling that of france and germany combined, and the fact of celebes, for which we are bound, exceeding the dimensions of norway and sweden, convey startling suggestions of the limitless space occupied by the great equatorial group. the palms and flowers of myriad smaller isles break the blue monotony of these summer seas traversed by the malay wanderers of olden days, striving to sail beyond the sunset, and to overtake that visionary ideal flitting ever before them, and luring them on with the fairy gold of unfulfilled desires. at length the high blue peaks of central celebes pierce the silver mists of a roseate dawn, and beyond a cluster of coral islets, the white town of makassar gleams against a green background of palms. miles of brown _campongs_ fringe the shore, but the gay scene on the wooden wharves at first occupies undivided attention. _sarongs_ of crimson, orange, purple, or boldly-contrasting plaids, enhance the deep bronze of native complexion, the ample folds of the wide skirts drawn up above the knees. high turbans of white or red cambric, elaborately twisted, add dignity to the stately figures, deeply-cut features and hawk noses denoting arab origin, for the makassarese is a lineal descendant of the moslem pirates, once the terror of these island-studded seas. proud, courageous, and passionately addicted to adventurous travel in far-off lands, these sturdy islanders have little in common with the inert races of java. the normal malay element appears extinguished by the fiery superstructure of arab nature, retaining the vindictive and fanatical traits of ancestral character. the women, in rainbow garb, use their floating _slandangs_ as improvised _yashmaks_, holding the red and yellow folds before their faces in approved moslem fashion, when passing a man. makassar, formerly ruled by a line of powerful princes as an independent fief, but now subject to a dutch governor, has become the capital of celebes, and occupies an important commercial position. the wharves are filled with bales of _copra_, mother-of-pearl shells, plumage of native birds, dried fish, bundles of rattan, and precious woods from the primeval forests of the interior. the boom of the fisherman's drum echoes across the water in constant reverberations, a secularised relic of the religious past, originally serving the purpose of the mohammedan call to prayer, but now fulfilling the prosaic office of signalling the arrival or departure of boats, though the devout mariner still appeals by drum to the heavenly powers for fair weather and a good haul of fish. the official buildings of makassar, including the dutch governor's palace, face a green _aloon-aloon_, flanked by superb avenues of kanari and tamarind trees. the hoary fort, scarcely distinguishable from the solid rock which supports it, was captured from the king of goa by a dutch admiral, who thrust his sword through an adjacent cocoanut palm, to symbolise his intention of piercing the hearts of all who resisted the treaty afterwards drawn up. the sword and cocoanut now form part of the heraldic arms belonging to makassar. local costume affords a continuous feast of colour, and streets and avenues appear like moving tulip beds, the broad blue sky and dazzling sunshine of this tropical land intensifying every glowing tint of robe, fruit, and flower. in the umber shadows of dusky _tokos_, gold-beaters fashion those red-gold ornaments rich in barbaric beauty, for which makassar has ever been renowned. portuguese art glorifies native workmanship, and the dutch carry on the traditions of the past, merely simplifying the old methods by introducing modern tools to lighten the labour of production. silken scarves, and elaborately-painted _battek_, woven with gold and silver thread, swing from the black rafters of dim corridors, and countless treasures of the deep, in shells and coral of rich and delicate colouring, manifest the infinite variety of nature's handiwork. from the crowded lanes, with their busy markets and hybrid population, we drive through the long line of _campongs_ bordering the palm-fringed coast. the bamboo walls of the fragile houses, standing on stilts or rocking on poles in the rippling sea, show a multitude of fantastic designs, the broad roofs of thatched grass or plaited palm-leaves extending in penthouse eaves above carven panels let into the gables. a riot of glorious vegetation frames and overshadows the clustering huts of deftly-woven cane. dark faces peer through the narrow slits of bamboo window-spaces, but makassar pride contains the elements of self-respect, and though the stranger attracts a certain amount of interest, no discourtesy mars the pleasure of exploration. a red road beneath towering palms, skirts rice-fields and bamboo thickets to the beautiful ford of the tello, a broad river flowing between vast woods of cocoanut and bread-fruit trees, with only a tiny dug-out, steered by a brown boy in a scarlet turban, to dispel the loneliness of the scene. the vicinity of makassar offers no special characteristics beyond those of a tropical garden, but the changing aspects of native life provide subjects of unceasing interest. to-day a great chinese festa takes place, which attracts all the inhabitants of town and _campong_, for amusements are scarce on these distant shores, and no questions of race or faith complicate the determination to secure a share in the pleasures of the ceremony. when the usual burst of squibs and crackers, lighting of bonfires, and tossing of joss-papers into the air, marks the commencement of the holiday, spectators line the roads, climb the trees, and crowd the fiat roofs of portuguese houses. the afternoon is the children's portion of the festival, and the little bedizened figures, with rouged faces, tinsel crowns, and spangled robes, bestride grotesque wooden dragons, fishes, and birds, brilliantly painted, and drawn on wheels by masked men in robes of pink and green. a crowd of high-class babies, also bedizened and spangled, follows in perambulators wreathed with flowers, and pushed by their chinese nurses. hideous gods in glittering robes, and appalling demons painted in black and scarlet, bring up the rear of the long procession, which traverses every street and lane of the chinese _campong_, the open houses displaying the lighted altars and tutelary gods of buddhist and taoist creed, for the mystic philosophy of the eastern sages materialises into grossest realism by passing through the crucible of chinese thought. a visit to the so-called "kingdom of goa" fills up our last day in makassar. the palace of the tributary sultan, ten miles from the capital, consists of steep-roofed houses built upon huge trunks of forest trees, and connected by carved galleries and crumbling stairs with the harem at the back of the main edifice. squalid women in blue yashmaks loll on the crazy verandah, whence a native secretary marshals us through the dusty and ruinous building. the sultan, taking to the hills as a necessary precaution after inciting his subjects to rebellion against the dutch, has just been captured, but, whether by accident or design, fell over a cliff, and until his dead body is brought back to receive the mohammedan rites of burial, the royal residence remains in charge of the police. the grass-grown road to the decaying palace intersects the rambling and sordid village of goa, the feudal appanage of the sorry chieftain, a perpetual thorn in the side of the dutch government. the surrounding country appears almost a solitude, the silence stirred by the song of the distant surf, the chirping of myriad grasshoppers, and the ceaseless clash of waving palms in the breeze which steals up from the sea. a quaint water-castle, shaped like a chinese junk, stands on a rock in a fish-pond reflecting the rosy sky, and the fretted marble of a beautiful arabian tomb gleams from a clump of white-starred _sumboya_ exhaling incense on the air. as the magic and mystery of night shroud makassar in a mantle of gloom, the surrounding sea becomes a vision of phosphorescent flame to the furthest horizon. the sheet-lightning of the tropical sky repeats the wonders of the deep, the glamour of romance gilds the prose of reality, and we apprehend that spirit of wondering awe which breathes through the records of old-world voyagers across uncharted oceans, when witnessing the phenomena of nature in the sanctuary of her power, before science had torn the veil from the mystic shrine. the steamer's course follows the bold and mountainous coast; steep cliffs alternate with forest-clad ravines, the purple ranges of the foreground melting into the azure crests of soaring peaks. skilful navigation is required in threading the blue water-lanes of the spermunde group, the scores of palm-clad islets like bouquets of verdure thrown on the tranquil sea. the wicker-work _campongs_ of the fishing population form a ring round each white beach of sparkling coral sand. the black bow of the "bromo," a ship which broke her back on a reef twenty years ago, stands high above the treacherous rocks, and accentuates the vivid colouring of water and foliage. at paré-paré, a native _campong_ in a deep bay at the edge of a forest, the steamer stops to discharge cargo, and affords an opportunity of landing. a gay crowd lines the shore of the picturesque village, the houses of palm-thatched bamboo adorned with carved ladders and upcurving eaves of white wood. one of the numerous military expeditions to turbulent celebes has lately been successful, and the _campong_, where every hut was closed for a year in consequence of the local rajah forcing his people to join in his insurrection, has at last been re-opened, though under a guard of dutch and malay troops. a brown bodyguard of native children, mainly clad in silver chains and medals, escorts the strangers with intense delight to a shabby little mosque, where a dervish, in the orange turban rewarding a pilgrim to mecca, beats a big drum in the stone court. the little savages encountered at mandja on the following day seem equally free from clothes and cares, but europeans, though possessing the charm of novelty, are regarded with awe; a sudden stop, a word, or even a lifted hand, sufficing to make the whole juvenile population take to their heels, and hide among the palms and bananas until a sudden impulse of fresh curiosity banishes fear. clothing is at a discount, but ornaments of brass, silver, and coloured beads, are evidently indispensable. natural flowers, like immense red fuchsias with long white bells, serve as ear-rings, and scarlet caps adorn the sleek black heads of the elder girls. an _al fresco_ picnic party from the hills occupies a green mound, and boils a kettle on sticks of flaming bamboo, though a stray spark might easily burn down the entire _campong_. a great part of celebes is uninhabited and uncultivated, but the tribes of the interior, warlike and treacherous, have never been completely subjugated. the slave trade flourishes among these lonely hills, murder and violence are rife; the methods of warfare, comprising poisoned arrows, and bullets containing splinters of glass, denote absolute barbarism, and the enormous island, which ought to be a field of emigration for some of java's twenty-seven millions, except for the coast _campongs_ and the rice-grounds of the far interior, remains one of the waste places of the earth, in spite of a perfect climate and a teeming soil. day by day the scenery becomes more wild and dreary; the forests disappear, and the sun-baked hills encroach on the low brushwood beyond the white beaches of coves and inlets, without any sign of habitation. an atmosphere of crystalline purity discloses the highest range of the interior, a long chain of azure peaks. our course traverses league upon league of melancholy solitude, emphasised rather than relieved by the brilliant sunlight and balmy breezes playing over this realm of neglected possibilities, where the wants of countless sufferers might be abundantly supplied. anchoring for an hour in the deep blue bay of tontoli, we come once more into the haunts of men, and two picturesque _campongs_ buried in cocoa-palms beneath the wooded mountains of tomini are pointed out as exclusively peopled by descendants of the pirates who infested this western coast of celebes. from this point the interest of the cruise increases. pretty _campongs_ line the shore of every sheltered creek. boats of quaint form and colour push off to meet the steamer, quickly surrounded by _sampans_, _blotos_ (the native canoes), or carved and painted skiffs, all manned by an amphibious race in nature's suit of brown, which renders the wearers indifferent to overturned boats, water-logged _blotos_, and collapsing rafts, though the encouraging statements of our malay crew as to the warmth and shallowness of the water in case of any contretemps, is less reassuring to the travellers who venture shoreward on the risky craft. the loan of the captain's boat makes the visit to dongalla an experience of unalloyed pleasure, but the people appear morose and sullen. a dignified youth, in purple turban and checked _sarong_, attempts to do the honours of his native place, but his comrades, oppressed by vague suspicions, close the heavy doors of their wooden houses, and peep through the interstices of the bamboo shutters as we thread the narrow alleys, escorted by the deck steward. a more genial crowd welcomes us to the palm-groves of palehle, where a light-hearted bodyguard of children shows us every nook and corner of the brown _campong_, with smiling faces and merry laughter. the heart-whole mirth of these little savages might brighten the saddest soul. living in the present, with no artificial wants to create dissatisfaction, and free from the pains or penalties of poverty, as experienced in northern climes, the simple life close to the heart of nature suggests ideas of eden's unshadowed joy. amid the treasures of memory garnered during the winter's wanderings through the malay archipelago, the unclouded merriment which endows these children of nature remains as the deepest impression stamped on the memory of the western pilgrim. european childhood, at the best and brightest, but faintly approaches this spontaneous gaiety, the special attribute of untutored souls in a world of primal innocence. at soemalata the steep declivities of wooded mountains enclose the harbour, and a narrow pass leads to the gold mines, where the process of smelting and separating the ore takes place in a primitive series of conduits, sluices, mills, and pounding machines. the gold concession granted by the local rajah prospers in european hands, but the barbaric chieftain adheres to the ancient custom of having the gold washed from the river sand by his own slaves. the english engineer of the mines hails a compatriot with delight, and his explanation of the complicated machinery ends with a welcome invitation to tea in his pretty bungalow. a solitary englishman is frequently found stationed in the remotest outposts of civilisation throughout the malay archipelago, enduring a life of unexampled loneliness with the tenacity and determination inherent in national character. the oft-receding vision of a successful future inspires the dauntless heart less than a sense of present duty, and these exiles from the social ties of nation and kindred possess special claims on sympathy and remembrance. lovely lanes of palm and banana, brightened by trees of crimson poinsettia, wind upward to the hills, and a cluster of green islets gems the blue waters; the scarlet-stemmed banka palm offering a glowing contrast to the sweeping emerald of the feathery fronds. the little settlement of kwandang, with a gold _fabrik_ occupying a wooded islet, completes the circuit of the western coast, for the north-eastern cape comprises a distinctive province, requiring a separate chapter. intervening mountains, with jagged cliffs and towering summits, rise like titanic fortresses from the creaming surf which washes the yellow bastions, leaving no space for the wicker _campongs_, impermanent as a child's house of cards, but perpetually rebuilt in identical fashion, and never developing into substantial dwellings, or adjusted on the new lines required by varieties of environment. the minahasa. steaming slowly through the phosphorescent seas of the starlit night, we anchor at dawn in the forest-lined bay of amoerang, the principal harbour of the minahasa. the picturesque northern cape of celebes contains a population differing in origin and character from all other races of the vast island, and conveys the idea of a distinctive country. the mountain panorama of shelving ridges and fretted promontories, breaking the outlines of the rocky coast with infinite variety, culminates in the chiselled contours of volcanic peaks, cutting sharply into the silvery blue of a stainless sky. amoerang, half-buried in sago-palms, on the green rim of the secluded haven, shows slight resemblance to the _campongs_ generally encountered on the western coast. wooden cottages, though built on piles of wood or stone, and thatched with _atap_ (plaited palm leaves) possess many features in common with the screened and balconied dwellings of japan. the people, in aspect and feature, also convey suggestions of the japanese origin ascribed to them, for ancient traditions assert that the minahasa was colonised by an asiatic tribe, driven out of formosa by native savages, in one of those wild raids upon the peaceful maritime population which drove them to face the perils of an unknown sea, rather than fall into the ruthless hands of the bloodthirsty aborigines who inhabited the forests and mountains of the interior. many of the hapless exiles perished through hunger, thirst, storm, and shipwreck of their slightly-built craft, during the long wanderings which ended as though by chance for the survivors, in the distant minahasa. the malay element in those japanese refugees, displayed the usual characteristics of skill in boat-building and navigation, together with that accurate observation of natural phenomena which alone could compensate for the lack of scientific knowledge. the women, with oblique eyes and oval faces, wear the gay _sarong_ and white _kabaja_ customary in eastern java. the men, in shapeless gowns and wide trousers, with broad hats of battered straw on their close-cropped hair, afford a sorry spectacle of unbecoming and disorderly attire, conveying grotesque hints of japanese ideas beneath the squalid ugliness overlaying them. the fishermen, conveniently unclad for the necessities of their calling, wear only a yellow or scarlet waist-cloth, the bright touch of colour emphasising the deep bronze of their slight but athletic forms. the people of the minahasa, christianised after the calvinistic methods of dutch and german missionaries a century ago, have always been specially favoured by the government of holland, and large sums are annually expended in improving the status of this distant colony. the making of roads, the building of schools and churches, and the improvement of social conditions, are liberally catered for, not only for the advantage of the minahasa, but that no excuse may exist for any rebellion against such paternal rule. tribal insurrections continually recur in the great archipelago, where a storm in a teacup often swells into dangerous proportions, and the peaceful adherence of the minahasa to the powers that be becomes an important factor in turbulent celebes. the race, so strangely amalgamated with alien interests, shows the apathy of a temperament incapable of developement on foreign lines, though unable to resist the pressure imposed upon it. the pretty _campong_ seems silent as the grave. no native _warongs_, or restaurants, enliven the straight roads with their merry crowds or cheerful gossip, and sellers of food and drink, whose cries echo through the streets of makassar, are unknown in this northern port, where even the arrival of the fortnightly steamer fails to excite much interest in the public mind. a rash determination to drive across the minahasa, and pick up the boat at menado, involves unimagined difficulties. heavy waggons drawn by brown _sappies_ (_i.e._, bullocks), which travel at the rate of two miles an hour, suffice for native use in remote amoerang, but at length a dilapidated gig, with two sorry steeds harnessed in tandem fashion by sundry bits of old rope, is produced. having frequently experienced the pace accomplished by many a timor pony of emaciated and dejected aspect, faith accepts even this unpromising team for the long drive of thirty miles. quaint _campongs_, with bamboo fences and curiously arched gateways, flank the woodland road. each little garden flames with red poinsettia, purple convolvulus, and yellow daisies. the latticed screens pushed back from open verandahs, show japanese-looking rooms, furnished with the european lamps, chairs, and tables, exported by thousands to the minahasa, but the same atmosphere of stagnation broods over these quiet villages, and even the children, returning from a bamboo schoolhouse on the edge of the forest, show the staid and solemn demeanour of their elders. for a few miles all goes well, with the trifling exception of occasional breakages in the countless knots of the rope harness. the last whistle of the steamer floats upward as she leaves her anchorage, and refusing to yield to a faint misgiving as to the success of the present enterprise, eyes and thoughts concentrate themselves on the increasing beauty of the mountain road, the living emerald of the rice-fields, and the picturesque mills for husking the grain, which give special character to this unique district of celebes. suddenly the rickety conveyance comes to a full stop, and a kicking match begins, the plunging ponies refusing to budge an inch. the incapable jehu implores his fare's consent to an immediate return, but meets with an inexorable refusal, the halting malay sentences eked out with an unmistakable pantomime of threats and warnings. the driver's whip, supplemented by an english umbrella, produces no effect on the obtuse animals, which have to be led, or rather hauled, on their unwilling way. one obstreperous steed becomes so unmanageable that it becomes necessary to hitch him to the back of the cart, at the imminent risk of overturning it, in his determination to thwart his companion's enforced progress. mile after mile the wearisome struggle continues. even a lumbering bullock waggon passes us again and again, in the numerous stoppages required for fresh conflict. the endless hours of the weary day drag on like a terrible nightmare, but a descent into a profound ravine of these mountain solitudes at length enables the driver to start the team at a rate which makes it impossible for them to stop, and he vaults lightly into his place as we spin merrily downhill. our troubles are not over, for on the next upward grade the old game of rearing, backing, and futile attempts at buck-jumping, begins again. despairing eyes rest on a thatched booth at the roadside, containing a row of bottles hung up by a string, with the bamboo tube for coins. holding the ropes, and currying favour with the ponies by leading them to a patch of grass, it becomes possible for the boy to leave them for a sorely-needed drink of the sago-wine. the fiendish animals try to upset the cart, and the fight recommences for the fiftieth time, but the brown huts of a _campong_ in a cactus thicket inspire hope, and after a furious battle in the street, to the intense delight of the japanese-looking people, a man comes to the rescue with a stout pony. the boy mounts one battered steed, the other is left behind in a hospitable stable, and we trot briskly on through lovely scenery of forest and mountain to kanas, at the head of the beautiful lake of tondano, hitherto seen in glimpses at an immense depth between encircling peaks. wearied almost to stupefaction by eleven hours of a combat, after which victory seems scarcely less ghastly than defeat, we would gladly remain for the night at the little rest house of kanas, but prudence compels us to push on to tondano, at the other end of the lake, while a capable pony remains at disposal. the lake road is a vista of entrancing loveliness, overhung by arching bamboos and great sago-palms, the vanguard of the forest which clothes the lower spurs of the purple mountain ranges, shutting off the long blue lake from the outside world. a rudely-built _bloto_, merely the hollowed trunk of a tree, crosses the water, with a torch flickering at the prow, for the sun has set, and the crimson afterglow begins to fade from the serrated crests of the opposite heights. the ripple of the water in the reeds at the edge of the road, and the sigh of the evening breeze, fluttering the leaves and creaking the yellow canes of the great bamboos, alone stir the silence, which comes as a welcome relief after the toil and excitement of the day; but alas! we have all forgotten the perils of the road at nightfall, and in the sudden darkness, deepened by the shadowy trees, a false step might precipitate cart and passengers into the deep water. any advance becomes dangerous on the winding way, which follows every curve of the irregular shore, so a halt is called, while the boy rides on towards some twinkling lights denoting a lakeside _campong_. after a long wait, he returns in triumph with three matches and a piece of flaming tow in a bottle. by observing due precaution, we can now follow his guidance, while he holds out the flaring light with extended arm. as we turn round the foot of the lake into a raised causeway above fields of ripening rice, the full moon comes up behind the sombre hills, and transfigures the night with a sparkling flood of silver glory. we reach the white dutch town of tondano as the clock strikes ten, but everyone is in bed at this dissipated hour, and difficulty is experienced even in getting admission to the little hotel, though the delight of finding an english-speaking landlord atones for a somewhat ungracious reception after a long and painful pilgrimage, which should serve as a solemn warning against the rash attempt to penetrate the wilds of the minahasa under native guidance. tondano, with houses and verandahs gleaming in spotless whiteness among green spaces and luxuriant trees, appears a typical dutch town, incongruous but picturesque. the absolute purity and transparency of the atmosphere give value and intensity to every shade of colour, and the scarlet hybiscus flowers show the incandescent glow belonging rather to lamps than to blossoms. the river tondano forms a series of lovely cascades below the town, situated four miles from the lake at the present time, for the marshy flats have been reclaimed as rice-grounds, thus somewhat diminishing the stretch of water. the steep drive down to menado offers a succession of lovely views. the little port, in a nest of verdure, encircles the azure bay, where our steamer, merely a white speck in the distance, lies at anchor. a turn of the road discloses a glimpse of the mountain lake, a sheet of sapphire sparkling in the morning sun, but retrospective thoughts in this instance convey pain as well as pleasure, for "mounting ambition" has for once "o'erleapt itself," and failure counterbalances success. menado, divided by the river, is inhabited by two distinct tribes of the mysterious colonists who came from the farthest east to these unknown shores. the ubiquitous chinaman has found a firm footing in the northerly port of celebes, and the splendidly-carved dragons of a stately temple, rich in ornaments of green jade, blue porcelain, and elaborate brass-work, denote the important status of the wealthy community. a busy _passer_ supplies the usual pictures of native life, but the people of the minahasa, here as elsewhere, lack both the gay insouciance of the south, and the strenuous energy of the northern mind, the residuum of apathetic dullness, deprived of all the salient characteristics which constitute charm and interest. european houses of dutch officials stand in ideal gardens of brilliant flowers and richest foliage. the little hotel wilhelmina is a paradise of exotic blossoms, but menado, apart from a lovely situation, and the usual riot of glorious verdure which makes every tropical weed a thing of beauty, offers little inducement for a prolonged stay. the bay, exposed to contrary winds and chafed by conflicting currents, tosses in perpetual turmoil, though a long jetty diminishes the former difficulties of the stormy passage between ship and shore. in the amber light of sunset, the dark mountain ranges stand out with unearthly clearness. the jagged peaks of klabat and soedara in the background, bringing into prominence the grey cliffs and purple ravines of the smoking lokon. the wonderful scenery of the malay archipelago seldom lacks that element of terror which enhances the radiant loveliness of nature by painting it on a tragic background of storm and cloud, the vague suggestion of evanescence intensifying the mysterious charm with poetic significance. the receding coast discloses a striking panorama of the mountain heights piled one upon another, the grey towers and bastions guarding this narrowing cape of the minahasa, a veritable outpost of nature, eternally washed by the restless seas. as the steamer rounds the savage promontories, and threads the blue straits formed by two rocky islets at the northern extremity, the weird and desolate landscape conveys a strange sense of separation even from the alien humanity which peoples the far-reaching peninsula of the minahasa, and this northern extremity appears a limitless waste. chaotic masses of imperishable granite, splintered reefs thrusting black spikes through the creaming surge, and wind-swept cliffs of fantastic form, characterise the solemn headland, unpainted and unsung, although the sea-girt sanctuary of nature demands interpretation through the terms of art and poetry. gorontalo and the eastern coast. the steamer's first halt on the wild eastern coast of celebes is the gold-mining settlement of todok, where the company's rustic offices of palm-thatched bamboo border an enchanting bay, with a string of green islets studding the shoaling blue and purple of the gleaming depths. two passengers disembark for the ebony plantations on the slopes of a volcanic range, declaring itself by a slight earthquake rocking the _atap_ shanty, where the ship's officer who tallies the cargo, offers hospitality until the fierce heat modifies sufficiently for a stroll. a dusty and shadeless road leads up into the wooded hills which bound the prospect, but the _campong_, largely consisting of recently-constructed dwellings, occupied by alien employés in the service of the gold syndicate, offers no inducements for exploration, and until the launch returns, a shadowy palm-grove by the wayside makes a welcome retreat from the dust and glare, the creaking of innumerable bullock-waggons, and the shouts of crew and coolies, disputing over the loading of a raft. the arrival at gorontalo in the radiant dawn provides a more interesting experience. the river which forms the beautiful harbour, rushes through a profound ravine of the forest-clad mountains, which descend sharply to the water's edge. the scene resembles a norwegian fiord, translated into tropical terms of climate and vegetation. a narrow track climbs the ledges of a cliff behind the brown fishing _campong_ of liato, but a rude wharf on the opposite side affords a less picturesque though safer landing, for the swirling currents of the swift stream require more careful navigation than the amphibious boatman, unembarrassed by clothing, is wont to bestow on craft or passenger. the spirit of enterprise is also in abeyance, scotched if not killed by the struggles of the memorable pilgrimage through the minahasa. the quiet haven in the shadow of the guardian hills looks an ideal haunt of peace. a dutch battleship lies at anchor, and the red sails of a wide-winged _prau_ make broken reflections in the rippling clearness of the green water. a wooden bridge crosses the river at the narrow end of the funnel-shaped harbour, connecting it with the town in the steaming valley, the usual medley of open _tokos_ and _atap_ huts, supplemented by two dubious hotels, a green _aloon-aloon_, and a few stone houses denoting the presence of the european element. the original inhabitants of gorontalo are of alfoer race--dark, glum, and forbidding. how this ancient stock, indigenous to some of the southern islands in the malay archipelago, wandered from thence to distant celebes has not been satisfactorily accounted for. the records of savage tribes depend on oral tradition, but the outlines of an oft-told tale become blurred and dim during the lapse of ages, when the mental calibre of the racial type lacks normal acumen. the graces of life are ignored by the alfoer woman, her mouth invariably distorted by the red lump of betel-nut, accommodated with difficulty, and rendering silence imperative. her bowed shoulders become deformed with the heavy loads perpetually borne, for the rising trade of gorontalo supplies the men with more congenial employment than the field work, which frequently becomes the woman's province. a straight road between crowding palms crosses a wide rice-plain, opening out of the cleft carved by the mountain river, and leads to the curious lake of limbotto, a green mass of luxuriant water-weeds, the dense vegetation solidifying into floating islands of verdure, intersected by narrow channels, only navigable to a native _bloto_ skilfully handled, for nature alternately builds up and disperses these flowery oases, blocking up old water-ways and opening new ones with bewildering confusion. buffaloes wallow between the tangled clumps of pink lotus and purple iris, and wild ducks nest in the waving sedges, or darken the air in a sudden flight down the long lake. a noisy market flanks the water, and bronze figures, in red turbans row gaily-clad women, laden with purchases, to some distant _campong_, reached through the mazes of verdure. the country _passer_, a shifting scene of gaudy colouring, contains greater elements of interest than commercial gorontalo, where the native _campong_ loses individuality in gaining the prosaic adjuncts of a trading centre. the lovely harbour dreams in the moonlight as we steam slowly out of the widening estuary to pick up cargo in the great bay of tomini, which sweeps in a mighty curve round half the eastern coast of celebes. the conical island of oena-oena rises sheer from the waves, the red peak of a lofty volcano composing the apex of a green pyramid, formed by a forest of palms. until six years ago no anchorage for ships was possible at this forest-clad isle, but a volcanic eruption deepened the bay, and a thriving trade in _copra_ was initiated, for the whole surface of oena-oena is clothed with a dense mass of drooping cocoanut trees. scattered dwellings nestle in the thick woods, but no regular _campong_ exists in this thinly-peopled spot, a vernal eden set in the purple sea. the heat of the day, though intense, is everywhere tempered by the interlacing canopies of the feathery fronds, until sunset fuses them into the vivid transparency of green fire, and a fluttering zephyr stirs the whispering foliage. the shy brown people, who at first hide in their _atap_ huts at the approach of strangers, venture out to see the last of the departing steamer, which forms the sole link between barbarism and civilisation, and a month must elapse before any contact with the outside world can vary the seclusion of this lonely spot, a dreamland vision of repose. at posso, the next port on celebes, we land a dutch officer, bound for the important barracks on a hill above the straggling _campong_, after a successful expedition against the tree-dwellers, cannibals, and slave-traders of the interior, still sunk in barbarism. an olive-green river, infested with crocodiles, flows sluggishly through rank vegetation into the sea below the dilapidated huts of the depressing native town. this forlorn outpost of military duty involves exile from civilisation, and the risk of occasional raids from the wild tribes of the surrounding hills. at parigi, canopied by spreading palms, the _atap_ houses, with bamboo rafters strengthening the fragile walls, stand in neglected gardens, overgrown with a tangle of flower and foliage. the low tide makes the dangerous _bloto_ a necessity, though the hollowed tree, top heavy and water-logged, is in imminent peril of capsizing every minute of the long course between ship and shore. objections to a boat upsetting in shallow water being beyond malay comprehension, the only way of accomplishing the transit in safety is by a summary command that two brown boys should immediately jump overboard to lighten the rocking craft. nothing loth, they swim to shore in our wake, rolling over in the sand to dry themselves like newfoundland dogs, and with less embarrassment on the score of clothing. a native queen or maharanee rules parigi from her bamboo palace in the deepest recesses of the adjacent palm-forest, but she is invisible to her subjects, and dwells in the seclusion of _purdah_, possibly a relic of indian origin. her nominal authority proves insufficient to keep the peace between the native population and the dutch, for parigi has been for months in a state of insurrection and unrest. only a year ago a raid was made on the eurasian merchant's office wherein i take shelter from the noonday sun, and two white men were attacked by a band who rushed down from the mountains and cut off their heads. the ringleader of the assassins is now imprisoned for life in the gaol of batavia, no capital punishment being permitted in the netherlands india. an immense cargo of _copra_ and rattan fills a fleet of boats and rafts. the great stacks of cane cause no annoyance, but the sickening smell of _copra_ (the dried and shredded cocoanut used for oil) pervades the ship, and an occasional cockroach of crab-like dimensions clatters across the deck in his coat of mail from a hiding place in the unsavoury cargo. the philosophic hollander accepts these horrors of the tropics with undisturbed composure, but happily for the peace of the english passenger, the malay "room-boy" welcomes a new idea, and becomes gradually inspired with the ardour of the chase. ominous clouds darken over the bay of tomini as we embark once more on the rolling waters, having completed the circuit of the vast island, possessing a coast-line of 2,500 miles. blue peaks and waving palms recede into the mists of falling night. we are once more afloat on a sleeping sea, the restful monotony of wind and wave enabling indelible impressions of each varying scene to sink deeply into mind and memory, and preventing the too rapid succession of travelling experiences. a glimpse of borneo. an element of uncertainty attends the cruise among the malayan islands, through sudden orders to include strange ports of call in the programme of the route. during the stay at makassar, a cable from batavia necessitates a flying visit to borneo, and though the détour was made from the western coast of celebes, the great sister island demands a special notice. in steaming thither through the radiant glory of an equatorial sunset, strange atmospheric effects denote fresh variations of climate and temperature. the rounded horizon, which suggests the rim of the terrestrial globe, seems within a stone's throw of the ship, and as the crimson sun sinks below the sharply-defined curve outlined by the sea, a glowing hearth of smouldering embers appears burning on the edge of the water. the eastern sky blooms into vivid pink from the reflection of this fiery incandescence, which fades only to give place to the leaping brightness of phosphorescent waves, and the nightly pageant of tropical skies ablaze with lambent flames of summer lightning. morning reveals the dark forests of mysterious borneo, rolling back to the misty blue of a mountain background. the pathless jungles of teak and iron wood, inextricably tangled by ropes of liana or ladders of rattan, latticed with creepers and wreathed with clambering fern, make an impenetrable barrier between the settlements of the coast and the unknown interior, where barbarism still reigns triumphant, and "head-hunting" remains the traditional sport. insurmountable difficulties of transit and progress are reported, even by the few enthusiastic botanists, who merely penetrate the outworks of nature's stronghold in search of rare orchids, worth more than a king's ransom if we take into account the sacrifice of life, and the hardships suffered in wresting these floral gems from their forest casket. any complete exploration of these tropical wilds seems at present beyond human means and capacities, but even a few months of the soil and climate of borneo can transform a forest clearing into a wilderness of riotous vegetation, more impassable than that woodland maze of a century's growth encircling the palace of the sleeping beauty in the loveliest of old-world fairy tales. our present quest has no connection with the mysteries of the interior, and only concerns itself with the prosaic task of taking in a cargo of oil, used as the ship's fuel. we steam into a wooded bay, beneath a hill covered with the brown _atap_ bungalows of european colonists. colossal oil-tanks, painted red, disfigure the shore. each tank holds 4,000 tons of oil, 30,000 tons per month being the usual export. kerosene taints the air, but is considered to be innocuous, and to drive away the curse of mosquitos. the unimaginable and ferocious heat makes every step a terror, during a snail's progress up a wooded road. sun-hat and white umbrella scarcely mitigate the scorching rays on this perilous promenade, but there is only a day at disposal, and it cannot be wasted. towards noon a breeze springs up, and exploration of the long line of _tokos_ beyond the wharves is simplified by the spreading eaves of palm-leaf thatch. a row of workmen's dwellings forms a prosaic continuation of the _campong_, inhabited by a mixed population, chiefly imported to balik-papan in the interests of the oil trade. a chance rencontre with the scotch doctor of the european settlement affords an opportunity of visiting the oil refinery, with the varied distillations, culminating in the great tank of benzine, a concentration of natural forces like a liquid dynamite, capable of wrecking the whole settlement in a moment. endless precautions and vigilant care alone secure the safety of balik-papan from the perils incidental to the vast stores of explosive material. the raw petroleum brought from the mines of samarinda, farther down the coast, by a fleet of _hoppers_ (the local steamers which ply round the indented shore), is extracted by boring a stratum of coal known as "antichine," and always containing indications of mineral oil. dutch and english companies work this valuable product; fortunes are quickly made, and the industrious inhabitants, absorbed in dreams of a golden future, appear untroubled by any consciousness of metaphorically sleeping on the brink of a volcano. iced soda-water, and a brief siesta, revive drooping spirits after the broiling exertions of the morning, and as the shadows of the palm-trees lengthen on the edge of the jungle, it becomes possible to mount the hill behind the wharf to the picturesque bungalow of another kindly scot, who invites me to tea. the pretty tropical dwelling of plaited _atap_, through which every precious breath of air can penetrate, stands in the midst of a gorgeous thicket, composed of scarlet hybiscus and yellow allemanda, the splendid blossoms growing in wild luxuriance on this sandy soil. the glare of the sun still requires the _atap_ screens to be closed on the broad-eaved verandah, but the freshness of the evening breeze steals into the twilight of the pretty drawing-room, the simple but refined appointments of a restful home intensely refreshing after weeks of ship and hotel existence. the fragrant tea, with dainty cups and saucers, and the home-made cakes, seem almost forgotten luxuries, for the amenities of british civilisation stop short at singapore. a cheery party assembles round the table, and these exiles on a foreign shore extend the warmest of welcomes to the stray bird of passage, who will soon leave behind only the shadowy "remembrance of a guest who tarrieth but a day." the idea so familiar to the self-seeking spirit, that "it is not worth while" to trouble about a passing acquaintance, finds no echo in this hospitable coterie. to the visitor, the bright hours of that afternoon, ten thousand miles away from england, remain as an evergreen memory of genuine human sympathy, the true "touch of nature" linking hearts and lives. a long walk through the encroaching jungle fills up the day. the narrow track skirts dark depths of matted foliage, with strange bird-calls echoing through the gloom. the phenomenal growth of vegetation in borneo is so rapid that a month's neglect in cutting back branches, and rooting up masses of strangling creeper, would entirely obliterate the path. in six months a tree, supposed to be cut down beyond possibility of resurrection, lately shot up to the height of seventeen feet, with a girth of several inches in diameter, so tenacious is the exuberant life of this irrepressible vegetation, eternally renewing itself in immortal strength and primeval freshness. from the edge of the sombre jungle the azure bay, set in the dark frame of forest and gilded with sunset light, resembles a scotch loch at midsummer, and the poignant counterpart brings a sigh to the lips of my companion, exiled for years from his highland home. a long slow river, navigable for native craft, widens into an estuary as it approaches the sea, through the shadowy and impenetrable mazes of the virgin woods traversed by the winding waterway. the dyaks and other wild aborigines of borneo still haunt the forest depths, though the fringe of civilisation drives them further inland, and some of the local sultans begin to fraternise with the settlers, who alone can develope the riches of the extensive island. at present the northern territory of sarawak, successfully governed by an alien race, finds no adequate counterpart on the island, though coast towns, springing up at wide intervals, open small districts to the enterprise of the european world. balik-papan, rising tier above tier on the dark hillside, and brilliant with a multitude of flashing lights, looks picturesque as naples itself, when we steam away in the gathering gloom, and the dazzling illumination, reflected in the tranquil sea, appears a miraculous transfiguration. oil tanks and warehouses, refineries and factories, vanish under the veil of night, and only a fairy vision of unearthly brightness remains as a final recollection of our brief visit to borneo. the moluccas. ternate, batjan, and boeroe. the birds of paradise (known by the malay as _manuk devata_, "birds of god") were traditionally represented as lured from their celestial home by the spicy perfume of these enchanted isles, from whence perpetual incense steals across the sea, and rises heavenward with intoxicating fragrance. a dutch naturalist in 1598 says, "these birds of the sun live in air, and never alight until they die, having neither feet nor wings, but fall senseless with the fragrance of the nutmeg." linnaeus asserts that "they feed on the nectar of flowers, and show an equal variety of colour, blue and yellow, orange and green, red and violet." portuguese naturalists also represent the _passaros de sol_ as footless, their mode of flight concealing the extremities. birds of paradise were articles of tribute from native chiefs, and a sacred character belonged to the feathered tribe, wheeling between earth and sky above the spicy groves of the alluring moluccas. this island group, for ages the coveted prize of european nations, exercised an irresistible attraction on arabia and persia. various expeditions were organised, and in the ninth century arab sages discovered the healing virtues of nutmeg and mace, as anodynes, embrocations, and condiments. a record remains of a certain ibn amram, an arabian physician, whose uncontrolled passion for the _nux moschata_ overthrew his reason. the story, continually quoted as a warning to subsequent explorers of the spice islands, has apparently kept his memory green, for no previous details of his career have come down to us. eastern spices were favourite medicines in persia during the tenth century, and fifty years later the _karoun aromatikon_ was added to the pharmacopeia of europe. in a.d. 1400, genoa and barcelona became the principal spice markets, though the attention of northern europe had been directed to the moluccas by those voyages of marco polo which, especially in lands of fog and snow, fired popular imagination with myriad visions of realised romance. camöens, in the lusiad, chanted the praises of the _verde noz_ in those poetic groves, which he regarded as a new garden of hesperides, when the magic lure of an untravelled distance, and the dreamful wonder of an untracked horizon, wove their spells over the mind of an awakening world. powers of observation and comparison were still untrained and untried; superstition was rife, and a necromantic origin was frequently ascribed to the unfamiliar products of the mystic east. portugal, in the zenith of her maritime power, became the first european trader in the southern seas, and in a.d. 1511 albuquerque reached the moluccas, but was quickly followed by the spaniards under their great emperor charles v. incessant war continued for the possession of "the gold-bearing trees," until spain and portugal, united by a common danger, combined their forces to exclude the northern nations from any share in the coveted spoil. the rage for spices spread throughout europe, and kindled a fire of international animosity which lasted for centuries. in a.d. 1595 the unwieldy dutch ships started on a perilous voyage round the cape, to trace the unknown path to the mysterious moluccas, described as "odorous with trees of notemuge, sending of their fragrance across the sea on the softe breath of the south winde," and holland, at the climax of her power, eventually secured the monopoly of spices. the islands so fiercely contested were twice owned by england, but finally relinquished in that readjustment of power necessitated by the fall of napoleon. although the moluccas were declared open to the flag of every friendly nation in 1853, it was not until twenty years later that every vestige of monopoly disappeared, and the spice islands were liberated from the political chicanery of rival powers. peace brooded at last over the sea-girt elysium, where "nature tries her finest touch," and in the green shades of these "ultimate islands," the tumult of the world died away into silence. old german and flemish ballads borrow quaint anachronisms from that sylvan sanctuary of incense-laden sweetness, which coloured the thoughts and dreams of contemporary poets, and added exotic traits to their descriptions of northern scenery. "the nutmeg boughs in the garden of love," droop over the fair-haired teutonic maiden in her home amid german pine-forests, and she gathers "the scented fruit of gold," as a worthy _gage d'amour_ for her stalwart saxon lover, with that picturesque incongruity of poetical license permitted to mediæval versifiers. the canvas of many an early painter depicts the sacred figures of madonna and child on an incongruous background of german or italian landscape, and the mediæval poet seldom hesitates to enrich his verse with whimsical allusions, full of fantastical inaccuracy, but valuable as revelations of current thoughts and ideas. only a slight sketch of the prolonged conflict waged for centuries round the nutmeg groves of the remote moluccas is possible in this little record, but even the briefest account of the spice islands demands mention of evidence proving the value attached to the precious "fruit of gold," then outweighing every other product of tropical climes in popular estimation. three volcanic peaks tower up before us on reaching ternate, the first of the molucca group. this mountain chain includes types representing every period of volcanic agency. the smoking cone of ternate slopes in sweeping contours to the blue strait unbroken by bay or creek, and smaller satellites flank the central height, grooved by wooded gorges. the serrated ridge of tidore, the opposite island, culminates in the red pinnacle formed by a fresh pyramid of lava above the ruined wall of a broken crater, the gap creating a sheltered inlet, where a fishing boat with yellow sails skims like a huge butterfly across the shimmering purple of the flowing tide. the fretted turquoise of the further range rises on the great island of halmaheira, inhabited by an alfoer population of papuan origin, but beyond the scope of the present cruise. the port of ternate, on the southern slope of the volcano, shows the pointed gables of palm-thatched dwellings rising from masses of glorious greenery, brightened by purple torrents of bougainvillea, or golden-flowered ansena trees, wreathed and roped with a gorgeous tangle of many-coloured creepers. the breath of heavily-scented flowers mingles with the pungent sweetness of clove and nutmeg. an avenue of dadap trees skirts the shore, with varied foliage of amber and carmine. the dark figures sauntering in the shade, and clad in rose-colour, azure, or orange, add deeper notes to the symphony of colour, only marred by the white-washed dutch conventicle, like an emphatic protest against nature's response to her creator. ruined arches and pillars of white portuguese houses, standing in a wilderness of verdure amid tumbled heaps of stone and concrete, testify to the earthquakes which have continually wrecked the little port. the mixed population includes chinese, arabs, and malays. the original native race also contains malay, dutch, and portuguese elements, european descent resulting here as elsewhere in darkening the native brown of the pure-blooded ternatian to ebony blackness in the second and succeeding generations. the discovery of an english-speaking schoolmistress simplifies the day's itinerary, which begins with the thatched palace or _kedaton_ of the sultan. the tiered roofs of the royal _messighit_ rise above the _atap_ dwellings of the rustic court, still professing a slack mohammedanism. the dutch territory includes the chinese and oriental _campongs_ divided by fort orange, but though the palmy days of ternate's hereditary ruler have long since passed away, he retains a shadowy authority over a limited area. sir francis drake, on one of his romantic voyages, touched at ternate in the early days of the 16th century, and in graphic words records his amazement at "the fair and princely show" of this barbaric potentate, who sat robed in cloth of gold, beneath a gold-embroidered canopy, and wore "a crown of plaited golden links." chains of diamonds and emeralds clasped his swarthy neck, and on the royal right hand "there shone a big and perfect blue turky." this regal splendour was attained by monopoly of the spice trade, the incalculable profits inducing europeans to exchange fortunes of gold and jewels with native magnates. the dutch, when seizing the islands, often compelled the local sultans to destroy acres of spice-bearing trees, in order to concentrate the focus of commerce. the thriving industries of _copra_, rattan, and _damar_ (the gum used in making varnish) were increased tenfold by the abolition of private spice-trading, and by emancipation of the slaves in 1861, when the dutch government placed the liberated population under police surveillance, compelling each individual to prove honest acquirement of the slender means necessary for subsistence. contact with the world begins to sharpen native intelligence, already heightened by the fusion of european blood with the island race, and external cleanliness being enforced systematically in dutch territory, the concrete cottages which alternate with the thatched dwellings are dazzlingly white, the diligent sweeping and watering at fixed hours helping to energise the indolent people of the moluccas. the warm air, redolent of spices and flowers, the riotous profusion of richest foliage, and the depth of colour in sea and sky, imbue ternate with the glow and glamour of fairyland. bright faces and gay songs manifest that physical _joie de vivre_ of which northern nations know so little. the grass screens hanging before the open houses are drawn to keep off the burning sun, but the twang of lutes (a relic of the portuguese occupation), and the sound of laughter echo from the dusky interiors. a forest of mangos, mangosteens, bread-fruit, and cocoa-palms, extends between the town and fort teloko, the first portuguese stronghold, and now a rocky outpost of fort orange, the headquarters of the dutch troops. beyond shadowy nutmeg groves lies the laguna, a volcanic lake between mountain and sea. in the poetic moluccas one draws closer to the warm heart of nature than in any other part of the vast archipelago, for the great mother seems calling her children to rest, as she raises the veil from her inmost shrine and discloses her altar of peace. the presence of the smoking volcano which dominates the landscape, supplies that poignant note which, like a minor chord, accentuates the sweetness of the melody. "gather ye roses while ye may," sounds nature's admonition to humanity amid the lavish loveliness of blossom and foliage, clothing the mysterious height which hides the smouldering fountains of eternal fire beneath the vivid splendours of tropical vegetation. the population of ternate--native, malay, dutch, and half-caste--throngs the wharf; the pretty schoolmistress, in spotless muslin, waves a smiling farewell. though we are to each other but as "ships that pass in the night," the memory of cheery words and gracious deeds throws rays of light across the surging seas, and the golden cord of kindness anchors heart to heart. passengers are few from these remote parts. a dutch officer, with a half-caste wife and two unruly children, whose violent outbreaks would even give points to the juvenile english of british india, are returning from a three years' exile at ternate. the incompetence of malay nurses is equalled by the maternal indifference to kicking and squealing, which threatens pandemonium for the remainder of the voyage. at the last moment the native sultan of batjan embarks for his island home, after commercial negotiations in ternate, for this native prince, a keen-faced man in european dress and scarlet turban, trades largely in _damar_, the basis of his wealth. when at anchor next morning in the wooded bay of batjan, the green state barge of his highness, with drums beating and banners flying, flashes through the water, the blades of the large green oars shaped like lotus-leaves. a horse's head carved at the prow, and a line of floating pennants--red, black, and white--above the gilded roof of the deck-house, enhance the barbaric effect of the gaudy boat, the brown rowers clad in white, with gay scarves and turbans. although our ship possesses a launch, various modes of landing are required by the vagaries of the tide, the outlying reefs, and the position of the ports. a wobbling erection of crossed oars, a plank insecurely poised on the shoulders of two men, a rocking _bloto_, and an occasional wade to shore, with shoes and stockings in hand, vary the monotony of the proceedings. landing at batjan is accomplished in a chair, borne aloft on two woolly black heads, but the shore, being cut off by a crowd of fishing craft, can only be reached by sundry scrambles over intermediate boats. the sultan's modest mansion stands in the midst of the palm-thatched _campong_, ostensibly guarded by a grey fort, among rustling bamboos and tall sugar-canes. a friendly native offers me a palm-leaf basket, filled with nutmeg sprays of glossy leaves and yellow fruit from a roadside plantation, and a tribe of children, dancing along through the delicious shade of a palm-grove, leads the way to a point of view on a green knoll, with merry laughter and eager gesticulation. blue mountain crests soar above dark realms of virgin forest, where the sombre conifers exude the precious _damar_, which glues itself to the red trunks in shining lumps often of twenty pounds' weight, or sinks deeply into the soft soil, from whence the solidified gum needs excavation. the _damar_, pounded and poured into palm-leaf tubes, serves for the torches of the fishermen, and for the lighting of the dusky native houses. batjan--rich in gold, copper, and coal--awaits full development of the mineral treasures hidden in the mountains of the interior. the island was colonised in early days by a band of wandering malays, who exchanged the perils of the sea for the tropical abundance of this unknown anchorage, sheltered within the reefs of the lagoon-like bay. if an aboriginal element existed in batjan, it probably died out or mingled with the immigrant race, which broke off from the main body of the nomadic malays, and formed one of the numerous sub-divisions of the stock eventually planted on almost every island and continent of the vast pacific. the weaving of a bark cloth, stained with the red juice of water-plants, suggests an industry of these early days. the native cuisine still includes the unfamiliar malay delicacy of flying fox cooked in spice, and the hereditary skill in hunting finds endless satisfaction in forests abounding with deer, wild pig, and edible birds. a touch of barbarism lends a charm to mysterious batjan, and the marked individuality which belongs to every portion of the molucca group is nowhere more apparent than in this island, which lies on the borderland of civilisation without losing the distinctive character stamped upon it by the influences of an immemorial past. crescent-shaped boeroe, where difficulties in landing involve launch, _bloto_, and paddling through a long reach of shallow water to a black swamp, possesses a commercial rather than an artistic value, being the only place in the archipelago which exports eucalyptus oil, locally known as _kajopoetah_. a fleet of _praus_, with graceful masts of bending bamboo, surrounds the steamer, the aromatic cargo packed in long bamboo cases. the head-man of the _campong_, lightly attired in his native brown, with a few touches of contrasting colour in scarf and turban, acts as escort through a maze of weedy paths, and across bamboo bridges in various stages of dilapidation to a couple of dreary villages. the religious interests of boeroe are represented by two ruinous _messighits_, and a deplorable dutch conventicle. some hindu element underlies native idiosyncracy, for nearly every forehead bears a white prayer-mark, but the unchanging conservatism of localities almost untouched by the lapse of time, often retains symbolic forms when their original meaning is entirely forgotten, and the lack of missionary or educational enterprise among the dutch exercises a paralysing effect on the small communities of distant islands. only a relative poverty belongs to a clime where the shaking of a sago-palm provides a large family with rations for three months, but the physical energies of boeroe have ebbed to a point where "desire fails," and the unsatisfactory conditions of life meet for the most part with apathetic acceptance. the marshy coast abounds with harmless snakes, but these gruesome inmates of the tropical morass seldom leave their hiding-places before sunset. the presence of the steamer awakens a faint simulacrum of life and interest in sleepy boeroe, and a native woman, in the rusty black calico wherewith dutch calvinism counteracts the eastern love of glowing colours, brings a rickety chair from her dingy hut, and sets the precious possession under a shadowy nutmeg-tree in the village street. a little crowd assembles, for local excitements are few, and the malay phrase-book, an inseparable companion, aids in carrying on a halting conversation, eked out with signs and facial contortions. no school is found on boeroe, and the simple people assert with submissive sadness that nothing is done for them. the tone of regret suggests an underlying consciousness of the hopeless ignorance inevitable under the conditions of their narrow lot. the watery plain, covered with tangled verdure, extends to the foot of the twin peaks which merge into a low range of wooded hills, their lower slopes glistening with the grey-green foliage of the great _kajopoetah_ trees. the writhing roots of screw-palms rise above the green marshes, and patches of tobacco alternate with ripening millet, but every crop seems allowed to degenerate into unpruned disorder, and the feeble attempts at cultivation soon lapse into the surrounding wilderness. the ruddy trunk of the candelabra-tree towers above the ferns and oil-palms of the tall undergrowth, the glossy sword-like leaves, often ten feet long, being woven into the _cocoyas_, or sleeping mats, peculiar to boeroe. the whistle of the steamer proves a welcome summons from this melancholy island, a solitary exception to the divine beauty and irresistible witchery of the molucca group. ambon. the fiord-like bay of ambon flows into the heart of the fragrant clove island, between the peninsulas of heitor and léitemor, which gradually ascend from the harbour's mouth until their heights of glowing green merge into wooded mountains, behind the white town of amboyna. this old european settlement ranks as the tiny capital of the molucca group. _praus_ and fishing smacks dot the blue inlet with tawny sails and curving masts, the local craft varied by a fantastic barque from the barbarous ké isles, with pointed yellow beak and plume of crimson feathers at the prow, suggesting some tropical bird afloat upon the tide. the glossy darkness of the clove plantations enhances the paler tints of the prevailing foliage, and the virginal tints of the sylvan scenery indicate a climate of perpetual spring. thatched roofs, and walls of plaited palm-leaf, stand among white-washed cottages of coral concrete, for low houses, or slight material, afford comparative security against collapse by earthquake. the brown population throngs the pier, and a little fleet of _dug-outs_ escorts the steamer through the bay with gay songs and merry laughter, for the lively ambonese value every link that binds them to the outside world, and this is their gala day. bold, eager, craving for foreign intercourse, and possessing the quickened intelligence due to the mixture of dutch and portuguese blood with the native strain, a roving spirit of adventure counteracts the lazy independence of a life where daily needs are supplied without exertion. the sea swarms with fish, the woods teem with sago, and cultivation of the clove procures extra wages when any special purpose requires them. the portuguese who colonised ambon, in the zenith of their maritime power, were of vigorous stock, and the mental heritage of the island was permanently enriched by elements derived from a foreign source. the ambonese soldiers of the netherlands india manifest a courageous and warlike character; their rate of payment equals that of their european brothers-in-arms, and in the raids or skirmishes frequent throughout the wild districts of celebes and sumatra they play a spirited part. the burghers of ambon show more of the dutch element in their composition. the island, christianised in the dreary mode of calvinistic holland, accepts in half-hearted fashion the creed so incongruous with tropical nature. dutch missionaries, waging aimless war against brightness and colour, arrayed their brown converts in funereal gloom. the sunday attire of the men consists of black calico coats down to the heels, and flopping black trousers. the women wear a shapeless gown of the same shabby and shiny material, with a white scarf dangling from the left arm. these blots on the brilliancy of the scene produce a curious impression when approaching the wharf, where the native bronze of children and coolies, the blue robes of chinamen, and the gay turbans of mohammedans, blend harmoniously with the scheme of colour in flower and foliage. the _praus_ which follow in our wake make ready the rustic malay anchor, a forked branch of stout timber, strengthened by twisted rattan, which also secures the stone cross-piece. this relic of a distant past can scarcely have changed since the days when the wandering tribe first launched upon the blue waters of the pacific, in that mysterious voyage which moulded the destinies of the malay race. a rudimental feeling for art co-exists with imperfect civilisation, and elaborate carving adorns rude skiffs, floats of fishing lines, and even wooden beaters of the clay used in native pottery. a dervish, in turban of flaming orange and garb of green and white, beats a huge drum in the pillared court of a large mosque, for the followers of the prophet are numerous, and though the usual deadly conventicle occupies a conspicuous place, it produces no effect on the arab element. the son of the dutch pastor who, after his grim fashion, christianised the former generation, proves better than his condemnatory creed, and acts as personal conductor to the sights of amboyna. after a rest in the flower-wreathed verandah of his home, and a chat with his kindly half-caste wife, we visit the gilded and dragon-carved mansion of a leading chinese merchant, friendly, hospitable, and delighted to exhibit his household gods, both in literal and figurative form. a visit to the joss temple follows, liberally supported by this smiling celestial, whose zeal and charity may perchance plead for him in that purer sanctuary not made with hands, and as yet unrevealed to his spiritual sight. the appalling green and vermilion deities who guard the temple courts, indicate fear as the chosen handmaid of faith in this grotesque travesty of religion, but the costly tiling of violet and azure, the rich gilding of the curling eaves terminating in scarlet dragons, and the deeply-chiselled ebony, falling like a veil of thick black lace before the jade and porphyry shrines, prove that even the despised chinaman offers of his best to the divinity dimly apprehended by his darkened soul. the large malay school of amboyna manifests an educational position in advance of the smaller islands, and knowledge of the wider world beyond the archipelago stimulates the spirit of enterprise inherited in different degrees and varying conditions, both from malay and portuguese ancestry. a dilapidated carriage is chartered with difficulty, as only three vehicles belong to the island, and the driver evidently expects his skeleton steed to collapse at any pace quicker than a walk. the green lanes, with their hedges of scarlet hybiscus overhung by the feathery foliage of tamarind and bamboo, wind along the shore, and penetrate into the depths of the hills. rustling sago-palms sway their tall plumes on the mountain side, and shadow luxuriant clove gardens, their pungent aroma mingling with nutmeg and cinnamon to steep the soft sea-wind in a wealth of perfume. european houses of white stone nestle among palm and tamarind, the broad seats flanking the central door, and the bulging balconies of old dutch style recalling the 16th century dwellings on the canal banks of distant holland, but the crow-stepped gable here gives place to the flat roof. every green garden contains a refuge of interwoven _gaba-gaba_ stalks, as a retreat during earthquakes, when the overthrow of the flimsy arbour would entail no injury, though it serves as a shelter from the torrential rains which often accompany volcanic disturbances. a wayside stall of palm-thatched bamboo provides _sageroe_ for thirsty pilgrims. this fermented beverage often excites the ambonese nature to frenzy, though only made from the juice of the _arên_ or sugar palm. the brown dame who presides over the bamboo buckets, in her eagerness to honour a white customer, wipes an incredibly dirty tumbler on her gruesome calico skirt before dipping the precious glass into the foaming pail, and tastes the draught by way of encouragement. with some difficulty she is induced to wash the tumbler, and to omit the last reassuring ceremony. the _sageroe_, sweet and refreshing, gains tonic properties from an infusion of quassia, which sharpens the flavour and strengthens the compound, packed in bamboo cases or plaited palm-leaf bags for transport to the neighbouring islands. a grey fort, and weather-worn government offices, flank the green _aloon-aloon_ of amboyna, surrounded by tamarind avenues. the dutch resident finds ample employment, owing to the mania for litigation among the ambonese. the honour of appearing before a court of justice is eagerly sought, and imaginary claims or grievances are constantly invented in order to satisfy the ambition for publicity. a modest and retiring temperament forms no part of native equipment, and the slight veneer of christianity, in the crudest phase of dutch protestantism, increases the aggressive tendency. the missionary agencies of calvinistic holland seem incapable of practical sympathy with the island people; but half a loaf is better than no bread, and in any form of christian faith the heavenly husbandman scatters grains of wheat among the tares, that all his wandering children may reap a share of harvest gold even from a stubborn and sterile soil. amboyna shows signs of commercial prosperity in the crowded _passer_ and the busy chinese _campong_, for the enterprising celestial forms an important element of the mercantile community in the clove island. three memorial tablets erected in front of the hoary fort, the bare dutch church, and the crumbling guard-house, record the worthy name of padrugge, a dutch governor who restored amboyna after complete destruction by a violent earthquake, that ever-haunting terror within the great volcanic chain of the malay archipelago. the steep acclivity behind the palm-shaded park of the residency contains a stalactite grotto, infested by a multitude of bats, which cling to the sparkling pendants of the fretted roof, unless disturbed by the ambonese coolies, who regard them as culinary delicacies, and catch them in this ancient breeding-place, with a noise which brings down the terrified creatures into unwelcome proximity, cutting short any attempts at exploration, and causing rash intruders to beat a hasty retreat. in the hush of dawn, when the intensity of calm steals colour as well as sound from the motionless waters, we embark on an expedition to the _zeetuinen_, or sea gardens, the fairy world of the coral reefs, revealed through the magic mirror of the watery depths. as we gaze steadily through the silvery blue of the glassy sea, a misty vision of vague outline and shifting colour materialises into an enchanted forest, and appears rising towards the surface. coral trees, pink and white, gold and green, orange and red, wave interlacing branches of lace-like texture and varying form, above the blue water-ways which divide the tremulous masses of rainbow-tinted foliage. the sinuous channels expand at intervals into quiet pools, bordered with azure and purple sea-stars, or studded with clumps of yellow lilies, spotted and striped with carmine. a circle of rock, enclosing a miniature lake, blazes with rose and scarlet anemones, and the boat, floating over the wilderness of marine vegetation, pauses above a coral growth, varied in form as any tropical woodland. majestic trees, of amber and emerald hue, stand with roots muffled in fading fern, or sunk in perforated carpets of white sponge, and huge vegetable growths or giant weeds, lustrous with metallic tints of green and violet, fill clefts and ravines of coral rock. a grove of sea-palms mimics the features of the upper world, as though nature obeyed some mysterious law of form, lying behind her operations, to regulate expression and bring order out of chaos. giant bunches of black and mauve grapes, like the pictured spoils of the promised land, lie on soft beds of feathery moss, but the familiar greens of the velvety carpet shade into orange and pink. a weird marine plant shoves long black stems, crowned with a circle of azure blue eyes, which convey an uncanny sensation of being regarded with sleepless vigilance by mysterious sentinels, transformed and spellbound in ocean depths. tree-fern and hart's-tongue show verdant fronds, flushed with autumnal red or gold, and a dense growth of starry flowers suggests a bed of many-coloured tulips. dazzling fish dart through the crystal depths. a shoal of scarlet and green parrot-fish pursue a tribe striped with blue and orange. gold-fish flash like meteors between uplifted spears of blood-red coral, and the glittering scales of myriads, splashed with ruby, or flecked with amethyst, reflect the colours of the gorgeously-frilled and rosetted anemones in parterres between red coral crags. tresses of filmy green floating from the mouth of a cavern, suggest a mermaid's hair, and her visible presence would scarcely add to the wonders in this under-world of glamour and mystery. shells, pink and pearly, brown and lilac, scarlet and cobalt, strew the flower-decked floor with infinite variety, concave and spiral, ribbed and fluted, fretted and jagged--the satin smoothness of convoluted forms lying amid rugged shapes bristling with spines and needles. we gaze almost with awe at the lovely vision of a dainty nautilus, sailing his fairy boat down a blue channel fringed with purple and salmon-coloured anemones, beneath a hedge of rosy coral. the shimmering sail and carven hull of iridescent pearl skim the water with incredible swiftness, and tack skilfully at every bend of the devious course, not even slackening speed to avoid collision with a lumbering star-fish encountered on the way. these submarine gardens contain the greatest natural collection of anemones, coral beds, shells, and fish, discovered in the ocean world. the richest treasures of davy jones's locker lie open to view, as the boat glides through the ever-changing scenery mirrored in the transparent sea. opalescent berries resemble heaps of pearls, and the lemon stalks of marine sedge gleam like wedges of gold in the crystalline depths. the long oars detach pinnacles of coral like tongues of flame, and a cargo of seaweed, shells, and anemones, fills the boat as each enchanted grotto contributes a quota of treasure trove, but the vivid colouring fades apace when the sea-born flora leaves the native element, and the deep blue eyes, gazing from their dark stems with weird human effect, lose their radiance in the upper world. we land at the pretty valley of halong, where a rippling brook traverses a wood of sago-palms, and falls in a white cascade over the rocks of a sheltered bathing-pool, screened by green curtains of banana and tall mangosteens, laden with purple fruit. makassar-trees rain their yellow blossoms into the water, cloves fill the air with pungent fragrance, and lychees droop over the clear current. a melancholy malay song floats up from the sea, but the sad sweet notes only accentuate the haunted silence of the fairy glen, with an echo from that distant past which breathes undying music round these enchanted isles. woodland shadows and wayside palms disclose the sweeping horse-shoe curves of numerous chinese tombs, the white stone elaborately carved and covered with hieroglyphics. plumy cocoanut and tremulous tamarind wave over the last resting-places of these exiles from the holy land of the celestial empire, for the second generation established on an alien soil is forbidden to seek burial in china. the so-called _paranak_ of the malay archipelago frequently marries a native wife, and, as purity of race becomes destroyed, ancestral obligations lose their power even over the mind of the most conservative people in the world. the woods of ambon teem with the abundant bird-life peculiar to the moluccas. an exquisite kingfisher, with golden plumage and emerald throat, darts across the stream, and the scarlet crests of green parrots resemble tropical flowers, glowing amidst the verdant foliage hardly distinguishable from the fluttering wings of the feathered tribe, which includes twenty-two species indigenous to the islands. the megapodius or mound-maker, an ash-coloured bird about the size of a small fowl, grasps sand or soil in the hollow of a powerful claw, and throws it backwards into mounds six feet high, wherein the eggs are deposited, to be hatched by this natural incubator, through the heat of the vegetable matter contained in the rubbish heap. the young birds work their way through the mound, and run off at once into the forest, where they start on an independent career. they emerge from their birthplace covered with thick down and provided with fully-developed wings. the maternal instinct of the megapodius ceases with the laying of eggs, and, having supplied a safe cradle for the rising generation, she takes no further thought for her precocious progeny, capable of securing a livelihood in the unknown world from the moment of their first appearance in public. a merry group, half-hidden in the shadows of clustering sago-palms, gathers the harvest of precious grain, the pith of a large tree producing thirty bundles, each of thirty pounds weight. the baking of the sago-cakes made from this lavish store occupies two women for five days, and the housekeeping cares of the largest family only need quarterly consideration in this island of plenty, where the struggle for the necessaries of existence is unknown and unimaginable. leisure and liberty, those priceless gifts which can only be attained where the pressure of poverty is unfelt, serve valuable purposes in ambonese hands, for the european energies fused into the native race prevent mental stagnation, and spur tropical indolence to manifold activities. a variety of thriving industries belong to this far-off colony. mother-of-pearl shells, and _bêche-de-mer_ (the sea-slug of chinese cuisine) supplement the important export of the cloves, the speciality of ambon, chosen by the east india company as the sole place of cultivation for this spice-bearing tree, when the system of monopoly extirpated the clove gardens of the other islands. vases, mats, and miniature boats, of fringed and threaded cloves, are offered as fantastic souvenirs of amboyna, and the spirit of the place seems imprisoned in these tiny curios which revive so many haunting memories of the romantic island. nominal adherence to dutch calvinism fails to repress the natural instincts of a gay and pleasure-loving race. the national dance known as _menari_, and often performed on the shore in honour of the outgoing steamer, no longer satisfies ambonese requirements, with the slow gyrations and studied postures of oriental tradition. the eager and passionate temperament finds truer expression in the walzes and galops of european origin, known as _dansi-dansi_, enthusiastically practised on those festive occasions, when the full dress of funereal black and white seems specially inappropriate to the wild abandon of the merry-making populace. in sunny amboyna the cowl does not make the friar, and the last recollection of the little moluccan capital is a vision of whirling figures and twanging lutes at the water's edge, while the receding steamer furrows the milky azure of the land-locked bay. the vivid green of one palm-clad shore burns in the gold of sunset, but the eastern side lies veiled in shadow, and as the sheltered inlet gives place to the open sea, the luminous phosphorescence of the southern ocean bathes the rocky bastions of enchanted ambon in waves of liquid fire. a strange history belongs to the physical conformation of volcanic shores, alternately raised and depressed by the agitation of earth and sea. the coast-line has varied from time to time; straits have become lakes, islands have severed or united, occasionally rising suddenly from the waves, or vanishing in the bosom of the deep. geologists assert that the malay archipelago was originally thrown off by volcanic action from asia and australia, and that an interchange of animal and vegetable life has frequently taken place. hurricanes have uprooted forest trees, and floods have borne them out to sea, the tide eventually washing them up on the shores of distant islands. a fresh growth of foreign vegetation was thus inaugurated, as these sylvan colonists struck their saplings into an alien soil. insects, preserved by the bark, propagated themselves in new surroundings, and seeds drifting on the waves, or clinging to roots and fibres, wreathed unfamiliar shores with exotic flowers. animal migration has frequently been caused by natural catastrophes, and to birds directing their swift flight by faculties now attributed to keen observation rather than to unreasoning instinct, the change of locality was infinitely simplified. in the moluccas we may read a compendium of the wide-spread history which applies to the vast regions comprised in the mighty archipelago. the doctrine of earthly changes and chances, too often accepted as a mere figure of speech, is here recognised as a stern reality; the tragedies of destruction repeat themselves through the ages, the laboratories of nature eternally forge fresh thunderbolts, and the fate of humanity trembles in the balance. meanwhile a profusion of flowers wreathes the sacrificial altars, the fairest fruits ripen above the thin veil which hides the fountains of volcanic fire, and the sweetest spices of the world breathe incense on the air. the uncertain tenure of earthly joys gives them redoubled zest and poignancy, the passionate love of life becomes intensified by the looming shadows of death, and the light glows with clearer radiance against the blackness of the menacing thunder-cloud. banda. the exquisite islands of banda, dominated by the stately volcano of goenoeng api (the mountain of fire), form the climax of the enchanting moluccas. contour and colour reach their utmost grace and softest refinement in this ideal spot, a priceless jewel resting on the heart of the malay archipelago. the mists of dawn have scarcely lifted their gossamer veils from the dreaming sea, when the pinnacled rocks of rum and aye, the outposts of the banda group, pierce the swathing vapours. the creamy cliffs of swangi (the ghost island), traditionally haunted by the spirits of the departed, show their spectral outlines on the northern horizon, and the sun-flushed "wings of the morning" span the sapphire arch of heaven as we enter the sheltered gulf of the zonnegat, fringed by luxuriant woods clothing a mountain side, and brushing the water with a green fringe of trailing branches. gliding between cape lantaka and two isolated crags, the steamer enters a glassy lake, encircled by sylvan heights, with the menacing cone of the goenoeng api rising sheer from the water's edge. a white town climbs in irregular tiers up the shelving terraces of a fairy island, the central hill crowned by the crenellated battlements of a grey citadel. the largest ship can anchor close to shore, for the rugged boundaries of banda descend by steep gradients into the crystalline depths. chinese and arab _campongs_ border european streets of concrete houses, long and low, with flat roofs and external galleries. the southern shore of banda neira faces the forest-clad heights of great banda, clothed from base to summit with nutmeg trees, shadowed by huge kanaris, their interlacing canopies protecting the precious spice plantations from the sun. a slender rowing boat, known as a _belang_, makes a brilliant point of colour on the blue strait between the sister islands. red and yellow flags and pennants flutter above the green deck; the clash of gongs and cymbals echoes across the water, and a weird chant accompanies the rhythmic plash of the short oars, as the brown rowers toss them high in air, and bring them down with a sharp splash. a splendid avenue of kanari-trees extends along the shore, the usual dutch church symbolises the uncompromising grimness of calvinistic creed, and the crumbling fort of orange-nassau, the scene of many stirring incidents in the island past, adjoins the beautiful thatched bungalow of the resident, the broad eaves emerging from depths of richest foliage. a subterranean passage connects the deserted stronghold on the shore with fort belgica, the citadel now used as barracks, but formerly for the preservation of the nutmegs from the fierce raids of foreign powers, when the new-born passion for spices intoxicated the mind of the world, and kindled the fires of war between east and west. the lofty peak of the goenoeng api still smoulders, although the main crater is supposed to be extinct. the lower slopes, where not planted with vegetables by enterprising invaders from the island of boeton, abound with delicate ferns and rare orchids, for the fertility of the volcanic soil, rich in metallic ingredients, creates a luxuriant growth. sulphureous vapours rise continually from a plateau beneath the summit, where tumbled boulders of blackened lava lie sunken in deep layers of volcanic ash. banda neira evidently rose from the sea in some long-past eruption of the larger island, now the long ridge of a ruined crater which collapsed in a fierce outburst, and threw off the fragments of rock which compose the outer group. a curious fatalism characterises the inhabitants of volcanic districts, and the incalculable value of banda in the middle ages outweighed all risks of eruption and earthquake. the history of island colonisation by portugal, spain, and holland, forms a continuous record of battle, loot, and persecution, in which the native population was decimated, and even now the inhabitants would be quite insufficient to cultivate and gather the "golden fruit," without the aid of innumerable emigrants from java. hard measures were dealt out in order to maintain the monopoly of spices, and the injury to the native races, by destroying the nutmeg trees of the other islands, crippled the trade which had found a natural outlet in asia. all the nutmegs were sent to europe, but one-fifth of the yearly produce was diverted by smuggling into forbidden channels, though severe punishment was inflicted upon offenders. economic administration was unknown in the 17th and 18th centuries, but the holocaust of spices burnt in the market-place of amsterdam, and the extermination of the nutmeg trees in moluccan islands, sent a thrill of horror through the european world, which placed such an exaggerated value on the possession of spices that the wars waged to secure them breathe the romantic fanaticism of a wild crusade. monopoly and slavery were at length definitely abolished, and in 1873 the dutch government, realising the necessity of free trade, sanctioned the independence of the nutmeg planters. the far-seeing views of sir stamford raffles during the second brief english occupation of the moluccas, from 1810 to 1816, were disregarded in england (knowing little, and caring less, about the remote spice islands), though his counsels were eventually adopted by the dutch government as the only means of ensuring an increased profit. a high-prowed native boat, known as an _orembai_, plies across the narrow strait which separates the islands of banda neira and banda lonthar, or great banda. the long range of hills covered with a dense forest of the precious nutmeg trees, attains an ideal of sylvan scenery surpassing even the glorious palm-woods of java. these may be described in terms of comparative accuracy, and their beauty painted in realistic language, but none can translate into words the irresistible charm and glamour of the nutmeg aisles, the exquisite foliage and contours of the spice-bearing trees, the wealth of delicate blossom and peach-like fruit, and the flickering emerald light from hues shading through the whole gamut of colour, from the tender verdure of spring to the glossy darkness of winter evergreen. colossal kanari-trees, veritable monarchs of the forest, tower over the nutmegs, and form an unbroken roof of interlacing boughs, for the nutmeg, needing shelter to bring the fruit to perfection, is not suffered to attain a height of more than seventy feet. the columnar trunks of the majestic kanaris wreathe their huge girth with lace-like fern and broad-leaved epiphytal plants, and the symmetrical beauty of the conical nutmeg-trees in these forest aisles suggests a vast sanctuary of nature, enshrining the mystic presence of divinity. here, as amid the shades of unfallen eden, we can imagine a trysting-place of god and man in the perennial "cool of the day," which breathes through the green twilight of these solemn groves, redolent with the incense from myriad sprays of creamy blossom and ripened nuts in shells of pink-flushed amber, for flower and fruit deck the "gold-bearing tree" without intermission, and every day produces a fresh harvest of nutmegs. the brown kernel of the opening fruit, contained in a network of scarlet mace, falls to the ground in twenty-four hours, and unremitting care is needed in gathering and handling the nutmegs with the _gaai-gaai_, a long stick ending with a prong, to break off the ripe fruit into the woven basket accurately poised beneath the wooden fork. only the female trees yield the precious crop, and the highest point of production, attained at the twentieth year, continues undiminished through four subsequent decades, after which the strength of the average tree declines, although it often lives for a century. the cooing of the nutmeg pigeon, which feeds on the abundant fruit, echoes through the shadowy glades with soothing monotony. yellow canaries flit through the vivid green of the pointed foliage, and the scarlet crests of parrots glow through the dark canopies of the giant kanari-trees. the voices of children at play, the distant songs of the nutmeg-gatherers, the plash of the waves on the coral reef, and the scented breeze whispering in the green crowns of a million trees, blend in harmonious concord to fill the sylvan temple of tropical nature with mysterious music. at wide intervals the white houses of the planters gleam amid the drooping boughs, the prevailing green of the spacious woods relieved by the rosy purple of bougainvillea mantling a pillared verandah, or by great vases of crimson and yellow flowers, bordering broad flights of stone steps. life on a great nutmeg plantation retains patriarchal character and archaic charm; the multitude of dependents calls forth, in the present day at any rate, much of kindly solicitude, and though the unvarying sameness of existence sometimes proves the serpent which destroys the peace of the idyllic eden in young and eager hearts, the ramifications of the large family party, gathered under one roof, mitigate the monotony of daily tasks, and supply the necessary mental friction. work in the nutmeg-woods begin at 5 a.m., when a pealing bell summons the labourers to each plantation for their different duties of gathering the nuts, drying the mace, or sorting and liming the fruit. the beautiful forest constitutes the world of the nutmeg-gatherer, both for labour and recreation. in these dusky avenues youth and maiden tell each other love's eternal story, wandering away into the dreamland shadows, vocal with sweeter melody than that of bird or breeze. the musical call of the nutmeg-pigeon serves as a danger-signal, uttered by sympathising friends, when love must yield to life's stern realities in the person of the overseer. an ardent courtship often contributes to the rapid filling of the nutmeg-basket in the hand of a rustic beauty, whose admirers strive to secure for her the premium awarded for special diligence, and a judicious official learns on occasion to be conveniently deaf to the feigned voice of the _manoek faloer_. if the chivalrous zeal of the brown lover is apt to overleap frontiers, and to fill the baskets of one plantation with the produce of the other, the ethics of banda demonstrate the identity of human nature when swayed by the passion which, according to circumstances, wrecks troy or raids a nutmeg orchard. a story is told of a planter who, in consequence of engaging a bevy of attractive maidens for the year's work, was rewarded by a phenomenal harvest of nutmegs, though the adjacent estates were barren of fruit. evening shadows darken apace in the woodland world, and work ceases at three in the afternoon, when the store of gathered fruit is brought to the _pagger_, where drying and liming sheds surround the central warehouse. the nutmeg-pickers sort the ripe nuts in an open gallery before taking them to the drying-shed, where they are spread on a platform of split bamboo, twelve feet above a smouldering fire. the process continues for six weeks, the nuts being repeatedly turned until they begin to rattle. only a slow method of drying prevents the escape of the essential oil, necessary to the flavour of the fruit, which must afterwards be dipped in slaked lime to preserve it from insects. the coral-like mace contains a rich supply of aromatic balm, and when loosened from the nutmeg can be dried in the sun. the delicate scarlet branches, spread on wickerwork frames in open spaces of the woods, contrast vividly with the shaded verdure of the beautiful trees. the mace, trodden flat for facility in packing, resembles a dainty growth of finest seaweed, and in the 16th century shared popularity with the nutmeg which produced it. even in the present day a pewter spice box is an indispensable present on that sixth anniversary of a dutch marriage still known as "the pewter wedding," and a nutmeg-box, with a grater, remains as a favourite bridal gift, the fashion originating when the passion for spices first pervaded mediæval europe. trade, as well as science, wrote many chapters of romantic adventure in the long history of the world's social development, and modern thought but dimly realises the magnetic spell of the days when the veil was first lifted between east and west, and the wonders of untrodden shores disclosed to the pioneer. heine, in his _lieder_, chants of the mystic nutmeg-tree as the ideal growth of the tropical forest, for every stage of life and growth reveals some fresh beauty in delicate bloom, glistening foliage, and fruit of roseate gold. the spreading boughs, with their perfect contour and emerald depths of light and shadow, suggest a typical picture of that unfading tree of life in the midst of the earthly paradise, round which the passing ages weave innumerable dreams, while faith transplants it to a fairer garden than that of eden. where the winding woodland roads lead along the shore, colossal screw-palms and silver-flowered barringtonias border the rocks, the sparkling azure of the sea visible through the fantastic boughs, and the eternal song of the surf vibrating through the still air with mysterious undertones. the brown _campong_ of banda lonthar stands at the foot of the mossy steps which lead to the summit of the wooded range, and command a superb view of the island group. a further flight of stairs descends to the outside coast or achterval, but wherever we go, to quote the words of a modern traveller, "we may imagine ourselves transported to the holy groves whereof ancient poets sing." from the rich carpet of velvety moss and plumy fern to the green vault of the leafy roof, the eye for once seems "satisfied with seeing," for no hint of imperfection breaks the fairy spell of enchantment in this poetic nutmeg-forest. among serpentine kanari roots, which stream across the mossy turf as though poured out in liquid form and then petrified, we come across brown babies sleeping in the shade, and cradled softly in the tender lap of earth, while the mother, crooning a low song, pursues her work among the rustling leaves. terrace after terrace, the green aisles mount to the summit of the great ridge, and the ruined forts on each wooded promontory recall the long-past days when the "fruit of gold" demanded the increasing vigilance of military power to defeat the onslaught of merchantman or privateer, willing to run every risk in order to capture a cargo of spices, and secure fabulous gains by appeasing the frantic thirst of europe for the novel luxury of the aromatic spoils. the mediæval craze has died away, and the pungent spices of the orient have taken a permanent position of reasonable proportion in the culinary art of modern times, but the glamour of the past, like the amber haze of a tropical sunset, still environs the poetic tree in the island home where, amid evergreen foliage and waxen flowers, the famous "fruit of gold" still opens each coral-lined censer to exhale a wealth of undying fragrance on the balmy air. the soela-bessir isles. outside the fairy circle of the exquisite moluccas, a tiny cluster of palm-clad islets gems the wide blue spaces of the lonely sea, unbroken for many leagues by any foothold possible for human habitation. the dutch steamer only calls thrice a year at the remote soela-bessir group, in quest of rattan, a plentiful product of these fertile isles, where the leafy ladders of the aspiring parasite climb to the green crowns of the tallest palms, wrapping them in the fatal embrace which eventually levels the strongest monarch of the tropical forest to the earth. the thick mantle of glossy foliage often hides the multitude of hooks, loops, and nooses which the pliant cane flings round branch and stem, gripped by long ropes of flexible fibre, hardening into thick coils, rigid and unyielding as iron. the immense export of rattan for chairs, couches, and innumerable domestic purposes, indirectly results in the preservation of myriad palm-trees, by releasing them from the deadly grasp of the tenacious creepers. the waving cocoanut trees of senana, the principal island of the soela-bessir group, kiss the blue water with sombre plumes, bowed down by the wealth of heavy fruit lying in green and golden clusters between frond and stem. the steamer anchors far from the shore, and the launch proving unable to cross the shallow bay, the landing of passengers can only be accomplished by two crossed oars, carried and steadied by four of the crew. the mode of progression is wobbling and risky, but the improbability of revisiting senana supplied a mental argument of unfailing force in balancing pros and cons. the secluded island, so slightly influenced by the outside world, changes but little with the lapse of time, and the triple-tiered roofs of numerous thatched _messighits_ rising above the palm-leaf huts of the brown _campong_, assert the hereditary creed. the green banner of islam was planted here centuries ago by a fanatical horde of arab pirates, who added religious enthusiasm to love of plunder and thirst of conquest. their fiery zeal, though not according to knowledge, ensured a vigorous growth of the foreign offshoot from the questionable faith of these arab corsairs, who left indelible traces on the whole of the malay archipelago. the _messighits_ of senana are now only the ruined shrines of a decadent creed, but the simple islanders remain nominal adherents to the monotheism of the past. canoes and _blotos_, rowed by lithe brown figures, come out to welcome the steamer, and a fantastic boat, with carven prow, darts from beneath a green bower of tangled foliage, laden with golden bananas. merry-faced little savages line the shore, eagerly awaiting the arrival of the white strangers, who supply them with the amusement afforded by a travelling circus to the more sophisticated children of the west. an eager desire to please and gratify the extraordinary visitors, mingles with the uncontrollable delight, manifested in capering, dancing, and gay laughter, as they beckon us to follow them through the narrow lanes of the long _campong_. naked brown forms dash into their native huts at sundry points of the route, to summon friends and kinsfolk, until the procession swells into formidable proportions, for the whole _campong_ is eventually in tow, with the exception of the men and boys occupied in lading cargo. through the dappled sunlight and shadows of the sweeping palms which flank the glassy bay, we are personally conducted to the principal _messighit_, a bare, whitewashed building, without any decoration beyond the blue and white tiles outlining the horse-shoe arch of the _mihrab_ looking towards mecca. the exterior with three roofs of mossy thatch supported on bamboo poles, offers a shelter from the sun on a flight of crumbling steps, overshadowed by the spreading eaves. a big cocoanut frond serves as an improvised broom in a dusky hand, and the central step is carefully swept before the stranger, with respectful salaams and gesticulations, is invited to sit down. a turbaned _imaum_, the custodian of the decaying sanctuary, comes forth from his dilapidated hut among the palms behind the shrine, at the unwonted excitement breaking the silence and solitude of the ancient mosque, but he evidently belongs to the dreamland of the past, and retires quickly from the disturbing present to meditations or slumbers in his obscure dwelling, closing the bamboo door against all intruders. this day's incident of the cruise in the malay archipelago seems absolutely cut off from ordinary experience--a solitary englishwoman, resting in the shadow of the rustic mosque, and surrounded by a half-barbaric tribe of unfamiliar aspect, the dark woolly hair, flat noses, wide mouths, and dazzling teeth suggesting a liberal admixture of negro or papuan blood. native intelligence simplifies a halting conversation, carried on by means of the indispensable malayan phrase-book. wistful eyes rest on the stranger whose lot is cast under happier auspices, and unmistakeable characteristics manifest the soela-bessir islanders as a gentle and teachable race. alas! the dutch government plants neither schools nor missions in distant senana, too far from the beaten track to commend itself to the religious or educational care of a nation apparently indifferent to the claims of small communities, in the vast archipelago subject to holland. only the quarterly call of the dutch steamer stirs the stagnation of ages on the soela-bessir isles, but although the young, sharing in that wondrous heritage of mirth and gladness peculiar to the joyous early life of the tropics, recognise no limitations in their lot, the mothers sadly repeat the complaint heard elsewhere that no chance of improvement is given to them. the steamer, frequently bringing hither the inhabitants of more favoured islands in the interests of trade, already begins to stir feelings of unrest, and vague longings for the better things as yet withheld. a chieftain's daughter joins the throng round the old _messighit_. a red-cotton drapery, thrown over bronze limbs, is her only garment, but a diamond glistening on her dark hand looks incongruous with the scanty clothing. the gem seems a talisman or heirloom, but a request to examine it terrifies the owner, and she rushes away into the woods to safeguard the precious possession from perils suggested by the presence of the white pilgrim from across the seas. the delicious breeze which always spring up after ten o'clock in these latitudes renders walking a delight, the two following hours being invariably cooler than the trying time between eight and ten, when the fierce sun, on a level with the face, creates an atmosphere of blistering glare. the brown procession forms an orderly escort to the lading shed beneath a clump of tall cocoa-palms, and the kindly merchant who negotiates the commerce of the soela-bessir isles for the dutch government, sends a native boy up the smooth stem of a colossal tree in search of a fresh cocoanut, which fills two tumblers with refreshing sap. the thatched _campong_ stands against a background of green hills and dense woods, rich in tropical verdure, but lacking the loveliness of the moluccas. the return to the ship involves a _bloto_ across the bay, with many misgivings as to the seaworthy capacities of the clumsy craft, but four bamboo safety-poles, fastened by forked sticks to the sides of the hollowed log, suffice to steady it enough to avoid capsizal. in the soela-bessir isles, as in many other far-off and forgotten regions, the genius of commerce begins to awaken the desire of civilisation in untutored hearts, for trade sharing in the romance no longer regarded as the exclusive attribute of art or science, now helps to fuse opposing elements into unity and order. the simple inhabitants of distant senana seem only waiting for an outstretched hand to lift them to a higher level of creed and culture, for the modern pioneers of missionary enterprise raise the superstructure of christianity with unexampled success on the substratum of truth contained even in imperfect and erroneous creeds. that solid foundation stone of belief in the one eternal god, laid by arab pirates centuries ago, amid the lust of rapine and the smoke of war, which ever heralded the onward march of conquering islam, should serve as a firm basis for building up these simple children of nature into the mystical sanctuary of the christian church. the lapse of time obliterates countless landmarks of moslem creed in localities removed from external contact, but amid the dust of disintegrating forces and forgotten forms, the central truth remains imbedded, like a wedge of gold trodden in the mire, but retaining intrinsic value and untarnishable purity. sumatra. the western coast and the highlands. passing through the straits of saleir, between a cliff-bound island and the south-eastern cape of celebes, the returning steamer in due time reaches her moorings in sourabaya, and a rapid railway journey through java connects with the outgoing boat from batavia to padang, a three days' voyage through a chain of green islands breaking the force of the monsoon on a desolate and harbourless shore. the forest-clad ranges of sumatra draw nearer at benkoelen, buried in cocoa-palms on the rim of a quiet bay, within a terrific reef which makes landing impossible in stormy weather. fort and residency, villas and gardens, manifest benkoelen as an oasis of civilisation, the steeply-tiled roofs remaining as relics of the english occupation a century ago. beyond the little military settlement, the sumatran mountains tower in majestic gloom beyond a broken line of bristling crags, like granite outworks guarding the eleven hundred miles of coast-line facing the indian ocean. the rugged backbone of mysterious sumatra, descending sharply to the western sea, overlooks a vast alluvial plain on the eastern side, where rice and sugar-cane, coffee and tobacco, flourish between the wide deltas of sluggish rivers, though rushing streams and wild cascades characterise the opposite shore. ridges and bastions of rock, above profound valleys, culminate in cloud-capped indrapura, at a height of 12,000 feet. geologists affirm the vast age of sumatra, indicated by the silurian rock, the bastions of granite, the extraordinary vegetation fossilised in the huge coal-beds, and the sandstone formation, often a thousand feet thick, carved by time and weather into fantastic ravines. inexhaustible mineral wealth lies hidden in these weird ranges, together with the costly chemical products of a volcanic soil, but the rich treasures of the virgin rocks are for the most part unknown and unexplored. columns of smoke rise continually from numerous active volcanos, and the beautiful mountain lakes fill extinct craters. the great island, lying north-west and south-east, possesses a glorious climate, and the superb vegetation shows a distinctive character from that of java. the dutch, though supreme on the coast, have never yet subdued the interior, and unconquerable acheen remains a perpetual centre of unrest. the flower of the malay race belongs to sumatra, and the wild battek tribes of alien origin are fast merging themselves into the dominant stock, though the redjanger clan, retaining curious customs of a remote past, and possessing a written character, cut with a _kris_ on strips of bamboo, is slow to assimilate itself to the malayan element. the sumatran language shows traces of indian and arabic influence, and that the early civilisation of the huge island was of hindu origin is evidenced by innumerable sanskrit words, and by the fact that the consecrated pipal tree, the "ficus religiosa" of india, remains to this day the sacred tree of the batteks. native chronicles record the descent of sumatran princes from alexander the great, but though the pages of javanese history are comparatively legible, those of sumatra, designated in early days as "the older java," resemble a dim palimpsest, marred by erasure or hiatus, and barely decipherable beneath the lettering on the surface of the age-worn parchment. little _campongs_ of palm-thatched huts stand on piles at the water's edge, and skirt the over-shadowing forest; fairy islands, encircled with red-stemmed _arén_-palms, lie like green garlands on the indigo sea, dotted with the yellow sails of native _proas_, and the little train which conveys us to padang, the western capital, seems an incongruous feature in a scene suggestive of primeval peace and solitude. a sylvan charm belongs even to this sumatran township, for the wooden houses, with pointed roofs of dried palm-leaves, and broad eaves forming shady verandahs, stand far apart in flowery gardens, aflame with orange or scarlet cannas, and fragrant with golden-hearted frangipanni. the sweeping boughs of giant cocoanut trees make a green twilight beneath their interwoven fronds, bougainvillea drapes crumbling wall and forest tree with curtains of roseate purple, and thatched stalls of tropical fruits and glowing flowers brighten the dusky avenues with patches of vivid colour. the determined aspect of the sumatran people denotes the superior calibre of the ancestral stock which colonised the archipelago, for foreign intercourse, which elsewhere modified national character, scarcely affected the sumatran malays, independent of the servile yoke imposed by the mighty princes of java. the forty _soekoes_, or clans, of sumatra, are sub-divided into branches consisting of numerous families, all descended from a common stock in the female line. this curiously constituted pedigree is known as the matriarchate, an ancient social system only retained in western sumatra, and among certain south american tribes. the resolute mien and dignified carriage of the sumatran woman denote clear consciousness of her supreme importance. the cringing submission so painfully characteristic of oriental womanhood is wholly unknown, and though nominally of mohammedan faith, the humble position prescribed by the korán to the female sex is a forgotten article of sumatra's hereditary creed. after marriage (forbidden between members of the same clan) both man and woman remain in their own family circle. the husband is only an occasional visitor, and the wife is regarded as the head of the house. her children remain under her exclusive care, and inherit her property, together with the half of what their father and mother earn together. the other half goes to the brothers and sisters of the husband, whose titles descend to his own brothers and sisters. sumatra is veritably el dorado to the eastern wife and mother, conversant with every detail respecting the management of land or money, and jealously guarding the time-honoured rights and privileges of her exalted position. the hereditary chieftains of sumatran clans exercise a patriarchal rule of uncompromising severity, and combine in every district to form the _laras_ or local council, the distance separating forest and mountain _campongs_ often necessitating sub-division into a village assembly. the _laras_, and those rural chieftains nominated by popular consent, possess a seat on the supreme council of the dutch government, thus forming the transitional element between asiatic and european rule. there is no sumatran nobility, and although the hereditary chief of a clan is invested with official authority, the stringent regulations of the matriarchate acknowledge no superiority of social status as an appanage of his power. the hothouse atmosphere of padang is gladly exchanged for the freshness of the mountain heights, approached by a cog-wheel railway, and affording truer pictures of sumatran life than the hybrid port of the steaming lowlands. the luxuriant verdure of the swampy plain basks in the sunshine of a blazing march day, and children in gaudy _sarongs_ drive a brisk trade at palm-thatched wayside stations, with bamboo trays of sliced pineapple sprinkled with capsicum, the approved "pick-me-up" of sumatra. the little train burrows through a forest-lined pass, and skirts the chafing waters of the anei river, foaming over swarthy boulders. the turbulent stream, now deeply sunk between granite cliffs, rises with terrific violence when lashed by the wild mountain wind known as the _bandjir_, and rushes up the rocky walls, overthrowing bridges, and dragging along immense crags with resistless impetus. the shrill laughter of the black bush-apes echoes from sombre masses of matted foliage, as the train ascends the lofty range, and curves round the basin of a sparkling waterfall, dashing from a fern-draped height. granite cliffs soar above tropical jungle and solemn forest; the narrow gap of the anei widens into a luxuriant valley; sago-palms rustle in the breeze, and tree-ferns spread their green canopies over the brawling river. the splendid scenery is viewed to advantage from a platform of the foremost railway carriage, the train being pushed up the mountains by an engine in the rear. beyond the climbing forests, a bare plateau affords a glimpse of ever-burning merapi, with wooded flanks and lava-strewn summit, from whence a grey cloud of smoke mounts in a spiral curl to the azure sky. beyond this point of view lies the green plain of beautiful fort de kock, the gem of the sumatran highlands, to be numbered henceforth among those ideal scenes which remain permanently photographed on mind and memory. the crystalline atmosphere seems the very breath of life after a long sojourn in the steaming tropics, and fort de kock, under the shadow of mysterious merapi, an elysium of health and repose. the little hotel jansen offers clean and comfortable accommodation, the kindly german hostess proving a model landlady. as a residency and the headquarters of a dutch garrison. fort de kock provides all the necessaries of life, and the broad military roads of the vicinity simplify exploration. the little white settlement beneath the wooded volcano possesses a bright and cheery character, in keeping with the exhilarating climate, and the beautiful sturm park, from palm-crowned hill and flowery terrace, commands an exquisite prospect of the blue peaks belonging to the borderland of those native states extending to the dutch possessions on the eastern coast. the curious houses of the sumatran highlands, with their adjacent rice-barns, form distinctive features of this unique island. the ridge of the steep thatch rises in sharp horns, interlaced with black fibres of _arén_ palm, or covered with glittering tin. these tapering points are considered talismans of good fortune, a fresh horn being added on every occasion of marriage, for the married daughters, under the provisions of the matriarchate, remain in the home of their childhood, and portions of the central division belonging to the house are reserved for their use. manifold horns frequently bristle above the lofty roof, and the front of the main building is the common living room for unmarried members of the large household. houses and rice-barns stand on high poles, after the malay fashion, which originated in the malarious districts of the lowlands. the typical rice-barns are lavishly decorated with gilding, carving, and colour, inlaid with glass mosaic, and edged with balls of red and blue crystal, the upward sweep of the slender horns sharply silhouetted against the glowing cobalt of heaven. in every _kota_ (the sumatran word signifying a fortified place, or village), the beauty of the picturesque roofs culminates in _messighit_ and _balei_, respectively the mosque and hall of consultation for the village council. the roofs of the mosque rise on thatched tiers, mounted on slender pine-stems, and the long _balei_, with mossy thatch prolonged into an open verandah on either side, shows a multitude of curving horns pointing to heaven, and symbolically invoking celestial aid for the solemn assembly gathered beneath them, when the full moon floods upland sumatra with molten silver. primitive hospitality provides a _roemah negari_, or "house of strangers," in every village rich enough to erect this refuge for the toil-worn wanderer, but where no special resting-place for pilgrims can be offered, lodging can always be had in the open _balei_, on application to any member of the village council. the primitive simplicity of sumatran life remains practically unchanged in these remote hamlets of the western highlands, and though fort de kock poses as the nucleus of modern progress, european influences glance off the indurated surface of native character like water poured over a granite slab. across the rice-plain of agam, dotted with brown _kotas_, crowned by myriads of interweaving horns, we reach the scattered village of paja-kombo, shadowed by dense woods of cocoanut palms, and famed for one of the most picturesque native markets in the east. the women of paja-kombo are noted for their beauty, enhanced by the splendour of many-coloured _sarongs_, gleaming with gold and silver thread. gay turbans swathe the stately heads, and the golden filagree of barbaric breastplates, heavy earrings, and broad armlets, lights up the shadowy gloom of stone galleries and _al fresco_ stalls, beneath the drooping boughs of ancient waringen-trees. the sumatran malays are energetic traders, and the dignified personality of the sumatran woman is perpetually in evidence. keen, thrifty, economical, and thoroughly versed in all the details of commerce, she shows herself the predominant partner in domestic life, and to her all decisions on financial matters are referred, in accordance with the laws of the matriarchate, which protects her independence. the husbands and fathers in attendance on their womankind at the great market, submissively defer to the gentler sex, which in sumatra has ever held the reins of social and domestic management, exercising authority wisely and well within the wide area deputed to feminine sway. the fair of paja-kombo is a treasury of native art in most delicate filigree, silver-threaded cloth, baskets or fans of scented grass, and the heavy jewellery of burnished brass which copies the designs of the many golden heirlooms treasured by sumatran womanhood. streets of palm-thatched stalls, alleys of eating-houses, and the wide enclosure of a mule-fair, cover an open meadow, fringed by great sago-palms, the central grain and rice market crowded with picturesque figures in striped _sarong_ and gold-flecked turban. the feast of colour provided by paja-kombo is scarcely surpassed even by the famous fair of darjeeling, the remoteness of the little settlement in the sumatran highlands preserving the unfaded charm of an immemorial past. the wonderful gap of harau may be reached by cart from paja-kombo; the palm-shaded road narrows at the mighty gorge, where vermilion cliffs, grooved and ribbed as though by some convulsion of nature, tower up in colossal majesty on either side. splendid waterfalls flash down in foam and thunder, scoring deep channels in the perpendicular heights, and bathing thickets of tree-fern and maidenhair in pearly spray. a wild river swirls through the deep ravine, opening towards the ethereal blue of clustering peaks, which lie fold upon fold in the hazy distance of the native states, and disclose a mystic pathway into dreamland. another deep gully of yellow tufa-rock behind fort de kock, forms the first stage of the romantic route to lake manindjoe. crossing the twin rivers which have carved their winding gorge in the bosom of the hills, the rude track through the mountains ascends to smooth plateaux forming a flight of gigantic stairs, supported by rocky girders like natural cross-beams. in early days of dutch colonisation these successive points of vantage, occupied by hostile tribes, were stormed in vain by the invading army, and eventually only captured by surprise. the beauty of upland sumatra culminates at this mountain lake, lying within the foundered crater of the danau. the volcanic walls rise fourteen hundred feet above the dark blue mere, a glitting sheet of _lapis lazuli_ set within the black cleft of the profound chasm. brown and purple rocks enamelled with orange lichen, and garlanded with waving verdure, open to display a mysterious vision of the glistening sea, with one white sail like a butterfly's wing, crossing the distant waves. the flushing rose-tints of a tropical sunset glorify the landscape into transcendent beauty; the rude sculpture of the river crags, the black shadows of primeval forest, and the far-off gleam of the indian ocean, composing an ideal picture, enhanced by vague impressions of infinity and eternity. the great lake of sinkarah, flanked by volcanic ridges, and by the dense foliage of palm forests and coffee plantations, also presents a succession of entrancing landscapes. white and purple orchids wreathe the forest trees, troops of red monkeys chatter among the boughs, and woodland vistas reveal leagues of emerald rice and golden millet. beyond sinkarah lies the famous coal district of the island, where chinamen, convicts, and hindu coolies, in perpetual bustle and commotion, manifest an activity unique in the thinly-populated interior of sumatra, dependent on the labour of alien races. javanese act as woodmen, gardeners, and road-makers; the klings serve as cowherds and drivers of ox-waggons; the bengalese prove efficient policemen, and the boyans skilful carpenters; the clearing of the forest pertaining to malays and batteks, also responsible for the building of the marvellous rice-barns, the apotheosis of sumatran architecture. the ordinary tourist omits sumatra from his itinerary. occasional elephant-hunters penetrate the dense forests of the interior, and engineers or tobacco-planters flock to the monotonous levels of the eastern coast, but the glorious western highlands, the sumatran _bovenland_, is seldom visited. warlike acheen, for ever at feud with the dutch government, is forbidden ground to the european traveller. the unconquerable independence of the achinese, fiercely resenting the sovereignty of holland, proves an insoluble problem to the dutch methods of subjugation. the bold and lawless character of this rebellious clan defies military discipline. the spirit of insurrection animates every man, woman, and child of the brave but treacherous race, and acheen remains the dark centre of countless tragedies, due to the spurious patriotism which counts a stab in the dark, a poisoned arrow, or a cruel betrayal, as heroic and laudable modes of resistance to the hated invader of sumatra's ancient liberties. the forest-clad interior of the vast island remains an unknown wilderness. cannibals still lurk in the black depths of the pathless jungle; weird tribal customs linger unchanged in barbarous _campongs_, where strange gods are worshipped with the immemorial rites of an ageless past, rude carvings and weird symbols showing the personification of those natural phenomena deified by primeval tribes. sumatra, with her wealth of mines and forests and her important geographical position, remains as yet an almost undiscovered country, and though her undeveloped resources excite the cupidity and arouse the envy of european nations, political greed and private enterprise have proved powerless to open up the hidden treasures of the vast island, apparently intended by nature to become the key of the southern seas. a view of krakatau. emma-haven, the little port of padang, twenty minutes by train from the palm-girt sumatran capital, scarcely mars the beauty of the secluded inlet with the red and white warehouses standing against the sylvan verdure which fringes the blue arc of the deep bay. cloud upon cloud, the spectral vision of distant mountains gleams through the vanishing veil of mist melting in the sunrise, and the departing steamer, hugging the shore, but halting for cargo at sundry barbaric _campongs_, affords numerous glimpses of native life. passengers are forbidden to land at these rural ports of call, for a herd of twenty frolicsome elephants battered down one brown village of palm-thatched bamboo only a week ago, and although the ruined architecture possesses the advantage of being as easily restored as destroyed, the unpleasant proximity of the dark jungle suggests the need of prudence. at another point of the little voyage, we anchor for a cargo of rattan before a thatched shed on a shell-strewn beach, but even here a solitary elephant, disturbed in bathing, has lately attacked a woman, rescued with difficulty from formidable tusks and lashing trunk. a tribe of coolies come on board from the pepper plantation on a terraced hill, covered with the vivid green of the festooning creeper, twined round long poles, and resembling hop-vines in growth and foliage. the landing of this contingent involves a call at anjer, the northern extremity of java, distinguished by the white column of the colossal pharos on the green headland. a halt at nightfall outside a bristling reef, in consequence of a malay lighthouse-keeper omitting to trim his lamp, after the fashion of his unthinking kind, secures the compensation of steaming within sight of world-famous krakatau, the volcanic cone, which in 1883 was split in half by the stupendous eruption affecting in various degrees the whole of the world. the successive waves of atmospherical disturbance, travelling with the velocity of sound, were traced three times completely round the globe. krakatau, though uninhabited, was the occasional resort of fishermen who plied their calling in the sunda straits. a dutch record exists of a violent eruption in 1680, but the krakatau volcano was afterwards considered extinct, and until the spring of 1883 no signs of activity occurred. at this date, smoke, pumice, and cinders, fell without intermission. for eight weeks krakatau blazed and thundered, the explosions being audible at batavia, eighty miles off. as the fatal dawn of an august morning broke with lurid light, the culminating shock of an appalling detonation, described as "the very crack and crash of doom," echoed across the ocean, and was heard even in india and australia, two thousand miles away. gigantic tidal waves swept the sundanese shores, destroying the adjacent villages, 36,000 people being either washed away or buried under the boiling rain of mud, fire, and ashes. the royal society estimated the altitude of the vast black and crimson column of flame and smoke, mounting from the volcano, at seventeen miles. the ashes fell at singapore and on the cocos isles, respectively five and eight hundred miles away, the ejection of volcanic matter being computed at more than four cubic miles in extent. krakatau, reduced from thirteen to six square miles, from the northern portion of the symmetrical pyramid being completely blown away by the volcanic fires, retains the conical peak of mount radaka, nearly three thousand feet high. some of the contiguous islands sank beneath the waves, others changed their shape, and the formation of various banks and shoals added fresh difficulties to the intricate navigation of reef-bound seas. thrilling stories are told of the enveloping pall of smoke and ashes, which shrouded java in midnight gloom, amid the continuous roar of violent explosions which led up to the awful climax of the final catastrophe. red-hot stones and burning cinders fired the ships, the weight of pumice sinking _praus_ and fishing smacks as it fell into the hissing sea, and a 600-ton schooner, thrown by the force of the world-shaking concussion into a mountain cleft of the opposite coast, still lies wedged between the black walls of rock. the floating pumice, which filled the harbour of batavia with layers so deep that planks resting upon it made a safe bridge over a mile in length, drifted even to zanzibar and madagascar. the fine dust, expelled into the upper air, painted the sunset heavens with these translucent green and violet tints which enhanced the pageantry of cloudland throughout the world for many months after the fiery forces had expended themselves. smoke still issues from krakatau, though the vast rent in the cloven pyramid must materially diminish the power of any future eruption, and nature's busy hand already covers the torn side of the precipitous cone with a green veil of sparse vegetation. a curious marine growth of weed and moss rooted itself on krakatau three years after the phenomenal eruption, from seeds floating on the tide or carried by the wind. the thin soil formed by these decaying plants, and enriched by the chemical ingredients of disintegrating volcanic ash, in time produced a more luxuriant verdure, and in the interval elapsing since the threefold ravages of fire, flood, and earthquake, caused by krakatau, convulsed the east with terror, the dread mountain has become wreathed with flower and fruit, for orchards and gardens, tended by the malays from the surrounding islands, now flourish at the foot of the quiescent peak. javanese colonists, who experienced the terrors of the overwhelming catastrophe, assert that no similes drawn from the most appalling thunderstorm, or from the roar of the heaviest artillery, could convey an adequate idea of the stupendous detonation which seemed to shatter earth and sky, as the pent-up fires burst forth in the final explosion, which tore the mountain asunder and poured forth the devastating forces of the abysmal depths over land and sea. crimson lava-flood and burning hail, blackened heaven and rocking earth, roaring sea and clamouring volcano, represented an apocalyptic vision of divine wrath, but probably no survivor remained to record the actual sight of the unprecedented phenomenon, transcending every terrestrial convulsion recorded in the chronicles of scientists. only a slender feather of grey steam now issues from the lofty crater. leaves and grasses flutter in the soft breeze, and a shower of white petals drifts upon the iron boulders, once incandescent amid the red torrents of rushing fire. a sheer precipice remained as the severed half of the shattered cone, when the rent cliffs shivered into fragments, and toppled over into the sea. nature again breathes "peace and safety," as she did before "the sudden destruction" gave the lie to her mocking voice, and as the ruined pyramid of terrible krakatau sinks below the horizon, and the good ship speeds on her way, a weight of awe seems lifted from the mind, oppressed by imagination and association with the ghastly tragedy of those untameable forces which defy calculation or comprehension. history has often proved the truth of the assertion that time turns memories into dreams, but in the presence of krakatau's smoking crater, the memories looming over the haunted volcano translate themselves into a nightmare of horror, for the shadows of doom still cling to the monumental pyramid, a menacing witness to the existence of those occult laws which baffle human investigation with their insoluble problems, and compel the defeated scientist to acknowledge himself a mere chronicler of inexplicable mysteries. the extent of the volcanic zone encircling the malay archipelago minimises the risk of catastrophe by numerous safety valves for the imprisoned forces of earth's fiery abyss. in isolated krakatau only one outlet existed for the vast accumulations of destructive agencies, gathering irresistible impetus through the protracted period of condensation and suppression which heated this mighty furnace of nature's subterranean laboratory with sevenfold power. a generation has grown up since the hell of devouring fire swept across land and sea from this solitary mountain peak; villages have been rebuilt on their ancient sites, and the activities of life go on from year to year undisturbed. the story of krakatau, told under the drooping boughs of dusky waringen-trees in the evening hour of leisure, seems veiled in the mists of legendary lore to youth and maiden, listening to the oft-told tale. poverty clings to familiar soil, and in the deep groove of a narrow existence the popular mind takes little thought for the future. the realities of life are bounded by the daily needs, and the shadow of krakatau fails to destroy the present peace of the simple folk, who, like children gathering flowers on the edge of a precipice, heed none of the grim possibilities of a perilous environment. penang. poelo-penang, _the isle of the areca-nut_, separated by a narrow strait from the malay peninsula, was ceded to england in 1785 by the rajah of kedah, from whom the present sultan of johore is lineally descended. the little territory, chiefly consisting of a mountain covered with palm-forests, was then almost uninhabited, but the strategetic importance of the position resulted in the establishment of an english presidency, until the phenomenal growth of singapore made it the eventual centre of local authority. "sinhapura," "the city of lions" (or, more accurately, of tigers), founded by the hinduized malays, and developed by sir stamford raffles into the principal trading port of the eastern seas, of necessity drew off from penang a large contingent of the polyglot races which flocked thither from all parts, when the british flag first waved above the newly-built fort, but at least 100,000 inhabitants still occupy the verdant island, where the graceful areca palm attains unexampled perfection. penang was merely regarded as an unimportant appendage of ancient malacca, captured in 1311 by albuquerque, and though the territory of the principal sultan underwent innumerable vicissitudes through the changing fortunes of war, the royal line retained johore at the foot of the peninsula, up to the present day, the last scion of the old-world dynasty now accepting the suzerainty of england. a tribe of klings (the malay corruption of the word telinga), sailing from the coromandel coast, were the first immigrants under british rule. the half-breed indian malays, or _jawi-pekan_, followed, and the chinese, finding a new outlet for their commercial genius, soon secured a firm footing on the fairy isle, a cone of emerald set in a sapphire sea. as the rickshaw wheels away from the noisy wharves of busy georgetown into green aisles of areca and cocoanut, the spice-laden breeze blowing from the heights, and mingled with the breath of a thousand flowers, suggests penang as "the mountain of myrrh, and hill of frankincense," described in the canticle of canticles. present surroundings atone for the lack of life's amenities in the dutch dependencies. the ripple of the sea, and the rustle of swaying palms, just stir the silence of the wave-washed terrace above the glassy straits. the gloomy blue of the kedah mountains on the peninsula of malacca, with black thunderclouds gathering round their serrated crests, heightens the brilliant loveliness of immediate surroundings, steeped in the ruby glow of the magical evening. every road is an over-arching avenue of gorgeous foliage--dark tunnels of interwoven cocoa-palms, huge amherstias alight as with lamps of fiery orange, tremulous tamarinds, and, more wonderful than all, a wide highway roofed by a continuous aisle of ansena-trees, the golden canopy of blossom overhead rivalled by the thick carpet of yellow petals, which deadens every sound, for the prodigal bounty of tropical nature quickly replaces the loss of falling flowers. exquisite lanes, smothered in glorious vegetation, surround the picturesque racecourse, that _sine-qûa-non_ of english occupation. stately emperor palms, kitools with crimped green tresses, fan and oil palms, with the slender areca in countless thousands, vary the shadowy vistas branching out in every direction, with huge-leaved creepers and glossy rattans garlanding the gnarled trunks of forest-trees. the sculptured outlines of the splendid traveller's palm adorn the green lawns of european bungalows, embowered in torrents of trailing creepers, the scale of colour descending from white and pink to royal purple and burning crimson. snowy arums and golden lilies choke the brooks, overflowing from the constant showers combining with a vertical sun to foster the wealth of greenery, the incandescent scarlet and yellow of hybiscus and allemanda glowing with the transparent depth of hue, beside which the fragile fairness of european flowers, is but a spectral reflection of those colour-drenched blossoms fused into jewelled lustre by the solar fires. night drops her black curtain suddenly, with no intervening veil of twilight to temper earth's plunge into darkness. great stars hang low in the sombre sky, and the open interiors of malay huts, aglow with lamp or torchlight, produce rembrandtesque effects, revealing brown inmates cooking or eating their "evening rice." georgetown, loyally named by british pioneers after a monarch eminently incongruous with any ideas belonging to a tropical fairyland, possesses neither architectural beauty nor salient character; wooden warehouses, malay shanties, and white-washed streets being merely attractive from the ever-changing scheme of colour painted by varieties of race and costume. tamils of ebon blackness drive picturesque teams of humped white oxen in red waggons laden with purple sugar-cane. noble-looking sikhs, in spotless linen, stride past with kingly gait. brown siamese, in many-coloured scarves and turbans gleaming with gold thread, chaffer and bargain at open stalls with blue-robed chinamen, and the bronze figures of slim malays, brightened by mere wisps of orange and scarlet added to nature's durable suit, slip through the crowds, pausing before an emporium of polished brass-work, or a bamboo stall of teak wood carving. the sloping black mitre of a stout parsee merchant, accompanied by a pretty daughter in white head-band and floating _sari_ of cherry-coloured silk, varies the motley headgear of turban and fez, straw hat and sun-helmet, worn by this cosmopolitan population, the pink headkerchiefs, tinselled scarves, and jewelled buttons of the beautiful burmese dress, drawing attention to the energetic bargaining of two astute customers for cooking utensils; these elegantly-attired but mahogany-coloured dames, rivalling the sumatran women in business capacity, and equally determined on securing the _quid pro quo_. the long esplanade between town and sea borders a series of green lawns, where carriages draw up round a bandstand, and the youthful element of european penang plays tennis with laudable zeal in the atmosphere of a stove-house. chinese and malay boyhood look on, and listen to the regimental music. the pallid english occupants of the carriages, in spite of diaphanous muslins and fluttering fans, appear too limp and wilted to bestow more than a languid attention to their surroundings, until the sea-breeze, springing up as the sun declines, revives their flagging spirits. the smartest turnout and the finest horses generally belong to john chinaman, got up in irreproachable english costume, with his pigtail showing beneath a straw hat, though considerably attenuated, and lacking those adornments of silken braid and red tassels, generally plaited into the imposing queue of the orthodox celestial. the indefatigable chinese, frequently arriving on an alien shore without a dollar in their pockets, continually prove potential millionaires. immune from climatic diseases, working early and late, tolerant and unaggressive, the iron hand in the velvet glove disentangles and grasps the threads of the most complicated commercial enterprise, for the idle malay, "the gentleman of the east," here as elsewhere, cares for little beyond the sport of hunting and fish-spearing, which satisfies the personal necessities of his indolent existence. the wonderful solidarity of domestic life is an important factor in the chinese career, for centuries of ancestor-worship, in spite of their arrestive tendency, have strengthened the bonds of family union and filial obedience by insisting on the supreme sanctity of blood-relationship. the luxuriant botanical garden, situated in a green cleft of an angle formed by encircling hills, is a paradise of dreamland, though but a miniature when compared with buitenzorg for extent and variety. in the restful charm of the penang garden art and nature go hand in hand, giving it an unique character among the horticultural pleasaunces of the eastern world. the rolling lawns of the exquisite valley, the song of the waterfall which bounds the view as it leaps down the lofty cliffs, the abundant shade of tamarind and palm, and the gorgeous flowering shrubs, suggest nothing artificial or conventionalised in the deep seclusion of the fairy glen. tall bamboos mirror fluffy foliage and white or golden stems in stream and pool. orchids of the brazils festoon unknown trees with the rose and purple butterflies formed by their brilliant blossoms, and colossal traveller's palms, so-called from the draught of water obtained by incision of the stem, stud the glades with stiffly-fluted fans. lilac thunbergia wreaths over-arching boughs, and passion-flower flings white and crimson garlands over turf flushed with the pink blossoms of the sensitive plant. gold mohur and red poinsettia blaze with fiery splendour, and huge crotons, with velvety leaves of pink, violet, and chocolate, grow to the height of forest trees. the tangle of brilliant flowers, systematically arranged by the concealed art of the eastern horticulturist, shows many weird botanical forms. green spears, bristling on mossy banks, are starred with crimson and barred with orange. wine-coloured cacti twist blue-green spikes and stems in grotesque contortions, and topaz or ruby-tinted calladiums flame in thickets of hot colour outside cool green dells, filled by a forest of tropical ferns, mosses, and creepers. lack of botanical knowledge constitutes a sore disadvantage in this treasury of floral beauty, but happily we may "consider the lilies," without cataloguing them, in this garden, "beautiful for situation," and worthy to be a "joy of the whole earth." the sombre jungle on the mountain side supplies the atmosphere of mystery which enhances the ideal peace of the cloistered paradise, wrapt in the embrace of the haunted hills, and numbered among those visions of an earlier eden, only realised in the asiatic birthplace of humanity which contained the typical garden of the world, divinely planted, where the voice from heaven deepened the music of whispering leaves and sighing breeze. a purple-red pat--for even the jasper-tinted tropical soil is beautiful, climbs through the glorious woods to the chief sanatorium of the malay peninsula. a free fight among the coolies before starting demands a lengthy exercise of that stolidity with which the western pilgrim must invest himself, as the invulnerable armour needed by the conflict of daily life. as a mere matter of personal convenience, this quality bears scant resemblance to the weapons enumerated by s. paul in the christian panoply. the oppressive heat, the futility of argument in an almost unknown tongue, and the general uncertainty of the subject in dispute, gradually producing this spurious virtue as the external decoration of sorely-exasperated souls. the exertion of the long ascent in the steaming heat requires six coolies for every chair. the red road mounts through enchanting vistas of palms and creepers, on the edge of the dark jungle, each turning point bringing a whiff of cooler air, as the evening gold flickers through the velvety fronds of tree-ferns, and the green feathers of spreading bamboos. from the white hotel near the summit, the blue straits and the flats of province wellesley, the english portion of the malay peninsula, stand out against the frowning ridge of mountains, for black thunder-clouds continually brood over malacca. monkeys caper and chatter in the teak-trees bordering a circular terrace, and an ideal sylvan path leads to the signal station, hospital, and post office, on an opposite height, dotted with the bungalows of summer visitors. a palm-shaded plateau beneath the hotel offers an ideal resting-place, but the impenetrable jungle covering the penang hills makes expeditions on foot or by chair, impracticable, and the wild deluges of rain, with terrific thunder peals bursting in uncontrolled fury on this exposed peak, minimise the delights of a mountain sojourn. the invasion of an army of jungle rats, behind the walls and above the ceiling of a room sodden and dripping with the afternoon's flood, completes the disillusion, and compels a hasty descent to the warmer damp of the lowlands, for the equatorial climate, and the general absence of bed-coverings, causes a rheumatic stiffness on rising, which has to be steamed out by the atmospheric vapour-bath of the tropical island. a long rickshaw ride to tanjong bungah ("flowery point") completes the day's cure in a sweltering heat, which on the return journey at 8 a.m. causes even the chinese coolies to stop perpetually at wayside stalls, for the coloured syrups and sticky sweetmeats on which they perform prodigies of endurance and speed. an english planter, in his solitary cacao-garden on the edge of the sea, hails his compatriots with delight, and leads the way through the rocky ravines bordering his solitary bungalow. the glories of the tropics seldom alleviate the sense of exile, and cloudy england, with her "green fields and pastures dim," remains dearer than all the pageantry of nature elsewhere to most of her absent sons. the buddhist temple of ayer-etam, built in ascending tiers on a steep acclivity, varies the natural interests of penang, with the marvels of chinese architecture elaborated in the deep seclusion of mountain and forest. the dewy areca-palms throw a dark network of interlacing shadows across the red road, winding for miles through the sylvan scenery, the alchemy of the rising sun transmuting the myriad feathery fronds into fountains of green fire. only the creaking of a bullock-waggon, or the thud of a falling cocoanut, breaks the hush of the tropical daybreak, when the leaves only whisper in their dreams, and the vernal earth, fresh as from her creator's hand, renews her strength for the heat and burden of the coming day. the colossal pile, consisting of temple, monastery, and innumerable shrines, amid fountains and fish-ponds, bridges and balconies, courts and terraces, gleams whitely against the green gloom of the vast palm-forest on either side, sloping sharply to the shimmering sea. the usual appalling images of vermilion and gold guard every sculptured gateway, and surmount the painted shrines encircled by parterres of votive flowers, for the philosophic buddhism of ceylon and siam gathers the moss and weeds of many an incongruous accretion in countless ages of pilgrimage through the eastern world. the transcendental mysticism which spun the finest cobwebs of human thought, crystallises into concrete form when interpreted in the terms of china, where dim reminiscences of early nature worship, and the terrors which upheld the authority of many obsolete creeds, have been incorporated into the vague ideals of prince gautama's prophetic soul. altars, strewn with fragrant champak-flowers, stand beneath lace-carved alcoves of black teakwood, on the broad plateaux which form welcome resting-places beside each flight of steps on the marble stairway, the gilded pinnacles and aerial spires of the white temple sparkling against the sea of rich foliage. a knot of burmese worshippers, with rose-coloured scarves and turbans, throw their infinitesimal coins on the palm-leaf mats of a red-roofed shrine, and tell the wooden beads of the buddhist rosary, chanting the perpetual refrain of "_pain_, _sorrow_, _unreality_," as a warning against the temptations of _maya_, the world of illusion. the brown faces raised imploringly to the presiding deity, a leering demon with green face and yellow body, inspire the hope that the grotesque monster may prove his own unreality by vanishing from the hearts of his devotees into the limbo of nightmares from which he has emerged, for the philosophic quietism of buddhist creed offers no disguise to the horrors of a hell far surpassing the terrific literalism of dante's inferno. rippling conduits edge pillared courts and cloistered arcades, resplendent with frieze and cornice of blue and scarlet, a central fountain falling in prismatic showers over a sacred pond of golden carp. a white-robed monk smilingly conducts us across hump-backed bridges and colonnaded galleries to a bench beneath a grey frangipanni tree, starred with fragrant flowers, and brings welcome cups of tea, before another struggle up the interminable steps, which symbolise the mystic "path" leading to nirvana's rest. further hospitality meets us at a yellow kiosk, higher up the sacred hill, where a dainty breakfast of eggs, cakes, and honey stands on a white table-cloth, bearing a steaming coffee-pot. the temple paraphernalia of buddhist worship strangely resembles catholic imagery. incense rises from open censers on the dais, the blue cloud enveloping a gorgeous altar, encrusted with gold. the central figure of gautama buddha, on the lotus leaf expresses supernal calm, and the symbolic flower, in bud, blossom, or foliage, forms the prevailing design of vase and amphora, within golden lattice-work. hanging lamps glow on rapt faces of attendant saints, or on those supplementary local buddhas which chinese doctrine adds to the comparative simplicity of the original system. the foreshadowing of christian truth culminates in the fact stated by a buddhist priest, that bread and wine of mystic meaning are reserved on the altars of many among the forty subdivisions of buddhism. the mountain sanctuary, though marred by debased decoration and heathenised by the lurid figures of the guardian demons, inspires a reverent devotion, and exercises a solemnising influence on many souls whose faith differs from that of the white-clad monks, who seek to scale the dim heights of perfection from this lofty peak. "the light which lighteth every man" must needs throw a faint and far-off ray even on an erroneous creed, groping through the darkness for the outstretched hands which embrace all humanity with boundless love. penang, as a little field of missionary enterprise, possesses many privileges often denied to the further islands of malaysia. the variety of immigrant races, the constant intercourse with the indian mainland, and the needs of travellers belonging to every nation, keep the settlement in touch with a multitude of spiritual needs. christianity, both in anglican and roman guise, sows diligently in fields gradually whitening to harvest. the english church, with reverent services and kindly priest, remains a little centre of cherished associations. the s. francis xavier institute, which brings many chinese boys into the christian fold, through the labours of another communion, carries on the work of the great mediæval missionary, who reached the farthest east in his apostolate of love. the scarlet, yellow, and white veils of eastern converts, the crowd of eurasian christians in both churches, and the presence of a devout malay priest assisting at the english service, add unfamiliar notes of colour among the snowy muslins and flower-decked hats of english residents, but correctness of costume, both in men and women, contrasts refreshingly with the slovenly déshabille of the netherlands india, the last and easily-snapped link between civilisation and barbarism. an opportunity occurs for a visit to taiping, the capital of the native federated states, and situated in province wellesley. the launch crosses to prai, the rising port of malacca, and the northern terminus of the railway, sure to upset the passenger lists of the great steamers by traversing the entire peninsula to johore. through a channel bordered with weird mangroves, the boat enters a long, slow river, flowing between boundless palm-forests. the "black but comely" captain of the snorting boat escorts his european passengers to the station, arranges tickets, and waits on the platform till the train starts; the portly sailor in spotless linen, surmounted by his genial ebony face, waving encouragement as long as we remain in sight. the perils and dangers of the way are _nil_, and none of the threatened contingencies arise, but to eastern thought risks, however remote and improbable, add to the value of a journey. real drawbacks seem seldom mentioned, but imaginary lions in the way offer unlimited scope to oriental fancy, and help to create a thrilling drama of destruction. green paddi-fields, tall sugar-canes, and a world of palms, rise from the alluvial flats of province wellesley. the great rubber plantations, which form the chief source of wealth in malacca, follow in endless succession, but, as usual, the astute chinaman has obtained almost a monopoly of the industry, from which the greatest fortunes of the tropics are now derived. the bushy trees, with their black stems and ragged foliage, are destitute of the beauty so lavishly bestowed even on the weeds of this fertile soil. the tangled splendour of the wild jungle, which presently borders the track, demonstrates the immense difficulty of pioneering in a tropical forest, where the interlacing boughs of the myriad trees, with their impenetrable screen of climbing parasites, make perpetual walls of living green, defying human progress. malay villages, brown and palm-thatched in the immemorial style, stand on piles above the swampy ground, which seems the approved site of habitation. a barren district devastated by a forest fire, contains the disused pits of ancient tin-mines, but these unsightly hollows have been decorated by nature's hand with a luxuriant growth of the frilled pink lotus. malay children, themselves unadorned, stand on wayside platforms, every brown hand filled with the rosy chalices of the sacred buddhist emblem. tradition says that the blossom, drawn up from the mire by the rays of the morning sun, symbolised the earth-stained soul, made pure and stainless by the attraction of that divine glory which buddhism, though in distorted form, strove to attain. at the end of the sixty-mile journey, the english station-master at taiping proved a veritable friend in need, arranging for a hot breakfast at the station, chartering rickshaw coolies, and--greatest blessing of all--directing the route, with a menacing pantomime concerning any shirking of duty, which saved all further trouble. taiping is in an early stage of progress, and the open _tokos_ in waringen-shaded streets, show nothing but the necessaries of life, with terrible mementos of birmingham in petroleum lamps, hideous oleographs, and machine-made household goods. pretty bungalows stand beyond the interlacing avenues of dusky trees, and a framework toy of a church in the green outskirts, contains numerous brass tablets recording english lives laid down in this weary land. these pathetic memorials seem the only permanent features of the frail edifice in the shadowy god's-acre already filled with graves. the newly-planted park, with a lake fringed by a vivid growth of allemanda and hybiscus, stands below the purple heights of a long mountain chain, but taiping offers few inducements to a prolonged stay, and after a hurried glimpse of terrific beasts and snakes of the jungle, preserved in the local museum, we return to the station, the kindly chef-de-gare disturbing his wife from her siesta in the adjacent bungalow, to feast us on tea and bananas. darkness falls before the train reaches penang, but a chinese gentleman acts as pilot across some rocking boats, with only a faint flare from expiring torches to light the way, and starts the cringing coolies, with true politeness to the "foreign devils," but manifest wonder at their eccentric customs. chinese womanhood, painted, bedizened, and tottering on the pink and gold hoofs which cause a sickening shudder to the western spectator, indicates the barrier of prejudice to be surmounted before china can mould national ideals into harmony with modern progress. the vicinity of penang to the equatorial junction of the maritime world, widens local interests by the development of the malay peninsula, partly governed through the instrumentality of native sultans under english guidance, but the abiding charm of the island lies beyond the radius of the thriving port. nature still reigns supreme in this jewel of the equator, where the amber swathes of indian laburnum, the golden-hearted whiteness of luscious frangipanni blossom, and the red fire of the flamboyant tree, light up the endless aisles of swaying palms, where temple-flower and tuberose mingle their fragrance with the breath of clove and cinnamon, interpreting the imagery of the eastern monarch's bridal song, and luring each lover of earth's manifold beauty to "go down into her garden of spices and gather lilies." epilogue. the infinite variety of interests connected with the vast malay archipelago, mainly dominated by european authority, can only be inadequately mentioned in the simple record of a half-year's wandering through scenes which stamp their unfading beauty indelibly on mind and memory. virgin fields of discovery still invite scientific exploration, and the green sepulchre of equatorial vegetation retains innumerable secrets of art and architecture. the geological mysteries of these volcanic shores offer a host of unsolved problems, the surpassing magnificence of flower and foliage makes every island a botanical paradise, and the varieties of race and language which moulded and coloured the destinies of the equatorial world, supply historian and philologist with opportunities of unlimited research. the dim chronicles of a distant past, inscribed in vague characters with faint traces of the earliest malay wanderers, link their shadowy pages with historic records of falling dynasties and warring creeds, preceding the eventful period of colonial enterprise, initiated by the wild campaigns in quest of the precious spices. although the malay voyagers remain veiled in the twilight which clouds the verge of authentic history, the track of their keels may yet be followed through the conflicting currents of that hitherto unknown ocean which they opened to a future world. the forests and fishing grounds of every coast and island still support the manifold divisions of the nomadic race which forms the substratum of island life, and the star of hope which led them onward, shone for many subsequent adventurers across those southern seas which aroused the energies and ambitions of later ages. the symbolical stories of the world's infancy join the actual experience of struggling humanity to the dreamland from whence it emerged, as some syren song lured it into unknown regions. the old-world legends of mankind "launching out into the deep, and letting down the nets for a draught," repeat themselves from age to age, for the human heart has ever sacrificed comfort and safety in order to set sail upon some trackless ocean, on the chance of reaping that harvest of life's sea for which man yearns with insatiable desire. the wanderings of odysseus, in the youth of the world, illustrate the eternal pursuit of a visionary ideal, in those adventures which breathe the undying romance of the sea. the resemblance between the traditions of savage and civilised nations appears too strong to be fortuitous, and indicates the underlying unity of feeling and purpose implanted in the human race. modern environment renders it impossible to calculate the tremendous force of the mysterious impulse which swayed the onward march of primeval tribes; even the later obstacles, overcome by bold spirits who followed in their wake, can never be adequately realised amid the artificial conditions of our present life. the charmed circle of the "equator's emerald zone," encloses a region of marvel and mystery, where imagination, the fairy with the magic mirror, helps to interpret and reveal the secrets of beauty and truth, which transfigure material form and colour with the halo of idealism. the tale of the mysterious ages when "the threads of families" were first "woven into the ropes of nations," still sways mind and fancy, but the romance of the world continues, though the progress of humanity varies the pictured page. in the warm heart of the tropical archipelago, nature, triumphing in eternal youth, seems to mock the transient phases of aspiration and achievement, which vanish by turn into the misty past. the great mother chants her "song of songs" throughout the myriad changes of time, in terms so similar to the imagery of the divine epithalamium that, from a human standpoint, it seems swept by the spice-laden breezes of the malayan lotus-land, rather than by the fainter fragrance wafted from the orchards and gardens of palestine or egypt. possibly the syrian fleet, in search of ivory and peacocks, touched at the enchanted shores where "all trees of frankincense" perfumed the air, and produced those aromatic "powders of the merchant," regarded as priceless treasures both in primitive and mediæval days. the story might well capture the fancy of the royal poet, and enrich the music of his verse with the luscious fragrance of a more luxuriant land than even his own pastoral canaan, flowing with milk and honey. the hyperbole of eastern thought often rests on a solid foundation of fact, and the hebrew love-song weaves tropical nature's lavish wealth of flower, fruit, and fragrance into a symbolic garland, flung in passionate rapture at the feet of the beloved one. the spiritual significance of the sacred lyric only transposes the mystic melody into a higher key, and heaps the thurible of the sanctuary with the frankincense of praise, to celebrate the typical bridal of earth and heaven. the diadem of palms on the last outlying islet of the malay archipelago, stands out in dark relief against the golden haze of the afterglow, which floods the sky, and changes the purple waters into a sea of fire. the pageant of sunset lingers for a moment, and then vanishes beneath of the pall of the swiftly-falling night. the fairyland of eternal summer sinks below the horizon, and realities melt into the shadows of that mental subconsciousness which holds the wraiths of departed joys. memories of the golden hours spent in threading the flowery maze of the vast archipelago, seem a mere handful of shells gathered on the surf-beaten shores, but if even the empty shell can hold the sound of the waves, this brief record of a cruise in sunny seas may also convey faint whispers of that syren voice which echoed through the ages of the past, and still allures the spellbound listener to the swaying palms and spice-scented bowers of malaya's island paradise. transcriber's notes: the preference has been to retain inconsistencies and idiosyncracies in spelling, especially of proper nouns, except in the case of obvious typographical errors. any corrections made are noted below. many javanese names use the "oe" group of vowels. in a few cases, the original text uses "oe" ligatures. since such usage is inconsistent, even for the same name, and the number of instances are few, the "oe" ligatures have not been retained. inconsistencies in the hyphenation of words retained. (dream-like, dreamlike; ear-rings, earrings; re-adjustment, readjustment; sandal-wood, sandalwood; sub-consciousness, subconsciousness; sub-divisions, subdivisions; thunder-clouds, thunderclouds; waist-cloth, waistcloth; white-washed, whitewashed; wicker-work, wickerwork) in the original text, the entire table of contents was printed in italic typeface. for the plaintext version of this ebook, in order to reduce clutter, the standard markup for italics has not been used for text in the table of contents. table of contents, entry for "the solo-bessir isles". the chapter heading in the main text reads "the soela-bessir isles." the original wording has been retained in both cases. pg. 34, "int oa" changed to "into a". (forest aisles into a) pg. 35, "sanatorioum" changed to "sanatorium". (a favourite sanatorium of the dutch) pg. 38, "possing" changed to "possessing". (possessing a notable) pg. 79, unusual spelling "pourtrayed" retained. pg. 89, "ominious" changed to "ominous". (played an ominous part) pg. 94 and 202, "unmistakeable" is also spelled "unmistakable" on page 140. original spellings retained in all cases. pg. 114 and 115, "sulphureous" is also spelled "sulphurous" on page 44. original spellings retained in all cases. pg. 118, "prisets" changed to "priests". (while the priests of siva) pg. 144, "elswhere" changed to "elsewhere". (here as elsewhere) pg. 155, "benath" changed to "beneath". (beneath a hill covered) pg. 156, "pentrate" changed to "penetrate". (of air can penetrate) pg. 166, "smoulderng" changed to "smouldering". (which hides the smouldering) pg. 179, "he" changed to "the". (from the motionless waters) pg. 187, "inagurated" changed to "inaugurated". (growth of foreign vegetation was thus inaugurated) pg. 189, "calvanistic" changed to "calvinistic". (grimness of calvinistic creed) pg. 223, "violents" changed to "violent". (continuous roar of violent explosions) pg. 239, "buddhim" changed to "buddhism". (philosophic buddhism of ceylon) pg. 239, extraneous dot in between sentences: "through the eastern world. . the transcendental". it does not appear to be an ellipsis and has thus been removed. pg. 243, extraneous dot in between sentences: "derived. . the bushy trees". it does not appear to be an ellipsis and has thus been removed. pg. 247, "archipegalo" changed to "archipelago". (the vast malay archipelago) borneo and the indian archipelago. london: spottiswoode and shaw, new-street square. [illustration: chinese joss house. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] [illustration: (transcriber's note: no caption in original text--picture shows a bornean ship with the book title, author's name and publisher printed on the sails and hull.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers] borneo and the indian archipelago. with drawings of costume and scenery. by frank s. marryat, late midshipman of h. m. s. samarang, surveying vessel. london: longman, brown, green, and longmans, paternoster-row. 1848. introduction. i wish the readers of these pages to understand that it has been with no desire to appear before the public as an author that i have published this narrative of the proceedings of her majesty's ship samarang during her last surveying cruise. during the time that i was in the ship, i made a large collection of drawings, representing, i hope faithfully, the costumes of the natives and the scenery of a country so new to europeans. they were considered, on my return, as worthy to be presented to the public, as being more voluminous and more characteristic than drawings made in haste usually are. i may here observe, that it has been a great error on the part of the admiralty, considering the great expense incurred in fitting out vessels for survey, that a little additional outlay is not made in supplying every vessel with a professional draughtsman, as was invariably the case in the first vessels sent out on discovery. the duties of officers in surveying vessels are much too fatiguing and severe to allow them the time to make anything but hasty sketches, and they require that practice with the pencil without which natural talent is of little avail; the consequence is, that the engravings, which have appeared in too many of the narratives of journeys and expeditions, give not only an imperfect, but even an erroneous, idea of what they would describe. a hasty pencil sketch, from an unpractised hand, is made over to an artist to reduce to proportion; from him it passes over to the hand of an engraver, and an interesting plate is produced by their joint labours. but, in this making up, the character and features of the individual are lost, or the scenery is composed of foliage not indigenous to the country, but introduced by the artist to make a good picture. in describing people and countries hitherto unknown, no description given by the pen will equal one correct drawing. how far i may have succeeded must be decided by those who have, with me, visited the same places and mixed with the people delineated. how i found time to complete the drawings is explained by my not doing any duty on board at one time, and at another by my having been discharged into the hospital-ship at hong kong. it was my intention to have published these drawings without letter-press, but in this i have been overruled. i have therefore been compelled to have recourse to my own private journal, which certainly was never intended for publication. as i proceeded, i found that, as i was not on board during the whole of the time, it would be better, and make the work more perfect, if i published the whole of the cruise, which i could easily do by referring to the journals of my messmates. i would gladly mention their names, and publicly acknowledge their assistance; but, all things considered, i think it as well to withhold them, and i take this opportunity of thanking them for their kindness. frank s. marryat. list of illustrations. lithographic plates. chinese joss house _frontispiece_ bornese vessel _title-page_ loondoo dyak _to face page_ 5 river sarawak and town of kuchin 6 keeney-ballo 59 serebis dyak 79 saghai dyak 80 war dance of the dyaks 85 malay chief (sooloo) 101 bruni 106 court of the sultan of borneo 109 west point, hong kong 142 view on the island of poo-too 151 chinese joss house at ningpo 156 quelpartians 182 mandarin of quelpart (corea) 183 japanese 185 natives of luzon (philippines) 199 view in samboangan 201 illanoan pirate 207 dusum 210 port louis 220 woodcuts. mr. brooke's house 7 dyak head 13 malays of kuchin 23 native of batan 27 native of pa-tchu-san 31 sooloo village 42 native boat--borneo 63 dyak war prahu 64 dyak women in canoe 74 teeth of dyaks 79 costumes of dyak women 80 sum-pi-tan--blow-pipe, with poisoned arrows 80 dyak village 82 obtaining fire 89 view of sincapore 93 malay woman 100 proboscis monkey 103 natives of bruni 108 city of manilla 121 procession of the sultan of gonong tabor 133 ears of dyaks at gonong tabor 135 portrait of mahomed pullulu, sultan of sooloo 139 tanka boats--hong kong 141 chinese fishermen 145 cook's shop 146 pagoda--ningpo 154 tanka boat women 165 man-of-war junk 168 trading junks 169 japanese boat 184 salt smugglers 193 spanish galleon 196 water carriers--manilla 199 illanoan pirates 208 natives of n. e. coast of borneo 210 convict 215 kling woman 216 borneo and the indian archipelago. on the 25th of january, 1843, h. m. s. samarang, being completely equipped, went out of portsmouth harbour and anchored at spithead. the crew were paid advanced wages; and, five minutes after the money had been put into their hats at the pay-table, it was all most dexterously transferred to the pockets of their wives, whose regard and affection for their husbands at this peculiar time was most exemplary. on the following day, the crew of the samarang made sail with full hearts and empty pockets. on the 25th february, sighted fuerto ventura: when off this island, the man at the mast-head reported a wreck in sight, which, as we neared it, appeared to be the wreck of a brig. strange to say, the captain recognised it as an old acquaintance, which he had seen off cape finisterre on his return from china in the sulphur. if this was not a mistake, it would be evidence of a southerly current in this quarter of the atlantic. this may be, but i do not consider the proof to be sufficient to warrant the fact; although it may lead to the supposition. if this was the wreck seen at such a long interval by the captain, a succession of northerly winds and gales might have driven it down so far to the southward without the assistance of any current. it is well known that the great current of the atlantic, the gulf stream (which is occasioned by the waters, being forced by the continuous trade winds into the gulf of mexico, finding a vent to the northward by the coast of america, from thence towards newfoundland, and then in a more easterly direction), loses its force, and is expended to the northward of the western islands; and this is the cause why so many rocks have been yearly reported to have been fallen in with in this latitude. wrecks, all over the atlantic, which have been water-logged but do not sink, are borne by the various winds and currents until they get into the gulf stream, which sweeps them along in its course until they arrive to where its force is expended, and there they remain comparatively stationary. by this time, probably, years have passed, and they are covered with sea-weeds and barnacles, and, floating three or four feet out of the water, have every appearance of rocks; and, indeed, if run upon on a dark night, prove nearly as fatal. march 3rd.--anchored off the town of porto praya, island of st. jago, in nine fathoms. porto praya is a miserable town, built on a most unhealthy spot, there being an extensive marsh behind it, which, from its miasma, creates a great mortality among the inhabitants. the consul is a native of bona vista: two english consuls having fallen victims to the climate in quick succession, no one was found very willing to succeed to such a certain provision from the foreign office. the interior of the island is, however, very different from what would be expected from the sight of porto praya. some of the officers paid a visit to the valley of st. domingo, which they described as a perfect paradise, luxuriant with every tropical fruit. porto praya is renowned for very large sharks. i was informed by a captain in her majesty's service, that once, when he anchored at porto praya, he had left the ship to go on shore in one of the twenty-two-foot gigs, not unaptly nick-named coffins in the service. he had not pulled more than a cable's length from the ship, when a shark, nearly as long as the gig, came up swimming with great velocity after them; and as he passed, the animal shouldered the boat, so as nearly to upset it: as it was, the boat took in the water over the gunwale. as the animal appeared preparing for another attack, the captain thought it advisable to pull alongside, and go on shore in the cutter instead of his own boat; and on this large boat the shark did not make a second attempt. april 25th.--anchored in simon's bay, cape of good hope. sailed again on the 7th of may, and fell in with a favourable wind; and too much of it. for six days we were scudding before it under a close-reefed main-topsail and fore-staysail. on the 10th we lost one of the best men in the ship, the sailmaker, charles downing, who fell overboard; the ship was rounded to, the life-buoy let go, but we saw nothing of him. june 7th saw christmas islands, and on the same afternoon the land of java. on the 11th we arrived off the town of anger, in company with a fleet of merchant vessels of all nations and of all rigs. having been so long without a fresh meal, we were not sorry to find ourselves surrounded by boats loaded with fish, fruit, and vegetables; we ate enormously, and they made us pay in proportion. on the 19th we arrived at sincapore, and found the roads very gay with vessels of all descriptions, from the gallant free trader of 1000 tons to the chinese junk. as sincapore, as well as many other places, was more than once visited, i shall defer my description for the present. on june the 27th we weighed and made sail for the river of sarawak (borneo), to pay a visit to mr. brooke, who resides at kuchin, a town situated on that river. the public have already been introduced to mr. brooke in the volumes published by captain henry keppel. mr. brooke is a gentleman of independent fortune, who was formerly in the service of the company. the usefulness and philanthropy of his public career are well known: if the private history which induced him to quit the service, and afterwards expatriate himself, could with propriety, and also regard to mr. brooke's feelings, be made known, it would redound still more to his honour and his high principle; but these i have no right to make public. mr. brooke, having made up his mind to the high task of civilising a barbarous people, and by every means in his power of putting an end to the wholesale annual murders committed by a nation of pirates, whose hands were, like ishmael's, against every man, sailed from england in his yacht, the royalist schooner, with a crew of picked and tried men, and proceeded to sarawak, where he found the rajah, muda hassein, the uncle to the reigning sultan of borneo, engaged in putting down the insurrection of various chiefs of the neighbouring territory. mr. brooke, with his small force, gave his assistance to the rajah; and through his efforts, and those of his well-armed band, the refractory chiefs were reduced to obedience. willing to retain such a powerful ally, and partial to the english, the rajah made mr. brooke most splendid promises to induce him to remain; but the rajah, like all asiatics, did not fulfil the performance of these promises until after much delay and vexation to mr. brooke, who required all the courage and patience with which he is so eminently gifted, before he could obtain his ends. at last he was successful: muda hassein made over to him a large tract of land, over which he was constituted rajah, and mr. brooke took up his residence at kuchin; and this grant was ultimately confirmed by the seal of the sultan of borneo. such, in few words, is the history of mr. brooke: if the reader should wish for a more detailed account, i must refer him to capt. henry keppel's work, in which is published a great portion of mr. brooke's own private memoranda. [illustration: loondoo dyak. (n. w. coast of borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] on the morning of the 29th june we saw the high land of borneo, but for several days were unsuccessful in discovering the mouth of the river. on the night of july the 4th we anchored off the entrance of a river, which the captain supposed to be the sarawak. the next morning the two barges, well armed, were sent up the river to obtain information. after pulling with the stream six or eight miles, they discovered a small canoe, which, on their approach, retreated up the river with great speed. mr. heard, the officer in charge of the boats, had taken the precaution, as he ascended the river, of cutting a palm branch for each boat, and these were now displayed at the bows as a sign of peaceable intentions. these universal tokens of amity reassured the natives, who, seeing them, now turned the bows of their canoes, and paddled towards the boats. the canoe contained four men, almost in a state of nudity, their only covering consisting of a narrow slip of cotton fastened round the middle. they were copper-coloured, and extremely ugly: their hair jet black, very long, and falling down the back; eyes were also black, and deeply sunk in the head, giving a vindictive appearance to the countenance; nose flattened; mouth very large; the lips of a bright vermilion, from the chewing of the betel-nut; and, to add to their ugliness, their teeth black, and filed to sharp points. such is the personal appearance of a loondoo dyak. they informed us that the river we were then in was the loondoo, and that the sarawak was some distance to the eastward. they also gave us the information that the boats of the dido had been engaged with pirates, and had been successful, having captured one prahu and sunk another. after great persuasion, we induced one of them to accompany us to the ship, and pilot her to the sarawak. the same evening we weighed anchor, and stood towards a remarkable promontory (tangong sipang), to the eastward of which is the principal entrance of the sarawak river; a second, but less safe, entrance being within a mile of the promontory. light and variable winds prevented our arrival at the mouth of the river until the evening of the following day. from thence, after two days' incessant kedging and towing, we anchored off the town of kuchin, on the morning of the 8th instant. the town of kuchin is built on the left-hand side of the river sarawak going up; and, from the windings of the river, you have to pull twenty-five miles up the river to arrive at it, whereas it is only five miles from the coast as the crow flies. it consists of about 800 houses, built on piles driven into the ground, the sides and roofs being enclosed with dried palm leaves. strips of bamboo are laid across, which serve as a floor. in fact, there is little difference between these houses and those built by the burmahs and other tribes in whose countries bamboo and ratan are plentiful. the houses of mr. brooke and the rajah are much superior to any others, having the advantage and comfort of wooden sides and floorings. we visited the rajah several times, who invariably received us with urbanity, and entertained us in a very hospitable manner. muda hassein is a man about fifty years of age,--some think more,--of low stature, as are most of the malays, well made, and with a very prepossessing countenance for a malay. his brother, budruden, is a much finer man, very agreeable, and very partial to the english. the malays profess mahomedanism; but budruden in many points followed european customs, both in dress and drinking wine. [illustration: river sarawack and town of kuchin. (borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the residence of mr. brooke is on the side of the river opposite to the town, as, for the most part, are all the houses of the europeans. in structure it somewhat resembles a swiss cottage, and is erected upon a green mound, which slopes down to the river's bank, where there is a landing-place for boats. at the back of the house is a garden, containing almost every tree peculiar to the climate; and it was a novelty to us to see collected together the cotton-tree, the areca, sago, palm, &c., with every variety of the camellia japonica in a state of most luxurious wildness. [illustration: mr. brooke's house.] the establishment consists of six europeans, and the house contains one large receiving-room, and several smaller ones, appropriated to the residents as sleeping apartments, besides mr. brooke's own private rooms. the large room is decorated with rifles, swords, and other instruments of warfare, european and native; and it is in this room that the european rajah gives his audiences: and it is also in this room that every day, at five o'clock, a capital dinner is served up, to which we were made heartily welcome. during our stay, mr. brooke, accompanied by several of our officers and some of the residents, made an excursion up the river. we started early in the morning, with a flowing tide; and, rapidly sweeping past the suburbs of the town, which extend some distance up the river, we found ourselves gliding through most interesting scenery. on either side, the river was bounded by gloomy forests, whose trees feathered down to the river's bank, the water reflecting their shadows with peculiar distinctness. occasionally the scene was diversified by a cleared spot amidst this wilderness, where, perchance, a half-ruined hut, apparently not inhabited for years, the remains of a canoe, together with fragments of household utensils, were to be seen, proving that once it had been the abode of those who had been cut off by some native attack, and probably the heads of its former occupants were now hanging up in some skull-house belonging to another tribe. the trees were literally alive with monkeys and squirrels, which quickly decamped as we approached them. several times we were startled by the sudden plunge of the alligators into the water, close to the boats, and of whose propinquity we were not aware until they made the plunge. all these rivers are infested with alligators, and i believe they are very often mischievous; at all events, one of our youngsters was continually in a small canoe, paddling about, and the natives cautioned us that if he was not careful he certainly would be taken by one of these animals. early in the afternoon we disembarked at a chinese village twenty-five miles from kuchin. the inhabitants of this village work the gold and antimony mines belonging to mr. brooke. we remained there for the night, and the next morning proceeded further up the river, and landed at another village, where we breakfasted, and then proceeded on foot to visit the mines. our path lay through dense forests of gigantic trees, whose branches met and interlaced overhead, shading us from the burning rays of the sun. at times we would emerge from the wood, and find ourselves passing through cultivated patches of ravines, enclosed on all sides by lofty mountains, covered with foliage. in these spots we found a few natives with their families, who seemed to be contented in their perfect isolation; for in these secluded spots generations may pass away, and know no world beyond their own confines of forest jungle. at times our route was over mountains, whose appearance was so formidable that our hearts almost failed us at the prospect of having to scale them; but we succeeded beyond our expectations, and at length arrived at the antimony village, not a little pleased at our labours being ended. our spirits, which had been flagging, were revived by a pull at the bottle. from our resting-place we had a good view of the mine, which is a source of great profit to mr. brooke. the antimony is obtained from the side of a hill, the whole of which is supposed to be formed of this valuable mineral. the side at which the men are at work shines like silver during the day, and may be seen several miles distant, strangely contrasting with the dark foliage of the adjoining jungles. the ore is conveyed to kuchin, and is there shipped on board of the royalist, (mr. brooke's schooner yacht,) and taken to sincapore, where it is eagerly purchased by the merchants, and shipped for england. after partaking of a little refreshment we set off, through woods and over mountains, as before, to visit the gold mine. on our arrival at every village on the road, a certain number of guns were fired by the natives, in honour of the european rajah; and the same ceremony was repeated when we left it. it was late in the afternoon before we arrived at the village attached to the gold mine. it is prettily situated in the depth of a valley, through which runs a small rivulet. on every side mountains soar into the clouds, which must be passed before you can reach the village. dinner had been prepared for us by the inhabitants of the village, who were a colony of chinese; and it was served up in a large building dedicated to joss, whose shrine was brilliantly illuminated with candles and joss-sticks. some of the officers unthinkingly lighted their cigars at the altar. the chinese, observing it, requested very civilly that they would do so no more; a request which was, of course, complied with. after dinner we all proceeded to the rivulet, in search of gold; the natives had cleared out the bed of the river; the sand and stones were thrown into an artificial sluice for washing it; and a little gold was found by some of the party. this gold mine, if it may be so called, is worth to mr. brooke about 1000l. per annum, after all the expenses are paid. its real value is much greater; but the chinese conceal a great quantity, and appropriate it to themselves. but if the particles of gold which are brought down by a small rivulet are of such value, what may be the value of the mines above, in the mountains as yet untrodden by human feet? this, it is to be hoped, enterprise will some day reveal. we remained at the village that night, and at daylight commenced our journey back to the village from which we had started the day before. there we embarked, and proceeded down the river to the first chinese village, at which we arrived in the course of the afternoon. a short distance inland is a mountain, called sarambo, which it was proposed to ascend, as, by our telescopes, we could perceive houses near to its summit, and were told it was the residence of some of the mountain dyaks under mr. brooke's sway. from the village this mountain wore the appearance of a huge sugar-loaf, and its sides appeared inaccessible. mr. brooke, with his usual kindness, gave his consent, and despatched a messenger to the dyak village, requesting the chief to send a party down by daylight the next morning, to convey our luggage up the mountain. at day-dawn we were awakened by a confused noise outside of the house, and, looking out, we perceived that more than a score of these mountain dyaks had arrived. most of them had nothing on but the usual strip of cotton; some few had on red baize jackets. they all wore a peculiar kind of _kris_, and many had spears, sampitans, and shields. they were fine-limbed men, with muscles strongly developed. their hair fell down their backs, and nearly reached their middle: it was prevented from falling over the face by a fillet of grass, which was ornamented with mountain flowers. after a hurried breakfast we set off for the foot of the mountain, our party amounting to about eighty people. the guides led the way, followed by the europeans; and the dyaks, with the luggage, brought up the rear. in this order we commenced the ascent. each person was provided with a bamboo, which was found indispensable; and thus, like a party of pilgrims, we proceeded on our way; and before we had gone very far, we discovered that we were subjected to severe penance. the mountain was nearly perpendicular. in some places we had to ascend by a single piece of wood, with rough notches for the feet, resting against a rock twenty or thirty feet above our heads; and on either side was a precipice, so that a false step must have been certain death. in other places a single piece of bamboo was thrown over a frightful chasm, by way of bridge. this, with a slight bamboo rail for the hand, was all that we had to trust to. the careful manner in which we passed these dangers was a source of great laughter and amusement to the dyaks who followed us. accustomed from infancy to tread these dangerous paths, although heavily laden, they scorned to support themselves. some of our party were nearly exhausted, and a long way in the rear before we came to the village. we had to wait for their coming up, and threw ourselves under the shade of some huge trees, that we might contemplate the bird's-eye view beneath. it was a sight which must be seen to be appreciated. almost as far as the eye could reach was one immense wooded plain, bounded by lofty mountains in the far distance, whose tops pierced the clouds. the rivers appeared like silver threads, running through the jungles; now breaking off, and then regained. at our feet lay the village we had started from, the houses of which appeared like mere points. shakspeare cliff was as nothing to it, and his beautiful lines would have fallen very short of the mark; and while we gazed, suddenly a cloud below us would pass between us and the view, and all would be hidden from the sight. thus we were far above the clouds, and then the clouds would break, and open, and pass and repass over each other, until, like the dissolving views, all was clear again, although the landscape was not changed. it was towards noon before we saw the first mountain village, which we did not immediately enter, as we waited the arrival of the laggards: we stopped, therefore, at a spring of cold water, and enjoyed a refreshing wash. here we fell in with some pretty dyak girls, very scantily clothed, who were throwing water at each other in sport. we soon came in for a plentiful share, which we returned with interest; and in this amusing combat we passed half an hour, until all had joined the party. we then entered the village, which was situated in a grove of trees. the houses were built upon posts, as those down by the river side. they were immensely large, with a bamboo platform running the whole length of the building, and divided into many compartments, in each of which a dyak family resides. we were escorted, through a crowd of wondering dyaks, to a house in the centre of the village, which was very different in construction from the others. it was perfectly round, and well ventilated by numerous port-holes in the roof, which was pointed. we ascended to the room above by means of a rough ladder, and when we entered we were rather taken aback at finding that we were in the head house, as it is termed, and that the beams were lined with human heads, all hanging by a small line passed through the top of the skull. they were painted in the most fantastic and hideous manner; pieces of wood, painted to imitate the eyes, were inserted into the sockets, and added not a little to their ghastly grinning appearance. the strangest part of the story, and which added very much to the effect of the scene, was, that these skulls were perpetually moving to and fro, and knocking against, each other. this, i presume, was occasioned by the different currents of air blowing in at the port-holes cut in the roof; but what with their continual motion, their nodding their chins when they hit each other, and their grinning teeth, they really appeared to be endowed with new life, and were a very merry set of fellows. however, whatever might be the first impression occasioned by this very unusual sight, it very soon wore off, and we amused ourselves with those motions which were "not life," as byron says; and, in the course of the day, succeeded in making a very excellent dinner in company with these gentlemen, although we were none of us sufficiently don giovannis to invite our friends above to supper. we visited three villages on the sarambo mountain. each of these villages was governed by a chief of its own, but they were subordinate to the great chief, residing in the first village. [illustration: dyak head.] in the evening the major portion of the population came to the head house, to exhibit to us their national dances. the music was composed of two gongs and two large bamboo drums. the men stood up first, in war costume, brandishing their spears and shields, and throwing themselves into the most extraordinary attitudes, as they cut with their knives at some imaginary enemy; at the same time uttering the most unearthly yells, in which the dyak spectators joined, apparently highly delighted with the exhibition. the women then came forward, and went through a very unmeaning kind of dance, keeping time with their hands and feet; but still it was rather a relief after the noise and yelling from which we had just suffered. the chief, macuta, expressing a wish to see a specimen of our dancing, not to let them suppose we were not as warlike as themselves, two of the gig's boat's crew stood up, and went through the evolutions of the broad-sword exercise in a very creditable manner. after this performance one of the seamen danced the sailor's hornpipe, which brought forth a torrent of yells instead of bravos, but they certainly meant the same thing. by this time, the heat from a large fire, with the smell of humanity in so crowded a room, became so overpowering, that i was glad to leave the head house to get a little fresh air, and my ears relieved from the dinning of the drums and gongs. it was a beautiful starry night, and, strolling through the village, i soon made acquaintance with a native dyak, who requested me to enter his house. he introduced me to his family, consisting of several fine girls and a young lad. the former were naked from the shoulders to below the breasts, where a pair of stays, composed of several circles of whalebone, with brass fastenings, were secured round their waists; and to the stays was attached a cotton petticoat, reaching to below their knees. this was the whole of their attire. they were much shorter than european women, but well made; very interesting in their appearance, and affable and friendly in their manners. their eyes were dark and piercing, and i may say there was something wicked in their furtive glances; their noses were but slightly flattened; the mouth rather large; but when i beheld the magnificent teeth which required all its size to display, i thought this rather an advantage. their hair was superlatively beautiful, and would have been envied by many a courtly dame. it was jet black, and of the finest texture, and hung in graceful masses down the back, nearly reaching to the ground. a mountain dyak girl, if not a beauty, has many most beautiful points; and, at all events, is very interesting and, i may say, pretty. they have good eyes, good teeth, and good hair;--more than good: i may say splendid;--and they have good manners, and know how to make use of their eyes. i shall, therefore, leave my readers to form their own estimates by my description. expecting to meet some natives in my ramble, i had filled my pockets with ship's biscuit, and which i now distributed among the ladies, who appeared very grateful, as they rewarded me, while they munched it, by darting wicked glances from their laughing eyes. observing that the lad wore a necklace of human teeth round his neck, his father explained to me, in pantomime, that they were the teeth of an enemy whom he slew in battle, and whose head was now in the head house. as it was getting late i bade my new friends farewell, by shaking hands all round. the girls laughed immoderately at this way of bidding good-bye, which, of course, was to them quite novel. i regretted afterwards that i had not attempted the more agreeable way of bidding ladies farewell, which, i presume, they would have understood better; as i believe kissing is an universal language, perfectly understood from the equator to the pole. at daylight the next morning we descended the mountain, and, embarking in the boats, arrived at the ship late in the afternoon. while at sarawak we witnessed a very strange ceremony. hearing a great noise in a house, we entered, and found ourselves in a large room crowded to excess by a numerous assemblage, singing in any thing but harmony. they proved to be natives of java, assembled for the purpose of celebrating one of their festivals. on our entrance into the house, we were literally covered by the inmates with perfumes of the most delightful fragrance. some of these odours were in a liquid state, and were poured down our backs, or upon our heads; others were in a state of powder, with which we were plentifully besprinkled. we were then escorted into the centre of the room, where we found a circle of elderly men, who were reading portions of their sacred books, and their voices were accompanied by music from instruments of native manufacture. we were treated with great attention, being permitted to enter the circle of the elders, who ordered the attendants to hand us refreshments, which consisted of cakes made of rice and cocoa-nut oil, and sam-schoo. some of our party, having become slightly elevated, volunteered a song, which proposition was opposed by the more reasonable. the javanese were appealed to by the former, and they gave their votes in favour of the song. it was accordingly sung by our whole party, much to the delight of our kind entertainers, who, no doubt, considered that we felt and appreciated their rites. at length we took our leave, well pleased with our novel entertainment. so well did we succeed in making ourselves agreeable, that we received an invitation for the following night. july 10th.--in the evening a display of fireworks took place, notice of which had been given to the rajah, and, indeed, to the whole population of kuchin, who had all assembled near to the ship, to witness what they considered a most wonderful sight. seamen were stationed at all the yard-arms, flying jib, and driver booms, with blue-lights, which were fired simultaneously with the discharge of a dozen rockets, and the great gun of a royal salute. the echoes reverberated for at least a minute after the last gun of the salute had been fired; and, judging by the yells of the natives, the display must have created a strong sensation. immediately after the salute, the anchor was weighed, and we commenced dropping down the river with the ebb tide; but we soon grounded on the mud, and we remained all night with the bowsprit in the bushes which grow on the banks of the river. the ship floated the next morning; the anchor was weighed, and with the assistance of the ebb tide, we dropped down the river at the rate of five miles per hour. as we were nearing a cluster of dangerous rocks, about a mile below kuchin, we found that the ship was at the mercy of the rapid tide; and, notwithstanding all our endeavours, the ship struck on the rocks. anchors were immediately laid out, but to no effect: the water rapidly shallowed, and we gave up all thoughts of getting off until the next flood tide. as the water left the ship, she fell over to starboard, and, an hour after she had grounded, she listed to starboard 25 degrees. our position was now becoming critical: the main deck ports had been shipped some time previous, but this precaution did not prevent the water from gaining entrance on the main and lower decks. as she still continued to heel over to starboard, a hawser was taken on shore, and, by purchases, set taut to the mast head; but before this could be accomplished she had filled so much that it proved useless. a boat was now despatched to kuchin, to acquaint mr. brooke with our disaster, and to request the assistance of the native boats. during the absence of the boats, the top-gallant-masts had been sent down, and topmasts lowered; but the ship was now careening over 46 degrees, and full of water. all hopes of getting her off were therefore, for the present, abandoned; and we commenced removing every thing that could be taken out of her in the boats. the surveying instruments and other valuables, were sent up to kuchin in the gig; and afterwards every thing that could be obtained from the ship was brought up in the native boats, as well as the whole crew of the samarang. mr. brooke insisted upon all the officers making a temporary abode at his house, and prepared a shed for the crew. an excellent dinner was laid before the officers, while a substantial mess of fowls and rice was served out to the crew. in fact, the kindness of mr. brooke was beyond all bounds. the gentlemen who resided with him, as well as himself, provided us with clothes from their own wardrobes, and during our protracted stay did all in their power to make us comfortable; indeed, i may safely say, that we were so happy and comfortable, that there were but very few of the officers and crew of the samarang that ever wished to see her afloat again. but i must return to my narrative. the morning after our disaster we went down to the ship, and commenced recovering provisions and stores, sending down masts and yards, and every other article deemed necessary; and this was continued for several days: during which the midshipmen, petty officers, and seamen were removed to the opposite shore, where two houses had been, by mr. brooke, prepared for their reception. our house, (the midshipmen's) we christened cockpit hall; it was very romantically situate in the middle of a plantation of cocoa nut, palm, banana, and plantain trees. it was separated from the house in which the seamen were barracked by a small kind of jungle, not more than 300 yards in extent, but so intricate that we constantly lost our way in it, and had to shout and receive an answer, or go back and take a fresh departure. our garden, in which there was a delightful spring of cold water, extended on a gentle slope about a hundred yards in front of the house, where its base was watered by a branch of the sarawak; in which we refreshed ourselves by bathing morning and evening, in spite of the numerous alligators and water snakes with which the river abounds. but our incautious gambols received a check. two of our party agreed to proceed to the mouth of the branch i have mentioned, to determine which could return with the greatest speed. they had commenced their swimming race, when we, who stood ashore as umpires, observed an enormous water snake, with head erect, making for the two swimmers. we cried out to them to hasten on shore, which they did; while we kept up a rapid discharge of stones at the head of the brute, who was at last driven off in another direction. this incident induced us to be more cautious, and to keep within safe boundary for the future. our repose at cockpit hall was, however, much disturbed by the nightly visits of wild hogs, porcupines, wild cats, guanos, and various other animals, some of which made dreadful noises. when they paid us their visits, we all turned out, and, armed with muskets, commenced an assault upon them, which soon caused them to evacuate our domain; but similar success did not attend our endeavours to dislodge the swarms of musquitos, scorpions, lizards, and centipedes from our habitations. they secreted themselves in the thatch, and the sides of the house during the day, and failed not to disturb with their onslaughts during the whole of the night. july 22d.--mr. hooper, the purser, was despatched in the royalist to sincapore, to purchase provisions and obtain assistance from any of the men-of-war who might be lying in the roads. it is not necessary to enter into a minute detail of the service which we were now employed upon. it certainly was not a service of love, as we had to raise a ship which we hoped would remain where she was. to enter into particulars, technical terms must be resorted to, which would only puzzle the reader. the position of the samarang was simply this: she lay on a rock, and had filled by careening over; as long as she was on her side, the water rose and fell in her with the flood and ebb of the tide; but if once we could get her on an even keel, as soon as the water left her with the ebb of the tide, all we had to do was to pump her out, and then she would float again. to effect this, we had to lighten her as much as possible, by taking out of her her guns and stores of every description; then to get purchases on her from the shore, and assist the purchases with rafts under her bilge, so as to raise her again upon an even keel. on the second day after she filled, when the tide had run out, we removed all our chests from the lower deck; most of them were broken, and a large proportion of the contents missing. on the 27th may every thing had been prepared, and the attempt to get the vessel on an even keel was made, and it proved successful, as it well might with the variety of purchases, and the force of men we had at our disposition. when we repaired to the ship with 100 malays to man the purchase-falls, the tide was ebbing fast, and the pumps were immediately set to work; so that at midnight, when the tide commenced flowing, the ship was nearly free of water. the purchases were then manned, and with the assistance of the rafts the ship gradually righted. the following day, about half-past two in the morning, the ship was free of water, and had risen to a careen of 30â°; at 3 o'clock she floated into deep water, and was then anchored. during the forenoon of the same day the ship was towed to her former anchoring ground off kuchin. the same night the harlequin and royalist arrived in the river, and a day or two afterwards a brig and schooner came over with the intention of bidding for the remains of the ship, and of stocking the officers with clothes and necessaries. this was a losing speculation, as may be imagined, arising from a report having been circulated that it was impossible to raise the ship, whereas, as the reader will perceive, there was very little difficulty in so doing, nothing but sufficient strength being required. our ship, as may be supposed, was in a most filthy state after the late immersion. plunging into a river does not clean a vessel, although it does a man. the decks were literally coated with mud and slime, which emitted the most foetid odour. silver spoons, watches, and valuables of every description, were everywhere strewed about, few of which ever reached their rightful owners; for the malays who were employed to clean the ship had an eye to business, and secreted every thing which was portable. by dint of great exertion, the ship was in a few days ready to receive her tanks, guns, and stores, which were embarked by the harlequin's boats and boats' crews. she was soon in a forward state, and an expedition was formed to survey a part of the coast during the completion of her refitting. the gig and one of the barges were fitted out for this service, and on august the 13th, at daylight, we left kuchin, well armed, and provisioned for ten days. at 10 a. m. we dropped anchor under the peak of santabong, from which the branch of the sarawak we were then in derives its name. here we remained a short time to refresh the men, who had not ceased tugging at the oar from the time that we started. the foot of the santabong mountain is about a quarter of a mile from the river. it then ascends almost perpendicularly to a great height, towering far above the neighbouring mountains. afterwards it runs seaward for a mile or two, and terminates in a remarkable peak, which forms the eastern horn of the extensive bay between it and tanjon datu. here we were about a week, during which time we had extended our survey to the last-mentioned cape, which is about forty miles to the westward of santabong. while in the vicinity of datu, a strict watch was kept, that we might have timely notice of the approach of any prahus. a short distance from the cape is a delightful bay studded with small islets, which is known by the appellation of pirate's bay, so called from its being a favourite resort of the illanoan pirates. it was in this bay that the dido's boats were anchored when they were surprised by several piratical prahus, the look-out men in the european boats, exhausted by the heat and long pulling at the oar, having fallen asleep. they had scarcely time to cut the cables and grasp their weapons ere they were assailed on all sides by the pirates, who felt confident of success, from having found them napping. but they little knew what people they had to deal with, and if jack was asleep when they made the attack, they found him wide awake when they came to close quarters. all their endeavours to board in the face of the rapid fire of the boats' guns and small arms proved abortive, and they soon discovered that it would be quite sufficient for their purpose if, instead of capturing the boats, they could make their own escape. one of the prahus, pierced by the well-directed shot, foundered, another was abandoned, and the rest, favoured by darkness, made their escape. for a more detailed account, i must refer the reader to captain keppel's work on borneo. during the survey, we visited the islands of talen talen--the malay word for turtle. these islands are the property of mr. brooke. a few malays lived on the largest of them for the purpose of getting turtle eggs, with which they supply the trading prahus, who continually call here to lay in a stock of these eggs, which are considered a great luxury by the malays. we landed with mr. williamson, the malay interpreter at sarawak, belonging to mr. brooke's establishment. we were well received by the malays, who knew mr. williamson well, and he informed them that our object was to procure a live turtle. they requested us to take our choice of the numerous turtle then lying on the beach. we selected one of about three cwt.; but although the turtles are never turned on this island, she appeared to be aware that such was our intention, and scuttled off as fast as she could for the water; however, we intercepted her, and with some difficulty secured our prize. from one of the numerous nests on the beach we took 600 turtle eggs. as many thousands could have been as easily procured, but we had sufficient for our wants. the malays watch during the night, to ascertain where the turtle deposits her eggs, for as soon as she has finished her task, she covers them with her nippers with sand, and immediately retires into the sea. a piece of wood is then set up as a mark for the nest, which is rifled as occasion requires. it is a curious fact that the male turtle never lands. [illustration: malays of kuchin.] after visiting several villages on the coast, we returned to kuchin on saturday the 19th, when we found that death had deprived us of our only musician on board the ship, a loss which was much felt by the crew, as he contributed much to their amusement. one of the supernumerary boys had also fallen a victim to the dysentery; but, although we deplored our loss, we had great reason to be thankful that it had been no greater, as on the day we left kuchin, we had upwards of seventy men on the sick report. the same day, at noon, the anchor was weighed, and we dropped down the river with the ebb tide. strange to say, in spite of all our precautions, we struck on the same reef of rocks again; fortunately, however, the ship turned with the tide and grounded in the mud close to the bushes, from whence there was no extricating her till the flood tide had made. in the afternoon, when it was low water, a very large alligator was discovered asleep upon the rocks, which had been properly christened the samarang rocks, and which were now, at low ebb, several feet above water. a party of officers and marines pulled towards him, and fired a volley at him. the brute was evidently wounded, as he sprang up several feet in the air, and then disappeared under the water. shortly after he again made his appearance, having landed on the opposite side of the river; his assailants again gave chase, and again wounded him, but he shuffled into the river and escaped. at three in the afternoon, we were much pleased at the arrival of the diana, one of the company's steamers, sent from sincapore to our assistance. she proved extremely useful, for that night we gained fifteen miles, when we again grounded and remained all night. on the following day, at eleven a. m., a cloud of thick smoke was observed rising above the jungle, which we immediately decided to proceed from a steamer. shortly afterwards two masts appeared above the trees, and at one of them the vixen's number was flying: she soon hove in sight. we weighed, and with the harlequin, were towed down the river at a rapid pace. when we arrived at the entrance we anchored, finding there the wanderer, and being joined soon afterwards by the ariel, royalist, and diana, we formed a squadron of six vessels. on the 23d august, the samarang, harlequin, ariel, and royalist, weighed anchor and steered along the coast for borneo proper, where we arrived on tuesday the 29th. on the thursday following, mr. brooke, accompanied by the captains of the three men-of-war and some officers, started in one of the barges for the city of bruni, which was about eighteen miles from our anchorage. they had an audience with the sultan, but upon what cause i do not exactly know. they were treated with great civility, and returned to the ship about one o'clock on the following morning. my description of bruni i shall reserve for a future visit. on the 5th of september we made sail for hong kong, with the vixen in company, leaving the ariel and royalist to carry mr. brooke and the rajah's brother down to sarawak. the harlequin sailed for sincapore. the vixen having parted company to obtain fuel at manilla, we continued our course to hong kong, where we arrived on the 14th inst., and found there admirals parker and cochrane, in their respective ships the cornwallis and agincourt, with others of the squadron. we sailed again on the 2d of november, and after working up the coast of china for a week, we steered to the eastward, and on the 12th sighted the bashee group. here our surveying duties commenced in earnest, as we left the ship at four a. m. and did not return till darkness put an end to our labours. the governor of this group of islands sent a letter to our captain requesting the pleasure of seeing the ship in san domingo bay, where wood, water, and live stock could be obtained on reasonable terms. this letter was accompanied with a present of fruit and vegetables. a few days afterwards, we worked up to san domingo bay (batan island), and we were much surprised on our arrival to perceive that the town had a cathedral, of apparently ancient architecture, besides several houses built on the european style. the remainder of the town, which is of some extent, was composed of houses built of bamboo, and thatched with palm leaves. we anchored late in the afternoon, and were boarded by a spanish military officer, who, to judge by certain signs and peculiarities, had been imbibing something stronger than water. the captain and some of the officers went on shore, to call upon the governor. the governor's house was distinguished by a flag-staff, with the spanish colours, or, rather, a remnant of the spanish colours; and around the door stood a group of most indifferently clad luzonian soldiers, turned out, we presumed, as a guard of honour. the governor was as much in dishabille as his troops, and shortly afterwards the party was joined by two priests and the governor's wife, a very pretty creole, about twenty years of age. we were regaled with wine and chocolate, and parted late in the evening, on very friendly terms. the governor's house is a miserable abode: it has but one story, and the basement is a barrack for the soldiers. the upper part, inhabited by the governor, was very scantily furnished: a few old chairs, a couple of tables, and the walls whitewashed and decorated with prints of the virgin mary and his excellency's patron saint. the house of the priests, which adjoined the cathedral, was in much better repair, and more gaudy in the inside. there are three missions in batan, each settlement having its cathedral and officiating priests. the natives, who are a distinct race, are well-proportioned, of a copper colour, and medium stature. they are very ugly: their hair is black, and cut short. their usual dress consists of a piece of cotton, passed round the loins, and a peculiar-looking conical hat, surmounted with a tuft of goat's hair. in rainy weather they wear a cloak of rushes, through which the water cannot penetrate. the sole covering of the women is a piece of cotton, fastened below the bosom, and reaching down to the knee. almost the whole of the bashee group of islands are very mountainous. at the back of san domingo the land rises to a great height, forming a remarkable peak, which can be seen many leagues distant. bullocks, goats, pigs, and vegetables, can be obtained at a very moderate price; but very little fruit is grown, the natives usually preferring to cultivate yams, cocoas, and sweet potatoes. the sugar-cane is cultivated, and the tobacco grown here is considered, with great justice, far superior to any grown at luzon. after a week's stay at san domingo we ran down to ivana, one of the missions, and made a rough survey of the bay. the mission house at this place was fitted up with every comfort, and we even found luxuries which we looked in vain for at san domingo. [illustration: native of batan.] after completing the survey of this portion of the island, the governor (who had accompanied us from san domingo) and a party of us set off to return to san domingo by land. our path lay over mountains nearly 2000 feet in height, from the summit of which every point and inlet could be discerned, over the whole of the group which lay below, exactly as if they were laid down on a chart. our walk was very fatiguing, and we were all rejoiced when, from an eminence, we descried the village of san carlos, the residence of the warm-hearted and hospitable father nicholas. we descended into the vale, and were heartily welcomed by the jolly old priest, who regaled us with all that his larder could supply us. it had been arranged that the ship should leave ivana for san domingo on the following morning. at the entreaty of the good padre we remained at san carlos all night, and the following morning returned to san domingo, the ship anchoring in the bay on the same afternoon. we had now become quite domesticated with the friendly spaniards. in the evenings we were received by an assemblage of the natives at the governor's house. they were dressed in their best, and went through an unmeaning dance, which was kept up till a late hour. on the 27th november we left batan, and its kind inhabitants, who exacted a promise that we would return at some future period, and shaped a course for the madjicosima islands, which are subject to the kingdom of loo choo. on the afternoon of the 1st of december land was discovered ahead, and a few hours afterwards we anchored in a narrow passage, surrounded by reefs on every side. we were anchored off the island of pa-tchu-san, one of the group: it was very mountainous. on the following morning the captain and some of the officers went on shore. they were received by several hundred natives, who saluted them as they passed on their way to a temporary shed, where a levee was held by all the principal mandarins. our chinese interpreter, who was a native of canton, explained the captain's wishes, and the nature of the service that we were employed on. they appeared uneasy at the proposal of our surveying the whole group, and informed the captain that they would refer the question to the viceroy, and give him a final answer on the morrow. this answer was in the affirmative, and a few days afterwards we commenced our survey of the islands. we were attended by the natives, who furnished us with horses, and anticipated our wishes in every thing that could make us comfortable. on the first day, at sunset, we arrived at a temple dedicated to fo, romantically situated in a grove of trees, which concealed the elevation until you were within a few yards of it. here it was proposed to take up our quarters for the night, and a more delightful spot could not well be imagined than our resting-place. the temple was built at the foot of a hill, within a few hundred yards of the sea. lights were displayed as a signal to the stragglers, groups of whom might be seen by the light of the moon, reposing themselves on the ridge behind us. the glare of the torches brought them all down to us, both men and horses anxious for rest after the arduous toil of the day. just as i was dropping off to sleep, one of my messmates said to another, "i say, jemmy, i wonder whether your mother has any idea that you are sleeping in the temple of fo, on the island of pa-tchu-san?" a loud snore was the only reply, proving that the party addressed was unconscious of the island pa-tchu-san, the temple of fo, or of his mother, and the bells ringing for church. pa-tchu-san, as i have before observed, is very mountainous and exceedingly picturesque. a high ridge covered with trees extends the whole length of the island, north and south. on either side of this ridge are innumerable grassy knolls and mounds from which we looked down upon the extensive plain on either side, which was studded with knolls similar to those that we were standing on. during our survey we passed through all the villages bordering the sea, at the entrance of which we were invariably received by all the principal inhabitants. all their villages or towns are surrounded by the most luxurious groves, which have been apparently planted, for in many parts not a shrub could be seen beyond the confines of the town. the roads through the towns or streets generally meet at right angles, lined on each side with gigantic trees. the houses are built within enclosures raised with huge stones. these houses are strongly built, the frame being composed of four uprights of large timber, to which are attached cross pieces on the top of them, of the same dimensions as their supporters. openings are left on each side of the house, which, when the owner pleases, can be closed by well-fitted shutters on the sliding principle. the roofs are thatched with paddy stalks. the floor frame is raised about two feet from the ground, and on it are fixed strong slips of bamboo, which are covered over with mats. these afford very comfortable sitting and sleeping apartments. the only inconvenience was, that the fire was made in the corner of the sitting-room, and as there was no vent for the smoke, we were nearly stifled. this nuisance was, however, soon removed by a word to the natives through the medium of the interpreter, and afterwards the fire was lighted, and the victuals cooked, at an adjoining shed. the natives of the madjicosima islands are rather below the middle stature, but very strong and muscular. their hair is worn in a very peculiar manner; the crown of the head is shaved, leaving a circle of long hair, which is turned up on the top of the head and tied into a knot of a peculiar shape. through this knot of hair are passed two brass ornaments by the common people, but the chiefs are distinguished by silver ones. these are evidently intended to keep the knot in its right position. they cultivate the moustache and the beard, the latter being worn pointed. their dress consists of a long loose robe of blue or cross-barred cotton stuffs, which reaches down nearly to the ancles. this robe is fastened to the waist by a girdle of the same material, and in which they keep their fans, pipes, &c. the sleeves of the robe are very large, widening as they approach the wrists, which are consequently bare. their shoes or sandals are very ingeniously made of wicker work, and confined to the foot by means of a strap between the larger toes of each foot. [illustration: native of pa-tchu-san.] the inhabitants of these islands certainly deserve to be ranked among the most gentle and amiable of nations: no boisterousness attends their conversation, no violent gestures to give effect to the words; on the contrary, their voices are modulated when they are speaking, and their actions, although decided, are gentle. their mode of salutation is graceful in the extreme. it consists in a low bending of the head, accompanied with a slight inclination of the body, and the hands closed, being raised at the same time to the forehead. what a change in a few degrees of latitude, in manners, customs, and dispositions, between the savage pirates of borneo and these amiable islanders! the plains between the mountains are cultivated as paddy fields: the soil appears very good, and there is little doubt but that every kind of fruit would grow if introduced into these islands; and what a fitting present it would be to them, if they were to be sent. they grow radishes, onions, and sweet potatoes, but not more than are sufficient for their own use. they supplied us with bullocks, pigs, goats, and fowls, but they seldom kill them for their own use; their principal diet being composed of shell fish and vegetables made into a sort of stew, which is eaten with rice, worked by the hand into balls. every man of consequence carries with him a kind of portable larder, which is a box with a shelf in the middle, and a sliding door. in this are put cups of japan, containing the eatables. this chow chow box is carried by a servant, who also takes with him a wicker basket, containing rice and potatoes for his own consumption. these islands have no intercourse with any part of the world except loo choo, to which they pay tribute as dependencies, and from whence they annually receive the necessaries they may require, by a junk. they had no idea that the continents of europe or america existed. they had only heard of china, loo choo, and japan, and they could hardly credit our assertions when we stated that we had lately gained a great victory over china. when we gave them a description of steam vessels, and first-rate men-of-war carrying 120 guns, they evidently disbelieved us. we were the first white men they had ever seen; and ludicrous was the repeated examination of our arms, which they bared and contrasted with their own. after great persuasion a few of the chief mandarins and their suites visited the ship, which was put in holiday attire upon the occasion. it would be impossible to attempt to describe their rapture at the neatness, order, and regularity which reigned on board. the guns were shotted and fired for their amusement: they threw up their hands in astonishment, and gazed on us and on each other with looks of blank amazement. during the whole of our peregrinations over these islands we never saw a female, for on our approach to any village a courier was sent ahead to warn the inhabitants of our arrival, when the women either shut themselves up or retired to an adjacent village until we had passed through. the men assisted us in our labours and attended to our comforts by all the means in their power. horses were provided every day, houses for us at night, and good substantial repasts. wherever they enter, the natives invariably eat and drink, more, i believe, from custom than from hunger. on these occasions tea is the general beverage, the kettle being a large shell, which admirably answers the purpose. it may be worthy of remark, that on entering a house, the shoes or sandals are invariably left at the door. two of the chiefs were deservedly great favourites with our party; they were given the famous names of chesterfield and beaufort, the former from his gentlemanly manners, the latter from the profound knowledge he displayed of all rocks, shoals, &c. on the 17th of december, having completed our survey of pa-tchu-san, we returned to the ship: on the 22d we left our anchorage, which was christened port providence, and ran round to kuchee bay on the opposite side of the island. this noble bay was called port haddington, in honour of the late first lord of the admiralty. on the 27th the first barge, cutter, and gig left the ship to survey the island ku-king-san, the nearest port of which was about twenty miles from kuchee bay, alias port haddington, where we lay at anchor. the boats carried with them provisions for three weeks, by which time it was supposed that the survey would be completed. as the formation of this island is similar to pa-tchu-san, it would be but repetition to describe it minutely, but it is worthy of remark that it is indented with numerous deep bays, in each of which there is sufficient water for a ship of the line. many of these bays have natural breakwaters, created by shoals, with a deep water passage on either side of them, and which may be easily distinguished from the shoals by the deep blue colour of the water. on the 15th of january, 1844, the surveying party returned, having been absent twenty days. we were again visited by the mandarins, who came to bid us farewell: they quitted us with many expressions of good will, and expressed a wish that we would return again, and as _individuals_, i had no doubt of their sincerity. on the 18th of january we sailed for ty-ping-san, which is situated about seventy miles north of pa-tchu-san. on the following day we sighted the land, and late in the evening anchored off the coast. this island is low, compared with the other islands of the group. the following morning the captain landed and presented a letter of introduction given him by the mandarins of pa-tchu-san. the letter of introduction had the best effects, for we were immediately visited by the principal mandarins, who informed us that we should be furnished with horses and every thing else that we might require. it was on a reef to the northward of this island that the providence, of twenty guns, was wrecked about fifty years back. captain broughton and the crew arrived safely at ty-ping-san, but the present inhabitants, when it was mentioned, either did not or would not recollect any thing of the circumstances. as a proof of the morality of these people, and how much crime is held in abhorrence, i have the following little history to narrate. during our survey, we fixed a station upon the extremity of a bleak and desolate point of land running more than a mile into the sea. there, in a cave formed by a reef on a mass of rock, we discovered two skeletons. this would not have so much excited our suspicion, had it not been from the remarkable locality, as in all the graves we fell in with the corpses were invariably uncoffined. we expressed a wish to know why such a spot should have been fixed upon as a last resting-place, as it was many miles from the nearest habitation. it was not until after much entreaty that they at length, very reluctantly, consented to give us the desired explanation, which, as nearly as i can recollect, was as follows:-a young girl, who was considered as the belle and pride of the nearest town, had formed an attachment to a youth who had been brought up with her, as a playmate, from their earliest years; and it was acknowledged by the inhabitants of the town that a more fitting match could not be made, as the young man was of most graceful mien, and equally well favoured as his mistress; but the father of the girl, who had been all along blind to the natural consequences of their long intimacy, had other views for his daughter, and had selected a husband for her whose chief recommendation was his wealth. so far it is the old story. to oppose her father's commands was not to be thought of, for filial obedience is, with this people, one of the most sacred of duties. the bridal day approached; presents had been exchanged between the parents of the parties; and every thing was in a forward state for the celebration of the nuptials, with all the magnificence befitting the wealthy condition of the bridegroom. the lovers were in a state of phrensy, but solaced themselves with stolen interviews. at length the poor girl, urged by her lover, confessed every thing to her father, and implored his mercy. he was thunderstruck at this intelligence, for till that moment he had imagined that his daughter had not a thought to which he was not privy. the most rigorous discipline was resorted to--the girl was confined to her chamber, and spies placed to watch every motion. those to whom she thought she could trust were suborned by her father, and to him were conveyed all the letters which she believed to have been safely conveyed to her lover. his notes being also intercepted, at last each considered the other as faithless. the poor girl, imagining that her lover had forsaken her, at last sent to her father, to acquaint him that she had returned to her duty, and was ready to receive the man whom he had selected for her husband. they were married: but she deceived herself; as soon as the ceremony was over, the courage which had supported her gave way, her former feelings returned stronger than ever, and she hated herself for her fickleness. her heart whispered that it was impossible that one possessing every great and every amiable quality, as did her lover, could ever have proved faithless, or would have abandoned one who loved him so dearly. as she sat in the garden and wept, a slight noise attracted her attention, and she found in her presence her lover, disguised, who had come to take a last farewell. explanations immediately ensued--they found that they had been tricked--their love and their despair overcame their reason, and they fled. the father and bridegroom pursued the guilty pair, and after a most rigorous search, they were discovered. they knew that their fate was sealed, and they bore up bravely to the last. they were arraigned, found guilty, and condemned to death; after which their bodies were to be removed far from any dwelling-place. the sentence was carried into effect, and their remains were deposited in the cave in which we discovered them. many parents might draw a lesson from this tragedy, and anybody who feels inclined may write a novel upon it; it must not, however, bear the same title as the chinese one translated by governor davis, which is styled the "fortunate union." in ten days we completed the survey of the island, and sailed for batan, where we arrived on the 7th of february. there we remained a few days, and then sailed for hong kong, having but three days' provisions on board. we encountered a heavy gale; but, fortunately, it was in our favour. on the 9th a junk was reported in sight; and in the course of an hour we were sufficiently near to perceive that the people on board of her were making signals of distress, and cutting away her masts. we hove to as near to her as we could venture, for the sea ran high, and lowered a boat, which reached the junk in safety. they found her to be in a sinking state: a hawser was made fast to her, with the intention of towing her into hong kong, then not fifty miles distant. we again made sail, towing the junk at a rapid rate; but the strain caused her planks to sever, and consequently increased the rush of water in her hold. the chinese hailed the ship, and entreated to be rescued from their perilous condition. she was immediately hauled alongside, and twelve of her crew succeeded in getting on board of us; but the hawser gave way, and the junk drifted astern, with five men still remaining on board. sail was immediately made, and in a short time we ran alongside of her, staving in her bulwarks, for both vessels were rolling heavily. fortunately her mainmast had gone by the board; had it been still standing, and had become locked in our rigging, we should have been in great peril ourselves. the remaining five men and a dog gained the ship, and the junk again went astern, and in three minutes afterwards went to the bottom. when they saw her sink, the chinese raised up a cry at their miraculous escape. one poor fellow had his hand shockingly mutilated, it having been crushed between the sides of the two vessels. the wind had now much subsided, and we made sail for hong kong, where we arrived on the following day. there we found the agincourt, sir thomas cochrane, who was now commander-in-chief, sir william parker having sailed for england. the cutter and two of the company's steamers were also here; and the minden hospital ship, as usual, crowded with the sick and dying. our first lieutenant, mr. wade, took this opportunity of leaving the ship, and mr. heard succeeded him. on the 6th we sailed for macao, which is too well known to require any description here. on the 10th we sailed for manilla, an account of which i shall reserve for our future visit. on the 1st of april we again sailed, on a surveying cruise, to the southward. after fixing the positions of several small islands in the mendoro sea, we steered for samboangan, a spanish penal colony, situated at the southern extremity of mindanao. on the 8th we arrived there, and took up our anchorage close to the town. samboangan is built on an extensive plain; most of the houses are supported on poles ten or twelve feet from the ground. the roofs are thatched, and the sides covered with palm leaves, ingeniously secured by strips of bamboo. the fort is well built; and although a century old, is in very good preservation. it has a numerous garrison, and is defended by guns of large calibre. there is also an establishment of gun-boats, which scour the coast in search of pirates. on each side, and at the back of the town, are groves of cocoa-nuts, bamboos, plantains, and other fruit trees, through which narrow paths are cut, forming delightful shady walks to a stranger, who gazes with astonishment and pleasure upon the variety of delicious fruits, of whose existence he had no idea. the plain on which the town is built extends about eight miles inland, when it is bounded by a chain of mountains, which divides the spanish territory from that of the warlike tribes who inhabit the interior. the plain i have spoken of is covered with small villages, pleasantly situated among thick groves of trees; and it is watered by numerous streams. the whole country around samboangan abounds in scenery of the most picturesque description; and the groups of gaily-dressed and joyous natives in no small degree add to the beauty of the landscape. horses can be obtained at very moderate charges; but unfortunately no one has ever thought of establishing an hotel, and the want of one was much felt. we were, therefore, thrown upon the hospitality and kindness of the natives, who made us welcome by every demonstration in their power. fruit, chocolate, and sweet biscuits, were the ordinary refreshments, for which the charges made scarcely repaid the trouble of preparing them. the church, priests' and governor's houses, are the only respectable buildings in the colony; the other houses in the town are very inferior, being inhabited by liberated exiles from manilla. we remained here five days, and early on the morning of the 13th ran down to a watering-place about fifteen miles from the town, and completed our water. the same night we sailed for sooloo; and the next day, when performing divine service, it being sunday, the officer of the watch reported five prahus in sight, full of men, and each armed with a long gun, pulling towards the ship. it was quite calm at the time, and our main deck ports were open. no doubt they perceived the daylight through the ports, and satisfied themselves that we were a man-of-war, for they soon afterwards altered their course, and made for the shore. we presumed that they were pirates from the island of baselan, who, fancying we were a merchant vessel, had come out with the intention of attacking us. at noon on the 16th of april we made the town of sooloo, the capital of the island of the same name. it being calm, and the ship at some distance from the anchorage, the gig was sent ahead to board one of the three schooners lying in the bay, and hoist a light, as a guide to the ship; and a rocket was put into the boat to fire in case of being attacked by superior numbers. there were but five men in the gig! after two hours' hard pulling, they arrived alongside the largest of the three vessels. she proved to be the velocipede, an english vessel, trading to sooloo for pearl oysters. the owner of the schooner soon came from the shore, having been sent off by the sultan of sooloo to know the object of our visit. he was accompanied by several datus or chiefs, who went back to the town perfectly satisfied with the explanation given. but the arrival of a man-of-war appeared to excite the fears of the natives, for gongs were sounding throughout the night, and lights were flitting to and fro, by the aid of which it was perceived that there was a strong assemblage of the natives. the ship anchored on the afternoon of the following day, and the captain, attended by several of his officers, visited the sultan. we were received by the prime minister, who informed us that the sultan was somewhat indisposed, and begged to postpone the interview until the following day. leaving the palace, we strolled through the town, which is partly built in the water; bridges, formed of interlaced bamboo, were the means of communication between the houses. as these bridges were some hundred yards in length, the walking was somewhat dangerous; a slip would have been the cause of a good ducking and a swim to any unlucky wight, which, i have no doubt, would have given great satisfaction to the townspeople, who, armed with spears, krisses, and shields, were watching our motions; but no such mishap occurred, and we returned on board before sunset. next day the captain and the same party went again on shore, and were received by the sultan in person. he was dressed in the extreme of malay fashion. he was an excessively plain young man, and seemed to be ill at ease during the whole of the conference. he appeared to be a mere puppet in the hands of his ferocious chiefs, who had all the conversation, without referring to their royal master at any time. the sultan's dress consisted of a purple satin jacket and green velvet trousers, both trimmed with gold and silver lace; a red sash confined his trousers at the waist; and in the sash he wore a kris of the most costly description. he wore diamond buttons on his jacket, which, being open, exposed his naked chest. but the party who mostly excited our interest was the heir apparent, a child of four years old, who was dressed as an adult, even to his miniature kris. he bids fair to be a handsome man. his laughing face and engaging manner caused him to be caressed by the whole party, a circumstance which evidently gave much pleasure to the sultan. we were regaled with chocolate, sweet cakes, and fruit; and every attention paid to us by the chiefs. at our departure the sultan and ministers shook hands warmly with every one of our party, and we returned on board, accompanied by mr. wyndham, of the velocipede schooner, who, being a perfect master of the tongue, had acted as an interpreter on this occasion. the samarang was the first english man-of-war that had called at sooloo since the visit of dalrymple in 1761, when he reinstated on the throne the sultan (grandfather to the present one), who had been deposed by his rebellious subjects. great sooloo is about fifty miles in length, and twenty-five in breadth, being the largest of a group of islands known as the sooloo archipelago. this group of islands is inhabited by a fierce and warlike race, bearing in their personal appearance a strong resemblance to the malays, although the two languages differ materially from each other. great sooloo, the residence of the sultan, is very mountainous. many of the mountains are wooded to the summit, while others are covered with patches of cultivation. these islands are thickly populated; and if the islanders do not practise piracy as a profession, they are always ready to aid, assist, and protect those who do. the town of sooloo is well known to be the principal rendezvous of pirates, who, whenever they have made a capture, resort there to dispose of their lawless booty. the ministers, and even the sultan himself, are not able to resist the temptation of being able to purchase european goods, and articles of value, for less than half their real value. if not the stealers, they are the receivers, and thus they patronise piracy of every description. governed by their own prince, and independent of any other power, the people of sooloo have most extravagant notions of their own prowess, and of the strength of their fortifications; and they ridicule the idea of any one venturing to interfere with or attack them. [illustration: sooloo village.] on the 18th of april we sailed from sooloo, and visited several islands in the archipelago, on one of which we grounded, but escaped without sustaining any damage. on the 23rd we anchored off unsang, the eastern province of borneo, where we remained four days surveying the coast. a shooting and fishing party visited the shore daily: the former killed several wild hogs, and the latter brought every evening a plentiful supply of fish. on the 27th of april sailed from unsang. this day we first served out our ship-brewed porter, in addition to the usual allowance of spirits. it continued to be served out nightly, but opinions were very different about its merits. for several days after leaving unsang, we had but little or no wind, and we were borne away by a strong easterly current, till we were carried in sight of celebes, which is high and mountainous, and covered with dense forests of gigantic trees. on sunday, the 4th of may, we arrived off cape rivers (celebes), the position of which was determined by astronomical observations. it was the intention of the captain to have passed through the straits of macassar, but light wind, and a strong current from the southward, would not permit us to gain a mile per day. after experiencing very disagreeable weather while off the coast, we bore up and made sail for monado, a dutch settlement on one of the north-western promontories of this remarkably shaped island. our passage was any thing but agreeable; scarcely a night passed that we were not visited by strong squalls, accompanied by thunder, lightning, and heavy rain. on sunday, the 18th, we anchored in forty-eight fathoms off the town of monado, within two cables' length of the shore, which shelves very suddenly into deep water. a kedge was laid out in-shore of the ship, and kept well taut; a requisite precaution, as otherwise, if the land breeze blew off strong, the ship would have dragged her anchor down the steep beach, and drifted out. the town of monado is built on a plain surrounded by mountains, the highest of which, klabat, is 6000 feet above the level of the sea. the houses are well built, and neatly thatched; they are all detached, and enclosed in a yard or garden. the roads are excellent, and reflect great credit upon a prussian engineer, who undertook the task. the fort, which is at the water's edge, is small, but strongly built, and well adapted to resist the attack of any native force, although i should imagine it could not hold out any time against the well-directed fire of a frigate's broadside. a party of us enjoyed a pleasant ramble through the town and suburbs, which are dotted with neat cottages, where their owners invited us to enter and partake of refreshments. we went into several, and found them scrupulously neat and clean, as dutch houses usually are. the people who entertained us refused all compensation, and it was with difficulty that we prevailed upon the black-eyed damsels to accept our silk handkerchiefs by way of reminiscences. very few europeans reside here, although their half-bred offspring may be seen in every tenth person, and they boast of the european blood which flows in their veins. monado abounds with poultry, fruit, vegetables, and all the necessaries of life. cocoa and sugar are cultivated. stock is easily obtained, and very moderate; and water is procured from a small river which divides the town. boats should enter the river at last quarter flood, and return first quarter ebb, as the tide falls rapidly; and at low water the bar at the entrance is dry. during our stay we surveyed the major portion of the bay, finding nothing under 150 fathoms of water at one-third of a mile from the shore. we found here a mr. hart, who had been left at this place in consequence of his precarious state, from a gun-shot wound he had received on the coti river (borneo). mr. hart was a volunteer in the ill-fated expedition undertaken by mr. murray, who attempted to establish a colony in the coti river, and who lost his life in an encounter with the natives. the vessels employed--a brig and a schooner--were fitting out at hong kong while we were there. we fell in with the schooner (the young queen) the day after we left manilla. the captain of her came on board to give us the intelligence of the failure of the expedition, with the death of its leader. misfortune appeared to cling to them, for, soon after the schooner left coti, the crew of her mutinied, and the mutiny was not put down but by the death of the ringleader, who was shot by the commander. he was bound to hong kong to deliver himself up for trial for taking the life of the man, and i hardly need observe that he was fully acquitted. this gentleman was a brother of mr. hart. on the 26th of may, our observations being completed, we sailed from monado; mr. hart, with the captain's permission, taking advantage of this opportunity of reaching sincapore. the following day we ran through the straits of banca, and steered for ternate, off which island we arrived on the following saturday. on sunday morning, before daylight, we struck heavily on a coral reef, but by dint of great exertion we got off, and floated at six. a boat was despatched to the dutch governor of the town to state that it was not our intention to anchor. the island of ternate is, i believe, governed by a sultan, who has sway over several other islands. the dutch have a settlement here, and have long been on good terms with the ruling powers. it is the most important of the molucca group, as it produces a vast quantity of cloves, beside every variety of tropical fruits. it was taken by us in 1810, and restored in 1815. this island, as far as i could judge, is perfectly round, and about twenty-five miles in circuit, the land gradually rising to a huge peak in the centre. it is of volcanic formation. it is well wooded, and abounds with game; and on this island the boa constrictor grows to the largest size, being often found upwards of thirty feet in length. the dutch town is built on the south-east side of the island. the houses appear to be better constructed than those of monado, and the whole town better arranged. there are several forts, two churches, and apparently about 400 houses. the one occupied by the governor is distinguished from the others by its size, and superiority of architecture and decorations. we obtained quantities of every description of fruit from the boats which crowded round the ship: in addition to shaddocks, pineapples, oranges, bananas, and many other common varieties, we had the delightful treat of the mangosteins, which grow only in these latitudes. it is impossible to describe the peculiarly grateful taste of this cool and refreshing fruit. it is a mixture of the sweet and acid, blended in the most luscious manner. it is in size somewhat smaller than an apple, and the skin, which is very thick and bitter, of a dark plum colour. this when dried is used as a remedy for the dysentery. the inside, which is nearly white, is divided into four parts, resembling in substance a firm jelly; and, in my opinion, gives one more the idea of what nectar was, or ought to be, than any thing else which enters into the mouth of man. we decided that the peak of ternate was the true mount olympus, and that it was there that the gods were assembled and, in ancient days, ate mangosteins, called nectar by the greeks. the boat which had been sent on shore to the governor at length returned, and we made sail to the southward, to survey a portion of the coast of gilolo (another of the spice islands), which was supposed to be laid down incorrectly in the charts. on the morning of monday, the 3rd of june, the ship being off the coast of gilolo, the gig with the captain, and the barge with several officers, left the ship with four days' provisions to survey a portion of the coast. at 11 a. m. they landed on a reef, running out about a cable's length from a small island. about two in the afternoon a body of natives, armed with spears and krisses, issued with loud yells from the jungle, and advanced towards them. at the same time a prahu pulled round a point, and made towards the barge, which was at anchor about fifty yards from the shore. the captain was at the time on shore taking observations, but as the natives approached he retired to the gig and got the arms in readiness. the natives came within 100 yards of us, and then halted. the captain signed them to go away: they approached nearer; we gave them a volley, and they hastily retreated into the jungle. the barge was now prepared for the expected attack of the prahu, which by this time had approached within point blank range of the barge's gun, which was a brass six-pounder. observing, it is to be presumed, that the boat was so well-armed, and the men were loading the gun, the prahu ceased pulling, and hoisted dutch colours. they were ordered to pull for the gilolo shore, which they did; a rocket fired at them quickening their speed considerably. at 3 p. m. the observations being completed, the astronomical instruments were re-embarked on the barge, and the captain quitted the gig and went into the barge. both boats were pulled towards the main land. on the in-shore side of the small island i have mentioned, we discovered a village consisting of fifteen or twenty houses. the gig was despatched with two officers to burn the village, which was done; the natives who were in the huts escaping into the jungle. in the mean time, the barge proceeded towards a large village in search of the prahu. on their way they fell in with a large canoe, at anchor in one of the creeks. taking the canoe in tow, we again took to the oars, and in a short time perceived the natives hauling the prahu into a creek. a round of grape quickly decided the matter; the natives fled, and the prahu was quietly taken possession of by our crew. having effected our object, we proceeded along the coast with our two prizes in tow. at sunset, after rifling the boats of arms, flags, and gongs, we set them on fire, and made sail to the southward; the gig, which had rejoined us, being in company. about midnight we anchored in a small and lonely bay,--i should say, twenty miles from where the above occurrences took place. we took our meals, but did not attempt to repose till after two in the morning, although we were quite tired after the events of the day before. we then lay down, and composed ourselves to sleep. we had not, however, been recumbent long, ere the sounds of gongs were heard at a distance; and shortly afterwards the man on the look-out reported that three prahus were coming into the bay. a short time sufficed to have every thing in readiness for the expected conflict. the foremost of the prahus approached within ten yards of the barge, lowered her sail, and rounded to. a native, one of the chiefs we presumed, inquired in broken english if we belonged to a ship. the captain would not satisfy him on that point, but desired him to go away. the other two prahus, having been joined by a third (making four in all), had now closed within half pistol shot, and lowered their sails. seeing that we were completely enclosed, a musket-ball was fired over the largest prahu. the men in the prahus gave their accustomed yell, and the whole force advanced towards us. the six-pounder, loaded with round and grape, was now fired into the largest prahu; the cries and confusion were great; the crew of the prahu leapt into the water, but few arrived on shore,--they sunk under the fire of our muskets. the three other prahus then commenced a spirited fire from their guns and small arms, assisted by a flight of arrows and spears. pulling within twenty yards of them, we plied them alternately with grape and canister from our six-pounder. the engagement continued with great vigour for some time, when their fire slackened; and shortly afterwards two more of the prahus were deserted by their crews, who made for the shore; the fourth made off. the three prahus were taken possession of, towed into deep water, and anchored. leaving the gig in charge of them, we went in pursuit of the fourth prahu, and soon came up with her; but her crew escaped by running the boat on shore. another prahu now hove in sight, pulling, or rather paddling, towards us. leaving our prize, we faced our new antagonist, saluting her with grape and musquetry, and causing so much havoc, that, shrieking and yelling, they made for the nearest shore without returning a single shot. we followed her, firing into her as fast as possible. on coming up with her we found her aground, with six dead and one mortally wounded; the remainder of the crew had saved themselves by wading to the shore. after getting this prahu afloat, we brought the other prahu, which we had just before captured (no. 4.), alongside. this boat was crowded with dead and dying. among the latter was a female child, apparently about eight months old, in a state of nudity. the poor little creature's left arm was nearly severed from its body by a grape shot. she was removed into the boat, where the rest of the wounded were placed, with as much care as possible. a low moaning sound escaped from her lips, her eyes were glazed, and she evidently was fast dying: it would have been a mercy to have put an end to her sufferings. the dead were then thrown overboard, and the prahu set on fire; the last prahu, containing the wounded, was left to her fate. it was now daylight, and on looking around we perceived five more prahus off a point between the gig and ourselves in the barge and several others pulling in from seaward. we gave way for the five prahus, which were drawn up in a line ready to receive us. notwithstanding their fire, assisted by their spears and other missiles, we pulled within fifteen yards of the outermost prahu of the five, and discharged our gun, accompanied by a volley of musquetry. the other prahus now closed and poured in a heavy fire; but, although the barge was struck, not one of our men was injured. the repeated fire from the boats soon caused the people in the prahus to make for the shore through the water, when many of them fell from our musquetry. it was now about six o'clock in the morning, our last charge of canister shot was in the gun, the last rocket in the tube, and nearly all the percussion caps expended. the barge was pulled closer to the nearest prahu to give more effect to the discharge, and the captain was in the stern of the barge with the rocket tube in hand, when one of the prahus on shore fired her swivel; the ball struck the captain, and knocked him overboard. he was hauled in, and we found that he had received a severe wound in the groin, which was dressed by the surgeon. _lieutenant baugh_ now took the command, and the gun was discharged with good effect, and all the people on board of the prahus, who were able to escape, made for the shore. one of our marines was wounded in the neck with an arrow, and, with the exception of the captain, no other casualty took place. the fight would have been continued with the round shot still left in the barge, but the assistant surgeon was anxious that the captain should return to the ship and have the ball extracted. the barge therefore pulled for the ship, whose royals were just visible above the horizon. the pirates, finding that we were retreating, returned to their prahus and fired their guns at us, but without effect. we arrived on board about 9 a. m., and the ship's head was put towards the scene of action, while the barge and two cutters were despatched in search of the gig, of whose safety we had great doubts. about 11.30, a.m., the second cutter, being in advance, discovered a sail in shore, and which, by the aid of our telescopes, we made out to be the gig. when we closed with her, and found that all was right we were greatly relieved. we heard from mr. hooper, the purser, who was in her, that after waiting in vain for the barge's return, he set fire to the prahus. in one of them he found a woman and child alive, whom he landed at the nearest point. he then pulled in the direction we had gone, being guided by the sound of our guns. on his arrival in the bay we were not in sight, and perceiving several prahus with flags flying and gongs beating, he naturally concluded that we had been overpowered, and he was making the best of his way towards the ship. the boats continued pulling towards the shore, leaving the gig to return to the ship and ease the minds of the ship's company respecting her safety. on our arrival in the bay with the barge and cutters, we found that the prahus had hauled into a creek, on the banks of which was a masked battery, which opened a spirited fire upon us as soon as we came within range. after an hour's cannonading on both sides we were joined by the gig, with orders for us not to land, but to return to the ship at sunset. this order was not received with pleasure, as we hoped to have a chance of punishing the fellows a little more. we pulled a short distance along the coast, and entered another bay, in which we destroyed two prahus; after which we returned to the ship. calms, and a strong current setting to the northward, detained the ship near the scene of action for several days. we at length passed through the straits of patientia, but did not get the breeze until we sighted the isle of bouro. passing through the bonta passage, straits of salayer, and java sea, we arrived at sincapore on the 28th of june. here we found the harlequin, which had had a brush with the pirates on the coast of sumatra. the harlequin, wanderer, and diana were sent to the villages of micedo and batta, to demand the murderers of an english captain. on the rajah refusing to deliver them up, the vessels opened their fire and burnt the villages. the harlequin lost two men killed and five wounded; among the latter was lieutenant chads, whose arm was nearly severed by a malay kris. while here the superb arrived from hong kong on her way to england; the driver, with sir henry pottinger on board; and the cambrian, commodore chads. also the iris from england, and the dido from hong kong, which latter vessel sailed for sarawak. i may as well here remark, that the dutch made a formal complaint against our captain for having attacked their prahus, which they asserted were not pirates, but employed by them against the pirates. it is but fair to give the arguments that were used against us, particularly as the authorities at sincapore appeared to think that we were to blame. they said, you were in boats, and you touched at gillolo; the natives, accustomed to be taken off by the illanoan pirates, were naturally jealous and suspicious, seeing no vessel. they came alone, armed, to ascertain who you were. at 100 yards they stopped; you signalled them to go away, and they advanced nearer to you, but they committed no act of hostility. you fired a volley at them, and they retreated. here the aggression was on your side. at the same time, you say, a war prahu pulled round the point, and approached to within range; when the prahu was close to you she ceased paddling, and hoisted dutch colours. you desired it to pull for the gillolo shore, which it did. there was no aggression in this instance, and nothing piratical in the conduct of the prahu. after she had obeyed your order to pull to the gillolo shore, you wantonly fired a congreve rocket at her; your conduct in this instance being much more like that of a pirate than hers. in the afternoon you pull along the gillolo shore, and you discover a village; you send your boat ashore and set fire to it. why so? you state that you were attacked by illanoan pirates, who reside at tampassook, some hundred miles from gillolo, and you then burn the village of the people of gillolo, and that without the least aggression on their part. is it surprising that you should be supposed to be pirates after such wanton outrage? to proceed: you state that you then go in search of the prahu which you ordered away, and that on your way you captured a large canoe, which you take in tow, and afterwards perceive the pirates hauling their vessel into a creek. you attack them, and they run away, leaving the prahu in your possession, and, as usual, after rifling the prahu and canoe, you set them on fire. up to this point there has been nothing but aggression on your part; and it is not, therefore, surprising that you were supposed to be pirates, and that the communication was made along the coast, and the vessels employed against the pirates were summoned for its protection. again, the prahus came out and surrounded you; they did not fire at you, but hailed you in english, requesting to know if you belonged to a ship. now, if any thing could prove that they were not pirate vessels, it was their doing this; and had you replied, they would have explained to you what their employment was: but you think proper to give no answer to this simple question, order them to go away, and then fire a loaded musket into them, which brings on the conflict which you so much desired. that these observations were true, it must be admitted, and the complaint of the dutch, with the hoisting of the dutch flag, gave great weight to them: however, pirates or no pirates, the admiralty court, on our arrival in england, considered them to have been such; and, as will be seen by the extract from the "times" below, awarded head money to the amount of about 10,000l. to the captain and crew of the samarang, and for his wound received, our captain obtained a pension of (i believe) â£250 a year.[1] "admiralty court. (_before dr. lushington._) "illanoan pirates.--bounty. "in this case a petition was presented by sir edward belcher, the captain, and the rest of the officers and crew of her majesty's ship-of-war samarang, setting forth that on the 3d of june, 1844, the samarang being then engaged in surveying duties, and near the island of gillolo, on her passage towards the straits of patientia, sir e. belcher, with two officers and four men, quitted her in the gig, accompanied by the second barge, armed with a brass six-pounder gun and small arms, and manned with twenty officers and men. while engaged on the extreme side of a reef, extending from a small islet, in taking astronomical observations, they were disturbed by an extraordinary yell proceeding from about forty men of colour, who were advancing from the islet along both sides of the reef, with the evident intention of surrounding sir e. belcher and his party, on nearing whom they commenced hurling spears and arrows, though without effect. they were soon repulsed and put to flight by musketry. in the course of the day several large prahus made their appearance, manned by large crews of malay pirates, and severe conflicts took place between the respective parties, in one of which a ball from the leading prahu struck sir e. belcher on the thigh, and knocked him overboard, severely and dangerously wounding him; but, having been lifted out of the water, and dragged into the barge, _he shortly after resumed the command_, and ultimately succeeded in destroying all the prahus. "dr. addams applied to the court to award the bounties specified in the 6th of george iv. c. 49. for the capture and destruction of piratical ships and vessels. he submitted that the affidavits produced clearly showed the character of the persons on board the prahus, and that not less than 1,330 persons were alive on board the several prahus at the beginning of the attack, 350 of whom were killed. "the queen's advocate, on behalf of the crown, admitted that a very meritorious service had been performed, and made no opposition to the application. "the court pronounced for the usual bounties on the number of pirates stated." [footnote 1: the account of this transaction is taken from the private log of one of the officers who was present in the barge during the whole time. i was not there myself. in his narrative it will be observed that he makes no mention of the natives who came down upon them having _thrown spears_ at them, although in the extract from the "times" it is so stated. it would appear also that there was some mistake as to the number of men on board of the prahus and the number killed. a war prahu generally contains from fifty to eighty men. some are smaller, and occasionally they are larger, but not often. capt. keppell states fifty men to be the usual number in his work; and, in his conflict with the pirates, estimates the force accordingly. now the first day there was one war prahu, which ran up a creek; and, on being fired at, the crew deserted her. on the second day there were five prahus, all captured. on the third day the five prahus engaged were not captured, the boat returning to the ship after the captain was wounded; so that in all it appears that there were nine prahus; and, allowing eighty men to each, the force would only amount to 720 men, or about one half of the number stated, viz. 1330. how the killed, amounting to 350, or about half the number, were arrived at and estimated, it is impossible to say; but in the narrative of the officer, which i have given, the major portion of the crews deserted the prahus and got on shore.] our captain having now nearly recovered from the wound which he had received, we found that our destination was borneo; but previous to the ship getting under weigh, the boats were ordered to be manned and armed, to proceed on an excursion to romania point, distant about thirty miles from sincapore. it was expected that we might there fall in with some of the piratical vessels which so completely infest the indian archipelago; and if so, we trusted to give them a lesson which might for a time put a check to their nefarious and cruel system of plunder and rapine. i found that my name was down in the list of the party selected for the expedition. bidding, therefore, a temporary adieu to sincapore, on the 2d of august we set off on the expedition, with a force consisting of two barges, one cutter, and a gun-boat belonging to the merchants of sincapore, which had been expressly built to resist any attacks of these bold assailants. although the real object of the expedition was, as i have above stated, to fall in with the pirates, our ostensible one was to survey the islands off the point romania, which is the most unfrequented part of the malay peninsula. we arrived there late at night, as ignorant whether the pirates were there, as the pirates would have been of our arrival. we had, therefore, nothing to do but to anchor close under the land, and keep a sharp look-out, in case of being the attacked instead of the attacking party. as we were not indifferently provided with the creature comforts which sincapore afforded, we amused ourselves pretty well; but if we occasionally opened our mouths, we took good care not to shut our eyes, and were constantly on the alert. there is a far from pleasant feeling attached to lying in an open boat, in a night as dark as pitch, expecting a momentary attack from an insidious enemy, and wholly in a state of uncertainty as to from what quarter it may be made, or as to what odds you may be exposed. under these circumstances, we remained in watching and silence during a night which appeared interminably long; and daylight was gladly welcomed by the whole party; and when it arrived we found ourselves anchored among a crowd of small islands, which were covered from the beach to their summits with the most luxuriant foliage. within shore of us was a beautiful little sandy bay; while the whole coast, as far as the eye could reach, was one extended jungle, by all accounts extending many hundred miles inland, and infested with tigers and other beasts of prey. as for pirates, we saw nothing of them, or any signs of their having been in that quarter; either they were away on some distant marauding party, or, having received intelligence of our approach and force, had considered us too strong to be opposed, and had kept out of the way. our warlike expedition, therefore, was soon changed into a sort of pic-nic party--we amused ourselves with bathing, turning of turtle, shooting, and eating the wild pine-apples which grew on all the islands. we remained there for three days, during which nothing occurred worth narrating, unless it is an instance of the thoughtless and reckless conduct of midshipmen. we were pulling leisurely along the coast in one of the boats, when we perceived a very large bengal tiger taking an evening stroll, and who, by the motion of his tail, was evidently in a state of much self-satisfaction. we winded the boat's head towards him, and were preparing to give him a round of grape from the gun, but before we could get the gun well pointed, he retreated majestically into the jungle, which was in the bight of a small bay, and cut off from the main jungle by some large rocks. three of our party immediately declared that they would have a tiger-hunt, and bring back his skin as a trophy. they landed, two of them having each a ship's musket, a very uncertain weapon, as they are at present provided, for, whether from damp or careless manufacture, the percussion caps will not often go off; and the third armed with nothing but a knife. on their landing, they took their position on the rocks, and were delighted to find that the tiger could not retreat to the main jungle without passing them. they had not long taken up their position before they heard the crackling of the wood in the jungle, announcing the tiger's approach towards them. they fixed their bayonets and cocked their locks; the young gentleman with the knife was also prepared; but the noise in the jungle ceased. whether it was that the tiger was afraid to attack three at the same time, or was making a circuit for a more convenient spring upon them, certain it is that our three young gentlemen either became tired of waiting for him, or had thought better of their mad attempt. one proposed returning to the boat, the others assented; and after denouncing the tiger as a coward, and wholly unworthy of the name of a royal tiger, they commenced their retreat as the dark set in; gradually their pace quickened, in two minutes they were in a hard trot; at last the panic took them all, and by the time they arrived at the boats they could not speak from want of breath, so hurried had been their retreat. we sincerely congratulated them upon their arrival safe and sound, and having escaped without loss of life and limb from a very mad adventure. i subsequently related this incident to an old indian sportsman, who told me that my messmates had had a most fortunate escape, as they would have had little or no chance had the tiger made his spring, which he certainly would have done had they remained much longer, and that one of them at least must have been sacrificed. on the morning of the fourth day, the ship, having made sail from sincapore, hove in sight, and picked us up. the boats were hoisted in, and we steered for borneo, to complete some surveys on the north-east coast. the island of borneo, throughout the whole of the n. e. coast, is, with few exceptions, a low land, covered with jungle; but so beautifully verdant does it appear when viewed from some distance, that you would be led to suppose that it was widely cultivated. this idea is, however, soon dispelled on a near approach, when you discover the rich groups of acacias, palms, pandani, and numerous trees as yet unknown, so luxuriant in themselves, but forming one entangled mass, alike impenetrable to european or native. what, in the distant view, we fancied a verdant meadow, where we might relax from our long confinement, and amuse ourselves with recreation, now proved to be ranges of long damp grass, interspersed with swamps, and infested with venomous snakes. in short, i never yet was on a coast which, on arriving on it, promised so much, and, on landing, caused such a series of disappointments to those who love to ramble about, than the coast of borneo. to the naturalist, however, confined as he is to the shelving beach, there is ample food for employment and research: the island abounds in novel objects of natural history, both in the animal and vegetable kingdom. nothing certain is as yet ascertained relative to the interior of this immense island, if island it can with propriety be called. from the accounts of the natives (which, however, must be received with due caution), it consists of a large plain, devoid of jungle, and inhabited by cannibals. two adventurous dutchmen have latterly set off from pontiana, the dutch settlement, on an excursion into the interior; but it is doubtful if they succeed, where so many others have already failed. [illustration: keeney-ballo. (oosokan bay, borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] borneo has but small elevation for so large an island; in the immediate vicinity of keeney ballu the country is hilly, but by far the greatest portion of borneo is but a few feet above the level of the sea. keeney ballu is the highest mountain in the island,--its height is estimated at 14,000 feet or more,--and it can be seen at 150 miles distant on a very clear day. it is very singular that there should be a mountain of so great a height rising from an island of otherwise low land. near sarawak there is mountainous country, where live the dyaks, previously described, and a mountain of the name of santabong, which has already been made mention of. on the s. e. coast of the island we saw no elevation of land of any consequence. i have given a drawing of the mountain of keeney ballu, distant forty miles. at this distance, with the aid of the glass, you may perceive the numerous cascades which fall from its summit in every direction. the dyaks of borneo imagine that a lake exists at the top of this mountain, and that it is to be their receptacle after death. as the island is in most parts a flat and marshy jungle, extending about 200 miles inland, and the rivers are not rapid, although numerous, it would be presumed, especially as the dews of the night are very heavy, that the island would be fatal to europeans. such, however, proved not to be the case. during our repeated visits to the island (a period of nearly two years), we only lost one man, by a most imprudent exposure to the night air, sleeping in an open boat, without the awning being spread, and exposed to a very heavy dew. borneo abounds with rivers, some of them very fine, running inland for one or two hundred miles. most of these rivers have been taken possession of and colonised by the various tribes indigenous to the neighbouring isles and continent, to wit, arabs, malays, illanoans, bughis, the natives of celebes, chinese, &c. the reason for this emigration to borneo is the protection afforded by these rivers; for as all these tribes live entirely by piracy, they here find a safe retreat for themselves and their vessels. how long ago their settlements may have been first made, or what opposition they may have received from the dyak aborigines, it is impossible to say; but as most of the head men in borneo claim to be of arab descent, it may be presumed that many years must have elapsed since the aboriginal tribes of dyaks and dusums were dispossessed of the rivers, and driven into the interior. of these people i shall speak hereafter; there is no doubt but that they were the original inhabitants of the whole island, and that the various tribes i have mentioned are but colonists for piratical purposes. these piratical hordes generally infest the high lands upon the shores of these rivers, which are difficult of navigation; and, moreover, from their numerous branches, their resorts are not very easily discovered. these towns are fortified with stockades, guns of various calibre, and the passage up the river defended by booms or piles of timber, which admit of but one narrow passage for their prahus. it must be understood that these piratical hordes are not only independent of each other, but often at war, in consequence of their spoliations. some of their chiefs have taken upon them the titles of princes; and one has assumed, as is well known, that of sultan of borneo, another of sooloo,--how far entitled to such a rank it would be difficult to say; but this is certain, that there must be a beginning to every dynasty; and if we trace back far into history, we shall find, both at home and abroad, that most dynasties have had their origin in freebooting on a grand scale,--even the house of hapsburg itself is derived from no better an origin; and the sultan of borneo, whoever he may be, and if a sultan does exist, some 800 years hence will, by the antiquity of his title, prove his high descent, as the german emperor now does his own. on the 20th of august we came to an anchor at the mouth of the sarawak river, where we remained three weeks completing some very important surveys. when our work was done, the captain, accompanied by several officers, went up the river. on our arrival at kuchin, we found the dido corvette, commanded by captain keppell, lying abreast of the town. we also found that kuchin was at present nearly deserted, as the dido's boats, with the phlegethon steamer, and all the native war prahus which could be mustered, had proceeded with mr. brooke to the sakarron, a neighbouring river, to punish some of the mixed tribes who had lately been detected in an act of flagrant piracy. on the change of the tide we started for the sakarron, with the hope of gaining the dido's boats, and rendering them some assistance. our men exerted themselves to the utmost; but it requires time to pull eighty miles; and i will therefore, _en voyage_, explain more fully the cause and the object of the expedition. the river sakarron, with its tributaries, the linga and serebis, have been for a long while in the possession of a proverbial piratical tribe of malays, governed by chiefs, who are of arab descent, and much better acquainted with the art of war than those lawless communions are in general. their towers and fastnesses on the banks of their rivers they have contrived to fortify in a very superior manner. living wholly by the proceeds of their piratical excursions, and, aware of the efforts made by the european rajah, mr. brooke, to put it down, they resolved to take the first opportunity which might offer to show their hostility and contempt to their new-raised enemy. the occasion soon presented itself. seven of the kuchin malays, having ventured in a canoe up the sakarron river, were all murdered, and their heads cut off, and kept, as usual, as trophies; and the intelligence of this outrage communicated by them to mr. brooke, with defiance. captain keppell, of the dido, had just arrived at sarawak when this news was brought to mr. brooke. captain keppell had been sent by admiral sir thomas cochrane to the island on purpose to look out for pirates, and to destroy them and their nests wherever he could find them. he therefore gladly offered his assistance to mr. brooke to punish these murderous wretches; and the phlegethon steamer coming in while they were preparing for the expedition, was, of course, added to the force employed. this fortunate accession of strength, assisted by all the malay war boats which mr. brooke could muster, enabled them to give an effectual check to a band of pirates, so numerous and so warlike as to have become most formidable. to proceed:-that night we anchored with the last of the flood at the entrance of the sakarron. we had great fear, from the intelligence we had received from time to time, from boats we fell in with on our passage, that we should arrive too late to be partakers of the affray; and so it proved, for the next morning, while proceeding higher up the river, we perceived a large force of native boats coming down with the ebb, and all of them filled to the gunwale with plunder. the malay and dyak canoes are made out of a hollowed tree, or, as they are termed in many ports of india, "dug-outs." they are long and narrow, and are capable of being propelled with great swiftness. although very easy to capsize, they are constantly loaded till so deep that at the least inclination the water pours over the gunwale, and one man is usually employed baling with a scoop made out of a banana leaf. custom, however, makes them so used to keep the equilibrium, that you often see the dyaks, whose canoes are similar to the malays', standing upright and propelling them with their spears. [illustration: native boat--borneo.] the malay war-boat, or _prahu_, is built of timber at the lower part, the upper is of bamboo, rattan, and kedgang (the dried leaf of the nepa palm). outside the bends, about a foot from the water line, runs a strong gallery, in which the rowers sit cross-legged. at the after-part of the boat is a cabin for the chief who commands, and the whole of the vessel is surmounted by a strong flat roof, upon which they fight, their principal weapons being the kris and spear, both of which, to be used with effect, require elbow-room. the dyak war-boat is a long built canoe, more substantially constructed than the prahu of the malays, and sufficiently capacious to hold from seventy to eighty men. this also has a roof to fight from. they are generally painted, and the stern ornamented with feathers. both descriptions of war-boats are remarkably swift, notwithstanding such apparent top-weight. to proceed:-[illustration: dyak war prahu.] we hove to, to speak to those on board of the canoes, and were informed by them that the pirates had sustained a severe defeat, and that the european force was about to descend the river on their return to kuchin. as a proof of the victory having been gained, they produced several heads which had been taken in the fight. we proceeded about six miles further up the river, when we discovered the european boats and crews lying at anchor abreast of the smoking ruins of what had been a malay town. here we learnt that the pirates had been completely routed, after a desperate resistance, that four large towns had been burnt, and seventy-five brass guns of the country, called leilas, had been captured. the victory, however, had not been gained without loss on our side, and had the pirates been better prepared, we must have suffered much more. several of the people of kuchin had been killed, and of europeans we had to lament the loss of mr. wade, first lieutenant of the dido, and formerly of the samarang, and mr. stewart, one of the residents at kuchin; the latter gentleman lost his life by an excess of zeal which quite overcame all prudence. mr. wade had landed with his men after an attack and capture of a fort, and when in advance received a bullet in the heart. he fell instantly dead; his body was recovered by his shipmates, and borne to the boat, and during a temporary cessation of hostilities was conveyed to the river. his loss was much deplored by his shipmates in both vessels, by whom he was respected as an officer, and beloved as a friend. mr. stewart, pulling in advance in a small canoe, with some of the natives belonging to kuchin, was suddenly pounced upon by three or four of the enemy's prahus full of men. they ran down the canoe, and thus were mr. stewart and his companions at their mercy. mercy!--a wrong term to use when speaking of those who never show any. they were all krissed, to the number of seventeen, in sight of their companions in the other boats, who were too far behind to arrive in time to render them any assistance, although it hardly need be said that every effort was made. the last that was seen of poor stewart was his body being carried by one of the dyaks into the jungle by the side of the river, and the fellow was so anxious to obtain the much-valued trophy of a white man's head, that, as he bore it along, he kept his knife sawing at the head to sever it from the body. indeed, so much do these people value a white man's head, that they will build a separate room on purpose to contain it. whilst lying at this place, riding to a strong flood tide, a canoe floated past us, in which we could discern two dead bodies; they were both dressed as malays, and the garments were good. over the bows of the canoe there hung a handsomely ornamented kris. we tried to hook the canoe with the boat-hook, but the strength of the tide was so great that we could not succeed in securing it, and it floated away with the stream. we presumed that they were the bodies of some of the malays killed in the recent conflict, who probably inhabited a higher portion of the river, and that they had been put into the canoe by their friends to be carried home, and had been swept away by the tide from not having been securely fastened, for nothing would have induced the enemy thus to make us a present of _two heads_. "we weighed, in company with the steamer and boats, on the same evening, and returned to kuchin, where we arrived on the following day. the men-of-war boats having been towed by the steamer, we arrived some time before the native prahus belonging to the river, which had accompanied us. on the following day they arrived, and the scene was novel and interesting. they all rounded the point together, dressed out with flags of all descriptions, beating their gongs and tom-toms, and firing blank cartridges from their "leilas." highly elated with their victory, and with the plunder which had accompanied it, they celebrated it by all getting excessively drunk that night upon shamsoo. we remained at kuchin for three days, enjoying mr. brooke's hospitality; and during that time it was proposed and arranged that we should pay a visit to the river loondoo, the residence of a very remarkable tribe of dyaks under mr. brooke's authority; but not being able to fix the exact period for the visit, on that night we returned to the ship. we had not been much more than twenty-four hours on board, when the captain, who had been away, returned at midnight; and, at this unusual hour, ordered all the boats, manned and armed, to be piped away immediately. we were informed that the river sakarron was again our destination; and at four o'clock in the morning we started, with fourteen days' provisions, and armed to the teeth, to join the dido's boats at the mouth of the river morotabis, from thence to be towed with them by the steamer to our destination. the cause of this new expedition was the intelligence that the arab chief, serib saib, who had escaped during the late conflict, had returned to the sakarron to collect together and re-organize his piratical subjects. we soon arrived at the same spot which we had before visited when the town had been burnt down; but the expedition proved to be one of little interest. notwithstanding his threats, serib saib's confidence gave way at the approach of our force, and he made a precipitate retreat up the river, accompanied by four or five hundred of his warriors. nevertheless, we continued to force our way up the river, with the expectation that, when fairly at bay, he would make a stand. our advance was made known to the enemy by fires lighted on the different hills abreast of the boats. this speedy mode of communication is adopted by all the natives in this part of the world. determined not to abandon the pursuit while a chance remained, we followed the redoubtable serib saib for eighty miles up the river, which in some parts was too narrow for our boats' crews to make use of their oars; but all obstacles were overcome in the ardour of the chase. to impede our progress, large trees had been felled so as to fall across the river where it was narrow; but these were removed, and we forced our way on. at last the river, as we approached the source, became little wider than a ditch, the barges grounded, and could proceed no farther; the gigs only could float, and we continued, till, after forty-eight hours of severe labour, we found ourselves at the head of the river; and we also discovered that serib saib had escaped, having with his whole force landed, and made his way through the jungle into the interior, leaving at our disposal the forty war canoes which had carried him and his men. to follow him was impossible; so we were obliged to content ourselves with the capture of the war canoes, which were all that we had to show for our exertions. disappointed, and hungry withal, we were not sorry to find ourselves once more with our heads down the river. i must not omit, however, to narrate a little trick played upon our gallant captain. i have stated that the river was so narrow near its source that we could not use the oars, and the gigs, which continued the pursuit, had to be hauled through the bushes by the boat-hooks. returning to where the larger boats had been left aground, our bow-man, who was employed shooting the gig along by such aid as the branches of the trees, or the tendrils which hung to them, afforded him, stuck his boat-hook into what appeared to be a suspended ball of moss; but he soon discovered that it was something more, as it was a nest of hornets, which sallied out in great numbers, and resented the insult to their domicile by attacking the bowman first, as the principal aggressor, and us afterwards, as parties concerned. now the sting of a hornet is no joke; we covered our faces with our handkerchiefs, or any thing we could find, and made a hasty retreat from the spot, pushing the gig down the stream, till we were clear of their attacks. in the hurry of our escape we left the boat-hook hanging in the hornet's nest, and not feeling at all inclined to go back for it, we hailed the captain's gig, which was following us, and requested very humbly that they would be pleased to recover our boat-hook for us, as we could not well re-ascend the stream from the want of it. as we did not mention that it was so peculiarly situated, the captain saw no objection, and as they came to where it hung, his bow-man caught hold of the staff, and wrested it from its position; but this time such force was used that the tendril gave way, and the nest itself fell down into the boat, and the irritated insects poured out their whole force to revenge this second aggression. the insects after all appeared to have a knowledge of the service, for they served out their stings in the same proportion as the prize-money is divided: the captain came in for his full share. returning rather in a bad humour at having had so long a pull for nothing, we anchored off a fortified malay town, which went by the name of bintang, and which had been brought to terms by captain keppell on a previous expedition up the river. the people had consequently remained neutral, although it was well known that they were not to be trusted, and that, had we been defeated above and beaten back, they would, in all probability, have attacked us in the rear. as the evening closed in, by way of astonishing the natives, and giving them some idea of our perfect equipment, the boats were directed to give a _feu-de-joie_. some fifteen guns, with rockets, port-fires, blue lights, supported by a well-sustained roulade of musketry, had a very warlike effect; and, no doubt, gave the natives an impression of our superiority in the use of fire-arms. at the conclusion, captain keppell, who was always ready for fun, gave out the order that all hands were to join in "god save the queen," taking the time from him. a dead silence was immediately produced, waiting for him to lead off, which he did; but, to our great amusement, he, by mistake, commenced with "rule britannia;" and this, being more to the seamen's taste, certainly, as far as lungs were concerned, was done most ample justice to. the saying is, "no song no supper;" of course it must be presumed that a song deserves a supper. it proved so in this instance; for just as the chorus was hushed, the sultan of bintang, as he styles himself, sent off to the head boat (the one i happened to be in) a superb supper for seven people, consisting of seven bronze trays, each tray containing about a dozen small plates, in which were many varieties of flesh and fowl cooked in a very superior manner. to each tray was a spoon, made of the yellow leaf of some tree unknown; but, as specimens of primitive elegance and utility combined, they were matchless. we had some doubts, from our knowledge of the treachery of the malays, whether we should fall to upon these appetising viands, as there was no saying but that they might be poisoned. mr. brooke, however, who, although not the commandant, was the mentor of the party, explained that he invariably observed one rule when treating and dealing with these people,--which was, never to exhibit any unworthy suspicion of them, as, by so doing, they became convinced of our own integrity and honour. that this confidence might have, in many instances, proved dangerous, unless adopted with great caution, must be admitted; but in our relations with the people on the rivers of borneo it was of great service. the malays are so very suspicious themselves, that nothing but confidence on your part will remove the feeling; and, in treating with malays, this is the first object to be obtained. the remarks of mr. brooke, which were not a little assisted by the tempting nature of the viands, and no small degree of hunger, had the effect, and the trays were all cleared out in consequence. while i was in this river i was capsized by a _bore_. this, i must explain to my non-nautical readers, is a huge rolling wave, which is as upright as a wall, and travels almost as fast as a locomotive. it is occasioned by the flood tide pouring in and overcoming the feeders to the river, forcing them back to their source. on this occasion i was pulling down the river in a small gig, following the other boats, which had turned up another branch of it, when i perceived it rapidly advancing, and making a noise not unlike the animal of the same name, only a great deal louder. had i been steering a straight course down the river i should have faced it, and probably have got off with the boat half full of water; but i calculated upon reaching the point and entering the branch of the river before its arrival. but i had not calculated upon its speed, and a strong eddy current at the point was wicked enough to draw our boat broadside to the middle of the stream. the wall of water rushed on us, turned us over and over; but fortunately by its force it also threw us all, with the gig, upon the point. it did not, however, throw us our oars, which were performing a _pas de quatre_ in a whirlpool close to us. this was a narrow escape, as, had we remained in the agitated waters, the alligators would soon have dragged us under. for two minutes the river was in a state of ebullition, but gradually subsided. we then launched the boat, regained our oars, and proceeded to join our comrades. thankful as we were for our lives having been preserved, still as we were wet through and had lost all our provisions and necessaries, we were compelled to admit that it was a very great bore. shortly after our leaving this river a fatal accident happened to one of our best men. the wind was blowing a heavy gale from the westward, accompanied by thunder and lightning, such as is only to be seen and heard on the coast of borneo. the carpenters were on shore felling trees for masts and yards, and as we were anchored some distance from the shore a tent was pitched for their accommodation. they had not been in the tent long when a large iron-wood tree was struck by lightning, and fell, burying one of the carpenters, miller by name, in the sand underneath it. he was extricated with great difficulty; but before any surgical assistance could be rendered him he was a corpse. on examination most of his bones were found to be crushed. soon after our return from the sakarron the expedition to loondoo was arranged, and we started in the barge and gig, accompanied by captain keppell in his own boat, and mr. brooke and hentig in one of the native boats, called a tam-bang. the distance was about forty miles, and we should have arrived at four o'clock in the afternoon, but, owing to the narrowness of the channel, and a want of knowledge of the river, we grounded on the flats, where we lay high and dry for the space of four hours. floating with the following tide, we discovered the proper channel, and found our way up the river, although the night was dark as pitch: when near the town, we anchored for daylight. i may as well here give a slight description of the scenery on the borneo rivers, all of which, that we have visited, with the exception of the bruni, bear a close resemblance to each other. they are far from picturesque or beautiful, for the banks are generally low, and the jungle invariably extends to the water's edge. for the first fifteen or twenty miles the banks are lined with the nepa-palms, which then gradually disappear, leaving the mangrove alone to clothe the sides of the stream. when you enter these rivers, it is rare to see any thing like a human habitation for many miles; reach after reach, the same double line of rich foliage is presented, varying only in the description of trees and bushes as the water becomes more fresh; now and then a small canoe may be seen rounding a point, or you may pass the stakes which denote that formerly there had been a fishing station. at last a hut appears on the bank, probably flanked with one or two banana trees. you turn into the next reach and suddenly find yourself close to one or more populous and fortified towns. as you ascend higher the scenery becomes much more interesting and varied from the mangroves disappearing. few of the rivers of borneo are more than eighty miles in extent. the two rivers of bruni and coran are supposed to meet in the centre of the island, although for many miles near their source they are not much wider than a common ditch. before day-light of the following morning our slumbers were disturbed by the crowing of a whole army of cocks, which assured us of the proximity of the town we were in search of. we got under weigh, and, rounding the point, loondoo hove in sight, a fine town, built in a grove of cocoa-nut trees, and by no means despicably fortified. we found our progress arrested by a boom composed of huge trees fastened together by coir cables, and extending the whole width of the river. had our intentions been hostile, it would have taken some time to have cut the fastenings of this boom, and we should, during the operation, have been exposed to a double line of fire from two forts raised on each side of the river. the chief of loondoo had, however, been duly advised of our intended visit, and as soon as our boats were seen from the town, a head-man was sent out in a canoe to usher us in. after a little delay we got the barge within the boom. when within, we found that we had further reason to congratulate ourselves that we came as friends, as the raking fire from the forts would have been most effectual, for we discovered that we had to pass an inner boom equally well secured as the first. the town was surrounded by a strong stockade made of the trunks of the knee-bone palm, a wood superior in durability to any known. this stockade had but one opening of any dimensions. a few strokes of the oars brought us abreast of it, and we let go our anchors. the eldest son of the chief came to us immediately in a canoe. he was a splendidly formed young man, about twenty-five years old. he wore his hair long and flowing, his countenance was open and ingenuous, his eyes black and knowing. his dress was a light blue velvet jacket without sleeves, and a many-coloured sash wound round his waist. his arms and legs, which were symmetrical to admiration, were naked, but encircled with a profusion of heavy brass rings. he brought a present of fowls, cocoa-nuts, and bananas to mr. brooke from his father, and an invitation for us to pay him a visit at his house whenever we should feel inclined. [illustration: dyak women in canoe.] preparatory to landing, we began performing our ablutions in the boat, much to the amusement and delight of the naked groups of dyaks who were assembled at the landing place, and who eyed us in mute astonishment. the application of a hair brush was the signal for a general burst of laughter, but cleaning the teeth with a tooth brush caused a scream of wonder, a perfect yell, i presume at our barbarous customs. there were many women among the groups; they appeared to be well made, and more than tolerably good looking. i need not enter into a very minute description of their attire, for, truth to say, they had advanced very little beyond the costume of our common mother eve. we were soon in closer contact with them, for one of our party throwing out of the boat a common black bottle, half a dozen of the women plunged into the stream to gain possession of it. they swam to the side of our boat without any reserve, and then a struggle ensued as to who should be the fortunate owner of the prize. it was gained by a fine young girl of about seventeen years of age, and who had a splendid pair of black eyes. she swam like a frog, and with her long hair streaming in the water behind her, came pretty well up to our ideas of a mermaid. as we had contrived to empty a considerable number of these bottles during our expedition, they were now thrown overboard in every direction. this occasioned a great increase of the floating party, it being joined by all the other women on the beach, and for more than half an hour we amused ourselves with the exertions and contentions of our charming naiads, to obtain what they appeared to prize so much; at last all our empty bottles were gone, and the women swam on shore with them, as much delighted with their spoil as we had been amused with their eagerness and activity. about 10 o'clock we landed, and proceeded to pay our visit to the chief. we were ushered into a spacious house, built of wood and thatched with leaves, capable of containing at least 400 people. the chief was sitting on a mat with his three sons by his side, and attended by all his warriors. the remainder of the space within was occupied by as many of the natives as could find room; those who could not, remained in the court-yard outside. the chief, who was a fine looking grey-bearded man of about sixty years of age, was dressed in velvet, and wore on his head a turban of embroidered silk. the three sons were dressed in the way i have already described the one to have been who came to us in the canoe. without exception, those three young men were the most symmetrical in form i have ever seen. the unrestrained state of nature in which these dyaks live, gives to them a natural grace and an easiness of posture, which is their chief characteristic. after the usual greetings and salutations had been passed through, we all sat down on mats and cushions which had been arranged for us; a short conversation with mr. brooke, who speaks the language fluently, then took place between him and the chief, after which refreshments were set before us. these consisted of various eatables and sweetmeats made of rice, honey, sugar, flour, and oil; and although very simple as a confectionery, they were very palatable. we remained with the chief about an hour, and before we went away he requested our company in the evening, promising to treat us with a dyak war dance. we took our leave for the present, and amused ourselves with strolling about the town. i will take this opportunity of making known some information i have at this and at different times obtained relative to this people. the villages of the dyaks are always built high up, near the source of the rivers, or, should the river below be occupied by the piratical tribes, on the hills adjoining to the source. their houses are very large, capable of containing two hundred people, and are built of palm leaves. a village or town may consist of fifteen or twenty houses. several families reside in one house, divided from each other by only a slight partition of mats. here they take their meals, and employ themselves, without interfering with each other. their furniture and property are very simple, consisting of a few cooking utensils, the paddles of their canoes, their arms, and a few mats. in all the dyak villages every precaution is taken to guard against surprise. i have already described the strength and fortifications of loondoo, and a similar principle is every where adopted. the town being built on the banks of the river, the boom i have described is invariably laid across the stream to prevent the ascent of boats. commanding the barriers, one or more forts are built on an eminence, mounting within them five or six of the native guns, called leilas. the forts are surrounded by a strong stockade, which is surmounted by a cheveaux-de-frise of split bamboos. these stockaded forts are, with the houses and cocoa nuts adjoining, again surrounded by a strong stockade, which effectually secures them from any night attack. great respect is paid to the laws and to the mandates of their chiefs, although it but too often happens that, stimulated by revenge, or other passions, they take the law into their own hands; but if crimes are committed, they are not committed without punishment following them, and some of their punishments are very barbarous and cruel: i have seen a woman with both her hands half-severed at the wrists, and a man with both his ears cut off. the religious ideas of the dyaks resemble those of the north american indians: they acknowledge a supreme being, or "great spirit;" they have also some conception of an hereafter. many of the tribes imagine that the great mountain keney balloo is a place of punishment for guilty departed souls. they are very scrupulous regarding their cemeteries, paying the greatest respect to the graves of their ancestors. when a tribe quits one place to reside at another, they exhume the bones of their relations, and take them with them. i could not discover if they had any marriage ceremony, but they are very jealous of their wives, and visit with great severity any indiscretion on their parts. the dyaks live principally upon rice, fish, and fruit, and they are very moderate in their living. they extract shamshoo from the palm, but seldom drink it their principal luxury consists in the chewing the betel-nut and chunam; a habit in which, like all the other inhabitants of these regions, from arracan down to the island of new guinea, they indulge to excess. this habit is any thing but becoming, as it renders the teeth quite black, and the lips of a high vermilion, neither of which alterations is any improvement to a copper-coloured face. they both chew and smoke tobacco, but they do not use pipes for smoking; they roll up the tobacco in a strip of dried leaf, take three or four whiffs, emitting the smoke through their nostrils, and then they extinguish it. they are fond of placing a small roll of tobacco between the upper lip and gums, and allow it to remain there for hours. opium is never used by them, and i doubt if they are acquainted with its properties. they seldom cultivate more land than is requisite for the rice, yams, and sago for their own consumption, their time being chiefly employed in hunting and fishing. they appear to me to be far from an industrious race of people, and i have often observed hundreds of fine-looking fellows lolling and sauntering about, seeming to have no cares beyond the present. some tribes that i visited preferred obtaining their rice in exchange from others, to the labour of planting it themselves. they are, in fact, not agriculturally inclined, but always ready for barter. they are middle-sized, averaging five feet five inches, but very strong-built and well-conditioned, and with limbs beautifully proportioned. in features they differ very much from the piratical inhabitants of these rivers. the head is finely formed, the hair, slightly shaven in front, is all thrown to the back of the head; their cheek-bones are high, eyes small, black and piercing, nose not exactly flat--indeed in some cases i have seen it rather aquiline; the mouth is large, and lips rather thick, and there is a total absence of hair on the face and eyebrows. now the above description is not very much unlike that of an african; and yet they are very unlike, arising, i believe, from the very pleasing and frank expression of their countenances, which is their only beauty. this description, however, must not be considered as applicable to the whole of these tribes,--those on the s. e. coast of the island being by no means so well-favoured. [illustration: serebis dyak. (n. w. coast of borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the different tribes are more distinguishable by their costumes than by their manners. the dyaks of loondoo are quite naked, and cover the arms and legs with brass rings. those of serebis and linga are remarkable for wearing as many as ten to fifteen large rings in their ears. the dusums, a tribe of dyaks on the north coast, wear immense rings of solid tin or copper round their hips and shoulders, while the saghai dyaks of the s. e. are dressed in tigers' skins and rich cloth, with splendid head-dresses, made out of monkeys' skins and the feathers of the argus pheasant. [illustration: teeth of dyaks.] the invariable custom of filing the teeth sharp, combined with the use of the betel-nut turning them quite black, gives their profile a very strange appearance. sometimes they render their teeth concave by filing. [illustration: costumes of dyak women.] [illustration: sum-pi-tan--blow-pipe with poisoned arrows.] their arms consist of the blow-pipe (sum-pi-tan), from which they eject small arrows, poisoned with the juice of the upas; a long sharp knife, termed pa-rang; a spear, and a shield. they are seldom without their arms, for the spear is used in hunting, the knife for cutting leaves, and the sum-pi-tan for shooting small birds. their warfare is carried on more by treachery and stratagem than open fighting--they are all warriors, and seldom at peace. the powerful tribes which reside on the banks of the river generally possess several war prahus, capable of holding from twenty to thirty men, and mounting a brass gun (leila) on her bows, carrying a ball of one to two pounds weight. these prahus, when an expedition is to be made against a neighbouring tribe, are manned by the warriors, one or two of the most consequential men being stationed in each prahu. before they start upon an expedition, like the north american indians, they perform their war dance. [illustration: saghai dyak. (s. e. coast of borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] should their enemies have gained intelligence of the meditated attack, they take the precaution of sending away their women, children, and furniture, into the jungle, and place men in ambush on the banks of the river, who attack the assailants as they advance. the dyaks are all very brave, and fight desperately, yelling during the combat like the american indians. the great object in their combats is to obtain as many of the heads of the party opposed as possible; and if they succeed in their surprise of the town or village, the heads of the women and children are equally carried off as trophies. but there is great difficulty in obtaining a head, for the moment that a man falls every effort is made by his own party to carry off the body, and prevent the enemy from obtaining such a trophy. if the attacking party are completely victorious, they finish their work of destruction by setting fire to all the houses, and cutting down all the cocoa-nut trees; after which they return home in triumph with their spoil. as soon as they arrive another war dance is performed; and after making very merry, they deposit the heads which they have obtained in the head-house. now, putting scalps for heads, the reader will perceive that their customs are nearly those of the american indians. every dyak village has its head-house: it is generally the hall of audience as well. the interior is decorated with heads piled up in pyramids to the roof: of course the greater the number of heads the more celebrated they are as warriors. [illustration: dyak village.] the women of the north-east coast are by no means bad-looking, but very inferior to the mountain dyaks before described. i have seen one or two faces which might be considered as pretty. with the exception of a cloth, which is secured above the hips with a hoop of rattan, and descends down to the knees, they expose every other portion of their bodies. their hair, which is fine and black, generally falls down behind. their feet are bare. like the american squaws, they do all the drudgery, carry the water, and paddle the canoes. they generally fled at our approach, if we came unexpectedly. the best looking i ever saw was one we captured on the river sakarron. she was in a dreadful fright, expecting every moment to be killed, probably taking it for granted that we had our head-houses to decorate as well as their husbands. while lying off the town of baloongan, expecting hostilities to ensue, we observed that the women who came down to fill their bamboos with water were all armed. and now to resume the narrative of our proceedings:-i stated that after our interview with the old chief, and promising to return in the evening to witness a war dance, we proceeded on a stroll, accompanied by the chiefs eldest son, who acted as our guide, and followed by a large party of the natives. we first examined the forts: these were in a tolerable state of efficiency, but their gunpowder was coarse and bad. we next went over the naval arsenal, for being then at peace with every body, their prahus were hauled up under cover of sheds. one of them was a fine boat, about forty feet long, mounting a gun, and capable of containing forty or fifty men. she was very gaily decorated with paint and feathers, and had done good service on the sakarron river in a late war. these war prahus have a flat strong roof, from which they fight, although they are wholly exposed to the spears and arrows of the enemy. we then invaded their domestic privacy, by entering the houses, and proceeded to an inspection of the blacksmith's shop, where we found the chiefs youngest son, with his velvet jacket thrown aside, working away at a piece of iron, which he was fashioning into a pa-rang, or dyak knife. the dyak pa-rang has been confounded with the malay kris, but they differ materially. the dyaks, i believe, seldom use the kris, and the malays never use the knife; and i observed, when we visited the south coast of borneo, that the knife and other arms of the tribes inhabiting this portion, were precisely similar to those of the dyaks on the northern coast. customs so universal and so strictly adhered to proves not only individuality, but antiquity. having examined every thing and every body, we were pretty well tired, and were not sorry that the hour had now arrived at which we were again to repair to the house of the rajah. on our arrival we found the rajah where we left him, and all the chief men and warriors assembled. refreshments had been prepared for us, and we again swallowed various mysterious confections, which, as i before observed, would have been very good if we had been hungry. as soon as the eatables had been despatched, we lighted our cheroots, and having, by a dexterous and unperceived application out of a brandy bottle, succeeded in changing the rajah's lemonade into excellent punch, we smoked and drank until the rajah requested to know if we were ready to witness the promised war dance. having expressed our wishes in the affirmative, the music struck up; it consisted of gongs and tom-toms. the malay gong, which the dyaks also make use of, is like the javanese, thick with a broad rim, and very different from the gong of the chinese. instead of the clanging noise of the latter, it gives out a muffled sound of a deep tone. the gong and tom-tom are used by the dyaks and malays in war, and for signals at night, and the dyaks procure them from the malays. i said that the music struck up, for, rude as the instruments were, they modulate the sound, and keep time so admirably, that it was any thing but inharmonious. a space was now cleared in the centre of the house, and two of the oldest warriors stepped into it. they were dressed in turbans, long loose jackets, sashes round their waists descending to their feet, and small bells were attached to their ankles. they commenced by first shaking hands with the rajah, and then with all the europeans present, thereby giving us to understand, as was explained to us, that the dance was to be considered only as a spectacle, and not to be taken in its literal sense, as preparatory to an attack upon us, a view of the case in which we fully coincided with them. [illustration: war dance of the dyaks. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers] this ceremony being over, they rushed into the centre and gave a most unearthly scream, then poising themselves on one foot they described a circle with the other, at the same time extending their arms like the wings of a bird, and then meeting their hands, clapping them and keeping time with the music. after a little while the music became louder, and suddenly our ears were pierced with the whole of the natives present joining in the hideous war cry. then the motions and the screams of the dancers became more violent, and every thing was working up to a state of excitement by which even we were influenced. suddenly a very unpleasant odour pervaded the room, already too warm from the numbers it contained. involuntarily we held our noses, wondering what might be the cause, when we perceived that one of the warriors had stepped into the centre and suspended round the shoulders of each dancer a human head in a wide meshed basket of rattan. these heads had been taken in the late sakarron business, and were therefore but a fortnight old. they were encased in a wide net work of rattan, and were ornamented with beads. their stench was intolerable, although, as we discovered upon after examination, when they were suspended against the wall, they had been partially baked and were quite black. the teeth and hair were quite perfect, the features somewhat shrunk, and they were altogether very fair specimens of pickled heads; but our worthy friends required a lesson from the new zealanders in the art of preserving. the appearance of the heads was the signal for the music to play louder, for the war cry of the natives to be more energetic, and for the screams of the dancers to be more piercing. their motions now became more rapid, and the excitement in proportion. their eyes glistened with unwonted brightness. the perspiration dropped down their faces, and thus did yelling, dancing, gongs, and tom-toms become more rapid and more violent every minute, till the dancing warriors were ready to drop. a farewell yell, with emphasis, was given by the surrounding warriors; immediately the music ceased, the dancers disappeared, and the tumultuous excitement and noise was succeeded by a dead silence. such was the excitement communicated, that when it was all over we ourselves remained for some time panting to recover our breath. again we lighted our cheroots and smoked for a while the pipe of peace. a quarter of an hour elapsed and the preparations were made for another martial dance. this was performed by two of the rajah's sons, the same young men i have previously made mention of. they came forward each having on his arm one of the large dyak shields, and in the centre of the cleared space were two long swords lying on the floor. the ceremony of shaking hands, as described preparatory to the former dance, was first gone through; the music then struck up and they entered the arena. at first they confined themselves to evolutions of defence, springing from one side to the other with wonderful quickness, keeping their shields in front of them, falling on one knee and performing various feats of agility. after a short time, they each seized a sword, and then the display was very remarkable, and proved what ugly customers they must be in single conflict. blows in every direction, feints of every description, were made by both, but invariably received upon the shields. cumbrous as these shields were, no opening was ever left, retreating, pursuing, dodging, and striking, the body was never exposed. occasionally, during this performance, the war cry was given by the surrounding warriors, but the combatants held their peace; in fact they could not afford to open their mouths, lest an opening should be made. it was a most masterly performance, and we were delighted with it. as the evening advanced into night, we had a sort of extemporary drama, reminding us of one of the dances, as they are called, of the american indians, in which the warriors tell their deeds of prowess. this was performed by two of the principal and oldest warriors, who appeared in long white robes, with long staves in their hands. they paraded up and down the centre, alternately haranguing each other; the subject was the praise of their own rulers, a relation of their own exploits, and an exhortation to the young warriors to emulate their deeds. this performance was most tedious; it lasted for about three hours, and, as we could not understand a word that was said, it was not peculiarly interesting. it, however, had one good effect: it sent us all asleep. i fell asleep before the others, i am told; very possible. i certainly woke up the first, and on waking, found that all the lights were out, and that the rajah and the whole company had disappeared, with the exception of my european friends, who were all lying around me. my cheroot was still in my mouth, so i re-lighted it and smoked it, and then again lay down by the side of my companions. such was the wind-up of our visit to the rajah, who first excited us by his melodramas, and then sent us to sleep with his recitations. the next morning, at daylight, we repaired to our boats, and when all was ready took leave of the old rajah. the rajah's eldest son had promised to accompany us to the mouth of the river, and show us how the natives hunted the wild pigs, which are very numerous in all the jungles of borneo. we got under weigh and proceeded down the river accompanied by a large canoe, which was occupied by the rajah's son, six or seven hunters, and a pack of the dogs used in hunting the wild boar on this island. these dogs were small, but very wiry, with muzzles like foxes, and curling tails. their hair was short, and of a tan colour. small as they are, they are very bold, and one of them will keep a wild pig at bay till the hunters come up to him. [illustration: obtaining fire.] we arrived at the hunting ground at the mouth of the river in good time, before the scent was off, and landed in the _tam-bang_. our captain having a survey to make of an island at the mouth of the river, to our great delight took away the barge and gig, leaving mr. brooke, hentig, captain keppell, adams, and myself, to accompany the rajah's son. having arranged that the native boat should pull along the coast in the direction that we were to walk, and having put on board the little that we had collected for our dinners, we shouldered our guns and followed the hunters and dogs. the natives who accompanied us were naked, and armed only with a spear. they entered the jungle with the dogs, rather too fatiguing an exercise for us, and we contented ourselves with walking along the beach abreast of them, waiting very patiently for the game to be started. in a very few minutes the dogs gave tongue, and as the noise continued we presumed that a boar was on foot; nor were we wrong in our conjecture; the barking of the dogs ceased, and one of the hunters came out of the jungle to us with a fine pig on his back, which he had transfixed with his spear. nor were we long without our share of the sport, for we suddenly came upon a whole herd which had been driven out of the jungle, and our bullets did execution. we afterwards had more shots, and with what we killed on the beach, and the natives secured in the jungle, as the evening advanced we found ourselves in possession of eight fine grown animals. these the rajah's son and his hunters very politely requested our acceptance of. we now had quite sufficient materials for our dinner, and as we were literally as hungry as hunters, we were most anxious to fall to, and looked upon our pigs with very cannibal eyes. the first thing necessary was to light a fire, and for the first time i had an opportunity of seeing the dyak way of obtaining it. it differs slightly from the usual manner, and is best explained by a sketch. captain keppell, who was always the life and soul of every thing, whether it was a fight or a pic nic, was unanimously elected caterer, and in that capacity he was most brilliant. i must digress a little to bestow upon that officer the meed of universal opinion; for his kindness, mirth, and goodness of heart, have rendered him a favourite wherever he has been known, not only a favourite with the officers, but even more so, if possible, with the men. in the expeditions in which keppell has been commanding officer, where the men were worn out with continued exertion at the oar, and with the many obstacles to be overcome, keppell's voice would be heard, and when heard, the men were encouraged and renewed their endeavours. keppell's stock, when provisions were running short, and with small hopes of a fresh supply, was freely shared among those about him, while our gallant captain, with a boat half filled with his own hampers, would see, and appeared pleased to see, those in his company longing for a mouthful which never would be offered. if any of the youngsters belonging to other ships were, from carelessness or ignorance, in trouble with the commanding officers, it was to keppell that they applied, and it was keppell who was the intercessor. in fact, every occasion in which kindness, generosity, or consideration for others could be shown, such an opportunity was never lost by keppell, who, to sum up, was a beloved friend, a delightful companion, and a respected commander. as soon as our fire was lighted, we set to, under keppell's directions, and, as may be supposed, as we had little or nothing else, pork was our principal dish. in fact, we had pig at the top, pig at the bottom, pig in the centre, and pig at the sides. a jew would have made but a sorry repast, but we, emancipated christians, made a most ravenous one, defying moses and all his deuteronomy. we had plenty of wine and segars, and soon found ourselves very comfortably seated on the sand, still warm from the rays of the burning mid-day sun. towards the end of a long repast we felt a little chilly, and we therefore rose and indulged in the games of leap-frog, fly-the-garter, and other venturous amusements. we certainly had in our party one or two who were as well fitted to grace the senate as to play at leap-frog, but i have always observed that the cleverest men are the most like children when an opportunity is offered for relaxation. i don't know what the natives thought of the european rajah brooke playing at leap-frog, but it is certain that the rajah did not care what they thought. i have said little of mr. brooke, but i will now say that a more mild, amiable, and celebrated person i never knew. every one loved him, and he deserved it. after we had warmed ourselves with play, we lighted an enormous fire to keep off the mosquitoes, and made a bowl of grog to keep off the effects of the night air, which is occasionally very pernicious. we smoked and quaffed, and had many a merry song and many a witty remark, and many a laugh about nothing on that night. as it is highly imprudent to sleep in the open air in borneo, at ten o'clock we broke up and went to repose in the boats under the spread awnings. just as we were selecting the softest plank we could find for a bed, we had an alarm which might have been attended with fatal consequences. i omitted to mention that when we rose to part and go into the boats, one of the party threw a lighted brand out of the fire at the legs of another; this compliment was returned, and as it was thought very amusing, the object being to leap up and let the brand pass between your legs, by degrees all the party were engaged in it, even the rajah and the natives joined in the sport, and were highly amused with it, although with bare legs they stood a worse chance of being hit than we did. at last the brands were all expended and the fire extinct, and then, as i said, we went away to sleep under the boats' awnings. we were in the act of depositing our loaded rifles by our sides in a place of security, when the unearthly war cry rose in the jungle, and in the stillness of the night these discordant screams sounded like the yelling of a legion of devils. immediately afterwards a body of natives rushed from the jungle in the direction of the boats, in which we supposed that our european party were all assembled. always on our guard against treachery, and not knowing but that these people might belong to a hostile band, in an instant our rifles were in our hands and pointed at the naked body of natives, who were now within twenty yards of us. mr. hentig was on the point of firing, when loud shouts of laughter from the dyaks arrested his hand, and we then perceived that mr. brooke and others were with the natives, who enjoyed the attempt to intimidate us. it was fortunate that it ended as it did; for had mr. hentig been more hasty, blood must have been shed in consequence of this native practical joke. we joined the laugh, however, laid down our rifles, then laid ourselves down, and went fast asleep, having no further disturbance than the still small voice of the mosquito, which, like that of conscience, is one that "murders sleep." the following morning we bade adieu to our friendly hunting party, and i must not here omit to mention a trait of honesty on the part of the dyaks. i had dropped my pocket handkerchief in the walk of the day before, and in the evening it was brought to me by one of the natives, who had followed a considerable distance to bring it to me. it must be known, that a coloured silk handkerchief is to one of these poor dyaks, who are very fond of finery, an article of considerable value. he might have retained it without any fear; and his bringing it to me was not certainly with any hope of reward, as i could have given him nothing which he would have prized so much as the handkerchief itself. he was made a present of it for his honesty. we bade farewell to our friends at kuchin, and continued our survey on the coast. the boats were now continually employed away from the ship, which moved slowly to the westward. at this time exposure and hard work brought the fever into the ship. the barge returned in consequence of four of her men being taken with it, and our sick list increased daily. a few days afterwards the coxswain of the barge died, and was buried along side the same morning. this death, after so short an illness, damped the spirits of the officers and men, particularly of those who were ill. after this burial we sailed for sincapore. at this time our sick report contained the names of more than thirty men, with every probability of the number being increased; but, thanks to god, from change of air, fresh provisions, and a little relaxation from the constant fatigue, the majority were in a short time convalescent. on the 25th of september we arrived at sincapore. [illustration: view of sincapore.] from the anchorage the town of sincapore has a very pleasing appearance. most of the public buildings, as well as some of the principal merchants' houses, face the sea. the church is also close to the beach, i presume to allow the congregation the benefit of the sea breezes. it has no architectural beauty to recommend it, being a plain building with a spiral steeple, surmounted by a cross. the interior is fitted up with more regard to neatness than elegance. it has an organ, and is supplied with a host of young choristers from the academy. between the beach and government hill is a delightful upland, which is generally attended by all the beauty and fashion of sincapore in the cool of the evening. a canal or small river divides the town into two parts. on the western side of it, stand all the stone houses of the merchants, and it is here that all commercial business is transacted. it is densely populated with armenian jews, chinese, and people from every part of india, each nation residing in its own quarter, in the houses peculiar to and characteristic of their country. indeed, one of the first things that strikes the stranger in sincapore is the variety of costume; chinamen, malays and indians, armenians and jews, all mingle together in every variety of picturesque costume, giving you an idea of a carnival. the palanquins resemble an omnibus on a small scale, they are drawn on four wheels, have a door on either side, and seats for four people. they are very high, and drawn by one horse. the conductors, however, are not perched up on high, but run by the side of the horse, as do all the syces in india. there are two hotels, the proprietors of which are of course rivals. one is kept by an englishman, the other by a frenchman; both are equally attentive, but the frenchman's house has the preference, in consequence of its superior locality, facing the esplanade, and looking upon the sea. the governor's house is situated on the summit of a hill, about a quarter of a mile from the beach. from it you have a bird's eye view of the whole town, and also of the country in the interior for some distance. from this eminence the town has a very picturesque appearance; the houses on the east side of the river (the may fair of sincapore), are built apart and surrounded by pretty gardens and lawns; beyond this you have the roads and the sea studded with every variety of vessels; and the island of binting rises from sea in the distance. the interior is not without beauty: the eye ranges over a vast expanse of grove and forest, interspersed with plantations of nutmegs, cinnamon, cloves, and sugar canes, and from which a most delightful perfume is brought by the breeze, while here and there white houses may be perceived, looking like mere specks in the dark foliage by which they are surrounded. it is surprising, when we reflect how short a space of time has passed since this settlement was first made, how such a mass of building and such a concourse of people can have been collected. it certainly does appear strange, but it is no less true, that no nation can colonise like the english, and i have often made that remark in my wanderings and visitings of the various parts of the globe. england fills the world and civilises the world with her redundant population, and all her colonies flourish, and remind you of a swarm of bees which have just left the old hive and are busy in providing for themselves. the dutch colonies are not what you can call thriving; they have not the bustle, the enterprise, and activity which our colonies possess. the dutch have never conciliated the natives, and obtained their goodwill; they have invariably resorted to violence, and to a disregard of justice. one would have thought that the french, from their _bonhomie_, would have been one of the very best nations to civilise, and certain to have succeeded; but such is not the case. what can be the cause of this, if it be not that, instead of raising the character of the native population by good example and strict justice, they demoralise by introducing vices hitherto unknown to them, and alienate them by injustice? there was an outcry raised at the french taking possession of taheite, as if any attempt on their part to colonise was an infringement on our right as englishmen of universal colonisation. i think if we were wise, we should raise no objection to their colonising as much as they please. the whole expence of founding the colony, raising the fortifications, and building the towns, and, if i may use the phrase, of settling every thing, may safely be left to them. if a war breaks out, they will have done a great deal of expensive work for our benefit, as we are certain then to take possession. algiers has cost an enormous sum to france, and will cost still more, and yet it can hardly be considered as a colony. it is a military possession, an african barrack, no more; and what will be the result in case of the breaking out of hostilities? their possession of algiers will be most advantageous to england, for defend it they will with all their power. we, with gibraltar as a rendezvous, shall of course have a most favourable position for assailing it, and the consequence will be, that the whole focus of the war will be drawn away from our own coasts, and the mediterranean will be the arena of all the fighting. the struggle must be before the pillars of hercules. the more we increase our fleets, the larger must her force be, and she will have no squadron to spare to send out to annoy our trade and colonial possessions. but as this is a digression, and has nothing to do with my narrative, i beg pardon and go on. we found that the dido had anchored there before us, and had received her orders to proceed to england. oh! how we envied her good fortune; and surely if envy is a base passion, in this instance it becomes ennobled by the feelings of home and country which excite it. the dido left on the 10th, and we regretted the loss of captain keppell most deeply. many merchant vessels had been lately wrecked on the north coast of borneo, and their crews made prisoners by the pirate hordes. some of the vessels had had females on board, who had not been heard of since. a letter from a master of a merchant vessel was received by the authorities at sincapore, wherein it was stated on oath, that, having lately put into the port of ambong, in borneo, an european woman had been seen near one of the huts of the village; but that on their approach, she disappeared. this account was corroborated by the evidence of some lascar seamen, who formed a portion of the crew of the vessel. the contents of this letter being forwarded by the authorities to our gallant captain, he determined upon proceeding to ambong, accompanied by our old ally, the phlegethon steamer. fortunately the town lay in our track, as we were about to proceed to labuan, and from thence to manilla. we again weighed anchor for sarawak, whither the steamer had already proceeded. on our arrival at the mouth of the river we anchored, and the captain went up in his gig. the following day, to our great surprise, we received an intimation that we might make a party of pleasure (a party quite unknown in the samarang), and go up to kuchin. we hurried away before the captain had time to repent his indulgence, and set off, some seven or eight of us, in the cutter, and pulled away as fast as we could, till we were first out of hail, and then out of sight, when we considered that we were safe. i have already stated that the native houses are built on the left side of the sarawak river, and those of the europeans on the right. these latter are pretty commodious little bungalows, built of cedar and pine wood. at present there are but three, belonging to mr. brooke, mr. williamson the interpreter, and hentig, a merchant who has lately settled there. ruppell, mr. brooke's superintendent, and treecher, the surgeon, live in a large house on the native side of the river. each of these european houses has its chatty bath adjoining to it, and this luxury is indulged in at all hours of the day. at nine o'clock a gong summons all the europeans to the breakfast table of mr. brooke. when breakfast is over, they all separate, either to follow business or pleasure, and seldom meet again till six in the evening, when dinner is served, and the time is passed away till all retire to bed. let me describe the view from the front of mr. brooke's house:--the schooner lying half way across the river is the julia, belonging to mr. brooke: she sails every month for sincapore, laden with antimony ore; and thus, at the same time, she forms a mail-packet between sincapore and kuchin. the large open building, with a wharf, leading down to the river, is the store in which the antimony is sifted, smelted, and weighed. on the point near the bend of the river is the fort. it is a strong building of large timbers, and mounts eight 24-lb. iron guns, in very excellent condition. this is a very necessary defence, as the european rajah has many enemies. the building whose top just appears above the trees is the chinese joss-house, or temple; for there are many chinese settlers at kuchin, who are very useful in their capacities of carpenters, blacksmiths, and agriculturists. sweeping with the eye a range of dwelling houses built on stakes, you stop at one of tolerable proportions, which has a platform in front of it, on which are mounted about twenty small guns, and there is a flag-staff, on which is hoisted a red and yellow flag: that is the palace of rajah muda hassan. take a canoe, and cross over to it. you will find muda sitting cross-legged in the centre of it: he shakes hands with you, and offers you cigars and tea. you will also meet his brother, bud-ruddeen. you take your leave of the rajah, and amuse yourself with a walk round the town, during which you examine the natives and their wives, their customs, their houses, and their gardens. with the exception of the more civilised tribes in the vicinity of the sarawak, the malays who inhabit the coast of borneo are a cruel, treacherous, and disgusting race of men, with scarcely one good quality to recommend them. the numerous tribes of these people are separately governed, either by a rajah or petty sultan. their laws are much more respected than would be supposed in a country where every man is armed, and is a robber by profession. the dress of the malay is very uniform, consisting of a loose jacket, a sash, and trousers: in some parts a cloth is worn round the head; in others, a hat, made of leaves or rattan. their arms are the kris and spear; occasionally they carry the sum-pi-tan, and poisoned arrows. their houses are built upon stakes, probably for the sake of cleanliness; as the flooring consists of a kind of grating made of rattan, all dirt falls through. the houses are small, and contain but one family, and, like those of the dyaks, are built of the lightest materials. the malays pretend to mahomedanism, and there is generally a large empty building in every town which is dignified with the name of a mosque: on the outside are hung drums or tom-toms, of huge dimensions, which are used as gentle reminders of the hours of prayer. i have already stated that these malay tribes live almost wholly by piracy, to carry on which each town possesses several large prahus, which they man, and send out to intercept any unfortunate junk or other vessel incapable of much resistance, which fate or the currents may have driven too near their coast. when the vessels are captured the cargoes are deposited in their warehouses, the vessels are broken up, and the crews are retained as slaves, to dig yams or pound paddy. unless they are irritated by a desperate resistance, or they attack an inimical tribe, they do not shed blood, as has generally been supposed; restrained, however, by no other feeling than that of avarice, for the slaves are too valuable to be destroyed. in their physiognomy these malays are inferior to the dyaks: they have a strong resemblance to the monkey in face, with an air of low cunning and rascality most unprepossessing. in stature they are very low, and generally bandy-legged. their hair and eyes are invariably black, but the face is, in most cases, devoid of hair; when it does grow, it is only at the extreme point of the chin. the borneo malay women are as plain as the men, although at sincapore, mauritius, and the sooloos, they are well favoured; and they wind their serang, or robe, so tight round their bodies, that they walk in a very constrained and ungainly fashion. many of these tribes are intermixed with the natives of the celebes, such as the inhabitants of sooloo. [illustration: malay woman.] the malays deal with criminals in a very summary manner, the knowledge of which prevents many crimes among this semi-barbarous people. robbers, for the first offence, lose their right hand; for the second they undergo the penalty of death. when we were at kuchin a chinaman was convicted of selling sam-schoo without permission: his goods were confiscated for a time, to be redeemed only by his good behaviour. i am not acquainted with their punishments for minor offences, except in the above instance; but i believe it is generally by fine. every rajah holds despotic sway over the inhabitants of his province, and punishes as he thinks proper, without reference to any tribunal, even in cases where the sentence is death. the method of executing criminals with the kris is as follows:--he is made to sit down in a chair, with his arms extended horizontally, and held in that position by two men. the executioner, who stands behind him, inserts his kris above the collar-bone, in a perpendicular manner, which causes instant death, as the weapon enters the heart. [illustration: malay chief. (sooloo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the following anecdote, related to me by some of the roche people, may amuse the reader:--a celebrated malay pirate, whose sanguinary deeds had filled the archipelago with terror, became violently enamoured with one of the slaves of a rajah living on the river sarawak. after vainly endeavouring to obtain her from her master by offers of money and entreaties, he lay in wait for her, and ran away with her into the jungle. he had hardly passed his honeymoon before the rajah discovered his retreat, and he sent to the malay to inform him, that, if he would make his appearance at the audience upon a certain day, he should have justice done him. the malay chief, who was a man of undaunted courage, and who felt confident that the reputation he had acquired by his piratical exploits was alone sufficient to awe his enemies, consented to appear, hoping that arrangements might be made which would permit him to leave the jungle, and allow him to enjoy his new bride in quiet. on the day appointed he appeared before the council, armed, and accompanied by his brother, both resting their hands upon the handles of their krisses, a movement which among the malays proclaims no feelings of amity. in this attitude of preparation they walked into the audience room, which was crowded with a host of enemies. the council decided, that if on a certain day he would produce a specified sum of money the girl should be his, and he should return unmolested. the sum named was exorbitant, but the malay chief agreed to the payment, and was permitted to depart. when the day of payment arrived, the council sat as before, and the malay chief again made his appearance; but this time he came alone, his brother being absent on a piratical expedition. he had, in consequence of his violent affection for the girl, made every attempt to raise the stipulated sum, but could not succeed. he brought all that he could collect, but it fell far short of the sum which had been agreed upon, and he requested time to procure the remainder. the council consulted a while, and then stipulated, that the chief, not having brought the sum agreed upon, should leave his kris as a pledge till the rest should be forthcoming. the kris that the chief wore was itself of great value, very handsomely ornamented with precious stones. it had belonged to his ancestors, and was, as they always are, highly prized, and they knew that it would, if possible, be reclaimed. the chief was most reluctant to part with it, but his love for his mistress overcame his scruples, and also his prudence, for it left him unarmed amidst his implacable enemies. he pulled out his kris, and laid it on the table upon the money, and was busy disengaging the sheath to add to it, when, by a signal from the rajah, he was seized from behind. he started up, but it was too late; his trusty weapon, which had so often stood by him in his need, was no longer within his reach, and he was in a moment transfixed with a dozen blades, falling a victim to his love of the girl and the treachery of his foes. after passing two very pleasant days at kuchin, we prepared to descend the river. i have omitted to say that mr. treecher, the surgeon, was fond of natural history, and possessed a very tolerable collection of birds, and other animals indigenous to the country. i was shown several skeletons of the orang outang, some of which were of great size. there is no want of these animals in the jungle, but a living specimen is not easy to procure; i saw but one, an adult female, belonging to mr. brooke. it was very gentle in its manners, and, when standing upright, might have measured three feet six inches. [illustration: proboscis monkey.] on board of the phlegethon there were two specimens of the wa-wa, or long-armed ape, which had been presented to mr. brooke by one of the neighbouring rajahs, and they are by the natives considered very valuable. their affection when domesticated is remarkable; their first act when they meet one they know is to leap upon your breast and embrace you with their arms, just like a child will its mother, and they will remain, if permitted, in this position for hours, and complain if removed. their cry is very plaintive, and, heard at night in the jungle, sounds like that of a female in distress. i was given to understand that in the presents made by chiefs, a scarce variety of monkey is often the principal gift, and most esteemed. the scarcest monkey in borneo is the proboscis, or long-nosed. i saw but two specimens of this animal, one a female, with the nose very long, and pendulous at the extremity; the other a male, very young, and with the nose more or less prominent, and giving its face a more actual resemblance to that of a man's than i had ever before seen. this monkey has never, i believe, been brought to england alive. the british museum has a stuffed specimen. it is not so mischievous in its habits as the tribe in general. as rajah muda hassan has been so frequently mentioned, it may be as well to give a succinct outline of his history. at the death of the late sultan, muda hassan was the heir-apparent to the throne, but he resigned in favour of his nephew, retaining the office of prime minister, which office he had held during the former reign, not only to the satisfaction of the sultan, but also of the people, with whom he was deservedly a great favourite. his influence, being even greater than that of the sultan, occasioned a jealous feeling, and a contention of party, which induced muda hassan to retire to sarawak with his wives and personal attendants. he was succeeded in his office of prime minister by an arab, pangeran usop, a man of unbounded ambition, who by his harsh and tyrannical conduct soon became hated by the brunese, who longed for the return of muda hassan, under whose sway they had been quiet and happy. pangeran usop, aware of the popular feeling, now considered muda hassan as his enemy, and took every opportunity of vilifying and creating suspicion of muda hassan on the mind of the sultan, who was little better than an idiot. he asserted that muda hassan and his brother bud-ruddeen were leagued with the english, and were their only supporters in their pretensions to the isle of labuan, and that they would assist the english in taking possession of borneo. these reports, although at first treated with disdain, continually repeated had their effect, not only upon the sultan, but upon the people; and muda hassan, who was informed of what had been going on, and had not deigned to notice it, now considered that it was advisable to repair to borneo, and refute the charges brought against him. when mr. brooke purchased the rajahship and mines of sarawak, he agreed to compensate muda with a life annuity of two or three hundred per annum, and give him a passage to his native city, bruni, whenever he should feel disposed to leave kuchin. some time had now elapsed since the signing of the contract, during which muda had remained at his palace at kuchin, enjoying his income, and living on the very best terms with the europeans. he now, however, expressed a wish to return to bruni, and as it was mr. brooke's intention to proceed to that port in the samarang, it was proposed that the phlegethon steamer should embark muda and his suite, and that on our arrival at bruni we should see this rajah and his brother bud-ruddeen installed in their positions which by their birth they were entitled to. another object was in view, and expected to be gained by this step. up to the present, no efforts had been made by the bornean government to discountenance piracy; on the contrary, the plunder of the pirates was brought in and openly disposed of at bruni, which is the royal residence. muda and his brother bud-ruddeen were stanch friends to the english, and it was anticipated that by their being appointed to offices of power, and forcing the sultan to a treaty to put down piracy, and pay respect to the english flag, a very important advance would be made towards the extermination of these marauders, and commerce, once rendered secure, and property respected, borneo would soon be brought to a state of comparative civilisation. as soon as the two rajahs, with all their wives and suite, &c., could be got on board of the phlegethon, mr. brooke, and mr. williamson the interpreter, came on board the samarang, and we sailed. on our arrival at the island of labuan, we anchored the ship, and despatched the steamer, with her cargo, up to bruni. the captain of the samarang and one or two officers proceeded up to bruni in the barge on the following day; and i was the midshipman in charge of the boat. we did not arrive at the city till 8 o'clock in the evening; and it was too dark to distinguish the houses. with some difficulty, we discovered the steamer, which was anchored on the main street. we pulled alongside, and landing the captain and kuchinians, adams, the surgeon of the party, and i, found ourselves in undisturbed possession of the barge. [illustration: bruni. (borneo proper.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] bruni is called by crawfurd the venice of the east; and he is so far correct, that it is built in the same peculiar way, and is a most extraordinary town. it is built almost entirely on the water. it is of great size, containing from thirty to forty thousand inhabitants, most of whom are malays, but who, from having so long intermixed with the tribes on the coast, now style themselves brunese, after the town. this town, which is situated where the river forms a wide and shallow estuary, is built with little regard to regularity. there are, however, two large main streets, intersecting each other in the form of an irregular cross. these divide the town into four parts, one of which is partly built upon terra firma, while the other three portions are composed of massive wooden houses, built on piles, and just sufficiently separated here and there to admit of the passage of a canoe. on the portion which is on dry land is built the sultan's palace, a church or mosque, and most of the more prominent buildings. it was in the main street (if such a term may be used), and as near as possible in the centre of the town, that the steamer was anchored. when we awoke and roused up it was broad daylight, and the scene was most novel: surrounding the steamer and the barge, and extending many yards from them, lay hundreds of canoes, filled with natives of every tribe to be found on the coast, and dressed in every variety of costume. from the wild dusum to the civilised arab and malay rajah, natives in every posture, and decked in every colour, impelled by curiosity, were crowded around us. here was a chief, dressed in an embroidered jacket, sitting cross-legged, and shading himself with a yellow silk umbrella. there were some wild-looking dyaks, with scarcely as much covering as decency demanded, standing up on their narrow canoes, one hand resting on the handle of their knives, the other on their hips, eying us from under their long matted hair with glances that told of no good feeling towards us. in another quarter were women, in a covered boat, whose jealous lattices only permitted us a glimpse of sparkling eyes, and of the yellow array which proclaimed them as some of the royal favourites. as far as you could see on all sides there was a confused mass, composed of embroidered chiefs, black-eyed women, grey-bearded arabs, spears, shields, paddles and umbrellas. taking out my sketch-book, i amused myself with drawing the various costumes--no very easy task, as the canoes were continually on the move; and before i could well catch the head and shoulders of a native, when i raised my eyes from the paper he had often disappeared in the crowd, and i found another party and another costume in his place. [illustration: natives of bruni.] rajah muda hassan had already landed, and 10 o'clock had been fixed upon as the hour for a full-dress visit to the sultan. as the time approached, mr. brooke, with our captain and the officers composing the party, came into the barge, and were pulled up to the sultan's audience chamber. this was a large three-sided building, facing the water, with a platform in front, on which were mounted five or six leilas, or native guns. the roof was slightly carved, and the gables ornamented with large wooden rams' horns. the red and yellow flag of borneo waved above it. we were received at the platform by a numerous party of chiefs, handsomely dressed in silks, satins, and gold embroidery. they ushered us into the audience chamber, the walls of which were lined with a sort of cloth, and ornamented with shields. the floor was matted. the chamber was filled with natives, all well dressed and armed. they sat cross-legged, preserving a respectful silence. a vacant aisle was preserved between them leading to the throne, which was at the upper end of the chamber. the throne was a frame of painted wood, gilt and carved, and bearing a very suspicious resemblance to a chinese bedstead. on this, sitting cross-legged, was the sultan of borneo, to whom we were all separately presented as english warriors, &c. &c. chairs were then placed in a half circle in front of the sultan, and we seated ourselves. the sultan, a man of about sixty years of age, is said to be very imbecile, and under the control of his ministers, who do with him as they please. he was dressed in a loose jacket and trousers of purple satin, richly embroidered with gold, a close-fitting vest of gold cloth, and a light cloth turban on his head. in his sash he wore a gold-headed kris of exquisite workmanship. his head was bald, and his features wore a continual air of suspicion, mixed with simplicity. the first is not to be wondered at, as he lives in the happy expectation of being poisoned every day. he has two thumbs on the right hand, and makes the supernumerary one useful by employing it in charging his mouth with the beetle-nut and chunan, in which luxury he indulges to excess. immediately below him were his two body attendants, who have charge of his beetle-nut box and his weapons. in front of the throne, and inside the half aisle formed by the europeans, seraib yussef, the prime minister, muda hassan, and bud-ruddeen, were seated on their hams. on each side and below the throne were hundreds of attendants or guards; those in the front row sitting cross-legged, with drawn krisses; those behind them standing with long spears, tipped with bunches of red horsehair, in their hands. the remainder of the chamber was occupied by chiefs, all of them armed. [illustration: court of the sultan of borneo. (signing the treaty with england.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the communications and demands we had to make were carried on through mr. williamson, the interpreter. the speakers were mr. brooke, our captain, the sultan's prime minister, muda and bud-ruddeen, the sultan occasionally nodding his head in approval of replies made by his prime minister. the whole of the conversation was carried on in so low a tone as not to be heard except by those sitting nearest to the throne. the subject of it was, however, no secret; and it was as follows:-near to the mouth of the river, is an island called pulo cheremon, on which the sultan has built some forts. on our entering the river, one of our boats had been fired at from one of these forts, although the english flag was hoisted at the time. the demands made in this conference were, that the proper respect should be paid to the english flag, that the forts upon pulo cheremon should be dismantled, and that the sultan should reinstate muda and bud-ruddeen in offices becoming their rank. now, that the first demand was reasonable must be admitted; but what right we had to insist upon the forts being destroyed, and the sultan's uncles put into office, i really cannot pretend to say. seraib yussef, who was inimical to the english, expressed his disapprobation of their demands in very strong terms: as for the sultan, he had very little to say. as it appeared that there was no chance of our demands being complied with without coercion, the conference was broken up by our principals pointing to the steamer, which lay within pistol-shot of the palace, and reminding the sultan and the ministers that a few broadsides would destroy the town. having made this observation, we all rose to take our departure, stating that we would wait for an answer to our demands upon the following day. our situation was rather critical, only eight europeans among hundreds of armed natives taking their sultan in this manner by the beard, when, at a signal from him, we might have all been despatched in a moment. more than one chief had his hand upon his kris as we stalked through a passage left for us out of the audience chamber; but whatever may have been their wishes, they did not venture further without authority. on reaching the platform outside, a very strange sight presented itself. with the exception of a lane left for our passage to the boat, the whole space was covered with naked savages. these were the maruts, a tribe of dyaks who live in the mountains. the word marut signifies brave. these naked gentlemen, who are very partial to the sultan, had come down from the mountains to render assistance in case of hostility on our part. they were splendidly framed men, but very plain in person, with the long matted hair falling over their shoulders. they were armed with long knives and shields, which they brandished in a very warlike manner, occasionally giving a loud yell. they certainly appeared very anxious to begin work; and i fully expected we should have had to draw and defend ourselves. i was not sorry, therefore, when i found myself once more in the stern sheets of the barge, with our brass six-pounder loaded with grape, pointed towards them. the poor fellows little knew the effect of a shower of grape-shot, or they would not have been so anxious for a "turn-up." the sultan had offered a house for the accommodation of the europeans during our stay at bruni. it was a small wooden building over the water and resting upon piles. it communicated by a platform with the mahomedan mosque, which was built of brick and of tolerable dimensions. the interior of this mosque had no other furniture in it except a sort of pulpit painted, which stood in the centre. outside on a raised platform was a very large tom-tom or drum, upon which a native played from morning to night, much to our annoyance, as it was so close to us. religious worship appears at a very low ebb at bruni, for during the whole time that we remained there i did not see one person enter the mosque. at the back of the mosque there was a piece of green sward, which separated us from the royal buildings. passing through the mosque we strolled over this piece of pasture, when, close to the water's edge, we discovered several fine old brass 32-pounders, dismounted and half-buried in the swamp. on inspection we found them to be spanish, bearing the inscription of carolus tertius, rex hispaniorum, with the arms of castile above. how they came into the sultan's possession we could not find out. he was said to value them exceedingly; if so, he did not show it by the neglect paid to them. bruni on a calm day presents a novel and pretty appearance. the masses of houses appear to float on the water, and the uniformity is broken by gay flags and banners, which indicate the rank and the office of them who hoist them. the large square sails of the prahus, the variety of boats and canoes, the floating bazaar, and the numerous costumes continually in moving panorama before you, all combine to form a very admirable picture. add to this the chiming and beating of gongs and tom-toms in every cadence, and from every quarter, and you are somewhat reminded of an asiatic bartholomew fair. the right-hand side of the river, which is opposite to the town, consists of a series of small hills, which are partially cleared, but present little appearance of cultivation. here we were shown a specimen of the upas tree: it was growing close to a small stone fountain in the vicinity of some straggling huts. it was a solitary tree, tall and red-stemmed, with the foliage branching out in a canopy at the top. so much has been said for and against this tree, usually supposed to be fabulous, that we looked upon it with great curiosity; and although aware that its noxious qualities have been much exaggerated, we were anxious to test its powers, if we could. we procured a ladder, which we raised against the tree, and one of our party ascended to the uppermost branches without experiencing the fainting sensation ascribed to be produced by close contact with its foliage. we then tapped the tree at the bottom, and there issued from it a white viscous fluid, which the natives asserted to be a virulent poison, and used by them for dipping the points of their arrows. we carried off a bottle of this poison, and having drunk from the fountain beneath the tree, without fear and without injury, we went away. this was the only specimen of the upas tree that i saw in borneo. the lower orders at bruni, in addition to a jacket and trousers, wear an immense straw hat of a conical shape, with a brim as wide as an umbrella. this hat, unless thrown back on the shoulders, entirely conceals the face. at times, when the river is crowded with canoes, nothing is to be seen but a mass of these straw hats, which present a very strange appearance. but the greatest novelty at bruni is the floating bazaar. there are no shops in the city, and the market is held every day in canoes. these come in at sunrise every morning from every part of the river, laden with fresh fruit, tobacco, pepper, and every other article which is produced in the vicinity; a few european productions, such as handkerchiefs, check-cotton prints, &c., also make their appearance. congregated in the main street the canoes are tacked together, forming lanes through which the purchasers, in their own canoes, paddle, selecting and bargaining for their goods with as much convenience as if the whole was transacted on terra firma. iron is here so valuable that it is used as money. one hundred flat pieces an inch square are valued at a dollar, and among the lower classes these iron pieces form the sole coin. they are unstamped, so that every person appears to be at liberty to cut his own iron into money; but whether such is really the case i cannot vouch. we remained at bruni for a week, during which time a great deal of diplomatic duty was got through by the seniors of the party, leaving the juniors to amuse themselves with discovering fresh objects of interest, and illustrating every thing worthy of notice. our whole party met every evening at the small house which had been appropriated for our use by the sultan. it staggered fearfully upon its wooden legs under our accumulated weight, and we constantly expected that we should be let down into the water. here we dined and passed the evening in conversation, with our arms all ready at hand, guns and pistols loaded, and the boats anchored close along side of us, in case of any treachery. every day an interview was had with the sultan, but no definite answer had been obtained to our demands. on the 6th, however, it was resolved by our diplomatists that no more time should be wasted in useless discussion, but that the sultan must be at once brought to terms; indeed, our own safety demanded it, for the popular feeling was so much excited, and the people were so indignant at our attempt to coerce their sultan, that we were in hourly expectation of an attack. at seven in the evening the party repaired to the audience chamber, leaving their arms behind them, for they felt that any effort from five europeans to defend themselves against so many hundreds, would be unavailing, and that more would be gained by a show of indifference. they landed at the platform, and the barge, in which were lieutenant baugh (since dead) and myself, was ordered to lie on her oars abreast of the audience chamber, and to keep her 6-pounder, in which there was a fearful dose of grape and canister, pointed at the sultan himself during the whole of the interview. it was an anxious time: the audience chamber was filled with hundreds of armed men, in the midst of whom were five europeans dictating to their sultan. the platform outside was crowded with the wild and fearless maruts: not a native in the city but was armed to the teeth, and anxious for the fray. we, on our parts, were well prepared for fearful vengeance; the barge was so placed that the assassination of mr. brooke and the europeans would have been revenged on the first discharge of our gun by the slaughter of hundreds; and in the main street lay the steamer, with a spring on her cable, her half ports up, and guns loaded to the muzzle, awaiting, as by instruction, for the discharge of the gun from the barge, to follow up the work of death. the platform admitted one of the steamer's guns to look into the audience chamber, the muzzle was pointed direct at the sultan, a man held the lighted tow in his hand. every european on board had his musket ready loaded, and matters assumed a serious appearance. from where i was on the barge, all appeared hushed in the audience room. i could see the prime minister, muda, and bud-ruddeen, as they rose in turns to speak. i could perceive by the motion of their lips that they were talking, but not a sound came to our ears. this state of things lasted about half an hour, and then there was a slight stir, and mr. brooke and his party marched towards us through the crowd of warriors. by dint of threats he had gained his point. the sultan had signed a treaty by which he bound himself to respect the british flag, to make over to us the island of labuan, to destroy the forts on pulo-cheremon, to discountenance piracy, and to instal muda and bud-ruddeen into offices becoming their birth and high rank. i have since heard mr. brooke remark, that considering the natives were well aware that our guns were directed against them, the self-possession and coolness shared by every one of them were worthy of admiration. they never showed the slightest emotion, their speeches were free from gesticulation, and even their threats were conveyed in a quiet subdued tone; and every thing was carried on with all the calmness and deliberation that might be expected at a cabinet council at st. james's. whilst at bruni, we picked up several specimens of coal, and asking one of the chiefs if much could be procured, he showed us a few sacks. ignorant of its value, he was still cunning enough to perceive how much interest ave felt in the discovery, and immediately asked a most tremendous price for his stock. one would really have thought that we were bargaining for precious stones; at all events he must have had an intuitive idea that we considered them as "black diamonds." on the other hand, an old arab at bruni, who had supplied us with one or two live bullocks, when he saw the samarang at anchor at the mouth of the river, had the modesty to offer our captain 400 dollars for her, less than 100l. sterling. sell dear and buy cheap is the way to get rich, and proves how fit for commerce are all the people of the archipelago. while we were lying at bruni in the barge, one day, when adams the assistant-surgeon and myself were sole occupants, we were surprised at the appearance of a handsomely dressed malay youth, who stepped into the boat, greeting us, although strangers, _sans cã©rã©monie_. always wishing to study native character, we amused him as well as we could, and on his departure gave him to understand that he might come whenever he pleased. about dark we were surprised by a canoe coming under our stern, and the occupant throwing into the barge several fine fowls and a large basket of fruit. we could not imagine to whom we were indebted for this civility, but suspected our malay friend, and when he came again we taxed him with it, and he acknowledged it. on this visit he sat in the boat for some time, appearing to take a great interest in every thing connected with us, and observed that we were bargaining with the natives in the canoes alongside of us for the various arms of the country, which they are content to sell provided they obtain a most exorbitant price. our malay friend went off in his canoe, and in the course of an hour returned with a large collection of shields, spears, krisses, and mats, which he begged our acceptance of. every day did he bring us presents of some description or another, refusing to take any thing in return, except perhaps an english pocket handkerchief or something of very trifling value. suddenly his visits were discontinued, and we saw no more of him. one day, dining at the house lent us by the sultan, mr. brooke was talking with some of our party of a young malay chief, who, being mad, had attempted to kill his wife, and had in consequence been placed in durance, but had since been liberated. mr. brooke wishing to speak to him, sent for him, and on his appearance this madman proved to be our generous unknown. the day after the signing of the treaty we left bruni, the steamer taking the barge in tow, and the same afternoon we joined the samarang at our newly-acquired possession, the isle of labuan. this island is about thirty miles in circumference, flat, and covered with thick jungle. it has no inhabitants. its anchorage is good, being protected by the main and two smaller islands. the embouchure of a rivulet forms a small bay, which we dignified with the title of victoria. we found water plentiful, and several specimens of coal. from labuan we proceeded to ambong, a place where it was supposed that an european female had been detained as a slave. ambong is a pretty little bay, with a malay village built in the bight of it, and there is a fine view of keeney balloo, the great mountain of borneo, in the back-ground. this mountain, estimated to be 14,000 feet high, is about forty miles from ambong, and with the aid of a glass we could discern cataracts and ravines innumerable. it is certainly a most splendid affair, on one side rising almost perpendicularly, and in appearance nearly flat at the top. at sunset, from the bay, its appearance was splendid. we found nothing at ambong to lead us to suppose that european females had at any time been made prisoners by the inhabitants: they were apparently a quiet, peaceable people, living entirely by agriculture. their close neighbours, however, the moros of tampassook, are a notorious tribe of the illanoan pirates, who are the terror of the asiatic seas. it was not improbable that these people might have many european prisoners as their slaves, but from what we knew of their character, we felt assured that if they possessed white female prisoners, they would never consent to their being ransomed. after making a survey of ambong, we only waited to take in a supply of fresh beef, and then started the phlegethon on her return to sarawak with mr. brooke and mr. williamson, while we shaped our course in an opposite direction on our way to manilla. i may here remark that the bullocks at ambong were remarkably fine and the price of them ridiculously cheap. two of the largest were to be purchased for about twenty-five shillings worth of calico or any other european manufacture. wherever we went on this island, and i may say over the indian archipelago generally, the spirit of trade and barter appeared to be universal; and if the inhabitants of borneo were inclined to look into the riches of their island, and with them procure english manufactures, which when piracy is abolished they will do, the commercial opening to this country will be great indeed. the scenery in the bay of ambong varies from that of the borneo coast in general. the bay is backed by a series of small hills, cleared away and partially cultivated, instead of the low jungle which is elsewhere so universal. on our way to manilla we touched at the entrance of a river up which is situated the town of tampassook. bodies of armed men came down in haste to oppose our landing, which we did with a view of taking sights to verify the chronometers. we came to a parley before we came to blows, and the captain drew a line close to the beach, telling the illanoans that his men would remain inside of it, on condition that they would remain outside. this arrangement was agreed to, and the observations were taken between four or five hundred armed warriors on one side, and four boats with the guns ready to fire on the other. the pirates were all very well dressed in stuffs and cloths: they carried shields so large as to cover the whole body, and long heavy swords with the handles ornamented with balls and human hair. many were on horseback, and formed a very respectable irregular cavalry, wearing a light loose dress, and armed with long spears and short round shields. one costume was quite novel, being a coat of armour made of buffalo leather scaled with oyster shells. both parties adhered to the agreement, and all therefore passed off quietly; the observations were completed, and we returned to the ship. tampassook, it is asserted, would be a grand place for booty if it was stormed, as the inhabitants possess a great deal of money and diamonds. they are, however, a very brave people, and would not part with their riches without a terrible resistance. while off this river we had notice given us that there was a fleet of 100 piratical prahus lying off the island of balabac. we shaped our course thither, hoping to surprise them, but we were disappointed: the birds had flown, and the bay of balabac was untenanted. we cruised for a week among the islands in search of them, but could not discover their retreat; so we shaped our course for manilla, taking the passage to the eastward of palawan, which was considered the best at this season of the year. while off the north-east coast of palawan, our boats left to survey discovered an illanoan prahu at anchor off one of the small islands that surround the coast. the boats gave chase, and the pirates used every exertion to get away. the gig soon headed the other boats, but gained very slowly on the pirate, and her muskets caused no apparent execution, but one of the cutters with the grape from her gun killed several of their fighting men, who stood on the roof brandishing their krisses, and fearlessly exposing themselves to the fire. on turning a point the prahu kept before the wind, and walked away from us so fast that we gave up the chase. in about a fortnight afterwards, the corregidor, a small island at the mouth of manilla bay, hove in sight. on our arriving abreast of it, a gun-boat came out to board us, and inquire after our bill of health; but as we had a spanking breeze, and men-of-war do not heave-to to be boarded, the gun-boat returned to the island as wise as she came out. manilla bay is of immense size, being thirty miles deep, and twenty wide. near the mouth of the bay the land is high, but at the head, where the city of manilla is built, it is remarkably low and flat. as we had the wind in our teeth, and manilla was twenty-five miles distant, we did not arrive there till sunset. after shaving the sterns of several merchant ships, who would have been better pleased if we had given them a wider berth, we at last dropped anchor about two miles from the town. manilla, from the anchorage, has not an inviting appearance. i have said that the land upon which it is built is very low, and as the town is strongly fortified, nothing is to be seen from the shipping but a long line of sea wall, with the roofs of the largest buildings, and a mass of brick, which we were told was the cathedral, overtopping it. at one end of this sea wall is the canal, or river, flanked on one side by a mole, and on the other by a light-house. manilla is, however, a very delightful place; and to us, who had been so many months among savages, it appeared a paradise. the canal i have alluded to divides the fortified city from the suburban towns of san fernando, san gabriel, and others, in which are situated all the commercial houses, stores, godowns, dock-yards, and saw mills. all the chinese and lower orders also reside in these suburbs, and i may add that all the amusements, feasts, &c., are carried on in this quarter. the city of manilla within the fortifications is a very quiet, clean, and well-regulated town, inhabited entirely by the higher orders: the streets are well laid out, the houses regular, and built of white freestone. in the centre of the city is the plaza, on one side of which is the cathedral, and opposite it the governor's palace; both very insignificant buildings. the cathedral, which is very ancient, is devoid of all attempt at architecture, and resembles a huge barn; while the governor's palace, in appearance, reminds you of a stable. [illustration: city of manilla.] during the day the streets of manilla are perfectly quiet and deserted. at dusk the people begin to move, and show signs of life. the sallyport gates are closed at eleven o'clock at night, after which hour there is neither ingress or egress, and on this point they are most absurdly particular. the natives of luzon are much below the middle size. the men are slightly made, weak, and inoffensive; the women, on the contrary, are remarkable for their pretty faces, feet, and figures, set off by a dress of the most picturesque description: a short petticoat, of gaily-coloured silk or cotton, and a boddice of similar material, of sufficient height to cover the bosom, is their usual costume. their long jet black hair is allowed to fall in tresses down their backs. many have a kerchief tastefully thrown over their heads; and they wear little velvet slippers, embroidered with gold and silver thread. their appearance is extremely captivating to foreigners, who do not in a hurry forget their graceful mien and the arch glances from their brilliant eyes. manilla supports a considerable body of infantry and cavalry, the whole composed of natives of the island. their horses are small, as well as the men, and are not well trained; but the object of the spaniards is to make a show to intimidate the indians, who, having no discipline whatever, are, of course, inferior even to these very moderate troops. not long ago, one of the strongest forts was taken possession of by a party of rebels, assisted by some soldiers who had revolted: the fort was recaptured, and, as an example, a dreadful slaughter ensued. the parade ground, outside the citadel, was the scene of carnage. a large pit was dug, at the brink of which the victims were placed; they were then shot, and thrown into this grave. eighty-two were thus butchered, and buried in the pit, over which a mound has been raised, to commemorate their execution. outside the town, and half encircling it, there is a splendid esplanade, between an avenue of trees. this leads to the water, when the road runs parallel with it for nearly a mile, terminating at one of the piers of the canal. this is known by the, i presume, correct name of scandal point. a number of carriages, filled with all the _ã©lite_ of manilla, turn out on this drive a little before sunset, and the scene is very gay and exciting. i leave the reader to conceive upwards of 200 carriages passing and repassing, besides equestrians and pedestrians. the reader may say that it must be like the ring at hyde park; but it is more brilliant, although not in such good taste; and then it is the beauty of the climate--the contrast between the foliage and the blue ocean--which gives the effect. no buttoning up to an east wind, nor running away from a shower; but ever gay, and fresh, and exhilarating. here you meet the old don, enjoying his quiet stroll and cigar, all alone. soldier officers, in plain dress and long mustachoes, doffing their hats to every seã±ora. the english merchant, in his unassuming undress of a white jacket; the british naval officers, with their gay uniforms and careless manners, prying, with a sailor's curiosity, into every pretty face; and now and then a saucy mid, mounted on a hack, dashing between the line of carriages at a full gallop, disturbing their propriety, and checking the cavalcade, to the great consternation, real or assumed, of the ladies. all was gaiety and gladness; on every side was to be heard the merry laugh and hail of recognition. to add to the excitement, the bands of the several regiments played the most popular airs on a parade adjoining to the esplanade. while the carriages were driving up and down, the vesper bell tolled from the cathedral. in an instant every carriage stopped--every head was uncovered, and bent in an attitude of devotion. horses, women, men--all as if transfixed: every tongue silent--nothing heard but the bell of the cathedral, and the light breeze which bore away its vibrations. the bell at last ceased, and in a moment every thing was in full activity as before. twice a week a military band plays at the public almeda from nine till ten in the evening; and on one of these nights we started in a carriage to the spot. the almeda is situated close to the gates of the city, and joins to the esplanade. it is an open square, bordered with a row of trees, to which are suspended lamps; while in the spaces between the trees there are seats for the accommodation of the public. in the middle of the almeda is a stand erected for the musicians. on our arrival there we found it well lighted up; the place was surrounded by carriages, which were empty, their occupants having joined the parade. following the example, we mixed with the throng, which was numerous. the women were mostly collected in groups, and the men were smoking their cheroots and beating time to the music, which was excellent. lighting our cigars, we strolled lazily along, and, by dint of lamp-light and impudence, managed to form a very tolerable idea of the beauty of the senoras. at ten o'clock, the band struck up a lively polka, which was the signal for a general dispersion. this is considered one of the principal and most favourite recreations at manilla. the inhabitants of manilla are composed of the pure spaniard, and the mustichas, or mixed breed. the former are very proud and inhospitable; the latter are, on the contrary, very friendly, and, for any little civility, request that you will make their house your home. the women of the latter are by far the most preferable: the former are said to be very deficient in good-breeding and education; like the indians, they sleep half the day, and are scarcely alive till sun-down, when they dress for the almeda or esplanade. there are very good subscription rooms in the city. every month they give a ball, concert, or amateur performance. strangers are presented with tickets for these amusements--no thanks to the spaniards--but from the kindness of the english merchants, who are nearly all members. i went to one of these balls: there were plenty of women--more than could get partners; the music was good, the women well dressed, and they waltzed exquisitely. adjoining the ball-room was a billiard-room, in which those who preferred smoking cigars in a cool room to dancing, with the thermometer at 90â°, had retreated. nothing can be done at manilla without the cigar: they smoke for an appetite, they smoke for digestion, they smoke when they are too hot, they smoke when it is chilly. as the hands of the time-piece approached the hour of eleven, every one who lived outside the city was obliged to be off. we, among others, took our departure; but when we sought for our carriage, it had disappeared. we set off at a hard trot, to reach the gates before eleven, but in our haste we missed the road, and came to a cul-de-sac. we retraced our steps, but when we reached the gates they were closed. a request to the officer of the guard we knew to be useless, so we turned back, and prepared to pass the night in the streets, in our uniforms and swords. after wandering half an hour up and down without seeing a light or meeting a soul, i heard a violent hammering at a door at a little distance. i found it was one of our party, who hammered away, and called out for "soda water" between each hammering. "all's right!" said he; "look here!" and sure enough there was a board outside, with "soda water" painted in large letters in english. this repeated hammering and demand for soda water at last produced the desired effect. a person in a dressing-gown and slippers came out into the balcony, and demanded our business. we explained our extreme thirst and benighted condition; and as the gentleman hesitated, we again applied to the door, intimating that if we had no admission, at all events he should have no repose. at last he sent down to have the door opened. we found that he was a german chemist, who fabricated soda water, among other articles, and, knowing the partiality of the english for the beverage, had advertised it in our language over the door. we passed the night with him very comfortably at his house, breakfasted with him the next morning, and, promising to bring the whole of our shipmates to drink soda water for his benefit till we were blown out like balloons, we wished him good-bye, and returned to the ship. gambling is carried to a great extent in manilla: the game played is montã©. we visited one of their gambling houses. winding our way down a dark and narrow street, we arrived at a porte-cochã¨re. the requisite signal was given, the door opened cautiously, and after some scrutiny we were ushered up a flight of stairs, and entered a room, in the centre of which was a table, round which were a group, composed of every class. an indian squaw was sitting by the side of a military officer, the one staking her annas, the other his doubloons. i stood by the side of an old chinaman, who staked his doubloon and lost every time. the strictest silence was observed, and nothing was heard but the chinking of the dollars, and the occasional _ã  quien_ of the banker, who inquired the owner of the stakes. every thing was conducted with the greatest order; when one man had lost all his money he would retire, and make room for another. the authorities of manilla have made every effort to put a check to this demoralising practice, but without much success. it is universal, from the highest to the lowest, from the civilised to the most barbarous, over the whole of the indian archipelago. the indians of the phillippines are among the best favoured of the asiatic islanders, but they are not reckoned so brave as the malays. they are a quiet inoffensive race, clean and well shaped, and are all converted to the catholic faith. their principal amusement is cock-fighting, which, indeed, is carried to a great extent in all the islands. every man in the streets has his fighting cock under his arm, and groups may be seen at all hours of the day, pitting their cocks and betting on the issue. the country about manilla is very pretty, well cultivated, and studded with thriving villages. the spanish possessions in this part of luzon are confined to about twenty miles in every direction; the interior of the island being peopled with a race of savages who occasionally make incursions into the country, carrying away cattle or any thing else that they can lay their hands upon. i could obtain no particulars of these aborigines, except that they go nearly if not altogether naked. on the 1st of december, our old acquaintance, the velocipede schooner, arrived from sooloo, having on board six lascars, who had been ransomed from the sultan of sooloo by mr. wyndham. they had formed a portion of the crew of the premier, an english merchant vessel, which had been wrecked on a reef off the eastern coast of borneo. the crew, consisting of europeans and lascars, had been divided between the sultans of sooloo, gonong tabor, and balungan. one of the lascars was the bearer of a letter from the captain of the premier, stating that he and his crew were still captives, and trusting that a vessel would be sent to rescue them, as they were strictly guarded by the natives, and had no hopes of escape. the samarang being the only man-of-war at manilla, the english consul requested our captain to proceed again to borneo to obtain these people, calling at sooloo in order to obtain information and a pilot. on the 10th of december we sailed for sooloo, where we arrived on the 15th. we found the natives preparing for an attack, which they anticipated from the french, and suspicious that our intentions were also hostile. having already described sooloo, i shall confine myself to events. the captain, with his officers, went on shore, and had an audience with the sultan; and having brought an interpreter with us from manilla, the conversation was carried on without difficulty. refreshments, as lemonade, &c. were handed round as before, and, as before, the room of audience was crowded to suffocation. the prime minister, who was a little corpulent man with an aquiline nose, wore such an expression of low cunning, and eyed us with such ill-concealed hatred, that we christened him daniel quilp, and he was ever afterwards spoken of by that soubriquet. our object being made known, and the sultan's assistance demanded to obtain the remainder of the prisoners, every obstacle that quilp could throw in our way was resorted to; and thus the audience became very tiresome, and i paid little or no attention to what was said, amusing myself by using my eyes, instead of tormenting my ears. a heavy red curtain was hung up, dividing the room into two compartments. observing that this moved once or twice, i endeavoured to find out the cause, when several pairs of black eyes, half hidden in the folds and rents, explained the mystery; and whilst they were loudly disputing, i was winking and making faces at the sultan's wives, who, stimulated by curiosity to behold the white men, were thus transgressing the rules of the harem. but old quilp looked very hard at me, and for the ladies' sakes i was obliged to desist. behind the sultan stood a young man very handsomely dressed in crimson silk, who held in his hands an english finger-glass. we were very much at a loss to know what his office might be, and also what might be the office of the finger-glass; but our curiosity was soon gratified; the sultan beckoned the youth to approach, and as the latter presented the finger-glass, his highness blew his nose in it. indeed, the misappropriation of english utensils in this part of the world is very absurd, although it is not surprising that an article coming into their hands, the use of which they have no idea of, should be appropriated to that use which they consider it best adapted to. on the occasion of a dinner given to us by the sultan of bruni, the whole party were seized with a fit of very indecorous and immoderate laughter, by finding the centre dish, which was a curry, served up in a capacious vessel, which in europe is only to be found under a bed. the curry, nevertheless, was excellent; and what matter did it make? "what's in a name? a rose by any other name would smell as sweet."--but to return. we remained eight days at sooloo, during which time there was much altercation and excitement. at last the sultan of sooloo agreed to send a prahu with us to pilot us up the river, to the town where the crew of the premier were in durance. during the time that we were at sooloo, we had evidence sufficient of the vindictive feeling held by the rabble against europeans, and at the same time the various ways they resorted to, to give us an idea of their superiority. they drew our attention to some old cannon mounted on rotten gun-carriages; they pointed out the strength of their fort, the sharpness of their krisses and spears; and we could not but smile at the false estimate of their and our capabilities. they expressed curiosity to see our swords, which are always made of finely tempered steel, although not sharp edged, as they are required more for thrusting and parrying. of our mode of self-defence they are ignorant, as they invariably cut with their krisses; their first attention was, therefore, drawn to the edge of the sword; passing the thumb along it, and finding it blunt, they expressed the greatest contempt for the weapon. it was useless to show them the thrust and parry movements, or to prove the well-tempered steel by bending the blade till the hilt and point were almost meeting. a sharp iron hoop in their ideas was preferable to all the best english workmanship. the sooloo knives are larger than they usually are in the archipelago, and of superior manufacture. by rubbing them with limes and exposing them to the sun, they stain them in a manner quite peculiar to the place. partly to the machinations of our friend quilp and the irritable and proud disposition of the people, who considered that the sultan was humiliated by listening to reason and remonstrance, we were more than once very near coming to blows. at last every thing was arranged amicably; and just before starting, the prime minister, quilp, and a large party of chiefs, condescended to pay a visit to the ship. to guard against treachery, for quilp was equal to any thing, the marines were kept under arms, and supplied with ball cartridges. the ship was soon crowded with chiefs, armed to the teeth, and accompanied by men with muskets, spears, and shields. it certainly did not look like a very amicable visit on their part, or a very friendly reception on ours; but the ship wore a very gay appearance. the guns, nettings, and booms were covered with the chiefs and attendants dressed in very gay colours. groups of them sat down on the decks, and made their remarks upon what they beheld; while numbers prowled about up and down, examining, peeping, and wondering. we amused them with firing congreve rockets, guns, &c., which gave them some idea of our value, and we therefore combined instruction with amusement. they departed highly pleased and astonished, and it was evident that we were some degrees higher in the estimation of quilp himself. the prahu ordered to pilot us having come alongside, we hoisted her up abaft, and took the people on board, and then made sail for the hitherto unknown territory of panti river. we anchored off the main land on the 25th december, that we might discover the mouth of the river, which was unknown to us. our christmas-day was not a very happy one; we did nothing but drink to the hopes of a better one the ensuing year. on the following day we weighed, and moved some distance up the river, and then anchored, waiting the return of the prahu, which had been despatched up to the town the night before. we had, by the means of warping and towing, gained about fifteen miles up the river, when we found that it divided into two branches, and, not knowing which branch to take, we had anchored, waiting the return of the prahu. as she, however, did not make her appearance, although she had had quite sufficient time allowed her, the boats were therefore manned and armed, and we started in search of the town gonong tabor. as bad luck would have it, we chose the left branch of the river, and, after two days' unsuccessful search, came back just as we went, but not quite so fresh as when we started. the prahu had not yet returned, so, taking a new departure, we proceeded up the right branch. this proved a fine broad river; one portion of it, studded with small islands, was very picturesque. we soon hove in sight of what appeared to be a town, although there were no signs of life visible. it was built on the left side of the river on two small hills, but we heard no gongs or tomtoms sounding, the usual alarm of all the malay settlements on the approach of strangers. when we arrived off it, we found that the town was deserted. it had evidently but a short time back been a populous and flourishing place, but it had been destroyed by the enemy, as, although the houses were standing, the cocoa-nut and other trees had been all cut down. on the brow of the hill were many graves; one, which was stockaded and thatched, and the remnants of several flags fluttering in the wind, denoted the resting-place of a rajah. he little thought when he was alive that his head would be transported to a head house some 20,000 miles distant, but such was his fate: science required it, and he was packed up to add to the craniological specimens in the college of surgeons, the gentlemen presiding over which are as fond of heads as the dyaks themselves. we moved up the river till nightfall, and then anchored. we were satisfied from appearances that we were not far from a town, and, loading our arms, we kept a very strict look-out. at daylight the next morning we weighed anchor, and, having passed two reaches of the river, we came in sight of the towns of gonong tabor and gonong satang. we pulled towards them, with a flag of truce, and were immediately boarded by a canoe, which contained the prime minister, who made every profession of good-will on the part of his master, the sultan of gonong tabor. we observed with surprise that he hoisted a dutch flag, which he requested that we would salute. the captain replied, that they must first salute the english flag, and, if they did so, he promised to return the salute. this was complied with; the english flag was saluted with twenty-one guns, and an equal number returned. the boats were then anchored off the town. immediately after we had returned the salute, we heard an attempt at music, and this was soon explained by the appearance of a procession filing through the gates of the town towards the boats. it was headed by a malay, bearing the standard of gonong tabor,--red, with a white border; he was followed by another carrying a large canopy of silk, highly ornamented, and fringed with lace. after this personage came the prime minister; then two musicians, one playing the drum, and the other a flageolet of rude construction. these musicians were dressed in red bordered with yellow, with cowls over their heads. the rear was composed of a body-guard of malays, well armed. the whole advanced towards the landing-place, having been sent by the sultan to escort the captain to the palace. the captain and officers landed, and, escorted by the natives, proceeded to the palace, the red silk canopy being carried over the head of the captain as a mark of honour. the sultan, a corpulent but fine-looking man, received us very courteously. he informed the captain that all the white people belonging to the premier had been ransomed by the dutch, whose trading vessels were in the habit of visiting gonong tabor. the captain of the premier had refused to acknowledge the lascars as british subjects, and, in consequence, the poor fellows had been retained as slaves. they were not, however, at gonong tabor, but at baloongan, a town of some importance up a neighbouring river. he added, that four of the lascars had fallen victims to the climate, and that there were twelve still remaining at the above-mentioned town. it appeared that, from some misunderstanding between the sultans of gonong tabor and gonong satang relative to the disposal of the english prisoners, they had come to blows, and were at this time at open warfare, the two towns being within gunshot of each other. gonong satang was built on a hill on the opposite side of the river, and was strongly stockaded as well as gonong tabor. [illustration: procession of the sultan of gonong tabor.] the sultan expressed his desire to enter into an amicable treaty with the english, and offered our captain his assistance in procuring the release of the lascars at baloongan. this offer was accepted, and, when we left, a prahu accompanied us to that town. in the course of the evening the sultan's prime minister and suite visited the barge, which was moored within a few yards of the landing-place. we surprised them very much with our quick firing, but their astonishment was unbounded at the firing of a congreve rocket, which they perceived carried destruction to every thing in its flight. the grand vizier was in ecstasies, and begged very hard that the captain would go up to gonong satang, and just fire one or two at their adversaries in that town. this, of course, was refused. [illustration: ears of dyaks at gonong tabor.] we here fell in with a most remarkable tribe of dyaks: they wore immense rings in their ears, made of tin or copper, the weight of which elongated the ear to a most extraordinary extent. on their heads they wore a mass of feathers of the argus pheasant. they wore on their shoulders skins of the leopard and wild cat, and neck-laces of beads and teeth. they were armed with the usual parang, blowpipe, and shield. they were a much larger race of men than the dyaks of the north coast, but not so well favoured. we remained here five days, and on the 1st of january, 1845, went down the river to the ship, accompanied by the prahu which was to be our guide to baloongan. the following day we sailed for baloongan, and on the 3rd we anchored off the bank where the premier was cast away. her ribs and timbers were left, but the natives had carried away every thing of value, except a small anchor, which they had not ingenuity enough to recover. leaving the ship at anchor here, we again manned the boats, and, accompanied by the pilot prahu, proceeded up the saghai river: the next day we arrived in sight of baloongan. heaving to, to load our guns, and get our fire-arms in readiness (for we expected a hostile reception), we then hoisted a flag of truce and pulled up to the town. what first occupied our attention was a green plot in front of the town, on which were mounted from fifteen to twenty guns, which were continually pointed so as to bear upon us as we pulled up, and which were backed by some thousands, i should think, of malays and savages, all well armed with spears and knives. this looked like business, but we pulled on, with the white flag still flying. a canoe came off, containing, as at gonong tabor, the prime minister. he waved with his hand, ordering us to anchor, and pointing to the guns, which the natives still continued to train after us. the captain refused to anchor, and pulled on; we were then almost abreast and within thirty yards of the battery. as we passed it within ten yards, the natives kept the muzzles pointed at our boats, and we expected them every moment to fire. had they done so, we might have received considerable damage; but what would their loss have been when we had opened with round, grape, and canister, and congreve rockets, upon such an exposed and densely crowded multitude? they contented themselves, however, with yelling, which does not kill, and, passing the battery, we dropped our anchor close to the gate of the stockade by which the town was surrounded. in passing the battery, and refusing to anchor, the captain adopted the most prudent and safe course; for we had long before discovered that decision is absolutely necessary with these people. the least hesitation on our part would have fortified their courage to attack; but they are so much awed by our superior arms, and i may safely add the superior courage of our men, that they never will, however much they may threaten, be the first to come to blows, provided there is no vacillation or unsteadiness on our parts. this the captain knew, and acted accordingly. after returning their salute of twenty-one guns, the captain, with some of the officers and a party of small-armed men passed through a line of dyaks to the hall of audience, which, as usual, was crowded to excess with armed malays. the sultan, who was a stout athletic man, received us very cordially, but his confused manners and restless eyes showed that he was not at his ease. his dress consisted of a yellow satin jacket, over which he wore another of purple silk, worked and hemmed with lace. his trousers and turban were made of similar materials. shoes and stockings he had none, and wearing both jackets open, his chest was exposed. the sultan acknowledged that the lascars were still in his territory, but, as two of them were at some distance in the interior, it would require a few days to bring them in. he appeared very glad that the business was settling so easily, for he no doubt expected an inquiry and a demand for all the ship's stores, the major portion of which had found their way to baloongan. the chain cables must have been invaluable to the natives, and i detected several links which had been partly converted into spear-heads. there was nothing worthy of remark in the town of baloongan. we were very much interested in the dyak tribes, who were the same as those described at gonong tabor, and in greater numbers. they were equally tall, and appeared to be the very perfection of savage warriors. they invited us several times to pay them a visit on the hills, where they resided. these dyaks appeared very friendly to us, and one of them, an intelligent fellow, of the name of meta, volunteered to take a letter overland to mr. brooke: his mode of travelling was by pulling up the saghai river to its source in his canoe, till he came close to the source of the coran, and by his account the two rivers nearly meet. he took the letter, binding it round his head with a piece of linen; but i do not know if ever it was delivered. one observation i made relative to these saghai dyaks, which was, that much as they must have been astonished at our arms and equipments, like the north american indians, they never allowed the least sign of it to be perceived. at the end of a week the prisoners returned in a very miserable condition. they had been at work, pounding paddy and digging yams; and they stated that they had not sufficient allowed to eat to support existence, besides being beat about the legs with bamboos. two of the twelve died evidently from ill treatment and exhaustion. their gratitude at being delivered from their slavery was beyond bounds; and it certainly is not very creditable to the master of the premier to have abandoned them in the way he did, when a word from him would have procured their liberty. we returned to the ship, and the next day ran down to the premier reef; the captain then went again to the panti river, in the boats, to conclude the treaty with the sultan of gonong tabor. this was soon accomplished; and giving him an union jack to hoist, at which he was much pleased, we bade him farewell. we finished the survey of the premier shoal, as it is now named, and then steered for the island of maratua, which the sultan of gonong tabor had by his treaty made over to the english, representing it as having an excellent harbour and good water; but on our arrival we were much disappointed to find an island surrounded by reefs, with only one intricate passage through them and sufficiently wide only for boats. probably the sultan knew no better. as we were very short of water, we now made sail for sooloo, and fell in with the sooloo prahu, which had been sent to us as a pilot, and which we had never seen since she went up the river panti before us. she had been waiting for us outside, and the people were very much pleased at finding us, as they feared being taken by the pirates of tawee-tawee. after having been nearly wrecked on a reef, and having grounded on another, we anchored off the lugutan islands, and despatched the two cutters in search of water. one of them attacked and burnt a prahu, because she looked suspicious; the other did better, she discovered a stream of water, off which we anchored the same evening. having completed wood and water, we sailed for sooloo, where we arrived on the sunday. we were surprised to find a french squadron anchored in the bay. it consisted of the cleopatra, 50-gun frigate, rear admiral cecile, with an ambassador on board, the victorieuse, 22, and the alchimede war steamer. they were treating with the sultan of sooloo for the island of basilan, the natives of which had beat off their boats, with the loss of a lieutenant and four men killed and many wounded. the island of basilan is subject to sooloo, although the natives have refused to pay tribute for many years. the french, aware of this, and wishing to establish a colony in the east, offered the sultan 20,000 dollars if he would make over the island to them; but this was not acceded to, the chiefs being divided on the question. the people of sooloo have a great dislike to all europeans, but particularly to the french. treacherous as we and the french knew them to be, we little thought to have it proved in so fearful a manner. about a mile to the right of the town is a spring, where all the ships watered. one day some peculiar looking berries were found in the pool, which, on examination, proved to be deadly poison, the natives having thrown them in with the intention of poisoning us _en masse_. the water was of course started overboard, and intelligence sent to admiral cecile, who was highly incensed. [illustration: portrait of mahomed pullulu, sultan of sooloo.] it was singular by what means this discovery was made. one of the seamen of the samarang complained of a stinging sensation in his feet from having wetted them in the pool. our assistant surgeon happening to be on shore at the time, caused the watering to be stopped, and the pool to be examined. buried in the sand, at the bottom of the pool, and secured in wicker baskets, were found those poisonous berries, which the natives had concealed there. as soon as admiral cecile received the information, all the water was thrown overboard, and the boats of the whole squadron, manned and armed, landed the french admiral, the ambassador, and our captain. they repaired to the palace of the sultan, who not only expressed his abhorrence of the attempt, but promised to put to death the parties if they could be discovered. the attempt did not, however, stop here. in addition to fruit, the boats at sooloo brought off rice cakes, which were eagerly bought by the seamen. some of the chiefs issued an order for a large number of poisoned cakes, which they intended for our consumption; but fortunately the order was so extensive that it got wind, and we were warned of what was intended by a native of manilla, who had been captured by pirates and sold at sooloo. in reward for this intelligence, we gave him, and others of the same place, a passage to manilla, taking care, however, that they should be smuggled on board. sailed for manilla, staid there a few days, and then went to batan, from thence to hong kong, where we arrived on the 1st of april, and found the iris and castor in the harbour. [illustration: tanka boats--hong kong,] there never was, perhaps, so rapid a rise in any settlement made by the english as that of hong kong, considering the very short time that it has been in our possession. where, two years back, there existed but a few huts, you now behold a well-built and improving town, with churches, hotels, stores, wharves, and godowns. the capacious harbour which, but a short time ago, was only visited by some chinese junks or english opium clippers, is now swarming with men-of-war and merchant ships. the town extends along the base of the mountain. every day some improvement takes place in this fast-growing colony, but, from the scarcity of building ground, house rent is very dear, and every thing has risen in proportion. the town which, from the irregularity of the ground, has but one street of importance, lies under the highest part of a rock, which is called possession peak. it is built on a kind of ledge, but this is so steep that the basements of the back houses can be seen over the roofs of those in the front, although the houses are no further apart than is necessary for the streets. above the town the rock rises almost perpendicularly; but every spot which can be built upon is appropriated, and scattered buildings may be seen half way up the rock, only accessible by tortuous and narrow paths. the houses are built of white freestone; many of them are handsome erections, and on a fine day the town of victoria has an imposing appearance. the island is now intersected by roads, in some parts necessarily precipitous, but equestrians can make the circuit of hong kong without any other risk but from the marauding chinese, who, in spite of the police, still find means of exercising their vocation. to the left of the town of victoria is a very pretty valley, but in the middle of it is a swamp, which renders the place so unhealthy that no one can reside there: some who did, died there; and there are one or two neat little villas on it, now untenanted and falling into ruins. strange to say, it still bears the name of happy valley. the harbour is completely land locked, and has two entrances. one side of it is formed by hong kong, the other by kow-loon, which is part of the mainland. [illustration: west point. hong kong. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] but all this has its reverse. the unhealthiness of the climate is very great, and this is impressed upon the stranger while at anchor in the roads; for the first object that meets his eye is the minden hospital ship, with her flag continually half mast high, announcing that another poor sailor had gone to his long home. when you land you will certainly meet a funeral; and watching the countenances of the passers by, their sallow complexions, and their debilitated frames, with the total unconcern with which they view the mournful processions, you may assure yourself that they must be of daily and hourly occurrence. and such is the fact. i was sorry to find that murders and robberies were most frequent at hong kong, although the police force has been augmented from london, and is under the charge of an experienced officer. while on shore, i observed the body of a chinaman rise to the surface, disfigured in a horrible manner, and although notice was sent immediately to the authorities, it was allowed to remain beating against the wharf till late in the afternoon, when it was towed out and sunk in the middle of the harbour. i once witnessed the punishment of a chinese robber at the market gate; he had been apprehended on the preceding night. his tail, which was false, and filled with blades of knives, needles, &c., came off in the officer's hands. however, he was secured, and received a daily allowance of fifty lashes, which was continued as long as he was capable of bearing the punishment, and then he was sent to work on the roads. i left h. m. s. samarang at this port, and joined the iris, commanded by captain mundy, whose high character as an officer and a gentleman i well knew; unfortunately i was only lent to the iris, and the consequence was, as will be seen, i had ultimately to return to the samarang. i found that the iris was to sail for the north coast of china, and i was delighted at the idea of visiting those parts, which there was little chance of if i had remained in the samarang. [illustration: chinese fishermen.] one object of the iris proceeding to the coast of china was to carry general d'aguilar and suite on a visit to the most interesting of the hostage ports. we sailed on the 6th of april, and after a week's beating arrived at chapel island, at the mouth of amoy bay. this bay is very spacious, being nearly thirty miles deep. to the left of the entrance is a high peak, on the summit of which is built a splendid pagoda, serving as a landmark to vessels coming from seaward. the town of amoy is built at the bottom of the bay. close to it, and forming an inner harbour, is the island of ku-lang-so, near to which we dropped our anchor. ku-lang-so is a pretty island, about a mile in diameter. up to the evacuation of amoy it had been occupied by our troops; and the remains of a race course and a theatre prove that the gallant 18th had contrived to amuse themselves. at the present time it is all but deserted, the only european residents being mr. sullivan, the vice consul; the chinese, who had been driven from it at the capture of the city, not having as yet returned. the houses on it are prettily disposed, and some rich foliage and green pasture give an english character to the scenery, and are very refreshing, after continually looking at the everlasting paddy fields, which constitute the principal features of the sea coast of china. it is to this circumstance that i ascribe the exaggerated accounts we have of the beauty of the island of ku-lang-so. it forms, however, a very pleasant promenade, and may be enjoyed without interruption from the inhabitants. the city of amoy is built on a low neck of land. the houses are of a dusky tint, and from the anchorage are indistinguishable through forests of junks' masts, which surround the town. to the right of the town, and extending to some distance, is a fortified wall, which gave some trouble at the capture. i landed with a party to walk through the city. the streets are narrow and dirty, the open shops on either side reminding you very much of constantinople. the population is immense, the streets are always crowded. we soon found that we were objects of attention, and were followed by a mob. it was with difficulty that we could force our way; and, moreover, the town having been lately evacuated by our troops, the chinese thought themselves secure in venting their animosity, by pushing, jostling, and throwing stones at us. in this, however, they were mistaken, for being a tolerably strong party, and knowing that they had a very wholesome fear of us, we were not slow in resorting to blows when intreaties proved in vain; and, before we were in the middle of the town, more than one celestial head had come in contact with the pavement. one had the impudence to bellow in my face; for which impertinence he received a facer, which gave him something to bellow for. those, however, who "were at a distance had the means of annoying with impunity, and we were glad to take refuge in a pastry cook's shop, which happened most opportunely to present itself. [illustration: cook's shop.] on our entering, we were each presented with a pair of chop sticks, and a large tray was placed before us, filled with sweetmeats of every description. there were nutmegs and other spices, ginger, sugar cane, bamboo, and the knee-bone palm, preserved in the most exquisite manner. every thing was so novel, chop sticks not excepted, that it was quite fearful the extent to which we indulged in the sweetmeats; however, as we had no maiden aunts ready with their doses, as in our infancy, we ate and spared not. cakes of the most recherche description, and pastry, the lightness of which would have shamed gunter, were each and all in their turn discussed; and what was our astonishment to find that, on calling for the bill, the charge amounted to about sixpence. we visited as much of the town as the mob would permit, but i shall reserve my description of a genuine chinese town until our arrival to the northward. the joss-houses at amoy are not remarkable, and one description of these buildings will suffice for all. we lay at amoy for about a week, during which the mandarins paid us a full dress visit. they were extremely cautious, and remained on board for a couple of hours. at their departure we gave them the economical chinese salute of three guns. during our stay here i amused myself principally on the island of ku-lang-so, and i was not sorry when we weighed anchor, and, with a fair wind, made sail for chusan. chusan is the largest of a closely packed group of islands, near to the main land of china, and about 500 miles to the northward of amoy. these islands, many of them very diminutive, are so close to each other, that on threading them to approach the town of chusan, the channel wears the appearance of a small river branching out into every direction. if the leading marks were removed it would be a complete marine labyrinth, and a boat might pull and pull in and out for the whole day, without arriving at its destination. narrow, however, as is the passage, with a due precaution, and the necessary amount of backing and filling, there is sufficient water for ships of the largest size. at sunset we anchored off the town of chusan. here the islands form a beautiful little harbour, sufficiently capacious. the island being covered with tea plants, the panorama is pretty and refreshing. from the anchorage little can be seen of the town, as it is built on a flat, and hidden by a parapet and bank of mud, which runs along the bottom of the harbour. this temporary fortification is called a bund, and was erected by the chinese previous to the capture of the place. behind this bund is an esplanade, parallel with which are houses, which serve as barracks for the troops, and the residences of the civil and military functionaries. the country is hilly, and several commanding forts are visible from the anchorage. on landing, we directed our steps to the town by a causeway which leads from the landing-place to the gates between the fields of paddy, which are, as usual, swamped with water. the sides of this causeway are lined with shops; and the island being occupied by the english, soon stared you in the face, in the shape of boards in front of each shop, bearing such inscriptions as "snip, from pekin," "stultz, from ningpo," and others equally ludicrous, in good english letters. there were "buckmasters" and "hobys" innumerable; licensed victuallers and "dealers in grocery." passing a tolerably well constructed gate, guarded by an english sentry, we entered the town. the streets are cleaner than those of amoy, and not so narrow; but what gave us most satisfaction was, that our appearance excited no attention; and we enjoyed our walk, and made our observations uninterruptedly. our first visit was to a toy-shop: a great many articles were exposed for sale, and many very beautiful carvings; they were, however, far too delicate for a midshipman's chest, and the price did not exactly suit a midshipman's pocket. a silk warehouse next occupied our attention: here we were shown some beautiful embroidery, some of which was purchased. after walking over the whole town, we proceeded to the principal joss-house: this was very handsome; but i was sorry that it had been selected as a barrack, and was occupied by a company of sepoys. the altar was converted into a stand for arms, and the god fo was accoutred with a sheath and cross belt. to complete the absurdity, a green demon before the altar was grinning maliciously from under the weight of a frieze coat. at the entrance of the joss-house is a covered porch, under which are two figures sitting, and in this posture nearly twenty feet high. the interior of the house is handsomely ornamented and gilt; and behind the altar there is a row of some fifteen figures, in a sitting posture, all gilt from head to foot, and forming a very goodly assembly: they represented old men wrapped in togas, with faces expressive of instruction, revelation, and wisdom. there was nothing chinese in their features; the heads were shaved, and it is to be presumed that they represented the prophets and holy writers who flourished antecedent to the great fo. the expression on their countenances was admirable; and surprised us the more, from a knowledge how fond the chinese are of filling their temples with unnatural and unmeaning devils. we then visited a smaller god-house: this the 8th regiment had converted into a theatre. very little traces of a holy temple were discernible; and the great fo occupied a corner of the green-room. the scenes were painted in fresco, and the whole affair was very tolerably arranged. most part of the scenery had been painted by my brother during his stay at this port in the cambrian. the chinamen consider this no sacrilege, as they always use the temples as theatres themselves. during the winter months chusan is very cold, and the snow lies on the ground. the country there abounds with game--deer, swans, partridges, pheasants, and wild fowl of every description: the prices are very moderate; a fine buck may be purchased for a dollar, and a brace of pheasants for a rupee. it was now the month of may, and the swans and geese had departed, and game was becoming scarce as the weather became fine; still, however, there was a duck or so to be picked up, so i joined a party bent on trying their luck, and we prepared for a hard day's work. no one who has not tried it can have an idea of the fatigue of a day's shooting at chusan. having a chinese covered boat, we loaded her with quite sufficient to support nature for twenty-four hours; and pulling about four miles through the channels intersecting the islands, we landed about daylight. before us was a vast paddy field, into which we plunged up to our knees in mud and water. as we approached one of the dykes which convey the water for the irrigation, caution was observed, not a word was uttered by one of the party, and our good behaviour was rewarded by a brace of fine birds, which were deposited in the bag, carried by a celestial under-keeper. crossing the dyke, we continued to wade through the paddy fields, shooting some plover and a red-legged partridge, until we arrived at a chinese village. we passed through it, and fell in with a herd of water buffaloes, as they term them. one of them charged furiously, but the contents of one of our barrels in his eyes made him start in mid career; and having had quite enough into his head, he turned to us his tail. these animals show a great antipathy to europeans, probably from not having been accustomed to their dress. red, of course, makes them furious, and, thanks to his jacket, a drummer of one of the regiments was killed by these animals. towards evening we felt it quite impossible to wade any further; and although nightfall is considered the best time for shooting ducks, we thought it was the best time to return to the boat, which we did not regain, fatigued, hungry, and covered with mud, till ten o'clock at night. [illustration: view on the island of poo-too. (near chusan.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] one day, strolling in the country about four miles from chusan, we fell in with a very pretty little house surrounded with trees. the courtesy usually shown to the english at chusan induced us to enter it, that we might inspect the premises. its owner, a mandarin, was absent, but his major-domo took us over the whole house. the round doors and oyster-shell windows amused us greatly. the garden was ornamented with artificial rocks, studded with flowering shrubs, with great taste. there were two or three grottoes, in one of which was a joss; and an arbour of lilacs and laburnums, in full bloom, gave a charming appearance to the whole. thanking the chinaman for his civility, we went away, much pleased with the mandarin's country retreat. during our stay at chusan we had made a party to go to the island of poo-too, but we were hurried away sooner than we expected, and our design was frustrated. i will, however, give a description of the island of poo-too, as described to me. this island is about forty miles from chusan, and is inhabited solely by priests. these being condemned to a life of celibacy, no woman resides on the island, which is covered with temples of all descriptions, many of them very handsome, but one in particular, which was built by the emperor. the island is not large, and is laid out like a vast garden, with squares and walks, bridges, &c. we left chusan, and soon afterwards anchored off the mouth of the ningpo river, which is only thirty miles to northward and westward of the chusan isles. the first object of interest before us was the famous joss-house fort, which gave us so much trouble at the capture. general d'aguilar and captain mundy being about to visit the city of ningpo, a party of us obtained a week's leave of absence for the same purpose. we landed in a ship's boat at chinghae, a small but tolerably fortified town, which, however, needs no description. there we obtained a covered chinese boat, in which we put our beds and blankets, intending to live on board her during our stay at ningpo. starting with a fair wind and tide, by noon we were within five miles of the city, which is built about forty miles up the river. the banks of the river appeared to be highly cultivated, and the river was crowded with boats of all descriptions, some going up with the tide, others at anchor, waiting for the tide to change, to go in an opposite direction. the first that we saw of ningpo was a low wall, from the middle of which rose a tall pagoda. this, with innumerable masts of the vessels lying off the town, was all that was visible: nor could we discern much more on a nearer approach. threading the crowd of vessels which filled the river, on our left we could only see the wall and battlements of the town, the before-mentioned pagoda soaring above every thing. to the right, on the side of the river opposite to the town, were several detached houses, surrounded with low shrubberies; behind these was the chinese country, and then the eye wandered over countless paddy fields, until it at last rested upon some faint blue mountains in the distance. among the houses on the right was that of the vice-consul, mr. thorn. anchoring our boat as near to his landing-place as possible, we made arrangements for the night, it being then too late to pay him the accustomed visit. we had, however, scarcely spread our mattresses, and put some supper on the fire, when we were hailed by a chinese boy, and requested to come on shore. ignorant from whence the invitation might come, but nothing loath, we hauled our boat to the jetty, and, landing, followed young pigtail, who ushered us through a court-yard into a house of tolerable dimensions, agreeably arranged according to english ideas of comfort. in five minutes more we were introduced to mr. mackenzie, an english merchant, who, having been informed of our arrival, had sent for us to request that, during our stay at ningpo, we would make his house our home. we would not tax his hospitality so far as to sleep at his house, having already made our own arrangements; but we willingly accepted his kind offer of being his guests during the day, and proved our sincerity by immediately sitting down to an excellent dinner, and in the evening we retreated to our boat. the next morning we breakfasted with our host, and then crossed the river, to inspect the city. having landed at one of the gates, we hired a sort of sedan chairs, which were carried by two athletic tartars, and proceeded to examine a very remarkable building called the ruined pagoda. i shall give dr. milne's description of it, taken out of the chinese repository, as i think it will be better than my own:-"we bent our steps to the tien-fung, called by foreigners the ruined pagoda. foreigners make for it as soon as they enter the east gate. after shaping their course in a south-east direction through numberless streets, it abruptly bursts upon the view, rising 160 feet above their heads, and towering high above the surrounding houses. the pagoda is hexagonal, and counts seven stories and twenty-eight windows. above every window is a lantern, and when the pagoda is illuminated, the effect is very brilliant. this building is in much need of repair, and is daily becoming more dilapidated. it has already deviated many feet from the perpendicular, and might not unaptly be described as the leaning tower of ningpo." dr. milne thus describes the view from the summit:-"the entire city and suburbs lay beneath us; the valley of ningpo, with its hamlets and villages, hills and rivers, on every side; and away in the distance, on the one hand chains of lofty mountains, the sea, with all its islands, on the other." dr. milne asserts that ningpo is 10,000 years old, and that the pagoda was raised antecedent to the city being built. he concludes by explaining the object of the chinese in raising these monuments. [illustration: pagoda--ningpo.] the view from the summit is remarkably fine, and the ruinous condition of the pagoda almost warrants the supposition of its being nearly as ancient as dr. milne asserts. i made a drawing of it, and we then proceeded to the joss-house, which is considered as the handsomest in the celestial empire. no part of the building was visible from the street, and we stopped at an unpretending door where we dismounted from our vehicles. a bhuddist priest, clothed in grey and his head shaved, ushered us through a long gallery into the court-yard of the temple. to describe this building accurately would be impossible. it was gilt and carved from floor to ceiling. the porch was supported by pillars of stone beautifully carved with figures of griffins and snakes. in the court-yard were two lions carved out of a purple marble, and in the middle of the yard was an immense brazen ram highly ornamented with hieroglyphics and allegorical designs. as for the temple itself, it was so vast, so intricate, and so various in its designs and gildings, that i can only say picture to yourself a building composed entirely of carving, coloured porcelain, and gilding, and then you may have a faint idea of it. i attempted to make a drawing of it, but before i had obtained much more than the outline, it was time to recross the river. we dined and passed the evening with mr. mackenzie as before. the next morning i walked to the chinese cemetery with my gun in my hand, and shot a few snipe and wood pigeons, and after breakfast we crossed the river to pay a visit to the shops of ningpo. the streets of the city are narrow, but superior to any that we had yet seen. the principal streets are ornamented with stone arches, and the huge painted boards used by the chinese for advertisements give them a very gay appearance. we first entered into a furniture warehouse, some 300 yards in length, and filled with chinese bedsteads carved and gilt in a very splendid manner. these bedsteads consist of moveable frames about twelve feet square, and within them are disposed couches, chairs, tables, and the requisites for the toilet, besides a writing desk, so that a bedstead in china contains all the furniture of the room. some of these were valued at five and six hundred dollars, but were very highly ornamented and of exquisite workmanship. a hat shop was the next visited. its interior would have been considered splendid even in regent street. a long highly polished counter with a top of cane-work, was loaded with the hats and caps of mandarins of every class, and the display was very tempting to those who wanted them. we then passed five minutes in a porcelain warehouse; from the warehouse we went to a toy-shop, and being by this time pretty well encumbered with mandarins' hats and caps, gongs, and a variety of other articles which we did not want, at the same time making the discovery that our purses were not encumbered with dollars as they were when we set forth, we thought it advisable to leave off shopping for the day. the next day we visited the hall of confucius, which was not worth seeing, nor could we discover to what use it was dedicated, so we turned from it and went off to see a chinese play. as we proceeded to the theatre we were surprised to hear a lad singing "jim along josey," we turned round and found it was a real pig tail who was singing, and we inquired where he learnt the air. we found that he had served on board one of our vessels during the chinese war, so we hired the young traitor as a cicerone during our stay at ningpo, and ordered him to follow us to the theatre, which as usual was a temple or joss-house. [illustration: chinese joss house at ningpo. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] we found it crowded with chinese, and the actors were performing on a raised platform. our entrance caused a great sensation, and for a short time the performance was unnoticed by the audience. our beaver hats quite puzzled them, for we were in plain clothes; even the actors indulged in a stare, and for a short time we were "better than a play." the chinese acting has been often described: all i can say is, that so far it was like real life that all the actors were speaking at one time, and it was impossible to hear what they said, even if the gongs had not kept up a continual hammering, which effectually drowned the voices. at all events they were well off in the property line, being all very showily dressed. fireworks were at intervals exploded, and occasionally a tumbler would perform some feat, but i felt little interest in the performance, and kept my eyes on the gallery containing the ladies, among whom i saw one or two very pretty faces. the wall round ningpo is built wide enough for a carriage drive. it has embrasures, but no guns were mounted. by ascending some steps near to the town gate we found ourselves on the top of the wall, and walked half round the town on the parapet. it was very extensive, and, as far as the eye could reach, the plain was studded with country houses of a slate colour. i forgot to mention that while here we visited a sect of chinese nuns or female devotees. they were assembled in a large room, at one end of which was an image of the god fo. each nun was seated at a small table on which was a reading stand and a book of prayers. they were all reading, and at the same time beating a hollow painted piece of wood: the latter duty was, we were informed, to keep up the attention of the god. what with them all gabbling at once, and the tapping noise made with the wood, god fo appeared more likely to have his attention distracted than otherwise. however, it was of no consequence, as fo was one of that description of gods mentioned in the bible, among whose attributes we find, "ears have they, but they hear not." we remained here a week, and i was much interested with what i saw; but so much has already been written about the chinese, that i wish to confine myself to what may be considered unbroken ground. as the time fixed for our departure approached, we determined to go to chinghae overland, in chairs. taking a farewell of our kind and hospitable host, mr. mackenzie, we each took a chair, and took our departure. the road was interesting, being at one time through tea plantations, and at another through paddy fields. our bearers were strong muscular fellows, and thought little of carrying us twenty-five miles. we passed crowds of chinamen irrigating the land, and working in the paddy fields. in some instances they favoured us with a salute of yells and stones; and as we approached chinghae, the unwashed vented their feelings in some very unpleasant ways. in the town we were followed by a mob; and by the time we had reached the quay, and procured a boat to take us off to the ship, the whole town had turned out. tapping one or two of the most officious with the bamboo oars, we managed to shove the boat off, and pulled on board. we sailed for chusan the same evening, but this time i unfortunately was attacked by one of the prevailing diseases of the country, and was confined to my hammock. we revisited amoy, and then shaped our course for hong kong. on our arrival, we found no ship there but the castor, the admiral and fleet being employed on the coast of borneo, subduing the pirates in maludu bay. the ship being again about to start for the northward, i was considered too unwell to remain in her, and was sent on board the minden hospital ship, to live or to die, as it might please god. the minden hospital ship is a fine 74; and as all the guns, masts, and stores, had been landed at the time that she was selected for the duty, there was great accommodation on board of her; but great as it was, unfortunately there was not sufficient to meet the demands upon it in this unhealthy climate. a description of her internal arrangement may not be uninteresting. the quarter-deck and poop was set apart for the convalescents; but the heat of the sun was so overpowering, that it was not until late in the afternoon that they could breathe the purer atmosphere. long confinement below had left them pale and wan, and their unsteady gait proved how much they had suffered in their constitution, and how narrowly they had escaped the grave. to some this escape had been beneficial, as their constant perusal of the bible established; others, if they even had during their illness alarms about their future state, had already dismissed them from their thoughts, and were impatiently awaiting their return to health to return to past folly and vice. the main deck was allotted to the medical and other officers belonging to the ship, the seamen who composed the ship's company, and also on this deck were located the seamen who had been discharged cured, and who then waited for the arrival of their ships, which were absent from hong kong. on this deck, abaft all, was the inspector's cabin, and adjoining it the mess-room of the assistant-surgeons, who, like all their class, rendered callous by time and habit to their dangerous and painful duty, thought only of driving away the memory of the daily mortality to which they were witnesses by jovial living and mirth. indeed nothing could be a more harassing scene than that of the lower deck, where the patients were located. under any circumstances an hospital is a depressing and afflicting sight, even with all the advantages of clean well-regulated wards, attentive nurses, and pure ventilation. imagine then the feelings of a sick wretch, stretched on a canvass cot, who is first hoisted up the ship's side, and then lowered down a dark hatchway (filled with anxiety and forebodings as to his ever leaving the vessel alive) to the scene of misery which i am about to describe--the lower deck of the minden hospital ship. this lower deck has on each side of it three rows of iron bedsteads, for the most part filled with the dead and dying; an intolerable stench, arising from putrefaction, which it is impossible by any means to get rid of, salutes his descent; and to this is added the groans of lingering sufferers. he may chance, god help him, to be lowered down at the very hour of the inspecting surgeon's visits. the latter is seated by a bed, having probably just performed, or in the act of performing, an operation. the goodly array of instruments meets his eye, and he wonders, as they are displayed, what these several instruments of torture can be applied to; the groans of the patient fall upon his ear, and his nerves are so shattered and debilitated by disease, that the blood curdles to his heart. the inspector writes the particulars of the case on a printed form, while the dressers are passing bandages round the fainting patient. as soon as he is out of the cot which lowered him down, the new arrival is washed, and clothed in hospital linen, ready to be put into a bed. not unfrequently he has to wait till room can be made for him, by removing the corpse of the last occupant, just deceased. he is then placed on it, a coarse sheet is thrown over him, and he is left to await the inspector's visit, which, as that officer has all his former patients first to prescribe for, may perhaps be not for an hour or two, or more. at last he is visited, prescribed for, a can of rice-water is placed at the head of his bed, and he is left to his own thoughts, if the groans of those around him, and the horror that he feels at his situation, will permit him to reach them. if he can do so, they must be any thing but agreeable; and a clever medical man told me that this admission into the hospital, and the scene which the patient was introduced to, was quite sufficient, acting upon a mind unnerved by disease, to produce fever. excepting that the hospital was too crowded, which indeed could not be prevented, there was, however, every arrangement for the comfort of the patients which could be made under such a climate. no one was to blame--the hospital for the military was building, and until it was ready for the reception of the patients, the men of both services were received on board of the minden. but if the day is so trying, who can describe the horrors of the night? the atmosphere becomes still more foul and pestilential, from the partially closed port-holes, and from the indifference of the nurses to the necessary cleanliness required. the whole becomes alive with cockroaches and other vermin, creeping over the patients; and the mosquitoes prey upon the unfortunate sufferer, or drive him mad with their unceasing humming preparatory to their attacks. add these new trials to the groans of the dying, which, during my residence on board, never ceased, and at night were more awful and painfully distinct. the nurses were all men, obtained from the scum of the sea-ports, for no others would volunteer for the duty--a set of brutes indifferent to the sufferings of others. as long as they were, during the day, superintended and watched by the officers, they did their duty, but at night the neglect was most shameful. in fact, these wretches composed themselves to sleep instead of watching. patients may in vain call, in a feeble voice, for water--the only answer is a snore. on one occasion, having listened to the call of a poor fellow for more than an hour, and each time in a weaker voice, for drink, i was obliged to get up myself to wake the nurse, that the man might not die of thirst.[2] [footnote 2: these rascally nurses have all been discharged. when enlisted as nurses in england, they signed for three years' service. when their time was expired, they applied to admiral cochrane for their discharge. after some demur their request was complied with; but their conduct had been so disgraceful, that, as it was not in the agreement, they were refused a passage home in a man-of-war. i met some of them ashore at hong kong, looking in vain for employment, and at a distance of 20,000 miles from their own country. the retribution was just.] my cabin, for all the officers were separated from the men, commanded the whole view of the lower deck, and i was compelled to be witness of scenes of the most frightful description. an english sailor had been hung for murder, in consequence of his accomplice, who was by far the most criminal of the two, having turned queen's evidence. this latter soon afterwards was brought on board the minden, having been attacked with the fever, and never was there such an evidence of the racking of a bad conscience. in his ravings he shrieked for mercy, and then would blaspheme in the most awful manner. at one moment the spectre of his dead comrade would be invoked by him, requesting it to depart, or desiring those around him to take it away. at others, the murdered man was standing at his bed-side, and he would attempt to run, that he might flee from the vision. thus was he haunted, and thus did he disturb all around him till his very last hour, when he died in an extreme of agony, physical and mental. what a relief it was when this poor wretch was at last silent! almost every day there was to be seen a roman catholic priest administering the last unction to some disciple of his faith, some irish soldier or sailor, whose hour was come. on these occasions the amputation table was his altar, and a brass flat candlestick the only ornament. he never failed to be at his post every day, and was a good old man. at the same time that the old priest was officiating by the side of one bed, the chaplain of the ship would be attending the last moments of some other victim. on these occasions all would be silent on the deck, even the groans were stifled and checked for the time, and nothing would be heard but the muttered prayer of the catholic priest, or the last, and often futile, attempts of the clergyman of our own creed to extract some sign of faith and hope from the fast-sinking and almost senseless patient. "he dies, and makes no sign! o god, forgive him!" at times the uproar on the deck would be appalling. some powerful man in the strength of delirium would rise from his bed, and, bursting from some half-dozen of the nurses, would rush through the tiers of beds roaring like a bull, and dealing blows right and left upon the unfortunate sick men who fell in his way. then there would be general chase after him, until, overpowered by additional help, he was brought back to his bed and confined by force. an hour or two afterwards, the nurses who watched him would quit the side of the pallet; a sheet would be thrown over it; no other communication was necessary to tell me that the storm had been succeeded by a calm, and that life's fitful fever was over. at the forepart of the hospital deck is a bath room; adjoining to that is a small dark cabin, with no other furniture than a long white-washed board, laid upon two tressels, with hooks fixed to the carlines of the deck. above these the dead bodies are removed: immediately after their decease a _post mortem_ examination is made by the assistant surgeon, a report of which is sent into the inspector. a port-hole has a wooden shoot or slide fixed to it, by which the bodies are ejected into the boat waiting to convey them for interment. the church service is read every morning on the hospital deck, and during the performance the strictest attention was paid by the patients. when convalescent i enjoyed the privilege of walking on the poop with the others who had been spared, and truly grateful was i for my recovery. such scenes as i have described could not but have the effect upon me: i hope that i left the hospital a wiser and a better man. at last the time came when i was pronounced by the doctors to be quite cured, and at liberty to leave the ship. i hardly need say that i did so with alacrity. i had always before this considered hong kong as a most disgusting place; but now that i had been so long cooped up with disease and death, it appeared to me as a paradise. i had made one or two acquaintances during my former visits, and now found their kind offers too welcome to refuse them. having nothing to do, and not being even obliged to present myself on board of the mind en, i enjoyed myself excessively in journeys and excursions to the other side of the island. my acquaintances were the officers of the 42d regiment, who were remarkably kind and intelligent men, and during my stay i was a great deal in their society. we one day made up a party to visit pirate's bay, a spot on the chinese main, about twelve miles from hong kong. starting early, we took our guns and the requisites for a pic-nic. when we arrived at the spot, we hired the only respectable house in the place, left a native to make the necessary arrangements for our dinner, and then started on a cruise to view the country. we shot at any thing that came in our way, and by noon our game-bag contained a curious medley of ducks, paroquets, swallows, and water rats. by this time the sun became so overpowering that we returned to the house which had been hired for our accommodation. here we dined, and returned to hong kong well pleased with our trip. the roads at hong kong, though not particularly good, have been made at great expence. large rocks have been cut through to afford communication, and the quantity of rivulets running down from the mountains, have rendered it necessary to build innumerable bridges. there were but few good horses on the island; but i managed to procure a tolerable one, and in the evening would ride out by "happy valley," and return by dark, the only exercise which the heat of the climate would permit, and which was necessary to restore me to health. society is in a queer state here, as may be imagined when i state, that the shipowner won't associate with the small merchant, and the latter will not deign to acknowledge a man who keeps a store. under these circumstances, the army and navy keep aloof, and associate with no class. there were very few ladies at hong kong at this time, and of what class they were composed of may be imagined, when i state that a shopkeeper's sister was the belle of the place, and received all the homage of the marriageable men of hong kong. hospitality to strangers is as yet unknown, and a letter of introduction is only good for one tiffin, or more rarely one dinner. i made several excursions in the country, but did not find any thing worth narrating, or describing with the pencil. [illustration: tanka boat women.] it is here worthy of remark, that there is every prospect of all the enormous expense which has been bestowed upon this island being totally thrown away, and that those who have speculated will lose all their money; in fact, that in a few years hong kong will be totally deserted, and all the money expended upon it will be lost. to explain this i must mention a few facts, not probably known to my readers. when, many years ago, the trade with foreigners was first permitted by the chinese government, canton was selected as the port from which it should be carried on. the chinese government had two reasons for making this selection: their first was, their dislike and jealousy of foreigners induced them to select a port at the very confines of the empire where the communication with them should take place, so that by no chance the foreigners should obtain any thing like a footing in or knowledge of their country; the second reason was, that by so doing they obtained, at the expence of the foreigners, a very considerable inland revenue from the tea trade. canton is situated at least 500 miles from those provinces in which the tea is grown, and the transit to canton is over a very mountainous range, at the passes of which tolls are levied by the government, which are now said to amount annually to seven millions. the assertion, therefore, of the chinese government that they do not care about the trade is very false, for they have derived a great revenue from it. the opening of the more northern ports, which was obtained by the war with china, has already made a great difference, and every year will make a greater. shang-hai, one of the ports opened, and the farthest to the northward, is situated on the confines of the great tea country, and vessels going there to take in their cargoes avoid all the duties of transit, and procure the tea in a much better condition. the merchants of canton, moreover, who traffic in tea, are all of them for the most part people of the province of shang-hai, who resort to canton to look after their interests, but now that the port of shang-hai is opened, their merchants are returning to their own country, the english merchants are settling at shang-hai, and the vessels are going there to load with tea direct. already a large portion of the traffic has left canton and gone to shang-hai, and it is but natural to suppose, that in a few years the tea trade will be carried on altogether from that port, as the expence of transit over the mountains and the duties levied will be avoided, as well as the advantage gained of having the tea in a much better condition when shipped on board. how the chinese government will act when it finds that it loses the great revenue arising from the trade being carried on at canton remains to be seen, but it will, probably, succumb to another war, if such is considered necessary. it will be a curious subject of interest to watch the fall of hong kong, of macao, and also of canton itself, with its turbulent population, which must, when the trade is withdrawn, fall into insignificance. the great error of the last war was, our selection of such an unhealthy and barren island as hong kong as our _pied-ã -terre_ in china, when we might have had chusan, or, indeed, any other place which we might have insisted upon. we thought that chusan was unhealthy because we barracked our soldiers in the swamps, and consequently lost many of the men, when, as it is a most healthy and delightful climate, had the barracks been built on the hills, we probably should not have lost a man. even now it is not too late. the chinese dislike our propinquity to their coast at hong kong, and the last expedition will have the effect of increasing this dislike. i think, with very little difficulty, the chinese government would now exchange chusan for hong kong, if it were only to keep such unpleasant barbarians, as the english have proved to be, at a more respectable distance. if we had possession of chusan, the trade would come to our ports. the chinese junks would come to us loaded with tea, and take our goods in return. the trade would then be really thrown open, which at present it is not. [illustration: man-of-war junk.] murders and robberies were of daily, or, rather, nightly occurrence at hong kong, the offenders being chinese, who are the most daring robbers perhaps in the world. [illustration: trading junks.] i must now detail the events of a cruise of the samarang during the time that i was in the iris, and i avail myself of the private journal of one of my friends. may 9th, sailed from hong kong to batan, to complete the survey of the bashee group. on the 20th we left batan to run to ibyat, about twenty miles from the former island, and although a high table land, it is low when compared with batan. i never saw an island less inviting in appearance than ibyat. we landed at the foot of a precipice, nearly perpendicular, and ascended to the summit by means of rough ladders, placed upright against large masses of rock; on either side of which were gaping chasms, the very sight of which were sufficient to unnerve us. this plan was not only the best for landing on this strange island, but, as the natives informed us, was almost the only one where a landing could be effected without great danger. it was near sunset when we landed; the boats returned to the ship, leaving us to partake of the hospitality of the padres from batan, who had taken a passage in the ship, as they had some spiritual business to transact on this island. about 8 p. m., we arrived at the village of san raphael, where we slept in a house set apart for the use of the padres. this village is situated in the centre of the island, built in a valley and on eminences which surround it. the most commanding position is occupied by the church and mission house, both of which are much larger, although built of the same materials, and on the same plan, as the houses of the natives. there was but one room in the mission house, which was scantily furnished with some heavy wooden chairs, and some cane settees for bed places; however, thanks to the kindness of the padres, we contrived to make ourselves very comfortable. there are four villages in the island, san raphael, santa maria, santa lucia, and santa rosa; each consisting of about forty houses, containing about 300 people; so that the population may be taken, at a rough guess, at about 1200. the natives profess the roman catholic religion, and appear to be very sincere in their devotion. divine service is performed morning and evening, at which time the boys and girls of the village walk to the church in two lines, chanting a hymn to the virgin mary. each line is headed by the youngest of either sex, bearing a cross. the boys wore nothing but the middle cloth, and the girls were almost as scantily clothed; the only garment being a skirt or petticoat, not larger than a moderate sized pocket-handkerchief. during two days our friends, the padres, were fully occupied with the important ceremonies of marriage and baptism. many of the parties joined in matrimony were mere children. they all had, on this important occasion, some addition to their general costume. the bridegroom, for instance, wore a shirt; some of them had actually a pair of trousers. the bride had an additional and large petticoat, and an embroidered handkerchief. they were not at all bashful--there was no blushing--no tears, and, on the contrary, marriage appeared to be considered as an excellent joke, and the laughing and flirtation were carried on to the church door. the padres appeared to be almost worshipped by the poor natives, who, on their arrival and departure, respectfully saluted their hands. but their great affection was shown in a more satisfactory and substantial manner, by the continual supply of goats, pigs, fowls, vegetables, and fruit, which were liberally supplied during our stay. i forgot to say that the marriage certificates were of a very primitive kind; they consisted of a laurel leaf, in which were rudely inscribed the names of the bride and bridegroom. at length, having finished our survey, we bid farewell to our hospitable entertainers, and on the 27th made sail for st. domingo. we remained two days at st. domingo, and then weighed and steered to the northward. on the 3d of june we landed on the island of samazana, near the south point of formosa. the inhabitants of samazana are chinese, although they pay no tribute to the emperor. this island was first inhabited, about twenty years since, by a party of chinese sailors, who were thrown on shore in a tempest. they afterwards returned to amoy, where, having persuaded several families to join them, they returned to samazana, and colonised it. the fertility of this island has richly repaid them for their labour. the village contains about 100 people, who are located in about ten or fifteen houses. paddy, sugar-cane, and yams are grown in abundance, and ground nuts cover nearly one third of the island. these chinese settlers keep up a trade with amoy, from whence they obtain what they require, in exchange for the productions of their island. we found these people very civil and obliging, but excessively dirty in their persons and apparel. about seven o'clock in the evening, while we were dining on the beach, an earthquake shook the island, the glasses jingled together, and all our party were in involuntary see-saw motion, like the chinese figures. this lasted about ten seconds. several of us, who had never before experienced the sensation, were much relieved when the shock was over, as it created a suffocating sensation. during the evening there were several other shocks, but none of them equal to the first in violence. we remained all night on the island, to ascertain the latitude by the stars. on the following morning we returned on board, when we were informed that the ship had struck on a reef on the preceding evening, at 7 p. m. the lead was thrown overboard, but no soundings were obtained, proving, beyond doubt, that the concussion had been communicated to the vessel. she was about four miles off the land at the time, and many would not then be convinced that it was an earthquake; although i believe it has been satisfactorily proved that the shock has been felt by a vessel which has been out of sight of any land. on the 6th of june sighted one of the madjicosima islands. the master in the second cutter left the ship, with a week's provisions, to survey the island, while we made sail for our former anchorage at pa-tchu-san, to obtain water. on the 8th of june we arrived at pa-tchu-san, where we were received by our friends, the chiefs, who appeared delighted to see us again. we learnt through our interpreter that a french frigate had left loo-choo for corea two months before--twenty-seven of their countrymen, chiefly missionaries, having been murdered by the coreans. it would appear that the french missionaries, exceeding their vocation, had wished to make some alterations in the corean form of government, but their attempts not meeting the approbation of those in power, they fell a sacrifice to their good intentions. on the 9th we sailed for sabangyat to pick up the two cutters. we arrived there the next day, and were joined by the master. we received every attention from the hospitable and inoffensive natives, who supplied us with pigs, fowls, and vegetables, refusing to accept any thing in return. we returned to pa-tchu-san to rate our chronometers, and sailed on the same day. the next morning we landed on hoa-pen, an island, but the cloudy weather prevented us from obtaining the latitude. we landed during the day, and remained on shore the whole night to obtain our objects, and, i may add, were most cruelly bitten by the mosquitoes as a reward for our zeal. when we were returning to the ship on the following morning, a large albatross alighted on the water close to the boat. as we passed it, it made several futile attempts to rise again on the wing. it is well known that this bird cannot fly while under the influence of fear, and so it appeared in this instance, for, while we were passing it, a shark thrust its head out of the water and took the unfortunate bird down with him. on the 16th we landed at tea-qua-san, where we captured great numbers of albatrosses, ferns, and boobies. they actually refused to move at our approach. this island is very small and uninhabited, but it was evident that people had landed on it lately, for in a cave we discovered several grass beds, remains of game, and remnants of cooking. the weather prevented us from making any observations, but it did not prevent us from collecting several hundreds of eggs, which we took on board with us. the next day we saw a large rock, marked doubtful on the charts. a heavy squall, which forced us to run before it for several hours, prevented us from ascertaining its position. june 19. we found ourselves close to the southern extremity of loo-choo, the land of which is low. about noon we anchored in the harbour of napa-kiang, and were boarded by several mandarins, one of whom the captain recognised as the interpreter of the blossom, whose interesting cruise has been published by captain beechey. the natives of loo-choo are so similar to those of the madjicosima group that it would be useless describing their manners and customs, the more so as we have already the works of captain hall and captain beechey, in which they are described most accurately. a great many junks were anchored in the inner harbour, their enormous masts towering far above the highest buildings. the burial ground is a large tract of land to the left of the town; the tombs are large, and in shape resemble the last letter in the greek alphabet ([greek: omega]). strange that it should be the last letter. most of them are painted white, and they have from the anchorage a very picturesque appearance. it was the captain's intention to have sailed on the day after our arrival, but the weather proving unfavourable for astronomical observations, our departure was postponed for another day, when, having obtained sights, some live stock, and vegetables, we sailed for guilpat, a large island off the southern extremity of corea. previous to our sailing, a french missionary called on the captain. he had been left at loo-choo by the alcimene frigate, with a view of introducing christianity into the island, but the chiefs did not appear to relish his sojourn there, and were anxious to get rid of him. he offered to accompany us to corea and japan; at the latter place he would have been of great service, as he was acquainted with the japanese language. june 24. sighted the goth island, a portion of the japanese empire. the next morning the wind had increased to a heavy gale, and we were compelled to reduce our canvass to a close-reefed main topsail, staysail, and trysail. we rounded cape goth within a quarter of a mile, and lay to under the lee of the island, where the sea was comparatively smooth. towards the evening the wind subsided, and we again made sail. saw the island of guilpat, and the next morning anchored off the north-east side of it, in a channel between guilpat and a small island. we landed on the small island, where we were received by about sixty natives, who did not appear well pleased at our intrusion, but knew that resistance to us would be useless. in the course of the day several thousand natives had assembled on the opposite shore. by the aid of good telescopes we could discern forts and flags. the natives informed us that guilpat had a standing army, well supplied with matchlocks, swords, and bows and arrows. they added that guns are not wanted to defend the island in case of need. this assertion we afterwards found, making allowance for a little exaggeration, to be quite correct. the island of guilpat is subject to the kingdom of corea, and is the largest in that archipelago, being about thirty miles in length and fifteen in breadth. it is composed of innumerable hills in every variety of form, such as cones, saddles, and tables. most of these hills have forts built on their summits. from these, lights were displayed every evening, and it was astonishing the rapidity with which these signals were answered. i have seen the whole coast illuminated in less than five minutes, each hill appearing like a little volcano, suddenly bursting out. as soon as the boats had surveyed this part of the island, we shifted the ship to where the survey was being carried on; and this we continued to do during the whole time that we were employed in the survey, the boats returning on board every night. good anchorage is to be obtained all round the island. innumerable forts and batteries are built along the coast; every rising ground being surmounted with one, although the major portion of them were not supplied with guns. we found as we coasted along that all the forts were manned, the people being armed with matchlocks, spears, and arrows. on several occasions they fired their matchlocks, and the salute was returned by the 6-pounders in the barges, which never failed of putting them to flight. in the centre of the island the land runs to an enormous height, and terminates in a sharp peak, which, in consequence of its always having been enveloped with clouds, we did not see till several days after our arrival. at last we arrived at the principal town, which is situated on the western side of the island. the town was inclosed with thick walls, higher than we had observed before as we coasted along. these walls form a square, each side of which is about half a mile in length, and has batteries, parapets, and embrasures. in some of the latter there were guns, which were occasionally fired. the whole ground before the town, for the distance of a mile and a half, was crowded with people; but if they waited for our landing they were disappointed, as the captain would not land. they gave us two bullocks, which were put into the barge, as the ship was then ten or twelve miles off. the mandarins used every argument to persuade the captain to come on shore and visit the chiefs of the island; but, as we had but twenty men in the boats, he refused to trust himself among eight or ten thousand whose intentions were any thing but satisfactory. however, he promised that he would come on shore on the following day, but that at present he was obliged to visit a point of the bay to obtain observations before sunset. we now prepared to move in the barge, but found ourselves encompassed by twelve or fourteen large boats, fastened to each other by strong ropes. we desired them to make a passage, but they either did not, or would not, understand us. this looked very much like treachery, and decided measures were become requisite: the nearest boats were boarded, and the crews made to cut their ropes. some of them appeared inclined to resist, but a smart stroke of the cutlass put their courage to flight. this affair took place within twenty yards of the beach, and in sight of 10,000 people on the shore. we now being clear, pulled for the point and secured our station. a great crowd collected around us while we were observing; the chiefs expressed a wish, in a peremptory sort of way, that the officers should partake of some refreshment at a short distance from the beach. this the captain, who suspected treachery, refused, and as we were going near to our boats, some of the natives laid violent hands upon our men, but having received from them a few specimens of our method of boxing, they soon quitted their hold. the chinese interpreter was now missing; our men in consequence procured their arms, and landing, a strict search was made for him. he was found some little distance on land, having been enticed away by one of the chiefs, who was plying him with sam-schoo. on his way to return they forcibly detained him, and were in the act of conveying him away, when the appearance of the armed party from the boat surprised them, and they hastened to convey their own persons out of reach of our bayonets. it was not, however, our intention, or our policy, to commence hostilities, only to show them that we would not be trifled with. we returned from the point to the beach before the town, when the boat's guns were loaded with round and grape, and pointed at the crowd assembled, in case of any further treachery. the captain then landed with the small armed party, all ready for resistance. music was now heard in the distance, and soon afterwards one of the principal chiefs arrived, walking beneath a silken canopy. he was attended by two young lads and a band of spearmen, who prevented the mob from approaching too close to his highness's person. the multitude shouted, and bowed their heads to the ground as the chief passed them; the latter took no notice of their acclamations, but advanced in a very stately dignified manner towards the captain, apparently keeping time to the music, which was played by a band of men, dressed in a very fantastic manner, on cymbals and instruments resembling our clarionets. the negotiations were now opened: the captain expressed his surprise and disgust at the treatment he had experienced at the point, where he had been taking observations. the chief inquired of the captain, in reply, why he did not shoot the offenders? and assured him that, if the next time he was annoyed by the rabble he would shoot a few of them, it would have a very salutary effect upon the remainder. in the course of conversation, the captain informed the mandarin that england possessed ships carrying 120 guns of larger caliber than those on board of the vessel he commanded; and that altogether, including large and small, the queen of england had 800 vessels. this account was evidently discredited, as it always was when such an assertion was made in those seas, for looking round him and explaining the nature of the communication to his followers, they all laughed. asang, the interpreter, then gave them a history of the chinese war, on which he dwelt upon our immense resources, the size and number of our vessels, and the fire ships (steamers) which we had employed; but it was evident that the quelpartians did not believe one word of his assertions. before the conference was over, rice, cakes, and sam-schoo were handed round, and the captain promised that he would visit the chief mandarin on the following day. by this time, the ship had come to an anchor in the bay, and we returned on board. the next morning we got the ship under weigh, and brought her nearer to the town, so that her guns could be brought to bear in case of need; but when within 100 yards of the shore, and in the act of going about, the ship struck with great violence against a rock. hawsers were laid out, and with our usual good fortune, we again got into deep water, and in half an hour anchored off the town in a favourable position for cannonading it. we then landed our force, consisting of all the marines, with the drummer and fiddler, besides a party of small-arm men from the blue jackets, all armed with muskets, bayonets, and cutlasses. the officers, in addition to their swords, carried pistols in their belts. a feu-de-joie was now fired, for the double purpose of creating an awe among the crowd, and ascertaining that all the muskets were in good order; for the mandarin resided some miles from the beach, and in case of attack we must have fought hard to regain our boats and the protection of the ship's guns. all being ready, the drummer and fiddler struck up a lively air, and we commenced our march towards the mandarin's house, the officers being accommodated with horses. after passing over a morass, the waters of which ran sluggishly through the arches of a bridge, connecting the suburbs with the city, we ascended a rocky eminence, from the summit of which we had a bird's eye view of the city, and some portion of the interior. we observed that the ramparts of the city were lined with people. our train was nearly a mile in length, although the natives were walking ten or twelve abreast. immediately after our party came the band of the natives, dressed in russet-coloured cloth, with shawls of the same material; after them the mandarin, followed by above 200 soldiers, a dense mob bringing up the rear, with flags and banners displayed. on the inland side of us was an immense plain, bounded in the distance by high mountains, whose tops were enveloped in clouds. this plain was mostly cultivated; that portion of it which was barren had been appropriated to burial grounds, several of which we passed through. at the head of the graves were stone figures intending to represent human beings, but chantry had not been employed. at length, having walked round two-thirds of the walls, we entered a defile, leading to one of the gates of the city, but to our surprise, when we arrived at the gate, we found that it was locked, and when the cause was demanded, we were informed that the mandarin refused to allow the soldiers to enter, but that the officers would be admitted alone. this communication greatly irritated the captain, and our position caused us some uneasiness. we were inclosed within two high walls in a narrow lane, our advance prevented by the locked up gate, and our retreat must be through thousands who had formed the cavalcade, and were now in our rear. our only passage was through this multitude, and i hardly need say that we were convinced of the treachery of the people. however, there was no time to be lost: the word was given, the marines formed a front line, cocked their muskets, and then brought them to the charge bayonets; and in this way, the crowd retreating before us, we forced our way back, until we were again clear of the high walls which had flanked us; but our position even then was not pleasant. we had to pass the fort and several encampments before we could arrive at the beach, which was at least four miles distant. however, we put a good face on the matter, and forcibly detaining one of the mandarins upon the pretence that he must show us the way back, with the threat, that upon the slightest molestation on the part of his countrymen, we would blow his brains out, we commenced our march back to the beach, our two musicians playing with great energy, "go to the devil and shake yourselves," which tune, struck up upon their own suggestion, was the occasion of great laughter among our party. at last we reached the beach without opposition, and the mandarin, who was terribly alarmed, was released. when we arrived, the chiefs attempted to throw all the blame upon the head mandarin, but the captain would no longer stand their humbug. he replied to them, that if any of their principal men had visited the ship they would have been treated with respect and kindness, and that the number of their armed retainers would have made no difference in their reception; that he considered them as faithless in all their protestations of good-will, and from thenceforth he should place no reliance on any thing that they said; that for the future he would act as he thought proper without consulting them, and that he would shoot any one who attempted to interfere with him. we then got into the boats and returned on board, where we heard that the cutter's crew had been compelled to kill or wound some of the natives, who had come down in a body and attacked one of the men with fire-brands. the cutter was at anchor a short distance from the shore; on the natives approaching they seized their muskets, but did not fire until their shipmate was in danger of his life. two of the natives had fallen and had been carried off by their comrades. [illustration: quelpartians. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the quelpartians cultivate paddy (from which they distil their sam-schoo), sweet potatoes, and radishes, which, with shell-fish, form the principal articles of food with the lower classes. pigs, bullocks, and fowls appeared to be plentiful, although we obtained but few. all their towns are enclosed with a stone wall; the houses are also built of stone, and mostly tiled with a species of red slate; but we had few opportunities of inspecting them, as the natives kept so strict a watch upon us, and so outnumbered us. these coreans presented a strong contrast to the loo chooans, who are so polite in their manner and kind in their demeanour. these quelpartians, on the contrary, are very unprepossessing in their appearance, rude and boisterous in their manner, and of very gross habits. they insisted upon feeling and inspecting every article of our clothing, even baring our breasts to ascertain their colour, and in many other respects proving themselves very annoying. this was submitted to at first, with the hope of securing their good-will, but afterwards very decided measures were taken to repulse these dirty wretches, whose clothes smelt most offensively. they have the high cheek bone and elongated eye of the tartar, or northern chinese, from whom i am inclined to think they are descended. the crown of the head is closely shaved, leaving a circle of long hair, which is tied in a knot on the top of the skull (similar to the people of loo choo), but without any ornament. round the forehead is fastened a bandanna, about four inches in width, resembling fine net-work in texture, but it is made with horsehair. this is used to keep the hair in its proper position. but the most singular part of their costume is the hat, which is made of the same materials as the fillets: the brim is about four feet in width, and this gives to the wearer a very grotesque appearance. the crown in shape resembles a sugar-loaf with the top cut off, and is very small in diameter. it admits the top-knot of hair, and nothing more. [illustration: mandarin of quelpart. (corea.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] the lower orders generally wear a felt hat, but of the same dimensions and shape. the hats of the mandarins are secured on their heads by strings of amber beads and large ivory balls, and then passed under the chin. rank is denoted by the peacock's feather in the hat. the army are distinguished by a tuft of red horsehair stuck in the crown. the respectable part of the inhabitants have several garments; the outer ones are of various colours, but the cut of them extends to all ranks. i can liken it to nothing but a long pinbefore, slit up in front, behind, and at the two sides. under this they wear other garments, the texture and quality of which, as well as quantity, depend upon the wealth of the wearer. the sleeves of their dresses are wide and long. in spite of their thick mustachios and long flowing beards, they have the appearance of a very effeminate people. one evening we saw a large turtle asleep as we pulled along the coast. a sandwich islander, belonging to the gig's crew, went in the water and turned him, holding him in this position till a rope was made fast to him, and he was secured. at night we landed on a small island, and we cooked our prize for our supper. i mention it as a proof of the man's dexterity. completed our survey of the quelpart, and stood to the n. e. the next morning we found ourselves close to a labyrinth of islands, not laid down on any chart. the captain named the group after the ship; and, having in three days completed the survey of them, we stood further to the northward and eastward. it would be tedious to detail our surveying operations. we saw the main land of corea, but did not go on shore; and our provisions getting low, we bore all for the southward. after calling again at quelpart, where we remained a few days, we made sail for nangasaki, a seaport town in the empire of japan. we were some distance in the offing in sight of the town of nangasaki, when several boats, gaily decorated with flags of various shades and colours, came out to meet the ship and accompany us to the anchorage. one of them brought a letter, written in mingled dutch and french, inquiring from whence and why we came. the bearer, who was a great man in authority, desired the captain to anchor immediately; but this the captain refused, telling him that he should anchor his ship when and where he pleased. we afterwards discovered that these were all government boats, and that they were always placed as a guard upon any ship which visited nangasaki. [illustration: japanese boat.] the crews were all dressed alike, in chequered blue and white cotton dresses; the boats are propelled with sculls used as oars, the men keeping time to a monotonous song. forts, or rather the ghosts of forts, appeared as if raised by magic; they were easily distinguished to be formed out of immense screens of coloured cotton, and they were surrounded by flags and pennons. although not effective, their effect was good at a distance. [illustration: japanese. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] in the evening, a large assembly of the principal men visited the ship; they wore very loose jackets and trowsers. the jackets reached no lower than the hips, where they were confined by a silk or silver girdle, containing two swords, one somewhat larger than the other. the handles and sheaths of their swords were beautifully inlaid with copper, and japanned in a very peculiar manner. they were very curious to know the name and use of every article which excited their attention, and we were much surprised at their display of so much theoretical knowledge. they particularly admired the touch-hole of our guns, which are fired with the detonating tube. the properties of the elevating screws were minutely examined; and we were inclined to believe that many of our visitors were artificers, sent on board to examine and make notes of every thing new. the samarang was the first british man-of-war which had visited nagasaki since the phaeton, in 1808. the day after our arrival the chiefs sent off a present of pigs, fowls, and vegetables, but would receive nothing in return. i accompanied the master to a small island, to make observations. several of the great men desired us to return to the ship, but we refused. they appeared greatly annoyed, and drew their hands across their throats, intimating that their heads would be forfeited for their breach of duty. however, seeing that we were determined to remain, they made a virtue of necessity, and consoled themselves by examining our instruments. a laughable occurrence took place while we were on shore. the cutter was at anchor about ten yards from the beach. two of the crew having an argument, one of them drew his bayonet, and made a lunge at the other in jest. observing the natives looking on with amazement, and fancying that the men were engaged in deadly fray, it drew our attention to the scene. they no doubt came to the conclusion that we must be a desperate set of fellows, and killed one another upon the slightest provocation. at all events, this little incident appeared to have a very good effect, as the natives, who had continually been interfering with our observations, now left us, not wishing to be so near to people who were so prone to mischief. during the whole night we were surrounded by a squadron of boats, which, with lanterns lighted, and drums beating, continually moved round the ship, to intercept any boat leaving it. the captain, finding that the suspicious character of the japanese would prevent any thing like correct surveying, which was the principal object of his visit to nagasaki, determined upon leaving this inhospitable shore of japan as soon as possible. on sunday the 6th, we weighed, and although the weather was unfavourable, contrived to work out of soundings until 3 p. m., when we made sail for loo-choo. at daylight we found ourselves abreast of a burning volcano. dense clouds of smoke were issuing from a peaked island, about three miles distant. we soon afterwards landed upon an adjacent island, which, to our surprise, also began to smoke. the day was sultry, and without a breath of air, so that in a short time, the atmosphere we were in became overpowering; at last a fresh breeze sprang up, and the disagreeable sensation wore off. the whole of the islands between loo-choo and japan appear to be volcanic, and at certain seasons of the year they break out in a similar manner to those which we saw. at noon the smoke from the large volcano became lurid; but whether this was the breaking out into flame, or from the rays of the sun pouring down upon the smoke, it was impossible to say, as we were then several miles off. during the whole of the following night we were becalmed, and during that time impelled, by a strong current, towards the volcanic island. strange noises were heard, and large columns of smoke ascended from the crater, which, from there not being a breath of air, soon enveloped it from our sight. on the following day we again landed upon an island, some little distance to the southward of the volcano, which now vomited flames, ashes, and smoke, during the whole day. the master landed on another of these volcanic islands, but the showers of ashes and suffocating atmosphere soon drove him away. the captain had finished his observations on the first island where we landed, and we prepared to return on board. since the morning the swell had got up considerably, causing the surf to break heavily on the rocks. however, the instruments were safely embarked in the boat; but while the captain was waiting for an opportunity to get in, a surf drove the boat on a shelving rock, and suddenly receding, her stern was dropped so low, while her bow remained fast, that she capsized. although the officer and men in the boat had to swim for their lives, and were much bruised by being dashed against the rocks by the succeeding surf, fortunately no lives were lost; but all the instruments, to the value of about 150l., went to the bottom, and, no doubt, have since the accident very much puzzled the sharks as to their use, as they often had done the natives of those seas. a signal was hoisted on the summit of the island for the ship to send boats to assist, and, on their arrival, the gig was baled out, and by sunset we were again on board. august 18th.--exchanged numbers with her majesty's ship royalist, which was anchored in napa kiang harbour (loo-choo). at 3 p. m., we anchored alongside of her, impatiently expecting letters by her, and we were not a little depressed at being disappointed. still we had one comfort, which was that, instead of having brought us, as we expected, three months' provisions, to enable us to continue our survey, she had only fourteen days' provisions for us, which was not more than sufficient to carry us back to hong kong. many and various were the surmises that this recall and alteration of our planned employment gave us; the most prevailing one was that our orders from england were at hong kong. others supposed that the ship would be hove down, and subsequently condemned; but the rejoicing was universal at the idea that there would be some speedy end to our hardships and vexations. a day or two after our arrival the captain and senior officers landed, to partake of a dinner given by one of the principal mandarins. they were well plied with soup, fish, fowls, and sam-schoo, being attended on by minor mandarins. after dinner they were escorted through the town, accompanied by a large concourse of natives, who were kept by the police at a respectful distance. one of the multitude forced his way to join the captain's party, but was forcibly ejected, and preparations made to bamboo him, when, to the captain's surprise, he discovered that the unfortunate culprit was our greatest friend and ally during our visit to the madjicosima islands. he had been christened beaufort by our officers, in consequence of his accurate knowledge of all the shoals, bays, deeps, &c. a word from the captain released him, and to the astonishment of the mob, the captain and officers shook him cordially by the hand, and made him walk in their company during the remainder of the day. we did not find out why beaufort left pa-tchsu-san, where he appeared to be one of the principal chiefs; while at loo-choo he appeared to have no rank whatever. august 21st.--sailed for loo-choo, the royalist in company. after looking in at pa-tschu-san, we made all sail for hong kong; but arriving off the island of botel tobago, we were annoyed with light airs and calms, varied with squalls and heavy rain. for several days we were at the mercy of the current, until, at length, we sighted batan, and steered towards it. the wind still continuing light, the captain went in the gig, which was my boat, on board of the royalist; and we soon left the samarang far behind. we landed about three o'clock, and were received by the padre, the governor and his lady being at san carlos. the commander of the royalist and two of his officers landed with us, and were much pleased with the hospitality of the old priest. in the course of the evening the governor and his lady returned from san carlos; we adjourned to his house, where we passed the evening. several dances were performed by the native women; but we did not admire them--they shuffled with their feet, and threw their bodies into anything but graceful postures. at midnight we sat down to an excellent supper, and then returned on board of the royalist. the following morning the ship was about three miles from the anchorage. bidding adieu to our hosts, we pulled on board, and made sail for hong kong. september 8th.--it being calm, the ship's company were permitted to bathe. in a minute all those who could swim were in the water, playing about in every direction round the ship, and enjoying the luxury. while this continued, the man at the mast-head reported a shark close at hand. the word to come in quickly was given by the first lieutenant and all the officers. it required no second call--every one knew why, and swam to the ropes, which were thrown out in every direction. it was touch and go, as the saying is--one of the marines, who was last, was actually touched by the shark, who made at him; but before he could turn to bite, the fellow had jerked himself up out of his reach. it was very fortunate that the man at the mast-head kept so good a look-out, for generally they are more occupied with the gambols of the bathers than looking out for sharks. as it was, many of the swimmers were so unnerved that it was with difficulty they could get out of the danger. after the men were on board again, the great object was to have revenge upon the animal who had thus put an end to the enjoyment. the shark-hook was baited with a piece of bull's hide, and the animal, who was still working up and down alongside the ship, hoping that he would still pick up a marine i presume, took the bait greedily, and was hauled on board. the axe was immediately at work at his tail, which was dismembered, and a score of knives plunged into his body, ripping him up in all directions. his eyes were picked out with fish-hooks and knives, and every indignity offered to him. he was then cut to pieces, and the quivering flesh thrown into the frying-pans, and eaten with a savage pleasure which we can imagine only to be felt by cannibals when devouring the flesh of their enemies. certainly, if the cannibal nations have the same feeling towards their enemies which sailors have against sharks, i do not wonder at their adhering to this custom, for there was a savage delight in the eyes of every seaman in the ship as they assisted to cut to pieces and then devour the brute who would have devoured them. it was the madness of retaliation--an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. september 14th.--arrived at hong kong, where we found the castor, vixen, and espiã¨gle. the next day the agincourt, dã¦dalus, vestal, and wolverine, arrived from borneo, having been engaged with the pirates of maludu bay. the squadron had suffered a loss of one officer and eighteen men killed, and about double the number wounded. this heavy loss was occasioned by their having to cut through a large boom which the pirates had thrown across the creek within half pistol shot of their forts. but the official reports of admiral sir thomas cochrane have already been published, and i need not, therefore, enter into further particulars. one incident is, perhaps, worthy of notice, as it shows the respect invariably paid by the british officers and seamen to a brave enemy, although a pirate. the colours from the pirates' fort had been twice shot away, when, to the surprise of the boat squadron, a native was seen to ascend, without regard to our fire, and nail the colours to the flagstaff. instead of taking aim at him, he was enthusiastically cheered by the seamen; and, as if with one consent, the muskets were all dropped, and the firing discontinued until he had again got down under cover, and was safe. the boom being at length severed, the fort in a few minutes was in our possession. our late first lieutenant, mr. heard, who had left our ship, in consequence of the treatment he received from the captain, was wounded in this attack. mr. wade was the first lieutenant who sailed from england in the samarang, and who also left us, not being able to put up with the treatment he received. it is singular that poor mr. wade should be killed so soon after he left the ship, and that his successor, mr. heard, as soon as he also left us, should have been wounded. but these were not the only officers who had quitted the ship: lieutenant inglefield, who joined the ship as assistant-surveyor, was, like most of the other officers, soon under an arrest; and after having had a report spread against him that he was mad, he determined to leave the ship, and obtained his admiralty discharge. the second master, appointed by the admiralty as one of the assistant-surveyors, also left the ship, but was compelled to join again. a court-martial was now held on board of the castor, to inquire into the conduct of lieutenant heard (our late first lieutenant), during the time that he served under sir edward belcher. the court-martial had been demanded by lieutenant heard, in consequence of sir edward belcher having written a private letter to admiral sir thomas cochrane, accusing mr. heard of conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman. the whole of the officers of the samarang were subpoenaed, and there is no doubt what the result of the court-martial would have been; but the court was broken up on the plea that the charges were not _sufficiently specific_, as neither date nor circumstances were specified. before the court broke up, however, they did so far justice to lieutenant heard, as to return his sword, and state that there was not the slightest stain upon his character, and that he was honourably acquitted. the reader may perhaps ask, why the court was dissolved? it was to save the honour of the cloth, that the court, composed of captains, came to that decision. had the court-martial proceeded, what would it have proved?--that a superior officer had been guilty of slander, and had attempted by this means to ruin a most excellent officer. the court declared that the charges were not sufficiently specific. surely, they were plain enough. lieutenant heard was charged with conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman--a charge sufficient to dismiss him the service, if it could have been proved. but let us reverse this case: suppose that lieutenant heard had thus slandered sir edward belcher. would the court of captains then have discovered that the charges were not sufficiently specific? most certainly not. the trial would have proceeded, and the lieutenant, for making such false charges in a private letter, would have been dismissed with ignominy from the service. november 1st.--sailed from hong kong, after a detention of some days, in consequence of a row between admiral sir thomas cochrane and our gallant captain; the admiral, as we understood, refusing to allow the samarang to leave the port until sir edward belcher had apologised for his insubordination towards him. after a detention of a few days, the apology was forced from sir edward belcher, and we were permitted to get under weigh. of course, i cannot exactly vouch for the correctness of this statement, but such was the _on dit_ of the day. on the second we experienced a heavy gale, and the royalist, who was with us as a tender, parted company. after a weary beat of nineteen days, we arrived at batan, the capital of the bashee islands; but i have already described this place. we remained here eight days, anxiously expecting the royalist, but she did not make her appearance, and we concluded that she must have received some injury in the gale, and had borne up for manilla. we sailed for that place, and arrived there on the 2d of december. our conjectures relative to the royalist were correct: she was here at anchor, having crippled her foremast in the gale, so as to render it necessary for her to bear up for this port. [illustration: salt smugglers.] we had always enjoyed ourselves at this place. during our repeated visits we had made many acquaintances and friends, and it was with no small pleasure that we found that we were to remain here till the first day of the new year. it is the custom at manilla for the inhabitants to throw most of their houses open on that day: any one may enter, and be sure of a hearty welcome from the hospitable spaniards. we anticipated great pleasure,-and we did nothing but talk about it, as our last christmas day had been a most dreary one, and we were delighted at the idea of passing this one among hospitable and civilised people. the reader may therefore imagine our disgust and vexation when, on the 23d, without our having the least notice of his intention, the captain gave orders for the anchor to be weighed, and ran the ship down to caviti, a town about seven miles distant. caviti was deserted; all the inhabitants had gone to manilla to enjoy the holidays; not a soul remained to welcome us; but if they had, it would have been of no good to us, as, on christmas morning, about two o'clock, we were almost all of us sent on shore to take a set of magnetic observations, which were not completed until the same hour on the following day. at the same time, to make "assurance doubly sure" that we should have no pleasure on that day, leave was stopped to all those remaining on board of the ship. i will not enter further into this affair. all i shall say is, that christmas day, the day of rejoicing, the day of good-will, was turned into one in which the worst passions were roused, and in which "curses not loud but deep" were levelled at the head of the man who, "dressed in a little brief authority," took this opportunity of exercising the power entrusted to him. after completing the observations, we moved further down the bay, and surveyed the shoals of st. nicholas; after which we returned to manilla, where all gaiety had ceased. caviti was once a place of great importance, having been the capital of luzon, from whence the galleons conveyed the treasure to spain. the arsenal still remains, but in a very dilapidated state: we found the artificers busily employed completing some gun-boats and small schooners, which were intended to accompany the esperanza, spanish frigate, in an expedition to an island off borneo, where the esperanza had latterly sustained a defeat from the pirates who inhabited the island. at caviti lie the remains of an old spanish galleon, one of the few which had the good fortune to escape commodore anson. the whole of one side of the vessel is gone, and she is now fast falling to pieces, but the spaniards look upon her with great reverence. she is a relic of their former grandeur; and i was informed by a spanish gentleman that she never would be broken up. i looked upon her, if not with reverence, at least with sympathy; and as i made a sketch of her my thoughts naturally turned to the rise and fall of empires, and i communed with myself as to what would be the date in which england would be in the same position as modern spain, and fall back upon her former glories by way of consolation for her actual decay. [illustration: spanish galleon.] on our arrival at manilla, whether it was that the captain thought that we might too readily console ourselves for our christmas disappointment, or that he had heard (which i doubt not was the case) the expressions of disgust which had been so universal, we found that all leave was stopped. a few of us, not relishing this confinement without just cause, made our appearance on shore in plain clothes; for we had become reckless. we could but be turned out of the ship and out of the service: we longed for the first most especially, and were not alarmed at the prospect of the second. but although the captain was very willing to oblige us with the latter as soon as he had done with us, upon the paying off of the ship, he was not at all inclined to enter into our views as to the former; for he knew that he never would get another officer to join him. he therefore took all the work he could out of us for the present, bottling up his indignation for a future opportunity. we visited the cigar manufactory. about three thousand women are daily employed in making and packing up the cigars. one party selects, cleans, and moistens the leaf; a second cuts; a third rolls; another packs them; and thus they are passed through a variety of hands before they are completed. the best cheroots made here are sent to the royal family, and are called finas. no. 3. are the next best: of these there are two kinds--one for consumption, another for exportation. the cheroots sold in england under the name of government manillas are of inferior quality. in consequence of the failure in the preceding tobacco crop, cheroots were very scarce during the time we were at manilla. there is a fine lace sold at manilla, called pina-work. it is made by the women of an island bearing that name, which is close to luzon. although not so fine as some of the european manufactures, it fetches very high prices in this country. there is not sufficient made for exportation. the night on which we went on shore contrary to orders proved to be a festival, and the city was illuminated. there is a variety in illuminations all over the world, as those who have been to various countries well know. the lower classes of manilla construct animals of all sorts, ships, &c. out of coloured paper--very good imitations of the reality--and these they illuminate by putting candles within them. we had amused ourselves with looking at the variety of objects exhibited by the various whims of the illuminating parties, when, on passing through a street, we observed a large illuminated pig--such a beauty! he was standing at the door of a shop, and the owner was quite proud of our unqualified admiration. we examined him very carefully, and at last we unfortunately discovered that he was fixed on a board with four wheels. wheels naturally reminded us that they were vehicles of locomotion; the pig could move--that was certain--and we decided that, if possible, pig must go on board of the samarang. this was agreed to, _nem. con._, by all parties, with the exception of the owner, who was not summoned to the consultation, which, i grant, was an omission. a ball of twine, some fifty fathoms long, was purchased, and stretched along the street, so as to give us a good start in case of a rescue. we manned it with all hands except one, who was appointed to make it fast to the pig, which he effected with great dexterity, and without being perceived. as soon as he rejoined us, off we set, followed by pig, who galloped and capered down the streets in capital style, preserving his equilibrium in a most astonishing manner. but the owner of the pig soon discovered his loss, and gave the signal for the chase. as we passed the gates, the soldiers joined in the pursuit, and a large mob followed; but pig beat them all, and arrived safely at the hotel where we resided. of course, the owner soon came in to claim his property; but he was so nobly remunerated for his animal, which became ours by purchase, that he went away jingling the money, and agreeing with us that it was an excellent joke. we placed our pig in the centre of the table, and passed our last night at manilla in a most agreeable manner. [illustration: natives of luzon. f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers] we then sailed again for caviti, which was now again inhabited. the society is confined to the families of the civil and military officers who are stationed there. some of the villages in the vicinity of caviti are very picturesque: the bamboos planted on each side of the road meet over head, and form shady lanes. the women at these villages were handsomer than any i had seen at luzon, and were dressed very tastefully. a petticoat, reaching from the hips to between the knees and ankles, a not too jealous boddice of light muslin, their long hair flowing down their backs, and a neat straw hat, composed as graceful a costume as i have ever witnessed. see two of these girls, both riding one pony, taking eggs to caviti, as they pass through the shady lanes, and you cannot desire a more agreeable picture. [illustration: water carriers--manilla.] january 3rd.--from this day till the 20th of february we were surveying various portions of the phillippine group; but as there is nothing to interest the reader, i shall pass over a dry catalogue of mostly uninhabited islands. one of the islands was covered with cocoa-nut trees. we found on it some malays, who had come there on an annual visit, and were loading their boats with the nuts. they were the rudest of the malay tribe we had yet seen. every article in our possession excited their cupidity, and they expressed their wonder and admiration by clacking their tongues against the roofs of their mouths, and emitting a very strange sound. a needle was valued by them at ten cocoa-nuts, a button at five. for the value of a few shillings we filled the ship with those highly esteemed fruit. on the 21st of february we proceeded to samboangan, a spanish penal settlement at the south extremity of mindanao. the town, which is insignificant, is built on a plain. most of the houses are constructed of leaves and bamboo, supported by stakes. the governor, however, and some of the most respectable of the inhabitants, occupy neat little white-washed cottages. there is a fine fort, in good condition, and mounting several guns, which is garrisoned by about 400 manilla troops. the town is surrounded nearly by groves of cocoa-nut trees and bananas, and the roads cut through them form pleasant shady walks. the plain on which the town is built is well cultivated, and watered by a fine river. it is bounded by a range of mountains, which separate the spanish possessions from the country inhabited by the warlike natives of the interior. the people appear well-conditioned and industrious, and are remarkably neat in their dress and persons. there are several gun boats stationed here, which are employed to scour the coast of the pirates, who are very numerous and formidable. horses can be obtained here in any quantity, but saddles and bridles are scarce. unfortunately, there is nothing so civilised here as an hotel, so few vessels visiting the port. the little commerce that exists is carried on by small schooners which run between this island and manilla. [illustration: view in samboangan. (mindanao.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers] i have mentioned that this is the penal settlement of the spanish colonies. the prisoners are confined within the fort, and there is none of that awe of restraint and doubtful position which you find in a place where half the population consists of liberated convicts. it is a flourishing and happy little colony. many officers of an inferior grade reside here, holding appointments either in the fort, gaol, or the gun boats. these people and their wives are mestichas (or half-breed), and it is among them and their families that some of the prettiest women in the asiatic archipelago may be found. our first object after we were on shore was to procure horses, that we might have a view of the country, as far as prudence would admit. we were surprised at starting to find such fine roads, lined with gardens and cottages, embowered in groves of cocoa-nut, bananas, and bamboos. where the road was not shaded, arches of wood were raised to protect passengers from the heat of the sun. the whole country was alive with natives, dressed in every variety of colour, and sledges drawn by water buffaloes, carrying fruit, vegetables, and indian corn. we put our horses to a swift canter, and passed through many villages, all in appearance as populous, as thriving, and as happy as samboangan. at last we arrived at an open plain, covered with cattle, and bounded by the mountains in the distance. we remained some time admiring and sketching; the inhabitants showed us every kindness, and were more courteous in their demeanour than might be expected from their isolation from the rest of the world. on our return, we stopped at a little shop by the road side, close to the town. it contained fruit, grain, and tobacco; but ascertaining that coffee and chocolate could be had here, we ordered some of the latter, which proved to be excellent, and moderate in price. this little shop, for want of an hotel, became our principal rendezvous during our stay here. about nightfall, as we were strolling through the town, we were attracted by the sounds of music in an adjoining street. we altered our course accordingly, and on arrival at a large thatched house, perceived through the open windows that it was filled with musicians and dancers. we were immediately observed, and the owner of the house, in the most courteous manner, and in tolerable english, requested us to enter, which request we immediately complied with. we imagined that it was a ball, perhaps a wedding; but what was our surprise on entering to see a table in the middle of the room, on which was placed a dead child! it was neatly dressed, and ornamented with flowers, looking more like a wax doll than a corpse. the ball, we were informed, was given in honour of its funeral. the dancing had not yet commenced, so we were in excellent time. the master of the house was extremely polite, and requested that we would consider ourselves at home. we took his advice, and immediately separated, and paid our addresses to the ladies which most interested us by their appearance. a great many of them were exceedingly pretty, and they were dressed enchantingly. their hair was drawn back, and collected in a knot behind, their bosoms covered by a light muslin jacket with short sleeves. a petticoat of many colours was sufficiently short to disclose their naked feet, on which was a slipper of velvet, embroidered with gold or silver lace. two or three great gold ornaments completed their costume. add to this their sparkling black eyes, regular features, and an air of naivetã©--inseparable from spanish girls, and you have some idea of the witchery of the belles of samboangan. we were very soon on excellent terms, and the table with the dead child being removed to a corner, the father and mother of the deceased opened the ball with a slow waltz. this being concluded, we selected our partners, and a livelier air being struck up, off we all went at a splendid pace. the women waltzed well. the music was excellent. in the first round all the ladies lost their slippers, which were without heels; and in the second the pace became fearful, and the old house shook under the active bounds and springs of some twenty or thirty couples. spanish quadrilles succeeded the waltz, and then we had the country dance. this latter is complicated, but very pretty, and, with the assistance of our partners, in a short time we were quite _au fait_ to its mysteries. the music, which consisted of violins and guitars, bore up indefatigably. about twelve o'clock we ceased dancing, and preparations were made for supper. this was laid on the floor, clean grass mats serving as table cloths. the contents of the dishes were of the most novel description, and rice was the only article which i could recognise as unmixed. the repast spread, the host requested us to place ourselves. i followed my pretty partner's example, and came to an anchor on the floor alongside of her. i was most assiduous in helping her to whatever she pointed out; and, as nearly as i can recollect, the plate contained a curious medley of rice, prawns, fowls' legs, apples, besides other articles unknown, at least to me. i had observed a total want of knives, forks, and spoons, but this was explained when i saw that all ate with their fingers. seeing no objection to this primitive plan, i was about getting a plate for myself, when i was informed by my partner, in the most insinuating way, that i was to consider her plate as my own. i fully appreciated the compliment, and at once commenced, assisting her to demolish the pile that i had collected, as i thought, for her use alone. on looking round i found that we were not singular, and that every couple were, like us, dipping into one dish. never was there a more merry and delightful supper. as soon as it was over, which was not very soon, for i could have gone on eating a long while for the very pleasure of meeting the pretty little fingers in the plate, we rose, the mats and dishes were cleared away, and we resumed the dancing, and it was at a late hour that we made our _buenas nochas_ to the fair girls of samboangan. we remained in this delightful little place for two days. many of us were inclined to remain there for life, if we could have escaped. we made several excursions into the interior, and the more we saw the more we were convinced that no place was so pretty as samboangan. march 3d.--anchored in a port at baselan, where the spaniards had very lately founded a colony. we found them very busy felling trees, clearing backwood, and completing the stockade or fort. the natives of baselan are a courageous race, and were continually attacking the spaniards, occasionally with success. two gun boats were lying off the town, but the spanish force is not sufficient to meet the attacks of the natives, who continually surprise their outposts and decapitate their prisoners. on our arrival a discharge of guns and fire-arms was kept up during the whole night, fully proving the trouble which the spaniards would have in establishing and retaining their settlement here. it was a few miles from this that the french were beaten off by the malays or pirates, for the terms are at baselan synonymous. march 5th.--having completed the survey of this port, we made sail for balam-bangan. on our route we stopped at cagayan sooloo, where we fell in with two piratical prahus. for reasons, not explained, these vessels were not interfered with, although there was not the least doubt of their occupation. march 9.--the ship struck several times while threading her way through a line of dangerous shoals to the eastward of bangay; and on the same evening we arrived at balam-bangan. the royalist had been despatched about a month before to sincapore, to obtain provisions to enable us to survey the coast of borneo. balam-bangan was the rendezvous appointed, and we expected to have found her anchored there; but in this we were disappointed. the survey of balam-bangan was now commenced, and during our survey we discovered the remains of the old english settlement. it may be as well here to concisely narrate the history of its rise and fall. about the year 1766, four ships, filled with troops and every thing requisite for the formation of a colony, arrived at balam-bangan, which was formally taken possession of in the name of his britannic majesty. but unexpected difficulties arose one after the other. the natives of bangay, about three miles distant, were hostile, and made repeated attacks upon them. the soil was discovered not to be of that fertile nature which had been represented; and unfortunately two of the ships were thrown on shore in a gale, and every soul on board perished. these several disasters damped their energies, and created a feeling of distrust among the settlers, but still the original intention was not abandoned. the forts were completed, a few houses rose, and as their comfort and security increased, so did their hopes arise, and they worked with renewed vigour. but their prosperous state excited the jealousy of the people of sooloo, which island is the emporium of the commerce between borneo and the other islands. the ruling powers of sooloo considered that this commerce must fall off if the english established themselves on an island so well adapted for it in every respect as balam-bangan, and they resolved to attack the colony in its infant state. perhaps they had another reason, which was that they anticipated a rich booty, if successful, and no doubt they were not disappointed. the attack was made with an overwhelming force, and the english, although they bore themselves bravely, could not resist it. most of the colonists were butchered, some few gained the ships in the harbour and sailed away to the port from which the expedition was fitted out. since that time no further attempt to colonise this island has been made, nor, indeed, is it likely that there will be, as labuan is much more advantageously situated in every respect. the royalist at last arrived: she had but few letters, but, valuable and dear to us as letters always were, she brought intelligence that made every heart, except one, beat with delight. was it possible? yes, it was true--true! we were _ordered home_. oh, the delight, the frantic joy, which was diffused through the whole ship. to have witnessed the scene we should have been considered as mad. every one embracing one another, shaking hands, animosities reconciled at once, all heart-burnings forgotten: we could have hugged every thing we met--dogs, monkeys, pigs--except the captain. all our sufferings and privations were forgotten in the general ecstasy, and, although thousands of leagues were still to be run before we could arrive at the desired goal, and months must pass away, time and space were for the time annihilated, and, in our rapture, we fancied and we spoke as if we were within reach of our kindred and our homes. could it be the samarang that we were on board of?--the same ship that we were in not one hour ago?--the silent, melancholy vessel, now all hands laughing, screaming, huzzaing, dancing, and polkaing up and down the deck like maniacs? and then when the excitement was a little over, and we became more rational, why were we ordered home? was the first surmise. we had been sent out on a seven years' expedition, and we had not yet been out four. the surveys were not half finished. was it the row that the captain had had with the admiral, and the reports of many officers who had quitted the ship? we made up our minds at last that it must have been upon the representations of the admiral to the admiralty that we had been ordered home. there could be no other reason. we drank his health in nine times nine. [illustration: illanoan pirate. (tampassook, borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] on the 24th of march we sailed from balam-bangan, with the intention of making a flying survey of the coast of borneo, as far as the island of labuan and the country at sarawak, to make the best of our way to sincapore, at which place we hoped to arrive about the 1st of may, there to receive our final orders and start for england. it would be tedious, and it is not necessary, to give a description of the survey which we afterwards made. we went over the same ground as before, and we surveyed with a musket in one hand and a sextant in the other, for the natives were not to be trusted. our warlike friends at tampassook did not much relish our re-appearance on their coast. a spanish slave made his escape from them and came on board, begging a passage to any where. he had been taken prisoner, with six or seven others, in an engagement between the manilla gun boats and the illanoan pirates, and had been very cruelly treated. we learnt from this man that the pirates of tampassook are very rich, and possessed a large number of fine prahus. they had also plenty of fire-arms, but were afraid of them, preferring their own weapons. it was here that we heard the news of the murder of our old friends rajah muda and bud-ruddeen. it appeared that they had been accused of being privy to the attack of the english on maludu, and supporting our claims to the island of labuan. bud-ruddeen died as he had lived, a brave man, and worthy of a better fate. on the approach of his enemies he retired to his house with his sister and favourite wife, both of whom insisted upon sharing his destiny. for some time he fought like a lion against a superior force, until his servants one by one fell dead. he then retired dangerously wounded to an inner chamber, with his wife and sister, and, allowing his enemies to follow him till the house was filled with them, he fired his pistol into a barrel of gunpowder, which had been placed in readiness, and at once destroyed himself, his friends, and his enemies. but this barbarous murder on the part of the sultan of borneo and his advisers was not left unpunished. sir thomas cochrane went to bruni with his squadron, and reduced the sultan to submission and a proper respect for the english, and those who were friendly with them. as we approached labuan we found it necessary to be on the _qui vive_, as all the natives were hostile to us, and would have cut off our surveying parties if they had had a chance. in the bay of gaya, we met a brother of bud-ruddeen. he was the rajah of the small province of kalabutan. both he and his followers burned to revenge the death of a man so universally beloved as rajah muda, and offered to accompany us with their whole force to attack the city of bruni. they came on board of us with fowls, eggs, and fruits. they placed little value on dollars, preferring white linen, handkerchiefs, and bottles, to any other article in the way of traffic. we, therefore, as we were so soon going to england, made no ceremony of parting with our old clothes in exchange for stock; and the next vessel that visits the river will be surprised at the quantity of midshipmen's jackets, sailors' hats, and marines' boots, which will be worn by the inhabitants, in addition to their own costume. mr. adams, the assistant surgeon, had obtained permission to accept the rajah's invitation to visit the town, which was some five or six miles up the river. he saw nothing worthy of remark except some of a tribe of aborigines (dusums). their only covering consisted of large metal rings worn round the neck and hips. [illustration: natives of n. e. coast of borneo.] while a party were observing on shore, a short distance to the northward of kalabutan, they were fired at by a party of natives concealed in the jungle. the only person who was wounded was the spaniard, whom we had rescued at tampassook, who was standing by the captain. the ball passed through his arm, and grazed his body. the arms were handed out of the gig, which was close at hand, and the enemy retreated into the wood. the cutter then joined, and having a three-pounder on her bows, opened fire upon the natives, who had re-assembled.. the first two or three shots passed over their heads, and encouraged by no injury being done to them, they came forward dancing, yelling, drawing their knives and spears in defiance. but a shot passing through the body of the chief set them all off. they bore him away on their shoulders, and did not afterwards make their appearance. after cannonading the village for an hour, and doing them all the mischief that we could, by destroying their fortifications, burning one and carrying off another prahu, we returned on board, and then made sail for the island of labuan, where we arrived on the 25th of april, 1846. here our surveying was completed, and we made the best of our way to sarawak, where we arrived on the 30th of april. we learnt all the news of the little colony from dr. treecher, who came to visit us. [illustration: dusum. (n. coast of borneo.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] we found that mr. brooke had been recognised by government, and that captain bethune had been testing the capability of making labuan a coal dã©pot. poor williamson, the interpreter, and a great friend of ours, had been drowned some months previous, while crossing the river at night in a small canoe, and no doubt fell a prey to the alligators. he was not only a very amiable, but a very clever fellow, and his loss was deeply felt by every body. mr. brooke was absent from kuchin on an expedition to the sakarran river, in the phlegethon steamer, to inquire into the particulars, and punish, if necessary, an attack upon his dyak allies by the natives of sakarran. two sakarran chiefs, accompanied by a great many war prahus, had paid a visit to mr. brooke, and had been entertained by him in his usual hospitable manner. at their departure he loaded the chiefs with presents, for which they appeared to be extremely grateful. as a return for this kindness, and to prove their sincerity as allies, the principal chief left his son, a boy of twelve years of age, with mr. brooke. but notwithstanding that this boy was as a hostage, they could not resist an opportunity of plunder, and that very evening they ascended one of the tributary streams of the sarawak, attacked a village, and brought off with them twenty-seven heads of the unfortunate dyaks. when the news arrived, mr. brooke was so much enraged at their treachery, that he almost determined upon sacrificing the boy chief, as the natives expected; but not wishing to visit the sins of the father upon the lad, who was innocent, and fearful that his own people would not be so forbearing, he returned the boy to his parents. we all felt annoyed that we had not an opportunity of bidding farewell to mr. brooke, and thanking him for his kindness to us whenever he had an opportunity of showing it. he was, indeed, beloved by every body who had the pleasure of his acquaintance. sailed for sincapore. the next night we communicated with the julia (mr. brooke's vessel). she had on board captain elliott, and twenty-five sepoys[3], who were to be stationed as a garrison at kuchin. we were much pleased to find that government had taken up this cause so warmly, and that mr. brooke was likely to be recognised by it, after all his individual exertions. our passage to sincapore proved very tedious, all hands upon short allowance, and no grog. we touched at barren island, and obtained a large quantity of sea birds' eggs, but they were mostly rotten; but this did not prevent our making omelets of them, for we were now with only three days' provisions on board at half allowance, and the calm still continued. three days we were in sight of the island, the sails flapped idly against the masts, and not a breath disturbed the surface of the ocean wave. we thought of the tale of the ancient mariner, and there were not wanting those on board who declared that this continued calm was a judgment upon us, not for shooting an albatross, but for robbing the nests of the eggs. [footnote 3: these sepoys were raised and _paid_ by mr. brooke.] our barges were sent to sincapore for provisions, for famine was staring us in the face, but that same night a breeze sprang up, and on the 20th of may we dropped our anchor in the roads. at sincapore we found the hazard, 18, whose crew suffered so much at new zealand; and here also we found, to our inexpressible delight, our orders for england, of which we had begun to have some doubts. on the 14th of june arrived the admiral, in h. m. s. agincourt, towed by the spitfire steamer. as soon as he was joined by the rest of the squadron, it was the intention of sir t. cochrane to make sail for bruni, and punish the six-fingered sultan and his piratical advisers. sincapore, like all new settlements, is composed of so mixed a community, that there is but little hospitality, and less gaiety. every one is waiting to ascertain what is to be his position in society, and till then is afraid of committing himself by friendly intercourse; moreover, every body is too busy making money. the consequence is, but few parties are given, and a ball is so rare that it becomes the subject of conversation for months. there are some good-looking girls at sincapore, but it is only at church or on parade that a stranger obtains a glimpse of them. prudery is at present the order of the day, and this is carried to such an extent from non-intercourse, that at a farewell ball given to the cambrians, the women would only polka and waltz with each other. the country immediately outside the town of sincapore is spotted with little bungaloes, the retreat of the merchants from the monotonous business-life which they are compelled to lead. the plantations of nutmegs and beetle-nut which surround these country residences are very luxuriant; and at this time the fruit was on the trees, and the odour quite delightful. one male tree is planted for every ten females. very little cloves or cinnamon are grown at this settlement, but i saw some specimens. a nutmeg tree is valued, when it once arrives to full bearing, at a guinea a year. the areca-palm is a very beautiful tree, and requires but little attention: these and cocoa-nut are valued at a dollar per year. large quantities of sugar-cane are now grown here, and some fine sugar-mills are built in the vicinity of the town. the roads are kept in good repair by the convicts, and are now really very respectable. the chinese joss-house here is considered very fine, and i made a drawing of it. it has some good stone carving and figures, but is very inferior to that of ningpo. during the time that i was drawing it was filled with chinese, who were very inquisitive and troublesome: the only method i could devise for keeping them off was by filling a bowl full of vermilion, and when their curiosity overcame their prudence, and they came rubbing up against me, daubing their faces with the colour--this plan, accompanied with a kick, proved effectual. [illustration: convict.] sincapore being the penal settlement of india, there are a large number of convicts here, who are chained, and work at the roads and bridges. one night i visited the gaol, and was taken over it by an overseer. we first visited the chinese department. two long benches ran along the room, on which were stretched some thirty men. as the overseer passed he struck each man with his rattan, and in a moment they were all sitting up, rubbing their eyes, and looking as innocent as possible. they were all confined for murder, and were a most rascally-looking set. from this room we proceeded to another, fitted in the same manner, and filled with indians. many of them were branded on the forehead with "doomga," which signifies murder; and in some cases the brand was both in hindostanee and english. leaving them, we entered a small room close to the gates of the gaol, and guarded by a sentry. in this room were confined the most reckless characters. they were but eight in number. parallel to the bench ran a long iron rod, and to this they were shackled, both hands and feet. the first man among them pointed out to me by the overseer was a fine-looking grey-bearded indian, of great stature, and with the eyes of a tiger. he had been formerly a rich shipowner at bombay; but having been convicted of insuring his vessels to a large amount, and then setting fire to them, his property was confiscated by the government, and he was sentenced to work for life in chains. it is said that he has offered a million rupees to any man who will knock off his irons. his son carries on the business at bombay, and it was reported that a vessel was always lying at sincapore ready to receive him in case he should effect his escape; but of this there does not appear to be the slightest chance, as he is particularly watched and guarded. [illustration: kling woman.] the next culprits pointed out to us were two of the heads of the secret society of india. so much has already been said of this extraordinary association, that i need not discuss it here. there is, however, a society in sincapore of a similar nature, composed of all the lower orders of the chinese. it is said to amount to 15,000; and the police is much too weak to prevent the robberies, although some check is put to them by the presence of the military. it must not be supposed that because there are 15,000 in the society, that there are that quantity of robbers: such is not the case. of course it is difficult to arrive at the regulations of any secret society, but as far as can be collected, they are as follows. a certain portion of the society are regular thieves, and these in a body compel those who are inoffensive to join the society, by threats of destruction of property, &c. if the party joins the society, all that is expected of him is, that he will aid and assist to prevent the capture, and give an asylum to any one of the society who may be in danger. the richest chinese merchants have been compelled to join, and lend their countenance to this society, upon pain of destruction of their property, and even assassination, if they refuse; and as they have more than once put their threats into execution, the merchants have not the courage to resist. shortly after our arrival at sincapore, the burial of one of the chiefs of the society took place; and such was the concourse assembled to witness the funeral, that it was thought advisable to call out the troops, as a skirmish was expected to take place. however, every thing passed off quietly. the richest chinaman at sincapore is whampoa: he supplies the navy with stores, and has a thriving business. his country house is a favourite resort of the naval officers, and he gives excellent dinners, and very agreeable parties. his champagne is particularly approved of. there is little or no amusement at sincapore. during the afternoon every body is asleep. in the cool of the evening half a dozen palanquins, and perhaps a few gigs, may be seen driving on the parade: these proceed at a steady pace round the grass-plot for about an hour; and this is the only exercise taken. fashion is very drowsy here, and only wakes up occasionally, that she may sleep the longer afterwards. from the want of hospitality, the evenings are passed by strangers at the hotels, playing billiards, smoking, and drinking. the hotels are very good, in consequence of the steamers from bombay to hong kong touching here; they are fitted up with an unusual degree of comfort; and the charges are, of course, not very moderate. the markets are well supplied with fruit, vegetables, and stock of all kinds. among the fruits must be mentioned the mangostein, which is brought from malacca; and the pine-apples from the island of st. john's. the opposite side of the island upon which sincapore is built is well wooded. a great many tigers swim over from the main, and pits are dug for their destruction, 100 dollars being given by government for every tiger killed. on the 18th we received our final orders, and took our farewell of eastern india; but it must not be supposed that we made the best of our passage to england. on the contrary, the captain was as anxious to remain out as we were to get home; and we were six months and twelve days from the time that we left sincapore till our arrival at portsmouth. the fact was, that the pay and emoluments of a surveying captain are such, that our captain felt no inclination to be paid off; and as he never spent any money, he was laying up a nice provision for his retirement; besides which he hoped that, upon his representations to the admiralty, the order for his recall would be cancelled, and that he would find a letter to that effect at the cape of good hope. his object, therefore, was to spin out the time as much as possible, so as to allow the answer of the admiralty to arrive at the cape before we did. we were ordered to survey some shoals, the cagardos carahos, on our passage home; but i believe nothing more. on sunday, the 22d, we anchored off a small island near to the isle of billaton. at two a. m. we weighed, and ten minutes afterwards the ship struck on a shoal. all our exertions to get her off proved abortive, and in this uncomfortable position we remained till the following thursday, when she again floated, after throwing overboard the guns, and landing such stores as we could on the island. this accident and light winds lengthened our passage to anger (the dutch settlement in java) to twenty-one days; and there we remained five days, to ascertain the rate of our chronometers. this dutch settlement at anger, although slightly fortified, might be made a place of great consequence: both outward and homeward bound vessels touch here for water and stock; and were it properly supported and improved by the dutch, as it should be, it would command a great deal of trade, and during war be of great consequence. it is governed by a dutch military officer, and is garrisoned with about fifty soldiers. the country is remarkably fine here, the plains richly cultivated and covered with cattle. the farmers complain bitterly of the taxes imposed upon them by the dutch, taxes so onerous that no native has a chance of realising any profits of consequence; but this is dutch policy, and very unwise policy it is. we now thought that we were about to proceed to the isle of france direct, but we were mistaken: we weighed anchor, and proceeded to the cocoa islands. this is a low group of islands literally covered with cocoa-nut trees. these islands are possessed by a mr. ross, formerly mate of a merchant vessel. his family consisted of two sons and two daughters, and are the only europeans who reside there. we could not help thinking that the misses ross had very little chance of getting husbands. the remainder of the population, amounting to about 120 souls, are all black. they extract the oil from the cocoa-nut, and trade with it to java, from whence they procure the necessary supplies. whalers occasionally call here to obtain fresh provisions; but the visit of a man-of-war was quite an event. from the cocoas we steered for the cagardos carahos shoals, where we remained for more than a fortnight, surveying. there are several islands close to these shoals, which are in the shape of a crescent. they are very dangerous, being in the direct track of ships from china and the indies. indeed, we had ocular proof of their dangerous position, for there were seven or eight wrecks upon them, and the small islands of sand were crowded with masts, spars, chests, interspersed with human bones bleaching in the powerful sun. on one of the islands we discovered the remains of the british ship letitia, which was wrecked in september, 1845. at a short distance from the beach was the grave of the captain, who was drowned in attempting to reach the shore with a bag of dollars. had he not held on so tight to the bag, he would in all probability have been saved, as were all the rest on board of her. it certainly would be very advisable to build a lighthouse upon these shoals; the expense would be nothing compared to the loss of property and life which they occasion every year. from the cagardos carahos we proceeded to the mauritius. here we found the president, bearing the flag of admiral dacres, and the snake brig just arrived from england. port louis has been too often described to be mentioned here. behind it rose a range of mountains, the highest of which are about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, and completely shelter the town from the s. e. gales, which at this period of the year blow with great violence. among these mountains is the famous peter-botte, and we looked upon it with great interest, in consequence of the daring and successful attempt made a few years since by some englishmen to attain the summit of it. even now, although we know that it has been done, it appears to be impossible. one of the leaders of this expedition was lieutenant thomas keppel, the brother of our favourite captain henry keppel, and this circumstance gave it more interest to us; but t. keppel has since left the service, and is now a reverend, moored in a snug _creek_, and has quite given over climbing up peter-bottes. during the short time that we remained at this delightful island, we received every kindness and attention from the governor and his lady, and the officers of the two regiments stationed there. [illustration: port louis. (mauritius.) f. m. delt. m. n. hanhart lith. printers london; longman & co. 1848] from the mauritius we proceeded to the cape of good hope. on the morning of the 24th of september we hove in sight of the table mountain, but it was not until the 26th that we cast anchor in simon's bay. here we remained for a month, waiting for the arrival of the mail from england. at last it arrived, but not bringing us, as our captain hoped, the order for his return to india, on the 24th of october we made sail for england, and, calling at st. helena and ascension _en route_, on the last day of the year we dropped our anchor at spithead. we were not, however, emancipated till the 18th day of january, on which day the ship was paid off, for which, and all other mercies, may the lord be praised! observations upon the eastern archipelago. it is with diffidence that i take up my pen to offer a few remarks upon the prospects afforded to our commerce and manufactures by the opening of the eastern archipelago. hitherto i have done little more than narrate what i have seen, and have seldom made any attempt to express what i have thought. however, as my thoughts have been generated from what i have observed, whether i am correct or not in my opinions, i shall venture to lay them before my readers. how it is that until lately we have never taken any notice of this immense archipelago it is difficult to say, unless we are to suppose that, up to the present, the other portions of the inhabited globe have been found sufficient to consume our manufactures as fast as they could be produced. it does appear strange that an assemblage of islands, which, large and small, amounting to about 12,000 in number, equal in territory to any continent, and so populous, for the inhabitants, including the more northern islands, are estimated at fifty millions, should have hitherto been unnoticed, and, at all events, have not attracted the attention of our government. moreover, there are such facilities of communication, not being compelled, as with the chinese, to confine ourselves to five or six ports, at which the whole trade is centred in the hands of a monopoly, taxed with the expences of land-carriage, port duties, and other exactions. here, on the contrary, from the division of the territory into so many portions, we possess all the advantages of inland navigation, if i may use such a term, for the straits and channels between them serve as large rivers do on the continents to render the communication with the interior easy and accessible. and yet, although we have had possession of the east indies for so many years, this archipelago has been wholly neglected. at all events, the discovery of it, for it is really such, has come in good time, and will give a stimulus to our manufactures, most opportune, now that we have so much increased them, that we are in want of customers. still we have, almost unknown to ourselves, been advancing towards it step by step. the taking possession of the island of sincapore was the first and greatest stride towards it. had it not been that we had founded that settlement, we probably should not have been nearer to borneo now, than we were fifty years ago. sir t. raffles conferred a great boon upon this country, and is entitled to its gratitude for pointing out the advantages which would accrue from this possession. till we had made a settlement there, we knew no more of the eastern archipelago, than what had been obtained by our circumnavigators, or of the produce of it, further than that borneo was the country from which could be obtained the orang-outang. latterly we have been at some trouble and expence in forcing our trade with china, little aware that almost in the route to china we had an opening for commerce, which, in a few years, judiciously managed, will become by far the most lucrative of the two, and what perhaps is still more important, may be the means of a most extended trade with china, as we can drive the chinese from the archipelago, and supply china from them ourselves; but of that hereafter. one cause, perhaps, which has prevented us from turning our attention in this direction has been, an unwillingness to interfere with the dutch, who have been supposed to have been in possession of all the valuable islands in the archipelago, and from long-standing to have a prior right to this portion of the east; but, although the dutch have not been idle, and are gradually adding to their possessions, there is little chance of our interfering with them, as there is room, and more, for the dutch, ourselves, and every other nation which may feel inclined to compete with us. the possessions of the dutch are but a mere strip in this immense field; and, although it is true that they have settlements on the spice islands, so named, yet we now know that every one of these islands may be made spice islands, if the inhabitants are stimulated by commerce to produce these articles of trade. it was the settlement at sincapore which first gave us a notion of the trade which might be carried on with this archipelago. every year large fleets of prahus have come up to sincapore laden with commodities for barter, and have taken in exchange european goods to a certain extent; but their chief object has been to obtain gunpowder and shot, to carry on their piratical expeditions. in fact, they are traders when they can only obtain what they want by exchange; but when they can obtain it by force, they then change their character, and become pirates. but our possession of labuan has brought us about eight hundred miles nearer to these people, and enables us to take more effectual steps towards the suppression of piracy than we have hitherto done; for this we may lay down as an axiom, that we never shall reap the advantages promised to us by commerce in this archipelago till we have most effectually put an end to the piracy which has existed in these quarters for centuries. before i go on, i cannot help here observing how much this country is indebted to mr. brooke for his unwearied exertions in the cause of humanity, and his skilful arrangements. it is to be hoped, that our gratitude to him will be in proportion, and that her majesty's ministers will, in their distribution of honour and emoluments among those who have served them, not forget to bestow some upon one who has so well served his country. the largest, and perhaps the most important of the islands in this archipelago, although at present the most barbarous, and the most hostile to us, is that of papua, or new guinea. the inhabitants are as well inclined to commerce as the other natives of the archipelago, and do at present carry on a considerable trade with the chinese, who repair there every year in their junks, which they fill with valuable cargoes adapted for the chinese market. the chinese have found the trade with new guinea so lucrative, that they are doing all that they can to secure the monopoly of it, and with this view take every occasion, and do all that they possibly can, to blacken the character of the europeans in the minds of the inhabitants. it is to this cause that the papuan's hostility to europeans, and especially to the english, is to be ascribed; and before we have any chance of commerce with this people, it is necessary that the chinese should be driven away from the island, that they may no longer injure us by their malicious fabrications. this will be but a just retribution for the falsehoods and lies which they have circulated to our disadvantage. and there is another reason why we should be little scrupulous in taking this measure, which is, that one of their principal articles of commerce with the papuans consists in slaves, which are taken on board by the chinese, and sold at borneo, and the adjacent islands of the archipelago, at a great profit. to obtain these slaves, the chinese stimulate the papuan tribes to war with each other, as is done for the same purpose in africa. as this traffic is very considerable, and we are as much bound to put down the slave trade in the east as in the west, we have full warrant for driving their junks away, and, by so doing, there is little doubt but that in a few years we shall secure all the valuable trade of this island to ourselves. borneo is, however, the island (or continent) to which our first attention will be particularly devoted. up to the present we know little of it except its coasts and a portion of its rivers; but it is here that our principal attention must be given, as in its rivers and the island of sooloo the chief piratical hordes exist. we have already had some sharp conflicts with them, and have given them some severe lessons; but although we have given them a momentary check, and some idea of our immense superiority, we must not imagine that two or three successful conflicts are sufficient to put an end to a system which has been carried on for centuries, and which is so universal, that the whole of the present generation may be said to have been "born pirates." in fact, we shall be compelled to subdue them wholly, to destroy them in all their fastnesses, to leave them without a prahu in their possession, to depose or confine their chiefs, to destroy their forts, and to carry on a war of extermination for some years, before we shall put down the piratical system which at present exists. it is not quite so easy a task as may be imagined to reform so many millions of people: for it must be remembered that it is not only at borneo that we shall have to act, but that we must destroy the power of the sultan of sooloo, and other tribes who frequent other islands, and who follow the same profession. it must not be forgotten that one of the principal objects of these piratical excursions is to procure slaves for sale at other ports; and perhaps this is by far the most profitable part of the speculation. as long as there is no security for the person, commerce must languish, and be proportionably checked. in putting down these marauders, we are, therefore, putting down the slave trade as with the chinese at new guinea. the sooner that this is effected the better; and to do it effectually we should have a large force at labuan, ready to act with decision. let it be remembered that, with people so crafty and so cruel as the malays and descendants of the arabs, lenity is misplaced, and is ascribed to cowardice. no half measures will succeed with them. indeed, i have my doubts whether it will not be necessary to destroy almost every prahu in the archipelago, and compel the natives to remain on their territory, to cultivate or collect articles for barter, before we shall effect our purpose; for the prahu that sails as a trader is changed into a pirate as soon as temptation rises on her way. indeed, if labuan becomes, as it will probably be, an emporium and dã©pã´t for european commerce, without such stringent measures a great stimulus would be given to piracy. the peaceable trading parties, on their return, would be laid in wait for by the piratical prahus, and the english manufactures on board would be so tempting, and such a source of wealth, that they would be irresistible. neither should we be able to afford any protection to the traders, as they would be laid in wait for at the mouths or up the rivers, and would be captured without our knowledge; with this difference, perhaps, that the fear of detection would induce them to murder all the prisoners, instead of selling them as slaves, as they do at present. unless, therefore, the most stringent measures are resorted to on our parts, an increase of commerce with this archipelago would only occasion in a reciprocal ratio an increase of piracy. the occupation of labuan and sarawak will, i should imagine, prove hardly sufficient to effect the important change to be desired, _i. e._ that of the total suppression of piracy. stations, with forts, must be established at the mouths of the principal rivers, that we may have a constant watch upon the movements of the occupants. in so doing we should be only encroaching upon those who have encroached upon others: these rivers have been taken forcible possession of by the malays and arabs, who have driven away the proprietors of the soil, which are the dyaks, the aborigines of the island; and they have no more right to the possessions which they hold, than their chiefs have to the high-sounding titles which they have assumed. that in taking this step we shall interfere with no vested rights is certain: we shall merely be dispossessing these piratical marauders of their strongholds; and the cause of humanity will sufficiently warrant such interference on our parts. in our first attempts to establish, a peaceful and secure commerce with this archipelago, it appears to me that it would be advisable for the government to take some share in the venture. ten or twelve schooners, well manned, confided to intelligent officers, and armed with one heavy gun, and swivels in the gunwales, should sail for labuan, with assorted cargoes, with the view of both trading and checking piracy. much depends upon the way in which the barter is first commenced, and it would be as well that it should not be left in the hands of adventurers, whose mercenary feelings might induce them to excite doubt or irritation in the minds of the natives, and, by such means, do great mischief, and impede the trade. the constant appearance of these vessels in the archipelago, the knowledge that they were sent, not only to barter, but also to protect the well-disposed against violence and rapine, would soon produce most beneficial effects, and would impose confidence. merchant vessels which entered the trade should be empowered, by letters of marque, to put down piracy, and should be armed in a similar way. although there is little doubt but that in a short time vessels would sail from labuan with full cargoes for europe, still it is more than probable that the most important part of the trade, and which would employ most vessels, would be the colonial trade, or rather, country trade, to the several marts in the indus and china. there are many productions of the archipelago which are only valued in the east, such as bãªche-de-mer, or trepang; edible birds' nests, &c. this trade we might very soon monopolise to ourselves, and a most lucrative one it would prove. the following are the articles to be found in more or less quantities over the whole of the indian archipelago:--antimony, tin, gold, diamonds, pearls, sapphires, ivory, gums, camphor, sago, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, skins, wax, honey, cocoa-nut oil, coffee, rice, and coal, edible birds' nests and trepang; all the varieties of spices, as cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, can be grown as soon as there is a market for them; the cotton tree nourishes; and, although not yet worked, it is proved that there is abundance of copper and lead. an archipelago containing such rich productions, and which we may, with some little trouble, receive in exchange for our manufactures, becomes a national concern, and it is the paramount duty of the government to take every measure to facilitate the communication with it. the expedition of mr. murray to the river coti, on the south side of borneo, although, from imprudence, it ended not only unsuccessfully but tragically, fully establishes that an opening for commerce is to be established. in this expedition mr. murray, by his imprudence and unguarded conduct, brought upon himself the attack of the natives, in which he lost his own life, and the vessels with great difficulty escaped. since that failure, no english vessels have attempted to trade to the south of borneo; but we discovered that the macassar boats paid the coast an occasional visit, under dutch colours, exchanging beads and other trumpery for rich cargoes of ivory and skins. we also discovered that commercial negotiations with this country would not be attended with any risk, provided that the vessels employed were well armed, and the arrangements were so made as not to excite the jealousy and suspicion of the natives. european manufactures would be eagerly purchased by the natives, and would be paid for in ivory, rough ores, or dollars. mr. wyndham, who has settled at sooloo, has already sent a vessel to trade on the south-east side of the island, near gonong tabor. so much for the southern portion of this immense archipelago. we have still to examine the more northern. indeed, when we look upon the map, and see the quantity of territory with which we may eventually find the means of trading,--the millions who, but for the jealousy of the governments, would be glad to receive our manufactures,--we are lost in conjecture as to what extent it might eventually be driven. in the north we should certainly have more difficulties to contend with; and it will require that the whole of the naval force in india should be, for a time, devoted to this object. i believe it is as much from their utter ignorance of our power, as from any other cause, that we have hitherto been so unsuccessful at japan; but the object we have in view may be effected, provided that a certain degree of the _fortiter in re_ be combined with the _suaviter in modo_. the japanese now carry on a large trade with china, and also a confined trade with the dutch, to whom they have allowed a factory upon a small island; but they treat the dutch with the greatest indignity, and the dutch submit to it, and, in so doing, have rendered the europeans vile in the estimation of the japanese. this is the error which must be destroyed by some means or other, even if it should be necessary to pick a quarrel with them, as we have already done with the chinese. at the same time that i admit the expediency of so doing, i by no means assert that we shall be altogether justified. there is another point worthy of consideration, which is, that a whale fishery dã©pã´t might be made with great success in this archipelago, any where to the southward and eastward; and we might recover a large portion of that lucrative employment, which, by the means of british seamen employed in american vessels, has been wrested from us; for although, at the commencement, the whale fishery from the states was carried on by americans only, since it has so enormously increased, at least two-thirds of the people employed in the vessels are english seamen, who have become expert in the profession. it is much to be lamented that the laudable exertions of mr. enderby and others to revive this lucrative employment for our vessels and seamen has hitherto failed, and that some part of our surplus capital has not been devoted to an object so important to us as a maritime country. i shall conclude with a reflection which i made while i was on the coast, leaving the reader to agree with me or not, as he may be disposed. how is it, as i have already observed, that all the colonies founded by other nations, either languish or have been swept away,--not all, perhaps, as yet, but the major portion of them; while every colony founded by our little island appears to flourish, till it becomes so powerful as not only no longer to require the nursing of the mother country, but to throw off its dependence, and become a nation of itself? how is it that it can so truly be said that the sun never sets upon the english flag? it cannot be from any want of energy, or activity, or intelligence, or judgment in other nations; for surely in these qualifications we are not superior to the french or to the dutch, although we may be to the present race of spaniards and portuguese. our colonies have not been more carefully fostered than theirs: on the contrary, they have been neglected, and, if not neglected, they have been but too often oppressed. why, then, should this be? can religion have any thing to do with this? can it be that providence has imperceptibly interfered, and has decided that england shall perform the high mission; that she has been selected, as a chosen country, to fill the whole world with the true faith, with the pure worship of the almighty? has it been for this object that we have been supported in our maritime superiority? has it been with this view that we have been permitted to discomfit the navies of the whole world? may it not be that when our naval commanders, with a due regard to propriety, have commenced their despatches with "it has pleased the almighty to grant us a splendid victory," at the same time that they were trusting to the arms of flesh and blood which have so well supported their endeavours, and in their hearts ascribed their successes to the prowess of man,--may it not be, i say, that the almighty has, for his own good reasons, fought on our side, and has given us victory upon victory, until we have swept the seas, and made the name of england known to the uttermost corners of the globe? has this been granted us, and have we really been selected as a favoured nation to spread the pure light of the gospel over the universe? who can say? "his ways are not our ways;" but if so, it is a high destiny, which we must act up to at every sacrifice and at every expence. the end. london: spottiswoode and shaw, new-street-square. transcriber's notes: the author's original (and inconsistent) spelling of place and person names has been preserved, although in some cases, the modern equivalents are substantially different. in the original text, most illustration captions had terminating punctuation but a few did not. in this transcription, terminating punctuation has been added to those captions which did not have them in order to remain consistent with the style most commonly seen in the text. lithographs facing pages 85, 142, 199 and 201 were missing a line specifying the publisher "longman & co" which is present in the other lithographs. it is possible that the pages used for this transcription had been physically truncated. the original appearance of the physical page has been preserved and the publisher line, if missing, has not been added. inconsistencies in hyphenation of words preserved. (orang outang, orang-outang; blowpipe, blow-pipe; bow-man, bowman; daylight, day-light; flagstaff, flag-staff; goodwill, good-will; gunshot, gun-shot; lighthouse, light-house; parang, pa-rang; pineapples, pine-apples; tomtoms, tom-toms; whitewashed, white-washed; pic nic, pic-nic; nepa palm, nepa-palms) in the original text, the characters in abbreviations were separated by either a half-space or a full-space. this has been standardized to a full-space in all cases for this transcription. pg. 19, unusual or archaic spelling of "musquitos" retained. (musquitos, scorpions, lizards, and centipedes) pg. 20, there is a reference to date 27th may. context suggests it should probably be 27th july. the original text has been preserved. (on the 27th may every thing had been prepared) pg. 21, "wth" changed to "with". (delightful bay studded with small) pg. 35, unusual or archaic spelling of "phrensy" retained. (the lovers were in a state of phrensy) pg. 90, unusual or archaic spelling of "segars" retained. (we had plenty of wine and segars) pg. 206, word after comma begins with uppercase, most probably it represents the start of an unspoken thought in the author's mind. original text retained. (and we became more rational, why were we ordered home?) pg. 211, "dã©pot". on pgs. 227 and 230, it is spelled "dã©pã´t". original spelling preserved in all cases. transcriber's note single characters following '^' or mutiple characters following '^' enclosed within '{ }' denote superscript text. hyphenation has been standardised. work issued by the hakluyt society. description of the coasts of east africa and malabar. a description of the coasts of east africa and malabar in the beginning of the sixteenth century, by duarte barbosa, a portuguese. translated from an early spanish manuscript in the barcelona library with notes and a preface, by the hon. henry e. j. stanley. london: printed for the hakluyt society. johnson reprint corporation johnson reprint company ltd. 111 fifth avenue, new york, n.y. 10003 berkeley square house, london, w1x6ba _landmarks in anthropology_, a series of reprints in cultural anthropology _general editor_: weston la barre first reprinting 1970, johnson reprint corporation printed in the united states of america _note to thirty-fifth publication of the hakluyt society, "description of the coasts of east africa and malabar."_ this volume was published by the hakluyt society as the work of duarte barbosa on the authority of ramusio, for neither the three spanish mss. of barcelona and munich, nor the portuguese ms., give his name; it is probable that barbosa contributed a largo part of it, for damian de goes refers his readers for an account of malabar and its religion and customs to a book by duarte barbosa, who is stated to have spoken the language of malabar with great correctness, and who resided a long time in that country; yet the authorship must be ascribed to magellan, for i have just seen, in the possession of don pascual de gayangos, another spanish ms. which states at the top of the first page,--"este libro compuso fernando magallanes portugues piloto lo qual el vio y anduvo." "this book was composed by the portuguese fernando magellan the pilot, the things narrated in which he saw and visited." this heading is in the same writing as the rest of the ms., which is clear handwriting of the sixteenth century, and like that of the second part of the ms. no 571 of the munich library. the ms. of mr. gayangos appears to be part of a larger book, since its second leaf is numbered 111 (the corner of the first is worn off), and the last is numbered 170, and ends with the description of the lequeos. the _epitome de la biblioteca oriental, occidental, nautica y geografica_ of d. antonio de leon pinelo, madrid, 1737, mentions, at p. 667 a work of magellan's under the following heading: _fernando de magallanes, efemerides, or diary of his navigation_, a ms. which existed in the possession of antonio moreno, cosmographer of the house of trade, according to don nicolas antonio. the translator. _madrid, february 1867._ errata. page iii, line 11, _for_ "dearer," _read_ "clearer." " 44 " 34, " "atuxsia," " "atauxia." " 73, " 19, " "albejas," " "mussels." " 96, " 13, " "laced," " "placed." " 159, " 8, " "antoridade," " "autoridade." " 200, " 7, " "they burn," " "they burn it." " 232, " 10, " "et d'aller," " "est d'aller." note to pp. 228-229.--see pages 249-251 of _the travels of ludovico de varthema_ hakluyt society, and notes, also mr. r. major's able introduction to the _early voyages to terra australis, now called australia_. this passage, written about five years later than when varthema wrote, is a fuller statement than varthema's: and taking the two together, there can be little doubt that the information they contain was based on actual knowledge of australia. council of the hakluyt society. sir roderick impey murchison, k.c.b., g.c.st.s., f.r.s., d.c.l., corr. mem. inst. f., hon. mem. imp. acad. sc. petersburg, etc., etc., president. rear-admiral c. r. drinkwater bethune, c.b.}vice-presidents. the rt. hon. sir david dundas, m.p. } rev. g. p. badger, f.r.g.s. j. barrow, esq., f.r.s. rear-admiral r. collinson, c.b. sir henry ellis, k.h., f.r.s. general c. fox. r. w. grey, esq. john winter jones, esq., f.s.a. john w. kaye, esq. his excellency the count de lavradio. thomas k. lynch, esq. r. h. major, esq., f.s.a. sir william stirling maxwell, bart., m.p. sir charles nicholson, bart. major-general sir henry c. rawlinson, k.c.b. viscount strangford. william webb, esq. allen young, esq., r.n.r. clements r. markham, esq., f.s.a., honorary secretary. translator's preface. the spanish manuscript from which this volume has been translated is in the handwriting of the beginning of 1500, full of abbreviations, and without punctuation or capital letters at the beginnings of sentences or for the proper names, which adds much to the difficulty of reading it. it contains eighty-seven leaves. the handwriting more resembles an example of the year 1510 than those dated 1529 and 1531, given at p. 319 of the "escuela de leer letras cursivas antiguas y modernas desde la entrada de los godos en españa, por el p. andres merino de jesu christo, madrid, 1780." this work was translated into spanish from the original portuguese in 1524, at vittoria, by martin centurion, ambassador of the community of genoa, with the assistance of diego ribero, a portuguese, cosmographer and hydrographer to his majesty charles v. there are reasons (as will be shewn in the notes) for supposing that the spanish translation, probably this copy and not the portuguese original, assisted the compilers of the early atlases, especially that of abraham ortelius, of antwerp, 1570, other editions of which were published in succeeding years.[1] the similarity of the orthography of this manuscript and of that of the names in maps as late as that of homann, nuremberg, 1753, shews how much geography up to a recent period was indebted to the portuguese and spaniards. it may also be observed that from their familiarity at that time with the sounds of arabic, the proper names are in general more correctly rendered in european letters, than used to be the case in later times. this ms. is in the barcelona library and is there catalogued "viage por malabar y costas de africa, 1512: letra del siglo xvi." it was supposed to be an original spanish work, for the statement of its having been translated is in the body of the ms., no part of which can be read without more or less difficulty. this work is not a book of travels as the title given in the catalogue, though not on the ms., indicates; it is rather an itinerary, or description of countries. it gives ample details of the trade, supplies, and water of the various seaports mentioned in it. it contains many interesting historical details, some of which, such as the account of diu, the taking of ormuz, the founding of the portuguese fort in calicut, their interruption of the indian trade to suez by capturing the indian ships, the rise of shah ismail, etc., fix pretty nearly the exact date at which this narrative was composed as the year 1514. two other ms. copies of this work are preserved in the royal library at munich: the first of these, no. 570 of the catalogue of that library, is in a handwriting very similar to that of the barcelona ms., and apparently of the same period. it consists of one hundred and three leaves, and is stated to have proceeded from the episcopal library of passau. this ms. does not contain the appendix respecting the prices of the precious stones. the other ms. no. 571, is of fifty-three leaves, and is written in two handwritings, both of which are much rounder and clearer than that of no. 570; the catalogue states that this ms. came from the library of the jesuits of augsburg. there are several verbal differences between the two mss., and perhaps no. 571 agrees more exactly with the barcelona ms. the two munich mss. frequently write words such as rey with a double r, as _rrey_, which does not occur in the barcelona ms., where, however, words begin with a large r, which is also used for a double r in the middle of a word. the piracies of the portuguese are told without any reticence, apparently without consciousness of their criminality, for no attempt is made to justify them, and the pretext that such and such an independent state or city did not choose to submit itself on being summoned to do so by the portuguese, seems to have been thought all sufficient for laying waste and destroying it. this narrative shows that most of the towns on the coasts of africa, arabia, and persia were in a much more flourishing condition at that time than they have been since the portuguese ravaged some of them, and interfered with the trade of all. the description of the early introduction of the cultivation and weaving of cotton into south africa by the arab traders will be read with interest; and the progress then beginning in those regions three hundred and fifty years ago, and the subsequent stand still to which it has been brought by the portuguese and by the slave-trade to america, may be taken as supporting the views lately put forward by captain r. burton and others at the anthropological society. the greater part of this volume was printed in italian by ramusio in 1554 in his collection of travels (venetia, nella stamperia de' giunti), as the narration of duarte barbosa, and a large part of this work must have been written by barbosa; and a portuguese manuscript of his was printed at lisbon in 1812 in the "collecção de noticias para a historia e geografia das nações ultramarinas." this manuscript of barbosa's, however, is much less full than this spanish ms. of barcelona, or than the italian version of ramusio, and the lisbon editors have added from ramusio translations of the passages which were wanting in their ms. these publications do not contain the number of leagues between one place and another which are given in the spanish translation. that the portuguese manuscript printed at lisbon in 1812 belongs to barbosa, stands only on the authority of ramusio, who gives an introduction by odoardo barbosa of the city of lisbon, which is not to be found either in the barcelona ms. or in the portuguese ms., and which has been translated from the italian of ramusio and published in the lisbon edition. the introduction to the lisbon edition states that the portuguese ms. is not an autograph ms., and that the account of barbosa is bound up along with other papers. this introduction refers to the passages in the portuguese ms. which are not to be found in ramusio, and says it may be doubted whether these were additions posterior to the work of duarte barbosa. it had occurred to me that this work might be attributed to the famous navigator magellan, and that it must have been through him that it found its way to charles the fifth's court: there are several reasons for this supposition, and some difficulties in the way of it; i will, however, follow sr. larrañaga's advice, and state both sides of the question. duarte barbosa, cousin of magellan, alvaro de mezquita, estevan gomez, juan rodrigues de carvalho were portuguese employed by spain along with magellan[2] in the fleet which sailed on the 21st september 1519, from san lucar de barrameda to brazil and the straits which bear the name of that admiral. now the _panorama_ or spanish version of the _univers pittoresque_ states (page 140): "it was at that time, although it has not been possible to ascertain exactly the year, when the illustrious viceroy of the indies sent francisco serrano to the moluccas, a friend, and also, as it is believed, a relation of magellan, the same person who by reason of the exact and precise data which he furnished to the celebrated navigator deserved later to see his name inscribed amongst those of other notable persons, whose fame will last as long as history endures." * * * * * "at the beginning of the same century duarte barbosa also proceeded to the moluccas, and cruised among those countries for the space of sixteen years, collecting interesting notes, which although they were not published till three centuries after the event, are not on that account the less admirable and precious; these reports were published in lisbon in a work which bears the following title: _collecção de noticias para a historia e geografia das nações ultramarinas_; those reports which relate to barbosa are contained in the second volume." now this barcelona ms. contains in an appendix the voyage of three portuguese, a spaniard, and five malays, whose captain was francisco serrano, to the moluccas in the year 1512: this supplies the date of his voyage which the above quoted paragraph says could not be ascertained, and this account is not in ramusio's collection, and there is every reason to suppose that it was as yet unpublished. in addition to what has been said by the writers of the _panorama_ and _univers pittoresque_, in which statement they follow the 3rd decade of the "asia" of barros, lib. v. cap. 8:- "we wrote before how francisco serrão wrote some letters from the maluco islands where he was, to fernão de magalhães, on account of being his friend from the time when both were in india, principally at the taking of malaca:" it was to be expected that barbosa and serrano would furnish their information to magellan, whether as the head of their family, or as the portuguese who had been longest at the spanish court, and through whom they might hope for advancement and further employment, such as duarte barbosa obtained with the fleet which discovered the straits of magellan. magellan returned to europe in 1512. duarte barbosa probably did not return till 1517, since he is said to have remained sixteen years in the indian ocean, and in that case he could not have returned before 1515--however, it is said in the introduction to the lisbon edition that he is the son of diego barbosa, named in the decades as having sailed in 1501 with the first fleet with joão de nova: the same introduction also says that the time of his departure to and return to india are unknown. ramusio's edition of barbosa's narrative says the writing of it was finished in 1516; it does not, however, mention any facts which occurred later than the year 1514. there is reason to suspect that ramusio obtained his copy from the same source as the barcelona manuscript, because the name of the precious stone zircon is spelled differently, giagonza, jagonza, and gegonza, and this difference of orthography coincides in the same places in the spanish manuscript and in ramusio. ramusio gives an appendix containing the prices of precious stones and of spices, but has not got the voyage to the moluccas of francisco serrano. the only reason i can conjecture for this not having reached ramusio is, that it was a confidential paper, on account of the rivalry of spain and portugal with regard to those islands; and it is stated in history that serrano increased the distances so as to enable magellan to persuade the spaniards that the moluccas were more to the eastward, and that they fell within the demarcation of territories assigned by the pope to castille. this account of francisco serrano's voyage, and of his remaining behind married at maluco, was either written by the spaniard who accompanied him, or was translated by some other person than diego ribero and the genoese ambassador centurione, since all the points of the compass which in the body of the work are indicated by the names of winds, are here described by their names, as este, sudoeste, etc. tramontana, greco, maestro, siloque, are all spanish terms, but are less literate than the names of the points of the compass, and seem to be owing to the genoese translator, to whom they would be familiar. it must be observed that the handwriting and paper of the narrative and two appendices of the barcelona ms. are identical, and the leaves are numbered consecutively, so that there is no reason for supposing that the whole papers were not originally, as they now are, placed together. ramusio in various parts of the narrative leaves a blank with the words, _here several lines are wanting_; this may be owing to passages having been struck out for political reasons. the portuguese edition has a short passage not in the spanish ms., the only apparent motive for its omission being that it was to the glorification of the portuguese. since so large a portion of the present volume is contained in the portuguese manuscript of barbosa printed at lisbon, it would be natural to follow ramusio in attributing the work to him: at the same time it is not easy to understand how barbosa, who was in the indian ocean at the time, should have confounded the two naval actions at diu in 1508 and 1509, which he relates as one only, although the portuguese were beaten in the first and victorious in the second. it is also difficult to imagine that one person visited all the places described in this volume, even in the space of sixteen years, at a period when travelling was slower than at present: and the observations on the manners and customs show a more intimate knowledge than what could be acquired by touching at a port for a few days only. this work is that of no ordinary capacity; it shews great power of observation, and also the possession by the writer of great opportunities for inquiry into the manners and habits of the different countries described. it could hardly have been drawn up by an ecclesiastic, there is too great an absence of condemnation of idolatrous practices, and the deficiencies of st. thomas's christians are too lightly spoken of. an ecclesiastic would not have been so indifferent to their mode of communion and to the sale of the sacraments, which caused many to remain unbaptized. the scanty mention of albuquerque and of goa, and its being the sort of political memorandum which a person in magellan's position, seeking service from spain, and desirous of pushing the spanish government to eastern as well as western enterprise, would be likely to write; the commercial details, which are not those of a merchant, but rather of a soldier, for the prices given chiefly relate to provisions, horses and elephants, things useful in war, whilst the prices of jewels and spices, drawn up in a business-like manner, are in an appendix and not referred to in the narrative,--all these circumstances seem almost to justify the conclusion that this volume was drawn up by magellan, or under magellan's guidance, for the purpose of being laid before charles v, at the time that magellan was seeking the command which he received a short time later. this volume derives additional value from the numerous passages in which it runs parallel to the _lusiad_, so that the two confirm one another, and this prose description serves as a commentary to camoens. several passages descriptive of the customs of the nairs of malabar in this work present very forcibly the connection between plato and the hindus. the travels of varthema, a former publication of the hakluyt society, gave evidence of the good administration of india especially in regard to justice in olden times; similar testimony will be found in this volume. the expedient of the king of narsinga for correcting his high officials, without either removing them or lowering them in the eyes of those they had to rule, has not, i believe, been before narrated. though suttee has been so often described, the account of it in these pages possesses much interest and novelty, probably from having been written by an eye-witness, before that institution was disturbed by european influence. an allusion to the english longbow as to a weapon in actual use, gives an appearance of antiquity to this narrative even greater than that which belongs to its date. the orthography of the manuscript is not always uniform, therefore where a name is spelt in two different ways, i have left them as they are given. i have altered the original spelling of the names of only a few familiar places, and have retained the portuguese expressions of moor and gentile, which mean mussulman and heathen, one of which has survived up to the present time in southern india as moorman. any further observations i may have to make on this manuscript will be found in the notes. i wish to express my thanks to sr. d. gregorio romero larrañaga, the head of the barcelona library, and to the other gentlemen of his department, for the cordial manner in which they have supplied me with the contents of their library, and for their assistance in discussing doubtful points. london, october 21, 1865. [illustration: facsimile of handwritten manuscript.] [illustration: facsimile of handwritten manuscript.] preface. (translated from the portuguese edition, lisbon, 1812.) i, duarte barbosa, a native of the very noble city of lisbon, having navigated for a great part of my youth in the indies discovered in the name of the king our lord, and having travelled through many and various countries neighbouring to the coast, and having seen and heard various things, which i judged to be marvellous and stupendous, and which had never been seen nor heard of by our ancestors, resolved to write them for the benefit of all, as i saw and heard of them from day to day, striving to declare in this my book the towns and limits of all those kingdoms to which i went in person, or of which i had trustworthy information; and also which were kingdoms and countries of the moors and which of the gentiles, and their customs. neither have i left in silence their traffic, the merchandise which is met with in them, the places where they are produced, nor whither they are transported. and besides what i saw personally, i always delighted in inquiring of the moors, christians, and gentiles, as to the usages and customs which they practised, and the points of information thus gained i endeavoured to combine together so as to have a more exact knowledge of them, this being always my special object, as it should be of all those who write on such matters; and i am convinced that it will be recognized that i have not spared any diligence in order to obtain this object, as far as the feeble extent of the power of my understanding allows of. it was in the present year of 1516 that i finished writing this my book. description of the east indies and countries on the seabord of the indian ocean in 1514.[3] the cape of st. sebastian after passing the cape of good hope. having passed the cape of good hope in a north-easterly direction, at cape san sebastian, there are very fair mountain lands, and fields, and valleys, in which there are many cows and sheep, and other wild animals; it is a country inhabited by people who are black and naked. they only wear skins with the fur of deer, or other wild animals, like some cloaks in the french fashion, of which people the portuguese, up to the present time, have not been able to obtain information, nor to become acquainted with what there is in the interior of the country. they have no navigation, neither do they make use of the sea, neither have the moors of arabia and persia, or the indies, ever navigated as far as this, nor discovered them, on account of the strong currents of the sea, which is very stormy. islands of the great uciques.[4] having passed cape san sebastian towards the north-east for india, there are some islands close to the mainland to the east, which are called the great uciques; in which, on the side towards the mainland there are a few small towns of moors, who deal with the people of the continent, and they provision themselves from them. in these uciques much amber is found of good quality, which the moors collect and sell in other places, and likewise many pearls and small seed pearls are found in the sea in beds (crusts), which they cannot gather or fish up, and whenever they do get them out they boil them, and extract the said pearls and seed pearls dingy and burnt, and there is no doubt that there are many and good ones, if they knew how to extract them, as is done in sael, cochoromandel, and in barahe,[5] which will be mentioned hereafter. the little vciques islands in rivers. having passed the vciques grandes towards sofala, a fortress which the king of portugal made there, and where there is much gold, at xvii or xviii leagues from it there are some rivers, which make between their branches, islands, called the little vciques, in which there are some villages of the moors, who also deal with the gentiles of the mainland in their provisions, which are rice, millet, and meat, and which they bring in small barks to sufala.[6] sofala. having passed the little vciques, for the indies, at xviii leagues from them there is a river which is not very large, whereon is a town of the moors called sofala,[7] close to which town the king of portugal has a fort. these moors established themselves there a long time ago on account of the great trade in gold which they carry on with the gentiles of the mainland: these speak somewhat of bad arabic (garabia), and have got a king over them, who is at present subject to the king of portugal.[8] and the mode of their trade is that they come by sea in small barks which they call zanbucs (sambuk), from the kingdoms of quiloa, and mombaza, and melindi; and they bring much cotton cloth of many colours, and white and blue, and some of silk; and grey, and red, and yellow beads, which come to the said kingdoms in other larger ships from the great kingdom of cambay, which merchandise these moors buy and collect from other moors who bring them there, and they pay for them in gold by weight, and for a price which satisfies them; and the said moors keep them and sell these cloths to the gentiles of the kingdom of benamatapa who come there laden with gold, which gold they give in exchange for the before mentioned cloths without weighing, and so much in quantity that these moors usually gain one hundred for one. they also collect a large quantity of ivory, which is found all round sofala, which they likewise sell in the great kingdom of cambay at five or six ducats the hundred weight, and so also some amber, which these moors of sofala bring them from the vciques. they are black men, and men of colour--some speak arabic, and the rest make use of the language of the gentiles of the country. they wrap themselves from the waist downwards with cloths of cotton and silk, and they wear other silk cloths above named, such as cloaks and wraps for the head, and some of them wear hoods of scarlet, and of other coloured woollen stuffs and camelets, and of other silks. and their victuals are millet, and rice, and meat, and fish. in this river near to the sea there are many sea horses, which go in the sea, and come out on land at times to feed. these have teeth like small elephants, and it is better ivory than that of the elephant, and whiter and harder, and of greater durability of colour. in the country all round sofala there are many elephants, which are very large and wild, and the people of the country do not know how to tame them: there are also many lions, ounces, mountain panthers, wild asses, and many other animals. it is a country of plains and mountains, and well watered. the moors have now recently begun to produce much fine cotton in this country, and they weave it into white stuff because they do not know how to dye it, or because they have not got any colours; and they take the blue or coloured stuffs of cambay and unravel them, and again weave the threads with their white thread, and in this manner they make coloured stuffs, by means of which they get much gold. kingdom of benamatapa. on entering within this country of sofala, there is the kingdom of benamatapa, which is very large and peopled by gentiles, whom the moors call cafers. these are brown men, who go bare, but covered from the waist downwards with coloured stuffs, or skins of wild animals; and the persons most in honour among them wear some of the tails of the skin behind them, which go trailing on the ground for state and show, and they make bounds and movements of their bodies, by which they make these tails wag on either side of them. they carry swords in scabbards of wood bound with gold or other metals, and they wear them on the left hand side as we do, in sashes of coloured stuffs, which they make for this purpose with four or five knots, and their tassels hanging down, like gentlemen; and in their hands azagayes, and others carry bows and arrows: it must be mentioned that the bows are of middle size, and the iron points of the arrows are very large and well wrought. they are men of war, and some of them are merchants: their women go naked as long as they are girls, only covering their middles with cotton cloths, and when they are married and have children, they wear other cloths over their breasts. zinbaoch.[9] leaving sofala for the interior of the country, at xv days journey from it, there is a large town of gentiles, which is called zinbaoch; and it has houses of wood and straw, in which town the king of benamatapa frequently dwells, and from there to the city of benamatapa there are six days journey, and the road goes from sofala, inland, towards the cape of good hope. and in the said benamatapa, which is a very large town, the king is used to make his longest residence; and it is thence that the merchants bring to sofala the gold which they sell to the moors without weighing it, for coloured stuffs and beads of cambay, which are much used and valued amongst them; and the people of this city of benamatapa say that this gold comes from still further off towards the cape of good hope, from another kingdom subject to this king of benamatapa, who is a great lord, and holds many other kings as his subjects, and many other lands, which extend far inland, both towards the cape of good hope and towards mozambich. and in this town he is each day served with large presents, which the kings and lords, his subjects, send to him; and when they bring them, they carry them bareheaded through all the city, until they arrive at the palace, from whence the king sees them come from a window, and he orders them to be taken up from there, and the bearers do not see him, but only hear his words; and afterwards, he bids them call the persons who have brought these presents, and he dismisses them. this king constantly takes with him into the field a captain, whom they call sono, with a great quantity of men-at-arms, and amongst them they bring six thousand women, who also bear arms and fight. with these forces he goes about subduing and pacifying whatever kings rise up or desire to revolt. the said king of benamatapa sends, each year, many honourable persons throughout his kingdoms to all the towns and lordships, to give them new regulations, so that all may do them obeisance, which is in this manner: each one of the envoys comes to a town, and bids the people extinguish all the fires that there are in it; and after they have been put out, all the inhabitants go to this man who has been sent as commissary, to get fresh fire from him in sign of subjection and obedience; and, whoever should not do this is held as a rebel, and the king immediately sends the number of people that are necessary to destroy him, and these pass through all the towns at their expense: their rations are meat, rice, and oil of sesame.[10] river zuama. leaving sofala for mozambich, at forty leagues from it, there is a very large river, which is called the zuama;[11] and it is said that it goes towards benamatapa,[12] and it extends more than 160 leagues. in the mouth of this river there is a town of the moors, which has a king, and it is called mongalo.[13] much gold comes from benamatapa to this town of the moors, by this river, which makes another branch which falls at angos, where the moors make use of boats (almadias), which are boats hollowed out from a single trunk, to bring the cloths and other merchandise from angos, and to transport much gold and ivory. angoy. after passing this river of zuama, at xl leagues from it, there is a town of the moors on the sea coast, which is called angoy,[14] and has a king, and the moors who live there are all merchants, and deal in gold, ivory, silk, and cotton stuffs, and beads of cambay, the same as do those of sofala. and the moors bring these goods from quiloa, and monbaza, and melynde, in small vessels hidden from the portuguese ships; and they carry from there a great quantity of ivory, and much gold. and in this town of angos there are plenty of provisions of millet, rice, and some kinds of meat. these men are very brown and copper coloured; they go naked from the waist upwards, and from thence downwards, they wrap themselves with cloths of cotton and silk, and wear other cloths folded after the fashion of cloaks, and some wear caps and others hoods, worked with stuffs and silks; and they speak the language belonging to the country, which is that of the pagans, and some of them speak arabic. these people are sometimes in obedience to the king of portugal, and at times they throw it off, for they are a long way off from the portuguese forts. mozambique island. having passed this town of anguox, on the way to india, there are very near to the land three islands, one of which is inhabited by moors, and is called mozambique.[15] it has a very good port, and all the moors touch there who are sailing to sofala, zuama, or anguox. amongst these moors there is a sheriff, who governs them, and does justice. these are of the language and customs of the moors of anguox, in which island the king of portugal now holds a fort, and keeps the said moors under his orders and government. at this island the portuguese ships provide themselves with water and wood, fish and other kinds of provisions; and at this place they refit those ships which stand in need of repair. and from this island likewise the portuguese fort in sofala draws its supplies, both of portuguese goods and of the produce of india, on account of the road being longer by the mainland. opposite this island there are many very large elephants and wild animals. the country is inhabited by gentiles, brutish people who go naked and smeared all over with coloured clay, and their natural parts wrapped in a strip of blue cotton stuff, without any other covering; and they have their lips pierced with three holes in each lip, and in these holes they wear bones stuck in, and claws, and small stones, and other little things dangling from them. island of quiloa. after passing this place and going towards india, there is another island close to the mainland, called quiloa,[16] in which there is a town of the moors, built of handsome houses of stone and lime, and very lofty, with their windows like those of the christians; in the same way it has streets, and these houses have got their terraces, and the wood worked in with the masonry, with plenty of gardens, in which there are many fruit trees and much water. this island has got a king over it, and from hence there is trade with sofala with ships, which carry much gold, which is dispersed thence through all arabia felix, for henceforward all this country is thus named on account of the shore of the sea being peopled with many towns and cities of the moors; and when the king of portugal discovered this land, the moors of sofala, and zuama, and anguox, and mozambique, were all under obedience to the king of quiloa, who was a great king amongst them. and there is much gold in this town, because all the ships which go to sofala touch at this island, both in going and coming back. these people are moors, of a dusky colour, and some of them are black and some white; they are very well dressed with rich cloths of gold, and silk, and cotton, and the women also go very well dressed out with much gold and silver in chains and bracelets on their arms, and legs, and ears. the speech of these people is arabic, and they have got books of the alcoran, and honour greatly their prophet muhamad. this king, for his great pride, and for not being willing to obey the king of portugal, had this town taken from him by force, and in it they killed and captured many people, and the king fled from the island, in which the king of portugal ordered a fortress to be built, and thus he holds under his command and government those who continued to dwell there. island of mombaza. passing quiloa, and going along the coast of the said arabia felix towards india, close to the mainland there is another island, in which there is a city of the moors, called bombaza,[17] very large and beautiful, and built of high and handsome houses of stone and whitewash, and with very good streets, in the manner of those of quiloa. and it also had a king over it. the people are of dusky white, and brown complexions, and likewise the women, who are much adorned with silk and gold stuffs. it is a town of great trade in goods, and has a good port, where there are always many ships, both of those that sail for sofala and those that come from cambay and melinde, and others which sail to the islands of zanzibar, manfia, and penda, which will be spoken of further on. this monbaza is a country well supplied with plenty of provisions, very fine sheep, which have round tails, and many cows, chickens, and very large goats, much rice and millet, and plenty of oranges, sweet and bitter, and lemons, cedrats, pomegranates, indian figs, and all sorts of vegetables, and very good water. the inhabitants at times are at war with the people of the continent, and at other times at peace, and trade with them, and obtain much honey and wax, and ivory. this king, for his pride and unwillingness to obey the king of portugal, lost his city, and the portuguese took it from him by force, and the king fled, and they killed and made captives many of his people, and the country was ravaged,[18] and much plunder was carried off from it of gold and silver, copper, ivory, rich stuffs of gold and silk, and much other valuable merchandize. melinde. after passing the city of mombaza, at no great distance further on along the coast, there is a very handsome town on the mainland on the beach, called melinde,[19] and it is a town of the moors, which has a king. and this town has fine houses of stone and whitewash, of several stories, with their windows and terraces, and good streets. the inhabitants are dusky and black, and go naked from the waist upwards, and from that downwards they cover themselves with cloths of cotton and silk, and others wear wraps like cloaks, and handsome caps on their heads. the trade is great which they carry on in cloth, gold, ivory, copper, quicksilver, and much other merchandise, with both moors and gentiles of the kingdom of cambay, who come to their port with ships laden with cloth, which they buy in exchange for gold, ivory, and wax. both parties find great profit in this. there are plenty of provisions in this town, of rice, millet, and some wheat, which is brought to them from cambay, and plenty of fruit, for there are many gardens and orchards. there are here many of the large-tailed sheep, and of all other meats as above; there are also oranges, sweet and sour. this king and people have always been very friendly and obedient to the king of portugal, and the portuguese have always met with much friendship and good reception amongst them.[20] island of san lorenzo.[21] opposite these places, in the sea above the cape of the currents,[22] at a distance of eighty leagues, there is a very large island, which is called san lorenzo, and which is peopled by gentiles, and has in it some towns of moors. this island has many kings, both moors and gentiles. there is in it much meat, rice, and millet, and plenty of oranges and lemons, and there is much ginger in this country, which they do not make use of, except to eat it almost green. the inhabitants go naked, covering only their middles with cotton cloths. they do not navigate, nor does any one do so for them; they have got canoes for fishing on their coast. they are people of a dark complexion, and have a language of their own. they frequently are at war with one another, and their arms are azagayes, very sharp, with their points very well worked; they throw these in order to wound, and carry several of them in their hands. they are very well built and active men, and have a good method of wrestling. there is amongst them silver of inferior quality. their principal food is roots, which they sow, and it is called yname,[23] and in the indies of spain it is called maize. the country is very beautiful and luxuriant in vegetation, and it has very large rivers. this island is in length from the part of sofala and melinde three hundred leagues, and to the mainland there are sixty leagues. penda, manfia, and zanzibar. between this island of san lorenzo and the continent, not very far from it, are three islands, which are called one manfia, another zanzibar, and the other penda;[24] these are inhabited by moors; they are very fertile islands, with plenty of provisions, rice, millet, and flesh, and abundant oranges, lemons, and cedrats. all the mountains are full of them; they produce many sugar canes, but do not know how to make sugar. these islands have their kings. the inhabitants trade with the mainland with their provisions and fruits; they have small vessels, very loosely and badly made, without decks, and with a single mast; all their planks are sewn together with cords of reed or matting, and the sails are of palm mats. they are very feeble people, with very few and despicable weapons. in these islands they live in great luxury, and abundance; they dress in very good cloths of silk and cotton, which they buy in mombaza of the merchants from cambay, who reside there. their wives adorn themselves with many jewels of gold from sofala, and silver, in chains, ear-rings, bracelets, and ankle rings, and are dressed in silk stuffs: and they have many mosques, and hold the alcoran of mahomed. pate. after passing melinde, and going towards india, they cross the gulf (because the coast trends inwards) towards the red sea, and on the coast there is a town called pate,[25] and further on there is another town of the moors, called lamon;[26] all these trade with the gentiles of the country, and they are strongly-walled towns of stone and whitewash, because at times they have to fight with the gentiles, who live in the interior of the country. brava. leaving these places, further on along the coast is a town of the moors, well walled, and built of good houses of stone and whitewash, which is called brava. it has not got a king; it is governed by its elders,[27] they being honoured and respectable persons. it is a place of trade, which has already been destroyed by the portuguese, with great slaughter of the inhabitants, of whom many were made captives, and great riches in gold, silver, and other merchandise were taken here, and those who escaped fled into the country, and after the place was destroyed they returned to people it. magadoxo.[28] leaving the before-mentioned town of brava, on the coast further on towards the red sea, there is another very large and beautiful town, called magadoxo, belonging to the moors, and it has a king over it, and is a place of great trade in merchandise. ships come there from the kingdom of cambay and from aden with stuffs of all sorts, and with other merchandise of all kinds, and with spices. and they carry away from there much gold, ivory, beeswax, and other things upon which they make a profit. in this town there is plenty of meat, wheat, barley, and horses, and much fruit; it is a very rich place. all the people speak arabic; they are dusky, and black, and some of them white. they are but bad warriors, and use herbs with their arrows to defend themselves from their enemies. afuni.[29] having passed the district and town of magadoxo, further on along the coast is another small town of the moors, called afuni, in which there is abundance of meat and provisions. it is a place of little trade, and has got no port. cape guardafun. after passing this place the next after it is cape guardafun,[30] where the coast ends, and trends so as to double towards the red sea. this cape is in the mouth of the strait of mecca, and all the ships which come from india, that is to say, from the kingdom of cambay, of chaul, dabul, baticala, and malabar, ceylon, choromandel, bengal, sumatra, poggru, tanaseri, malacca, and china, all come to meet at this cape, and from it they enter into the before-mentioned red sea with their merchandise for aden, berbera, and zeyla, and guida, the port of mecca, for which ships the ships of the king of portugal sometimes go and lie in wait and take them with all their riches. met. in doubling this cape of guardafun, towards the inner part of the red sea, there is, just near the said cape, a town of the moors called met,[31] not very large, where there is plenty of meat; it is of little trade. barbara. further on, on the same coast, is a town of the moors called barbara;[32] it has a port, at which many ships of adeni and cambay touch with their merchandise, and from there those of cambay carry away much gold, and ivory, and other things, and those of aden take many provisions, meat, honey, and wax, because, as they say, it is a very abundant country. zeyla. having passed this town of berbara, and going on, entering the red sea, there is another town of the moors, which is named zeyla,[33] which is a good place of trade, whither many ships navigate and sell their cloths and merchandise. it is very populous, with good houses of stone and whitewash, and good streets; the houses are covered with terraces, the dwellers in them are black. they have many horses, and breed much cattle of all sorts, which they make use of for milk, and butter, and meat. there is in this country abundance of wheat, millet, barley, and fruits, which they carry thence to aden. dalaqua. after continuing along the coast from the town of zeyla, there is another place of the moors, called dalaqua,[34] the seaport which is most made use of by the abaxins[35] of the country of prester john. and all round this place there are much provisions, and much gold comes there from the country of prester john. masava savaquin[36] and other places. leaving dalaqua for the interior of the red sea, there are massowa, suakin, and other towns of the moors; and this coast is still called arabia felix, and the moors call it barra ajan,[37] in all which there is much gold which comes from the interior of the country of prester john, whom they call abexi. all these places on this coast trade with the country with their cloths and other merchandise, and they bring from it gold, ivory, honey, wax and slaves; and sometimes they are at war with them, for they are christians, and they capture many of them; and such captives are much valued by the moors, and amongst them are worth much more money than other slaves because they find them sharp and faithful, and well-built men in body, and when they turn moors, they become greater emperors than the original moors. these moors of arabia felix are all black[38] and good fighting men; they go bare from the waist upwards, and from thence downwards they cover themselves with cloths of cotton; and the more honourable men amongst them wear their cloths over them like almalafas,[39] and the women are covered in the same way:[40]... kingdom of prester john. leaving these towns of the moors and entering into the interior of the country, the great kingdom of prester john is to be found, whom the moors of arabia call abexi;[41] this kingdom is very large, and peopled with many cities, towns, and villages, with many inhabitants: and it has many kings subject to it and tributary kings. and in their country there are many who live in the fields and mountains, like beduins: they are black men, very well made: they have many horses, and make use of them, and are good riders, and there are great sportsmen and hunters amongst them. their provisions are flesh of all kinds, milk, butter, and wheaten bread, and of these things there is a great abundance. their clothes are of hides because the country is wanting in cloths; and there is a law amongst them by which certain families and ranks of persons may wear cloths, and the rest of the people may wear only hides well dressed and tanned. amongst them there are men and women who have never drunk water, but only milk, which greatly supports them, and quenches the thirst, on account of its being more healthy and substantial, and there is great abundance of it in the country. these people are christians of the doctrine of the blessed saint bartholomew, as they say; and their baptism is in three kinds, of blood, fire, and water: that is to say, that they circumcise themselves, and mark themselves on the temples and forehead with fire, and also in water, like the catholic christians. many of them are deficient in our true faith, because the country is very large, and whilst in the principal city of babel malech, where prester john resides, they may be christians, in many other distant parts they live in error and without being taught; so that they are only christians in name. babel melech. in the interior of this country is the great city of babel melech,[42] where prester john holds his residence. the moors call him the great king of the habeshys: he is christian, and lord of many extensive countries and numerous people, with whom he makes subject many great kings. he is very rich, and possesses more gold than any other prince. this prester john holds a very large court, and he keeps many men at arms continually in his pay, whom he takes about with him. he goes out very rarely from his dwelling; many kings and great lords come to visit him. in this city a great feast takes place in the month of august, for which so many kings and nobles come together, and so many people that they are innumerable: and on this day of the feast in august they take an image out of a church, which is believed to be that of our lady, or that of st. bartholomew, which image is of gold and of the size of a man; its eyes are of very large and beautiful rubies of great value, and the whole of it is adorned with many precious stones of much value, and placing it in a great chariot of gold, they carry it in procession with very great veneration and ceremony, and prester john goes in front of this car in another gold car, very richly dressed in cloth of gold with much jewellery. and they begin to go out thus in the morning, and go in procession through all the city with much music of all sorts of instruments, until the evening, when they go home. and so many people throng to this procession, that in order to arrive at the car of the image many die of being squeezed and suffocated; and those who die in this wise are held as saints and martyrs; and many old men and old women go with a good will to die in this manner. suez. leaving this country of prester john and the coast of the sea of arabia felix, and turning to the other part of the red sea, which is also called arabia, and the moors call it barra arab, there is a village, a seaport called suez,[43] and thither the moors of guida, the port of mecca, bring all the spices, drugs, precious stones, seed pearl, amber, musk, and other merchandise of great value from the parts about india; and from there they load them on camels to carry them by land to cairo, and from cairo other merchants carry them to alexandria; and from there the venetians and other christians usually export them. and this trade now, in a great measure, ceases on account of the portuguese, whose fleets prohibit the navigation of the moors from india to the red sea.[44] and the great sultan, lord of cairo, who loses most by this, ordered a fleet to be built in the port of suez, for which he had the wood and artillery, and other equipments transported by land, in which much money was expended; and this fleet was of ships and galleys, in order to pass with it to india and there forbid the portuguese from cruising. and when this fleet was built many people of different nations went with it to the first india, which is the kingdom of cambay; and the captain of it was amir uçen,[45] and with this fleet they met that of portugal in front of a city named dyu, and there they fought vigorously, and many people were killed, and at last the moors, turks, and mamelukes were conquered and all their fleet was taken and part of it burned, and on this account and several other victories which the portuguese gained over the before-mentioned moors, they lost their navigation in the red sea, and the said port of suez remains without the trade in spices. mount sinai. near the said city of suez there is in the country of arabia on the red sea, the mountain of sinai, where lies the blessed saint catharine in a church, in which there are christian friars, under the lordship of the sultan, to which building the devout of all christian countries come in pilgrimage, and the chief part of those that throng thither are from the country of prester john and armenia, babilonia, constantinople, and jerusalem. eliobon and medina. having passed mount sinai, which the moors call tur, along the coast of the red sea going out of it, there is a village of the moors, a seaport called eliobon,[46] and it is a port where they disembark for medina, which is another town of the moors, up the country at three days' journey from the port, and the body of mahomed is buried in it. guida port of meca. leaving the port of eliobon to go out of the red sea, there is a town of the moors, called guida, and it is the port of mecca, whither the ships used to come every year from india with spices and drugs, and they returned thence to calicut with much copper, quicksilver, vermillion, saffron, rose-water, scarlet silks, camelots, tafetans and other goods, of stuffs used in india, and also with much gold and silver; and the trade was very great and profitable. and from this port of guida these spices and drugs were transported in small vessels to suez, as has been already said. meca. at one day's journey up the country from the port of guida is the great city of meca, in which there is a very large mosque, to which all the moors from all parts go in pilgrimage, and they hold for certain that they are saved by washing with the water of a well which is in this mosque: and they carry it away from there in bottles to their countries as a great relic. in the aforesaid guida port of mecca a fortress has been lately built by emir hussein, the moorish captain of the ships of the sultan, which the portuguese destroyed in india: this captain when he saw himself defeated, did not dare return to his country without performing some service to his king, and he decided on begging of the king of cambay (who is called sultan mahamud) assistance in money, and so also from the nobles and merchants of his kingdom and from other moorish kings, in order to construct this fortress, saying: that since the portuguese, (whom they call franks) were so powerful, it would not be wonderful if they were to come into this port and were to go and destroy the house of mahomet. and these moorish kings and people hearing his petition, and seeing the power of the king of portugal, it seemed to them that this might come to pass, and thus all gave him great gifts, by means of which he loaded three ships with spices and other merchandise, and went with them to the red sea, and arrived at guida, where he sold them, and with the money he made the said fortress, and during the time that he was building it, the portuguese were making another inside the town of calicut,[47] and the king of calicut begged the captain major of the king of portugal to give him permission to send then a ship laden with spices to mecca. and this permission was given him, and the ship was sent. and there went in it as captain an honourable person of the moors named califa, and he arrived at guida the port of mecca, where he came on shore very well dressed out, along with his people, and he found emir hussein building his fortress, and was asked by him news of the portuguese. and this califa answered him, telling him how they were in great peace at calicut, and making a handsome fortress. and emir hussein asked him, how dare you come to mecca being a friend of the portuguese? califa answered him, i am a merchant and am unable to do anything, but you who are a captain of the great sultan if you go to india to turn them out of it, how came you to leave them there, and to make a fortress here? at which emir hussein was much put out, and ordered califa immediately, and well dressed as he was, to take stones and mortar, he and his people, and help to build the fortress: and he made him work for the space of an hour.[48] and califa related this in calicut later when he returned there.[49] jazan, hali, alhor. leaving jiddah the port of mekkah, to go out of the red sea there are three towns of the moors, which have got kings over them, one is called jazan,[50] another hali, and the other alhor; in these there are many horses and plenty of provisions. this king does not obey the sultan nor any other king whatever; he holds many countries under him in which he has many towns with many sea ports, from which the moorish merchants used to export a few horses to india in their merchant ships, because there they are worth a good deal. hodeyda, maha, babel mende. having passed these places and kingdom, there are three places further on the coast which belong to the kingdom of aden; the one they call hodeyda, the other maha,[51] the other babelmende, which is in the mouth of the strait of the red sea where the ships enter it, and at this place the ships take pilots as far as jiddah, who live by it. island of camaron. in the sea of these other places, there is a small island called camaron,[52] inhabited by moors, in which the ships were accustomed to take refreshments when they passed by it to jiddah. this island was ravaged by alonso de alboquerque, captain of the king of portugal; and he staid there for some days repairing his fleet in order to leave the red sea, for the season did not allow him to go as far as jiddah, to which he wished to arrive. adem. coming out of the red sea by babelmendel, which is in the straits, as has been said, towards the open sea, further on the coast there are several towns of moors, which all belong to the kingdom of aden, and having passed these villages you arrive at the town of aden, which belongs to the moors, and has a king over it. it is a very handsome city, with very large and fine houses, and a place of much trade, with good streets, and surrounded with a strong wall in their fashion. this city is on a point between a mountain and the sea; and this mountain ridge on the side of the main land is a precipitous rock, in such manner that on that side it has no more than one entrance, and on the top of this ridge, where the town is, there are many small towers, which look very pretty from the sea. inside the city there is no water at all, and outside of the gate towards the main land there is a building to which they make water come in pipes from another mountain at some little distance from there, and between one ridge and the other ridge there was a great plain. in this city there are great moorish merchants, and many jews.[53] they are white men, a few of them black, they dress in cloth of cotton, silk, scarlet wool, and camelots. their clothes are long robes, and they wear caps on their heads, and with low shoes on their feet. their victuals are plenty of meat, wheaten bread, and rice which comes from india: there is plenty of fruit as in our parts, and there are in this place many horses and camels. the king is always in the interior of the country, and he maintains his governor in this city. many ships, great and small, come there from many parts; that is to say, from jiddah, whence they bring them much copper and quicksilver, and vermillion, coral, cloths of wool and silk. and they take from here in return spices, drugs, cotton cloths, and other things from cambay, with provisions and other goods. many ships also touch there from zeyla and berbera with provisions and other goods, and carry away from there stuffs from cambay, alaquequas,[54] and large and small beads perforated for stringing, with which they trade in arabia felix, and in the country of prester john. some ships from ormuz likewise touch there to trade, and also from cambay, whence they bring much cotton stuff, spices, drugs, jewels and pearls, alaquequas, spun cotton, and unspun; and they take from these madder, opium, raisins, copper, quicksilver, vermillion, rose-water which they make there, woollen and silk stuffs, coloured stuffs from mecca, and gold in ingots or coined, and thread and camelots. and these ships of cambay are so many and so large, and with so much merchandise, that it is a terrible thing to think of so great an expenditure of cotton stuffs as they bring. there come likewise to this port of aden many ships from chaul and dabul, and from bengal and the country of calicut; they used to come there with the before-mentioned goods and with a large quantity of rice and sugar, and cocoa-nuts which grow on the palm trees, and which are like nuts in flavour, and with the kernels[55] they make drinking cups. there also arrive there ships from bengal, samatra, and malaca, which bring much spices and drugs, silks, benzoin, alacar,[56] sandal-wood, aloes-wood, rhubarb, musk, and much cotton stuffs from bengal and mangala,[57] so that it is a place of as much trade as there can be in the world, and of the richest merchandise. the fleet and armament of the king of portugal came to this city, and took and burned in its harbour several ships laden with much merchandise, and several empty ships, and it made an assault to enter the town, and mounted the walls with scaling ladders, which broke with the weight of the many people on them; so that the portuguese went out again, and abandoned the town: and at this entry the moors defended themselves very vigorously, and many of them died, and some of the christians. kingdom of fartach. having passed the said kingdom of aden, going out of the strait towards the east, there is another kingdom of the moors about twenty-five leagues off, near the sea, it has three or four towns on the coast, and they are called xebech, diufar,[58] and fartach.[59] these moors have got a king over them and are very good fighting men: they have got horses which they make use of in war, and good arms with short blades; the said king is subject to the king of aden and is his servant. cape fartach and the island of sacotora. in this country and kingdom there is a cape which is called cape fartach, where the coast turns and makes a bend towards the said sea between north-east and east,[60] and between this cape and that of guardafun, is the mouth of the strait of mecca, which runs north-west and south-east,[61] and it is xl leagues in width, where all the ships pass for those voyages and to the red sea. above cape guardafun, to the north-east by east, twenty-seven leagues off, is an island called sacotora, with very high mountains, it is inhabited by dusky people, who are said to be christians; but they are deficient in the teaching of the christian law and baptism, and have got only the name of christians: they have in their chapels crosses, +.[62] it was in former times a country of christians, and the christian doctrine was lost there on account of christian navigation having ceased there; and the moors say that this was an island of amazons, who later in the course of time mixed with men, and something of this appears to be the case, since there the women administer property and manage it, without the husbands having a voice in the matter. these people have a language of their own; they go without clothes, and only cover their nakedness with cotton cloths and skins: they have many cows and sheep, and date palms. their victuals are meat, milk, and dates. in this island there is much dragon's blood[63] and aloes of socotra. and the moors of fartach built in it a fortress, to subjugate them, and turn them moors; and some of those that lived around the fortress were moors, and served the moors of the fort like their slaves, both in their persons and property. a fleet of the king of portugal arrived at this island, and took this fortress by force of arms from the moors of fartach, fighting with them: and they defended themselves much more vigorously than any men of these parts; so that they never would give themselves up, and all died in the fight, for none of them escaped; so that they are very good and daring fighting men. the captain of this fleet left troops and artillery in this fortress in order to keep it in the name of the king of portugal. and quite near to this island of sacotora there are two other islands inhabited by coloured people and blacks, like the people of the canary islands, without law or knowledge, and they have no dealings with any other people. in these two islands much amber and of good quality is found, and many shells of the valuable and precious kind in the mine, and much dragon's blood and aloes of socotra; and there are large flocks of sheep and oxen. diufar. leaving cape fartach towards the coast of the open sea to the north-east by east, going along the coast l leagues off is a town of the moors and seaport called diufar,[64] a city of the kingdom of fartach, in which the moors of cambay trade in cotton stuffs, rice, and other goods. xeher.[65] further on from this place, in the direction of the same wind, at xx leagues off, along the same coast, is another town of the moors, called xeher; it also belongs to the kingdom of fartach, and is very large; it has a large trade in the stuffs, which the moors of cambay, chaul, dabul, and baticala, and the country of malabar, bring in their ships to this port and town of xeher; these are coarse and fine cotton stuffs, with which they clothe themselves; granates on strings and several other jewels of small value, much rice, sugar, and spice of all kinds, cocoa-nuts, and other goods, which they sell there to the merchants of the country, who carry them from there to aden and all this part of arabia. and the importers afterwards employ the money in horses for india: these are very large and very good, and each one of them in india is worth five or six hundred ducats. and they also take from there much wormwood,[66] which grows in that country. and in the interior of the country all the people are beduins: in this country there is much wheat and plenty of meat and dates, grapes, and all other fruits which are in our parts. and all the ships which sail from india for the red sea, and having been delayed cannot arrive in good time[67] with their merchandise at the place of their destination, remain to sell them in this port of xeher, and from there they go to india along the coast to cambay. and so this port is large and of much trade at all times. this king of fartach is, with the whole of his kingdom, in obedience to the king of aden, because he holds a brother of his a prisoner. the wormwood which grows in this country of xeher is carried from here to all the world, and the ships of this place load[68] the said wormwood, which is there worth a hundred and fifty maravedis the hundred weight. fasalhad. having passed this town of xeher, along the coast there are other small towns, and beduins in the interior of the country. this coast lasts as far as cape fasalhat, which is xxv leagues from xeher, between north-east and east, where the kingdom and rule of the king of ormuz begins. at this cape there is a fortress which the king of ormuz holds there which is called cor: and from there the coast begins to bend inwards towards ormuz. kingdom of ormuz. after passing this cape of fasalhat along the coast to the north-east, there are many towns and castles of the kingdom of ormuz in arabia, fifty leagues to the north-east, and then twenty-five leagues to the east, and as much again to the north-east and north, and then it makes a bay to the north-west for twelve leagues, and turns to the north-east twenty-five leagues as far as cape refalcate,[69] and then it turns to the north-west, making bays until madea, which are eighty-six leagues off, and from there it trends to the north-east by north thirty leagues until cape mocondon,[70] which is at the mouth of the sea of persia, which is twelve leagues in width, and on this sea also further on, this rule and lordship continue to extend, and there are in it many towns and forts; and islands which are in the midst of the said sea of persia, inhabited by moors. these places belonging to this kingdom are the following. in the beginning of this kingdom on the coast outside of this sea of persia, is:-first calhat,[71] a very large town of handsome houses, and well situated; the inhabitants are rich nobles and merchants: it is forty-four leagues from cape fasalhat. thirty-two leagues further on there is another small place called tybi, which has good water with which the ships navigating all this coast provide themselves. twenty-five leagues further on is another small place called daxnia, also a seaport. thirty leagues further on is another large place which is a very good town of much trade in merchandise, which is called curiat,[72] in which, as well as in the others in the neighbourhood, there is plenty of meat, wheat, dates, and other fruit in abundance: there are plenty of horses, which are bred in the country, and they are very good, and the moors of ormuz come to buy them for exportation to india. leaving this town of curiat, at twelve leagues along the coast is another place with a fortress which is called sar,[73] which the king of ormuz keeps there. having doubled the cape of resalcate, the coast turns to the sea of persia. forty leagues further on from this cape is another town upon the coast itself called mazquate. it is a large town, and of very honourable people, and of much trade in merchandise, and a place of great fisheries: they catch large fish there, which they export dried and salted to other parts. going along the coast further on to the sea of persia there is at a distance of ten leagues another place called sohar.[74] leaving this town of sohar, further inland from the coast, at fourteen leagues off is another fortress of the king of ormuz called rosach; and with these fortresses this king is better able to keep all this country in subjection. having passed the fortress of rosach, there is another fortress called nahel twelve leagues off. twelve leagues further on is another place they call madeha; it is a small place, of few inhabitants, inside the mouth of the sea of persia, thirty leagues to the south-west.[75] further on, there is a large place of many inhabitants called corfasan,[76] around which and the other neighbouring places are many very agreeable country houses belonging to the chief men and most honoured of the moors of ormuz, who come during certain months of the year there to repose, and to collect their provisions, and enjoy their fruit. fifteen leagues further on there is another place on the coast, called dadena. as much again further on to the south-west, another place called daba. further on, on the coast to the south-west by west, at a distance of lxxxv leagues, is another very large town called julfar,[77] where there are many very respectable people, and many merchants and sailors. and there they fish up many large pearls and seed pearls, which the merchants of the city of ormuz come there to buy, to carry them to india and other parts. this place is one of much trade, and produces a great deal to the king of ormuz. further along the coast of the persian sea, in the before-mentioned inner part, are three other places belonging to the king of ormuz: raçolhiman,[78] which is a good town, at a distance of twenty-four leagues, and another beyond this, called melquehoan,[79] and six leagues further on there is a fortress called calba,[80] which the king maintains to defend his country from the bedouins, who live in the interior of the country, and who are governed by sheikhs; and at times they go against these towns of the kingdom of ormuz, and make war upon them, and sometimes they make them rebel against the king. this king of ormuz possesses, besides these places already mentioned, on the coast of arabia, many other towns in the country of persia, on the sea-coast, and in the midst of the persian sea many islands inhabited by moors, in which he has many large towns, very rich and handsome, all of which are named separately further on, and afterwards the island and city of ormuz and its customs are mentioned. on this coast the king of ormuz has a town called baha,[81] in which he maintains his governors. having passed this place, further along the coast is another place called dexar. further on another place called xahen. further on another place called ygun.[82] further on another place called el-guadun. further on another place called nabani,[83] from which place they carry much water to drink to ormuz, because there is no drinkable water there; and from this and all those other places they carry to ormuz all its supplies. further on is another place called guan-meda, and from there further on there are also some other places belonging to the king of ormuz, which are the following--lefete, quesebi,[84] and from here further on the coast turns to the north-west by north as far as the mouth of the river eufrates, and it begins here to be a wide estuary. berohu,[85] caljar, xuza, mohimasim,[86] lima,[87] gorbaz, alguefa, carmon.[88] which lasts two hundred and forty leagues, and then bazera, a castle of sophi. at the entrance of the river eufrates the land turns to the sea in a southerly direction eighty leagues, and then returns as much again to the north, and after that turns again to the south, when there begin these towns--cohomo, barque guex,[89] ganguan, basido,[90] goxtaque, conch, conga, ebrahemi,[91] and as far as this there are one hundred and sixty-five leagues, and after that xenase,[92] menahao xamile, leytam, bamtani, doani,[93] and from this point the coast trends to the east for a distance of thirty leagues as far as lorom.[94] between these places there are many large towns with much trade, and very respectable inhabitants, and great merchants; and many castles, which the king of ormuz maintains for the defence of his country, and they are all on the coast of the persian sea. they are places abundantly supplied with meat and wheaten bread, barley, vines, and all other things which are found in our parts, and many dates; and the inhabitants of these towns are white, and very polite people; they dress in long clothes of silk and cotton stuffs and camelots; and this is a very rich country. the islands of the kingdom of ormuz. in the mouth of this sea of persia there are the following islands belonging to the king of ormuz. cuyx, andrany,[95] baxeal, _quiro_,[96] _lar_,[97] cojar,[98] tomon,[99] _firror_ guolar, melugan,[100] gory, queximi,[101] baharem.[102] these two islands of queximi and baharem are large; and queximi has eight inhabited towns and has plenty of provisions. baharem has a large town of many moors, important and honourable personages. and it is distant from lorom to the north-east xxxiv leagues, and to the island of queximi fifty leagues of channel; and between it and the mainland from two to four leagues; and after that the coast turns between north-east and east, until the island of ormuz for xxxv leagues, of which island mention is made lower down.[103] merchants from many parts reside in this island, and it is situated in the middle of this sea, and many ships with great merchandise sail to it; and here and in the neighbourhood much seed pearl and many pearls are produced, and they fish them on the island itself, from which there is a great profit to the inhabitants; and the king draws from this island and from all the others large revenues. the merchants of ormuz go to this island of baharem to buy the pearls and seed pearl for india and other parts where they find it profitable, and for the kingdom of narsinga; and also those of persia and arabia go there to buy them, and in all this sea of persia these pearls are found, but not in such quantity as in this island of baharem. country of sheikh ismail. after passing these countries along the coast of persia, there are many towns, places, and villages of the moors, very handsome and rich enough. from here further on it is no longer the country of the king of ormuz, but belongs to other lords, of whom we do not possess so much information, except that xeque yzmael[104] subjugates and governs them. he is a moor, and a young man, who in a short time has subjugated these parts, and a great part of persia and arabia, and many kingdoms and lordships of the moors, not being a king nor the son of a king, except that he was only a sheikh of the house and lineage of aly, the brother-in-law[105] of mahomed; and, being poor, he united with other young moors, and they took up the habit of going without clothes, which is a custom amongst them; they abandoned their property, honours, and clothes, and only covered themselves with skins of goats, and leopards, and deer with the fur, which many are in the habit of carrying, and they mark their arms and breasts with many scars of burns; and they carry heavy iron chains, and in their hands some weapons, different from those of other people, such as small battle-axes of much workmanship, and iron maces; they go as pilgrims, and do not sustain themselves except by alms; and to such people, wherever they go, much honour and entertainment is shown by the other moors; and they always go shouting and crying out in the villages the name of mahomet. so this sheikh ismail took this habit, and determined to shout and cry out for aly, whilst he took no heed of mahomed. many people began to collect round him, so that he began soon to take towns and to grant property to the persons who flocked to him, and were with him at a conquest; and, in case they took nothing, he decided on making some hoods of scarlet wool, of ample dimensions, and ordering them to be worn by the persons who followed him;[106] thus he collected many people, and with them he went on taking many towns, and making war in many parts; and he did not choose to be called king, but the leveller of property, who took from those who had much, and gave to those who had little; neither did he choose to rest in any place. but all that he conquered he gave away and distributed to those who followed and obeyed him; whenever he found any very rich people whose riches did not profit any one, he took them away and distributed them amongst honourable people and the poor; and to the owners of the property he left a share equal to that which he gave to each one of the others; this he did many times, on which account they called him the equaller. this king sent ambassadors to all the moorish kings to persuade them to wear those coloured hoods, and if they did not choose to accept them, he sent to challenge them, and to say that he would come against them, to take their country, and make them believe in aly. he sent this embassy to the great sultan of cairo and to the grand turk, who gave him a hostile answer and made a league against him. as soon as sheikh ismail saw their answers he determined to go against the grand turk, and he went against him with large forces, horse and foot, and the turk came out to receive him, and they had a great battle,[107] in which the grand turk was the conqueror, on account of the quantity of artillery which he brought with him, which sheikh ismail did not bring, and he only fought with his men with the strength of their arms. they killed there many of his people, and he took to flight, and the turk followed him, killing many of his troops, until he left him within persia, when he returned thence to turkey. this was the first time that this sheikh ismail was routed, for which he said that he wished to return to turkey with greater power and provided with artillery. this king ruled over a part of babilonia, and armenia, and persia, and a large part of arabia, and of india, near to the kingdom of cambay. his design was to get into his hands the house of mekkah. this sheikh sent an embassy with many presents to the captain of the king of portugal, who was exercising his functions in india, and asked him to agree to peace and friendship. and the portuguese captain-major received this embassy and presents, and in return sent another embassy.[108] at the extremity of this sea of persia there is, as has been said, a fortress called basera, inhabited by moors, in subjection to sheikh ismail, at which there comes out from the mainland to the sea a very large and beautiful river of good fresh water, which is called frataha.[109] this is said to be one of the four rivers which flow out of the terrestrial paradise, which river is the eufrates, and these moors say it has sixty thousand branches, and that one of the principal ones comes out at the kingdom of dahulcino, in which is the first india, which we call the river indus; and the river ganges is the other branch, which comes out in the second india to the sea; and the nile, which is another branch, which comes through the country of prester john, and waters cairo.[110] island and city of ormuz. on coming out of the sea and strait of persia, in its mouth there is a small island, in which is the city of ormuz, which is small and very handsome, and with very pretty houses, lofty, of stone, whitewash, and mortar, covered with terraces, and because the country is very hot, they have fans made in such a manner that they make the air come from their summits to the lower part of the houses and rooms. it is a very well situated town, which has very good streets and squares. outside of this city, in the island itself, there is a small mountain, which is entirely of rock salt and sulphur; this salt is in great lumps, and very white and good: they call it indian salt, because nature produces it there; and the ships which come there from all parts take this salt as ballast, because in all other parts it is worth much money. the inhabitants of this island and city are persians and arabs, and they speak arabic and another language which they call persian. they are very white, and good-looking people, of handsome bodies, both men and women; and there are amongst them black and coloured people also, who are from the country of arabia. and the persians, who are very white, are fat and luxurious people, who live very well. they are very voluptuous, and have musicians with various instruments. there are among them very rich merchants, and many ships, because they have a good port, and they trade in many kinds of goods, which are imported there from many parts, and exported thence to other parts of india. they bring there all sorts of spices, drugs, precious stones, and other goods, such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmeg, long pepper, aloes-wood, sandal-wood, brasil-wood, balsam, tamarinds, indian saffron, beeswax, iron, sugar, rice, cocoa-nuts, rubies, sapphires, giagonzas,[111] amethysts, topazes, chrysolites, hyacinths, porcelain, benzoin; and upon all these goods much money is made, and many stuffs from the kingdom of cambay, chaul, dabul, and bengala, which are called sinabasos, chautars, mamonas, dugasas, soranatis, which are kinds of stuffs of cotton very much valued amongst them for caps and shirts, which are much made use of by the arabs and persians, and people of cairo, aden, and alexandria. they also bring to this city of ormuz, quicksilver, vermillion, rose-water, brocade and silk stuffs, scarlet woollens, coarse camelots, and silk. and from china and catuy they bring to this city by land much fine silk in skeins, and very rare musk and rhubarb;[112] and they bring from babilonia very fine torquoises, and some emeralds, and very fine lapis lazuli from acar. and from baharem and julfar they bring much seed pearl and large pearls, and many horses from arabia and persia, of which they carry away to india every year as many as five or six hundred, and at times a thousand; and the ships which export these horses load much salt, dates, and raisins, and sulphur, and of the other goods which the indians are pleased with. these moors of ormuz are very well dressed, with very white, long, and fine cotton shirts, and their fine drawers[113] of cotton, and above that, very rich silk clothes and camelots, scarlet cloth, and very rich gauzes, with which they wrap their waists[114], and they wear in their girdles daggers and knives, ornamented with gold and silver, and some heavy short swords, all adorned with gold and silver, according to the rank of the wearers: and large round shields, richly garnished with silk, and in their hands they carry turkish bows, painted with gold and very pretty colours, and their cords are of silk. these bows are of stiff wood and of buffaloe's horn; they carry very far, and these people are very good archers; their arrows are slender and well worked. others carry in their hands iron maces, well wrought and elegant; others again, battle-axes of various patterns and of very good temper, and inlaid or enamelled.[115] they are very agreeable and polite people, and very civil in their mutual relations. their food is of very good meats, very well cooked, wheaten bread, and very good rice, and many other dishes very well prepared, and many kinds of conserves, and preserved fruits, and others fresh: that is to say, apples, pomegranates, peaches, apricots, figs, almonds, melons, radishes, salads, and all the other things which there are in spain; dates of many kinds, and other eatables and fruits not used in our parts. they drink wine of grapes in secret, because their law forbids it them; and the water which they drink is flavoured with pistachio nuts, and set to cool, for which purpose they employ and seek many methods for cooling and preserving it cool. and all the noblemen and honourable merchants always take, wherever they go, both in the streets and public places, and on the road, a page with a bottle of water, which is covered underneath with silver, or with a silver cup, as much for state and show as for use and comfort. all these people possess gardens and farms, to which they go to enjoy themselves for some months of the year.[116] this city of ormuz is, as has been said, very rich and well supplied with everything in the way of provisions, but everything is very dear, because it is brought by sea from the towns of arabia and persia, for in the island there is nothing that can be made use of except salt; neither have they water to drink, for they bring it each day in boats from the mainland or other neighbouring islands. but for all that, the squares are full of all sorts of things, and everything is sold by weight, and with great order and regulation. and they give a very proper punishment to whoever falsifies the weights or sells above the regulation price; and they also sell cooked and roasted meat by weight, and so with all other cooked victuals; and all these so well arranged and so clean that many people do not have cooking done in their houses, but eat in the squares. the king is always in this city of ormuz, in which he has some beautiful palaces, and a fortress, where he has his residence, and where he keeps his treasury; and there he holds all his court, and out of it provides governors or judges for all his states and lordships. but it is his council that does everything; and he does not meddle with any affair, but only amuses himself, neither would it have been in his power to do otherwise; for if he wished to govern in person, and wished to be free and exempt like other kings, immediately they would put his eyes out, and would put him in a house with his wife, and maintain him there miserably; and they would raise up another son of his as king, or some one else more fitting for it, of his lineage, in order that his council may govern all his kingdoms and territories peacefully in his name. and with respect to all the other heirs of the kingdom, as they grow up and become persons able to command and govern, if it should appear to the council that they desire to meddle with the government, they take them and put their eyes out also, and put them also in a house; so that there are always ten or twelve of these blind men, and those who reign live with this fear before them.[117] they give food there to them and to their wives and children. this king has many men-at-arms, and many gentlemen who guard and serve him, and they receive very good pay and rations, and are always at the court with their arms; and they send some to the frontiers on the mainland whenever they are required. they make gold and silver money in this city; the gold coins are called sarafin, and are worth three hundred maravedis, and most of them are halves, which are worth a hundred and fifty, a round coin like ours,[118] and with moorish letters on both sides, and about the size of a fanon of calicut, with moorish letters, and it is worth fifty-five maravedis; they call these tanga, and they are of very fine silver, and of the standard of twelve dinars.[119] there is a large quantity of this money, both gold and silver, and much of it goes out to india, where it has much currency. there came a portuguese fleet to this kingdom of ormuz, and its captain-major was alfonso de alborquerque, who attempted to come to an understanding with this kingdom of ormuz, but the moors would not agree, and on that account this captain began to make war upon the whole kingdom at all the seaports, and he did them much injury, and at last he came and touched at the port of ormuz with his fleet, and there was a great battle there, with many and great ships full of many and smart well-armed men. and the said captain routed the fleet of the moors, and killed many of them, and sunk many of their ships, and took and burned many which were moored in the harbour, drawn up by the wall of the city. and when the king and the governors of the country saw such great destruction of their people and ships, without being able to assist them, they offered peace to the before-mentioned captain, who accepted it under the condition that they should let him make a fortress at one extremity of the city; and they agreed, and this began to be done; and the work having commenced, the moors repented again, and did not choose that more should be built; and then the portuguese began again to make war upon them, and they did them so great damage, and slaughtered so many people, that they made them tributary to the king of portugal to the amount of fifteen thousand serafins of gold each year. some years from that time the king and governors of ormuz sent an ambassador with offers of services and letters to the king of portugal, and the before-named captain returned with his answer and a good fleet to the city of ormuz,[120] and there they received him very peacefully in this city, and at once gave him permission and a place in which to built the fortress, which on a former occasion the portuguese had begun to build: and he ordered it to be built at once, very large and magnificent. at this time the king, who was a moor, and very young, and in the power of the governors, and so ruined that he did not dare do anything of himself, found the means to inform the captain-major secretly of the little liberty he enjoyed, and that the governors kept him like a prisoner, and that they had forcibly taken the government which belongs to others who were accustomed to exercise it, and that it appeared that they were exchanging letters with sheikh ismail in order to give him the kingdom. the captain-major kept this very secret, and determined to have an interview with the king; and they agreed that this interview should be in some large houses near the sea. on the day on which the interview was to take place, the captain-major entered the houses with ten or fifteen captains, leaving his people well arranged, and all concerted as was most convenient. so the king and his principal governor came there with many people, and the king and the governor entered the houses with ten or twelve honourable moors, and the door was well shut and guarded. then the captain-major ordered them to kill the governor[121] with their daggers in his presence and that of the king: and he said to the king, "have no fear, sir, for i do this to make you absolute king." however those who were without heard the noise, and began to raise a disturbance, that it to say, the relations, servants, and friends of the said governor, who were many in number, and all came armed, so that it was necessary for the captain-major to take the king by the hand; they went up on to the roof, both of them armed, in order that the king might speak thence to the moors, and might pacify them; so he spoke to them, but could do nothing with them. they, on the contrary, required that he should confide to them his brother and lord: and they went thence to establish themselves in the king's palace, saying they would make another king. the captain-major wished to lay hands upon them, and thus they remained a great part of the day, and the king sought how to turn them out, and the captain-major determined to kill them by force or to drive them out, as they did not choose to go out of the fortress. so when the moors saw that the captain-major, with the king, was determined to attack them, they resolved to give the fortress to the king; and when they gave it up, the king commanded that they should be banished immediately, they and their families; and this was done, and they went to the mainland. the captain-major conducted the king from these houses to the palace in triumph and honourably, and with many people, both of ours and of his, and entrusted him to the other governor who was so before. he then committed to him his palaces and the city very freely, and told the governor to serve the king very honourably, and to leave him to govern his country at his pleasure, and only give him advice, as happens with other moorish kings: and thus he put him at liberty. he then left in the fortress that was built a captain and many men of portugal, and ships, in order to favour this king, who does nothing without the advice of the captain of the fort. and he is in submission to the king of portugal, with all his kingdoms and territories. after the captain-major had put everything in quiet and order, and under his command, he then had banished by the public crier, and turned out of the island all the paiderastoi, with a warning that if they returned there again they would be burned, at which the king showed great satisfaction. he likewise ordered all the blind kings who were in the city to be taken, and there were thirteen or fourteen of them, and put in a large ship, and he sent them to india, and they were landed at goa, where he gave orders for them to be maintained at the expense of his revenues, so that they might end their days there, and not cause any disturbance in the kingdom of ormuz, and be in peace and quietness. diulcindi. leaving the kingdom of ormuz, from the mouth of the sea of persia the coast goes to the south-east for a hundred and seventy-two leagues as far as diulcinde,[122] entering the kingdom of ulcinde,[123] which is between persia and india. it is a kingdom, and has a moorish king over it, and most of the inhabitants of the country are moors, and there are some gentiles subject to the moors. this king has an extended rule over the country in the interior, and few seaports. they have many horses. on the eastern side this country is bounded by the kingdom of cambay, and on the west by persia. it is in obedience to sheikh ismail. the moors are white and coloured; they have a language of their own, and also speak that of the persians and of arabia. there is much wheat and barley in this country, and plenty of meat. it is a level country, with little timber. they make little practice of navigating the sea; they possess extensive sea-beaches, where there are great fisheries, and they catch large fish, which they dry and salt, both for consumption in the country and for exportation in small vessels to other kingdoms. in this country they give dried fish to their horses to eat. a few ships which sail to this country from india, bring rice, sugar, and some spices, timber, planks, and indian canes, which are as thick as a man's leg. and in all this trade they make much money; and from this place they carry away cotton, horses, and cloth. a great river comes into the sea through this kingdom; it comes through the middle of persia, and they say that it comes out of the river eufrates. along this river there are many large and rich towns of moors. it is a very fertile and fruitful land, and very abundant in provisions. kingdom of guzerat, in india. leaving the kingdom of ulcinde, in the same direction, at a distance of fifty leagues, the traveller enters the first[124] india, in the great kingdom of guzarat, which kingdom had belonged to king darius. and the indians have long histories of him and of king alexander. this kingdom has many cities and towns in the interior of the country, as well as ports along the sea; and very much shipping. it has many merchants and shipowners, both moors and gentiles. the king, and the men-at-arms, and nobles of the country were all gentiles formerly, and now they are moors, since the moors conquered the country in war, and hold the gentiles subject to them, and molest them and treat them ill. there are three qualities of these gentiles, that is to say, some are called razbutes, and they, in the time that their king was a gentile, were knights, the defenders of the kingdom, and governors of the country; they used to carry on war, and even now there remain some towns of them in the mountains, which have never chosen to pay obedience to the moors, but, on the contrary, make war upon them; and the king of cambaya is not sufficiently powerful to destroy them or subject them. they are very good knights and great archers, and they have many other kinds of arms with which they defend themselves from the moors, without owning any king or lord to govern them. the others are called banians, and are merchants and traders. these live amongst the moors, and trade with them in their goods. they are men who do not eat meat nor fish, nor anything that has life; neither do they kill anything, nor like to see it killed, because their idolatry forbids it them; and they observe this to such an extreme that it is something marvellous. for it often happens that the moors bring them some worms or little birds alive, saying they intend to kill them in their presence; and they ransom them, and buy them to set them flying, and save their lives for more money than they are worth. and in the same way, if the governor of the country has got a man to be executed, these banians unite together and buy him from the officers of justice, that he may not die; and frequently they sell him to them. and in the same manner the moors who beg for alms, when they want alms from these people, take great stones and strike themselves with them on the shoulders and the breast, and on their stomachs, as if they were going to kill themselves with them, and they receive alms not to do it, and to go away in peace. and others bring knives and stab themselves in the arms and legs before them, in order to extract alms; and others come to their doors to decapitate rats and snakes and other reptiles, and they give them money not to do it, so that they are very ill-treated by the moors. if these people meet with a band of ants in the road, they hasten out of the road, and go and look for a place to pass without treading upon them. they likewise sup in the daytime because they do not light candles at night, in order that the mosquitoes and other insects may not come and die in the flame; and if of necessity they must have a candle, they keep them in lanterns of paper, or of stuff dipped in gum, so that no living thing can get there to suffer. if these people have lice they do not kill them, and if they worry them very much, they send to fetch some men whom they have amongst them, also gentiles, whom they esteem of holy lives, like hermits, and who live in much abstinence for the love of their idols, and these people pick out their insects, and all those that they extract they put in their own heads, and they nourish them on themselves and on their flesh for the service of their idols. and so this law of not killing anything is held in great observance. on the other hand, they are great usurers and falsifiers of weights and measures, and merchandise, and coin; and liars and cheats. these gentiles are brown people, well built and of good proportions, smart in their dress, and delicate and temperate in their food. their victuals are milk, butter, sugar, rice, preserves of many kinds, many fruits, bread, vegetables, and field herbs; they all have gardens and orchards wherever they live, and many pools of water where they bathe twice every day, both men and women; and having ended their washing, they hold the belief that they are pardoned for all the sins which they have committed up to that time. they wear the hair very long like the women in spain, and they wear it gathered on the top of the head, and made into a band which is much adorned, and upon this a cap to fasten it; and they always wear many flowers stuck into their hair, and sweet smelling things. they also anoint themselves with white sandal mixed with saffron and other scents; they are much given to fall in love. they go bare, only covering themselves from the waist downwards with very rich silk stuffs; they wear embroidered shoes of very good leather, well worked, and some short silk skirts, and other short ones of cotton, with which they cover their bodies. they do not carry arms, only some small knives garnished with gold and silver, for two reasons: one because they are persons who make little use of arms, the other because the moors forbid it to them. they use many ear-rings of gold and jewellery in the ears, and many rings, and belts of gold and jewellery upon the cloths with which they gird themselves. the women of these gentiles have very pretty, delicate faces, and well made bodies, a little dark. their dress is silk stuff like their husbands' as far as the feet, and jackets[125] with narrow sleeves of silk stuff, open at the shoulders, and other silk cloths with which they cover themselves in the manner of morisco almalafas; their heads bare, the hair gathered up upon the head; they wear thick ankle rings of gold and silver on the legs, and rings on their toes, and large coral beads on their arms, with beads of gold filigree, and gold and silver bracelets; and round their necks, necklaces of gold and jewellery, fitting closely; they have large holes pierced in their ears, and in them rings of gold or silver large enough for an egg to pass through them. they are modest women, and when they go out of their houses they are much covered up with their wraps over their heads. the other set of people are called bramans, and are priests and the persons who administer and direct the idolatry; they have very large houses of prayer, some of them with revenues, others are maintained by alms. in these they keep many idols: some of stone, some of wood, and other of copper. in these houses and monasteries they always perform many ceremonies to their gods; they make feasts for them magnificently, with instruments and songs, and with many lights of oil, and they have bells in our fashion. these bramans have got images which represent the holy trinity: they pay much honour to the number three, and in trine make their adoration to god, whom they confess to be the true god, creator, and maker of all things, which are three things in one sole person; and they say that there are many other gods governed by him, in which they also believe. these bramans, wherever they find our churches, enter willingly into them, and adore our images; and they always ask for santa maria, our lady, like men who have some knowledge of her. and as they see our manner of honouring the churches, they say that there is no great difference between them and us. these bramans go bare from the waist upwards; they wear upon their shoulder a thread of three threads, which is a sign by which they are known to be bramans. they are men who also do not eat anything which receives death, nor do they kill anything. they hold it to be a great ceremony to wash their bodies, and say that they wash on that account. these bramans, and also the banians, marry in our fashion, with one woman only, and only once. they make great feasts at their weddings, which last many days, and there are many people assembled at these very well dressed and decked out. these festivities are magnificent. for the most part they are married when very young, both men and women, and on the day of the betrothal, and of the wedding, the couple are both of them seated on a platform,[126] very much bedizened with gold and jewellery and precious stones, and in front of them is a small table with an idol covered with flowers, and many lighted oil lamps all round it; and both of them have to remain there with their eyes fixed on that idol from the morning until the evening, without eating or drinking, or speaking to anybody during that time. the people make great rejoicings over them with their instruments and songs and dances; they let off many cannons, rockets and other fireworks to divert themselves. and if the husband dies the woman does not marry again, and so also does the husband should the wife die. and the children are his rightful heirs; and bramans must be sons of bramans, amongst whom there are some of a lower rank who serve as messengers and travellers, and they go in security to all parts without any one vexing them in any way. even if there should be war or thieves, they always pass safely. these are called _pater_. of the king and the lords of guzarat, which is of the kingdom of cambay. the king of guzarat is a great lord, both in revenue and people, and extensive and rich territory. he is a moor, as also are his men-at-arms, as has been said. he has a large court of many knights, and he is the lord of many horses and elephants, which are brought for sale to this kingdom from the country of malabar and ceylon. and with the horses and elephants he makes war upon the gentiles of the kingdom of guzarat who do not pay obedience to him, and upon some other kings with whom at times he is at war. and they make wooden castles on the top of the elephants, which hold four men, who carry bows and guns, and other weapons, and fight thence with the enemy. and the elephants are so well trained, that they know how to take part in the battle, and with their tusks wound the men and horses so severely, that in a very short time they put any array into confusion. but they are so timid, and subject to pain when wounded, that they take to flight at once, and put one another into confusion, and rout their own side. this king has four or five hundred of these at his residence, very large and fine. they buy them for one thousand five hundred ducats each, at the seaports where the malabars bring them for sale. and they make war much with the horses bred in the country, for it has a wonderful quantity; and the moors and gentiles of this kingdom are bold riders, ride small saddles,[127] and use whips. they carry very thick round shields, edged with silk, and two swords each man, a dagger, and a turkish bow, with very good arrows; and some carry steel maces, and many of them coats of mail, and others tunics quilted with cotton. and the horses have housings and steel head pieces, and so they fight very well and are light in their movements; and they are so supple in their saddles that they can play on horseback at the choga[128] or at any other game. they have amongst them the game of the jerid, as in spain. these moors are white, and of many countries: both turks and mamelukes, arabs, persians, khorasanys, turkomans, and from the great kingdom of dily, and others born in the country itself. these people come together there on account of the country being very rich, and well supplied; and the king gives good pay and rations, and regularly paid. these people are very well dressed, with very rich stuffs of gold, silk, cotton, and goats' wool, and all wear caps on their heads, and their clothes long, such as morisco shirts and drawers, and leggings to the knee of good thick leather, worked with gold knots and embroidery; and their swords are borne in their girdles, or in the hands of their pages. they are richly ornamented with gold and silver. their women are very white and pretty, also very richly decked out. they may marry as many as they like and are able to maintain, to honour the sect of mahomed; and so there are many of them who have three or four or five wives, and of all of them they have sons and daughters. and these moors of cambay speak many languages, that is to say, arabic, persian, turkish,[129] and guzaraty. they eat wheaten bread, rice, meat of all kinds, leaving aside pork, which is against their law. they are luxurious people, who live well and spend much money. they always go with their heads shaved, and the women with very fine hair. when they go out of their houses, they go on horses, or in cars, and so covered up that nobody can see them. they are very jealous men, and can unmarry themselves when they please, on paying to the wife a certain sum of money (which is promised when they marry them), if at any time they repent of it; and the women have also the same liberty. this king of cambay has been king since a short time only, and his father was called sultan mahomed, who was brought up from a child and nourished with poison, for his father desired that he should so be brought up in order that it should not be possible to kill him with poison; for the moorish kings of these parts often have one another killed by poison. and this king began to eat it in such a small quantity that it could not do him any harm, and from that he went on increasing this kind of food in such manner that he could eat a great quantity of it; for which cause he became so poisonous that if a fly settled on his hand it swelled and immediately fell dead. and many wives with whom he slept died at once of his poison, which he was unable to leave off eating, for he feared if he did not use it, to die soon after; as we see by experience with the opium which the indians eat, for if they leave off eating it they die immediately, that is, if they begin as children to eat it in such a small quantity that it can do them no harm, for some length of time, and then increasing the quantity by degrees until they remain accustomed to it. this anfion is cold in the fourth degree, and on account of being so cold it kills. we call it opio, and the women of india when they wish to kill themselves in any case of dishonour or of despair, eat it with oil of sesame, and so die sleeping without feeling death. city of champaver.[130] this king possesses great cities in his kingdom, and especially the city of champaver, where he resides continually, with all his court. this city is to the north of guzerat, eighty leagues inland. it is a very fertile country: of abundant provisions, wheat, barley, millet, rice, peas and other vegetables, and many cows, sheep, goats, and plenty of fruit, so that it is very full of all things; and it has in its neighbourhood many hunting grounds, and deer and other animals, and winged game. and this country possesses dogs and falcons for the chase, and tame leopards for hunting all sorts of game. and the king for his pastime keeps many animals of all kinds, which they send to find and bring up. this king sent a ganda[131] to the king of portugal, because they told him that he would be pleased to see her. andavat. leaving this city and going further inland there is another city called andavat, which is larger than the said city of champaver, and it is very rich, and well supplied. the former kings used always to reside in this city. these towns are walled, and embellished with good streets and squares, and houses of stone and whitewash, with roofs in our fashion; and they have large courts, and much water in wells and pools. they make use of horses, donkeys, mules, camels and carts, and have fine rivers, with plenty of fresh water fish, and many orchards and gardens. there are also in this kingdom, inland, many cities, towns and villages, in which the king keeps his governors and collectors of his revenue. if these commit a fault he summons them, and after having heard them he bids them drink a cup of poison, with which anyone dies immediately; and in this way he chastises them, so that they are in great fear of him. patemxi. the places which this king has on the sea coast are these. firstly, leaving the kingdom of ulcinde for india at a distance of thirty-seven leagues, is a river, on the shore of which there is a great city called patemxi, a good seaport, very rich, and of great trade. in this city many silk stuffs are made, coloured with much embroidery, which are used over the whole of india, malacca, bengal, and also many cotton stuffs. to this port come many indian ships laden with cocoa nuts, sugar of palms which they call xagara[132], and from there they carry away a great quantity of cloth and much cotton, horses, wheat, and vegetables, by which much money is made. their voyage, with the delays, is of four months. suratimangalor. passing by this city, further on the coast to the east and south, at fifteen leagues distance, there is another town of commerce, which has a very good port, and is called suratimangalor, where also many ships from malabar touch, for horses, wheat, rice, cotton cloths, vegetables and other goods which are of use in india. and they bring cocoa nuts, hurraca[133] (which is something to drink), emery, beeswax, cardamums, and all sorts of spices, in which trade and voyage great profit is made in a short time. duy. fifty leagues further along the coast, towards the south, there is a promontory, and joining close to it is a small island, which contains a very large and fine town, which the malabars call diuixa[134], and the moors of the country call it diu. it has a very good harbour, and is a port of much trade in merchandise, and of much shipping from malabar, baticala, goa dabul and cheul; and the people of diu sail to aden, mekkah, zeyla, barbara, magadoxo, brava, melinde, mombaza, xer[135], ormuz, and all parts of the kingdom. and the malabars bring hither rice, cocoa nuts, jagara, wax, emery, iron, and sugar from baticala, and all the spices that can be got in india and malacca; and from chaul and dabul they bring a large quantity of cotton stuffs, which they call _beyranies_, and caps for women, which are carried from this place to arabia and persia. and they load at this port for the return voyage cotton cloths of the country and silk stuffs, horses, wheat, vegetables, sesame, cotton, oil of sesame, and opium, both that which comes there from aden, and that which is made in the kingdom of cambay, which is not so fine as that of aden; and they export many coarse camlets and silk stuffs made in this kingdom of cambay, and thick carpets,[136] taffeta, scarlet cloth, and of other colours. they also export the spices and things brought to them from india, by the people of the country, to aden, ormuz, and all parts of arabia and persia, so that this town is the chief emporium of trade which exists in all these parts. this town gives such a large sum of money as revenue to the king, for the loading and unloading of such rich goods, that it is a subject of marvel and amazement; for they also bring to it from mekkah much coral, copper, quicksilver, vermillion, lead, alum, madder, rose-water, saffron, and much gold and silver coined and uncoined. the king keeps a moorish governor in this place called melquiaz; an old man, and a very good gentleman, discreet, industrious, and of great information, who lives with great order and regularity in all his affairs. he makes much artillery, and has many rowing barges, very well arranged, small and very light, which are called talayas.[137] he has had constructed in the port a very strong and fine bulwark, in which he has very good artillery, with many lombards,[138] and he always keeps with him many men-at-arms, to whom he pays very good appointments. they are very well armed. he is always on his guard, and is very apprehensive of the power of the king of portugal.[139] he shows great honour and attention to the ships and people of portugal who come to his port. the people of his country are kept in very good order, and governed with much justice and good treatment; he dispenses many favours and presents to voyagers and strangers in his country. a large fleet of the great sultan[140] of sailing ships and row galleys arrived at this port, well equipped, with large crews and a good armament; its captain was emir hussein. he came to reinforce himself in this port with the assistance of the king of cambay and the before-mentioned governor meliquiaz, and from thence to go to calicut, to fight with the portuguese, and turn them out of india. he was for some time in the port making many preparations, and the portuguese fleet came there to seek for them, of which don francisco de almeyda, viceroy of india, was the captain major. and the moors put out to sea to meet them, and the two fleets fought in the entrance of this roadstead vigorously, and many people were killed and wounded on both sides; and at the end the moors were beaten and captured with great slaughter, and the portuguese took their ships and galleys, with all their arms and heavy artillery. they captured there many moors, and the said emir hussein escaped, and left his fleet to suffer as has been told; and when meliquiaz, who assisted and favoured them with his guard-boats and forces, saw the havoc, he at once sent messengers to the before-mentioned viceroy to seek peace of him, and he sent many provisions and refreshments and other presents as a sign of peace.[141] gogari. further on after this the coast begins to make a bend into cambay towards the north, in which bend are several seaports of the same king, and towns of great trade. one of these is guogari, at a distance of twenty-five leagues (from diu), which is a very large town and a good port, where they always load many ships from malabar and other parts of india; and many other ships bound for mekkah and aden. at this place all sorts of merchandise are dealt in, as at diu. barbesy. another is called barbesy, a seaport twelve leagues further on to the north, in which stretch of coast are several seaports of the king of cambay. all sorts of goods are traded in for all parts, and the dues upon them produce very much to the king, who has in each of these two places his custom houses, and all are well supplied with provisions. buendari. further on, to north-west by north, there is another place in the mouth of a small river which is called guendari, twenty leagues distant from barbesy. and it is a very good town, a seaport of the same trade, because further up that river is the great city of cambay. there arrived there many zambucos,[142] which are small vessels of the malabar country, with areca (nuts), spices, wax, sugar, cardamums, emery, ivory, and elephants:[143] and these goods are sold there very well. and from there they carry away cotton, sesame, thread, wheat, peas, horses, alaquequas, and many other goods. the navigation of these places is very dangerous, especially for ships with keels which draw much water, because in this gulf which the coast here makes, the ebb and flow is so great, that in a very short space of time the sea leaves uncovered four or five leagues of dry land, and in some places less; and it is expedient for those who go in there to take country pilots, because, when the tide runs down, they may know how to remain in pools of deep water[144] such as there are there, and sometimes they make mistakes and remain upon rocks, where they are lost. city of cambay. entering this river of guendari, to the north-east is the great city of cambay, inhabited by moors and gentiles. it is a very large city of handsome houses of stone and whitewash, very lofty, with windows, and covered with roofs in the spanish fashion; it has very good streets and squares, and is situated in a rich, fertile, and pretty country, full of abundant provisions. there are in it rich merchants and men of great property, both moors and gentiles; and there are many workmen and mechanicians of subtle workmanship of all sorts, after the fashion of flanders, and all very cheap. they make there many cloths of white cotton, fine and coarse, and other woven and coloured fabrics of all kinds; also many silk fabrics, of all kinds and colours; and camlets of silk and velvets of all colours, both smooth and fluffy, coloured tafetans, and thick alcatifas. the inhabitants of this city are all white, both men and women, and there are many people from outside living in it who are very white and very well dressed, and of luxurious lives, much given to pleasure and amusement. they are very much accustomed to wash themselves; they eat very well, and always go perfumed and anointed with sweet smelling things. they wear in their hair, both men and women, many jessamine and other flowers that grow amongst them. they have many musicians, and various kinds of instruments and songs. there are always carts with oxen and horses going about the city, of which they make use for everything; and they go in these with rich mattrasses, shut up and well fitted up with their windows, after the manner of cabins; furnished and ornamented with silk stuffs, and the seats within with cushions and pillows of silk and stamped kid skins:[145] and with their waggoners. men and women go in these to see amusements and diversions, or to visit their friends, or wherever they wish, without being known, and they see all that they wish. and they go singing and playing on instruments in these same waggons for their amusement. and these people possess many orchards and gardens, where they go to take their ease, and where they grow much fruit and vegetables for the sustenance of the gentiles, who do not eat meat nor flesh. in this city a very large quantity of ivory is employed in very delicate works, well known in commerce, like inlaid works of gold, and things made by turning, and handles of knives and daggers, bracelets, games of chess and chess-boards. there are also great artists with the turning lathe, who make large bedsteads, and they make beads of great size, brown, yellow, blue and coloured, which they export to all parts. there are also great lapidaries, and imitators of precious stones of all kinds, and makers of false pearls which seem real. so also there are very good silversmiths of very skilful workmanship. in this city they make very delicate cushions, and pretty ceilings (or canopies) of bedsteads, of delicate workmanship and paintings, and quilted clothes for wearing. there are many moorish women who produce very delicate needlework. they work there too in coral alaquequas and other stones. limadura. leaving this city of cambay there is a town inland called limadura, where there is a stone with which they make aquequas, for making beads for berberia. it is a stone white as milk, and has some red in it, and with fire they heighten the colour, and they extract it in large blocks. in these places there are great artists who manufacture and pierce these beads in various fashions, oval, octagonal, round, and of other shapes; and with this stone they make rings, buttons, and knife handles. and the cambay merchants go there to buy them, and they harden[146] them to take them away to sell in the red sea, from whence they are in the habit of arriving in our parts by way of cairo or alexandria: and they also carry them throughout all arabia, persia, and nubia, and now they take them to india, because our people buy them. they also find in this town much chalcedony, which they call _babagore_. they make beads with it, and other things which they wear about them, so that they touch the skin, as they say that it is good for chastity. these stones are of little value there, for there are many of them. ravel. returning to the towns on the sea, and passing gandar, to the east there is a good river twenty leagues further along the coast, and on this side of it there is a good town of the moors, called ravel,[147] built of very pretty houses and squares. it is a rich and agreeable place, because the moors of this town trade with their ships at malacca, bengal, tarvasery, pegu, martaban, and samatara, in all sorts of spices, drugs, silks, musk, benzoin, porcelain, and all other valuable merchandise. they possess very large and fine ships, so that those who would wish to get chinese articles, will find them there more completely than in any other part, and at very fair prices. the moors of this place are white and well dressed, and very rich. they have very pretty wives, and in the furniture[148] of their houses they have many china vases of different shapes, and they keep them in glass cupboards very well arranged. these women are not secluded like those of other moors and other places, but go about the city in the daytime attending to their business, with the face uncovered as in our parts. surati. having passed this river of ravel, at twenty leagues to the south is a city called surat, at the mouth of a river. this also is a city of very great trade, in all classes of merchandise. many ships of malabar and all other parts sail thither continually, and discharge and take in goods, because this is a very important seaport, and there are in it very vast quantities of merchandise. moors, gentiles, and all sorts of people live in this city. its custom-house, which they call the divana,[149] produces a very large revenue for the king of guzarat: and until now malaguioy, a gentile, commands in, and governs it, as lord of it. and he is the greatest nobleman in all india, and he gave orders to kill the king of guzerat for some gossip which they reported respecting him. denvy.[150] after leaving the town of surat, at ten leagues along the coast to the south, there is place called denvy, of moors and gentiles, also of great trade, where many merchant ships from malabar and many other parts always take in cargo. baxay. having passed this town of dendi, twenty leagues further on to the south[151] is another town of moors and gentiles, a good seaport, which also belongs to the king of guzarat, in which much goods are exchanged; and there is a great movement of the shipping which comes there from all parts, and many zambucs from the malabar country laden with areca, cocoas, and spices, which they delight in, and they take thence others which are used in malabar. tanamayambu. twenty-five leagues further on the coast is a fortress of the before named king, called tanamayambu, and near it is a moorish town, very pleasant, with many gardens, and very fertile--a town of very great moorish mosques, and temples of worship of the gentiles. it is nearly at the extremity of the kingdom of cambay or guzarat, and it is likewise a seaport, but of little trade. and there are in this port small vessels of rovers like watch boats, which go out to sea, and if they meet with any small ship less strong than themselves, they capture and plunder it, and sometimes kill their crews. kingdom of dacani. on coming out of this kingdom of guzarat and cambay, towards the south and the inner parts of india, is the kingdom of dacani, which the indians call decani. the king is a moor, and a large part of his people is gentile. he is a great lord, and possesses many subjects and an extensive territory, which stretches far inland. it has very good seaports, of great trade in the goods used on the mainland, and they are the following places: cheul. leaving the kingdom of cambay, along the coast towards the south, at eight leagues distance, there is a fine large river, and on it is a place called cheul,[152] not very large, of handsome houses, which are all covered with thatch. this place is one of great commerce in merchandise, and in the months of december, january, february and march there are many ships from the malabar country and all other parts, which arrive with cargoes. that is to say, those of malabar laden with cocoa nuts, arecas, spices, drugs, palm sugar, emery, and there they make their sales for the continent and for the kingdom of cambay; and the ships of cambay come there to meet them laden with cotton stuffs, and many other goods which are available in malabar, and these are bartered for the goods which have come from the malabar country. and on the return voyage they fill their ships with wheat, vegetables, millet, rice, sesame, oil of sesame, of which there is much in this country; and these malabars also buy many pieces of fine muslin[153] for women's head dress, and many beyranies, of which there are plenty in this kingdom. a large quantity of copper is sold in this port of cheul, and at a high price, for it is worth twenty ducats the hundred weight, or more, because in the interior money is made of it, and it is also used throughout the country for cooking pots. there is also a great consumption in this place of quicksilver and vermilion for the interior, and for the kingdom of guzarat, which copper, quicksilver and vermilion is brought to this place by the malabar merchants, who get it from the factories of the king of portugal; and they get more of it by way of the mekkah, which comes there from diu. these people wear the beyranies put on for a few days nearly in the raw state, and afterwards they bleach them and make them very white, and gum them to sell them abroad, and thus some are met with amongst them which are torn. in this port of chaul there are few inhabitants, except during three or four months of the year, the time for putting in cargo, when there arrive merchants from all the neighbourhood, and they make their bargains during this period, and despatch their goods, and after that return to their homes until the next season, so that this place is like a fair in those months. there is a moorish gentleman as governor of this place, who is a vassal of the king of decani, and collects his revenues, and accounts to him for them. he is called xech, and does great service to the king of portugal, and is a great friend of the portuguese, and treats very well all those that go there, and keeps the country very secure. in this place there is always a portuguese factor appointed by the captain and factor of goa, in order to send from this place provisions and other necessaries, to the city of goa, and to the portuguese fleets; and at a distance of about a league inland from cheul is a place where the moors and gentiles of the cities and towns throughout the country come to set up their shops of goods and cloths at cheul during the before-mentioned months; they bring these in great caravans of domestic oxen, with packs like donkeys, and on the top of these long white sacks placed crosswise, in which they bring their goods; and one man drives thirty or forty beasts before him. damda. having passed this place, cheul, at twelve leagues further on along the coast to the south towards malabar is another town and seaport, also belonging to the kingdom of dacani, called damda; where there enter and go out many moorish ships, both guzaratis and malabaris, with cloth and other goods, as at cheul. mandabad. five leagues further on is a river called mandabad, on which is a town of moors and gentiles, of the same kingdom of decani; likewise a seaport. many ships from various parts congregate at this harbour to buy stuffs, particularly from the malabar country. and they bring there many cocoa-nuts, arecas, and also a few spices, copper and quicksilver: for the merchants of the country buy all these goods. dabul. having left this place, mandabad, and going along the coast to malabar and the south, at eight leagues distance is another fine large river, at the mouth of which is a large town of moors and gentiles, belonging to the same kingdom of decani. it is called dabul,[154] and in the mouth of the river near this same town there is a rampart, with artillery to defend the entrance of the river. this town of dabul has a very good harbour, where there always congregate many moorish ships from various parts, and especially from mekkah, aden, and ormuz with horses, and from cambay, diu, and the malabar country. it is a place of very great trade in all sorts of merchandise; there are in it very respectable moors and gentiles, and guzarati merchants. much copper, quicksilver, and vermilion is sold here for the interior of the country: a great quantity of country fabrics are brought to this town down the river for embarcation in the ships, and also much wheat and vegetables of all sorts. the custom-house of this port produces much money, and the collectors take the dues there for the lord of the town. and this town is pretty and well situated, but its houses are covered with thatch, and it also has very beautiful mosques. higher up this river, on either bank there are many pretty towns, plentifully supplied, and owning much cultivated land and flocks. a fleet of the king of portugal arrived at this city, of which the viceroy was the captain, and landed his people on the shore for the purpose of taking and destroying this town.[155] and the moors put themselves on the defensive, and fought very courageously with the portuguese. in the fight many moors and gentiles died, and at last the portuguese took this city by assault, making a great slaughter of the inhabitants, and plundering and burning the city, in which much wealth and merchandise were burned, and at the same time several ships which were lying in the river. and those who escaped thence returned later to restore this city, so that now it is already inhabited as before. singuycar. ten leagues further on from this river, along the coast southwards, is another river called singuycar, upon which is a town of much commerce and merchandise. and many ships from divers parts put in there; and it is a town of moors and gentiles, and belongs to the kingdom of dacani. river dobetala. twelve leagues further along the coast, to the south, is another river called dobetela; and there are along its course several small places, with very pretty gardens and orchards, where they gather a great quantity of betel; this is a leaf which they eat, and it is put on board small vessels, and carried away for sale in other towns and seaports. we call this betel indian leaf, and it is as large as a leaf of the plantain,[156] and about of the same pattern; and it grows like ivy, and climbs up other trees by means of poles placed for that purpose: it does not give any fruit or seed. it is a very favourite leaf, and all the indians both men and women eat it both day and night in their houses, in the streets, and on the road, and in their beds. they always go about eating this leaf, which they mix with some small fruits called arecas, and the leaf is smeared with moistened lime, which is made with sea-shells, and the shells of oysters and mussels. and these three things being added together, they eat this betel, not swallowing more than the juice; and it colours the mouth and makes the teeth brown: and they say that it is good for drying and purging the stomach, and for preserving the brain, and it drives out flatulence, and quenches thirst: so that it is very much esteemed among all indians, and in general use from this place further on throughout india. there are great quantities of it, and it is one of the principal revenues which the kings of the country possess. the moors and arabs and persians call it tanbul. after passing this river of betala, further along the coast are other small places and seaports, likewise belonging to the kingdom of dacani, in which small vessels from malabar enter to take on board inferior rice and vegetables which are found there: and one of them is called arapatani, and another munaryni.[157] banda. after leaving these places, about six leagues along the coast southwards is a river, upon which is a town of moors and gentiles called banda, in which there are many merchants who trade on the continent with the merchants whom the malabars bring thither. and many ships come there from many parts on account of its being a good harbour, and there is a great exportation of goods and provisions from the interior of the country. many ships fill here with rice, coarse millet, and other vegetables that are profitable to them; and they bring to this place cocoa-nuts, pepper, and other spices and drugs which have a good sale there, because thence they ship them for diu, aden, and ormuz. and leaving this place, between it and goa there is another river called bardes, on which there are other towns which are not of much trade. guoa. leaving these places, there are twenty leagues of coast southwards as far as a cape, which must be doubled to enter goa; and after that ten leagues to the north-west, then ten more to the east, and south-south-west twenty leagues, then seventeen leagues to the north-west, as far as the cape rama. and in this gulf there are many small islands, the chief of which is goa. there is a large river which issues by two branches into the sea, between which is formed the island of the city of goa, which belonged to the kingdom of decani, and was a lordship of itself along with other towns in the neighbourhood; and the king gave it to a vassal of his, a great lord called vasabaxo, who was a very good knight, and on account of his being very distinguished and skilful in warlike matters, this lordship of goa was given him, in order that he might carry on war thence with the king of narsinga, as he always did until his death. this city then remained to his son, sabaym delcani, and it was inhabited by many moors, respectable men, and foreigners, white men and rich merchants, and several of them are very good gentlemen. there are also many great gentile merchants, and others, gentlemen and cultivators, and men-at-arms. it was a place of great trade in merchandise. it has a very good port, to which flocked many ships from mekkah, aden, ormuz, cambay, and the malabar country. and the before mentioned sabaym delcani resided much in this place, and he kept there his captain and men-at-arms, and no one entered or went out of this island and city, either by sea or by land, without his permission; and all those who entered there were registered with all their signs and particulars, and from whence they came; and so, with this precaution and arrangement, they allowed them to return. this town was very large, with goodly edifices and handsome streets and squares, surrounded by walls and towers. there is a very good fortress in it, and in the environs many gardens and orchards of fine trees and fruits, and many pools of good water. there were many mosques and houses of worship of the gentiles. the country all round was very fruitful and well cultivated, and enjoyed much produce both from sea and land. this sabaym, as soon as he knew that the portuguese viceroy had routed the rumes[158] and the fleet of the great sultan before diu, immediately sent to call the rumes, knights, and other people of the sultan, who having escaped thence, arrived, leaving their captain in the kingdom of guzarat. and this sabaym delcani received them very well, and determined on putting all india at their disposition for their assistance, and to refit them again with the aid of all the moors and kings of india, in order to again carry on war against the portuguese. they then collected together much money and began to build in this city of goa very large ships, and handsome galleys and brigantines, all after the manner and fashion of ours, and likewise to prepare much artillery of brass and iron, and all other munitions of maritime war. and the moors were so expeditious in this that they had got a large part of the fleet made, and vast magazines of munitions for the fleet; and they already went out with guard boats and rowing galleys, to take the sambuks which passed by, because they carried portuguese safe-conducts. and alfonso de albuquerque, who was then captain-major in india, had information of all this, and determined to go and seek them, and drive them from their design. he therefore collected the most that he could of a fleet of ships, caravels, and galleys, and with these entered the before mentioned river, and attacked the city of goa[159] and took it. upon which many great things occurred, which i say nothing about, in order not to be more prolix. he captured many people, and all the ships and galleys of the rumes, and he burned some of them; and the city submitted to the commands of the king of portugal, as it now is. and he fortified it with several castles. this city is inhabited by portuguese, moors and gentiles; and the fruits of the earth and provisions now produce a yearly revenue to the king of portugal of twenty thousand ducats, without the port, which has much trade in merchandise of malabar, cheul, dabul, cambay and diu. they sell there many horses for other parts, at two, three and four hundred ducats each, according to their quality, and upon each the king of portugal levies forty ducats as duty; and although they pay less dues than in the time of the moors, this harbour produces much revenue to the king of portugal.[160] in this kingdom of decani there are many great cities, and many other towns within the country inhabited by moors and gentiles. it is a country very well cultivated, and abundantly supplied with provisions, and it has an extensive commerce, which produces much revenue to the king, who is called mahamuza, and is a moor; and he lives very luxuriously, and with much pleasure, in a great city inland, which is called mavider. this king holds the whole of his kingdom, divided amongst moorish lords, to each one of whom he has assigned cities, towns, and villages; and these lords govern and rule, so that the king does not give any orders in his kingdom, nor does he meddle except in giving himself a pleasant life and amusement. and all these lords do obeisance to him, and bring him the revenue, with which they have to come into his presence. and if any one of them were to revolt or disobey, the others go against him and destroy him, or reduce him again to obedience to the king. these lords frequently have wars and differences among one another, and it happens that some take villages from others; but afterwards the king makes peace, and administers justice between them. each one has many horsemen, very good archers with the turkish bow, white people, of good figures. their dress is of cotton stuffs, and they wear caps on their heads. they give large pay to the soldiers: they speak arabic, persian and the decani language, which is the natural language of the country. these moorish lords take tents of cotton cloth into the field, in which they dwell when going on a journey, or to war. they ride a small saddle, and fight tied to their horses. they carry in their hands very long light lances, with four-sided iron points, very strong, and three palms in length. they wear tunics quilted with cotton, which they call _laudes_, and some wear tunics of mail, and their horses caparisoned; some carry iron maces and battle-axes, two swords and a buckler, turkish bows supplied with many arrows, so that each man carries offensive weapons for two persons. many of these take their wives with them to the wars; they make use of pack oxen, on which they carry their chattels when they travel. they are frequently at war with the king of narsinga, so that they are at peace but for a short time. the gentiles of this kingdom of decani are black, well made and courageous; most of them fight on foot, and some on horseback: and these foot soldiers carry swords and shields, bows and arrows, and are very good archers. their bows are long, after the fashion of englishmen. they go naked from the waist upwards, and wear small caps on their heads; they eat all meats except cow; they are idolaters, when they die their bodies are burned, and their wives burn themselves alive with them voluntarily, as will be related further on. cintacola. seventeen leagues further along the same coast to the south-east, and towards malabar, there is another river called aliga,[161] which separates the kingdom of decani from the kingdom of narsinga, and at the mouth of the river on the top of a hill is a fortress, cintacola;[162] and it belongs to the zabayo, for the defence of his country. in it he continually keeps horse and foot soldiers. here the said kingdom of decani comes to an end at its southern portion, and the northern part ends at cheul; and from one place to the other along the coast there are eighty leagues. kingdom of narsinga. beyond this river commences the kingdom of narsinga, which contains five very large provinces, with a language of their own. one province is along the coast, and is called tulinat; another has the name of legni, which confines with the kingdom of tisa; another is canari, in which is the great city of visenagar,[163] and the other is chomendel,[164] a kingdom which they call tamul. this kingdom of narsinga is very rich and well supplied with provisions, and is very full of cities and large townships; and all the country is very fertile and brought into cultivation. the province of tulinat contains many rivers and seaports, in which there is much trade and shipping bound for all parts, and many rich merchants dwell in them. between the others there is a very large river called mergeo, from which is produced a large quantity of inferior rice for the common people, which the malabars come here to buy, with their sambuks, in exchange for cocoa nuts, oil, and jagra, which are much used in this country. honor. having passed this river aliga,[165] and going along the coast to the south-east, there is another river, at ten leagues distance, with a good town near the sea, called honor,[166] and the malabars call it povaran; many of them come to this place to fetch cargoes of inferior brownish rice, which is their peculiar food: and they bring cocoa nuts, oil and jagra, and wine of the palm trees, from which grow the cocoa nuts. batecala. ten leagues further along this coast to the south is another small river, with a large town called baticala,[167] of very great trade in merchandise, inhabited by many moors and gentiles, very commercial people. and at this port congregate many ships from orguz, to load very good white rice, sugar in powder, of which there is much in this country, for they do not know how to make it in loaves; and it is worth at the rate of two hundred and forty maravedis the arroba.[168] they likewise load much iron, and these three kinds of goods are what are chiefly shipped at this place: and also some spices and drugs, which the malabars import. there are many myrobalans of all sorts, and very good preserves are made with them, which the ships of ormuz, which traffic at this place, export for the arabs and persians. they used each year to bring to this port many horses and pearls, which were there sold for the whole kingdom of narsinga, and now they take them all to the city of goa, on account of the portuguese. some ships are also laden at this place for aden, risking themselves, although it is forbidden them by the portuguese. many malabar ships and sambuks also come to this port to take in rice, sugar, and iron; and they bring cocoa nuts, palm sugar, cocoa nut oil, and palm wine, in return for these things, and spices and drugs, concealed from the portuguese who prohibit them. this town produces much revenue to the king. its governor is a gentile; he is named damaqueti. he is very rich in money and jewels. the king of narsinga has given this place and others to a nephew of his, who rules and governs them, and lives in great state and calls himself king, but he is in obedience to the king his uncle. in this kingdom they make a great practice of duelling, for on account of anything they at once challenge one another, and the king at once grants them a field and arms, and appoints a time for killing each other, and gives them seconds, who back up each his own man. they go to fight one another bare from the waist upwards, and from the waist downwards wrapped in cotton cloths drawn tightly round, and with many folds, and with their arms, which are swords, bucklers and daggers.[169] and the king appoints them of equal length. they enter the lists with great pleasure, first saying their prayers, and in a very few passes they kill each other in the presence of the king and many people, without any one speaking except the seconds, of whom each encourages his own man. this town of baticala pays a yearly tribute to the king of portugal; much copper is also sold in it each year, which is taken into the interior of the country to make money, and cauldrons and other pans which they use. there is also sold there much quicksilver, vermilion, coral, alum and ivory. this town is situated in level country, it is very populous, and not walled; it is surrounded with many gardens, very good estates, and very fresh and abundant water. there is in this place gold coin called pardan,[170] and it is worth three hundred and twenty maravedis; and there is another silver coin called _dama_, worth twenty. the weights are called bahars, and each bahar is equal to four quintals of portugal.[171] mayandur. having passed baticala, at ten leagues towards the south is another small river, on which there is a town called mayandur, under the jurisdiction of baticala, in which much rice is gathered of a good quality, which is shipped at baticala. the people of this town sow it principally in certain watery valleys, which they plough with oxen and with buffaloes, two and two, in couples, with their ploughs after our fashion, and they put the rice for seed in some hollow irons placed in the ploughshare, which entering the earth ploughing it and making a furrow, leave behind the seed in it, because otherwise they would not be able to sow it on account of the quantity of water; and on dry land they sow it by hand. they gather the harvest twice every year from this watery land, and it is of four sorts of rice. the first they call girazat, which is the best; the second jani bazal,[172] the third camagar, and the fourth pachari: each one has its price, and there is a great difference between one and the other. bacavor bazalor. there are two small rivers ten leagues further along the coast to the south, and on both of them towns, one of which is called bacavor, and the other basalor;[173] both belong to the kingdom of narsinga. in these also there is much rice of good quality, which is there shipped for all parts: and many ships come from malabar, and sambuks great and small, which take this rice on board in sacks of a fanega[174] each, which is worth from one hundred and fifty to two hundred maravedis each fanega, according to its goodness. ships also put in here from ormuz, aden, xeher, and many other places, to take in cargo for canaor and calicut. they also ship there much rice in exchange for copper, cocoa nuts, jagra, oil of cocoa nuts, for the malabars maintain themselves with scarcely anything else but rice, since the country of malabar is small and very populous: so full of inhabitants, that it may almost be said that all the country is one single city from the mountain deli to coulam. mangalor. having left these places, at ten leagues distance there is another large river towards the south, along the sea-shore, where there is a very large town, peopled by moors and gentiles, of the kingdom of narsinga, called mangalor.[175] there many ships always load brown rice, which is much better and more healthy than the white, for malabar, for the common people, and it is very cheap. they also ship there much rice in moorish ships for aden, also pepper, which henceforward the earth begins to produce, but little of it, and better than all the other which the malabars bring to this place in small vessels. the banks of this river are very pretty, and very full of woods and palm trees, and are very thickly inhabited by moors and gentiles, and studded with fine buildings and houses of prayer of the gentiles, which are very large, and enriched with large revenues. there are also many mosques, where they greatly honour mahomed. cunbala. ten leagues further along the same coast to the south, is another town of the gentiles, of the kingdom of narsinga, which is called cunbala. in it also much brown and very bad rice is harvested, which the malabars go to buy there, and load it in their vessels for the lowest people amongst them, and of the mahaldiu islands, which are across from malabar, because it is very cheap, and the people poor; and they sell it there in exchange for thread for making cordage for ships. this thread is made of a covering and integument which grows upon the cocoa nuts of the palm trees, and a great quantity of it is produced; and in that place it is a great article of commerce with all parts. this town of cunbala has a lord to rule and govern it for the kingdom of narsinga, and it is frontier to the kingdom of cananor: because here the kingdom of narsinga comes to an end along the coast of this province of tulinat. of the customs and greatness of this kingdom of narsinga in the interior of the country. leaving this sea coast, and going inland into the kingdom of narsinga, at twelve or fifteen leagues distance there is a very high mountain range, precipitous and difficult of ascent, which stretches from the beginning of this kingdom to cape comeri,[176] which is beyond the malabar country; and the before-mentioned province of tulinat is at the foot of this range, between it and the sea. and the indians say that in former times all these low grounds were sea, which reached to the said range, and that in process of time the sea uncovered it, and swelled it up in other parts, and to the foot of those mountains. there are many traces of things of the sea, and all the low ground is very level like the sea, and the mountain chain is very craggy, and seems to rise to the heavens; and it is not possible to ascend, except in a few parts, and with difficulty, which is a cause of great strength to the malabars, for were it not for the difficulty of entering their country on account of the roughness of these mountains, the king of narsinga would already have conquered them. this range is peopled in several parts, with good towns and villages, very luxuriant in water and delicious fruit: and in it there are many wild boars, and large and fine deer, many leopards, ounces, lions, tigers, bears, and some animals of an ashy colour, which look like horses, very active, and which cannot be caught.[177] there are serpents with wings, which fly, very venomous, so that their breath and looks kill whatever person places himself very near them, and they always go amongst the trees. there are also many wild elephants, and many stones of gegonzas,[178] amethysts, and soft sapphires, are found in the rivers where they are deposited. they carry them from the mountains to sell them in the malabar towns, where they are wrought. after passing this mountain range, the country is almost entirely plain, very fertile and abundantly supplied in the inland districts, which belong to the kingdom of narsinga, in which there are many cities and villages and forts, and many large rivers run through it. there is in this country much cultivation of rice and other vegetables, with which they maintain themselves, and many cows, buffaloes, pigs, goats, sheep, asses, and diminutive ponies, all of which they make use of; and they carry their goods by means of buffaloes, oxen, asses, and ponies, and do their field work with them. almost all the villages are of gentiles, and among them are a few moors; some of the lords of these villages are of these last, to whom the king of narsinga has granted the villages, and others are his, and he keeps his governors and tax collectors in them. bijanaguer. forty-five leagues from these mountains inland, there is a very large city which is called bijanaguer, very populous and surrounded on one side by a very good wall, and on another by a river, and on the other by a mountain. this city is on level ground, the king of narsinga always resides in it. he is a gentile and is called raheni: he has in this place very large and handsome palaces, with numerous courts in which are many mounds, pools of water with plenty of fish, gardens of shrubs, flowers, and sweet-smelling herbs. there are also in the city many other palaces of great lords who live there. and all the other houses of the place are covered with thatch, and the streets and squares are very wide: they are constantly filled with an innumerable crowd of all nations and creeds; for, besides many moorish merchants and traders, and the gentile inhabitants of the country who are very rich, an infinite number of others flock there from all parts, who are able to come, dwell, trade, and live very freely and in security, without anyone molesting them, or asking or requiring of them any account of whence they come, or in what creed they live, whether they be moors, christians, or gentiles; and each one may live according to any creed, or as he pleases. there is an infinite trade in this city, and strict justice and truth are observed towards all by the governors of the country. in this city there are very many jewels which are brought from pegu and celani, and in the country itself many diamonds are found, because there is a mine of them in the kingdom of narsinga and another in the kingdom of dacani. there are also many pearls and seed-pearls to be found there, which are brought from ormus and cael; and all these jewels and pearls are much esteemed among them, because they adorn themselves much with them, and on that account a great quantity are poured in. in this city they wear many silks and inferior brocades, which are brought from china and alexandria, and much scarlet cloth, and of other colours, and much coral worked into round beads; and they import copper, quicksilver, vermilion, saffron, rose-water, much anfiani which is opium, sandal and aloes wood, camphor, musk, because the inhabitants of this country are much in the habit of anointing themselves with these perfumes. there is also a great consumption in this place, and in the whole kingdom, of pepper, which is brought from malabar on oxen and asses. the money is of gold, and is called parda, and is worth three hundred maravedis;[179] it is coined in certain cities of this kingdom of narsinga, and throughout all india they use this money, which passes in all those kingdoms; its gold is a little inferior. this coin is round, and made in a mould. some of them have some indian letters on one side, and two figures on the other of a man and a woman, and others have nothing but the lettering on one side. customs of this kingdom of narsinga and of its inhabitants. this king constantly resides in the before-mentioned palaces, and very seldom goes out of them: he lives very luxuriously and without any labour, because he discharges it all upon his governors. he and all the dwellers in this city are gentiles, coloured men and nearly white, of long and very smooth black hair; they are well proportioned men, of features and ----[180] similar to our own, and so likewise are the women. the costume of the men is from the waist downwards with many folds and very tight, and a short shirt which reaches half way down the thigh, made of white cotton stuff, silk, or brocade, open down the front, small caps on their heads, and the hair gathered up on the top, some caps of silk or brocade, and their sandals on their bare feet, cloaks of cotton stuff or silk on their arms, and their pages with their swords behind them, and their bodies anointed with white sandal, aloes-wood, camphor, musk, and saffron; all ground together with rose-water. they bathe every day, and after bathing, anoint themselves. they wear small gold chains and jewels round their necks, and bracelets on their arms, and rings on their fingers of very valuable jewels, and also many jewels in their ears of pearls and precious stones. and they take a second page who carries for them a slender canopy with a long handle with which to shade them and protect them from the rain. these shades are of silk stuff, much ornamented with gold fringes, and some of them have jewels and seed-pearls, and made in such a manner that they shut up and open; and some of these cost three or four hundred gold pieces, according to the quality of the persons. the women wear a cloth of very fine white cotton, or of silk of pretty colours, which may be about six cubits long; they gird themselves with part of this cloth from the waist below, and the other end of the cloth they cast over the shoulder and the breasts, and one arm and shoulder remain uncovered; on their feet sandals of gilt and well-worked leather; their heads bare, only their hair combed, and they put a plait of it over their heads, and in this many flowers and scents; and in the nostrils a small hole on one side, and in it a gold thread with a drop, either a pearl, or a ruby, or a sapphire drilled with a hole; their ears also are bored and in them they wear many gold rings with pearls and precious stones; and jewel necklaces round their throats, bracelets on their arms of the same fashion, and also strings of fine round coral on their arms, many rings with precious stones on their fingers; and girt over their clothes with belts of gold and jewels; and rings of gold on their legs; so that for the most part these are very rich and well-dressed people. they are great dancers; they sing and play on various instruments; they are taught to tumble and to perform many feats of agility. they are pretty women, and of a grand presence. these people marry in our manner; they have a marriage law, but the great men marry as many women as they can maintain, and the king has with him in his palaces many wives, daughters of the great lords of his kingdom; and, besides these, he has many others as concubines, and others as serving women who are chosen throughout the kingdom as the most beautiful. and all the attendance on the king is done by women, who wait upon him within doors; and amongst them are all the employments of the king's household: and all these women live and find room within these palaces, which contain apartments for all. they bathe every day in the pools of water, they sing and play on their instruments, and in a thousand ways amuse the king: and he goes to see them bathe, and from thence sends to his chamber the one that pleases him most; and the first son that he has from any of these, inherits the kingdom. amongst them there is so much envy and rivality for the preference of the king, that sometimes they kill themselves with poison. this king has a house in which he meets with the governors and his officers in council upon the affairs of the kingdom; and there all the great men of the realm go to see him with great gifts; and he dispenses great favours and likewise great punishments to those that deserve them. these great men, his relations and those of great lineage, when they do anything ill-done or prejudicial to his service, are summoned to him; and they have to come immediately: and they come in very rich litters on men's shoulders, and their horses are led by the bridle before them, and many horsemen go in front of them. they get down at the door of the palace and wait there with their trumpets and musical instruments, until word is brought to the king, and he commands them to come to his presence; and if they do not give a good excuse and account of themselves and of the evil of which they are accused, he commands them to be stripped and thrown on the ground, and there bids them to receive many stripes. if such a person were a near relation of the king's or a very great personage, the king himself scourges him with his own hand, and after he has been well beaten, the king orders very rich garments to be given him from his own clothes chests, and then directs him to be reconducted to his litter, and carried with great honour and great clang of musical instruments and festivity to his abode. many litters and many horsemen always stand at the door of this palace: and the king keeps at all times nine hundred elephants and more than twenty thousand horses, all which elephants and horses are bought with his money: the elephants, at the price of fifteen hundred to two thousand ducats each, because they are very great and well-fitted for war, and for taking about with him continually for state. and the horses cost from three to six hundred ducats each, and some of the choicest for his personal use, nine hundred or a thousand ducats. these horses are distributed amongst the great lords who are responsible for them, and keep them for the gentry and knights to whom the king bids them to be given: and he gives to each knight a horse and a groom and a slave girl, and for his personal expenses four or five pardaos of gold per month, according to who he is; and, besides that, each day's provisions for the horse and groom; and they send to the kitchen for the rations both for the elephants and horses. the kitchens are very large and numerous, they contain many cauldrons of copper, and several officials who cook the food of the elephants and horses; which, it must be said, is rice, chick-peas, and other vegetables. in all this there is much order and arrangement, and if the knight to whom the king has given a horse cares for it and treats it well, they take away that one and give him another and a better one; and if he is negligent, they take his away and give him another that is worse. and thus all the king's horses and elephants are well fed and cared for, at his cost: and the grandees, to whom he gives a great quantity of them, act in the same manner with their knights. these horses live but a short time; they are not bred in this country, for all of them are brought there from the kingdom of ormuz and that of cambay, and on that account, and for the great need of them, they are worth so much money. this king has more than a hundred thousand men, both horse and foot, to whom he gives pay: and fully five or six thousand women, to whom also he gives pay. and wherever there is war, according to the number of men-at-arms whom he sends there, he likewise sends with them a quantity of women; because they say that it is not possible to bring together an army, nor carry on war well, without women. these women are like enchantresses, and are great dancers; they play and sing, and pirouette. and whenever the king's officers take and enrol any man, they strip him and look what marks he has got on his body, and measure what his stature is, and set it all down in writing, and from whence he comes, and the names of his father and mother: and so he remains enrolled with all these particulars in the pay books. and after being enrolled, it is with difficulty that he can again obtain permission to go to his country; and if he flies and is taken, he runs great danger, and is very ill treated. among these men-at-arms there are many knights, who arrive there from many parts to take service, and these do not cease to live in their creeds. in this kingdom there are three sects of gentiles, and each one of them is distinguished from the others, and their customs are different. in the first place, the king and the grandees, and lords and chief people of the men-at-arms, can marry more than one wife, especially the grandees, who can maintain them: their children are their heirs. the wives are bound to burn themselves and to die with their husbands when they decease, because when the people die, their bodies are burned, both of men and women. and the wives burn themselves alive with them to honour them, in this manner: that is to say, if she is a poor woman of little rank, when the body of the husband is borne out to be burned in an open space outside the city, where there is a great fire, and whilst the body of the husband is being consumed, the wife casts herself, of her own will, into the fire, and burns there with him. and if she is some honourable woman, and of much property, and whether she be a young woman of beautiful presence, or old, when her husband dies, the relations all go to the before mentioned open space, and make a wide grave as deep as a man's height, and fill it with sandal and other wood, and place the dead body within and burn it; and his wife, or wives, weep for him, and then, should she desire to honour her husband, she asks for a term of a certain number of days to go and be burnt with him. and they bid all her relations, and those of her husband, come and do her honour, and give her a festal reception. and in this manner all collect together, and entertain and pay court to her, and she spends what she possesses among her relations and friends, in feasting and singing, in dances and playing on musical instruments, and amusements of jugglers. and when the term fixed has ended, she dresses herself in her richest stuffs, and adorns herself with many precious jewels, and the rest of her property she divides amongst her children, relations, and friends, and then mounts a horse, with a great sound of music, and a large following. the horse must be grey, or very white if possible, for her to be seen better. and so they conduct her through the whole city; paying court to her as far as the place where the body of her husband was burned; and in the same grave they place much wood, with which they light a very great fire, and all round it they make a gallery with three or four steps, whither she ascends with all her jewels and robes; and when she is upon the top she takes three turns round it, and raises her hands to heaven, and worships towards the east three times. and having ended this, she calls her relations and friends, and to each she gives a jewel of those which she wears: and all this with a very cheerful demeanour, not as though she were about to die. and after she has given them away, and there only remains a small cloth with which she is covered from the waist downwards, she says to the men, "see, gentlemen, how much you owe to your wives, who, whilst enjoying their freedom, burn themselves alive with their husbands." and to the women she says, "see, ladies, how much you owe to your husbands, for in this manner you ought to accompany them even in death." and when she has concluded uttering these words, they give her a pitcher full of oil, and she places it on her head and says her prayer, and takes three more turns and worships to the east, and casts the pitcher of oil into the pit where the fire is: and she springs into it, after the pitcher, with as much good will as though she were jumping into a pool of water. and the relations have ready for this occasion many pitchers and pots full of oil and butter, and dry wood, which they immediately throw in, so that so great a flame is at once kindled, that she is suddenly reduced to ashes. and afterwards they collect these ashes, and cast them into flowing rivers. all perform this in general, and if any women do not choose to do this, their relations take them, shave their heads, and turn them out of their houses and families with disgrace. and so they wander through the world as lost ones. and those of this sort to whom they may wish to show favour, are sent to the houses of prayer of the idols, to serve and gain for that temple with their bodies, if they are young women. and of these houses there are many, which contain fifty or a hundred women of this sort; and others, who of their own accord, being unmarried, place themselves there.[181] these have to play and sing, for certain hours of the day, before their idols, and the rest of the time they work for themselves. so also when the king dies, four or five hundred women burn themselves with him in the same manner, and they throw themselves suddenly into the pit and fire where they burn the body of the king: for the pit and fire are very large, and a great quantity can be burned in it, with great abundance of wood, sandal, brasil, eagle wood, aloes wood, and much oil of sesame and butter to make the wood burn well. so great is the haste of those who wish to burn themselves first, that it is something wonderful, and many men, confidants of the king, burn themselves with him. these people eat meat, fish, and all other viands, only cow is forbidden them by their creed. there is another sect of gentiles who are called bramans, who are priests and directors of the houses of prayer. these do not eat meat or fish, they marry only one wife, and if she dies they do not marry again: their children inherit their property. they wear over the shoulder three threads as a sign of being bramans. these do not die for any cause, or crime which they may commit; they are very free and easy, and are very much venerated amongst the people. they enjoy amongst them large alms from the kings, lords, and honourable people, with which they maintain themselves; and many of them are rich, and others live in the houses of prayer which there are about the country, after the manner of monasteries. these temples also have great revenues. these people are great eaters, and do no work except in order to eat: and they at any time go eight leagues to satisfy themselves with food, which they can eat on the road. their food is rice, butter, sugar, vegetables, and milk. in this country there is another sect of people, who are like bramans: they wear round their necks hung with silk cords and wrapped in coloured cloth, a stone of the size of an egg, and they say that it is their god. these people are much venerated and honoured in this country; they do them no harm for any offence which they may commit, out of reverence for that stone, which they call tabaryne.[182] neither do these people eat flesh nor fish; they go safely in all countries, and they transport from one kingdom to another much merchandise and money of the merchants, on account of their greater security from thieves. and there are some of them who deal in merchandise with their tani bar ine round their necks. these likewise marry only one woman, and if they die before their wives, they bury these alive in this manner.[183] it must be said, that they make a grave for her a little deeper than she is tall, and put her in it standing, and while she is quite alive they throw in earth all around her, and press it down with their feet until she is walled in with earth much pressed down, which reaches to her neck, and then they put some large stones above her, and leave her there alive covered with earth until she dies; and on this occasion they perform great ceremonies for them. the women of this country are so enterprising and idolatrous, that they do marvellous things for the love of their idols, in this manner. there are amongst them young girls who desire to marry some man for whom they have a liking, and one of these will promise her idol to do it a great service if she should marry such a one whom she wishes for. and if she marries that one, she then says to him, i have to make a feast for such a god, and i have to offer my blood before i deliver myself to you. and so they appoint a day for celebrating that feast. and she takes a large waggon with oxen, and they fix it in a very high crane, such as those with which they draw water, and they fasten it to an iron chain with two iron hooks, and she comes out of her house with great honour, accompanied by all her relations and friends, men and women, with much singing and playing of instruments, and many dancers and jesters; and she comes wrapped very tightly round the waist with her white stuffs, covered from the waist to the knees, the rest bare, and at the door of her house, where the car stands, they lower the crane, and stick the two hooks into her in the loins between the skin and the flesh, and put into her left hand a small round shield, and a little bag with lemons and oranges. they then raise the crane with great shouting and sound of instruments, firing guns, and making other festal demonstrations: and in this manner the car begins its march on the way to the house of the idol to which the promise was made, and she goes suspended by those hooks fastened into her flesh, and the blood runs down her legs. and she continues to sing and shout for joy, and to strike upon the shield, and to throw oranges and lemons to her husband and to her relations, who go with her in this manner to the door of the said house of prayer, where they take her down, and cure her, and deliver her to her husband; and she gives at that place great alms to the bramans and offerings to the idols, and a great feast to as many as accompanied her. there are other persons also who offer the virginity of their daughters to an idol, and as soon as they are ten years of age they take her to a monastery and the house of prayer of that idol, with great honour, and accompanied by her relations, entertaining her like one that is going to be married. and outside of the monastery, at the door, there is a bench of hard black stone, square, of half a man's height, and surrounded with wooden steps, with many oil lamps placed on the steps, which are lit at night.[184] * * * * * this king of narsinga is frequently at war with the king of dacani, who has taken from him much of his land; and also with another gentile king of the country of otira,[185] which is the country in the interior. and he always sends his captains and troops to this war, and on some occasions, if of necessity, he goes to the war in person; and as soon as it is determined on, he goes out to the country, on a certain day, on an elephant or in a litter, very richly adorned with gold and jewels, accompanied by many knights and horse and foot-men: and many elephants go before him, all covered with scarlet cloth and silk, and much bedizened and dressed out as for a feast. and as they go through the fields they bring the king a horse, on which he rides, and a bow and an arrow, which he shoots towards the part where he intends to go and make war. and they name the day of his setting out, and this news immediately runs throughout all the kingdom. he then pitches his tents and camp in the country, and there remains until the appointed term of days is accomplished for his departure. when this is concluded he orders the city to be set on fire, and directs it all to be burned except the royal palaces, castles, houses of prayer, and those of some of the grandees which are not covered with thatch, in order that all may go to the war to die with him, and with his wives and children, whom he has with him in the wars. in order that these may not take to flight he directs large pay to be given to all: in the first place, to the enchanting single women, who are numerous, and who do not fight, but their lovers fight for love of them very vigorously. and it is also said that many men come from all the other kingdoms to this king's camp for the love of these women,[186] amongst whom there are many very honourable ones, great confidantes of the king, who come of great houses, and are very rich. each one of them keeps seven or eight pretty waiting women, who are given to them by their mothers to bring them up, and put them in the court enrolled on the pay list. they hold this service in great honour, and it is but a short time since one of them died who had no son nor heir, and left the king for her heir; and he gathered from the inheritance sixty thousand gold pardaos, besides twelve thousand which he gave to a waiting woman of his, whom he had brought up from a girl: which is not to be wondered at for the great wealth of the kingdom. in this kingdom jewels are esteemed as treasure by the king and also by the rich, who buy them at large prices. the people of this kingdom are great hunters both of flying game and wild beasts. there are many small hacks, and very good ones to go. hotisa. having passed the said kingdom of narsynga inland, there is next another kingdom called hotisa,[187] which confines with it on one side, and on another with the kingdom of bengal, and on the other with the kingdom of dely: and it is inhabited by gentiles. the king is also a gentile, very rich and powerful, who has many foot soldiers; he is frequently at war with the kingdom of narsinga, from which he has taken lands and villages; and the king of narsinga has taken others from him: so that they are rarely at peace. of the customs of these people i have little information, on account of their being placed so much in the interior of the country. it is only known that in that country there are very few moors, and that they are almost all gentiles and very good fighting men. kingdom of dely. having passed this kingdom of otisa, more inland there is another great kingdom, which is called dely, of many provinces, and of large and rich cities of great trade. this kingdom is of the moors, and has a moorish king, a great lord; and in former times this kingdom was of the gentiles, of whom there are still many who live amidst the moors, with much vexation. and many of them nobles and respectable people, not to be subject to the moors, go out of the kingdom and take the habit of poverty, wandering the world; and they never settle in any country until their death; nor will they possess any property, since they lost their lands and property, and for that go naked, barefooted, and bareheaded; they only cover their nakedness with coverings[188] of brass, in this manner: it must be said, that they wear belts of moorish brass of pieces fitted together, of four fingers in breadth, carved with many images of men and women, sculptured and shining: and they wear it so tight that it makes their guts rise high up; and from the girdle below the hips there comes a bandage of the same brass, and in front it forms a sort of braguette, which comes and fastens in the girdle in front with its fastenings: all very tight. besides this, they carry very heavy chains round their necks, and waists, and legs; and they smear all their bodies and faces with ashes. and they carry a small brown horn at their necks, after the fashion of a trumpet, with which they call and beg for food at the door of any house where they arrive: chiefly at the houses of kings and great lords and at the temples; and they go many together, like the gipsies.[189] they are accustomed to stop very few days in each country. these people are commonly called jogues, and in their own speech they are called zoame, which means servant of god. they are brown, very well made and proportioned, of handsome faces; they wear their hair without ever combing it, and made into many plaits, wound round the head. and i asked them many times why they went in this fashion. and they answered me, that they wore those chains upon their bodies as penance for the sin which they committed for allowing themselves to be captured by such bad people as the moors, and that they went naked as a sign of dishonour, because they had allowed their lands and houses to be lost, in which god brought them up; and that they did not want more property since they had lost their own, for which they ought to have died; and that they smeared themselves with ashes in order to remind themselves perpetually that they were born of earth and had to return again to the earth, and that all the rest[190] was falsehood. and each one of them carries his little bag of these ashes with him; and all the gentiles of the country honour them greatly, and receive from them some of these ashes, and put it on their heads,[191] shoulders, and breasts, making a few lines with it. and throughout all the country the gentiles are in the habit of doing this. and so also throughout all india among the gentiles, many of them turn jogues; but most of them are from the kingdom of dely. these jogues eat all meats and do not observe any idolatry, and they mingle with all kinds of people: neither do they wash like other gentiles, except when the wish to do so comes to them. in this kingdom of dely there are many very good horses, which are born and bred there. the people of the kingdom, both moors and gentiles, are very good fighting men and good knights, armed with many kinds of weapons; they are great bowmen, and very strong men; they have very good lances, swords, daggers, steel maces, and battle-axes, with which they fight; and they have some steel wheels, which they call chacarani, two fingers broad, sharp outside like knives, and without edge inside; and the surface of these[192] is of the size of a small plate. and they carry seven or eight of these each, put on the left arm; and they take one and put it on the finger of the right hand, and make it spin round many times, and so they hurl it at their enemies, and if they hit anyone on the arm or leg or neck, it cuts through all. and with these they carry on much fighting, and are very dexterous with them. this king of dely confines with tatars, and has taken many lands from the king of cambay; and from the king of dacan, his servants and captains, with many of his people, took much, and afterwards in time they revolted and set themselves up as kings. in this kingdom of dely there are some trees, the root of which is called baxarague,[193] and it is so poisonous that any one who eats it dies at once; and its fruit is called nirabixy,[194] and it is of such virtue that it extinguishes all poison, and gives life to any one poisoned with the said root or with other poisons. these jogues, who come from the kingdom of dely, carry this root and fruit; some of them give it to some indian kings; and so likewise they carry with them sometimes rhinoceros' horn and pajar stone, which possess great virtue against all poisons. and this stone, pajar, is grey and soft, of the size of an almond; and they say that it is found in the head of an animal: it is greatly esteemed amongst the indians.[195] country of malabar. having passed the province of tulynate, which is of the kingdom of narsinga, along the coast of the sea, which province begins from cinbola near the mountain dely, and ends at the cape of conmery, which is a distance of seventy leagues along the coast towards the south and south-east. and there begins the country of malabar, which was governed by a king who was called sernaperimal,[196] who was a very great lord. and after that the moors of mekkah discovered india, and began to navigate near it, which was six hundred and ten years ago; they used to touch at this country of malabar on account of the pepper which is found there. and they began to load their ships with it in a city and seaport, coulom,[197] where the king used frequently to be. and so for some years these moors continued their voyages to this country of malabar, and began to spread themselves through it, and became so intimate and friendly with the said king, that they made him turn moor, and he went away with them to die at the house of mekkah, and he died on the road. and before he set out from his country, he divided the whole of his kingdom of malabar amongst his relations; and it remained divided amongst them and their descendants as it now is. and when he distributed the lands, he abandoned those that he gave, never to return to them again; and at last, when he had given away all, and there did not remain anything more for him to give, except ten or twelve leagues of land all round the spot from which he embarked, which was an uninhabited beach, where now stands the city of calicut. and at that moment he was accompanied by more moors than gentiles, on account of having given to the latter almost all that he possessed, and he had with him only one young nephew, who waited on him as a page, to whom he gave that piece of land; and he told him to get it peopled, especially that very spot whence he embarked. and he gave him his sword and a chandelier, which he carried with him for state. and he left an injunction to the other lords, his relations to whom he had made grants of lands, that they should obey him, only leaving exempt the king of coulam and the king of cavanor:[198] so that he instituted three kings in the country of malabar, and commanded that no one should coin money except the king of calicut. and so he embarked at the same place where the city of calicut was founded; and the moors held this time and place in much veneration, and would not after that go and load pepper any more in any other part since the said king embarked there after becoming a moor and going to die at mekkah. this city of calicut is very large, and ennobled by many very rich merchants and great traffic in goods. this king became greater and more powerful than all the others: he took the name of zomodri,[199] which is a point of honour above all other kings. so that this great king of malabar did not leave more kings than these three: that is to say, the zomodry, who was named cunelava-dyri, and the king of culaon, who was named benate-diry, and the king of cananor, who was named coletry.[200] and there are many other lords in the country of malabar, who wish to call themselves kings; and they are not so, because they are not able to coin money, nor cover houses with roofs under penalty of all the others rising up against whomsoever should do such a thing, or of having to destroy them. and these kings of culam and cananor afterwards struck money for a certain time in their countries without having the power of doing so. in all the country they use one language, which is called maleama, and all the kings are of one sect, and almost of the same customs. in these kingdoms of malabar there are eighteen sects of gentiles, each one of which is much distinguished from the others in so great a degree that the ones will not touch the others under pain of death or dishonour or loss of their property: and all of them have separate customs in their idol-worship, as will be set forth further on. customs of the said kingdoms and country of malabar. in the first place, the kings of malabar are, as has been said, gentiles, and honour their idols: they are brown, almost white, others are darker; they go naked from the waist upwards, and from the waist downwards are covered with white cotton wraps and some of them of silk. sometimes they clothe themselves with short jackets open in front, reaching halfway down the thigh, made of very fine cotton cloth, fine scarlet cloth, or of silk and brocade. they wear their hair tied upon the top of their heads, and sometimes long hoods like galician casques, and they are barefooted. they shave their beards and leave the moustaches[201] very long, after the manner of the turks. their ears are bored, and they wear in them very precious jewels and pearls set in gold, and on their arms from the elbows upwards gold bracelets, with similar jewels and strings of very large pearls. at their wrists over their clothes they wear jewelled girdles three fingers in width, very well wrought and of great value. and on their breasts, shoulders, and foreheads, they make marks by threes with ashes, which they wear in accordance with the custom of their sect, saying that they do it to remind themselves that they have to turn to ashes: for when they die they burn their bodies, and so this ceremony continues among them. and many use it mixed with sandal wood, saffron, aloes wood, and rose water, all this ground up. when they are in their houses they always sit on high benches, and in houses without stories; these benches are very smooth, and are slightly smeared once every day with cow dung. and they keep there a stand very white and four fingers high, and a cloth of brown wool undyed, after the manner of a carpet of the size of a horsecloth[202] folded in three folds; and upon this they sit, and they lean upon pillows, round and long, of cotton, silk, or fine cloth. and they also sit on carpets of cloth of gold and silk; but they always keep under them, or near them, that cloth of brown wool, on account of their sect, and for state. and frequently they happen to be lying on couches and cushions of silk and very fine white sheets, and when any one comes to see them, they bring him this brown woollen cloth and put it near him, and when he goes out, a page carries the cloth folded before him for state and ceremony. and likewise he always keeps a sword near him, and when he changes from one spot to another, he carries it in his hand naked, as they always keep it. these kings do not marry, nor have a marriage law, only each one has a mistress, a lady of great lineage and family, which is called nayre, and said to be very beautiful and graceful. each one keeps such a one with him near the palaces in a separate house, and gives her a certain sum each month, or each year, for expenses, and leaves her whenever she causes him discontent, and takes another. and many of them for honour's sake do not change them, nor make exchanges with them; and they seek much to please their king, for that honour and favour which they receive. and the children that are born from these mistresses are not held to be sons, nor do they inherit the kingdom, nor anything else of the king's; they only inherit the property of the mother. and whilst they are children, they are favoured by the king like children of other people whom he might be bringing up; but not like his own, because since they are men, the children are not accounted for more than as children of their mothers.[203] the king sometimes makes grants of money to them, for them to maintain themselves better than the other nobles. the heirs of these kings are their brothers, or nephews, sons of their sisters, because they hold those to be their true successors, and because they know that they were born from the body of their sisters. these do not marry, nor have fixed husbands, and are very free and at liberty in doing what they please with themselves. in this wise the lineage of the kings of this country, and the true stock, is in the women: that is to say, if a woman[204] gives birth to three or four sons and two or three daughters, the first is king, and so on, all the other brothers inherit from one another; and when all these have died, the son of the eldest sister, who is niece of the king, inherits, and so also his other heirs after him; and when these have deceased, the children of the next sister. and the kingdom always goes in this way to brothers, and nephews sons of sisters, and if by good or evil fortune these women happen not to give birth to male children, they do not consider them as capable of inheriting the kingdom; and these ladies, in such a case, all unite in council and institute some relation of theirs as king, if they have one, and if there is none, they name any other person for this office. and on this account the kings of malabar are old men when they succeed to reign, and the nieces or sisters from whom has to proceed the lineage of the kings are held in great honour, guarded and served, and they possess revenues for their maintenance. and when one of these is of age to bring forth, on arriving at from thirteen to fourteen years, they prepare to make festivity and entertainment for her, and to make her enceinte. and they summon some young man, a nobleman and honourable person, of whom there are many deputed for this. and they send to fetch him that he may come for this purpose. and he comes, and they give him a great entertainment, and perform some ceremonies, and he ties some gold jewel to the neck of the damsel, and she wears it all her life in sign of her having performed those ceremonies, in order to be able to do with herself whatever she chooses; because, until the performance of this ceremony, she could not dispose of herself. and the before mentioned youth remains with her for some days, very well attended to, and then returns to his land. and she sometimes remains in the family way, and sometimes not, and from this time forth for her pleasure she takes some braman, whomsoever she likes best, and these are priests among them, and of these she has as many as she likes. this king of calicut, and so also the other kings of malabar, when they die, are burned in the country with much sandal and aloes wood; and at the burning all the nephews and brothers and nearest relations collect together, and all the grandees of the realm, and confidantes of the king, and they lament for him and burn him. and before burning him they keep him there when dead for three days, waiting for the assembling of the above mentioned persons, that they may see him if he died of a natural death, or avenge his death if any one killed him, as they are obliged to do in case of a violent death. and they observe this ceremony very rigidly. after having burned him, all shave themselves from head to foot, excepting the eyelashes, from the prince, the heir to the throne, to the smallest child of the kingdom: that is, those who are gentiles, and they also clean their teeth, and universally leave off eating betel for thirteen days from that time; and if in this period they find any one who eats it, his lips are cut off by the executioner. during these thirteen days the prince does not rule, nor is he enthroned as king, in order to see if in this time any one will rise up to oppose him; and when this term is accomplished, all the grandees and former governors make him swear to maintain all the laws of the late king, and to pay the debts which he owed, and to labour to recover that which other former kings had lost. and he takes this oath, holding a drawn sword in his left hand, and his right hand placed upon a chain lit up with many oil wicks, in the midst of which is a gold ring, which he touches with his fingers, and there he swears to maintain everything with that sword. when he has taken the oath, they sprinkle rice over his head, with many ceremonies of prayer and adoration to the sun, and immediately after certain counts, whom they call caymal,[205] along with all the others of the royal lineage, and the grandees, swear to him in the same manner to serve him, and to be loyal and true to him. during these thirteen days one of the caymals governs and rules the state like the king himself: he is like an accountant-general of the king, and of all the affairs of the kingdom. this office and dignity is his by right and inheritance. this person is also the chief treasurer of the kingdom, without whom the king cannot open or see the treasury; neither can the king take anything out of the treasury without a great necessity, and by the counsel of this person and several others. and all the laws and ordinances of the kingdom are in the keeping of this man. no one eats meat or fish in these thirteen days, nor may any one fish under pain of death. during that period large alms are given from the king's property, of food to many poor people, and to bramans; and when the thirteen days are ended, all eat what they please, except the new king, who observes the same abstinence for one year, neither does he shave his beard, nor cut a hair of his head nor of his body, nor his nails: and he says prayers for certain hours of the day, and does not eat more than once a day. and before he eats he has to wash himself, and after washing, he must not drink anything until he has eaten. this king is always in the city of calicut, in some very large palaces which he possesses outside of the city, and when the year of this mourning is accomplished, the prince who is to succeed him, and all those of the royal family and all the other grandees and nobles of the country, come to see him, and to perform a ceremony, which takes place at the end of the year, in honour of the death of his predecessor: at which great alms are given, and much money is spent in giving food to many bramans and poor people, and to all those who come to visit him, and to their retinues, so that more than a hundred thousand people are assembled there. and on this occasion he confirms the prince as the heir, and likewise the others as his successors step by step. and he confirms to all the lords their estates, and he confirms or changes as he sees fit the governors and officers who were under the former king. and he then dismisses them, and sends each to his duties, and he sends the prince to the estates which are assigned to him. and he must not re-enter calicut until the king dies; and all the other successors may go and come to the court, and reside with the king. when the before mentioned crown prince departs, after he has left calicut, and on passing the bridge of a river, he takes a bow in his hand and shoots an arrow towards the residence of the king, and then says a prayer with uplifted hands in the manner of prayer, and then goes on. this prince, when he comes to visit the king at the said feast and ceremony, brings all his nobles with him, and his instruments of music, which are kettle-drums,[206] drums of many shapes, trumpets, horns, flutes, small brass plates,[207] and lutes;[208] these come making a great harmony, and the nobles in front, all drawn up in order, as they regulate processions here. that is to say, the bowmen in the van, next the lancers, after them the bearers of sword and buckler. and the king issues from the palaces and places himself at a great door, on foot, and there he stands looking at all these people who come up to him with great reverence, and do as though they worshipped him. all retire after a while, and so he remains for the space of two hours, until all have done, and the prince appears at a considerable distance[209] with a drawn sword in his hand, which he brandishes as he advances, with his face raised up, and eyes fixed upon the king. and on seeing him, he worships him and throws himself with his face upon the ground, and with outstretched arms; and he lies thus for a short time, then gets up again, and goes forward very slowly brandishing his drawn sword in his hand, and with his eyes still fixed upon the king, and at half way he does the same thing again, and the king looks at him fixedly, without making any movement, and the prince gets up again, and so arrives where the king stands: and there he again throws himself on the ground in front of him. the king then goes forward two steps and takes him by the hand, and raises him up, and so they enter both together into the palaces. the king then sits on his dais, and the prince with all the other heirs, stand in front with their drawn swords in their right hands, and their left hands placed upon their mouths out of respect, withdrawn a little from the king's dais. they speak there to the king with much reverence, without speaking to one another, and if it is necessary for one to say anything to another, they speak so softly that no one hears them: so much so, that there are two thousand men before the king in the palace, and no one hears them; and they may not spit or cough before the king. this king of calicut keeps many clerks constantly in his palace, they are all in one room, separate and far from the king, sitting on benches, and there they write all the affairs of the king's revenue, and his alms, and the pay which is given to all, and the complaints which are presented to the king, and, at the same time, the accounts of the collectors of taxes. all this is on broad stiff leaves of the palm tree, without ink, with pens of iron: they make lines with their letters, engraven like ours. each of these clerks has great bundles of these leaves written on, and blank, and wherever they go they carry them under their arms and the iron pen in their hand: in this way they are known to all people as scribes of the palace. and among these there are seven or eight who are great confidants of the king, and the most honoured, and who always stand before him with their pens in their hand, and writings under their arm, ready for the king's orders to do anything, as he is in the habit of doing. these clerks always have several of these leaves subscribed[210] by the king in blank, and when he commands them to despatch any business, they write it on those leaves. these accountants are persons of great credit, and most of them are old and respectable: and when they get up in the morning and want to write anything, the first time that they take the pen and the leaf in their hand, they cut a small piece off it with the knife which is at the end of the pen, and they write the names of their gods upon it and worship them towards the sun with uplifted hands; and having finished their prayer, they tear the writing and throw it away, and after that begin writing whatever they require. this king has a thousand waiting women, to whom he gives regular pay, and they are always at the court, to sweep the palaces and houses of the king: and this he does for state, because fifty would be enough to sweep. these women are of good family, they come into the palace to sweep and clean twice every day, and each one carries a broom and a brass dish with cow dung dissolved in water; and all that they sweep, after having swept it, they smear it with their right hand, giving a very thin coating, which dries immediately. and these women do not all serve, but take turns in the service; and when the king goes from one house to another, or to some temple, on foot, these women go before him with these dishes of the said cow dung, spilling it on the road by which he has to pass. and these thousand women give a great feast to the king when he newly comes to the throne, after he has finished his year of mourning and abstinence. it is fitting to know that all the thousand assemble together, both the old and the young ones, in the king's house, very much adorned with jewellery, gold belts, pearls, and many bracelets of gold, and many rings with precious stones, and ankle rings of gold on their legs, and dressed from the waist downwards with very rich silk stuffs, and others of very fine cotton, and from the waist upwards bare, and anointed with sandal and perfumes, and their hair wreathed with flowers, and rings of gold and precious stones in their ears, the feet bare, as they always are accustomed to be. and they have there all sorts of musical instruments, and many guns and other fireworks of various kinds. many nobles who accompany them come there very smart and gay, and are their admirers: and seven or eight elephants covered with silk housings and small bells in great quantity hanging to them, and large chains of iron suspended from their backs. and the ladies take an idol for their protector,[211] and put it on the top of the biggest elephant, and a priest who carries it in his arms sits on the back of the elephant. so they set out in procession with their music and rejoicing, and much firing of guns, going along a very broad street to a house of prayer. there they lower the idol which is to be seen with another which is in that temple, and they perform to them great ceremonies, and many people assemble to see and adore those idols, and pay honour to their images. these thousand women have each got a brass dish full of rice, and on the top of the rice lamps full of oil, with many lighted wicks, and between the chandeliers are many flowers. and at nightfall they set out from the temple with their idol for the king's palace, where they have to place it; and all come in procession before the idol which is set upon the elephant, in bands of eight, with the before mentioned salvers, and many men accompany them with oil, with which they replenish the lamps. and the nobles, their admirers, go along with them, talking to them with much courtesy; and they remove the perspiration from the ladies' faces, and from time to time put into their mouths the betel, which both men and women are constantly eating; and they fan them with fans, because their hands are fully occupied with the salvers. and all the instruments are sounding, and there is a great firing of rockets, and they carry some burning shrubs, so that it is a very pretty sight. also at night some gentlemen go in front of the idol inflicting wounds with their swords upon their own heads and shoulders, and shouting like madmen, and foaming at the mouth like persons possessed: and they say that the gods enter into them and make them do this. many tumblers and buffoons also go along performing feats of agility, and the governors and chief men of the city go there to direct and arrange that procession, which is conducted with much order until it arrives at the king's palace, where it disperses. this king is for the most part sitting on his dais, and sometimes his confidential advisers are there, rubbing his arms and legs, or his body, and a page with a napkin round his neck full of betel, which he gives him to chew, and sometimes it is kept in a gilt and coloured casket edged with silver, and at times in a gold plate, and the page gives it to him leaf by leaf, smeared with a little lime of sea shells diluted with rose water, like a sauce, which he keeps in a small box[212] of gold; and he also gives him areca, which is a small fruit, cut into pieces, and he chews it all together; and it colours his mouth, and what he spits is like blood. and another page holds in his hand a large gold cup, into which he spits the juice of that leaf which he does not swallow, and he washes his mouth from time to time, so that he is almost always munching these leaves. his manner of eating is that no one sees him eat: only four or five servants wait upon him. first of all, when he wishes to eat, he bathes in a pool of water which he has in his palaces, very clean and prettily kept; and there, when undressed, he performs his ceremonies and worships three times to the east, and walks three times round, and plunges three more times under the water, and after that dresses in clean clothes, each time fresh washed; and then he goes and sits in the place which he has appointed for eating, the ground having been swept, or on a very low, round stand. there they bring him a large silver tray, and upon it are many small silver saucers, all empty. and they are set before him on the ground upon another low stand: and the cook comes, who is a braman, and brings a copper pot with cooked rice, which is very dry and entire, and with a spoon they take it out, and make a pile of it in the middle of the said large tray; afterwards they bring many other pans with divers viands, and put portions of them into the small saucers. he then begins to eat with the right hand, taking handfuls of the rice without a spoon, and with the same hand he takes some of all the dishes and mixes it with the rice; and with his left hand he must not touch anything of what he eats; and they set near him a silver pitcher of water; and when he wants to drink, he takes it with the left hand, and raises it in the air, and pours the water into his mouth in a small jet; thus he drinks without the pitcher touching his mouth;[213] and the viands which they give him, both of flesh and fish, or vegetables and herbs, are done with so much pepper, so that no one from our parts could endure them in his mouth. and he never cleans his right hand, nor uses a napkin or cloth for that, whilst eating, until he has done eating, when he washes his hand. and if, during his meals, there should be present with him any honourable bramans, in his confidence, he bids them eat there apart from himself on the ground; and they set before them leaves of the indian fig-tree, which are very large and stiff, a leaf for each man, and upon these they set food before them, the same as for the king; and he who is not going to eat there goes away, because no one else may be where the king eats; and when he has ended his meal, the king returns to his dais, and is almost always chewing betel. whenever the king goes out of the palace to amuse himself, or to pray to some idol, all his gentlemen are summoned who are in waiting, and also the minstrels, and they carry the king in a litter, which is borne by men, and is covered with silk stuffs and jewels. many jugglers and tumblers go before the king, with whom he amuses himself, and he stops frequently to look at them, and praises the one who performs best. and one braman carries a sword and shield, and another a long gold sword, and another a sword in his right hand, which the king of all malabar, who went to die at mekkah, left behind him; and in his left hand a weapon which is like a fleur-de-lis. and on each side go two men with two fans, very long and round, and two others with two fans made of white tails of animals, which are like horses, and which are much valued amongst them, set on gold spears; these men fan the king, and close to them is a page with a gold pitcher full of water, and on the left side another with a silver one; and a page with a napkin, for when the king wishes to clean his nose, or if he touch his eyes or mouth, they pour water and wash his fingers, and the other gives him the napkin to dry them; they also carry vases, in which the king spits the betel. his nephews, governors, and other lords go along with him, and all accompany him with their swords drawn and shields. and a great quantity of buffoons, musicians, tumblers, and musqueteers firing guns accompany the king; and if he goes by night, they carry four large chandeliers of iron full of oil with many lighted wicks. on the fashion of justice in the kingdom of malabar. in the said city of calicut there is a governor, whom they call talaxe, a gentleman appointed by the king,[214] who has under him five thousand gentlemen, to whom he pays their salaries from the revenue, which is assigned for that purpose. this person administers justice in the city of calicut, and gives an account of everything to the king. and justice is administered according to the qualities of the persons, because there are divers sects and laws amongst them; that is to say, of gentlemen, chetres, guzurates, brabares, who are very honourable people; and thence downwards there are also divers sects of low and base people who are all serfs of the king, or of the other lords and governors of the country. and if any of these low people commits a robbery, concerning which a complaint has been made to the king or to the governor, they send to take the robber, and if they find the thing stolen in his hands, or if he confess that he did it, if he is a gentile, they take him to a place where they carry out executions, and there they set some high posts with sharp points and a small stand, through which passes one of those points; and there they cut off his head with a sword, and spit him through the back and the pit of the stomach, and that point comes out about a cubit, and on it they also spit his head. and they tie ropes to his legs and arms, and fasten them to four posts, so that the limbs are stretched out and the body on its back upon the stand. and if the malefactor is a moor, they take him to a field, and there kill him by stabbing him; and the stolen property is appropriated to the governor without its owner recovering anything; because their law so disposes, doing justice on the thief. and if the stolen property is found and the thief escapes, it is for a certain number of days in the charge of the governor; and if during that time they do not catch the thief, they return the stolen goods to its owner, a fourth part of it, however, remaining for the governor; and if the thief denies the robbery, they keep him eight days in prison, making his life uncomfortable, to see if he will confess, and throwing him his food; and when the eight days are passed without his confessing, they call the accuser, and he is told that the accused does not confess, and they ask him if he requires them to take his oath or let him go. if the accuser then requires the accused to swear, they make him wash and commend himself to his gods, and eat no betel, and cleanse his teeth from the blackness caused by the betel, in order that he may swear next day, and that he may prepare himself for it. next day they take him out of prison, and take him to a pool of water where he washes, performing his ceremony, and from there they take him to a house of prayer where his idols are kept, before which he takes his oath in this manner. it must be known that, if he is a gentile, they heat a copper-pot full of oil until it boils, and they throw in a few leaves of trees, and with the great heat of the pot the leaves fly out, and this is in order that the parties may see that the oil is hot and boiling; and then two scribes come near, and take the right hand of the accused and look if he has any wound of itch or other disease, and write down in what condition his hand is, in the presence of the party. then they bid him look at the idol, and say three times "i did not commit this theft of which i am accused, nor do i know who did it," and then put his two fingers up to the middle joints in the oil which is boiling upon the fire; and he does so; and they say that if he did not commit the theft, that he does not burn himself, and that if he did it, he burns his fingers. [and then the scribes, and governor and party, look at him again, and the scribes write down the condition in which his hand is, and they tie it up with a cloth whether it is burned or not, and put seals on the fastenings of the cloth, and send him back to prison. and three days later, all return to the same place where the oath was taken, and they untie his hand before the governor and party, and if they find it burned they kill him, but first give him so many torments that they make him confess where he has got the stolen property, or that he did it. and even if he does not confess, all the same he suffers the penalty because his hand was burned; and if they find his hand not burned, then they let him go, and he who accused him pays a certain sum as a fine to the governor. and they have the same method for him who kills another, or for him who kills a cow, or raises his hand in anger against bramans or noblemen. and this is to be understood as amongst the gentile peasants and low people. and if it is a moor who does such things, he passes through the same examinations, only that instead of putting his fingers in oil, they make him lick with his tongue a red-hot axe, and if he does not burn himself he remains free, and if he burns his tongue he suffers death. and if any of the common people, whether gentiles or moors, commit other offences for which they do not deserve death, they punish them with a pecuniary penalty for the governor, and this produces much revenue to him; and he lays hold of vagabonds as slaves, and he has the power of selling them, and sells them without any opposition whatever, at a price of from four to five ducats. the nobles enjoy exemption and the privilege, that they cannot be taken and put in irons for anything which they do. and if a noble were to rob or kill any one, or kill a cow, or were to sleep with a woman of low caste, or of the bramans, or if he eat or drank in the house of a low caste man, or spoke ill of his king--this being established by his own words--they call three or four honourable gentlemen in whom the king places confidence, and he bids them go and kill this noble wherever they may meet with him, and they give them a warrant[215] signed by the king for them to kill him without penalty. they then kill him with daggers or spears, or shoot him with arrows, because at times these men who are accused are such that before being put to death, they wound two or three of the slaughterers, if they have been forewarned. and after he is dead they lay him on his back and place that king's warrant upon his breast. and if they kill him in the country they leave him there, and no one comes near him, so that the fowls and dogs devour him. and if they kill him in the city, the people of the street where he lies dead go and beg the king to order his removal; and the king gives the orders, sometimes as a favour, sometimes with a fine.[216]] and if any noble comes to the king or to the governor, and complains to him of any other noble who has robbed or murdered or done any other evil deed, the governor reports it to the king, and the king gives orders to summon the accused, and if he absents himself they hold him guilty, and he is ordered to be executed in the same manner without further investigation. and if he presents himself, they summon the accuser, and examine both of them together. and the accuser takes a small branch of a tree or green herbs in his hand, and says, such a one did such a thing; the other one takes another branch, and denies it. the king then bids them return eight days thenceforward to the house of the governor to take oath and prove that which each one asserts; and so they depart, and return on the day fixed to the house of the governor, where the accused swears in the manner already described with boiling butter, and having concluded taking the oath, they tie up his fingers as has been said, and both of them are detained in a house under a guard, so that neither of them can run away. and on the third day they untie his fingers, and clear up the truth, and if they find the fingers burned, they kill the accused; and not finding them injured, they kill the accuser. and if the accused is not of as great value, they do not kill the accuser, on whom in such case they inflict a pecuniary penalty and that of banishment. and if such a noble was accused of a great robbery of the king's property, they have him imprisoned in a close room and well guarded, and conduct him thence to take the oath. in this kingdom of calicut there is another governor, who is like the chief justice of all the kingdom, with the exception of the city of calicut. this chief justice is called coytoro tical carnaver; he has his lieutenants in all the villages, to whom he farms the administration of justice: that is to say, the fines, not capital penalties. and people come to this chief justice for any injury, and he gives an account of it and reports to the king, and renders justice in the manner followed at calicut. in this kingdom of calicut no women ever die by sentence of law for any offence whatever; they are only subject to pecuniary penalties. and if any woman of nayr family should offend against the law of her sect, and the king know of it before her relations and brothers, he commands her to be taken and sold out of the kingdom to moors or christians. and if her male relations or sons know of it first, they shut her up and kill her with dagger or spear wounds, saying that if they did not do so they would remain greatly dishonoured. and the king holds this to be well done. section of the bramans and their customs. the gentile bramans are priests all of one lineage, and others cannot be priests, but only their own sons. and when these are seven years old, they put round their necks a strap two fingers in width of an animal which they call cressua-mergan,[217] with its hair, which is like a wild ass; and they command him not to eat betel for seven years, and all this time he wears that strap round the neck, passing under the arm, and when he reaches fourteen years of age they make him a braman, removing from him the leather strap round his neck, and putting on another of three threads, which he wears all his life as a mark of being a braman. and they do this with much ceremony and festivity, just as here at the first mass,[218] and from this time forward he may eat betel. they do not eat flesh nor fish, they are much reverenced and honoured by the indians, and they are not executed for any offence which they may commit: but their chief, who is like a bishop, chastises them in moderation. they marry only once, and only the eldest brother has to be married, and of him is made a head of the family like a sole heir by entail,[219] and all the others remain bachelors, and never marry. the eldest is the heir of all the property. these bramans, the elder brothers, keep their wives very well guarded, and in great esteem, and no other man can approach them; and if any of the married ones die, the person who becomes widowed does not marry again. and if the wife commits adultery, the husband kills her with poison. these young men who do not marry, nor can marry, sleep with the wives of the nobles, and these women hold it as a great honour because they are bramans, and no woman refuses them. and they must not sleep with any woman older than themselves. and these live in their houses and estates, and they have great houses of prayer, in which they do service as abbots, and whither they go to recite their prayers at fixed times of the day, and worship their idols and perform their ceremonies. and these temples have their principal doors to the west, and each temple has three doors, and in front of the principal gate, outside of it, is a stone of the height of a man, with three steps all round it, and in front of that stone inside the church is a small chapel, very dark, inside of which they keep their idol, of gold, silver, or metal, and three lamps burning. and no one may enter there except the minister of that church, who goes in to set before the idol flowers and scented herbs, and they anoint it with sandal and rose water, and take it out once in the morning, and another time in the evening with sound of trumpets and drums, and horns. and he who takes it out first washes thoroughly, and carries it on his head with the face looking backwards, and they walk with it three times in procession round the church, and certain wives of the bramans carry lighted lamps in front, and each time that they reach the principal door, they set the idol on that stone and there worship it, and perform certain ceremonies; and having ended the three turns with music and rejoicing, they again place it in the chapel, and each day they do this twice, by day and at night. and around this church there is a stone wall, between which and the church they walk in the before mentioned procession, and they carry over the idol a very lofty canopy upon a very long bamboo for state as for kings. they place all the offerings upon the stone before the principal gate of the temple, and twice a day it is washed, and they set cooked rice upon it to feed the crows twice a day with great ceremony. these bramans greatly honour the number trine: they hold that there is a god in three persons, and who is not more than one. all their prayers and ceremonies are in honour of the trinity, and they, so to say, figure it in their rites, and the name by which they call it is this, berma besnu maycereni, who are three persons and one sole god,[220] thus they confess him to be from the beginning of the world. they have no knowledge or information of the coming of jesus christ. they believe many more vain things, which they speak of. these people each time that they wash put some ashes upon their heads, foreheads and breasts, in token that they have to turn again into ashes; and when they die they have their bodies burned. when the wife of a braman is in the family way, as soon as the husband knows it he cleans his teeth, and eats no more betel nor trims his beard, and fasts until his wife gives birth to her child. the kings make great use of these bramans for many things, except in deeds of arms. only bramans can cook the king's food, or else men of the king's own family, and so all the king's relations have this same custom of having their food cooked by bramans. these are the messengers who go on the road from one kingdom to another, with letters and money and merchandise, because they pass in safety in all parts, without any one molesting them, even though the kings may be at war. these bramans are well read in the law of their idolatry, and possess many books, and are learned and masters of many arts: and so the kings honour them as such. section of the nairs of malabar, who are the gentry, and their customs. in these kingdoms of malabar there is another sect of people called nairs, who are the gentry, and have no other duty than to carry on war, and they continually carry their arms with them, which are swords, bows, arrows, bucklers, and lances. they all live with the kings, and some of them with other lords, relations of the king, and lords of the country, and with the salaried governors; and with one another. and no one can be a nair if he is not of good lineage. they are very smart men, and much taken up with their nobility. they do not associate with any peasant, and neither eat nor drink except in the houses of other nairs. these people accompany their lords day and night; little is given them for eating and sleeping, and for serving and doing their duty; and frequently they sleep upon a bare bench to wait for the person whom they serve, and sometimes they do not eat more than once a day; and they have small expenses for they have little pay. many of them content themselves with about two hundred maravedis[221] each month for themselves and the servant that attends to them. these are not married nor maintain women or children; their nephews the sons of their sisters are their heirs. the nair women are all accustomed to do with themselves what they please with bramans or nairs, but not with other people of lower class under pain of death. after they are ten or twelve years old or more, their mothers perform a marriage ceremony for them in this manner. they advise the relations and friends that they may come to do honour to their daughters, and they beg some of their relations and friends to marry these daughters, and they do so. it must be said they have a small gold jewel made, which will contain half a ducat of gold, a little shorter than the tag of a lace, with a hole in the middle passing through it, and they string it on a thread of white silk; and the mother of the girl stands with her daughter very much dressed out, entertaining her with music and singing, and a number of people. and this relation or friend of hers comes with much earnestness, and there performs the ceremony of marriage, as though he married with her, and they throw a gold chain round the necks of both of them together, and he puts the above mentioned jewel round her neck, which she always has to wear as a sign that she may now do what she pleases.[222] and the bridegroom leaves her, and goes away without touching her nor having more to say to her, on account of being her relation; and if he is not so, he may remain with her if he wish it, but he is not bound to do so if he do not desire it. and from that time forward the mother goes begging some young men, "que le desvirguen aquella hija, porque lo an entre sy por cosa sucia y casi vileza a desvirgar mugeres." and after she is already a woman the mother goes about seeking who will take her daughter to live with him. but when she is very pretty three or four nairs join together and agree to maintain her, and to live all of them with her; and the more she has the more highly is she esteemed, and each man has his appointed day from midday till next day at the same hour, when the other comes; and so she passes her life without anyone thinking ill of it. and he who wishes to leave her, does so whenever he pleases, and goes to take another. and if she takes a dislike to any of them she dismisses him. the children which she has remain at the expense of the mother and of the brothers of the mother, who bring them up, because they do not know the fathers, and even if they should appear to belong to any persons in particular, they are not recognised by them as sons, nor do they give anything for them. and it is said that the kings made this law in order that the nairs should not be covetous, and should not abandon the king's service.[223] these nairs, besides being all of noble descent, have to be armed as knights by the hand of the king, or lord with whom they live, and until they have been so equipped they cannot bear arms nor call themselves nairs, but they enjoy the freedom and exemption and advantages of the nairs in many things. in general when these nairs are seven years of age they are immediately sent to school to learn all manner of feats of agility and gymnastics for the use of their weapons. first they learn to dance, and then to tumble, and for that purpose they render supple all their limbs from their childhood, so that they can bend them in any direction. and after they have exercised in this, they teach them to manage the weapons which suit each one most. that is to say bows, clubs, or lances; and most of them are taught to use the sword and buckler, which is of more common use among them. in this fencing there is much agility and science. and there are very skilful men who teach this art, and they are called panicars;[224] these are captains in war. these nairs when they enlist to live with the king, bind themselves and promise to die for him; and they do likewise with any other lord from whom they receive pay. this law is observed by some and not by others; but their obligation constrains them to die at the hands of anyone who should kill the king or their lord: and some of them so observe it; so that if in any battle their lord should be killed, they go and put themselves in the midst of the enemies who killed him, even should those be numerous, and he alone by himself dies there: but before falling he does what he can against them; and after that one is dead another goes to take his place, and then another: so that sometimes ten or twelve nayrs die for their lord. and even if they were not present with him when he was killed, they go and seek him who killed him, or the king who ordered him to be killed: and so one by one they all die. and if anyone is in apprehension of another man, he takes some of these nairs, as many as he pleases, into his pay; and they accompany and guard him; and on their account he goes securely, since no one dares to molest him; because if he were molested they and all their lineage would take vengeance on him who should cause this molestation. these guards are called janguada:[225] and there are some people who sometimes take so many of these nairs, and of such quality, that on their account they no longer fear the king, who would not venture to command the execution of a man who was guarded by these, in order not to expose many nairs to danger for it. and even if the nairs were not in his company when the man they guard was killed, they would not any the less revenge his death. these nayrs live outside the towns, separate from other people, on their estates which are fenced in. they have there all that they require; they do not drink wine. when they go anywhere they shout to the peasants that they may get out of the way where they have to pass; and the peasants do so, and if they did not do it the nayrs might kill them without penalty. if a young man of family who is very poor meets a rich and respectable peasant, one favoured by the king, he makes him get out of the road in the same manner, as if he were a king. these nayrs have great privileges in this matter, and the nayr women even greater with the peasants, and the nairs with the peasant women. this, they say, is done to avoid all opportunity of mixing their blood with that of peasants. and if a peasant were by misfortune to touch a nayr lady, her relations would immediately kill her and likewise the man that touched her, and all his relations. when these nayrs order any work to be done by the peasants, or buy anything of them which they take, being between man and man, they are not exposed to any other penalty on touching one another than the not being able to enter their houses without first washing themselves and changing their clothes for others that are clean. and likewise as regards the nair women and the peasant women: these practices are more observed in the country. no nair woman ever enters the towns under pain of death except once a year, when they may go for one night with their nayrs wherever they like. on that night more than twenty thousand nair women enter calicut to see the town, which is full of lamps in all the streets, which the inhabitants set there to do honour to the nairs, and all the streets are hung with cloth. and the nair women come in to see the houses of their friends and of their husbands, and there they receive presents and entertainment, and are invited to eat betel: and it is held to be a great politeness to receive it from friends. some of them come wrapped up,[226] and others uncovered; and the women relations of the kings and great lords come also to see the city on this night, and to walk about it, looking at the property of the great merchants, from whom they receive presents, in order that they may favour them with the king. those nayrs whom the king has received as his, he never dismisses however old they may be; on the contrary, they always receive their pay and rations, and he grants favours to whoever has served well. and if some years should pass without their being paid, some four or five hundred of the aggrieved rise up, and go in a body to the palace, and send word to the king that they are going away dismissed, to take service with another king, because he does not give them food. then the king sends to beg them to have patience, and that he will send and pay them immediately. and if he does not immediately give them a third part of what is due, and an order for the payment of the rest, they go away to another king, wherever it appears to them that they can best suit themselves; and they engage with him, and he receives them willingly, and gives them food for thirteen days before he has them enrolled for pay. and during this time this king sends to inquire of their king if he intends to send and pay them; and if he does not pay them, then he receives them in his pay, and gives them the same allowances which they had in their own country, from which and from their king in such a case they remain disnaturalized. and many undertake, but few perform this, because their king grants them a remedy, and holds it to be a great disgrace should they go away. when these nayrs go to the wars their pay is served out to them every day as long as the war lasts; it is four taras per day each man, which are worth five maravedis each,[227] with which they provide for themselves. and during the time that they are at war, they may touch any peasant, and eat and drink with them in their houses, without any penalty. and the king is obliged to maintain the mother and family of any nayr who may die in the war, and those persons are at once written down for their maintenance. and if these nayrs are wounded, the king has them cured at his expense, besides their pay, and has food given them all their lives, or until they are cured of their wounds. these nayrs show much respect to their mothers,[228] and support them with what they gain, because besides their allowances, most of them possess houses and palm trees and estates, and some houses let to peasants, which have been granted by the king to them or to their uncles, and which remain their property. they also have much respect for their elder sisters, whom they treat as mothers. and they do not enter into a room with those that are young girls, nor touch them nor speak to them, saying that it would give occasion to sin with them, because they are younger and have less understanding, which could not happen with the elder ones, on account of the respect they have for them. these nair women every month set themselves apart in their houses for three days without approaching anyone; at which time a woman has to prepare her food in separate pots and pans. and when the three days are ended, she bathes with hot water which is brought there, and after bathing dresses in clean clothes, and so goes out of the house to a pool of water and bathes again, and again leaves those clean clothes, and takes other fresh ones, and so returns home, and talks with her mother and sisters and the other people. and the room where she was for those three days is well swept and wetted, and plastered with cow dung, because otherwise no one would dwell there. these women when they are confined, three days afterwards are washed with hot water, and after getting up from their confinement they bathe many times each day from head to foot. they do no business, eat the bread of idleness, and only get their food to eat by means of their bodies: because besides each one having three or four men who provide for them, they do not refuse themselves to any braman or nayr who pays them. they are very clean and well dressed women, and they hold it in great honour to know how to please men. they have a belief amongst them that the woman who dies a virgin does not go to paradise.[229] section of the brabares who are merchants of the kingdom of malabar, of their customs and sect. in this kingdom of calicut, and in all the other malabar kingdoms, there is a sect of gentile merchants who are called amongst them brabares, who trafficked also before foreign persons came to port or navigated in these seas. these still deal, especially in the interior, in all sorts of goods, and collect all the pepper and ginger from the nayrs and cultivators, and frequently buy them in advance in exchange for cotton stuffs, and other goods which come from beyond the sea. these people are also great changers, and gain much upon coin. they enjoy such freedom in this country that the kings cannot sentence them to death, but the chief men of these brabares assemble together in council, and having arrived at the knowledge that the offender deserves death, they kill him, the king having information thereof: and if the king knows first of the offence before them, he informs them of it, and they kill him with dagger or lance thrusts. for the most part they are very rich people, and possess in the country many estates inherited from old times. they marry only one wife in our fashion, and their sons are their immediate heirs; and when they die their bodies are burned, and their wives accompany the body weeping for him: and she takes from her neck a small gold jewel which he gave her when he married her, and she throws it into the fire upon him, and then returns to her house, and never more can be married, however young she may be. and if she were to die before her husband he has her burned, and may marry again. these people are of as pure lineage as the nairs, men and women, and they may touch one another. section of the cujaven, who are potters and workers of clay. there is another sect of people among the indians of malabar, which is called cujaven, and which is only separated from the nayrs on account of a fault which they committed.[230] for this reason they remained as a separate sect. their business is to work at baked clay, and tiles for covering houses, with which the temples and royal buildings are roofed; and by law no other persons may roof their houses except with palm branches. their idolatry and their idols are different from those of the others; and in their houses of prayer they perform a thousand acts of witchcraft and necromancy; they call their temples pagodes, and they are separate from the others. their descendants cannot take any other sect nor any other occupation. in their marriages they follow the law of the nayrs. the nayrs may cohabit with their women, provided that they do not re-enter their houses without washing themselves from that sin, and putting on a change of clean garments. section of the washermen. in this country there is another sect of gentiles whom they call manatamar,[231] and their business is only to wash the clothes of the bramans, kings, and nayrs; and they live by this business, and they cannot adopt other employments, nor can their descendants. the men are those that wash, and they wash in their houses in large tanks and reservoirs which they have got for this purpose. they have constantly in their houses such a large quantity of clothes to wash, both of their own and of strangers, that they hire out many of them day by day to the nayrs who have not got their own, and they pay so much a day for them when clean; and so each day they return them the dirty ones, and fetch away clean clothes. and the clothes have to be suitable to each person. they wash for a great many people for money, so that they serve all with cleanliness, and they all gain their livelihoods very sufficiently. their lineage does not mix with any other, neither can any other with theirs; only the nayrs can have mistresses from amongst the women of this lineage, with the condition that each time that they approach them, they have to bathe themselves and change their garments before entering their houses. these washermen have got idolatries of their own, and their houses of prayer are separate, and they believe in many extravagant things. they marry like the nairs, their brothers and nephews inherit their property, and they do not recognise their sons. section of the weavers of the malabar country. there is another set of gentiles, still lower, whom they call chalien, who are weavers and have no other business except to weave cloths of cotton, and some of silk, which are of little value, and are used by the common people. and these also have a sect and form of idolatry apart. their lineage does not mix with any others; only the nairs may have mistresses amongst the women of these people, so that they do not enter their houses without bathing and changing their clothes, whenever they have visited them. many of these are sons of nairs, and so they are very fine men in their figures; and they bear arms like the nayrs and go to the wars, and fight very well. in marriages they have the law of the nairs, and their sons do not inherit. their wives have the power of doing what they please with themselves with the nairs, or with other weavers: and they cannot mix with any other lineage under pain of death.[232] section of low people: zivil tiver. of low people zevil tiver,[233] there are eleven sects, which no respectable people touch under pain of death: and between each other there is a great difference and separation, and one family does not mix with another. the best of these are labourers, whom they call tiver. their principal employment is to till the palm trees, and gather their fruits; and to carry everything for hire from one point to another, because they are not in the habit of transporting them with beasts of burden, as there are none: and they hew stone, and gain their livelihood by all kinds of labour. some of them learn the use of arms, and fight in the wars when it is necessary. they all carry a staff in their hand of a fathom's length as a sign of their lineage. most of them are serfs of the nayrs, to whom the king of the country gives them, in order that their masters may be supported by their labour, and these protect and shew favour to these slaves. these people have an idolatry of their own, and believe in their idols. their nephews are their heirs, and their sons do not inherit, because the wives whom they marry get their livelihood with their bodies, and give themselves to the moors, natives of the country, and also to foreigners of all kinds; and this very publicly, and with the knowledge of their husbands who give them opportunities for so doing. they make wines in the country, and they alone can sell it. they take much care not to touch other people lower than themselves; and live separate from other people. of this sect sometimes two brothers have one wife only and both of them live with her. moguer. i find another sect of people still lower, moguer, which they call moguer,[234] who are almost like the tivers, but they do not touch one another. these are the people who transport the king's property from one place to another when he moves. there are very few of these in the country, they have a sect of their own, and have no law of marriage; their wives are public for all, and for strangers. these people for the most part get their living at sea, they are mariners and fishermen. they have a separate idolatry: they are slaves of the kings and nayrs and bramans. there are some of them very rich men who have got ships with which they navigate, for they gain much money with the moors. their nephews are their heirs, and not their sons, because they do not marry. they take care not to touch other people lower than themselves. these people live in separate villages: their women are very pretty, and whiter than others of this country, because they are for the most part daughters of foreigners who are white: they are very smartly dressed and adorned with gold. canion. there is another lower set of gentiles called canion. their business is to make shields and shades[235]: they learn letters and astronomy, and some of them are great astrologers, and they foretell many future things, and form very accurate judgments upon the births of men. kings and great persons send to call them, and come out of their palaces to the gardens and pleasure grounds to see them and ask them what they desire to know: and these people form judgments upon these things in a few days, and return to those that asked of them, but they may not enter the palaces, nor may they approach the king's person on account of being low people. and the king is then alone with them. they are great diviners, and pay great attention to times and places of good and bad luck, which they cause to be observed by these kings and great men, and by the merchants also: and they take care to do their business at the times which these astrologers advise them, and they do the same in their voyages and marriages. and by this means these men gain a great deal. they reckon the months, seasons, signs and planets as we do, except that they have months of twenty-nine, thirty, thirty-one and thirty-two days: and their first month of the year is april. from may till the middle of october they have their winter, and during this time it rains much in that country, and there are frequent storms, without any cold: and from the middle of october till the end of april is the summer, of great heat and little wind. and on the coast there are many land breezes, and frequent changes in the sea breezes. they navigate their ships in the summer, and in the winter they draw them up on shore, and cover them up on account of the heavy falls of rain. ajare. another lower lineage amongst these gentiles is called ajare. their business is that of quarry men and carpenters, and others are blacksmiths, carvers of metals, and silversmiths. these are all of a sect different from the idolatry of the other people. these people marry and their sons inherit their property and employments which they teach them from their childhood. they are slaves of the king and the nairs, and very skilful in their business. mucoa. there is another lower sect of gentiles called mucoa, who are fishermen and mariners, without other business. they sail in ships of moors and gentiles, and are quite at home on the sea: they also live in separate villages. they are great thieves, and shameless: they marry and their children inherit, and their wives sleep with whom they like without their thinking ill of it. they have a separate sect and form of idolatry, and are also slaves of the king and the nayrs of the country. they do not pay any duty on the fresh fish which they sell, and if they dry it they pay four per cent. duty: and the fresh fish is very cheap. this is the chief food in use amongst the indians, for they are people who eat very little meat on account of the country being very populous[236] and of few flocks. there are some of these fishermen who are very rich and well supplied, they have large houses and property. the king takes them when he pleases, and puts much pressure on them because they are slaves. betua. there is another lower sect of gentiles called betua. their business is to make salt, to plough and sow rice, and they do not live by anything else: they have houses in the country apart from the roads where respectable people pass. these people have a form of idolatry of their own: they also are slaves of the king and of the nayrs. they live very miserably: the nayrs make them keep far aloof from them, and speak to them from a great distance: they have no intercourse with other people. they are married and their children inherit. paneu. there is another sect even lower of these people, called paneu,[237] who are great practisers of witchcraft, and they do not gain their living by anything else than charms. they visibly speak with devils who put themselves within them, and make them do awful things. when any king falls ill of fevers or any other illness, he immediately sends to call these men and women; of whom the most accomplished charmers come with their wives and children. twenty-two families establish their dwellings at the gate of the palace of the king, or house of the person who is suffering, and has sent to call them: and there they set up a tent of coloured cloth in which they all place themselves. and there they paint their bodies with colours, and make crowns of painted paper and cloth, and other inventions of many sorts, with plenty of flowers and herbs, and great bonfires, and lighted lamps, and kettle-drums, trumpets, horns, and lutes, which they sound; and in this manner they come out of the tent two and two, with their swords in their hands, shouting and jumping, and running about the place or the court of the palace, and they jump upon one another's backs, and go on this way for some time, sticking one another with knives, and pushing one another naked and barefooted into the fire, until they are tired; and so they come out both men and boys two and two together to do the same thing again: and the women shout and sing with a great noise. and they go on this way for two or three days, night and day, always performing together, and they make rings of earth, and lines of red ochre and white clay, and spread upon them rice and flowers of various colours, and put lights all round, and go on this way until the devil, for whose service they do all this, enters into one of them, and makes him say what the king is suffering from, and what must be done to cure him. and then they tell it to the king, and he remains satisfied and gives them many presents, and does what they tell him, either as to making offerings to their idols, or any other matter which they enjoin him to do. and so he gets well by the work of the devil, to whom they all belong. these also live separated from intercourse with the nayrs and respectable people, and do not touch any other sect. they are great hunters and archers: they kill many boars and stags upon which they maintain themselves. they are married and their children inherit. renoleni. there is another sect of people still lower, who are called renoleni,[238] who live in the mountains very poorly and miserably. and they have no other occupation than bringing wood and grass to the city for sale, to support themselves. and these people have no intercourse with any others, nor others with them, under pain of death; and they go naked, covering only their middles, many of them do so with only leaves of trees, and some with small and very dirty cloths. they marry and their children are their heirs. the women wear much brass on their ears, necks, arms, and legs, in bracelets, rings, and beads. puler. there is another lower sect of gentiles called puler.[239] these are held as excommunicated and accursed; they live in swampy fields and places where respectable people cannot go: they have very small and abject huts, and plough and sow the fields with rice, they use buffaloes and oxen. they do not speak to the nairs, except from a long way off, as far as they can be heard speaking with a loud voice. when they go along the road they shout, so that whoever comes may speak to them, and that they may withdraw from the roads, and put themselves on the mountains. and whatever woman or man should touch these, their relations immediately kill them like a contaminated thing: and they kill so many of these pulers until they are weary of it, without any penalty. these low people during certain months of the year try as hard as they can to touch some of the nair women, as best they may be able to manage it, and secretly by night, to do harm. so they go by night amongst the houses of the nayrs to touch women, and these take many precautions against this injury during this season. and if they touch any woman, even though no one see it, and though there should be no witnesses, she, the nair woman herself, publishes it immediately, crying out, and leaves her house without choosing to enter it again to damage her lineage. and what she most thinks of doing is to run to the house of some low people, to hide herself, that her relations may not kill her as a remedy for what has happened, or sell her to some strangers as they are accustomed to do. and touching is in this manner, that even if there is no contact from one person to another, yet by throwing anything, such as a stone or a stick, if the person is hit by it, he remains touched and lost. these people are great charmers, thieves, and very vile people. pareni.[240] there is yet another sect of people among them still lower, who live in desert places, called pareni. these likewise do not converse with any one. they are looked upon as worse than the devil, and as altogether condemned:[241] so that by looking at them only they consider themselves as defiled and excommunicated, which they call contaminated. they support themselves on yname, which is like the root of the maize which is found in the island of antilla, and on other roots and wild fruits, and they cover themselves with leaves and eat the flesh of wild animals. and with these ends the diversity of the sects of the gentiles, which are in all eighteen, each one by itself: they live without intercourse or intermarriage of one with another. other kinds of people. in these kingdoms of malabar, besides the races of the kings and gentiles and natives of the country, there are other foreign people who are merchants and traders in this country, in which they possess houses and estates; and they live like natives of the country, and observe their own sect and customs, which are the following. chetis. some of these are called chetis,[242] who are gentiles, natives of the province of cholmender, which will be mentioned further on. for the most part they are brown men, and some of them are almost white; they are tall and stout. these people are considerable merchants and changers, they deal in precious stones of all sorts, and in seed pearl, coral, and other valuable merchandise; and in gold, silver, either bullion or coined, which is a great article of trade amongst them, because they rise and fall many times. they are rich and respected, and live very decently; they have very good houses in streets set apart for themselves; and also their temples and idols are different from those of the country. they go bare from the waist upwards, and have cotton cloths many cubits in length wrapped round them; on their heads they wear small caps, and very long hair gathered up inside the caps; their beards shaved, and a few pinches of ashes with sandal and saffron, on their heads, breasts, and arms. they have holes in their ears, so large that they would almost hold an egg, full of rings of gold and jewelry, and many gold rings with jewels on their fingers, and round their waists gold belts, some of them studded with precious stones. they also carry with them continually large bags in which their scales and weights are kept, and their money, and jewels and pearls. and their sons as soon as they have passed the age of ten do the same, and go about changing small coin. they are great clerks and accountants, and make out all their accounts on their fingers: they are great usurers, so much so that from one brother to another they do not lend a real without gain. they are very orderly people in their food and expenditure; they keep account of everything, and are very subtle in their dealings. their language differs from that of the malabars, like that of castilians and portuguese. they marry in our fashion, and their children are their heirs: and if their wives become widows, they never marry again, however young they may be; but if the husband becomes a widower he may marry again. should the wife commit adultery the husband may kill her with poison. and these people have their own jurisdiction, and the king cannot have anything to say in their deeds and faults; they do justice amongst one another, with which the king is well-satisfied. when they die their bodies are burned. they eat all flesh except cow. guzurates. there is another sect of gentile merchants in the city of calicut, which they call guzarates, who are natives of the kingdom of cambay, whose customs have already been related; and they observe them in this city as in their own country. they are men who possess ships, and trade in spices, drugs, cloth, copper, and other kinds of merchandise from this place to the kingdom of cambay, and that of decan, where they have other correspondents; and they at the same time are correspondents of others. they have very good houses in separate streets, and their temples and idols different from the others, and many large and small bells in our fashion. the king shows them great honour and favour, and is much pleased with them because they give him much revenue from their trade. some of them also live in the city of cananor, and others in cochin; and so also in other ports of malabar. but in general most of them reside in calicut. mapuler. in all this said country of malabar there are a great quantity of moors, who are of the same language and colour as the gentiles of the country. they go bare like the nairs, only they wear, to distinguish themselves from the gentiles, small round caps on their heads and their beards fully grown. so that it appears to me that these people are a fifth part of all the inhabitants that there are in this country. they call these moors mapulers, they carry on nearly all the trade of the seaports: and in the interior of the country they are very well provided with estates and farms. so that if the king of portugal had not discovered india this country would have had a moorish king: because many of the gentiles turned moors for any offence which they received amongst one another: and the moors did them great honour, and if they were women they immediately married them. these people have many mosques in the country in which they also unite in council. pardesy. there were other foreign moors in calicut, whom they call pardesy. these are arabs, persians, guzarates, khorasanys, and decanys: they are great merchants, and possess in this place wives and children, and ships for sailing to all parts with all kinds of goods. they have among them a moorish governor who rules over and chastises them, without the king meddling with them. and before the king of portugal discovered the country they were so numerous and powerful in the city of calicut, that the gentiles did not venture to dispute with them. and after that the king of portugal made himself master there, and these moors saw that they could not defend it, they began to leave the country, and little by little they went away from it, so that very few of them remain. and at the time that they prospered in their trade, without any exaggeration, they made ships in this city of a thousand and of eleven hundred bahars bulk, which make four quintals each.[243] these ships are with keels like ours and without any nails, because they sew the planks with mat cords, very well pitched, and the timber very good. the upper works are of different patterns from ours, and without decks,[244] with divisions in which they used to stow much pepper, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, mace, nutmeg, long pepper, sandal and brazil wood, lac, cardamoms, myrabolans, tamarinds, bamboos,[245] and all sorts of jewels and pearls, musk, amber, rhubarb, aloes-wood, many fine cotton stuffs, and much porcelain. and in this manner ten or twelve ships laden with these goods sailed every year in the month of february, and made their voyage to the red sea: and some of them were for the city of aden, and some for jiddah the port of mekkah, where they sold their merchandise to others, who transported them thence in other smaller vessels to turkey and to suez, and thence by land to cairo, and from cairo to alexandria. and these ships returned laden with copper, quicksilver, vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose-water, knives, coloured camlets, scarlet and other coloured cloths, gold and silver, and other things, and they returned to calicut from august to the middle of october of the same year that they sailed. these moors were very well dressed and fitted out, and were luxurious in eating and sleeping. the king gave to each one a nair to guard and serve him, a chety scribe for his accounts, and to take care of his property, and a broker for his trade. to these three persons such a merchant would pay something for their maintenance, and all of them served very well, and when the merchant bought spices the sellers gave him for each farazola of ginger, which is of twenty-five pounds, three or four pounds of it for them; and so of some other goods, which duties the merchant collects to pay these officials of his. [_here follow eleven lines in the lisbon edition, saying_:--these are white men and very gentlemanlike and of good appearance, they go well dressed, and adorned with silk stuffs, scarlet cloth, camlets and cottons: their head-dress wrapped round their heads. they have large houses and many servants: they are very luxurious in eating, drinking, and sleeping; and in this manner they prospered until the portuguese came to india: now there are hardly any of them, and those that there are do not live at liberty. hitherto i have spoken at length of all the sects, and different kinds of people of malabar, and of some set apart in calicut: now i will relate the position of each kingdom by itself, and how the said country of malabar is divided.] [_here follows in the ms. no. 570 of the munich royal library...._ section of the manner in which the country of malabar is divided, and of that which grows in it. you must know that from cunbala, country of the king of narsynga, towards the south and along the coast to the kingdom of cananor, and within it there is a town called cotcoulam, and on the sea-shore a fortress in which is a nephew of the king of cananor, as guardian of the frontier. and further on there is a river called nira-pura, in which is a good town, and seaport, of moors and gentiles, and of trade and navigation: in this town resides the said nephew, who at times rises up in rebellion: and the king goes to overthrow him with large forces, and puts him down under his authority. after passing this place along the coast is the mountain dely, on the edge of the sea; it is a round mountain, very lofty, in the midst of low land: all the ships of the moors and gentiles that navigate in this sea of india, sight this mountain when coming from without, and make their reckoning by it. when they are going away the ships take in much good water and wood.... after this at the foot of the mountain to the south is a town called marave, very ancient and well off, in which live moors and gentiles and jews: these jews are of the language of the country, it is a long time since they have dwelt in this place. there is much fishery in the neighbourhood of this mountain of dely: which at sea is seen at a great distance by the ships that are trying to make it. further on along the coast is a river in which is a handsome town entirely of moors, and all round many gentiles, and at the entrance is a small hill on which is a fortress in which the king of cananor constantly resides. it contains very good wells and which are very capacious. this city is called balapatan, at four leagues from it is a city of moors and gentiles, very large, and of much trade with the merchants of the kingdom of narsynga; this town is called eah paranco, in which much copper is expended. cananor. coming to the sea, and passing this town of balapatan, in which the king lives, towards the south is a very good town called cananor.] cananor. on the sea coast near the kingdom of calicut towards the south is a city called cananor, in which there are many moors and gentiles of many kinds, who are all merchants, and possess many large and small ships. they trade in all sorts of goods, principally with the kingdom of cambay and ormuz, colan, dabul banda, goa, ceylon, and the maldiu islands. in this city of cananor the king of portugal has a fortress and a factory and very peaceable trade, and all round the fortress a town of christians of the country, married with their wives, who were baptized after the fortress was made, and each day some are baptized. ciecate. having passed the said city along the coast towards the south, there is a town of moors, natives of the country, which also possesses much shipping, named ciecate.[246] [_here ramusio says_: some lines are wanting here.] tarmapatan. having passed beyond this place, there is a river which makes two arms, and near it a large town of moors, natives of the country, and very rich, great merchants who likewise possess much shipping. it is called tarmapatam, and has many and very large mosques; it is the last town of the kingdom of cananor on the side of calicut. these moors when they receive any injury from the king of cananor, immediately rise up, and withdraw their obedience until the king goes in person to remove the injury, and to cajole them. [_here the lisbon edition adds_: and if the portuguese had not discovered india, this town would already have a moorish king of its own, and would convert all malabar to the sect of mahomed.] cotaogato. at four leagues higher up the said river there is another city of moors, very large, rich, and of much trade, which deals with the people of narsinga by land, and is called cotaogato.[247] description of what grows in this kingdom of cananor. very good pepper grows in this kingdom of cananor, but there is not much of it; much ginger is also produced in it, which is not of a very good quality, called _hely_ because it is near the mountain dely. there grow also much cardamoms, myrobolans, bamboos, zerubs,[248] and zedoary.[249] there are in this country, especially in the rivers, very large lizards which eat men, and their scent when they are alive smells like civet. and throughout the country in the brushwood there are two kinds of venomous serpents, some which the indians call murcas, and we call hooded snakes,[250] because there is something like an hood on their heads. these kill with their bite, and the person bitten dies in two hours, though he sometimes lasts two or three days. many mountebanks carry some of these alive in earthen jars, and charmed so that they do not bite, and with them they gain money, putting them round their necks, and exhibiting them. there is another kind of more venomous serpents, which the indians call mandal, and these kill suddenly by their bite, without the persons bitten being able to speak any more, nor even make any movement. of many towns and cities of the kingdom of calicut which possess shipping. leaving the kingdom of cananor towards the south, on the further side of the river of tarmapatam, there is a town of moors of the country, called terivangaty, which has shipping; and beyond that there is another river on which there is another large place, also belonging to moors, great merchants and shippers, which is called mazery; and beyond mazery there is another town also of the moors, which is called chemonbay, which also possesses shipping. and the country inland of these three places is thickly peopled by nairs, good men who do not obey any king, and they have got two nair lords who govern them, the before-mentioned moors are under their rule. pudopatani, first town of the kingdom of calicut. having passed these places there is a river called pudopotani on which is a good town of many moorish merchants, who own many ships; here begins the kingdom of calicut. tircore. further along the coast to the south south-east, is another village of the moors called tircore. pandareni. further on south south-east is another moorish place, which is called pandarani, in which also there are many ships. capucad. further on to south south-east is another town, at which there is a small river, which is called capucad, where there are many country-born moors, and much shipping and a great trade of exporting the goods of the country. in this place many soft sapphires are found on the sea beach. calicut. having passed the said place at two leagues further to the south and south-east, is the city of calicut, where the king of portugal has a very good fortress, made with the good will of the king of calicut, after that the portuguese had routed him; and they have there their principal fortress. chalyani. beyond this city, towards the south is another city, which is called chaliani, where there are numerous moors natives of the country and much shipping. purpurangari. further on there is another city of the king of calicut, called purpurangari, inhabited by moors and gentiles who deal much in merchandise. paravanor and tanor. further on in the same direction are two places of moors five leagues from one another. one is called paravanor and the other tanor, and inland from these towns is a lord to whom they belong; and he has many nairs, and sometimes he rebels against the king of calicut. in these towns there is much shipping and trade, for these moors are great merchants. pananx. having passed these towns along the coast to the south there is a river on which is another city of moors, amongst whom a few gentiles live, and it is called pananx.[251] the moors are very rich merchants and own much shipping. the king of calicut collects much revenue from this city. chatna. there is another river further on called chatna,[252] and higher up the stream there are many gentile villages, and much pepper comes out by this river. crangolor. further on there is another river which divides the kingdom of calicut from the country of cochin, and on this side of the river is a place called crongolor,[253] belonging to the king of calicut. the king of cochin has some rights in this place. there live in it gentiles, moors, indians, and jews, and christians of the doctrine of saint thomas; they have there a church of saint thomas and another of our lady, and are very devout christians, only they are deficient in doctrine, of which more will be said hereafter, because from this place further on as far as cholmender there dwell many of these christians. of what is gathered in this kingdom of calicut. in the kingdom of calicut, as has been said, there grows much pepper on trees like ivy, which climbs up the palms and other trees, and poles, and makes clusters; and much very good ginger of the country,[254] cardamoms, myrobolans of all kinds, bamboo canes, zerumba, zedoary, wild cinnamon; and the country produces this though covered with palm trees higher than the highest cypresses: these trees have clean smooth stems without any branch, only a tuft of leaves at the top amongst which grows a large fruit which they call tenga: by this they make profit, and it is a great article of trade, for each year more than four hundred ships are laden with it for many parts. we call these fruits cocoas: these trees give their fruits the whole year without any intermission; and there are others which support the people of malabar, so that they cannot suffer famine even though all other provisions should fail them: because these cocoas, both green and dry, are very sweet and agreeable, and they give milk, like that of almonds. now each of these cocoas when green has inside it a quart[255] of water very fresh, savoury, and cordial; it is very nourishing, and when they are dried that water congeals inside in a white fruit the size of an apple, which is very sweet and delicious: they eat the cocoa also when dry. they make much oil of these cocoas in presses as we do, and with the rind which these cocoa-nuts have close to the marrow, they make charcoal for the silversmiths, who do not work with any other charcoal. and with another husk which it has outside the first, which makes many threads, they weave cordage, which is a great article of trade; and from these trees they make wine with the sap, which is like spirits, and in such great quantities, that many ships are laden with it. with the same wine they make very good vinegar, and they also make very sweet sugar, which is yellow like honey, and is a great article of trade in india. with the leaves of the tree they make mats of the size of the leaf, with which they cover all their houses instead of with tiles: and with the tree they also make wood for their houses and for other services, and firewood.[256] and of all these things there is so great abundance that ships are laden with them. there are other palm trees of other kinds, and shorter, from which the leaves are gathered upon which the gentiles write. there are other palms, slender and very lofty, and of very clean stems, upon which grow clusters of fruit the size of walnuts (which the indians eat with the betel, which we call folio indio), and they call areca. it is much esteemed among them and is very acid: there is such a quantity of it that they fill many ships with it for cambay and the kingdom of decan, and many other parts, after drying and packing it. kingdom of cochin. having passed the town of crongolor, the extremity of the kingdom of calicut, towards the south extends the kingdom of cochin, in which also there is much pepper. it possesses a very fine large river where many and great ships enter, both portuguese and moorish. and within it is a large city inhabited by moors and gentiles, who are chetis and guzaratys, and jews natives of the country. the moors and chetis are great merchants and own many ships, and trade much with chormandel, cambay, cheul, and dabul, with areca, cocoas, pepper, and jagara, which is sugar of palm trees. the king of portugal has a very good fortress at the mouth of this river, all round which is a large village of portuguese and christians, natives of the country, who were baptised since the portuguese have inhabited the country; and every day many more are converted. and there are likewise many of the above-named christians of the doctrine of saint thomas, who come there from culan and other gentile places, where they are accustomed to live. in this fortress and town of cochin there is much machinery and apparatus for caulking and refitting ships, and also galleys and caravels, with as much perfection as in our parts. and much pepper is put on board at this place, and spices and drugs which come from malacca and which are transported every year to portugal. this king of cochin has but a small country, and he was not a king before the portuguese went there, because all the kings of calicut when newly come into power, had the custom of entering cochin and depriving the king of his state and taking possession of it, and afterwards they restored it to him again for life. the king of calicut observed this as a law, and the king of cochin used to give him a tribute of elephants, and so he returned to calicut. and the king of cochin could not coin money, nor roof his houses with tiles, under pain of losing his state. and now since the portuguese went there, the king of portugal made him exempt from all this; so that he lords it absolutely and coins money according to his custom. porca. beyond this kingdom of cochin towards the south, the kingdom of coulam is entered; between these kingdoms there is a place which is called porca, it belongs to a lord. in this place dwell many gentile fishermen who have no other business than to fish in the winter, and in summer to plunder at sea the property of whoever is weaker than themselves: they have small vessels like brigantines, good rowers, and they assemble in numbers with bows and arrows, and go in such a crowd all round any ship that they find becalmed, that they make it surrender by discharging arrows, and take the vessels or ships and put the people safe on shore; and what they steal they divide with the lord of the country, and so they maintain themselves. they call these vessels catur. kingdom of coulam. having passed this place the kingdom of coulam commences, and the first town is called caymcolan in which dwell many gentiles, moors, and indian christians of the before-mentioned doctrine of saint thomas. and many of these christians live inland amongst the gentiles. there is much pepper in this place, of which there is much exportation. the city of coulam. further on along the same coast towards the south is a great city and good seaport, which is named coulam, in which dwell many moors and gentiles, and christians. they are great merchants and very rich, and own many ships, with which they trade to cholmendel, the island of ceylon, bengal, malaca, samatara, and pegu: these do not trade with cambay. there is also in this city much pepper. they have a gentile king, a great lord of much territory and wealth, and of numerous men at arms, who for the most part are great archers. at this city, withdrawn a little from it, there is a promontory in the sea where stands a very great church which the apostle st. thomas built miraculously before he departed this life.[257] it must be known that on arriving at this city of coulan where all were gentiles, in a poor habit, and going along converting some poor people to our holy faith he brought with him a few companions natives of the country, although they were very few: and while he was in this city, one morning there was found in this port of coulam a very large piece of timber which had been stranded on the sea-beach, and news of it was immediately brought to the king. he sent many people and elephants to draw it out upon dry land, but they could never move it; and the king himself went in person to it later, and they were unable to draw it out. and as soon as st. thomas saw them despair of the timber, he went to the king, and said to him: "if i were to draw out this timber would you give me a piece of land upon which to build a church with it, to the praise of our lord god, who sent me here." and the king laughed at him, and said to him: "if you see that with all my power it cannot be dragged out, how do you hope to draw it out." and saint thomas answered him: "to draw it out by the power of god, which is greater." the king immediately ordered all the land which he asked for this purpose to be given to him. and when it was granted to him, by the grace of the lord, he went alone to the timber, and tied a cord to it, with which he began to draw it on shore without anyone assisting him. and the timber followed behind him as far as the place where he wished to build the church. the king seeing such a miracle commanded that they should let him do what he pleased with the timber and the land which had been given him; and that he should be shewn favour, because he held him to be a holy man. but he did not choose to turn christian, and many people became converted to our holy faith. and the said apostle whom they call martoma,[258] called many carpenters and sawyers of the country, and began to have the timber worked, and it was so large that it was sufficient by itself for the building of the whole church. and it is a custom amongst the indians that when the workmen or any persons are going to set to work, the master of the work gives them at midday a certain quantity of rice to eat, and at night he gives to each man a small coin of inferior gold called fanam.[259] and st. thomas at midday took a measure full of sand, and gave to each of these workmen his measure, which turned into very good rice, and at night he gave to each one a little bit of the wood which he was hewing, and they turned into fanams; so that they went away well satisfied, and so the said apostle finished the church of coulam. and when those people saw these miracles and many others which our lord did by this glorious saint, many indians turned to the christian faith, through the whole kingdom of coulam, which reaches to the frontier of ceylon, so that there are more than two thousand houses of christians scattered throughout the country among the gentiles; and they have a few churches, but most of them are deficient in teaching and some of them wanting in baptism. and when the king of the indians saw so great a change he feared that if he gave more opportunity for it, the said christians would multiply so much that they would be able to rise and possess the country. and so he began to persecute the said st. thomas, who withdrew himself to cholmendel, and then to a city which was called muylepur,[260] where he received martyrdom, and there he is buried, as will be mentioned hereafter. and so the christians remained in the kingdom of coulam with the before mentioned church which st. thomas built, and with others about the country. this church was endowed by the king of coulam with the revenue from the pepper, which remains to it to this day. these christians had not any christian doctrine amongst them, nor were they baptized, only they held and believed the faith of christ in a gross manner. and at a certain period they held a council amongst them and sent men about the world to study the christian doctrine, and manner of baptism; these men reached armenia, where they found many greek christians and a patriarch who governed them, who seeing their good intention sent with them a bishop and six priests to baptize them and administer the sacraments and perform divine service, and indoctrinate them in the christian faith. and these remain there for five or six years and then are relieved for an equal period of time, and so on. and in this manner they improved themselves somewhat. these armenians[261] are white men; they speak arabic, and have the sacred scriptures in chaldean, and recite the offices in that language in our fashion. they wear tonsures on their heads the opposite of ours; that is to say, that, where ours shave they wear hair, and where we have the hair they shave it. they go dressed in white shirts and caps on their heads, barefooted, and with long beards; they are very devout people, and say mass on altars like ours with a cross (+) in front of them. and he who says mass is in the middle of the altar, and those who assist him are at the sides. they communicate with salt bread instead of a wafer, and they consecrate of that bread enough for all that are in the church, and they give it to all of them divided like blessed bread.[262] each one who communicates goes to receive it at the foot of the altar with his hand.[263] the wine is in this manner, because there is no wine in india; they take raisins which come from mekkah and ormuz, and put them for a night in water; and on the next day when they have to say mass they squeeze them and with the juice they say their mass. these priests baptize for money,[264] and go away from this country of malabar very rich when they return to their own country. and many remain unbaptized for want of money. tirinangoto. further on along the same coast towards the south, is a town of moors and gentiles called tirinamgoto, which also possesses shipping. the town and territory belong to a lord, a relation of the king of coulam; it is abundantly supplied with provisions, rice and meat. cape of comory. [further along the coast is the cape of comery where the malabar country finishes; but the kingdom of coulam reaches thirty leagues further, as far as a city which is called cael.][265] [at this cape comory there is an ancient church of christians, which was founded by the armenians, who still direct it, and perform in it the divine service of christians and have crosses on the altars. all mariners pay it a tribute, and the portuguese celebrate mass there when they pass. there are there many tombs, amongst which there is one which has written on it a latin epitaph: "hic jacet cataldus gulli filius qui obiit anno...."][266][267] archipelago of isles. opposite this country of malabar, forty leagues to the west in the sea, there is an archipelago of isles, which the indians say amount to twelve thousand; and they begin in front of the mountain dely, and extend southwards. the first are four small flat islands, which are called malandiva; they are inhabited by malabar moors, and they say that they are from the kingdom of cananor. nothing grows in them, except palm trees (cocoa-nut), with the fruit of which and rice brought them from malabar, they maintain themselves. these islands make much cordage of palm trees, which they call cayro (coir). islands of palandiva. over against panam, cochin, and coulam, to the west and south-west, at a distance of seventy-five leagues are other islands, of which ten or twelve are inhabited by moors, brown and small in stature, who have a separate language and a moorish king who resides in an island called mahaldiu.[268] and they call all these islands palandiva. the inhabitants are ill-formed and weak, but are very ingenious and charming. their king is elected by some moorish merchants, inhabitants of cananor, and they change him when they please. these persons receive tribute of him every year in cordage and other produce of the country. they go there to load their ships without money, because the people of the country, with or against their will, have to give these said moors whatever they wish. there is much fish in these islands, of which they prepare much dried,[269] which is a great article of trade. and as ballast for the ships which take on board these things, they carry away sea-snails, which are worth a good deal in many parts, and in some, especially cambay, they serve as small change. many fine cotton cloths are manufactured in these islands, and others of silk and gold, which are worth a good deal amongst the moors. they gather much amber in these islands, of a good quality and in large pieces, white, grey, and brown; and i asked several of these moors various times how the amber was produced: they hold that it is the droppings of birds, and say that in this archipelago in the uninhabited islands there are some large birds which perch on the rocks near the sea, and there void that amber, which becomes refined by exposure to the air, the sun and the rain, until some storms arise and gales of wind, which drive the sea waves over the rocks, and this bird-dung is torn off the rocks in large and small pieces, and so carried out to sea, where it floats till they meet with it, or it is cast up on some beach, or that some whales swallow it. and they say that what is found of a white colour, and which they call ponabar, has been in the sea only for a short time, and this they value most highly amongst themselves; and that the other which is found of a greyish colour, and which they name puambar, has been, they say, in the sea for a long time, and has taken that colour from floating about in the water; this also is very good, but not equal to the white; and what they find of a brown colour and bruised, has been swallowed, they say, by whales, and turned brown in their bodies, and that it has such a quality that the whale cannot digest it, and they eject it whole just as they swallowed it; this they call minabar, and it is that which among them has least value. in these isles of maldiva they construct many large ships of palm tree, sewn together with matting, for there is no other wood there. some of these sail to the mainland, and are ships with keels and of much tonnage; they also construct there other small rowing vessels, like brigantines and _fustas_, very pretty and good for rowing, which they use to go from one island to another; and they likewise cross over to the malabar country. many moorish ships touch at these islands from china, malacojana, malaca, samatra, bengala, ceylan, and peygu, on their passage to the red sea: and there they take in water and refreshments for their voyage. sometimes they arrive so shattered that they unload their cargo there, and they let it be lost. many of these ships get lost amongst these islands because they do not venture to come to the malabar coast from fear of the portuguese. island of ceylam. leaving these islands of mahaldiva further on towards the east, where the cape of comory is doubled, at thirty-eight leagues from the cape itself, there is a very large and beautiful island which the moors, arabs, persians, and our people call ceylam,[270] and the indians call it ylinarim. it is a rich and luxuriant land, inhabited by gentiles, and ruled by a gentile king. many moors live in the seaports of this island in large quarters, and all the inhabitants are great merchants. there are fifty leagues of channel towards the north-east from the said cape until passing the island of maylepur.[271] both moors and gentiles are well-made men, and almost white, and for the most part stout, with large stomachs, and luxurious. they do not understand, nor possess arms, they are all given to trade and to good living. they go bare from the waist upwards, and below that cover themselves with good cloths of silk and cotton, caps on their heads, and the ears pierced with large holes in which they wear many gold rings and jewellery, so much that their very ears reach to their shoulders: and many rings and precious jewels on their fingers; they wear belts of gold richly adorned with precious stones. their language is partly malabar and partly of cholmendel, and many malabar moors come to live in this island on account of its being so luxuriant, abundant, and very healthy. men live longer here than in other parts of india. they have a great deal of very good fruit; and the mountains are full of sweet and sour oranges of three or four kinds, and plenty of lemons and citrons, and many other very good fruits which do not exist in our parts, and they last all the year. and there is plenty of meat and fish, little rice, for most of it comes from cholmendel, and it is their chief food; much good honey and sugar brought from bengal, and butter of the country. all the good cinnamon grows in this island upon the mountains, on trees which are like laurels. and the king of the country orders it to be cut in small sticks, and has the bark stripped off in certain months of the year, and sells it himself to the merchants who go there to buy it, because no one can gather it except the king. there are likewise in this island many wild elephants which the king orders to be caught and tamed; and they sell them to merchants of cholmendel, narsynga, and malabar, and those of the kingdoms of decam and cambay go to those places to buy them. these elephants are caught in this manner: it must be known that they have got other elephants with which they manage it, and they fasten them with chains in the mountains and woods where they are bred; and at the foot and all round a tree near the elephant they make three or four very large pits, covered over with slender poles, and they strew earth on the top, so that nothing appears: and the wild elephants seeing the female come to her, and fall into these pits, where they keep them seven or eight days half-dead of hunger, and so many men watch them by day and night, always speaking to them so as not to let them sleep, until they tame and render them domestic, giving them their food with their hands. and after they have got them broken in and tame, they take them with strong chains, and by degrees throw so much earth and branches into the pit that the elephant gradually rises until he comes out of the pit, and then they tie him to some tree and keep him some days watching, with fire, and men who always talk to him, and give him food in moderation until they make him domestic and obedient. and in this way they catch them male and female, great and small, and sometimes two at once in one pit. they make great merchandise of them, and they are worth much, because they are much valued by the kings of india for war and for labour, and they become as domestic and quick at understanding as men. the very good ones are worth in the malabar country and in cholmendel from a thousand to one thousand five hundred ducats, and the others from four to six hundred ducats according as they may be, but in the island they are to be had for a small price. and all have to be brought and presented to the king. there are also many jewels in this island, rubies which they call manica, sapphires, jacinths, topazes jagonzas,[272] chrysoliths, and cat's eyes, which are as much esteemed amongst the indians as rubies. and all these stones are all gathered in by the king, and sold by himself. and he has men who go and dig for them in the mountains and shores of the rivers, who are great lapidaries and who are good judges in those matters: so much so that if they have a few handfuls of earth brought them from the mountain, at once on seeing it they know if it is of rubies or of any other stones, and where it comes from. and the king sends them to look there, and after they have brought them he orders to set aside each kind, and pick out the good ones, and he has them worked to have them sold when cut, which he does himself to foreigners; and the other inferior ones he sells at once to the country merchants. these rubies which grow here, for the most part, are not of so brilliant a colour as these which grow in ava and capelam, of which mention will be made further on; and some which come out perfect in colour are much more highly prized by the indians than those of paygu, because they say that they are stronger. and in order to make them of a deeper colour they put them into the fire. these lapidaries whom the king has near him, on seeing a stone before it is cut, say: this ruby will endure so many hours of fire, and will remain very good. and the king risks it, and orders it to be put in a very strong charcoal fire for that space of time which the lapidary has mentioned to him: and if it endures it without danger, it comes out more perfect in colour, and is worth very much. and all the other stones are found and worked in the same manner: and some stones are found which are half ruby and half sapphire, and others half topaze and half sapphires, and also cat's eyes. the king has a great treasure of these jewels, for whenever he meets with any very good stone he puts it in his treasury. close to this island of ceylam in the sea there is a sand-bank covered with ten or fifteen fathoms of water, in which a very great quantity of very fine seed pearls are found, small and great, and a few pearls: and the moors and gentiles go there from a city which is called sael, belonging to the king of coulam, to fish for this seed pearl, twice a year by custom, and they find them in some small oysters, smoother than those of our parts. and the men plunging under the water, where they remain a considerable time, pick them up: and the seed pearl is for those who gather them, and the large pearls are for the king, who keeps his overseer there, and besides that they give him certain duties upon the seed-pearl. the king of ceylan is always in a place called columbo, which is a river with a very good port, at which every year many ships touch from various parts to take on board cinnamon and elephants. and they bring gold and silver, cotton and silk stuffs from cambay, and many other goods which are saffron, coral, quicksilver, vermilion which here is worth a great deal; and there is much profit on the gold and silver, because it is worth more than in other parts. and there come likewise many ships from bengal and cholmendel, and some from malaca for elephants, cinnamon and precious stones. in this island of ceylan there are four or five other harbours and places of trade which are governed by other lords, nephews of the king of ceylan, to whom they pay obedience, except th